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2025-04-05 18:25:13
2025-04-05 23:52:07
4948
Banacek
| theme_music_composer Billy Goldenberg | opentheme | endtheme | country = United States | location | language | company = Universal Television | network = NBC | first_aired = | last_aired = | num_seasons = 2 | num_episodes = 17 | related = NBC Mystery Movie }} Banacek is an American detective television series starring George Peppard that aired on NBC from 1972 to 1974. The series was part of the rotating NBC Wednesday Mystery Movie anthology. It alternated in its time slot with several other shows, but was the only one of them to last beyond its first season. Premise Peppard played Thomas Banacek, a Polish-American freelance, Boston-based private investigator who solves seemingly impossible thefts. He collects from the insurance companies 10% of the insured value of the recovered property. One of Banacek's verbal signatures is the quotation of strangely worded yet curiously cogent "Polish proverbs" such as: * "A wolf that takes a peasant to supper probably won't need any breakfast." * "If you're not sure that it's potato borscht, there could be orphans working in the mines." * "When an owl comes to a mouse picnic, it's not there for the sack races." * "Though the hippopotamus has no sting in its tail, the wise man would prefer to be sat upon by the bee." * "A truly wise man never plays leapfrog with a unicorn." * "When a wolf is chasing your sleigh, throw him a raisin cookie, but don't stop to bake a cake." * "Just because the cat has her kittens in the oven doesn't make them biscuits." * "You can read all the books in the library my son, but the cheese will still smell after four days." * "No matter how warm the smile on the face of the Sun, the cat still has her kittens under the porch." * "Even a one thousand zloty note cannot tap dance." * "Only the centipede can hear all the hundred footsteps of his uncle." Part of the joke is that Ralph Manza, as Banacek's chauffeur Jay Drury, will often ask "What does it mean, Boss?" Banacek also has a running agreement with his chauffeur for a 10% share of Banacek's 10% if he solved the crime. Mr. Drury is never at a loss for a potential solution that Banacek always manages to shoot down with his very next line. Another recurring gag is for other characters—particularly his rivals—to mispronounce his name deliberately. The name "Banaczek" (as pronounced in the show) is actually quite rare in Poland. Murray Matheson plays seller of rare books and information source Felix Mulholland, a character always ready with a droll remark and who exhibits a passion for chess and jigsaw puzzles. He is also the series' only character to ever call Banacek by his first name. Recurring characters include insurance company executive Cavanaugh (George Murdock), Banacek's rival and some-time love interest Carlie Kirkland (Christine Belford), and another insurance investigator/rival Fennyman/Henry DeWitt (Linden Chiles). Banacek lives on historic Beacon Hill in Boston. While he has a limousine and driver, he also owns and sometimes drives an antique 1941 Packard convertible. Both vehicles are equipped with mobile radio telephones at a time when such devices are uncommon and expensive. Banacek is intelligent, well-educated, cultured, and suave. An unapologetic ladies' man who enjoys the company of beautiful women, he is also street-smart and can engage in hand-to-hand combat when the need arises; in one episode he mentions having learned combat judo in the Marine Corps, which is probably a reference to George Peppard's two-year enlistment in the Marine Corps, being discharged at the rank of corporal. He grew up in Scollay Square and a childhood acquaintance described him as the neighborhood jock who excelled in all sports. For recreation he jogs, plays squash, engages in weekend touch football, and sculling on the Charles River.Cast * George Peppard as Thomas Banacek * Ralph Manza as Jay Drury * Murray Matheson as Felix Mulholland * Christine Belford as Carlie Kirkland * George Murdock as Cavanaugh Production In general, the series was shot on the Universal Studios backlot, though location scenes were filmed around Los Angeles in areas that could pass for Boston, or rural areas near there. The episode titled "If Max Is So Smart, Why Doesn't He Tell Us Where He Is?" was shot on location at the California Institute of the Arts around the time the school first opened. "Ten Thousand Dollars a Page" was filmed at the Pasadena Art Museum, later known as the Pasadena Museum of Modern Art and now the Norton Simon Museum of Art. "Horse of a Slightly Different Color" was filmed at Hollywood Park Racetrack, now the site of SoFi Stadium. A customized 1969 American Motors AMX was built by George Barris for the second regular-season episode. The car became known as the AMX-400 and it is now owned by an automobile collector. Other continuing cars in the series were a 1941 maroon Packard 180 with a Victoria body designed by Howard "Dutch" Darrin (license plate number 178344), a 1973 Corvette (driven by Ms. Kirkland) and a 1973 Cadillac Fleetwood limousine (mobile telephone number KL 17811). In keeping with both the exotic car theme and the humor between Banacek and his driver Jay Drury, he was even chauffeured around in a Willys MB, Jeep CJ2A, and a CJ6, as well as a brand new Ford/De Tomaso Pantera. Two Packards were used in filming, a 1941 used for principal photography and a modified 1942 model used for some shots in Los Angeles. The main 1941 picture car was auctioned in 2019 by RM Sotheby's for $373,500. In preparation for the pilot and then the first and second seasons, the cast went to Boston and filmed a variety of background scenes. These scenes were then used through the series and are especially shown in the opening scenes, including Banacek rowing on the Charles River and walking through Government Center. In the pilot, Banacek's car pulls into his Beacon Hill home, the historic Second Harrison Gray Otis House located at 85 Mount Vernon Street. In other episodes, views are shown of the Public Garden, the entry to Felix's bookstore at 50 Beacon Street, and the Esplanade. The Boston-filmed pieces were done by a second unit and directed by Peppard himself. Reception Although the show had a mixture of humor and rather intricate plots, it never generated strong ratings. Despite this, the show was well received by critics. In addition, the Polish American Congress gave the series an award for portraying Polish Americans in a good manner. It also helped revive Peppard's career. Cancellation Banacek was well received by television critics, and, as a result, was picked up for a third season. However, before the third season could start, Peppard quit the show to prevent his ex-wife Elizabeth Ashley from receiving a larger percentage of his earnings as part of their divorce settlement. The complication ended any chance of reviving Banacek during Peppard's lifetime. A&E continued rebroadcasts of Banacek in syndication. Both seasons of Banacek have been released on DVD under the TV Guide Presents banner. Season one was released on 2007 with Season two following in 2008 In popular culture The mentalist Steven Shaw adopted his stage name "Banachek" after the television program. The show was referenced by the band Fun Lovin' Criminals in the lyrics of its 1998 single "Love Unlimited". The character Banacek was also referenced in The Simpsons "Treehouse of Horror III" segment "Dial Z for Zombies" when Bart tries to cast a spell to rid Springfield of the zombies he unleashed by intoning the magic words "Kojak, Mannix, Banacek, Danno..." (All names of 1970s TV detectives.) In 2018, Banacek was the subject of an episode-length parody in The Simpsons ("Homer Is Where the Art Isn't"), with Bill Hader voicing the Peppard character, named "Manacek". The episode is patterned closely after a typical Banacek outing, referencing items from the series' storytelling format to its establishing shots. The opening and closing credits mimicked Banacek's style, even including Goldenberg's theme music. In the Akron Beacon Journal, Rich Heldenfels called the episode "a dead-on parody of Banacek." Banacek has a clear resemblance to the title character of the Steve McQueen movie The Thomas Crown Affair, particularly in his attitude towards women and authority. The house used for exterior shots of Thomas Crown's home in Boston, the Harrison Gray Otis House, was used for Banacek's home in the series. Both the film and the show revolve around insurance investigations, but in the series Banacek is solving crimes, not committing them. Episodes Pilot: 1972 |ShortSummary=Banacek finds himself up against his old adversary, corporate insurance investigator McKinney of the National Meridian Insurance Company, when a missing armored truck with $1,600,000 of gold bullion disappears without a trace while under a police escort from Texas to Oklahoma. |LineColor=FFA500 }} }} Season 1: 1972–73 |ShortSummary=Banacek is called in after a football player vanishes on national TV and is held for ransom. Guest stars Stefanie Powers, Anitra Ford and John Brodie. |LineColor=AE0023 }} |ShortSummary=Banacek investigates the disappearance of a prototype automobile from a moving train's flatcar (an idea borrowed from a Thorpe Hazell short story). Guest stars William Windom, Joanna Pettet, Bert Convy. |LineColor=AE0023 }} |ShortSummary=Banacek searches for a jewel encrusted, gold cross, donated by a dying Italian mobster, that disappears in transit from Mexico to a Los Angeles parish. Guest stars Broderick Crawford, Louise Sorel |LineColor=AE0023 }} |ShortSummary=A million dollars in $1000 bills seems to vanish from a sealed Las Vegas casino display. Guest star Margot Kidder; writer Stanley Ralph Ross appears as Larry Fields. |LineColor=AE0023 }} |ShortSummary=Banacek searches for a $3 million collection of historical coins that vanishes from a Boston hotel-room vault. Guest stars Kevin McCarthy, Brenda Vaccaro, Pernell Roberts, Roger C. Carmel, Janis Paige. |LineColor=AE0023 }} |ShortSummary=A business tyrant loans his greatest personal treasure, a gift from his dead wife, to a local museum; the $1 million text disappears from a highly secured room. Guest stars Stella Stevens, David Doyle, George Lindsey, David Wayne, Ted Cassidy. |LineColor=AE0023 }} |ShortSummary=A $23 million Impressionist charity art-exhibit disappears during shipment back to Boston from NYC via tractor trailer. Guest stars Penny Fuller, Mike Farrell, Penny Marshall, Garry Walberg. |LineColor=AE0023 }} |ShortSummary=Plates used in the printing of stock certificates vanish. Guest stars Andrew Duggan, Jessica Walter, David White. |LineColor=AE0023 }} }} Season 2: 1973–74 |ShortSummary=Banacek must locate a three-ton statue that disappeared. Guest stars Candy Clark, Scott Brady, Gary Lockwood. |LineColor=500050 }} |ShortSummary=A huge medical computer vanishes from its secure building. Guest stars Anne Baxter, Richard Jordan, Sabrina Scharf. |LineColor=500050 }} |ShortSummary=An expensive wedding coach is stolen from the hold of a ship. Guest stars Christine Belford, Arlene Martel. |LineColor=500050 }} |ShortSummary=An ancient chalice disappears from a museum during the unveiling. Guest stars Cesar Romero, John Saxon. |LineColor=500050 }} |ShortSummary=A racehorse disappears from the track. Guest stars Anne Francis, Terry Wilson, Lane Bradbury, Harry Carey, Jr. |LineColor=500050 }} |ShortSummary=A prototype rocket engine vanishes during a private showing. Guest star Linda Evans. |LineColor=500050 }} |ShortSummary=After an emergency landing, an airliner vanishes. Guest stars Sterling Hayden, Victoria Principal. |LineColor=500050 }} |ShortSummary=A stage magician, suspected of grand larceny, disappears during his act — but for real. Guest stars Gretchen Corbett, Peter Marshall. |LineColor=500050 }} }} Home media Arts Alliance America has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1. Season one was released on May 15, 2007, without the series pilot. Season two was released on January 22, 2008, and included the pilot episode. On September 30, 2008, Arts Alliance released Banacek: The Complete Series, a five-disc box set featuring all 17 episodes. In Region 2, Fabulous Films released both seasons on DVD in the UK on February 10, 2014. In Region 4, Madman Entertainment has released both seasons on DVD in Australia.ReferencesExternal links * * Category:1972 American television series debuts Category:1974 American television series endings Category:1970s American drama television series Category:1970s American crime television series Category:American English-language television shows Category:NBC Mystery Movie Category:Television shows set in Boston Category:Television series by Universal Television Category:Works about Polish-American culture Category:NBC crime dramas
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banacek
2025-04-05T18:27:01.390074
4949
Blue Angels
| allegiance | branch United States Navy | website = | role = Aerobatic flight demonstration team | size = Navy: 13 officers <br />Marine Corps: 4 officers <br />Navy & Marine Corps: 100+ enlisted personnel | command_structure | garrison Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida <br />NAF El Centro, California (Winter Facility) | garrison_label | nickname The Blues | patron | motto | colors = "Blue Angel" blue <br />"Insignia" yellow | colors_label | march | mascot | equipment | equipment_label | battles | anniversaries | decorations | battle_honours | disbanded <!-- Commanders --> | commander1 = CDR Adam L. Bryan | commander1_label | commander2 | commander2_label | commander3_label | notable_commanders = <!-- Insignia --> | identification_symbol | identification_symbol_label | identification_symbol_2 | identification_symbol_2_label <!-- Aircraft --> | aircraft_electronic | aircraft_fighter Navy: F/A-18E Super Hornets (single seat) <br />(Demonstrations use F/A-18Es #1 to 6; backup is a pair of F/A-18Fs #7) | aircraft_transport = Marine Corps: 1 C-130J Super Hercules }} The Blue Angels, formally named the U.S. Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron, are a flight demonstration squadron of the United States Navy. Formed in 1946, the unit is the second oldest formal aerobatic team in the world, following the which formed in 1931. The team has six Navy and one Marine Corps demonstration pilots. They fly the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules. The Blue Angels typically perform aerial displays in at least 60 shows annually at 32 locations throughout the United States and two shows at one location in Canada. The "Blues" still employ many of the same practices and techniques used in the inaugural 1946 season. An estimated 11 million spectators view the squadron during air shows from March through November each year. Members of the Blue Angels team also visit more than 50,000 people in schools, hospitals, and community functions at air show cities. Since 1946, the Blue Angels have flown for more than 505 million spectators. In 2011, the Blue Angels received $37 million from the annual Department of Defense budget. Mission The mission of the Blue Angels is to showcase the pride and professionalism of the United States Navy and Marine Corps by inspiring a culture of excellence and service to the country through flight demonstrations and community outreach. Air shows The Blue Angels perform at both military, non-military airfields and Remote Show Sites. They perform often at major U.S. cities and capitals; locations in Canada are also often included in the air show schedule. There are total of 6 Jets that perform in an airshow the Diamond (pilots 1 through 4) and Solos (pilots 5 and 6). Airshow maneuvers The Diamond Performs their takeoff (Burner Go Loop or Diamond Half Squirrel Cage) then the maneuvers (Diamond 360, Diamond Roll, Diamond Aileron Roll, Diamond Dirty Loop, Double Farvel, Echelon Parade "Fan Break", Changeover Roll, Line Abreast Loop "5 Ship with #5 Lead Solo", Vertical Break, Barrel Roll Break, Low Break Cross, Burner 270, with each Solo Maneuvers in between. The Solos perform, their Solo Section Takeoff (#5 Dirty Roll and #6 Low Transition takeoff or Solo Section Low Flap Maneuver for Remote Show Sites) then their Opposing Maneuvers (Knife Edge Pass, Inverted to Inverted), Mirror Formations (Fortus) showcasing the Super Hornet's turn rate capabilities (Solo Minimum Radius Turn). Both Solo approach maneuvers (Opposing Minimum Radius Turn) another opposing maneuvers (Opposing Horizontal Rolls). Sneak maneuvers (#5 Sneak Pass, #6 Sneak to Vertical Rolls), Opposing Maneuvers (Opposing Four Point Hesitation Roll, Vertical Pitch). Both Solo formation maneuvers (Tuck Over Roll, High Alpha Pass, Solos Rejoin "Wander"). The Solos will then join the Diamond formation once the Solos Routine is done for 5 Delta Maneuvers. Which includes (Delta Roll, Fleur De Lis, Delta Loop Break Cross, Delta Breakout, Delta Aileron Roll "For Low and Flat Show conditions" Delta Flat Pass "For Remote Show exit" Delta Pitch Up Break to Landing. The parameters of each show must be tailored in accordance with local weather conditions at showtime: in clear weather the '''High Show is performed; in overcast conditions a Low Show is performed, and in limited visibility (weather permitting) the Flat Show' is presented. The High'' show requires at least an ceiling and visibility of at least from the show's center point. The minimum ceilings allowed for low and flat shows are 4,500 feet, and 1,500 feet respectively.AircraftCurrent "Fat Albert" conducting a RATO (rocket-assisted takeoff)]] in the strake vortices of a Blue Angels Hornet]] The team flew the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet for 34 years from 1986 through 2020. The team currently flies the Boeing F/A-18 Super Hornet. In August 2018, Boeing was awarded a contract to convert nine single-seat F/A-18E Super Hornets and two F/A-18F two-seaters for Blue Angels use. Modifications to each F/A-18E/F include removal of the weapons and replacement with a tank that contains smoke-oil used in demonstrations and outfitting the control stick with a spring system for more precise aircraft control input. Control sticks are tensioned with of force to allow the pilot minimal room for non-commanded movement of the aircraft. Each modified F/A-18 remains in the fleet and can be returned to combat duty aboard an aircraft carrier within 72 hours. As converted aircraft were delivered, they were used for testing maneuvers starting in mid 2020. The team's Super Hornets became operational by the beginning of 2021, their 75th anniversary year. The show's narrator Blue Angels No. 7, flies a two-seat (F/A-18F Super Hornet), to show sites. The Blues use these jets for backups or spares, and to give demonstration rides to VIP (civilians). Usually, two back seats rides are available at each air show; one goes to a member of the press, and the other to the "Key Influencer". Tyler Davies, Lead Solo (No.5), with his crew chief]] Adam Bryan, USN]] The team is divided to 3 Departments Officers, Enlisted and Technical Representative. All team members, both Officer and Enlisted Personnel, Pilots and staff officers, come from the ranks of regular United States Navy and United States Marine Corps units. The Demonstration Pilots and narrator are made up of Navy and USMC Naval Aviators. Pilots serve two to three years, Applicants "rush" the team at one or more airshows, paid out of their own finances, and sit in on team briefs, post-show activities, and social events. It is critical that new officers fit the existing culture and team dynamics. The application and evaluation process runs from March through early July, culminating with extensive finalist interviews and team deliberations. Team members vote in secret on the next year's officers. Selections must be unanimous. The Flight Leader (No. 1) is the Commanding Officer and always holds the rank of commander, and may be promoted to captain mid-tour if approved by the selection board. ;Current Flight Leader/Commanding Officer Commander Adam L. Bryan from Canton, Connecticut assumed command of the Blue Angels in November 2024. He relieved Captain Alexander P. Armatas, a native of Skaneateles, New York. Armatas graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 2002 with a Bachelor of Science in aerospace engineering. Armatas joined the Blue Angels in August 2022. He has accumulated more than 4,100 flight hours and 911 carrier-arrested landings. His decorations include the Meritorious Service Medal, four Strike/Flight Air Medals, five Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medals, one Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal, and various personal, unit and service awards. ;Flight team Pilots numbered 2–7 are Navy Lieutenant Commanders or Lieutenants, or Marine Corps Majors or Captains. The (#7) pilot narrates for a year, and then typically flies Opposing Solo (#6) and then Lead Solo (#5) the following two years, respectively. The (#3) pilot moves to the (#4) "Slot" position for their second year. Blue Angel (#4) serves as the demonstration Safety Officer, due largely to the perspective they are afforded from the slot position within the formation, as well as their status as a second-year demonstration pilot. (#8) serves as Events Coordinator for two years. An Events Coordinator's job is to communicate, manage VIP, Media, and Key influerncer "KI"'s VIP Ride, and make sure each event and airshow is done successfully. Since 2008, six female flight officers have been selected. LCDR. Amanda Lee became the first woman to be named as a F/A-18 demonstration pilot. She served from 2022-2024. The Public Affairs Officer is incharge for all Media, Video, Social Media Accounts of the United States Navy Blue Angels. Its job is also to communicate for the Public for QnA and other interviews. Training and weekly routine Annual winter training takes place at NAF El Centro, California, where new and returning pilots hone skills learned in the fleet. During winter training, the pilots fly two practice sessions per day, six days a week, to fly the 120 training missions needed to perform the demonstration safely. The separation between the formation of aircraft and their maneuver altitude is gradually reduced over the course of about two months in January and February. The team then returns to their home base in Pensacola, Florida, in March, and continues to practice throughout the show season. A typical week during the season has practices at NAS Pensacola on Tuesday and Wednesday mornings. The team then flies to its show venue for the upcoming weekend on Thursday, conducting "circle and arrival" orientation maneuvers upon arrival. The team flies a "practice" airshow at the show site on Friday. This show is attended by invited guests but is often open to the general public. The main airshows are conducted on Saturdays and Sundays, with the team returning home to NAS Pensacola on Sunday evenings after the show. Monday is an off day for the Blues' demonstration pilots and road crew. Extensive aircraft maintenance is performed on Sunday evening and Monday by maintenance team members. Pilots maneuver the flight stick with their right hand holding the stick with their knuckles facing the aircraft's display panels and operate the throttle with their left hand both hands wearing gloves each demonstration to avoid sweaty hands. They do not wear G-suits because the air bladders inside repeatedly deflate and inflate, increasing the risk of unintentional movement. To compensate for the lack of G-suits, Blue Angel pilots have developed a method for tensing their muscles to prevent blood from pooling in their lower extremities, possibly rendering them unconscious. History Overview The Blue Angels were originally formed in April 1946 as the Navy Flight Exhibition Team. They changed their name to the Blue Angels after seeing an advertisement for the New York nightclub The Blue Angel, also known as The Blue Angel Supper Club, in the New Yorker Magazine. The team was first introduced as the Blue Angels during an air show in July 1946. The first Blue Angels demonstration aircraft wore navy blue (nearly black) with gold lettering. The current shades of blue and yellow were adopted when the first demonstration aircraft were transitioned from the Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat to the Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat in August 1946; the aircraft wore an all-yellow scheme with blue markings during the 1949 show season. The original Blue Angels insignia or crest was designed in 1949, by Lt. Commander Raleigh "Dusty" Rhodes, their third Flight Leader and first jet fighter leader. The aircraft silhouettes change as the team changes aircraft. The Blue Angels demonstration teams began wearing leather jackets and special colored flight suits with the Blue Angels insignia, in 1952. In 1953, they began wearing gold colored flight suits for the first show of the season and or to commemorate milestones for the flight demonstration squadron. The Navy Flight Exhibition Team was reorganized and commissioned the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron on 10 December 1973. 1946–1949 s (l to r): Lt. Al Taddeo, Solo; Lt. (J.G.) Gale Stouse, Spare; Lt. Cdr. R.M. "Butch" Voris, Flight Leader; Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, Right Wing; Lt. Mel Cassidy, Left Wing]] The Blue Angels were established as a Navy flight exhibition team on 24 April 1946 by order of Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Chester Nimitz to generate greater public support of naval aviation. To boost Navy morale, demonstrate naval air power, and maintain public interest in naval aviation, an underlying mission was to help the Navy generate public and political support for a larger allocation of the shrinking defense budget. Rear Admiral Ralph Davison personally selected Lieutenant Commander Roy Marlin "Butch" Voris, a World War II fighter ace, to assemble and train a flight demonstration team, naming him Officer-in-Charge and Flight Leader. Voris selected three fellow instructors to join him (Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, Lt. Mel Cassidy, and Lt. Cmdr. Lloyd Barnard, veterans of the War in the Pacific), and they spent countless hours developing the show. The group perfected its initial maneuvers in secret over the Florida Everglades so that, in Voris' words, "if anything happened, just the alligators would know". The first four pilots and those after them were some of the best and most experienced aviators in the Navy. The team's first demonstration with Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat aircraft took place before Navy officials on 10 May 1946 and was met with enthusiastic approval. The United States Navy's Blue Angels performed their first air show at what is now JaxEx (formerly Craig Municipal Airport, one of 6 airports in the Jacksonville, FL area developed for military training), on June 15, 1946. The exhibition team flew three Gruman F6F Hellcat Fighter planes (a fourth F6F-5 was held in reserve). On 15 June, Voris led the three Hellcats (numbered 1–3), specially modified to reduce weight and painted sea blue with gold leaf trim, through their inaugural 15-minute-long performance. The name had originated through a suggestion by Right Wing Pilot Lt. Maurice "Wick" Wickendoll, after he had read about the Blue Angel nightclub in The New Yorker magazine. After ten appearances with the Hellcats, the Hellcats were replaced by the lighter, faster, and more powerful F8F-1 Bearcats on 25 August. In 1949, the team acquired a Douglas R4D Skytrain for logistics to and from show sites. The team's SNJ was also replaced by another Bearcat, painted yellow for the air combat routine, inheriting the "Beetle Bomb" nickname. In May, the team went to the west coast on temporary duty so the pilots and the rest of the team could become familiar with jet aircraft. On 20 August, the team debuted the panther jets under Team Leader Lt. Commander Raleigh "Dusty" Rhodes The F8F-1 "Beetle Bomb" was relegated to solo aerobatics before the main show, until it crashed on takeoff at a training show in Pensacola on 24 April 1950, killing "Blues" pilot Lt. Robert Longworth. Team headquarters shifted from NAS Corpus Christi, Texas, to NAAS Whiting Field, Florida, on 10 September 1949, announced 14 July 1949.1950–1959 jet fighters, 1952]] The Blue Angels pilots continued to perform nationwide in 1950. On 25 June, the Korean War started, and all Blue Angels pilots volunteered for combat duty. The squadron (due to a shortage of pilots, and no available planes) and its members were ordered to "combat-ready status" after an exhibition at Naval Air Station, Dallas, Texas on 30 July. On 25 October 1951, the Blues were ordered to re-activate as a flight demonstration team, and reported to NAS Corpus Christi, Texas. Lt. Cdr. Voris was again tasked with assembling the team (he was the first of only two commanding officers to lead them twice). In May 1952, the Blue Angels began performing again with F9F-5 Panthers at an airshow in Memphis, Tennessee. After summer, the team began demonstrating with F9F-6 Cougar. formation in 1956]] In 1954, the first Marine Corps pilot, Captain Chuck Hiett, joined the Navy flight demonstration team. The Blue Angels also received special colored flight suits. The Blue Angels began relocating to their current home at Naval Air Station (NAS) Pensacola, Florida that winter, and it was here they progressed to the swept-wing Grumman F9F-8 Cougar. In December, the team left its home base for its first winter training facility at Naval Air Facility El Centro, California In September 1956, the team added a sixth aircraft to the flight demonstration in the Opposing Solo position, and gave its first performance outside the United States at the International Air Exposition in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It also upgraded its logistics aircraft to the Douglas R5D Skymaster. The first demonstration was flying the short-nosed version on 23 March, at Barin Field, Pensacola, and then the long-nosed versions. The demonstration team (with added Angel 6) wore gold flight suits during the first air show that season. In 1958, the first Six-Plane Delta Maneuvers were added that season.1960–1969 , 1957–69]] In July 1964, the Blue Angels participated in the Aeronaves de Mexico Anniversary Air Show over Mexico City, Mexico, before an estimated crowd of 1.5 million people. In 1965, the Blue Angels conducted a Caribbean island tour, flying at five sites. Later that year, they embarked on a European tour to a dozen sites, including the Paris Air Show, where they were the only team to receive a standing ovation. In 1967, the Blues toured Europe again, at six sites. In 1968, the C-54 Skymaster transport aircraft was replaced with a Lockheed VC-121J Constellation. The Blues transitioned to the two-seat McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom II in 1969, nearly always keeping the back seat empty for flight demonstrations. The Phantom was the only plane to be flown by both the "Blues" and the United States Air Force Thunderbirds (the "Birds"). That year they also upgraded to the Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation for logistics. 1970–1979 and the Blue Angels during the joint airshow; Kushke Nosrat Airbase, 1973]] s executing a "fleur de lis" maneuver]] In 1970, the Blues received their first U.S. Marine Corps Lockheed KC-130F Hercules, manned by an all-Marine crew. That year, they went on their first South American tour. In 1971, the team which wore the gold flight suits for the first show, conducted its first Far East Tour, performing at a dozen locations in Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Guam, and the Philippines. In 1972, the Blue Angels were awarded the Navy's Meritorious Unit Commendation for the two-year period from 1 March 1970 to 31 December 1971. Another European tour followed in 1973, including air shows in Iran, England, France, Spain, Turkey, Greece, and Italy. On 10 December 1973, the Navy Flight Exhibition Team was reorganized and commissioned the United States Navy Flight Demonstration Squadron. The Blues mission was more on Navy recruiting. In 1974, the Blue Angels transitioned to the new Douglas A-4F Skyhawk II. Navy Commander Anthony Less became the squadron's first "commanding officer" and "flight leader". A permanent flight surgeon position and administration officer was added to the team. "Fat Albert Airlines" flies with an all-Marine crew of three officers and five enlisted personnel.1980–1989 and Olivia Newton-John).]] In 1986, LCDR Donnie Cochran, joined the Blue Angels as the first African-American Naval Aviator to be selected. He served for two more years with the squadron flying the left wing-man position in the No.3 A-4F fighter, and returned to command the Blue Angels in 1995 and 1996. On 8 November 1986, the Blue Angels completed their 40th anniversary year during ceremonies unveiling what would be their aircraft through their 75th anniversary year, the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet. The power and aerodynamics of the Hornet allows them to perform a slow, high angle of attack "tail sitting" maneuver, and to fly a "dirty" (landing gear down) formation loop. 1990–1999 one that reflects not only on you as an individual, but on your teammates and the entire squadron. To the crowds at the air shows and to the public at hospitals and schools nationwide, you are a symbol of the Navy and Marine Corps' finest. You bring pride, hope and a promise for tomorrow's Navy and Marine Corps in the smiles and handshakes of today's youth. Remember today as the day you became a Blue Angel; look around at your teammates and commit this special bond to memory. "Once a Blue Angel, always a Blue Angel," rings true for all those who wear the crest of the U.S. Navy Blue Angels. Welcome to the team. |author The Blue Angels Creed, written by JO1 Cathy Konn 1991–1993 }} In 1992, the Blue Angels deployed for a month-long European tour, their first in 19 years, conducting shows in Sweden, Finland, Russia (first foreign flight demonstration team to perform there), Romania, Bulgaria, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Spain. In 1998, CDR Patrick Driscoll made the first "Blue Jet" landing on a "haze gray and underway" aircraft carrier, USS Harry S. Truman (CVN-75). On 8 October 1999, the Blue Angels lost two pilots. LCDR Kieron O'Connor and LT Kevin Colling were returning from a practice flight before an air show when their F/A-18B crashed in a wooded area of south Georgia. 2000–2009 In 2000, the Navy was conducting investigations in regard and connected to the loss of two Blue Angels pilots in October 1999. The pilots of the F/A-18 Hornet were not required to wear and do not wear g-suits. In 2006, the Blue Angels marked their 60th year of performing. On 30 October 2008, a spokesman for the team announced that the team would complete its last three performances of the year with five jets instead of six. The change was because one pilot and another officer in the organization had been removed from duty for engaging in an "inappropriate relationship". The Navy said one of the individuals was a man and the other a woman, one a Marine and the other from the Navy, and that Rear Admiral Mark Guadagnini, chief of Naval air training, was reviewing the situation. At the next performance at Lackland Air Force Base following the announcement the No.4 or slot pilot, was absent from the formation. A spokesman for the team would not confirm the identity of the pilot removed from the team. On 6 November 2008, both officers were found guilty at an admiral's mast on unspecified charges but the resulting punishment was not disclosed. On 21 April 2007, pilot Kevin "Kojak" Davis was killed and eight people on the ground were injured when Davis lost control of the No.6 jet and crashed during an air show at the Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort in Beaufort, South Carolina. The Fat Albert performed its final JATO demonstration at the 2009 Pensacola Homecoming show, expending their eight remaining JATO bottles. This demonstration not only was the last JATO performance of the squadron, but also the final JATO use of the U.S. Marine Corps. In 2009, the Blue Angels were inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum. 2010–2019 On 22 May 2011, the Blue Angels were performing at the Lynchburg Regional Airshow in Lynchburg, Virginia, when the Diamond formation flew the Barrel Roll Break maneuver at an altitude lower than the required minimum. The maneuver was aborted, the remainder of the demonstration canceled and all aircraft landed safely. The next day, the Blue Angels announced that they were initiating a safety stand-down, canceling their upcoming Naval Academy Airshow and returning to their home base in Pensacola, Florida, for additional training and airshow practice. On 26 May, the Blue Angels announced they would not be flying their traditional fly-over of the Naval Academy Graduation Ceremony and that they were canceling their 28–29 May 2011 performances at the Millville Wings and Wheels Airshow in Millville, New Jersey. On 27 May 2011, the Blue Angels announced that Commander Dave Koss, the squadron's commanding officer, would be stepping down. He was replaced by Captain Greg McWherter, the team's previous commanding officer. The squadron canceled performances at the Rockford, Illinois Airfest 4–5 June and the Evansville, Indiana Freedom Festival Air Show 11–12 June to allow additional practice and demonstration training under McWherter's leadership. Between 2 and 4 September 2011 on Labor Day weekend, the Blue Angels flew for the first time with a fifty-fifty blend of conventional JP-5 jet fuel and a camelina-based biofuel at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland. McWherter flew an F/A-18 test flight on 17 August and stated there were no noticeable differences in performance from inside the cockpit. On 1 March 2013, the U.S. Navy announced that it was cancelling remaining 2013 performances after 1 April 2013 due to sequestration budget constraints. In October 2013, Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel, stating that "community and public outreach is a crucial Departmental activity", announced that the Blue Angels (along with the U.S. Air Force's Thunderbirds) would resume appearing at air shows starting in 2014, although the number of flyovers will continue to be severely reduced. On 15 March 2014, the demonstration pilots numbered 1–7 wore gold flight suits to celebrate the team's "return to the skies" during their first air show of the season; there were only three air shows in 2013. In July 2014, Marine Corps C-130 pilot Capt. Katie Higgins, 27, became the first female pilot to join the Blue Angels, flying the support aircraft Fat Albert for the 2015 and 2016 show seasons. In July 2015, Cmdr. Bob Flynn became the Blue Angels' first executive officer. On 2 June 2016, Capt. Jeff Kuss, an Opposing Solo, died just after takeoff while performing the Split-S maneuver in his Hornet during a practice run for The Great Tennessee Air Show in Smyrna, Tennessee. The Navy's investigation found that Capt. Kuss had performed the maneuver too low while failing to retard the throttle out of afterburner, causing him to fall too fast and recover too low above the ground. Capt. Kuss ejected, but his parachute was immediately engulfed in flames, causing him to fall to his death. Kuss' body was recovered just yards away from the crash site. The cause of death was blunt force trauma to the head. The investigation also cited weather and pilot fatigue as additional causes of the crash. In a strange twist, Captain Kuss' fatal crash happened hours after the Blue Angels' fellow pilots in the United States Air Force Thunderbirds suffered a crash of their own, following the United States Air Force Academy graduation ceremony earlier that day. Capt. Jeff Kuss was replaced by Cmdr. Frank Weisser to finish out the 2016 and 2017 seasons. In July 2016, Boeing was awarded a $12 million contract to begin an engineering proposal for converting the Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet for Blue Angels use, with the proposal to be completed by September 2017. The Fat Albert (BUNO 164763) was retired from service in May 2019 with 30,000 flight hours. The Blue Angels replaced it with a C-130J Super Hercules acquired from the Royal Air Force (BUNO 170000). 2020–present in late 2020]] In response to the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States, the Blue Angels flew over multiple US cities as a tribute to healthcare and front line workers. The Blues officially transitioned to Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornets on 4 November 2020. In July 2022, Lt. Amanda Lee was announced as the first woman to serve as a demonstration pilot in the Blue Angels.Aircraft timelineThe "Blues" have flown ten different demonstration aircraft and six support aircraft models: ;Demonstration aircraft * Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat: June – August 1946 * Grumman F8F-1 Bearcat: August 1946 – 1949 * Grumman F9F-2 Panther: 1949 – June 1950 (first jet); F9F-5 Panther: 1951 – Winter 1954/55 * Grumman F9F-8 Cougar: Winter 1954/55 – mid-season 1957 (swept-wing) * Grumman F11F-1 (F-11) Tiger: mid-season 1957 – 1968 (first supersonic jet) * McDonnell Douglas F-4J Phantom II: 1969 – December 1974 * Douglas A-4F Skyhawk: December 1974 – November 1986 * McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet (F/A-18B as #7): November 1986 – 2010 * Boeing F/A-18A/C (B/D as #7) Hornet: 2010-2020 * Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet (F/A-18F as #7): 2020– ;Support aircraft * JRB Expeditor (Beech 18): 1949–? * Douglas R4D-6 Skytrain: 1949–1955 * Curtiss R5C Commando: 1953 * Douglas R5D Skymaster: 1956–1968 * Lockheed C-121 Super Constellation: 1969–1973 * Lockheed C-130 Hercules "Fat Albert": 1970–2019 (JATO usage was stopped in 2009) * Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules "Fat Albert": 2020–present ;Miscellaneous aircraft * North American SNJ Texan "Beetle Bomb" (used to simulate a Japanese A6M Zero aircraft in demonstrations during the late 1940s) * Lockheed T-33 Shooting Star (Used during the 1950s as a VIP transport aircraft for the team) * Vought F7U Cutlass (two of the unusual F7Us were received in late 1952 and flown as a side demonstration during the 1953 season but they were not a part of their regular formations which at the time used the F9F Panther. Pilots and ground crew found it unsatisfactory and a plan to use it as the team's primary aircraft was canceled). Commanding officers Notable Commanding Officers include: * Roy Marlin Voris – 1946, 1952 * John J. Magda – 1950, Killed in Action March 1951, Korean War * Arthur Ray Hawkins – 1952 to 1953 *Richard Cormier – 1954 to 1956 * Edward B. Holley – 1957 to 1958 * Zebulon V. Knott – 1959 to 1961 * Kenneth R. Wallace – 1962 to 1963 * Robert F. Aumack – 1964 to 1966 * William V. Wheat – 1967 to 1969 * Harley H. Hall – 1970 to 1971 * Don Bently – 1972 * Marvin F. "Skip" Umstead – 1973 * Anthony A. Less – Oct 1973 to Jan 1976 * Keith S. Jones – 1976 to 1978 *William E. Newman – 1978 to 1979 * Hugh D. Wisely – Dec 1979 to 1982 * David Carroll – 1982 to 1983 * Larry Pearson – 1983 to 1985 * Gilman E. Rud – Nov 1985 to Nov 1988 * Gregory Wooldridge – 1990 to 1992, 1996 * Robert E. Stumpf – 1993 to 1994 * Donnie Cochran – Nov 1994 to May 1996 * George B. Dom – Nov 1996 to Oct 1998 * Patrick Driscoll – Oct 1998 to 2000 * Robert Field – 2000 to Sept 2002 * Russell J. Bartlett – Sept 2002 to Sept 2004 * Stephen R. Foley – Sept 2004 to Nov 2006 * Kevin Mannix – Nov 2006 to 2008 * Gregory McWherter 2008 to 2010, 2011 * David Koss – Fall 2010 to spring 2011 * Gregory McWherter – 2011 to 2012 * Thomas Frosch – 2012 to 2015 * Ryan Bernacchi – 2015 to 2017 * Eric D. Doyle – 2017 to 2019 * Brian C. Kesselring – 2019 to 2022 * Alexander P. Armatas – 2022 to 2024 * Adam Bryan – 2024 to present Notable members Below are some of the more notable members of the Blue Angels squadron: * Capt Roy "Butch" Voris, World War II fighter ace and first Flight Leader *Charles "Chuck" Brady Jr., Astronaut and physician * Donnie Cochran, First African-American Blue Angels aviator and commander * Edward L. Feightner, World War II fighter ace and Lead Solo * Arthur Ray Hawkins, World War II flying ace * Bob Hoover, World War II fighter pilot and flight instructor, honorary Blue Angel member * Anthony A. Less, First Commanding Officer of Blue Angels squadron, numerous other commands including Naval Air Forces Atlantic Fleet * Robert L. Rasmussen, aviation artist * Raleigh Rhodes, World War II and Korean War fighter pilot and third Flight Leader of the Blue Angels * Patrick M. Walsh, Left Wingman and Slot Pilot who later commanded the U.S. Pacific Fleet and became Vice Chief of Naval Operations and a White House Fellow * Katie Higgins Cook, First female Blue Angels pilot * Amanda Lee, First female Blue Angels demonstration pilot Team accidents and deaths A total of 20 Blue Angels pilots and one crew member have died while assigned to the flight team. Four other pilots died in combat action after their service with the Blue Angels. * Lt. Anton M. Campanella (#3 Left Wing)14 June 1960: killed flying a Grumman F-11A Tiger that crashed into the water near Fort Morgan, Alabama during a test flight. * Lt. George L. Neale15 March 1964: killed during an attempted emergency landing at Apalach Airport near Apalachicola, Florida. Lt. Neale's F-11A Tiger had experienced mechanical difficulties during a flight from West Palm Beach, to Naval Air Station Pensacola, causing him to attempt the emergency landing. Failing to reach the airport, he ejected from the aircraft on final approach, but his parachute did not have sufficient time to fully deploy. * Lt. Cmdr. Dick Oliver2 September 1966: crashed his F-11A Tiger and was killed at the Canadian International Air Show in Toronto. * Lt Frank Gallagher1 February 1967: killed when his F-11A Tiger stalled during a practice Half Cuban Eight maneuver and spun into the ground. * Capt. Ronald Thompson18 February 1967: killed when his F-11A Tiger struck the ground during a practice formation loop. * Lt. Bill Worley (Opposing Solo)14 January 1968: killed when his Tiger crashed during a practice double Immelmann. * Lt. Larry Watters14 February 1972: killed when his F-4J Phantom II struck the ground, upright, while practicing inverted flight, during winter training at NAF El Centro. * Lt. Cmdr. Skip Umstead (Team Leader), Capt. Mike Murphy, and ADJ1 Ron Thomas (Crew Chief)26 July 1973: all three were killed in a mid-air collision between two Phantoms over Lakehurst, New Jersey, during an arrival practice. The rest of the season was cancelled after this incident. * Lt. Nile Kraft (Opposing Solo)22 February 1977: killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during practice. * Lt. Michael Curtin8 November 1978: one of the solo Skyhawks struck the ground after low roll during arrival maneuvers at Naval Air Station Miramar, and Curtin was killed. * Lt. Cmdr. Stu Powrie (Lead Solo)22 February 1982: killed when his Skyhawk struck the ground during winter training at Naval Air Facility El Centro, California, just after a dirty loop. * Lt. Cmdr. Mike Gershon (Opposing Solo #6)13 July 1985: his Skyhawk collided with Lt. Andy Caputi (Lead Solo #5) during a show at Niagara Falls, Gershon was killed and Caputi ejected and parachuted to safety. * Lt. Cmdr. Kieron O'Connor and Lt. Kevin Colling28 October 1999: flying in the back seat and front seat of a Hornet, both were killed after striking the ground during circle and arrival maneuvers in Valdosta, Georgia. * Lt. Cmdr. Kevin J. Davis21 April 2007: crashed his Hornet near the end of the Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort airshow in Beaufort, South Carolina, and was killed. * Capt. Jeff Kuss (Opposing Solo, #6)2 June 2016: died just after takeoff while performing the Split-S maneuver in his F/A-18 Hornet during a practice run for The Great Tennessee Air Show in Smyrna, Tennessee. Other incidents * Lt. John R. Dewenter2 August 1958: landed wheels up at Buffalo Niagara International Airport after experiencing engine troubles during a show in Clarence, New York. The Grumman F-11 Tiger landed on Runway 23, but exited airport property, coming to rest in the intersection of Genesee Street and Dick Road, nearly hitting a filling station. Lt. Dewenter was uninjured, but the plane was a total loss. * Lt. Ernie Christensen30 August 1970: belly-landed his F-4J Phantom at The Eastern Iowa Airport in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, after he inadvertently left the landing gear in the up position. He ejected safely, while the aircraft slid off the runway. * Cmdr. Harley Hall4 June 1971: safely ejected after his F-4J Phantom jet caught fire during practice over NAS Quonset Point in North Kingstown, Rhode Island, and crashed in Narragansett Bay. * Capt. John Fogg, Lt. Marlin Wiita, and Lt. Cmdr. Don Bently8 March 1973: all three survived a multi-aircraft mid-air collision during practice over Superstition Mountain,<!-- NGIS ID 250147. Not to be confused with the Superstition Mountains east of Phoenix, Arizona. --> near El Centro, California. * Lt. Jim Ross (Lead Solo)April 1980: unhurt when his Skyhawk suffered a fuel line fire during a show at Roosevelt Roads Naval Station, Puerto Rico. Lt. Ross stayed with the plane and landed, leaving the end of the runway and rolling into the woods after a total hydraulic failure upon landing. * Lt. Dave Anderson (Lead Solo)12 February 1987: ejected from his Hornet after a dual engine flame-out during practice near El Centro, California. * Marine Corps Maj. Charles Moseley and Cmdr. Pat Moneymaker23 January 1990: their Blue Angel Hornets suffered a mid-air collision during a practice at El Centro. Moseley ejected safely and Moneymaker was able to land his airplane, which then required a complete right wing replacement. * Lt. Ted Steelman1 December 2004: ejected from his F/A-18 approximately one mile off Perdido Key after his aircraft struck the water, suffering catastrophic engine and structural damage. He suffered minor injuries. Combat casualties Four former Blue Angels pilots have been killed in action or died after being captured, all having been downed by anti-aircraft fire.Korean War* Commander John Magda – 8 March 1951: Blue Angels (1949, 1950; Commander/Flight Leader 1950): Magda was killed after his F9F-2B Panther was hit by anti aircraft fire while leading a low-level strike mission against North Korean and Chinese communist positions at Tanchon which earned him the Navy Cross during the Korean War. He also was a fighter ace in World War II. Vietnam War * Commander Herbert P. Hunter – 19 July 1967: Blue Angels (1957–1959; Lead Solo pilot): Hunter was hit by anti-aircraft fire in North Vietnam and crashed in his F-8E Crusader during the Vietnam war. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross posthumously for actions on 16 July 1967. He also was a Korean War veteran. * Captain Clarence O. Tolbert – 6 November 1972: Blue Angels (1968): Tolbert was flying a Corsair II (A-7B) during a mission in North Vietnam and was hit by anti-aircraft fire, crashed, and died during his second tour in the Vietnam war. He was awarded the Silver Star and Distinguished Flying Cross for his service. * Captain Harley H. Hall – 27 January 1973: Blue Angels (1970–1971; Commander/Team Leader 1971): Hall and his co-pilot were shot down by anti-aircraft fire in South Vietnam flying their F-4J Phantom II on the last day of the Vietnam War, and they both were officially listed as prisoners of war. In 1980, Hall was presumed to have died while captured. His remains were identified on 6 September 1994.In the media and Olivia Newton-John with Blue Angels, 1982]] * The Blue Angels was a dramatic television series, starring Dennis Cross and Don Gordon, inspired by the team's exploits and filmed with the cooperation of the Navy. It aired in syndication from 26 September 1960 to 3 July 1961. * Threshold: The Blue Angels Experience is a 1975 documentary film, written by Dune author Frank Herbert, featuring the team in practice and performance during their F-4J Phantom era; many of the aerial photography techniques pioneered in Threshold were later used in the film Top Gun. * To Fly!, a short IMAX film featured at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum since its 1976 opening features footage from a camera on a Blue Angels A4 Skyhawk tail as the pilot performs in a show. * In 1981, the Blue Angels along with the USAF Thunderbirds were featured on a Laserdisc released in Japan called Blue Angels/Thunderbirds. * The Blue Angels were featured in the 1986 music video for "Dreams" by rock band Van Halen, flying the A-4 Skyhawk. * In 1987, the Blue Angels were featured in Rolling in the Sky: F/A-18 Blue Angels. * In 1996, the Blue Angels appeared in the IMAX short film The Magic of Flight, narrated by Tom Selleck. * In 2005, the Discovery Channel aired a documentary miniseries, Blue Angels: A Year in the Life, focusing on the intricate day-to-day details of that year's training and performance schedule. * In 2009, MythBusters enlisted the aid of Blue Angels to help test the myth that a sonic boom could shatter glass. * In 2024, the Blue Angels appeared in the IMAX feature film The Blue Angels, depicting the team's 2022 training and show seasons. See also * List of United States Navy aircraft squadrons * United States Air Force Thunderbirds * United States Marine Corps Aviation References <blockquote></blockquote> * (2012). [http://alpharetta.11alive.com/news/news/113965-my-incredible-flight-aboard-blue-angels "My incredible flight aboard the Blue Angels" By Charles Atkeison] * accessed 10 November 2005. * [http://www.grummanpark.org/blueangels.htm "Grumman and the Blue Angels"] article by William C. Barto at the [http://www.grummanpark.org/ Grumman Memorial Park] official website, accessed 15 October 2005. * "First Blue: The story of World War II Ace Butch Voris and the Creation of the Blue Angels" by Robert K. Wilcox, Thomas Dunne Books/St.Martins Press, 2004, [http://www.robertkwilcox.com/ robertkwilcox.com] External links * [https://www.blueangels.navy.mil/ Blue Angels, official U.S. Navy web site] * [http://aerobaticteams.net/en/resources/i39/Blue-Angels-History.html Complete Blue Angels History] * [https://texasarchive.org/2019_03674 The Navy’s Blue Angels (1966)], Texas Archive of the Moving Image * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?vnL4D-SyfdLI&t49s Blue Angels Sneak Pass video] on YouTube.com * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z_9WgwFB3Ak Blue Angels 2024 Homecoming Airshow Comparison] on YouTube.com * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HkAfBC2pmoI Blue Angels Public Affairs and Marketing Interview] on YouTube.com Category:Aircraft squadrons of the United States Navy Category:American aerobatic teams Category:Ceremonial units of the United States military
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Angels
2025-04-05T18:27:01.436822
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Born again
Born Again}} New Birth}} To be born again, or to experience the new birth, is a phrase, particularly in evangelical Christianity, that refers to a "spiritual rebirth", or a regeneration of the human spirit. In contrast to one's physical birth, being "born again" is distinctly and separately caused by the operation of the Holy Spirit, and it occurs when one is baptized in water (John 3:5, Titus 3:5). While all Christians are familiar with the concept from the Bible, it is a core doctrine of the denominations of the Anabaptist, Moravian, Methodist, Baptist, Plymouth Brethren and Pentecostal churches along with evangelical Christian denominations. These Churches stress Jesus's words in the Gospels: "Do not be astonished that I said to you, ‘You must be born from above.’" (John 3:7). (In some English translations, the phrase "born again" is rendered as "born from above".) Their doctrines also hold that to be "born again" and thus "saved", one must have a personal and intimate relationship with Jesus Christ. The term born again has its origin in the New Testament. In the First Epistle of Peter, the author describes the new birth as taking place from the seed which is the Word of God. In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus himself refers to the Word of God as the seed. In contemporary Christian usage and apart from evangelicalism, the term is distinct from similar terms which are sometimes used in Christianity in reference to a person who is, or is becoming, a Christian. This usage of the term is usually linked to baptism with water and the related doctrine of baptismal regeneration. Individuals who profess to be "born again" (meaning born in the "Holy Spirit") often state that they have a "personal relationship with Jesus Christ".}} The Gospel of John was written in Koine Greek, and the original text is ambiguous which results in a double entendre that Nicodemus misunderstands. The word translated as 'again' is (), which could mean either 'again', or 'from above'. The double entendre is a figure of speech that the gospel writer uses to create bewilderment or misunderstanding in the hearer; the misunderstanding is then clarified by either Jesus or the narrator. Nicodemus takes only the literal meaning from Jesus's statement, while Jesus clarifies that he means more of a spiritual rebirth from above. English translations have to pick one sense of the phrase or another; the NIV, King James Version, and Revised Version use "born again", while the New Revised Standard Version and the New English Translation prefer the "born from above" translation. Most versions will note the alternative sense of the phrase in a footnote. Edwyn Hoskyns argues that "born from above" is to be preferred as the fundamental meaning and he drew attention to phrases such as "birth of the Spirit", "birth from God", but maintains that this necessarily carries with it an emphasis upon the newness of the life as given by God himself. The final use of the phrase occurs in the First Epistle of Peter, rendered in the King James Version as: Here, the Greek word translated as 'born again' is ().InterpretationsThe traditional Jewish understanding of the promise of salvation is interpreted as being rooted in "the seed of Abraham"; that is, physical lineage from Abraham. Jesus explained to Nicodemus that this doctrine was in errorthat every person must have two birthsnatural birth of the physical body and another of the water and the spirit. This discourse with Nicodemus established the Christian belief that all human beingswhether Jew or Gentilemust be "born again" of the spiritual seed of Christ. This understanding is further reinforced in 1 Peter 1:23. Charles Hodge writes that "The subjective change wrought in the soul by the grace of God, is variously designated in Scripture" with terms such as new birth, resurrection, new life, new creation, renewing of the mind, dying to sin and living to righteousness, and translation from darkness to light. Jesus used the "birth" analogy in tracing spiritual newness of life to a divine beginning. Contemporary Christian theologians have provided explanations for "born from above" being a more accurate translation of the original Greek word transliterated . Theologian Frank Stagg cites two reasons why the newer translation is significant: # The emphasis "from " (implying "from ") calls attention to the source of the "newness of life". Stagg writes that the word 'again' does not include the of the new kind of beginning; # More than personal improvement is needed; "a new destiny requires a new origin, and the new origin must be from God." An early example of the term in its more modern use appears in the sermons of John Wesley. In the sermon entitled A New Birth he writes, "none can be holy unless he be born again", and "except he be born again, none can be happy even in this world. For[...] a man should not be happy who is not holy." Also, "I say, [a man] may be born again and so become an heir of salvation." Wesley also states infants who are baptized are born again, but for adults it is different: [...] But[...] it is sure all of riper years, who are baptized, are not at the same time born again.}} A Unitarian work called The Gospel Anchor noted in the 1830s that the phrase was not mentioned in any of the Gospels, nor by any Epistles except in that of 1 Peter. "It was not regarded by any of the Evangelists but John of sufficient importance to record." It adds that without John, "we should hardly have known that it was necessary for one to be born again." This suggests that "the text and context was meant to apply to Nicodemus particularly, and not to the world."HistoricityScholars of the historical Jesus, who attempt to ascertain how closely the stories of Jesus match the historical events they are based on, generally treat Jesus's conversation with Nicodemus in John 3 with skepticism. It details what is presumably a private conversation between Jesus and Nicodemus, with none of the disciples seemingly attending, making it unclear how a record of this conversation was acquired. In addition, the conversation is recorded in no other ancient Christian source other than John and works based on John. As the conversation was between two Jews in Jerusalem, where Aramaic was the native language, there is no reason to think that they would have spoken in Greek. Denominational positions Anabaptism Anabaptist denominations, such as the Mennonites, teach that "True faith entails a new birth, a spiritual regeneration by God's grace and power; 'believers' are those who have become the spiritual children of God."AnglicanismThe phrase born again is mentioned in the 39 Articles of the Anglican Church in article XV, entitled "Of Christ alone without Sin". In part, it reads: "sin, as S. John saith, was not in Him. But all we the rest, although baptized and born again in Christ, yet offend in many things: and if we say we have no sin, we deceive ourselves, and the truth is not in us." Although the phrase "baptized and born again in Christ" occurs in Article XV, the reference is clearly to the scripture passage in John 3:3. The Baptism Office of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer directly connects Baptism and new birth affirming a Baptismal Regeneration view of the meaning of the phrase "Born Again", not a conversion experience. Before the Baptism the prayers include; "None can enter into the kingdom of God, except he be regenerate and born anew of Water and of the Holy Ghost; I beseech you to call upon God the Father, through our Lord Jesus Christ, that of his bounteous goodness he will grant to these persons that which by nature they cannot have; that they may be baptized with Water and the Holy Ghost, and received into Christ's holy Church, and be made lively members of the same." And; "Beloved, ye hear in this Gospel the express words of our Saviour Christ, that except a man be born of water and of the Spirit, he cannot enter into the kingdom of God. Whereby ye may perceive the great necessity of this Sacrament, where it may be had." And after Baptism; "yield thee humble thanks, O heavenly Father, that thou hast vouchsafed to call us to the knowledge of thy grace, and faith in thee; Increase this knowledge, and confirm this faith in us evermore. Give thy Holy Spirit to these persons; that, being now born again, and made heirs of everlasting salvation, through our Lord Jesus Christ, they may continue thy servants, and attain thy promises; through the same Lord Jesus Christ thy Son, who liveth and reigneth with thee, in the unity of the same Holy Spirit, everlastingly. Amen."BaptistsBaptists teach that people are born again when they believe that Jesus died for their sin, and was buried, and rose again, and that by believing/trusting in Jesus' death, burial and resurrection, eternal life shall be granted as a gift by God. Those who have been born again, according to Baptist teaching, know that they are "[children] of God because the Holy Spirit witnesses to them that they are" (cf. assurance). Catholicism Historically, the classic text from John 3 was consistently interpreted by early Church Fathers as a reference to baptism. Modern Catholic interpreters have noted that the phrase 'born from above' or 'born again' is clarified as 'being born of water and Spirit'. Catholic commentator John F. McHugh notes, "Rebirth, and the commencement of this new life, are said to come about , of water and spirit. This phrase (without the article) refers to a rebirth which the early Church regarded as taking place through baptism." The Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC) notes that the essential elements of Christian initiation are: "proclamation of the Word, acceptance of the Gospel entailing conversion, profession of faith, Baptism itself, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and admission to Eucharistic communion." Baptism gives the person the grace of forgiveness for all prior sins; it makes the newly baptized person a new creature and an adopted child of God; it incorporates them into the Body of Christ and creates a sacramental bond of unity leaving an indelible mark on the person's soul. "Incorporated into Christ by Baptism, the person baptized is configured to Christ. Baptism seals the Christian with the indelible spiritual mark (character) of his belonging to Christ. No sin can erase this mark, even if sin prevents Baptism from bearing the fruits of salvation. Given once for all, Baptism cannot be repeated." The Holy Spirit is involved with each aspect of the movement of grace. "The first work of the grace of the Holy Spirit is conversion. [...] Moved by grace, man turns toward God and away from sin, thus accepting forgiveness and righteousness from on high." The Catholic Church also teaches that under special circumstances, the need for water baptism can be superseded by the Holy Spirit in a 'Baptism of desire', such as when catechumens die or are martyred prior to Baptism. Pope John Paul II wrote in about "the problem of children baptized in infancy [who] come for catechesis in the parish without receiving any other initiation into the faith and still without any explicit personal attachment to Jesus Christ." He noted that "being a Christian means saying 'yes' to Jesus Christ, but let us remember that this 'yes' has two levels: It consists of surrendering to the word of God and relying on it, but it also means, at a later stage, endeavoring to know better&mdash;and better the profound meaning of this word." The modern expression being "born again" is really about the concept of "conversion". The National Directory of Catechesis (published by the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, USCCB) defines conversion as, "the acceptance of a personal relationship with Christ, a sincere adherence to him, and a willingness to conform one's life to his." To put it more simply, "Conversion to Christ involves making a genuine commitment to him and a personal decision to follow him as his disciple." Declan O'Sullivan, co-founder of the Catholic Men's Fellowship and knight of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, wrote that the "New Evangelization emphasizes the personal encounter with Jesus Christ as a pre-condition for spreading the gospel. The born-again experience is not just an emotional, mystical high; the really important matter is what happened in the convert's life after the moment or period of radical change."Jehovah's WitnessesJehovah's Witnesses believe that individuals do not have the power to choose to be born again, but that God calls and selects his followers "from above". Only those belonging to the "144,000" are considered to be born again. Lutheranism The Lutheran Church holds that "we are cleansed of our sins and born again and renewed in Holy Baptism by the Holy Ghost. But some Lutherans also teach that whoever is baptized must, through daily contrition and repentance, drown The Old Adam so that daily a new man come forth and arise who walks before God in righteousness and purity forever. Conservative Lutherans teach that whoever lives in sins after his baptism has again lost the grace of baptism."MoravianismWith regard to the new birth, the Moravian Church holds that a personal conversion to Christianity is a joyful experience, in which the individual "accepts Christ as Lord" after which faith "daily grows inside the person." As such, "heart religion" characterizes Moravian Christianity.Methodismand entire sanctification to the public at events such as tent revivals and camp meetings, which they believe is the reason that God raised them up into existence.]] In Methodism, the "new birth is necessary for salvation because it marks the move toward holiness. That comes with faith." John Wesley held that the New Birth "is that great change which God works in the soul when he brings it into life, when he raises it from the death of sin to the life of righteousness." In keeping with Wesleyan-Arminian covenant theology, the Articles of Religion, in Article XVII – Of Baptism, state that baptism is a "sign of regeneration or the new birth." The Methodist Visitor in describing this doctrine, admonishes individuals: "'Ye must be born again.' Yield to God that He may perform this work in and for you. Admit Him to your heart. 'Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, and thou shalt be saved.'" Methodist theology teaches that the new birth contains two phases that occur together, justification and regeneration:}} At the moment a person experiences the New Birth, he/she is "adopted into the family of God". Plymouth Brethren The Plymouth Brethren teach that the new birth effects salvation and those who testify that they have been born again, repented, and have faith in the Scriptures are given the right hand of fellowship, after which they can partake of the Lord's Supper.Pentecostalism . Woodcut for "Die Bibel in Bildern", 1860.]] Holiness Pentecostals historically teach the new birth (first work of grace), entire sanctification (second work of grace) and baptism with the Holy Spirit, as evidenced by glossolalia, as the third work of grace. The new birth, according to Pentecostal teaching, imparts "spiritual life". Quakerism The majority of the world's Quakers are evangelical in churchmanship and teach a born-again experience (cf. Evangelical Friends Church International). The Central Yearly Meeting of Friends, a Holiness Quaker denomination, teaches that regeneration is the "divine work of initial salvation (Tit. 3:5), or conversion, which involves the accompanying works of justification (Rom. 5:18) and adoption (Rom. 8:15, 16)." Following the new birth, George Fox taught the possibility of "holiness of heart and life through the instantaneous baptism with the Holy Spirit subsequent to the new birth" (cf. Christian perfection).ReformedIn Reformed theology, Holy Baptism is the sign and the seal of one's regeneration, which is of comfort to the believer. The time of one's regeneration, however, is a mystery to oneself according to the Canons of Dort. Effectual calling is "the work of God's Spirit, whereby, convincing us of our sin and misery, enlightening our minds in the knowledge of Christ, and renewing our wills, he doth persuade and enable us to embrace Jesus Christ, freely offered to us in the gospel." In Reformed theology, "regeneration precedes faith." Samuel Storms writes that, "Calvinists insist that the sole cause of regeneration or being born again is the will of God. God first sovereignly and efficaciously regenerates, and only in consequence of that do we act. Therefore, the individual is passive in regeneration, neither preparing himself nor making himself receptive to what God will do. Regeneration is a change wrought in us by God, not an autonomous act performed by us for ourselves." The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Book of Mormon emphasizes the need for everyone to be reborn of God. Latter Day Saints believe that to be born again is referring to a true repentance. In otherwords, rejecting the carnal sinful nature of men and making a covenant with God to live a righteous, Christ like life. This covenant is done initially as baptism by immersion at the age of 8, or age of accountability, or when someone newly converts. It is then renewed weekly through partaking of sacrament during church meetings. It is a common misconception that the Church of Jesus Christ teaches that these ordinances are required works to be "saved". It is actually taught that Christ has already saved all mankind from physical death and will save from spiritual death through repentance and obeying God's commandments at judgement day, after death and resurrection. Baptism and Sacrament are done as according to the faith of a person as an outward expression of an inward commitment to serve God and live a righteous life.Disagreements between denominations The term "born again" is used by several Christian denominations, but there are disagreements on what the term means, and whether members of other denominations are justified in claiming to be born-again Christians. Catholic Answers says:the way the Bible understands that concept?" If the Evangelical has not been properly water baptized, he has not been born again "the Bible way," regardless of what he may think.}} On the other hand, an Evangelical site argues:either as an infant or when as an adult he converted to Catholicism. That's not what Jesus meant when He told Nicodemus he "must be born again." The deliberate adoption of biblical terms which have different meanings for Catholics has become an effective tool in Rome's ecumenical agenda.}} The Reformed view of regeneration may be set apart from other outlooks in at least two ways. History and usageHistorically, Christianity has used various metaphors to describe its rite of initiation, that is, spiritual regeneration via the sacrament of baptism by the power of the water and the spirit. This remains the common understanding in most of Christendom, held, for example, in Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, and in other historic branches of Protestantism. However, sometime after the Reformation, Evangelicalism attributed a different significance to the expression born again as an experience of religious conversion, only symbolized by water baptism, and rather brought about by a commitment to one's own personal faith in Jesus Christ for salvation. This same belief is, historically, also an integral part of Methodist doctrine, and is connected with the doctrine of Justification. According to Encyclopædia Britannica: According to J. Gordon Melton: According to Andrew Purves and Charles Partee: The term born again has become widely associated with the evangelical Christian renewal since the late 1960s, first in the United States and then around the world. Associated perhaps initially with Jesus People and the Christian counterculture, born again came to refer to a conversion experience, accepting Jesus Christ as lord and savior in order to be saved from hell and given eternal life with God in heaven, and was increasingly used as a term to identify devout believers. The term was sufficiently prevalent so that during the year's presidential campaign, Democratic party nominee Jimmy Carter described himself as "born again" in the first Playboy magazine interview of an American presidential candidate. Colson describes his path to faith in conjunction with his criminal imprisonment and played a significant role in solidifying the "born again" identity as a cultural construct in the US. He writes that his spiritual experience followed considerable struggle and hesitancy to have a "personal encounter with God." He recalls: Jimmy Carter was the first President of the United States to publicly declare that he was born-again, in 1976. By the 1980 campaign, all three major candidates stated that they had been born again. Sider and Knippers state that "Ronald Reagan's election that fall [was] aided by the votes of 61% of 'born-again' white Protestants." The Gallup Organization reported that "In 2003, 42% of U.S. adults said they were born-again or evangelical; the 2004 percentage is 41%" and that, "Black Americans are far more likely to identify themselves as born-again or evangelical, with 63% of blacks saying they are born-again, compared with 39% of white Americans. Republicans are far more likely to say they are born-again (52%) than Democrats (36%) or independents (32%)." The Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics, referring to several studies, reports "that 'born-again' identification is associated with lower support for government anti-poverty programs." It also notes that "self-reported born-again" Christianity, "strongly shapes attitudes towards economic policy." Names which have been inspired by the term The idea of "rebirth in Christ" has inspired some common European forenames: French René/Renée, Dutch Renaat/Renate, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Croatian Renato/Renata, Latin Renatus/Renata, all of which mean "reborn", "born again". The command language and shell program Bash, short for "Bourne-Again SHell", is a pun on "born again", being a mix with the name of the previous Bourne shell.StatisticsThe Oxford Handbook of Religion and American Politics'' notes: "The GSS ... has asked a born-again question on three occasions ... 'Would you say you have been 'born again' or have had a 'born-again' experience?" The Handbook says that "Evangelical, black, and Latino Protestants tend to respond similarly, with about two-thirds of each group answering in the affirmative. In contrast, only about one third of mainline Protestants and one sixth of Catholics (Anglo and Latino) claim a born-again experience." However, the handbook suggests that "born-again questions are poor measures even for capturing evangelical respondents. ... it is likely that people who report a born-again experience also claim it as an identity."See also * * * * * * * * * * * * Notes References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121123231747/http://www.umcmission.org/Find-Resources/Global-Worship-and-Spiritual-Growth/John-Wesley-Sermons/Sermon-45-The-New-Birth The New Birth], John Wesley, sermon No. 45. Wesley's teaching on being born again, and argument that it is fundamental to Christianity. Category:Christian fundamentalism Category:Christian terminology Category:Evangelical theology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_again
2025-04-05T18:27:01.483352
4952
Rockwell B-1 Lancer
<!-- This article is a part of Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft. Please see Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout, and guidelines. --> |introduction= 1 October 1986 |retired|produced 1973–1974, 1983–1988 |primary_user= United States Air Force |more_users|number_built 104 |status= In service |developed_from|variants }} The Rockwell B-1 Lancer, it is one of the United States Air Force's three strategic bombers, along with the B-2 Spirit and the B-52 Stratofortress. Its 75,000-pound (34,000 kg) payload is the heaviest of any U.S. bomber. The B-1 was first envisioned in the 1960s as a bomber that would combine the Mach 2 speed of the B-58 Hustler with the range and payload of the B-52, ultimately replacing both. After a long series of studies, North American Rockwell (subsequently renamed Rockwell International, B-1 division later acquired by Boeing) won the design contest for what emerged as the B-1A. Prototypes of this version could fly Mach 2.2 at high altitude and long distances and at Mach 0.85 at very low altitudes. The program was canceled in 1977 due to its high cost, the introduction of the AGM-86 cruise missile that flew the same basic speed and distance, and early work on the B-2 stealth bomber. The program was restarted in 1981, largely as an interim measure due to delays in the B-2 stealth bomber program. The B-1A design was altered, reducing top speed to Mach 1.25 at high altitude, increasing low-altitude speed to Mach 0.92, extensively improving electronic components, and upgrading the airframe to carry more fuel and weapons. Named the B-1B, deliveries of the new variant began in 1985; the plane formally entered service with Strategic Air Command (SAC) as a nuclear bomber the following year. By 1988, all 100 aircraft had been delivered. With the disestablishment of SAC and its reassignment to the Air Combat Command in 1992, the B-1B's nuclear capabilities were disabled and it was outfitted for conventional bombing. It first served in combat during Operation Desert Fox in 1998 and again during the NATO action in Kosovo the following year. The B-1B has supported U.S. and NATO military forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. As of 2025 the Air Force has 45 B-1Bs. The Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider is to begin replacing the B-1B after 2025; all B-1s are planned to be retired by 2036. Development Background In 1955, the USAF issued requirements for a new bomber combining the payload and range of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress with the Mach 2 maximum speed of the Convair B-58 Hustler. In December 1957, the USAF selected North American Aviation's B-70 Valkyrie for this role, a six-engine bomber that could cruise at Mach 3 at high altitude (). Soviet Union interceptor aircraft, the only effective anti-bomber weapon in the 1950s, the Valkyrie would fly at similar altitudes, but much higher speeds, and was expected to fly right by the fighters. as demonstrated by the 1960 downing of Gary Powers' U-2. The USAF Strategic Air Command (SAC) was aware of these developments and had begun moving its bombers to low-level penetration even before the U-2 incident. This tactic greatly reduces radar detection distances through the use of terrain masking; using features of the terrain like hills and valleys, the line-of-sight from the radar to the bomber can be broken, rendering the radar (and human observers) incapable of seeing it. and the two XB-70 prototypes were used in a supersonic research program. Although never intended for the low-level role, the B-52's flexibility allowed it to outlast its intended successor as the nature of the air war environment changed. The B-52's huge fuel load allowed it to operate at lower altitudes for longer times, and the large airframe allowed the addition of improved radar jamming and deception suites to deal with radars. During the Vietnam War, the concept that all future wars would be nuclear was turned on its head, and the "big belly" modifications increased the B-52's total bomb load to , turning it into a powerful tactical aircraft which could be used against ground troops along with strategic targets from high altitudes. A number of studies on a strategic-range counterpart followed. The first post-B-70 strategic penetrator study was known as the Subsonic Low-Altitude Bomber (SLAB), which was completed in 1961. This produced a design that looked more like an airliner than a bomber, with a large swept wing, T-tail, and large high-bypass engines. This was followed by the similar Extended Range Strike Aircraft (ERSA), which added a variable-sweep wing, then en vogue in the aviation industry. ERSA envisioned a relatively small aircraft with a payload and a range of including flown at low altitudes. In August 1963, the similar Low-Altitude Manned Penetrator design was completed, which called for an aircraft with a bomb load and somewhat shorter range of . These all culminated in the October 1963 Advanced Manned Precision Strike System (AMPSS), which led to industry studies at Boeing, General Dynamics, and North American (later North American Rockwell). In mid-1964, the USAF had revised its requirements and retitled the project as Advanced Manned Strategic Aircraft (AMSA), which differed from AMPSS primarily in that it also demanded a high-speed high-altitude capability, similar to that of the existing Mach 2-class F-111. Given the lengthy series of design studies, North American Rockwell engineers joked that the new name actually stood for "America's Most Studied Aircraft". The arguments that led to the cancellation of the B-70 program had led some to question the need for a new strategic bomber of any sort. The USAF was adamant about retaining bombers as part of the nuclear triad concept that included bombers, ICBMs, and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) in a combined package that complicated any potential defense. They argued that the bomber was needed to attack hardened military targets and to provide a safe counterforce option because the bombers could be quickly launched into safe loitering areas where they could not be attacked. However, the introduction of the SLBM made moot the mobility and survivability argument, and a newer generation of ICBMs, such as the Minuteman III, had the accuracy and speed needed to attack point targets. During this time, ICBMs were seen as a less costly option based on their lower unit cost, but development costs were much higher. and felt a new expensive bomber was not needed. Program studies continued; IBM and Autonetics were awarded AMSA advanced avionics study contracts in 1968. B-1A program radar for the B-1A]] President Richard Nixon reestablished the AMSA program after taking office, keeping with his administration's flexible response strategy that required a broad range of options short of general nuclear war. Nixon's Secretary of Defense, Melvin Laird, reviewed the programs and decided to lower the numbers of FB-111s, since they lacked the desired range, and recommended that the AMSA design studies be accelerated. In June 1970, North American Rockwell was awarded the development contract. The original program called for two test airframes, five flyable aircraft, and 40 engines. This was cut in 1971 to one ground and three flight test aircraft. The company changed its name to Rockwell International and named its aircraft division North American Aircraft Operations in 1973. A fourth prototype, built to production standards, was ordered in the fiscal year 1976 budget. Plans called for 240 B-1As to be built, with initial operational capability set for 1979. Rockwell's design had features common to the F-111 and XB-70. It used a crew escape capsule, that ejected as a unit to improve crew survivability if the crew had to abandon the aircraft at high speed. Additionally, the design featured large variable-sweep wings in order to provide both more lift during takeoff and landing, and lower drag during a high-speed dash phase. Initially, it had been expected that a Mach 1.2 performance could be achieved at low altitude, which required that titanium be used in critical areas in the fuselage and wing structure. The low altitude performance requirement was later lowered to Mach 0.85, reducing the amount of titanium and therefore cost. The first three B-1As featured the escape capsule that ejected the cockpit with all four crew members inside. The fourth B-1A was equipped with a conventional ejection seat for each crew member. The B-1A mockup review occurred in late October 1971; this resulted in 297 requests for alteration to the design due to failures to meet specifications and desired improvements for ease of maintenance and operation. The first B-1A prototype (Air Force serial no. 74–0158) flew on 23 December 1974. As the program continued the per-unit cost continued to rise in part because of high inflation during that period. In 1970, the estimated unit cost was $40 million, and by 1975, this figure had climbed to $70 million.New problems and cancellationunderside in 1981 |alt A B-1A flying with its wings swept forward, showing its anti-flash white underside]] In 1976, Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected to Japan with his MiG-25 "Foxbat". During debriefing he described a new "super-Foxbat" (almost certainly referring to the MiG-31) that had look-down/shoot-down radar in order to attack cruise missiles. This would also make any low-level penetration aircraft "visible" and easy to attack. Given that the B-1's armament suite was similar to the B-52, and it then appeared no more likely to survive Soviet airspace than the B-52, the program was increasingly questioned. In particular, Senator William Proxmire continually derided the B-1 in public, arguing it was an outlandishly expensive dinosaur. During the 1976 federal election campaign, Jimmy Carter made it one of the Democratic Party's platforms, saying "The B-1 bomber is an example of a proposed system which should not be funded and would be wasteful of taxpayers' dollars." When Carter took office in 1977 he ordered a review of the entire program. By this point the projected cost of the program had risen to over $100 million per aircraft, although this was lifetime cost over 20 years. He was informed of the relatively new work on stealth aircraft that had started in 1975, and he decided that this was a better approach than the B-1. Pentagon officials also stated that the AGM-86 Air-Launched Cruise Missile (ALCM) launched from the existing B-52 fleet would give the USAF equal capability of penetrating Soviet airspace. With a range of , the ALCM could be launched well outside the range of any Soviet defenses and penetrate at low altitude like a bomber (with a much lower radar cross-section (RCS) due to smaller size), and in much greater numbers at a lower cost. A small number of B-52s could launch hundreds of ALCMs, saturating the defense. A program to improve the B-52 and develop and deploy the ALCM would cost at least 20% less than the planned 244 B-1As. Domestically, the reaction to the cancellation was split along partisan lines. The Department of Defense was surprised by the announcement; it expected that the number of B-1s ordered would be reduced to around 150. Congressman Robert Dornan (R-CA) claimed, "They're breaking out the vodka and caviar in Moscow." However, it appears the Soviets were more concerned by large numbers of ALCMs representing a much greater threat than a smaller number of B-1s. Soviet news agency TASS commented that "the implementation of these militaristic plans has seriously complicated efforts for the limitation of the strategic arms race." Shifting priorities It was during this period that the Soviets started to assert themselves in several new theaters of action, in particular through Cuban proxies during the Angolan Civil War starting in 1975 and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. U.S. strategy to this point had been focused on containing Communism and preparation for war in Europe. The new Soviet actions revealed that the military lacked capability outside these narrow confines. The U.S. Department of Defense responded by accelerating its Rapid Deployment Forces concept but suffered from major problems with airlift and sealift capability. In order to slow an enemy invasion of other countries, air power was critical; however the key Iran-Afghanistan border was outside the range of the United States Navy's carrier-based attack aircraft, leaving this role to the U.S. Air Force. During the 1980 presidential campaign, Ronald Reagan campaigned heavily on the platform that Carter was weak on defense, citing the cancellation of the B-1 program as an example, a theme he continued using into the 1980s. During this time Carter's defense secretary, Harold Brown, announced the stealth bomber project, apparently implying that this was the reason for the B-1 cancellation. B-1B program , 1984.|alt= The first B-1B at its roll-out ceremony outside a hangar in Palmdale, California in 1984]] On taking office, Reagan was faced with the same decision as Carter before: whether to continue with the B-1 for the short term, or to wait for the development of the ATB, a much more advanced aircraft. Studies suggested that the existing B-52 fleet with ALCM would remain a credible threat until 1985. It was predicted that 75% of the B-52 force would survive to attack its targets. After 1985, the introduction of the SA-10 missile, the MiG-31 interceptor and the first effective Soviet Airborne Early Warning and Control (AWACS) systems would make the B-52 increasingly vulnerable. During 1981, funds were allocated to a new study for a bomber for the 1990s time-frame which led to developing the Long-Range Combat Aircraft (LRCA) project. The LRCA evaluated the B-1, F-111, and ATB as possible solutions; an emphasis was placed on multi-role capabilities, as opposed to purely strategic operations. In January 1982, the U.S. Air Force awarded two contracts to Rockwell worth a combined $2.2 billion for the development and production of 100 new B-1 bombers. Numerous changes were made to the design to make it better suited to the now expected missions, resulting in the B-1B. High subsonic speeds at low altitude became a focus area for the revised design, To deal with the introduction of the MiG-31 equipped with the new Zaslon radar system, and other aircraft with look-down capability, the B-1B's electronic warfare suite was significantly upgraded. In particular it seemed the B-52 fitted with electronics similar to the B-1B would be equally able to avoid interception, as the speed advantage of the B-1 was now minimal. It also appeared that the "interim" time frame served by the B-1B would be less than a decade, being rendered obsolete shortly after the introduction of a much more capable ATB design. The primary argument in favor of the B-1 was its large conventional weapon payload, and that its takeoff performance allowed it to operate with a credible bomb load from a much wider variety of airfields. Production subcontracts were spread across many congressional districts, making the aircraft more popular on Capitol Hill. B-1A No. 1 was disassembled and used for radar testing at the Rome Air Development Center in the former Griffiss Air Force Base, New York. B-1As No. 2 and No. 4 were then modified to include B-1B systems. The first B-1B was completed and began flight testing in March 1983. The first production B-1B was rolled out on 4 September 1984 and first flew on 18 October 1984. The 100th and final B-1B was delivered on 2 May 1988; before the last B-1B was delivered, the USAF had determined that the aircraft was vulnerable to Soviet air defenses. In 1996, Rockwell International sold most of its space and defense operations to Boeing, which continues as the primary contractor for the B1 as of 2024. The B-1's variable-sweep wings and thrust-to-weight ratio provide it with improved takeoff performance, allowing it to use shorter runways than previous bombers. The length of the aircraft presented a flexing problem due to air turbulence at low altitude. To alleviate this, Rockwell included small triangular fin control surfaces or vanes near the nose on the B-1. The B-1's Structural Mode Control System moves the vanes, and lower rudder, to counteract the effects of turbulence and smooth out the ride. air show in 2004]] Unlike the B-1A, the B-1B cannot reach Mach 2+ speeds; its maximum speed is Mach 1.25 (about 950 mph or 1,530 km/h at altitude), but its low-level speed increased to Mach 0.92 (700 mph, 1,130 km/h). The speed of the current version of the aircraft is limited by the need to avoid damage to its structure and air intakes. To help lower its radar cross-section, the B-1B uses serpentine air intake ducts (see S-duct) and fixed intake ramps, which limit its speed compared to the B-1A. Vanes in the intake ducts serve to deflect and shield radar returns from the highly reflective engine compressor blades. The B-1A's engine was modified slightly to produce the GE F101-102 for the B-1B, with an emphasis on durability, and increased efficiency. The core from this engine was subsequently used in several other engines, including the GE F110 used in the F-14 Tomcat, F-15K/SG variants and later versions of the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. It is also the basis for the non-afterburning GE F118 used in the B-2 Spirit and the U-2S. The nose-gear door is the location for ground-crew control of the auxiliary power unit (APU) which can be used during a scramble for quick-starting the APU. Avionics ]] The B-1's main computer is the IBM AP-101, which was also used on the Space Shuttle orbiter and the B-52 bomber. The computer is programmed with the JOVIAL programming language. The Lancer's offensive avionics include the Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive passive electronically scanned array radar set with electronic beam steering (and a fixed antenna pointed downward for reduced radar observability), synthetic aperture radar, ground moving target indication (GMTI), and terrain-following radar modes, Doppler navigation, radar altimeter, and an inertial navigation suite. The B-1B Block D upgrade added a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver beginning in 1995. The B-1's defensive electronics include the Eaton AN/ALQ-161A radar warning and defensive jamming equipment, which has three sets of antennas; one at the front base of each wing and the third rear-facing in the tail radome. Also in the tail radome is the AN/ALQ-153 missile approach warning system (pulse-Doppler radar). The ALQ-161 is linked to a total of eight AN/ALE-49 flare dispensers located on top behind the canopy, which are handled by the AN/ASQ-184 avionics management system. Each AN/ALE-49 dispenser has a capacity of 12 MJU-23A/B flares. The MJU-23A/B flare is one of the world's largest infrared countermeasure flares at a weight of over . The B-1 has also been equipped to carry the ALE-50 towed decoy system. Also aiding the B-1's survivability is its relatively low RCS. Although not technically a stealth aircraft, thanks to the aircraft's structure, serpentine intake paths and use of radar-absorbent material its RCS is about 1/50th that of the similar sized B-52. This is approximately 26 ft<sup>2</sup> or 2.4 m<sup>2</sup>, comparable to that of a small fighter aircraft. The B-1 holds 61 FAI world records for speed, payload, distance, and time-to-climb in different aircraft weight classes. In November 1993, three B-1Bs set a long-distance record for the aircraft, which demonstrated its ability to conduct extended mission lengths to strike anywhere in the world and return to base without any stops. The National Aeronautic Association recognized the B-1B for completing one of the 10 most memorable record flights for 1994. * Block C provided an "enhanced capability" for delivery of up to 30 cluster bomb units (CBUs) per sortie with modifications made to 50 bomb racks. * Block D added a "Near Precision Capability" via improved weapons and targeting systems, and added advanced secure communications capabilities. * Block E upgraded the avionics computers and incorporated the Wind Corrected Munitions Dispenser (WCMD), the AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) and the AGM-158 JASSM (Joint Air to Surface Standoff Munition), substantially improving the bomber's capability. Upgrades were completed in September 2006. * Block F was the Defensive Systems Upgrade Program (DSUP) to improve the aircraft's electronic countermeasures and jamming capabilities, but it was canceled in December 2002 due to cost overruns and delays. In 2007, the Sniper XR targeting pod was integrated on the B-1 fleet. The pod is mounted on an external hardpoint at the aircraft's chin near the forward bomb bay. Following accelerated testing, the Sniper pod was fielded in summer 2008. Future precision munitions include the Small Diameter Bomb. The USAF commenced the Integrated Battle Station (IBS) modification in 2012 as a combination of three separate upgrades when it realized the benefits of completing them concurrently; the Fully Integrated Data Link (FIDL), Vertical Situational Display Unit (VSDU) and Central Integrated Test System (CITS). FIDL enables electronic data sharing, eliminating the need to enter information between systems by hand. VSDU replaces existing flight instruments with multifunction color displays, a second display aids with threat evasion and targeting, and acts as a back-up display. CITS saw a new diagnostic system installed that allows crew to monitor over 9,000 parameters on the aircraft. Other additions are to replace the two spinning mass gyroscopic inertial navigation system with ring laser gyroscopic systems and a GPS antenna, replacement of the APQ-164 radar with the Scalable Agile Beam Radar – Global Strike (SABR-GS) active electronically scanned array, and a new attitude indicator. The IBS upgrades were completed in 2020. Operational history Strategic Air Command The second B-1B, "The Star of Abilene", was the first B-1B delivered to SAC in June 1985. Initial operational capability was reached on 1 October 1986 and the B-1B was placed on nuclear alert status. The B-1 received the official name "Lancer" on 15 March 1990. However, the bomber has been commonly called the "Bone"; a nickname that appears to stem from an early newspaper article on the aircraft wherein its name was phonetically spelled out as "B-ONE" with the hyphen inadvertently omitted. In late 1990, engine fires in two Lancers led to a grounding of the fleet. The cause was traced back to problems in the first-stage fan, and the aircraft were placed on "limited alert"; in other words, they were grounded unless a nuclear war broke out. Following inspections and repairs they were returned to duty beginning on 6 February 1991. By 1991, the B-1 had a fledgling conventional capability, forty of them able to drop the Mk-82 General Purpose (GP) bomb, although mostly from low altitude. Despite being cleared for this role, the problems with the engines prevented their use in Operation Desert Storm during the Gulf War. The B-52 was more suited to the role of conventional warfare and it was used by coalition forces instead. On 26 April 1991, ten B-1Bs narrowly avoided being hit by the 1991 Andover tornado while located at McConnell AFB, which took a direct hit. Two of the bombers were equipped with nuclear warheads. After the inactivation of SAC and the establishment of the Air Combat Command (ACC) in 1992, the B-1 developed a greater conventional weapons capability. Part of this development was the start-up of the U.S. Air Force Weapons School B-1 Division. In 1994, two additional B-1 bomb wings were also created in the Air National Guard, with former fighter wings in the Kansas Air National Guard and the Georgia Air National Guard converting to the aircraft. By the mid-1990s, the B-1 could employ GP weapons as well as various CBUs. By the end of the 1990s, with the advent of the "Block D" upgrade, the B-1 boasted a full array of guided and unguided munitions. The B-1B no longer carries nuclear weapons; Under provisions of the New START treaty with Russia, further conversions were performed. These included modification of aircraft hardpoints to prevent nuclear weapon pylons from being attached, removal of weapons bay wiring bundles for arming nuclear weapons, and destruction of nuclear weapon pylons. The conversion process was completed in 2011, and Russian officials inspect the aircraft every year to verify compliance.Air Combat CommandThe B-1 was first used in combat in support of operations in Iraq during Operation Desert Fox in December 1998, employing unguided GP weapons. B-1s have been subsequently used in Operation Allied Force (Kosovo) and, most notably, in Operation Enduring Freedom in Afghanistan and the 2003 invasion of Iraq. During Operation Enduring Freedom, the B-1 was able to raise its mission capable rate to 79%. In 2004, a new appropriation bill called for some retired aircraft to return to service, and the USAF returned seven mothballed bombers to service to increase the fleet to 67 aircraft. (JDAM) to a lift truck for loading onto a B-1B on 29 March 2007, in Southwest Asia |alt=Ammunition and yellow bombs lay as two crew member, using lift truck, transfer them to a gray B-1 parked nearby in the background]] On 14 July 2007, the Associated Press reported on the growing USAF presence in Iraq, including reintroduction of B-1Bs as a close-at-hand platform to support Coalition ground forces. Beginning in 2008, B-1s were used in Iraq and Afghanistan in an "armed overwatch" role, loitering for surveillance purposes while ready to deliver guided bombs in support of ground troops as required. The B-1B underwent a series of flight tests using a 50/50 mix of synthetic and petroleum fuel; on 19 March 2008, a B-1B from Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, became the first USAF aircraft to fly at supersonic speed using a synthetic fuel during a flight over Texas and New Mexico. This was conducted as part of an USAF testing and certification program to reduce reliance on traditional oil sources. On 4 August 2008, a B-1B flew the first Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod equipped combat sortie where the crew successfully targeted enemy ground forces and dropped a GBU-38 guided bomb in Afghanistan. In March 2011, B-1Bs from Ellsworth Air Force Base attacked undisclosed targets in Libya as part of Operation Odyssey Dawn. With upgrades to keep the B-1 viable, the USAF may keep it in service until approximately 2038. Despite upgrades, a single flight hour needs 48.4 hours of repair. The fuel, repairs, and other needs for a 12-hour mission cost $720,000 (~$}} in ) as of 2010. The $63,000 cost per flight hour is, however, less than the $72,000 for the B-52 and the $135,000 of the B-2. In June 2010, senior USAF officials met to consider retiring the entire fleet to meet budget cuts. The Pentagon plans to begin replacing the aircraft with the B-21 Raider after 2025. In the meantime, its "capabilities are particularly well-suited to the vast distances and unique challenges of the Pacific region, and we'll continue to invest in, and rely on, the B-1 in support of the focus on the Pacific" as part of President Obama's "Pivot to East Asia". In August 2012, the 9th Expeditionary Bomb Squadron returned from a six-month tour in Afghanistan. Its 9 B-1Bs flew 770 sorties, the most of any B-1B squadron on a single deployment. The squadron spent 9,500 hours airborne, keeping one of its bombers in the air at all times. They accounted for a quarter of all combat aircraft sorties over the country during that time and fulfilled an average of two to three air support requests per day. On 4 September 2013, a B-1B participated in a maritime evaluation exercise, deploying munitions such as laser-guided 500 lb GBU-54 bombs, 500 lb and 2,000 lb JDAM, and Long Range Anti-Ship Missiles (LRASM). The aim was to detect and engage several small craft using existing weapons and tactics developed from conventional warfare against ground targets; the B-1 is seen as a useful asset for maritime duties such as patrolling shipping lanes. Beginning in 2014, the B-1 was used against the Islamic State (IS) in the Syrian Civil War. From August 2014 to January 2015, the B-1 accounted for eight percent of USAF sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve. The 9th Bomb Squadron was deployed to Qatar in July 2014 to support missions in Afghanistan, but when the air campaign against IS began on 8 August, the aircraft were employed in Iraq. During the Battle of Kobane in Syria, the squadron's B-1s dropped 660 bombs over 5 months in support of Kurdish forces defending the city. This amounted to one-third of all bombs used during OIR during the period, and they killed some 1,000 ISIL fighters. The 9th Bomb Squadron's B-1s went "Winchester"–dropping all weapons on board–31 times during their deployment. They dropped over 2,000 JDAMs during the six-month rotation. Air Force Global Strike Command As part of a USAF reorganization announced in April 2015, all B-1s were reassigned from Air Combat Command to Global Strike Command (GSC) in October 2015. On 8 July 2017, the USAF flew two B-1s near the North Korean border in a show of force amid increasing tensions, particularly in response to North Korea's 4 July test of an ICBM capable of reaching Alaska. On 14 April 2018, B-1s launched 19 JASSM missiles as part of the 2018 bombing of Damascus and Homs in Syria. In August 2019, six B-1Bs met full mission capability; 15 were undergoing depot maintenance and 39 under repair and inspection. In February 2021, the USAF announced it will retire 17 B-1s, leaving 45 aircraft in service. Four of these will be stored in a condition that will allow their return to service if required. In March 2021, B-1s deployed to Norway's Ørland Main Air Station for the first time. During the deployment, they conducted bombing training with Norwegian and Swedish ground force Joint terminal attack controllers. One B-1 also conducted a warm-pit refuel at Bodø Main Air Station, marking the first landing inside Norway's Arctic Circle, and integrated with four Swedish Air Force JAS 39 Gripen fighters. On 2 February 2024, the U.S. deployed two B-1Bs to strike 85 terrorist targets in seven locations in Iraq and Syria as part of a multi-tiered response to the killing of three U.S. troops in a drone attack in Jordan. Variants ;B-1A: The B-1A was the original B-1 design with variable engine intakes and Mach 2.2 top speed. Four prototypes were built; no production units were manufactured. ;B-1B: The B-1B is a revised B-1 design with reduced radar signature and a top speed of Mach 1.25. It is optimized for low-level penetration. A total of 100 B-1Bs were produced. The B-1R (R for "regional") would be fitted with advanced radars, air-to-air missiles, and new Pratt & Whitney F119 engines (from the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor). This variant would have a top speed of Mach 2.2, but with 20% shorter range. Existing external hardpoints would be modified to allow multiple conventional weapons to be carried, increasing overall loadout. For air-to-air defense, an active electronically scanned array (AESA) radar would be added and some existing hardpoints modified to carry air-to-air missiles. }} | 28th Bomb Wing – Ellsworth AFB, South Dakota | 53d Test and Evaluation Group – Nellis AFB, Nevada | 57th Wing – Nellis AFB, Nevada | 96th Bomb Wing – Dyess AFB, Texas | 319th Bomb Wing – Grand Forks AFB, North Dakota 1987–1994 | 366th Wing – Mountain Home AFB, Idaho 1994-1996 (geographically separated at Ellsworth AFB, SD) 1997–2002 | 384th Bomb Wing – McConnell AFB, Kansas 1987–1994 }}}} | 184th Bomb Wing – McConnell AFB, Kansas 1994–2002 }}}} | 412th Test Wing 1992–present | 6510th Test Wing 1974–1989 }}}} }} }} Aircraft on display , Robins AFB]] ;B-1A: ;B-1B: Accidents and incidents , Germany, June 1994|alt=Black aircraft trailed by a column of black smoke and fire on the runway as fire trucks close in on the flame from behind]] The Aviation Safety Network lists 15 accidents from 1984 to 2024 in which 11 B-1s were lost and a total of 12 crew members were killed. An April 2022 maintenance fire damaged another. Among the incidents: * On 29 August 1984, B-1A (serial number (74-0159) crashed because of a loss of control during a test flight over the Mojave Desert. The center of gravity was well aft of the limit due to fuel transfer error. Two crew members survived and a Rockwell test pilot was killed. * On 28 September 1987, B-1B (84–0052) from the 96th Bomb Wing, 338th Combat Crew Training Squadron, Dyess AFB, crashed near La Junta, Colorado, while flying on a low-level training route. This was the only B-1B crash with six crew members aboard. The two crew members in jump seats, and one of the four crew members in ejection seats perished. An impact—thought to be a bird strike on a wing's leading edge—severed fuel and hydraulic lines on one side of the aircraft, while the other side's engines functioned long enough to allow the crew to eject. The B-1B fleet was later modified to protect these supply lines. * In October 1990, while flying a training route in eastern Colorado, B-1B (86-0128) from the 384th Bomb Wing, 28th Bomb Squadron, McConnell AFB, experienced an explosion as the engines reached full power without afterburners. Fire on the aircraft's left was spotted. The No. 1 engine was shut down and its fire extinguisher was activated. The accident investigation determined that the engine had suffered catastrophic failure, engine blades had cut through the engine mounts, and the engine had detached from the aircraft. * On 19 September 1997, B-1B (85-0078) crashed near Alzada, Montana, during a daytime training flight. The aircraft struck the ground due to an excessive sink rate when the crew was performing a defensive maneuver. All four crew were killed. * On 12 December 2001, while supporting Operation Enduring Freedom, B-1B (86-0114) flying from the British Air Base, Diego Garcia, crashed into the Indian Ocean about 30 miles north of the island. All four crew members ejected safely and were rescued in good condition after two hours in a warm, calm sea. The pilot, Capt. William Steele, later told reporters the aircraft had not been hit by hostile fire but had suffered "multiple malfunctions" that made it impossible to handle. * In September 2005, a B-1B (85-0066) from Ellsworth AFB landed at Andersen AFB and caught fire while exiting the runway. Cause was determined to be failure of brakes on the right main landing gear when leaking hydraulic fluid came in contact in a "hot brakes" situation. The resulting fire damaged the right wing, nacelle, aircraft structure, and right main landing gear assembly. The aircraft was repaired at Andersen over a three-year period with many parts obtained from retired B-1Bs in storage at Davis–Monthan AFB, Arizona. The aircraft returned to flight in 2008. * On 19 August 2013, B-1B (85-0091) crashed during a routine training mission in Broadus, Montana, 170 miles southeast of Billings, Montana, because of a fuel leak and explosion that damaged a wing during a wing sweep. All four crew ejected safely. * On 1 May 2018, B-1B (86-0109) made an emergency landing at Midland International Air and Space Port in Texas after experiencing a mid-air engine fire on its number 4 engine. After the first crew member's ejection seat failed to leave the plane successfully, the aircraft commander ordered the crew to stop the escape procedure and an emergency landing was safely made. The aircraft was later inspected and cleared for return to service. This B-1 was then retired on 10 April 2021. Following its retirement, the aircraft was repurposed for training purposes and was towed to an Aircraft Battle Damage Repair training pad at the 76th Maintenance Group's Expeditionary Depot Maintenance Flight at Tinker Air Force Base, Oklahoma. * On 20 April 2022, a fire broke out on B-1B (85-0089) of the 7th Bomb Wing, assigned to Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, that was undergoing maintenance on the main ramp. The fire damaged the No. 1 engine, the left nacelle, and the wing of the aircraft. Falling debris injured an airman. The cost of damage was estimated at $14.944 million. * On 4 January 2024, B-1B (85-0085) assigned to Ellsworth Air Force Base in South Dakota crashed while attempting to land at the installation while on a training mission. At the time of the crash, visibility was poor and temperatures freezing. The four aircrew on board ejected safely. The total loss for the crash was reported as $456,248,485 (2024). <!-- Only notable/significant incidents or accidents here please. Ask questions on talk page if needed. --> Specifications (B-1B) |bombs3 internal bomb bays for of ordnance. |hardpoint capacity= |hardpoint bombs= <br> *** Mk-82 air inflatable retarder (AIR) general purpose (GP) bombs *** Mk-82 low drag general purpose (LDGP) bombs *** Mk-62 Quickstrike sea mines *** Mk-84 general-purpose bombs *** Mk-65 naval mines *** GBU-54 LaserJDAM (using rotary launcher mounted multiple ejector racks) |missiles|avionics * 1× AN/APQ-164 forward-looking offensive passive electronically scanned array radar * 1× AN/ALQ-161 radar warning receiver and defensive jamming equipment * 1× AN/ASQ-184 defensive management system * 1× Sniper Advanced Targeting Pod (optional) |hardpoint missiles=<br> *** AGM-154 Joint Standoff Weapon (JSOW) *** AGM-158C Long Range Anti-Ship Missile (LRASM) *** AGM-158 Joint Air to Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM) *** AGM-183 Air-Launched Rapid Response Weapon (ARRW) }} Weapons loads {| class="wikitable" |- |+ B-1B Lancer internal weapons loads |- ! Bomb rack & stores ! Bay 1 ! Bay 2 ! Bay 3 ! Total |- ! colspan=5 | Conventional |- | CBM<br>2,816 to 3,513 lb (1,277 to 1,593 kg) | 1 | 1 | 1 | |- | * Mk-82 * Mk-82 AIR * Mk-36 * Mk-62 | 28 | 28 | 28 | 84 |- ! colspan=5 | Conventional |- | SECBM<br>(CBM w/ TMD upgrade)<br>2,816 lb (1,277 kg) empty | 1 | 1 | 1 |- | * CBU-87 * CBU-89 * CBU-97 * CBU-103 * CBU-104 * CBU-105 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 30 |- | GBU-38 | 6 | 6 | 3 | 15 |- ! colspan=5 | Multi-purpose |- | MPRL<br>1,300 to 2,055 lb (590 kg) | 1 | 1 | 1 | |- | * Mk-84 * GBU-31 * AGM-154 * AGM-158 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 24 |- | Mk-65 naval mines | 4 | 4 | 4 | 12 |- | * 4-pack GBU-39 * 6-pack GBU-39 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 96 or 144 |- ! colspan=5 | Multi-purpose (mixed) |- | MPRL<br>(MER upgrade) | 1 | 1 | 1 | |- |* GBU-38, GBU-32, GBU-31 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 36 |- | GBU-38 | 16 | 16 | 16 | 48 |- ! colspan=5 | Ferry/range extension |- | Fuel tank<br>2,975 gal (11,262 L) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3<br>9,157 gal (34,663 kg) |- ! colspan=5 | Nuclear (uniform; out of use) |- | * MPRL<br>1,300 to 2,055 lb (590 to 932 kg) | 1 | 1 | 1 |- | B28 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 12 |- | * AGM-69 * B61 * B83 | 8 | 8 | 8 | 24 |- ! colspan5 | Nuclear (mixed)(out of use) |- | * CSRL | style"text-align:center;" colspan"2"|1 | | |- | AGM-86B | style"text-align:center;" colspan"2"|Small fuel tank<br>8 | | 8 |} {| class="wikitable" |- |+ External weapons loads (mostly unused due to radar cross-section) |- | Pylon<br>884 lb (400 kg) | 1 (right station) | | | |- | Sniper XR targeting pod | 1 (right station) | | | 1<br>440 lb (200 kg) |- ! colspan5 | Ferry/range extension |- | Fuel tank<br>each 923 gal (3,494 L) | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6<br>5,538 gal (20,963 L) |} Notable appearances in media <!-- ()--> <!-- Please READ Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content and Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history#Popular culture before adding any "Popular culture" items. Please do not add the many minor appearances of the aircraft. This section is only for major cultural appearances where the aircraft plays a MAJOR part in the story line, or has an "especially notable" role in what is listed. A verifiable source proving the appearance's notability may be required. Random cruft, including ALL Ace Combat, Battlefield, and Metal Gear Solid appearances, and ALL anime/fiction lookalike speculation, WILL BE removed. If your item has been removed, please discuss it on the talk page FIRST. A verifiable source proving the appearance's notability may be required. If a consensus is reached to include your item, a regular editor of this page will add it back. Thank you for your cooperation.--> <!-- () --> See also Notes References Bibliography * * Dao, James. [https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/01/us/much-maligned-b-1-bomber-proves-hard-to-kill.html?src=pm "Much-Maligned B-1 Bomber Proves Hard to Kill."] The New York Times, 1 August 2001. * Donald, David, ed. "Rockwell B-1B". The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1997. . * . * * . * . * * * <!-- * --> * * * * * * . * * * * External links * [https://www.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/104500/b-1b-lancer/ B-1B Fact Sheet on af.mil] * [http://www.boeing.com/defense/b-1b-bomber/ B-1B product page] and [http://www.boeing.com/history/products/b-1b-lancer.page B-1B history page on Boeing.com] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090730165808/http://oea.larc.nasa.gov/PAIS/Partners/B_1B.html B-1 history page on NASA/Langley Research Center site] * [https://airman.dodlive.mil/2018/05/17/b1-b-lancer/ B-1B Lancer in Airman Magazine's Airframe Profiles] * [https://www.af.mil/News/story/id/123038283/ B-1B Lancer USAF 20-year history article] Category:Aircraft first flown in 1974 Category:Cruciform tail aircraft Category:Quadjets B-001 Category:1970s United States bomber aircraft Category:Variable-sweep-wing aircraft Category:Supersonic aircraft Category:Strategic bombers Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_B-1_Lancer
2025-04-05T18:27:01.545113
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Book of Common Prayer
A Book of Common Prayer|other uses}} , printed by John Baskerville]] The Book of Common Prayer (BCP) is the name given to a number of related prayer books used in the Anglican Communion and by other Christian churches historically related to Anglicanism. The first prayer book, published in 1549 in the reign of King Edward VI of England, was a product of the English Reformation following the break with Rome. The 1549 work was the first prayer book to include the complete forms of service for daily and Sunday worship in English. It contains Morning Prayer, Evening Prayer, the Litany, Holy Communion, and occasional services in full: the orders for Baptism, Confirmation, Marriage, "prayers to be said with the sick", and a funeral service. It also sets out in full the "propers" (the parts of the service that vary weekly or daily throughout the Church's Year): the introits, collects, and epistle and gospel readings for the Sunday service of Holy Communion. Old Testament and New Testament readings for daily prayer are specified in tabular format, as are the Psalms and canticles, mostly biblical, to be said or sung between the readings. The 1549 book was soon succeeded by a 1552 revision that was more Reformed but from the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury. It was used only for a few months, as after Edward VI's death in 1553, his half-sister Mary I restored Roman Catholic worship. Mary died in 1558 and, in 1559, Elizabeth I's first Parliament authorised the 1559 prayer book, which effectively reintroduced the 1552 book with modifications to make it acceptable to more traditionally minded worshippers and clergy. In 1604, James I ordered some further changes, the most significant being the addition to the Catechism of a section on the Sacraments; this resulted in the 1604 Book of Common Prayer. Following the tumultuous events surrounding the English Civil War, when the Prayer Book was again abolished, another revision was published as the 1662 prayer book. That edition remains the official prayer book of the Church of England, although throughout the later 20th century, alternative forms that were technically supplements largely displaced the Book of Common Prayer for the main Sunday worship of most English parish churches. Various permutations of the Book of Common Prayer with local variations are used in churches within and exterior to the Anglican Communion in over 50 countries and over 150 different languages. In many of these churches, the 1662 prayer book remains authoritative even if other books or patterns have replaced it in regular worship. Traditional English-language Lutheran, Methodist, and Presbyterian prayer books have borrowed from the Book of Common Prayer, and the marriage and burial rites have found their way into those of other denominations and into the English language. Like the King James Version of the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, many words and phrases from the Book of Common Prayer have entered common parlance.Full nameThe full name of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer is The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, according to the use of the Church of England, Together with the Psalter or Psalms of David, pointed as they are to be Sung or said in churches: And the Form and Manner of Making, ordaining, and Consecrating of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons. The book contains prayers translated from the traditional Book of Common Prayer as well as those from the Church of North India and the CWM's Prayer Letter, along with original compositions by the Church of Bangladesh.ChinaThe Book of Common Prayer is translated literally as () in Chinese (Mandarin: Gōng dǎo shū; Cantonese: Gūng tóu syū). The former dioceses in the now defunct Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui had their own Book of Common Prayer. The General Synod and the College of Bishops of Chung Hwa Sheng Kung Hui planned to publish a unified version for the use of all Anglican churches in China in 1949, which was the 400th anniversary of the first publishing of the Book of Common Prayer. After the communists took over mainland China, the Diocese of Hong Kong and Macao became independent of the Chung Hua Sheng Kung Hui, and continued to use the edition issued in Shanghai in 1938 with a revision in 1959. This edition, also called the "Black-Cover Book of Common Prayer" () for its cover, still remains in use after the establishment of the Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (Anglican province in Hong Kong). The language style of "Black-Cover Book of Common Prayer" is closer to Classical Chinese than contemporary Chinese.IndiaThe Church of South India was the first modern Episcopal uniting church, consisting as it did, from its foundation in 1947, at the time of Indian independence, of Anglicans, Methodists, Congregationalists, Presbyterians and Reformed Christians. Its liturgy, from the first, combined the free use of Cranmer's language with an adherence to the principles of congregational participation and the centrality of the Eucharist, much in line with the Liturgical Movement. Because it was a minority church of widely differing traditions in a non-Christian culture (except in Kerala, where Christianity has a long history), practice varied wildly.JapanThe BCP is called "Kitōsho" () in Japanese. The initial effort to compile such a book in Japanese goes back to 1859, when the missionary societies of the Church of England and of the Episcopal Church of the United States started their work in Japan, later joined by the Anglican Church of Canada in 1888. In 1879, the Seikōkai Tō Bun (, Anglican Prayer Texts) were prepared in Japanese As the Anglican Church in Japan was established in 1887, the Romanised Nippon Seikōkai Kitō Bun () were compiled in 1879. There was a major revision of these texts and the first Kitōsho was born in 1895, which had the Eucharistic part in both English and American traditions. There were further revisions, and the Kitōsho published in 1939 was the last revision that was done before World War II, still using the Historical kana orthography. After the end of the War, the Kitōsho of 1959 became available, using post-war Japanese orthography, but still in traditional classical Japanese language and vertical writing. In the fifty years after World War II, there were several efforts to translate the Bible into modern colloquial Japanese, the most recent of which was the publication in 1990 of the Japanese New Interconfessional Translation Bible. The Kitōsho using the colloquial Japanese language and horizontal writing was published in the same year. It also used the Revised Common Lectionary. This latest Kitōsho since went through several minor revisions, such as employing the Lord's Prayer in Japanese common with the Catholic Church (共通口語訳「主の祈り」) in 2000. Korea In 1965, the Anglican Church of Korea first published a translation of the 1662 BCP into Korean and called it gong-dong-gi-do-mun (공동기도문) meaning "common prayers". In 1994, the prayers announced "allowed" by the 1982 Bishops Council of the Anglican Church of Korea was published in a second version of the Book of Common Prayers In 2004, the National Anglican Council published the third and the current Book of Common Prayers known as "seong-gong-hwe gi-do-seo (성공회 기도서)" or the "Anglican Prayers", including the Calendar of the Church Year, Daily Offices, Collects, Proper Liturgies for Special Days, Baptism, Holy Eucharist, Pastoral Offices, Episcopal Services, Lectionary, Psalms and all of the other events the Anglican Church of Korea celebrates. The Diction of the books has changed from the 1965 version to the 2004 version. For example, the word "God" has changed from classical Chinese term "Cheon-ju (천주)" to native Korean word "ha-neu-nim (하느님)," in accordance with the Public Christian translation, and as used in 1977 Common Translation Bible (gong-dong beon-yeok-seong-seo, 공동번역성서) that the Anglican Church of Korea currently uses. Philippines , Mountain Province, Philippines.]] ic English–Chinese Book of Common Prayer used by the Filipino–Chinese community of St Stephen's Pro-Cathedral in Manila, Philippines.]] As the Philippines is connected to the worldwide Anglican Communion through the Episcopal Church in the Philippines, the main edition of the Book of Common Prayer in use throughout the islands is the same as that of the United States. Aside from the American version and the newly published Philippine Book of Common Prayer, Filipino-Chinese congregants of Saint Stephen's Pro-Cathedral in the Diocese of the Central Philippines uses the English-Chinese Diglot Book of Common Prayer, published by the Episcopal Church of Southeast Asia. The ECP has since published its own Book of Common Prayer upon gaining full autonomy on 1 May 1990. This version is notable for the inclusion of the Misa de Gallo, a popular Christmastide devotion amongst Filipinos that is of Catholic origin. Europe Ireland The first printed book in Ireland was in English, the Book of Common Prayer. William Bedell had undertaken an Irish translation of the Book of Common Prayer in 1606. An Irish translation of the revised prayer book of 1662 was effected by John Richardson (1664–1747) and published in 1712 as Leabhar na nornaightheadh ccomhchoitchionn. "Until the 1960s, the Book of Common Prayer, derived from 1662 with only mild tinkering, was quite simply the worship of the church of Ireland." The 1712 edition had parallel columns in English and Irish languages. After its independence and disestablishment in 1871, the Church of Ireland developed its own prayer book which was published in 1878. It has been revised several times, and the present edition has been used since 2004. Isle of Man The first Manx translation of the Book of Common Prayer was made by John Phillips (Bishop of Sodor and Man) in 1610. A more successful "New Version" by his successor Mark Hiddesley was in use until 1824 when English liturgy became universal on the island.PortugalThe Lusitanian Catholic Apostolic Evangelical Church formed in 1880. A Portuguese language Prayer Book is the basis of the Church's liturgy. In the early days of the church, a translation into Portuguese from 1849 of the 1662 edition of the Book of Common Prayer was used. In 1884 the church published its own prayer book based on the Anglican, Roman and Mozarabic liturgies. The intent was to emulate the customs of the primitive apostolic church. Newer editions of their prayer book are available in Portuguese and with an English translation. Spain .]] The Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church (, IERE) is the church of the Anglican Communion in Spain. It was founded in 1880 and since 1980 has been an extra-provincial church under the metropolitan authority of the Archbishop of Canterbury. Previous to its organisation, there were several translations of the Book of Common Prayer into Spanish in 1623 and in 1707. In 1881 the church combined a Spanish translation of the 1662 edition of the Book of Common Prayer with the Mozarabic Rite liturgy, which had recently been translated. This is apparently the first time the Spanish speaking Anglicans inserted their own "historic, national tradition of liturgical worship within an Anglican prayer book." A second edition was released in 1889, and a revision in 1975. This attempt combined the Anglican structure of worship with indigenous prayer traditions. Wales An Act of Parliament passed in 1563, entitled "An Act for the Translating of the Bible and the Divine Service into the Welsh Tongue", ordered that both the Old and New Testament be translated into Welsh, alongside the Book of Common Prayer. This translation – completed by the then bishop of St David's, Richard Davies, and the scholar William Salesbury – was published in 1567 as Y Llyfr Gweddi Gyffredin. A further revision, based on the 1662 English revision, was published in 1664. The Church in Wales began a revision of the book of Common Prayer in the 1950s. Various sections of authorised material were published throughout the 1950s and 1960s; however, common usage of these revised versions only began with the introduction of a revised order for the Holy Eucharist. Revision continued throughout the 1960s and 1970s, with definitive orders being confirmed throughout the 70s for most orders. A finished, fully revised Book of Common Prayer for use in the Church in Wales was authorised in 1984, written in traditional English, after a suggestion for a modern language Eucharist received a lukewarm reception. In the 1990s, new initiation services were authorised, followed by alternative orders for morning and evening prayer in 1994, alongside an alternative order for the Holy Eucharist, also in 1994. Revisions of various orders in the Book of Common Prayer continued throughout the 2000s and into the 2010s. Oceania Aotearoa, New Zealand, Polynesia As for other parts of the British Empire, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer was initially the standard of worship for Anglicans in New Zealand. The 1662 Book was first translated into Māori in 1830, and has gone through several translations and a number of different editions since then. The translated 1662 BCP has commonly been called ("the David"), reflecting the prominence of the Psalter in the services of Morning and Evening Prayer, as the Māori often looked for words to be attributed to a person of authority. The Māori translation of the 1662 BCP is still used in New Zealand, particularly among older Māori living in rural areas. After earlier trial services in the mid-twentieth century, in 1988 the Anglican Church of Aotearoa, New Zealand and Polynesia authorised through its general synod A New Zealand Prayer Book intended to serve the needs of New Zealand, Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and the Cook Island Anglicans. This book is unusual for its cultural diversity; it includes passages in the Māori, Fijian, Tongan and English languages. In other respects, it reflects the same ecumenical influence of the Liturgical Movement as in other new Anglican books of the period, and borrows freely from a variety of international sources. The book is not presented as a definitive or final liturgical authority, such as the use of the definite article in the title might have implied. While the preface is ambiguous regarding the status of older forms and books, the implication however is that this book is now the norm of worship for Anglicans in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The book has also been revised in a number of minor ways since the initial publication, such as by the inclusion of the Revised Common Lectionary and an online edition is offered freely as the standard for reference. Australia The Anglican Church of Australia, known officially until 1981 as the Church of England in Australia and Tasmania, became self-governing in 1961. Its general synod agreed that the Book of Common Prayer was to "be regarded as the authorised standard of worship and doctrine in this Church". After a series of experimental services offered in many dioceses during the 1960s and 70s, in 1978 An Australian Prayer Book was produced, formally as a supplement to the book of 1662, although in fact it was widely taken up in place of the old book. The AAPB sought to adhere to the principle that, where the liturgical committee could not agree on a formulation, the words or expressions of the Book of Common Prayer were to be used, if in a modern idiom. The result was a conservative revision, including two forms of eucharistic rite: a First Order that was essentially the 1662 rite in more contemporary language, and a Second Order that reflected the Liturgical Movement norms, but without elements such as a eucharistic epiclesis or other features that would have represented a departure from the doctrine of the old book. An Australian Prayer Book has been formally accepted for usage in other churches, including the Reformed Episcopal Church in the United States. A Prayer Book for Australia, produced in 1995 and again not technically a substitute for the 1662 prayer book, nevertheless departed from both the structure and wording of the Book of Common Prayer, prompting conservative reaction. Numerous objections were made and the notably conservative evangelical Diocese of Sydney drew attention both to the loss of BCP wording and of an explicit "biblical doctrine of substitutionary atonement". Sydney delegates to the general synod sought and obtained various concessions but that diocese never adopted the book. The Diocese of Sydney has instead developed its own prayer book, called Sunday Services, to "supplement" the 1662 prayer book, and preserve the original theology which the Sydney diocese asserts has been changed. In 2009 the diocese published Better Gatherings which includes the book Common Prayer (published 2012), an updated revision of Sunday Services.North and Central AmericaCanada The Anglican Church of Canada, which until 1955 was known as the Church of England in the Dominion of Canada, or simply the Church of England in Canada, developed its first Book of Common Prayer separately from the English version in 1918, which received final authorisation from General Synod on 16 April 1922. The revision of 1959 was much more substantial, bearing a family relationship to that of the abortive 1928 book in England. The language was conservatively modernised, and additional seasonal material was added. As in England, while many prayers were retained though the structure of the Communion service was altered: a prayer of oblation was added to the eucharistic prayer after the "words of institution", thus reflecting the rejection of Cranmer's theology in liturgical developments across the Anglican Communion. More controversially, the Psalter omitted certain sections, including the entirety of Psalm 58. General Synod gave final authorisation to the revision in 1962, to coincide with the 300th anniversary of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer. A French translation, Le Recueil des Prières de la Communauté Chrétienne, was published in 1967. After a period of experimentation with the publication of various supplements, the Book of Alternative Services was published in 1985. Indigenous languages The Book of Common Prayer has also been translated into these North American indigenous languages: Cowitchan, Cree, Haida, Ntlakyapamuk, Slavey, Eskimo-Aleut, Dakota, Delaware, Mohawk, Ojibwe. Ojibwa Joseph Gilfillan was the chief editor of the 1911 Ojibwa edition of the Book of Common Prayer entitled Iu Wejibuewisi Mamawi Anamiawini Mazinaigun (''Iw Wejibwewizi Maamawi-anami'aawini Mazina'igan'').United States The Episcopal Church separated itself from the Church of England in 1789, the first church in the American colonies having been founded in 1607. The first Book of Common Prayer of the new body, approved in 1789, had as its main source the 1662 English book, with significant influence also from the 1764 Scottish Liturgy (see above) which Bishop Seabury of Connecticut brought to the US following his consecration in Aberdeen in 1784. The preface to the 1789 Book of Common Prayer says, "this Church is far from intending to depart from the Church of England in any essential point of doctrine, discipline, or worship … further than local circumstances require." There were some notable differences. For example, in the Communion service the prayer of consecration follows mainly the Scottish orders derived from 1549 and found in the 1764 Book of Common Prayer. The compilers also used other materials derived from ancient liturgies especially Eastern Orthodox ones such as the Liturgy of St. James. An epiclesis or invocation of the Holy Spirit in the eucharistic prayer was included, as in the Scottish book, though modified to meet reformist objections. Overall however, the book was modelled on the English Prayer Book, the Convention having resisted attempts at more radical deletion and revision. Anglican Service Book (1991), a traditional-language version of the Episcopal Book of Common Prayer]] Article X of the Canons of the Episcopal Church provides that "[t]he Book of Common Prayer, as now established or hereafter amended by the authority of this Church, shall be in use in all the Dioceses of this Church," which is a reference to the 1979 Book of Common Prayer. The Prayer Book Cross was erected in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1894 as a gift from the Church of England. Created by Ernest Coxhead, it stands on one of the higher points in Golden Gate Park. It is located between John F. Kennedy Drive and Park Presidio Drive, near Cross Over Drive. This sandstone cross commemorates the first use of the Book of Common Prayer in California by Sir Francis Drake's chaplain on 24 June 1579. In 2019, the Anglican Church in North America released its own revised edition of the BCP. It included a modernised rendering of the Coverdale Psalter, "renewed for contemporary use through efforts that included the labors of 20th century Anglicans T.S. Eliot and C.S. Lewis..." According to Robert Duncan, the first archbishop of the ACNA, "The 2019 edition takes what was good from the modern liturgical renewal movement and also recovers what had been lost from the tradition." The 2019 edition does not contain a catechism, but is accompanied by an extensive ACNA catechism, in a separate publication, To Be a Christian: An Anglican Catechism.Modern Catholic adaptations Under Pope John Paul II's Pastoral Provision of the early 1980s, former Anglicans began to be admitted into new Anglican Use parishes in the US. The Book of Divine Worship was published in the United States in 2003 as a liturgical book for their use, composed of material drawn from the 1928 and 1979 Book of Common Prayer of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America and the Roman Missal. It was mandated for use in all personal ordinariates for former Anglicans in the US from Advent 2013. Following the adoption of the ordinariates' Divine Worship: The Missal in Advent 2015, the Book of Divine Worship was suppressed. To complement the forthcoming Divine Worship missal, the newly erected Personal Ordinariate of Our Lady of Walsingham in the UK authorised the usage of an interim Anglican Use Divine Office in 2012. The Customary of Our Lady of Walsingham followed from both the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer tradition and that of the Catholic Church's Liturgy of the Hours, introducing hours–Terce, Sext, and None–not found in any standard Book of Common Prayer. Unlike other contemporary forms of the Catholic Divine Office, the Customary contained the full 150 Psalm psalter. In 2019, the ''St. Gregory's Prayer Book was published by Ignatius Press as a resource for all Catholic laity, combining selections from the Divine Worship missal with devotions drawn from various Anglican prayer books and other Anglican sources approved for Catholic use in a format that somewhat mimics the form and content of the Book of Common Prayer''. In 2020, the first of two editions of Divine Worship: Daily Office was published. While the North American Edition was the first Divine Office introduced in the Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter, the Commonwealth Edition succeeded the previous Customary for the Personal Ordinariates of Our Lady of Walsingham and Our Lady of the Southern Cross. The North American Edition more closely follows the American 1928, American 1979, and Canadian 1962 prayer books, while the Commonwealth Edition more closely follows the precedents set by the Church of England's 1549 and 1662 Book of Common Prayer.Religious influence The Book of Common Prayer has had a great influence on a number of other denominations. While theologically different, the language and flow of the service of many other churches owe a great debt to the prayer book. In particular, many Christian prayer books have drawn on the Collects for the Sundays of the Church Year—mostly freely translated or even "rethought" by Cranmer from a wide range of Christian traditions, but including a number of original compositions—which are widely recognised as masterpieces of compressed liturgical construction. John Wesley, an Anglican priest whose revivalist preaching led to the creation of Methodism wrote in his preface to The Sunday Service of the Methodists in North America (1784), "I believe there is no Liturgy in the world, either in ancient or modern language, which breathes more of a solid, scriptural, rational piety than the Common Prayer of the Church of England." Many Methodist churches in England and the United States continued to use a slightly revised version of the book for communion services well into the 20th century. In the United Methodist Church, the liturgy for eucharistic celebrations is almost identical to what is found in the Book of Common Prayer, as are some of the other liturgies and services. A unique variant was developed in 1785 in Boston, Massachusetts when the historic King's Chapel (founded 1686) left the Episcopal Church and became an independent Unitarian church. To this day, King's Chapel uniquely uses ''The Book of Common Prayer According to the Use in King's Chapel in its worship; the book eliminates trinitarian references and statements. Literary influence Along with the King James Version of the Bible and the works of Shakespeare, the Book of Common Prayer has been one of the major influences on modern English parlance. As it has been in regular use for centuries, many phrases from its services have passed into everyday English, either as deliberate quotations or as unconscious borrowings. They have often been used metaphorically in non-religious contexts, and authors have used phrases from the prayer book as titles for their books. Some examples of well-known phrases from the Book of Common Prayer are: *"Speak now or forever hold your peace" from the marriage liturgy. *"Till death us do part", from the marriage liturgy. *"Earth to earth, ashes to ashes, dust to dust" from the funeral service. *"In the midst of life, we are in death" from the committal in the service for the burial of the dead (first rite). *"From all the deceits of the world, the flesh, and the devil" from the litany. *"Read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest" from the collect for the second Sunday of Advent. *"Evil liver" from the rubrics for Holy Communion. *"All sorts and conditions of men" from the Order for Morning Prayer. *"Peace in our time" from Morning Prayer, Versicles. References and allusions to Prayer Book services in the works of Shakespeare were tracked down and identified by Richmond Noble. Derision of the Prayer Book or its contents "in any interludes, plays, songs, rhymes, or by other open words" was a criminal offence under the 1559 Act of Uniformity, and consequently Shakespeare avoids too direct reference; but Noble particularly identifies the reading of the Psalter according to the Great Bible version specified in the Prayer Book, as the biblical book generating the largest number of Biblical references in Shakespeare's plays. Noble found a total of 157 allusions to the Psalms in the plays of the First Folio, relating to 62 separate Psalms—all, save one, of which he linked to the version in the Psalter, rather than those in the Geneva Bible or Bishops' Bible. In addition, there are a small number of direct allusions to liturgical texts in the Prayer Book; e.g. Henry VIII 3:2 where Wolsey states "Vain Pomp and Glory of this World, I hate ye!", a clear reference to the rite of Public Baptism; where the Godparents are asked "Doest thou forsake the vaine pompe and glory of the worlde..?" As novelist P. D. James observed, "We can recognize the Prayer Book's cadences in the works of Isaac Walton and John Bunyan, in the majestic phrases of John Milton, Sir Thomas Browne and Edward Gibbon. We can see its echo in the works of such very different writers as Daniel Defoe, Thackeray, the Brontës, Coleridge, T. S. Eliot and even Dorothy L. Sayers." James herself used phrases from the Book of Common Prayer and made them into best-selling titles – Devices and Desires and The Children of Men – while Alfonso Cuarón's 2006 film Children of Men placed the phrase onto cinema marquees worldwide.Copyright status In England there are only three bodies entitled to print the Book of Common Prayer: the two privileged presses (Cambridge University Press and Oxford University Press), and The King's Printer. Cambridge University Press holds letters patent as The King's Printer and so two of these three bodies are the same. The Latin term ("with privilege") is printed on the title pages of Cambridge editions of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer (and the King James Version of the Bible) to denote the charter authority or privilege under which they are published. The primary function for Cambridge University Press in its role as King's Printer is preserving the integrity of the text, continuing a long-standing tradition and reputation for textual scholarship and accuracy of printing. Cambridge University Press has stated that as a university press, a charitable enterprise devoted to the advancement of learning, it has no desire to restrict artificially that advancement, and that commercial restrictiveness through a partial monopoly is not part of its purpose. It therefore grants permission to use the text, and licence printing or the importation for sale within the UK, as long as it is assured of acceptable quality and accuracy. The Church of England, supported by the Prayer Book Society, publishes an online edition of the Book of Common Prayer with permission of Cambridge University Press. In accordance with Canon II.3.6(b)(2) of the Episcopal Church (United States), the church relinquishes any copyright for the version of the Book of Common Prayer currently adopted by the Convention of the church (although the text of proposed revisions remains copyrighted). Editions <!--We need to cite the various BCP text editions and variations. Note the editions should be direct descendants of the BCP and not the various alternative service books or this list is going to be too indiscriminate.--> * * Anglican Church of Canada (1964). The Canadian Book of Occasional Offices: Services for Certain Occasions not Provided in the Book of Common Prayer, compiled by the Most Rev. Harold E. Sexton, Abp. of British Columbia, published at the request of the House of Bishops of the Anglican Church of Canada. Toronto: Anglican Church of Canada, Dept. of Religious Education. x, 162 p. * Anglican Catholic Church of Canada (198-?). When Ye Pray: Praying with the Church, [by] Roland F. Palmer [an editor of the 1959/1962 Canadian B.C.P.]. Ottawa: Anglican Catholic Convent Society. N.B.: "This book is a companion to the Prayer Book to help … to use the Prayer Book better."—Pg. 1. Without ISBN * Reformed Episcopal Church in Canada and Newfoundland (1892). The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church, According to the Use of the Reformed Episcopal Church in the Dominion of Canada, Otherwise Known as the Protestant Church of England. ... Toronto, Ont.: Printed ... by the Ryerson Press ... for the Synod of Canada, 1951, t.p. verso 1892. N.B.: This is the liturgy as it had been authorised in 1891. * * * Church in Wales (1984). The Book of Common Prayer, for the Use in the Church in Wales. Penarth, Wales: Church in Wales Publications. 2 vol. N.B.: Title also in Welsh on vol. 2: ''Y Llfr Gweddi Giffredin i'w arfer yn Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru; vol. 1 is entirely in English; vol. 2 is in Welsh and English on facing pages. Without ISBN * * Reformed Episcopal Church (U.S.)(1932). The Book of Common Prayer, According to the Use of the Reformed Episcopal Church in the United States of America. Rev. fifth ed. Philadelphia, Penn.: Reformed Episcopal Publication Society, 1963, t.p. 1932. xxx, 578 p. N.B.: On p. iii: "[T]he revisions made … in the Fifth Edition [of 1932] are those authorized by the [Reformed Episcopal] General Councils from 1943 through 1963." * * The Episcopal Church (2003). The Book of Common Prayer: Selected Liturgies … According to the Use of the Episcopal Church = Le Livre de la prière commune: Liturgies sélectionnées … selon l'usage de l'Eglise Épiscopale. Paris: Convocation of American Churches in Europe. 373, [5] p. N.B.: Texts in English and as translated into French, from the 1979 B.C.P. of the Episcopal Church (U.S.), on facing pages. * The Episcopal Church (2007). The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church Together with The Psalter or Psalms of David According to the use of The Episcopal Church". New York, Church Publishing Incorporated. N.B.: "…amended by action of the 2006 General Convention to include the Revised Common Lectionary." (Gregory Michael Howe, February 2007) * *See also * Anglican devotions * Anglican Service Book * Prayer Book Rebellion * Prayer Book Society of Canada * The Books of Homilies * Metrical psalter * Book of Common Prayer (1843 illustrated version) * Book of Common Prayer (1845 illuminated version) 16th century Protestant hymnals Anabaptist * Ausbund Anglican *Whole Book of Psalms Lutheran * First Lutheran hymnal * Erfurt Enchiridion * Eyn geystlich Gesangk Buchleyn * Swenske songer eller wisor 1536 * Thomissøn's hymnal Presbyterian *Book of Common Order *Scottish Psalter Reformed *Souterliedekens *Genevan Psalter References Notes gave 2000; , 1760. Spurr gives the following breakdown for the period 1660–63: Total ministers forced out of English parishes about 1760. This includes 695 parish ministers ejected under the 1660 act for settling clergy; 936 more forced out under the 1662 Act of Uniformity. In addition 200 non-parochial ministers from lectureships, universities and schools, and 120 in Wales were excluded. He adds that 171 of the 1760 are "known to have conformed later". In a footnote he cites .}} }} , "The following passages in the Psalter as hitherto used are omitted: Psalm 14. 5–7; 55. 16; 58 (all); 68. 21–23; 69. 23–29; 104. 35 (in part); 109. 5–19; 136. 27; 137. 7–9; 140. 9–10; 141. 7–8. The verses are renumbered." See also the }} }} Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *Lewis, C.S. (196–). "Miserable Offenders": an Interpretation of [sinfulness and] Prayer Book Language [about it], in series, The Advent Papers. Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * – Original in English is The Worship of the Church Seabury Press (1952) * * * *|year1961|publisher=Meridian Books}} * * * * Further reading *Order for Celebrating Mass: being a complete calendar for mass and vespers ... in strict accordance with the use of the Western Church. Wantage: St Mary's Press, printed for the compiler, 1953 *The Order of Divine Service for the year of Our Lord 1966, eightieth year of issue. London: W. Knott & Son Ltd, [1965] * * Forbes, Dennis (1992). Did the Almighty intend His book to be copyrighted?, European Christian Bookstore Journal, April 1992 * * * * External links * [https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/book-common-prayer Full text online edition of The Book of Common Prayer at The Church of England] * * [https://www.episcopalchurch.org/files/bcp_04-28-2017.compressed_0.pdf The full text of The Book of Common Prayer according to the use of The Episcopal Church, 1979 edition] * [http://www.bcponline.org/ The online text of The Book of Common Prayer according to the use of The Episcopal Church, 1979 edition] * Links to various editions of the Book of Common Prayer from various provinces of the Anglican Communion, curated by Charles Wohlers at the Society of Archbishop Justus: [http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/ Books of Common Prayer] * [http://www.anglicansonline.org/resources/bcp.html The Book of Common Prayer in many languages] * [https://www.pbs.org.uk The Prayer Book Society of England] * [https://pbsusa.org Prayer Book Society USA] Category:1549 books Category:1552 books Category:1559 books Category:1662 books Category:1789 non-fiction books Category:1892 non-fiction books Category:1918 non-fiction books Category:1928 non-fiction books Category:1962 non-fiction books Category:1979 non-fiction books Category:16th-century Christian texts<!--(1549, 1552, and 1559 editions)--> Category:17th-century Christian texts<!--(1662 edition)--> Category:18th-century Christian texts<!--(1789 USA edition)--> Category:19th-century Christian texts<!--(1892 USA edition)--> Category:20th-century Christian texts<!--(1918 and 1962 (Canada), 1928 and 1979 (USA) editions)--> Category:Anglican liturgy Category:Anglicanism Category:Anglican Church of Canada Category:Episcopal Church (United States) Category:History of Christianity in the United Kingdom Category:History of the Church of England Category:Christian prayer books Category:English Reformation Category:British non-fiction literature Category:Anglican liturgical books
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer
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Bokken
thumb|150px|Various types of bokken A bokken (, , 'wood', and ken, '(double-edged) sword') or bokutō (, , 'wood', and tō, '(single-edged) sword') is a Japanese wooden sword used for training in kenjutsu. It is usually the size and shape of a katana, but is sometimes shaped like other swords, such as the wakizashi and tantō. Some ornamental bokken are decorated with mother-of-pearl work and elaborate carvings. Sometimes, it is spelled "boken" in English. Bokken are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak, although any hardwood can be used. In comparison, practice swords made of flexible, soft wood such as bamboo are referred to as shinai. History It is hard to determine precisely when the first bokken appeared due to secrecy in ancient martial arts training and loose record-keeping. While various mock weapons were surely used during the earlier periods of Japanese history, usage of bokken in their modern form first emerged during the Muromachi Period (1336–1600) for the training of samurai warriors in the various ryū (schools of martial arts and swordsmanship) of the era. If a steel katana is repeatedly used, it can easily become nicked and the edge flawed, potentially leading to a broken expensive sword. Bokken are safer than fighting with real swords, and are considerably more durable. A wielder can make contact with other trainee's swords with little fear of damage. While bokken are safer for sparring and practice than katana, they are still lethal weapons in the hands of trained users. A famous legend to this effect involves Miyamoto Musashi, a ronin known to fight fully armed foes with only one or two bokken. According to the story, he agreed to a duel with Sasaki Kojiro, in the early morning on Ganryūjima, a tiny sandbar between Kyushu and Honshu. Musashi overslept the morning of the duel, and made his way to the duel late. He carved a bokken from an oar with his knife while traveling on a boat to the duel. At the duel, Sasaki was armed with his large nodachi, yet Musashi crushed Sasaki's skull with a single blow from his bokken, killing him. While many elements of the story are likely apocryphal, the potential danger of a bokken from the legend is real. The "standard bokken", mostly used in kendo, iaido, and aikido, was created by master Aramaki Yasuo, in collaboration with the All Japan Kendo Federation in the 1950s and was the first standardized bokken ever created. Usage thumb|Various styles of bokken The bokken is used as an inexpensive and relatively safe substitute for a real sword in several martial arts such as aikido, kendo, iaido, kenjutsu, and jodo. Its simple wooden construction demands less care and maintenance than a katana. Training with a bokken does not carry the same mortal risk associated with that of a sharp metal sword, both for the user and other practitioners nearby. While its use has several advantages over use of a live edged weapon, it can still be deadly, and any training with a bokken should be done with due care. Injuries occurring from bokken are very similar to those caused by clubs and similar battering weapons, and include compound fractures, ruptured organs, and other such blunt force injuries. In some ways, a bokken can be more dangerous, as the injuries caused are often unseen and inexperienced practitioners may underestimate the risk of harm. It is not a sparring weapon, but is intended to be used in kata, and to acclimate the student to the feel of a real sword. For sparring, a bamboo shinai is typically used instead, for obvious safety reasons. In 2003, the All Japan Kendo Federation (AJKF) introduced a set of basic exercises using a bokutō called Bokutō Ni Yoru Kendō Kihon-waza Keiko-hō. This form of practice is intended primarily for kendo practitioners up to Nidan ranking, but can be beneficial for all kendo students. Suburitō (素振り刀) are bokken designed for use in suburi. Suburi (素振り), literally "bare swinging," are solo cutting exercises. Suburitō are thicker and heavier than normal bokken and users of suburitō must therefore develop both strength and technique. Their weight makes them unsuitable for paired practice and solo forms. Miyamoto Musashi's bokken made of an oar in his legendary duel with Sasaki Kojiro was presumably a suburitō-sized bokken. As late as 2015, bokken were issued to the Los Angeles Police Mounted Unit for use as batons. Types Bokken can be made to represent any style of weapon required such as nagamaki, nodachi, yari, naginata, kama, etc. The most widely used styles are: daitō or tachi (katana-sized), long sword shōtō or kodachi or wakizashi bō (wakizashi-sized), short sword tantō bō (tantō-sized) suburitō can be made in daitō and shōtō sizes Various koryu (traditional Japanese martial arts) have their own distinct styles of bokken which can vary slightly in length, tip shape, or in whether or not a tsuba (hilt guard) is added. The All Japan Kendo Federation specify the dimensions of bokken for use in the modern kendo kata, called Nippon kendo kata. Tachi: Total length, approx. ; tsuka (handle) approx. . Kodachi: Total length, approx. ; tsuka (handle) approx. . Bokken are traditionally composed of red oak or white oak. White oak varieties are slightly more expensive and prestigious. Other common tree varieties used included ebony, biwa, and sunuke in Japan, and hickory, persimmon, ironwood, and walnut for trees native to the Americas. Biwa trees were used at least partially due to a folk superstition that wounds inflicted by biwa wood would never heal. See also Aiki-ken Iaido Jō Kendo and kenjutsu Kinomichi Waster References External links A discussion of different woods with regard to bokken design, focusing particularly on durability Information about making or selecting a bokken (Wayback Machine copy) Category:Samurai weapons and equipment Category:Practice swords of Japan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bokken
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BMI
BMI may refer to: Companies and organizations BMI Foundation, founded by Broadcast Music Incorporated BMI Healthcare, UK BMI Film & TV Awards BMI Research, a research firm Flybmi airline, formerly BMI Regional and a BMI mainline subsidiary Bmibaby.com, former airline, BMI subsidiary British Midland International, a UK airline incorporated into BA Baltimore Museum of Industry Bank of Makati, a Philippine bank Bank Melli Iran, the first national Iranian bank Best Motoring International, a Japanese magazine Birmingham and Midland Institute, England Broadcast Music, Inc., a collecting society for composers' copyrights Bundesministerium des Innern, the German Federal Ministry of the Interior Bureau of Military Information, US Civil War agency Other Body mass index of weight in relation to height BMI Awards, annual award ceremonies for songwriters Bit Manipulation Instruction Sets for x86 microprocessors Brain Machine Interface Central Illinois Regional Airport, IATA code Big Mac Index See also
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMI
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BSA
BSA may refer to: Businesses and organizations Basketball South Africa Bearing Specialists Association, an American trade association Belarusian Socialist Assembly Bibliographical Society of America Birmingham Small Arms Company, UK manufacturer of firearms and vehicles Black Sky Aerospace, an Australian aerospace company Black Socialists in America Boston Society of Architects Botanical Society of America Boy Scouts of America Scouts BSA, the flagship program British Social Attitudes Survey British Sandwich & Food to Go Association British Science Association British Sociological Association British Speleological Association British Stammering Association Broadcasting Service Association, the former name of the Australian radio network Macquarie Media Broadcasting Standards Authority, a New Zealand statutory authority BSA Company, motorcycle manufacturer BSA motorcycles, made by the Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited The Software Alliance, a trade group established by Microsoft and formerly called Business Software Alliance BSA Manufacturing, a Malaysian manufacturer of aluminum alloy wheels Business Services Association, of UK service providers Schools Baltimore School for the Arts Birmingham School of Acting British School at Athens Science and medicine Behavioral systems analysis Bis(trimethylsilyl)acetamide Body surface area Bovine serum albumin Broad-spectrum antiviral drug Other uses Bank Secrecy Act, US Bilateral Security Agreement, US umbrella for military cooperation Bosnian Serb Army, the Army of Republika Srpska, the former armed forces of the Republika Srpska Bachelor of Science and Arts (BSA) Bachelor of Science in Accountancy (BSA) Bachelor of Science in Agriculture (B.S.A.) Bosaso Airport, an airport in Puntland (IATA airport code BSA) British Soap Awards, an awards ceremony in the UK BSA, a brand of bicycles produced by Tube Investments of India Business systems analyst Blue Dragon Series Awards, an annual award ceremony in South Korea Bharatiya Sakshya Act, 2023, Indian evidence act See also
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSA
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4960
Birmingham Small Arms Company
| industry | products | services | revenue | operating_income | net_income | assets | equity | owner | num_employees | parent | divisions | subsid |Cycles and motorcycles |Motorcars, buses and bodies |Iron castings |Machine and small tools |Fine steels |Coal cleaning and sintering plant |Hard chrome process |Sintered metals }} | footnotes = }} The Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited (BSA) was a major British industrial combine, a group of businesses manufacturing military and sporting firearms; bicycles; motorcycles; cars; buses and bodies; steel; iron castings; hand, power, and machine tools; coal cleaning and handling plants; sintered metals; and hard chrome process. After the Second World War, BSA did not manage its business well, and a government-organised rescue operation in 1973 led to a takeover of such operations as it still owned. Those few that survived this process disappeared into the ownership of other businesses. History of the BSA industrial group Machine-made guns BSA began in June 1861 in the Gun Quarter, Birmingham, England. It was formed by a group of fourteen gunsmith members of the Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association specifically to manufacture guns by machinery. They were encouraged to do this by the War Office which gave the BSA gunsmiths free access to technical drawings and to the War Office's Board of Ordnance's Royal Small Arms Factory at Enfield. New machinery developed in the USA installed at Enfield had greatly increased its output without needing more skilled craftsmen. This new machinery brought to Birmingham the principle of the interchangeability of parts and mass production. BSA bought of land at Small Heath, Birmingham, built a factory there and made a road on the site calling it Armoury Road. Their enterprise was rewarded in 1863 with an order for 20,000 Turkish infantry rifles.Erratic demandThe first War Office contract was not agreed until 1868. In 1879, without work, the factory was shut for a year. New ventures Bicycles The next year, 1880, BSA branched out into bicycle manufacture.Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms FactoryIn 1906, Frank Dudley Docker was appointed a director of the company. By the autumn of that year BSA was in some difficulty. They had purchased the Sparkbrook Royal Small Arms Factory from the War Office, and in return, the War Office undertook to give BSA a quarter of all orders for Lee–Enfield rifles. But, the War Office did not honour their undertaking. The ensuing financial crisis did not prevent BSA from signing an agreement to purchase control of bicycle component manufacturer, the Eadie Manufacturing Company of Redditch, on 11 February 1907. That decision was ratified by the shareholders of both companies at separate Extraordinary General Meetings held in the Grand Hotel, Birmingham on 27 February 1907. Albert Eadie became a BSA director, a post he held until his death in 1931. Motorcycles Motor bicycles were added to bicycle products in 1910. The BSA hp was exhibited at the 1910 Olympia Show, London for the 1911 season. The entire BSA production sold out in 1911, 1912 and 1913. So in 1910, BSA purchased Daimler with BSA shares but Docker who negotiated the arrangements either ignored or failed in his assessment of their consequences for the new combine. The combine was never adequately balanced or co-ordinated. One of the financial provisions obliged Daimler to pay BSA an annual dividend of £100,000 representing approximately 40 per cent of the actual cash BSA had put into Daimler. This financial burden deprived Daimler of badly needed cash to fund development, forcing the Daimler company to borrow money from the Midland Bank. BSA had still not recovered financially from the earlier purchase of Royal Small Arms factory at Sparkbrook and BSA were not in a position to finance Daimler, nor had either company ample liquid resources. BSA went ahead with motorcycle production in 1910, their first model available for the 1911 season. In 1913, the BSA group were compelled through pressure from the Midland Bank to make a capital issue of 300,000 preference shares. In the short term this was to solve the liquidity issue but further diluted the group's capitalisation. Dudley Docker retired as a BSA director in 1912 and installed Lincoln Chandler on the BSA board as his replacement. Dudley Docker liked to draw a comparison between the BSA–Daimler merger he engineered and that of his 1902 merger of Metropolitan Carriage Wagon & Finance Company and Patent Shaft. However, there was not the integration of facilities in the BSA–Daimler case, nor was there a reorganisation of either BSA or Daimler and in view of the earlier criticism contained in the 1909 report of the investigation committee, BSA continued to produce cars of their own using Daimler engines. In 1913, Daimler employed 5,000 workers to manufacture 1,000 vehicles, an indication that things were not well. Steel bodies In 1912, BSA would be one of two automobile manufacturers pioneering the use of all-steel bodies, joining Hupmobile in the US.Lewis Automatic Machine Gun ]] In 1913, BSA undertook to manufacture quick-firing machine guns for the Lewis Automatic Arms Company whose rights covered the world except for the American Continent. First World War During the First World War, the company returned to arms manufacture and greatly expanded its operations. BSA produced rifles, Lewis guns, shells, bicycles, motorcycles and, through Daimler, aero engines, aircraft and other vehicles for the war effort as well as machine tools. Following the Armistice the BSA group was described by its chairman as: * Three distinct legal entities: BSA guns, BSA (machine) tools and BSA cycles all at Sparkbrook, Smallheath and Redditch * Daimler at Coventry * William Jessop and Savilles the two steel-making companies in Sheffield * Daimler Hire and Burton Griffiths in LondonNew venturesMotorcycles In November 1919, BSA launched their first 50-degree vee-twin, Model E, 770cc side valve (6-7 hp) motorcycle for the 1920 season. The machine had interchangeable valves, total loss oil system with mechanical pump and an emergency hand one. Retail price was £130. Other features were Amac carburettor, chain drive, choice of magneto or Magdyno, 7-plate clutch, 3 speed gear box with kickstarter and new type of cantilever fork Aviation During the war Daimler had built enormous numbers of aero engines and aircraft and by the end was building 80 Airco de Havilland bombers a month. In February 1920 BSA amalgamated with what was the world's largest aircraft manufacturer, Aircraft Manufacturing Company (Airco), Airco's main plant at Hendon had employed between 7,000 and 8,000 people. The Airco group of companies had turned out a new aircraft every 45 minutes. Within days BSA discovered Airco was in a far more serious financial state than George Holt Thomas had revealed. Holt Thomas was immediately dropped from his new seat on the BSA board and all BSA's new acquisitions were placed in the hands of a liquidator. Some of the businesses were allowed to continue for some years, Aircraft Transport and Travel's assets being eventually rolled into Daimler Air Hire to make Daimler Airway Limited. BSA failed to pay a dividend for the following four years while it tried to recover from its losses. Some relief was achieved when in March 1924 Daimler Airway and its management became the major constituent of Imperial Airways. As well as the Daimler car range, BSA Cycles Ltd re-entered the car market under the BSA name in 1921 with a V-twin engined light car followed by four-cylinder models up to 1926, when the name was temporarily dropped. In 1929 a new range of 3- and 4-wheel cars appeared and production of these continued until 1936. By the end of 1924 difficult economic conditions left the bulk of BSA profits coming from cars and cycles. There were no sales of arms for military purposes in spite of large new facilities built at Government's request. The shares in Pennsylvania's Jessop Steel Co were disposed of without loss. During 1928 there was a drastic reorganisation of the business of some BSA subsidiaries. By 1930 the BSA Group's primary activities were BSA cycles and Daimler vehicles. Car production under the BSA name ceased in the 1930s. BSA remained the largest manufacturer of motorcycles but the market was less than half the size of the late 1920s and production was unprofitable yet the value of BSA's motor cars and cycles was now more than half group turnover. Lanchester In 1931 the Lanchester Motor Company at Sparkbrook was acquired }} and production of their cars transferred to Daimler's Coventry works. The first new product was a version of the Daimler Light Twenty or 16/20 and called Lanchester 15/18. <gallery caption"Badge engineering 1931" align"center"> Lanchester Type 1518 - 1932 5905514590.jpg|Lanchester 15/18, October 1931, 2504 cc 6-cylinder Lanchester Ten 6-light saloon 1936 5917710821 3a71f2bf4b o.jpg|Lanchester Ten, September 1932, 1203 cc 4-cylinder Daimler 15 HP 1934 4860323967 .jpg|Daimler Fifteen, September 1932, 1805 cc 6-cylinder BSA 10 1185cc October 1933.JPG|BSA Ten, October 1932, 1185 cc 4-cylinder </gallery> Economic conditions began to improve in the mid-1930s and BSA's activities and profits all grew sharply. International tensions added more activity. An aero engine shadow factory was built and entered production during 1938. Motor cycle sales shrank but BSA maintained its relative position. 1937's new British registrations fell from 57,000 to 46,500. Defence and military equipment including Daimler's Scout car were in heavy demand in Britain and in export markets. Armaments In the 1930s, the board of directors authorised expenditure on bringing their arms-making equipment back to use – it had been stored at company expense since the end of the Great War in the belief that BSA might again be called upon to perform its patriotic duty. In 1939, BSA acquired the blueprints for a submachine gun designed by Hungarian arms designer Pál Király and the rights to manufacture it. Examples were produced in 9mm Mauser Export calibre. It was estimated that it would only cost £5 each to manufacture: by comparison, the Thompson submachine guns bought after the start of hostilities cost around £50, while SMLE rifles and the later Sten submachine guns cost £7. 15s and £2. 10s respectively in 1943. However the trials did not lead to acceptance; referring to the complex trigger mechanism, Frank Hobart said "no soldier could have coped with this watchmaker's dream",Second World War ]] By the outbreak of the Second World War, BSA Guns Ltd at Small Heath, was the only factory producing rifles in the UK. The Royal Ordnance Factories did not begin production until 1941. BSA Guns Ltd was also producing .303 Browning machine guns for the Air Ministry (the main aircraft armament at the time) at the rate of 600 guns per week in March 1939 and Browning production was to peak at 16,390 per month by March 1942. The armed forces had chosen the 500 cc side-valve BSA M20 motorcycle as their preferred machine. On the outbreak of war the Government requisitioned the 690 machines BSA had in stock as well as placing an order for another 8,000 machines. South Africa, Ireland, India, Sweden and the Netherlands also wanted machines. The Government passed the Emergency Powers (Defence) Act 1939 on 24 August allowing the drafting of defence regulations affecting food, travel, requisitioning of land and supplies, manpower and agricultural production. A second Emergency Powers (Defence) Act was passed on 22 May 1940 allowing the conscription of labour. The fall of France had not been anticipated in Government planning and the encirclement of a large part of the British Expeditionary Force into the Dunkirk pocket resulted in a hasty evacuation of that part of the B.E.F following the abandonment of their equipment. The parlous state of affairs "no arms, no transport, no equipment" in the face of the threat of imminent invasion of Britain by Nazi forces was recorded by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff Field Marshal Sir Alan Brooke, 1st Viscount Alanbrooke in his diary entries of the 1/2 July 1940. and Lewis gun]] The creation of the Home Guard (initially as the Local Defence Volunteers) following Anthony Eden's broadcast appeal to the Nation on Tuesday 14 May 1940 also created further demand for arms production to equip this new force. BSA, as the only rifle producer in Britain, had to step up to the mark and the workforce voluntarily went onto a seven-day week. Motorcycle production was also stepped up from 500 to 1,000 machines per week which meant a finished machine coming off the production line every 5 minutes. The motorcycle department had been left intact in 1939 due to demand which was doubled following Dunkirk. At the same time BSA staff were providing lectures and demonstrations on motorcycle riding and maintenance to 250,000 officers and men in all parts of the UK. The BSA factory at Small Heath was bombed by the Luftwaffe on 26 August 1940 resulting in one high explosive bomb and a shower of incendiaries hitting the main barrel mill which was the only one operating on service rifles in the country, causing the unaffordable loss of 750 machine tools but fortunately no loss of life. Two further Blitz air raids took place on 19 and 22 November 1940. The air raid of 19 November did the most damage, causing loss of production and trapping hundreds of workers. Since BSA was the sole producer of the main aircraft armament, the resulting delays in productions reportedly caused most worries to PM Churchill among all the industrial damage during the Blitz. Two BSA night-shift electricians, Alf Stevens and Alf Goodwin, helped rescue their fellow workers. Alf Stevens was awarded the George Medal for his selfless acts of bravery in the rescue and Alf Goodwin was awarded the British Empire Medal. Workers involved in the works Civil Defence were brought in to help search for and clear bodies to get the plant back into production. The net effect of the November raids was to destroy machine shops in the four-storey 1915 building, the original 1863 gunsmiths' building and nearby buildings, 1,600 machine tools, kill 53 employees, injure 89, 30 of them seriously and halt rifle production for three months. ]] The Government Ministry of Supply and BSA immediately began a process of production dispersal throughout Britain, through the shadow factory scheme. Factories were set up at Tipton, Dudley, Smethwick, Blackheath, Lye, Kidderminster, Stourport, Tyseley, and Bromsgrove to manufacture Browning machine guns, Stoke, Corsham, and Newcastle-under-Lyme produced the Hispano cannon, Leicester and Studley Road produced the Besa machine gun, Ruislip produced the Oerlikon 20mm cannon, Stafford produced rocket projectiles, Tamworth produced two-pounder gun carriages, Mansfield produced the Boys Anti-tank gun and Shirley produced rifles. These were dispersal factories which were in addition to Small Heath and the other BSA factories opened in the two years following the 1940 blitz. At its peak Small Heath was running 67 factories engaged in war production. BSA operations were also dispersed to other companies under licence. ]] In 1941 BSA was approached to produce a new pedal cycle with a maximum weight allowance of only 22 lb especially for airborne use. This required a new concept in frame design which BSA found, producing a machine which weighed 21 lb, one pound less than the design specification and which also exceeded the design requirement for an effective life of 50 miles many times over. Over 60,000 folding bicycles were produced, a figure equal to half the total production of military bicycles during World War II. BSA also produced folding motorcycles for the Airborne Division. In late 1942 BSA examined the Special Operations Executive designed Welgun with a view to manufacture. BSA were willing to manufacture the gun in the quantities required starting April 1943 but the cheaper and less accurate Sten Mk IV was adopted for production by the Ministry of Supply. BSA bought the Sunbeam motorcycles and bicycle business from Associated Motor Cycles Ltd in 1943 and then Ariel Motors Ltd in 1944. During the course of the conflict BSA produced 1,250,000 Lee–Enfield .303 service rifles, 404,383 Sten sub-machine guns, 468,098 Browning machine guns plus spares equivalent to another 100,000, 42,532 Hispano cannon, 32,971 Oerlikon cannon, 59,322 7.9 mm Besa machine guns, 3,218 15 mm Besa machine guns, 68,882 Boys Anti-tank guns, 126,334 motorcycles, 128,000 military bicycles (over 60,000 of which were folding paratrooper bicycles), 10,000,000 shell fuse cases, 3,485,335 magazines and 750,000 anti-aircraft rockets were supplied to the armed forces. This design was different from the 1930s Bayliss Wiley cassette hub which had a threaded sprocket carrier. BSA bought New Hudson motorcycle and bicycle business in 1950 and followed this up in 1951 with the purchase of Triumph Motorcycles which brought Jack Sangster onto the BSA board. The effect of this acquisition was to make BSA into the largest producer of motorcycles in the world at that time. 1952 saw BSA establish a Professional Cycling Team. Bob Maitland a successful amateur cyclist and the highest placed British finisher in the 1948 Olympic Games road race and now an independent rider in the BSA team was a BSA employee working in the design office as a draughtsman. It was Bob Maitland who was responsible for the design of post war BSA range of lightweight sports bicycles based on his knowledge of cycling. In 1953 BSA withdrew motorcycle production from BSA Cycles Ltd, the company it had established in 1919, by creating BSA Motorcycles Ltd. In 1953 the BSA Professional Cycling Team was managed by Syd Cozens. Successes were 5/6 April Bournemouth Two Day Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 April Dover to London 63 Miles Road Race, 1st Stan Jones, 31 May Langsett 90 Miles Road Race, 1st Bob Maitland and "King of the Mountains", 7 June Tour of the Wrekin, 1st Bob Maitland, 12 July Severn Valley 100 Miles Road Race, 1st "Tiny" Thomas, 19 July Jackson Trophy, Newcastle, Team Prize, 9 August Les Adams Memorial 80 Miles Road Race, 1st Alf Newman, Team Prize, "King of the Mountains" Arthur Ilsley, 30 August Weston-Super-Mare 100 Miles Grand Prix, 1st Bob Maitland, Team Prize. The team also competed in the 1,624-mile, 12 stage, 1953 Tour of Britain Road Race. The 1953 line up had changed as Arthur Ilsley replaced Pete Proctor in the team. "Tiny" Thomas won the overall individual classification, the Team were runners-up in the team competition and Arthur Ilsley was 3rd in the "King of the Mountains" competition. Bob Maitland also had notable success by winning the Independent National Championship. 1954 saw the introduction of the BSA Quick Release 3 Speed hub gear. It was a split axle three speed gear intended for use with bicycles equipped with oil bath chainguards. The original BSA 3 speed hub gear had been made under licence from the Three-Speed Gear Syndicate since 1907. The design was later to be classified as the Sturmey-Archer 'Type X', but all BSA hub gear production ceased in 1955 Management Sir Bernard Docker remained chairman of BSA until 1956 when the BSA Board removed him. In an acrimonious dispute conducted in the media the matter was brought to the BSA shareholders at the Annual General Meeting where the decision of the Board was upheld. Another significant departure for the fortune of the BSA Group but less controversial was the retirement on ill health grounds of James Leek CBE, managing director from 1939 until his retirement. Sir Bernard Docker was replaced as Chairman of the BSA Board by Jack Sangster. Raleigh initially continued bicycle production in Birmingham at Coventry Road, Sheldon, Birmingham 26, into the early 1960s using up BSA parts but as time went on more stock Raleigh parts and fittings were used, some continuing to bear the 'piled arms' stamp. TI Group, owners of the British Cycle Corporation, bought Raleigh in 1960 thus gaining access to the BSA brand. Bicycles bearing the BSA name are currently manufactured and distributed within India by TI Cycles of India but have no direct connection to the original Birmingham BSA company. In 1960, Daimler was sold to Jaguar. 1961 was the centenary year of the BSA Group and, in recognition of this milestone, the company magazine produced an anniversary issue of BSA Group News in June called BSA Centenary 1861–1961, in which many of the achievements of the Group were celebrated. This year also saw the end of military rifle production; however, BSA still continued to make sporting guns. Products Bicycles According to Charles Spencer, BSA was manufacturing the "Delta" bicycle . In 1880 the company was approached to manufacture the "Otto Dicycle". An initial contract was signed to produce 210 and a further contract followed for a further 200. In all it is believed that a total of 953 Otto machines were made. BSA then went into bicycle production on their own account, the first machines to their own specification being exhibited at the 1881 Stanley Show. BSA went on to design and manufacture a "safety" bicycle (patent:15,342 of 1884). BSA was also producing tricycles and a licence was obtained in 1885 to manufacture ball bearings. BSA ceased bicycle manufacture in 1887 because of the demand for arms. Bicycle component manufacture commenced in 1894 and BSA continued to supply the bicycle trade up to 1936. The company recommenced bicycle manufacture on their own account again in 1908 and these were exhibited at the Stanley Show in 1909. Bicycle manufacture was what led BSA into motorcycles. BSA produced bicycles for both the police and military and notably a folding bicycle for the British Army during World War I and the more well known folding Paratroopers bicycle during World War II. BSA supplied the Irish Army with bicycles after 1922. BSA manufactured a range of bicycles from utility roadsters through to racing bicycles. The BSA range of Sports bicycles expanded in the 1930s following the granting of a patent for a new lighter design of seat lug in 1929 and tandems were introduced into the BSA bicycle range as well. BSA had a reputation for quality and durability and their components were more expensive that either Chater-Lea or Brampton. BSA launched a high end club cyclists machine in the early 1930s initially branded as the "Super-eeze". Never slow to avail of publicity BSA sponsored the great Australian cyclist Hubert Opperman and re-branded the top of the range machine the "Opperman" model. A less expensive range of clubman lightweight machines was introduced from 1936 with the "Cyclo" 3 speed derailleur equipped "Clubman". Subtle changes were made to the range, most models being equipped with "Russ" patent forks and some models were made for only two seasons. This all stopped around September 1939 with the outbreak of war. A revised catalogue with a much reduced range was issued in March 1940 which also saw the launch of the BSA "Streamlight" model. A novel all white bicycle was produced for the blackout but had disappeared from a severely reduced bicycle range the details of which were circulated to dealers from December 1941. BSA had ceased production of their 3 speed hub gear in 1939 and production appears to have started again by 1945 although with a black finish instead of chromium plating. BSA bought Sunbeam in 1943 and produced Sunbeam bicycles using up existing frames and parts and using BSA components for the missing bits. The first BSA produced Sunbeam catalogue was published in 1949 Post war BSA expanded their bicycle range but faced problems of shortages of raw materials such as steel and was required to export a lot of their manufactured output in order to get a Government licence to purchase the necessary raw materials. The company moved bicycle production to the new Waverley Works after World War II. BSA continued to innovate introducing the 4 Star derailleur gear in 1949 along with an associated 4-speed 'unit' or cassette hub. The derailleur design was altered from 1950 and was certainly available up to 1953 but was not a great success. BSA bought New Hudson in 1950 and started to manufacture and sell New Hudson branded machines as well as Sunbeam. It appears that the top of the range BSA lightweight club cyclist machine was the "Gold Column" and this appears to have been changed into the BSA "Tour of Britain" model following the success of the BSA Professional Cycling Team in the 1952 Tour of Britain race. The "Tour of Britain" model was heavily promoted in the BSA 1953 sales literature. The factory made "Tour of Britain" model was not the same as those ridden by the professional team. Only eight machines were crafted for the professional team and none of the components appear to have been standard BSA parts. 1953 saw BSA separate the bicycle / motorcar and motorcycle business into different holdings. The good times were coming to an end and demand for bicycles fell with the end of rationing in 1954. James Leek, managing director of BSA Cycles Ltd was suffering ill health and he retired in 1956, the same year the BSA Chairman, Sir Bernard Docker, was removed from the BSA Board. Jack Sangster who had joined the BSA Board in 1951 following the purchase of his company Triumph Motorcycles became chairman. The bicycle manufacturing business BSA Cycles Ltd was sold to Raleigh Industries in 1957. Motorcycles BSA Motorcycles were made by BSA Cycles Ltd, under the BSA parent, until 1953 when the motorcycle business was moved into holding BSA Motorcycles Ltd. The first instance of intention to produce motorcycles was reported in The Motor Cycle, a British motorcycling journal, in July 1906. The first wholly BSA motorcycle, the H.P. was built in 1910 and displayed at the first Olympia Show, London on 21 November in that year. Sir Hallewell Rogers, BSA Chairman, had informed the shareholders at the company's 1910 AGM in Birmingham "We have decided to put a motor-bicycle on the market for the coming season .... These machines will be on exhibit at the Cycle and Motor Show on November 21st, after which date we look forward to commencing delivery". * The Sportsman series of .22 Long Rifle bolt-action rifles * Various Martini action target .22lr rifles * The Ralock and Armatic semi automatic .22lr rifles * Various bolt action hunting rifles Trademarks Rights to the motorcycle brand went to Norton Villiers Triumph and on its liquidation were purchased by BSA Company. Rights to the guns brand were acquired by Gamo for its new subsidiary, BSA Guns (UK) Limited. In popular culture The Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) plays a prominent role in the inaugural season of the British crime drama series Peaky Blinders, as well as in subsequent seasons, where it serves as a focal point for armaments production, and as the day-to-day workplace of a number of characters. In the popular WW2 grand strategy game Hearts of Iron 4 you can select The Birmingham Small Arms Company (BSA) as a military company when producing infantry equipment. See also * List of modern armament manufacturers Notes References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100421235250/http://www.rifleman.org.uk/BSA_early_history.htm BSA History from the Days of the Crimea (1918)] * [https://mrc.epexio.com/records/BSA Catalogue of the BSA archives], held at the Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick * Category:British brands Category:BSA motorcycles Category:Defunct companies based in Birmingham, West Midlands Category:British companies established in 1861 Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1861 Category:Defunct cycle manufacturers of the United Kingdom Category:Defunct firearms manufacturers of the United Kingdom Category:Machine tool builders Category:Manufacturing companies based in Birmingham, West Midlands Category:Military vehicle manufacturers Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United Kingdom Category:Motorcycle manufacturers of the United Kingdom Category:Scooter manufacturers Category:World War I vehicles of the United Kingdom Category:Small Heath, Birmingham Category:1861 establishments in England
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_Small_Arms_Company
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4961
Bovril
| company = Bovril Company | current supplier = Unilever | notes = }} Bovril is a thick and salty meat extract paste, similar to a yeast extract, developed in the 1870s by John Lawson Johnston. It is sold in a distinctive bulbous jar and as cubes and granules. Its appearance is similar to the British Marmite and its Australian equivalent Vegemite. Bovril is owned and distributed by Unilever UK. Bovril can be made into a drink by diluting with hot water or, less commonly, with milk. It can be used as a flavouring for soups, broth, stews or porridge, or as a spread, especially on toast. In 2004 Unilever removed beef ingredients from the Bovril formula, rendering it vegetarian, but in 2006, reversed that decision and reintroduced beef ingredients to the formula.EtymologyThe first part of the product's name comes from Latin , meaning "pertaining to an ox". Johnston took the -vril suffix from Edward Bulwer-Lytton's then-popular novel, The Coming Race (1871), the plot of which revolves around a superior race of people, the Vril-ya, who derive their powers from an electromagnetic substance named "Vril". Therefore, Bovril indicates great strength obtained from an ox.History no. E.163-1973]] In 1870, in the Franco-Prussian War, Napoleon III ordered one million cans of beef to feed his troops. The task of providing this went to John Lawson Johnston, a Scottish butcher living in Canada. By 1888, over 3,000 UK public houses, grocers and dispensing chemists were selling Bovril. In 1889, Bovril Ltd was formed to develop Johnston's business further. During the 1900 Siege of Ladysmith in the Second Boer War, a Bovril-like paste was produced from horsemeat within the garrison. Nicknamed Chevril (a portmanteau of cheval, French for horse, and Bovril) it was made by boiling down horse or mule meat to a jelly and serving it as a tea-like mixture. Bovril also produced concentrated, pemmican-like dried beef as part of the British Army emergency field ration during the war. The ration came in the form of a pocket-sized tin can that contained the beef on one half alongside a dried cocoa drink on another half. The dried beef could be eaten alone, or mixed with water to create a beef tea. Bovril continued to function as a "war food" in World War I and was frequently mentioned in the 1930 account Not So Quiet: Stepdaughters of War by Helen Zenna Smith. It describes the drink being prepared for the casualties at Mons where "the orderlies were just beginning to make Bovril for the wounded, when the bearers and ambulance wagons were shelled as they were bringing the wounded into the hospital". When John Lawson Johnston died, his son George Lawson Johnston inherited and took over the Bovril business. In 1929, George Lawson Johnston was made Baron Luke, of Pavenham, in the county of Bedford. Bovril's instant beef stock was launched in 1966 and its "King of Beef" range of instant flavours for stews, casseroles and gravy in 1971. In 1971, James Goldsmith's Cavenham Foods acquired the Bovril Company but then sold most of its dairies and South American operations to finance further takeovers. The brand is now owned by the Anglo-Dutch multinational Unilever, which bought Bovril in 2001. In 2006, Unilever reversed that decision and reintroduced beef ingredients to their Bovril formula once sales increased and the beef export bans were lifted. Unilever now produces Bovril using beef extract and a chicken variety using chicken extract. In November 2020, Forest Green Rovers Football Club announced a collaboration with the makers of Bovril to create a beet-based version of Bovril to be sold at their New Lawn stadium, where meat-based products had been removed from sale some years prior.Licensed productionIn South Africa Bovril is produced by the Bokomo division of Pioneer Foods. Cultural significance , ]] ]] Bovril was promoted as a superfood in the early 20th century. Advertisements recommended people to dilute it into a tea or spread it on their morning toast. Some adverts even claimed that Bovril could protect one from influenza. Since its invention, Bovril has become an icon of British culture. It is associated with football culture. During the winter, British football fans in stadium terraces drink it as a tea from Thermos flasks – or from disposable cups in Scotland, where thermoses are banned from football stadiums.: The Pope & Bovril"; poster for Bovril, c. 1900]]Bovril holds the unusual distinction of having been advertised with a Pope. An advertising campaign of the early 20th century in Britain depicted Pope Leo XIII seated on his throne, bearing a mug of Bovril. The campaign slogan read: The Two Infallible Powers – The Pope & Bovril. Bovril beef tea was the only hot drink that Ernest Shackleton's team had when they were marooned on Elephant Island during the 1914–1917 Endurance Expedition. In the film In Which We Serve, the officers on the bridge are served "Bovril rather heavily laced with sherry" to warm them up, after being rescued during the Dunkirk evacuation of the British Expeditionary Force. British mountaineer Chris Bonington appeared in TV commercials for Bovril in the 1970s and 1980s in which he recalled melting snow and ice on the first ascent of Baintha Brakk (known as "The Ogre") to make hot drinks.See also *Bonox *Liebig's Extract of Meat *Portable soup *Oxo *Bovril, Argentina *Bovril boats References External links *[https://www.friendsofkingswoodhouse.co.uk Friends of Kingswood House Dulwich: The home of John Lawson Johnston] * [https://www.unilever.co.uk/brands/foods-refreshment/bovril/ Unilever Website] * Unilever [https://web.archive.org/web/20071201114613/http://www.unilever.co.uk/ourbrands/cookingandeating/bovrilbeefsup.asp explains] the reintroduction of beef to Bovril. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/staffordshire/4023239.stm BBC: No beef over Bovril's veggie move] * [http://www.medianet.ca/bovril/bovril.htm The Bovril Shrine] * Category:Drink brands Category:Food brands of the United Kingdom Category:Products introduced in 1888 Category:Scottish drinks Category:Scottish brands Category:Scottish inventions Category:Umami enhancers Category:Unilever brands
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovril
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4963
Benjamin D. Santer
| birth_place = Washington, DC | death_date = <!-- (death date then birth date) --> | death_place | resting_place | resting_place_coordinates = <!-- --> | other_names | residence | citizenship | nationality American | fields = Climatology | workplaces = Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory | patrons | alma_mater University of East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit | thesis_title = Regional validation of General Circulation Models | thesis_url = https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59763672 | thesis_year = 1987 | doctoral_advisor Tom Wigley He retired from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in 2021 and is now a Distinguished Scholar in Residence at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. He also worked at the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology from 1987 to 1992. He specializes mainly in statistical analysis of climate data sets, and detection/attribution of climate change forcings. Since 2012, Santer has been listed on the board of directors of the National Center for Science Education.HonorsSanter received a B.Sc. in Environmental Sciences and a 1987 Ph.D. in climatology from the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia. He has also received the Ernest Orlando Lawrence Award and a Distinguished Scientist Fellowship from the U.S. Department of Energy and the Norbert Gerbier/MUMM award from the World Meteorological Organization. In 2024 he received the Carl-Gustaf Rossby Research Medal of the American Meteorological Society. In 2011, Santer was elected as a fellow of the American Geophysical Union and as a member of the National Academy of Sciences. 1995 AR2 Chapter 8 Santer was the convening Lead Author of Chapter 8 of 1995 IPCC Working Group I Report (AR2 WGI), which addressed the global warming issue. Santer and 40 other scientists responded to The Wall Street Journal that all IPCC procedural rules were followed, and that IPCC procedures required changes to the draft in response to comments from governments, individual scientists, and non-governmental organizations. They stated that the pre- and post-Madrid versions of Chapter 8 were equally cautious in their statements; that roughly 20% of Chapter 8 is devoted to the discussion of uncertainties in estimates of natural climate variability and the expected signal due to human activities; and that both versions of the chapter reached the same conclusion: "Taken together, these results point towards a human influence on climate." Gold Standard Paper On February 25, 2019, Santer et al. published the paper Celebrating the anniversary of three key events in climate change science in Nature Climate Change, claiming to have reached the 5-sigma "gold standard level" of statistical proof of human influence in global climate change using three sets of satellite data. References and notes Further reading * Santer, BD, Wigley, TML, Barnett TP, and Anyamba, E (1995). Detection of climate change and attribution of causes, in Houghton, JT et al.. Climate Change 1995, Cambridge Univ. Press. *"Benjamin David Santer." Marquis Who's Who TM. Marquis Who's Who, 2009. Reproduced in Biography Resource Center. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Gale, 2009. http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/BioRC Document Number: K2017060303. Fee. Accessed 2009-10-22 via Fairfax County Public Library. External links *[http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es063000t The Many Travails of Ben Santer], Paul D. Thacker, Environmental Science & Technology *[http://esi-topics.com/gwarm/interviews/DrBenjaminDSanter.html 2002 Interview] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20060626011156/http://www.ucar.edu/communications/quarterly/summer96/insert.html Communication between Santer and others about Global Warming] *[https://www.nersc.gov/assets/Annual-Reports/annrep03.pdf National Energy Research Science Computer Center article on Santer (starts page 38)] *[http://www.agu.org/pubs/crossref/2011/2011JD016263.shtml Recent (2011) research by Santer on separating signal and noise in atmospheric temperature changes] Category:Living people Category:MacArthur Fellows Category:American climatologists Category:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change lead authors Category:1955 births Category:Alumni of the University of East Anglia Category:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory staff Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:Fellows of the American Meteorological Society
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_D._Santer
2025-04-05T18:27:01.668018
4964
Bernoulli number
{| classwikitable style"text-align: right; float:right; clear:right; margin-left:1em;" |+ Bernoulli numbers }} |- ! !! fraction !! decimal |- decimal | 0 || 1 || +1.000000000 |- | 1 || ± || ±0.500000000 |- | 2 || || +0.166666666 |- style="background:#ABE" | 3 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 4 || − || −0.033333333 |- style="background:#ABE" | 5 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 6 || || +0.023809523 |- style="background:#ABE" | 7 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 8 || − || −0.033333333 |- style="background:#ABE" | 9 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 10 || || +0.075757575 |- style="background:#ABE" | 11 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 12 || − || −0.253113553 |- style="background:#ABE" | 13 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 14 || || +1.166666666 |- style="background:#ABE" | 15 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 16 || − || −7.092156862 |- style="background:#ABE" | 17 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 18 || || +54.97117794 |- style="background:#ABE" | 19 || 0 || +0.000000000 |- | 20 || − || −529.1242424 |} In mathematics, the Bernoulli numbers are a sequence of rational numbers which occur frequently in analysis. The Bernoulli numbers appear in (and can be defined by) the Taylor series expansions of the tangent and hyperbolic tangent functions, in Faulhaber's formula for the sum of m-th powers of the first n positive integers, in the Euler–Maclaurin formula, and in expressions for certain values of the Riemann zeta function. The values of the first 20 Bernoulli numbers are given in the adjacent table. Two conventions are used in the literature, denoted here by <math>B^{-{}}_n</math> and <math>B^{+{}}_n</math>; they differ only for 1}}, where <math>B^{-{}}_1-1/2</math> and <math>B^{+{}}_1+1/2</math>. For every odd , 0}}. For every even , is negative if is divisible by 4 and positive otherwise. The Bernoulli numbers are special values of the Bernoulli polynomials <math>B_n(x)</math>, with <math>B^{-{}}_nB_n(0)</math> and <math>B^+_nB_n(1)</math>. The Bernoulli numbers were discovered around the same time by the Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli, after whom they are named, and independently by Japanese mathematician Seki Takakazu. Seki's discovery was posthumously published in 1712 in his work Katsuyō Sanpō; Bernoulli's, also posthumously, in his Ars Conjectandi of 1713. Ada Lovelace's note G on the Analytical Engine from 1842 describes an algorithm for generating Bernoulli numbers with Babbage's machine; it is disputed whether Lovelace or Babbage developed the algorithm. As a result, the Bernoulli numbers have the distinction of being the subject of the first published complex computer program. Notation The superscript used in this article distinguishes the two sign conventions for Bernoulli numbers. Only the 1}} term is affected: * }} with − }} ( / ) is the sign convention prescribed by NIST and most modern textbooks. * }} with + }} ( / ) was used in the older literature, and (since 2022) by Donald Knuth following Peter Luschny's "Bernoulli Manifesto". In the formulas below, one can switch from one sign convention to the other with the relation <math>B_n^{+}(-1)^n B_n^{-}</math>, or for integer 2 or greater, simply ignore it. Since 0}} for all odd , and many formulas only involve even-index Bernoulli numbers, a few authors write "}}" instead of }}. This article does not follow that notation.History Early history The Bernoulli numbers are rooted in the early history of the computation of sums of integer powers, which have been of interest to mathematicians since antiquity. Methods to calculate the sum of the first positive integers, the sum of the squares and of the cubes of the first positive integers were known, but there were no real 'formulas', only descriptions given entirely in words. Among the great mathematicians of antiquity to consider this problem were Pythagoras (c. 572–497 BCE, Greece), Archimedes (287–212 BCE, Italy), Aryabhata (b. 476, India), Abu Bakr al-Karaji (d. 1019, Persia) and Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham (965–1039, Iraq). During the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries mathematicians made significant progress. In the West Thomas Harriot (1560–1621) of England, Johann Faulhaber (1580–1635) of Germany, Pierre de Fermat (1601–1665) and fellow French mathematician Blaise Pascal (1623–1662) all played important roles. Thomas Harriot seems to have been the first to derive and write formulas for sums of powers using symbolic notation, but even he calculated only up to the sum of the fourth powers. Johann Faulhaber gave formulas for sums of powers up to the 17th power in his 1631 Academia Algebrae, far higher than anyone before him, but he did not give a general formula. Blaise Pascal in 1654 proved ''Pascal's identity relating to the sums of the th powers of the first positive integers for 0, 1, 2, ..., k}}. The Swiss mathematician Jakob Bernoulli (1654–1705) was the first to realize the existence of a single sequence of constants which provide a uniform formula for all sums of powers. The joy Bernoulli experienced when he hit upon the pattern needed to compute quickly and easily the coefficients of his formula for the sum of the th powers for any positive integer can be seen from his comment. He wrote: :"With the help of this table, it took me less than half of a quarter of an hour to find that the tenth powers of the first 1000 numbers being added together will yield the sum 91,409,924,241,424,243,424,241,924,242,500." Bernoulli's result was published posthumously in Ars Conjectandi in 1713. Seki Takakazu independently discovered the Bernoulli numbers and his result was published a year earlier, also posthumously, in 1712. However, Seki did not present his method as a formula based on a sequence of constants. Bernoulli's formula for sums of powers is the most useful and generalizable formulation to date. The coefficients in Bernoulli's formula are now called Bernoulli numbers, following a suggestion of Abraham de Moivre. Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who found remarkable ways to calculate sum of powers but never stated Bernoulli's formula. According to Knuth a rigorous proof of Faulhaber's formula was first published by Carl Jacobi in 1834. Knuth's in-depth study of Faulhaber's formula concludes (the nonstandard notation on the LHS is explained further on): :"Faulhaber never discovered the Bernoulli numbers; i.e., he never realized that a single sequence of constants ... would provide a uniform ::<math displayinline>\sum n^m \frac 1{m+1}\left( B_0n^{m+1}-\binom{m+1} 1 B_1 n^m+\binom{m+1} 2B_2n^{m-1}-\cdots +(-1)^m\binom{m+1}mB_mn\right) </math> :for all sums of powers. He never mentioned, for example, the fact that almost half of the coefficients turned out to be zero after he had converted his formulas for from polynomials in to polynomials in ." In the above Knuth meant <math>B_1^-</math>; instead using <math>B_1^+</math> the formula avoids subtraction: :<math displayinline> \sum n^m \frac 1{m+1}\left( B_0n^{m+1}+\binom{m+1} 1 B^+_1 n^m+\binom{m+1} 2B_2n^{m-1}+\cdots+\binom{m+1}mB_mn\right). </math> Reconstruction of "Summae Potestatum" [[File:JakobBernoulliSummaePotestatum.png|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Jakob Bernoulli's "Summae Potestatum", 1713{{efn|Translation of the text: " ... And if [one were] to proceed onward step by step to higher powers, one may furnish, with little difficulty, the following list:<br> Sums of powers<br> <math>\textstyle \int n \sum_{k1}^n k = \frac {1}{2} n^2 + \frac {1}{2} n </math><br> ::::⋮ <math>\textstyle \int n^{10} \sum_{k1}^n k^{10} = \frac {1}{11} n^{11} + \frac {1}{2} n^{10} + \frac {5}{6} n^9 - 1 n^7 + 1 n^5 - \frac {1}{2} n^3 + \frac {5}{66} n </math><br> Indeed [if] one will have examined diligently the law of arithmetic progression there, one will also be able to continue the same without these circuitous computations: For [if] <math>\textstyle c </math> is taken as the exponent of any power, the sum of all <math>\textstyle n^c </math> is produced or<br> <math>\textstyle \int n^c \sum_{k1}^n k^c = \frac {1}{c+1} n^{c+1} + \frac {1}{2} n^c + \frac {c}{2} An^{c-1} + \frac {c(c-1)(c-2)}{2\cdot 3\cdot4} Bn^{c-3} + \frac {c(c-1)(c-2)(c-3)(c-4)}{2\cdot 3\cdot 4 \cdot 5 \cdot 6} Cn^{c-5} + \frac {c(c-1)(c-2)(c-3)(c-4)(c-5)(c-6)}{2\cdot 3\cdot 4 \cdot 5 \cdot 6 \cdot 7 \cdot 8} Dn^{c-7} + \cdots </math><br> and so forth, the exponent of its power <math>n</math> continually diminishing by 2 until it arrives at <math>n</math> or <math>n^2</math>. The capital letters <math>\textstyle A, B, C, D, </math> etc. denote in order the coefficients of the last terms for <math>\textstyle \int n^2 , \int n^4 , \int n^6 , \int n^8 </math>, etc. namely<br> <math>\textstyle A \frac {1}{6} , B - \frac {1}{30} , C \frac {1}{42} , D - \frac {1}{30} </math>."<br> [Note: The text of the illustration contains some typos: ensperexit should read inspexerit, ambabimus should read ambagibus, quosque should read quousque, and in Bernoulli's original text Sumtâ should read Sumptâ or Sumptam.] * * }}]] The Bernoulli numbers (n)/(n) were introduced by Jakob Bernoulli in the book Ars Conjectandi published posthumously in 1713 page 97. The main formula can be seen in the second half of the corresponding facsimile. The constant coefficients denoted , , and by Bernoulli are mapped to the notation which is now prevalent as B<sub>2</sub>}}, B<sub>4</sub>}}, B<sub>6</sub>}}, B<sub>8</sub>}}. The expression means – the small dots are used as grouping symbols. Using today's terminology these expressions are falling factorial powers </sup>}}. The factorial notation as a shortcut for was not introduced until 100 years later. The integral symbol on the left hand side goes back to Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1675 who used it as a long letter for "summa" (sum). shows Leibniz as the academic<!--not doctoral--> advisor of Jakob Bernoulli. See also .}} The letter on the left hand side is not an index of summation but gives the upper limit of the range of summation which is to be understood as . Putting things together, for positive , today a mathematician is likely to write Bernoulli's formula as: : <math> \sum_{k1}^n k^c \frac{n^{c+1}}{c+1}+\frac 1 2 n^c+\sum_{k=2}^c \frac{B_k}{k!} c^{\underline{k-1}}n^{c-k+1}.</math> This formula suggests setting }} when switching from the so-called 'archaic' enumeration which uses only the even indices 2, 4, 6... to the modern form (more on different conventions in the next paragraph). Most striking in this context is the fact that the falling factorial </sup>}} has for 0}} the value }}. Thus Bernoulli's formula can be written : <math> \sum_{k1}^n k^c \sum_{k=0}^c \frac{B_k}{k!}c^{\underline{k-1}} n^{c-k+1}</math> if 1/2}}, recapturing the value Bernoulli gave to the coefficient at that position. The formula for <math>\textstyle \sum_{k1}^n k^9</math> in the first half of the quotation by Bernoulli above contains an error at the last term; it should be <math>-\tfrac {3}{20}n^2</math> instead of <math>-\tfrac {1}{12}n^2</math>. Definitions Many characterizations of the Bernoulli numbers have been found in the last 300 years, and each could be used to introduce these numbers. Here only four of the most useful ones are mentioned: * a recursive equation, * an explicit formula, * a generating function, * an integral expression. For the proof of the equivalence of the four approaches. Recursive definition The Bernoulli numbers obey the sum formulas : <math> \begin{align} \sum_{k0}^{m}\binom {m+1} k B^{-{}}_k & \delta_{m, 0} \\ \sum_{k0}^{m}\binom {m+1} k B^{+{}}_k & m+1 \end{align}</math> where <math>m=0,1,2...</math> and denotes the Kronecker delta. The first of these is sometimes written as the formula (for m > 1) <math displayblock>(B+1)^m-B_m0,</math> where the power is expanded formally using the binomial theorem and <math>B^k</math> is replaced by <math>B_k</math>. Solving for <math>B^{\mp{}}_m</math> gives the recursive formulas : <math>\begin{align} B_m^{-{}} &\delta_{m, 0} - \sum_{k0}^{m-1} \binom{m}{k} \frac{B^{-{}}_k}{m - k + 1} \\ B_m^+ &1 - \sum_{k0}^{m-1} \binom{m}{k} \frac{B^+_k}{m - k + 1}. \end{align}</math> Explicit definition In 1893 Louis Saalschütz listed a total of 38 explicit formulas for the Bernoulli numbers, usually giving some reference in the older literature. One of them is (for <math>m\geq 1</math>): :<math>\begin{align} B^-_m &\sum_{k0}^m \frac1{k+1} \sum_{j=0}^k \binom{k}{j} (-1)^j j^m \\ B^+_m &\sum_{k0}^m \frac1{k+1} \sum_{j=0}^k \binom{k}{j} (-1)^j (j + 1)^m. \end{align}</math> Generating function The exponential generating functions are :<math>\begin{alignat}{3} \frac{t}{e^t - 1} &\frac{t}{2} \left( \operatorname{coth} \frac{t}{2} -1 \right) && \sum_{m=0}^\infty \frac{B^{-{}}_m t^m}{m!}\\ \frac{te^t}{e^t - 1} \frac{t}{1 - e^{-t}} & \frac{t}{2} \left( \operatorname{coth} \frac{t}{2} +1 \right) &&\sum_{m0}^\infty \frac{B^+_m t^m}{m!}. \end{alignat}</math> where the substitution is <math>t \to - t</math>. The two generating functions only differ by t. If we let <math>F(t)\sum_{i1}^\infty f_it^i</math> and <math>G(t)1/(1+F(t))\sum_{i=0}^\infty g_it^i</math> then :<math>G(t)=1-F(t)G(t).</math> Then <math>g_0=1</math> and for <math>m>0</math> the m term in the series for <math>G(t)</math> is: :<math>g_mt^i-\sum_{j0}^{m-1}f_{m-j}g_jt^m</math> If :<math>F(t)\frac{e^t-1}t-1\sum_{i=1}^\infty \frac{t^i}{(i+1)!}</math> then we find that :<math>G(t)=t/(e^t-1)</math> :<math>\begin{align} m!g_m&-\sum_{j0}^{m-1}\frac{m!}{j!}\frac{j!g_j}{(m-j+1)!}\\ &-\frac 1{m+1}\sum_{j0}^{m-1}\binom{m+1}jj!g_j\\ \end{align}</math> showing that the values of <math>i!g_i</math> obey the recursive formula for the Bernoulli numbers <math>B^-_i</math>. The (ordinary) generating function : <math> z^{-1} \psi_1(z^{-1}) \sum_{m0}^{\infty} B^+_m z^m</math> is an asymptotic series. It contains the trigamma function . Integral Expression From the generating functions above, one can obtain the following integral formula for the even Bernoulli numbers: :<math>B_{2n} 4n (-1)^{n+1} \int_0^{\infty} \frac{t^{2n-1}}{e^{2 \pi t} -1 } \mathrm{d} t </math> Bernoulli numbers and the Riemann zeta function The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function: : −n ζ(1 − n)}} for . Here the argument of the zeta function is 0 or negative. As <math>\zeta(k)</math> is zero for negative even integers (the trivial zeroes), if n>1 is odd, <math>\zeta(1-n)</math> is zero. By means of the zeta functional equation and the gamma reflection formula the following relation can be obtained: :<math> B_{2n} = \frac {(-1)^{n+1}2(2n)!} {(2\pi)^{2n}} \zeta(2n) \quad </math> for . Now the argument of the zeta function is positive. It then follows from () and Stirling's formula that : <math> |B_{2 n}| \sim 4 \sqrt{\pi n} \left(\frac{n}{ \pi e} \right)^{2n} \quad </math> for . Efficient computation of Bernoulli numbers In some applications it is useful to be able to compute the Bernoulli numbers through modulo , where is a prime; for example to test whether Vandiver's conjecture holds for , or even just to determine whether is an irregular prime. It is not feasible to carry out such a computation using the above recursive formulae, since at least (a constant multiple of) arithmetic operations would be required. Fortunately, faster methods have been developed which require only operations (see big notation). David Harvey describes an algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers by computing modulo for many small primes , and then reconstructing via the Chinese remainder theorem. Harvey writes that the asymptotic time complexity of this algorithm is and claims that this implementation is significantly faster than implementations based on other methods. Using this implementation Harvey computed for 10<sup>8</sup>}}. Harvey's implementation has been included in SageMath since version 3.1. Prior to that, Bernd Kellner<!--A more specific citation would be preferable.--> computed to full precision for 10<sup>6</sup>}} in December 2002 and Oleksandr Pavlyk for 10<sup>7</sup>}} with Mathematica in April 2008. :{| class="wikitable defaultright col1left" ! Computer !! Year !! n !! Digits* |- | J. Bernoulli || ~1689 || 10 || 1 |- | L. Euler || 1748 || 30 || 8 |- | J. C. Adams || 1878 || 62 || 36 |- | D. E. Knuth, T. J. Buckholtz || 1967 || || |- | G. Fee, S. Plouffe || 1996 || || |- | G. Fee, S. Plouffe || 1996 || || |- | B. C. Kellner || 2002 || || |- | O. Pavlyk || 2008 || || |- | D. Harvey || 2008 || || |} ::<nowiki>*</nowiki> Digits is to be understood as the exponent of 10 when is written as a real number in normalized scientific notation. Applications of the Bernoulli numbers Asymptotic analysis Arguably the most important application of the Bernoulli numbers in mathematics is their use in the Euler–Maclaurin formula. Assuming that is a sufficiently often differentiable function the Euler–Maclaurin formula can be written as : <math>\sum_{ka}^{b-1} f(k) \int_a^b f(x)\,dx + \sum_{k=1}^m \frac{B^-_k}{k!} (f^{(k-1)}(b)-f^{(k-1)}(a))+R_-(f,m).</math> This formulation assumes the convention −}}. Using the convention +}} the formula becomes : <math>\sum_{ka+1}^{b} f(k) \int_a^b f(x)\,dx + \sum_{k=1}^m \frac{B^+_k}{k!} (f^{(k-1)}(b)-f^{(k-1)}(a))+R_+(f,m).</math> Here <math>f^{(0)}=f</math> (i.e. the zeroth-order derivative of <math>f</math> is just <math>f</math>). Moreover, let <math>f^{(-1)}</math> denote an antiderivative of <math>f</math>. By the fundamental theorem of calculus, : <math>\int_a^b f(x)\,dx = f^{(-1)}(b) - f^{(-1)}(a).</math> Thus the last formula can be further simplified to the following succinct form of the Euler–Maclaurin formula : <math> \sum_{ka+1}^{b} f(k) \sum_{k=0}^m \frac{B_k}{k!} (f^{(k-1)}(b)-f^{(k-1)}(a))+R(f,m). </math> This form is for example the source for the important Euler–Maclaurin expansion of the zeta function : <math> \begin{align} \zeta(s) & \sum_{k0}^m \frac{B^+_k}{k!} s^{\overline{k-1}} + R(s,m) \\ & = \frac{B_0}{0!}s^{\overline{-1}} + \frac{B^+_1}{1!} s^{\overline{0}} + \frac{B_2}{2!} s^{\overline{1}} +\cdots+R(s,m) \\ & = \frac{1}{s-1} + \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{12}s + \cdots + R(s,m). \end{align} </math> Here </sup>}} denotes the rising factorial power. Bernoulli numbers are also frequently used in other kinds of asymptotic expansions. The following example is the classical Poincaré-type asymptotic expansion of the digamma function . :<math>\psi(z) \sim \ln z - \sum_{k1}^\infty \frac{B^+_k}{k z^k} </math> Sum of powers Bernoulli numbers feature prominently in the closed form expression of the sum of the th powers of the first positive integers. For define :<math>S_m(n) \sum_{k1}^n k^m = 1^m + 2^m + \cdots + n^m. </math> This expression can always be rewritten as a polynomial in of degree . The coefficients of these polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by '''Bernoulli's formula': : <math>S_m(n) \frac{1}{m + 1} \sum_{k0}^m \binom{m + 1}{k} B^+_k n^{m + 1 - k} m! \sum_{k0}^m \frac{B^+_k n^{m + 1 - k}}{k! (m+1-k)!} ,</math> where <big><big>)</big></big>}} denotes the binomial coefficient. For example, taking to be 1 gives the triangular numbers . :<math> 1 + 2 + \cdots + n \frac{1}{2} (B_0 n^2 + 2 B^+_1 n^1) \tfrac12 (n^2 + n).</math> Taking to be 2 gives the square pyramidal numbers . : <math>1^2 + 2^2 + \cdots + n^2 \frac{1}{3} (B_0 n^3 + 3 B^+_1 n^2 + 3 B_2 n^1) \tfrac13 \left(n^3 + \tfrac32 n^2 + \tfrac12 n\right).</math> Some authors use the alternate convention for Bernoulli numbers and state Bernoulli's formula in this way: : <math>S_m(n) \frac{1}{m + 1} \sum_{k0}^m (-1)^k \binom{m + 1}{k} B^{-{}}_k n^{m + 1 - k}.</math> Bernoulli's formula is sometimes called Faulhaber's formula after Johann Faulhaber who also found remarkable ways to calculate sums of powers. Faulhaber's formula was generalized by V. Guo and J. Zeng to a -analog. Taylor series The Bernoulli numbers appear in the Taylor series expansion of many trigonometric functions and hyperbolic functions. <math display="block">\begin{align} \tan x &\hphantom \sum_{n1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{n-1} 2^{2n} (2^{2n}-1) B_{2n} }{(2n)!}\; x^{2n-1}, && \left|x \right| < \frac \pi 2. \\ \cot x &{1\over x} \sum_{n0}^\infty \frac{(-1)^n B_{2n} (2x)^{2n}}{(2n)!}, & 0 < & |x| < \pi. \\ \tanh x &\hphantom \sum_{n1}^\infty \frac{2^{2n}(2^{2n}-1)B_{2n}}{(2n)!}\;x^{2n-1}, && |x| < \frac \pi 2. \\ \coth x &{1\over x} \sum_{n0}^\infty \frac{B_{2n} (2x)^{2n}}{(2n)!}, & 0 < & |x| < \pi. \end{align}</math> Laurent series The Bernoulli numbers appear in the following Laurent series: Digamma function: <math> \psi(z)\ln z- \sum_{k1}^\infty \frac {B_k^{+{}}} {k z^k} </math> Use in topology The Kervaire–Milnor formula for the order of the cyclic group of diffeomorphism classes of exotic -spheres which bound parallelizable manifolds involves Bernoulli numbers. Let be the number of such exotic spheres for , then :<math>\textit{ES}_n = (2^{2n-2}-2^{4n-3}) \operatorname{Numerator}\left(\frac{B_{4n}}{4n} \right) .</math> The Hirzebruch signature theorem for the genus of a smooth oriented closed manifold of dimension 4n also involves Bernoulli numbers. Connections with combinatorial numbers The connection of the Bernoulli number to various kinds of combinatorial numbers is based on the classical theory of finite differences and on the combinatorial interpretation of the Bernoulli numbers as an instance of a fundamental combinatorial principle, the inclusion–exclusion principle. Connection with Worpitzky numbers The definition to proceed with was developed by Julius Worpitzky in 1883. Besides elementary arithmetic only the factorial function and the power function is employed. The signless Worpitzky numbers are defined as : <math> W_{n,k}\sum_{v0}^k (-1)^{v+k} (v+1)^n \frac{k!}{v!(k-v)!} . </math> They can also be expressed through the Stirling numbers of the second kind : <math> W_{n,k}=k! \left\{ {n+1\atop k+1} \right\}.</math> A Bernoulli number is then introduced as an inclusion–exclusion sum of Worpitzky numbers weighted by the harmonic sequence 1, , , ... : <math> B_{n}\sum_{k0}^n (-1)^k \frac{W_{n,k}}{k+1}\ \ \sum_{k0}^n \frac{1}{k+1} \sum_{v=0}^k (-1)^v (v+1)^n {k \choose v}\ . </math> : :}} : + }} : + − }} : + − + }} : + − + − }} : + − + − + }} This representation has +}}. Consider the sequence , . From Worpitzky's numbers , applied to is identical to the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind). This can be seen via the table: :{| style="text-align:center" |+ '''Identity of<br/>Worpitzky's representation and Akiyama–Tanigawa transform' |- |1|| || || || || ||0||1|| || || || ||0||0||1|| || || ||0||0||0||1|| || ||0||0||0||0||1|| |- |1||−1|| || || || ||0||2||−2|| || || ||0||0||3||−3|| || ||0||0||0||4||−4|| || || || || || || |- |1||−3||2|| || || ||0||4||−10||6|| || ||0||0||9||−21||12|| || || || || || || || || || || || || |- |1||−7||12||−6|| || ||0||8||−38||54||−24|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || |- |1||−15||50||−60||24|| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || |- |} The first row represents . Hence for the second fractional Euler numbers () / (): : :}} : + }} : + − }} : + − + }} : + − + − }} : + − + − + }} A second formula representing the Bernoulli numbers by the Worpitzky numbers is for : <math> B_n\frac n {2^{n+1}-2}\sum_{k0}^{n-1} (-2)^{-k}\, W_{n-1,k} . </math> The simplified second Worpitzky's representation of the second Bernoulli numbers is: () / () }} × () / () which links the second Bernoulli numbers to the second fractional Euler numbers. The beginning is: :, , 0, −, 0, , ... (, , , , , , ...) × (1, , 0, −, 0, , ...)}} The numerators of the first parentheses are (see Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind). Connection with Stirling numbers of the second kind If one defines the Bernoulli polynomials as: :<math> B_k(j)k\sum_{m0}^{k-1}\binom{j}{m+1}S(k-1,m)m!+B_k </math> where for 0, 1, 2,...}} are the Bernoulli numbers, and is a Stirling number of the second kind. One also has the following for Bernoulli polynomials, :<math> B_k(j)\sum_{n0}^k \binom{k}{n} B_n j^{k-n}. </math> The coefficient of in <big><big>)</big></big>}} is }}. Comparing the coefficient of in the two expressions of Bernoulli polynomials, one has: : <math> B_k\sum_{m0}^{k-1} (-1)^m \frac{m!}{m+1} S(k-1,m)</math> (resulting in +}}) which is an explicit formula for Bernoulli numbers and can be used to prove Von-Staudt Clausen theorem. Connection with Stirling numbers of the first kind The two main formulas relating the unsigned Stirling numbers of the first kind <big><big>]</big></big>}} to the Bernoulli numbers (with +}}) are : <math> \frac{1}{m!}\sum_{k0}^m (-1)^{k} \left[{m+1\atop k+1}\right] B_k \frac{1}{m+1}, </math> and the inversion of this sum (for , ) : <math> \frac{1}{m!}\sum_{k0}^m (-1)^k \left[{m+1\atop k+1}\right] B_{n+k} A_{n,m}. </math> Here the number are the rational Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers, the first few of which are displayed in the following table. :{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |+ Akiyama–Tanigawa number ! |}}!!0!!1!!2!!3!!4 |- ! 0 | 1 || || || || |- ! 1 | || || || || ... |- ! 2 | || || || ... || ... |- ! 3 | 0 || || ... || ... || ... |- ! 4 | − || ... || ... || ... || ... |} The Akiyama–Tanigawa numbers satisfy a simple recurrence relation which can be exploited to iteratively compute the Bernoulli numbers. This leads to the algorithm shown in the section 'algorithmic description' above. See /. An autosequence is a sequence which has its inverse binomial transform equal to the signed sequence. If the main diagonal is zeroes , the autosequence is of the first kind. Example: , the Fibonacci numbers. If the main diagonal is the first upper diagonal multiplied by 2, it is of the second kind. Example: /, the second Bernoulli numbers (see ). The Akiyama–Tanigawa transform applied to 1/ leads to (n) / (n + 1). Hence: :{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center" |+ Akiyama–Tanigawa transform for the second Euler numbers |- ! |}} !! 0 !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 |- ! 0 | 1 || || || || |- ! 1 | || || || || ... |- ! 2 | 0 || || || ... || ... |- ! 3 | − || − || ... || ... || ... |- ! 4 | 0 || ... || ... || ... || ... |} See and . () / () are the second (fractional) Euler numbers and an autosequence of the second kind. :( ()| ()}} , 0, −, 0, , ...}}) × ( }} , , , 21, ...}}) ()| ()}} , 0, −, 0, , ...}}. Also valuable for / (see Connection with Worpitzky numbers). Connection with Pascal's triangle There are formulas connecting Pascal's triangle to Bernoulli numbers.}} :<math> B^{+}_n=\frac{|A_n|}{(n+1)!}~~~</math> where <math>|A_n|</math> is the determinant of a n-by-n Hessenberg matrix part of Pascal's triangle whose elements are: <math> a_{i, k} = \begin{cases} 0 & \text{if } k>1+i \\ {i+1 \choose k-1} & \text{otherwise} \end{cases} </math> Example: :<math> B^{+}_6 =\frac{\det\begin{pmatrix} 1& 2& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 3& 3& 0& 0& 0\\ 1& 4& 6& 4& 0& 0\\ 1& 5& 10& 10& 5& 0\\ 1& 6& 15& 20& 15& 6\\ 1& 7& 21& 35& 35& 21 \end{pmatrix}}{7!}\frac{120}{5040}\frac 1 {42} </math> Connection with Eulerian numbers There are formulas connecting Eulerian numbers <big><big>⟩</big></big>}} to Bernoulli numbers: :<math>\begin{align} \sum_{m0}^n (-1)^m \left \langle {n\atop m} \right \rangle & 2^{n+1} (2^{n+1}-1) \frac{B_{n+1}}{n+1}, \\ \sum_{m0}^n (-1)^m \left \langle {n\atop m} \right \rangle \binom{n}{m}^{-1} & (n+1) B_n. \end{align}</math> Both formulae are valid for if is set to . If is set to − they are valid only for and respectively. A binary tree representation The Stirling polynomials are related to the Bernoulli numbers by n!σ<sub>n</sub>(1)}}. S. C. Woon described an algorithm to compute as a binary tree: : Woon's recursive algorithm (for ) starts by assigning to the root node [1,2]}}. Given a node [a<sub>1</sub>, a<sub>2</sub>, ..., a<sub>k</sub>]}} of the tree, the left child of the node is [−a<sub>1</sub>, a<sub>2</sub> + 1, a<sub>3</sub>, ..., a<sub>k</sub>]}} and the right child [a<sub>1</sub>, 2, a<sub>2</sub>, ..., a<sub>k</sub>]}}. A node [a<sub>1</sub>, a<sub>2</sub>, ..., a<sub>k</sub>]}} is written as in the initial part of the tree represented above with ± denoting the sign of . Given a node the factorial of is defined as :<math> N! a_1 \prod_{k2}^{\operatorname{length}(N)} a_k!. </math> Restricted to the nodes of a fixed tree-level the sum of }} is , thus :<math> B_n = \sum_\stackrel{N \text{ node of}}{\text{ tree-level } n} \frac{n!}{N!}. </math> For example: :)}} : + )}} : − − + )}} Integral representation and continuation The integral : <math> b(s) 2e^{s i \pi/2}\int_0^\infty \frac{st^s}{1-e^{2\pi t}} \frac{dt}{t} \frac{s!}{2^{s-1}}\frac{\zeta(s)}{{ }\pi^s{ }}(-i)^s= \frac{2s!\zeta(s)}{(2\pi i)^s}</math> has as special values B<sub>2n</sub>}} for . For example, ζ(3)&pi;<sup>−3</sup>i}} and ζ(5)&pi;<sup>−5</sup>i}}. Here, is the Riemann zeta function, and is the imaginary unit. Leonhard Euler (Opera Omnia, Ser. 1, Vol. 10, p. 351) considered these numbers and calculated : <math> \begin{align} p &\frac{3}{2\pi^3}\left(1+\frac{1}{2^3}+\frac{1}{3^3}+\cdots \right) 0.0581522\ldots \\ q &\frac{15}{2\pi^5}\left(1+\frac{1}{2^5}+\frac{1}{3^5}+\cdots \right) 0.0254132\ldots \end{align}</math> Another similar integral representation is : <math> b(s) -\frac{e^{s i \pi/2}}{2^{s}-1}\int_0^\infty \frac{st^{s}}{\sinh\pi t} \frac{dt}{t} \frac{2e^{s i \pi/2}}{2^{s}-1}\int_0^\infty \frac{e^{\pi t}st^s}{1-e^{2\pi t}} \frac{dt}{t}. </math> The relation to the Euler numbers and The Euler numbers are a sequence of integers intimately connected with the Bernoulli numbers. Comparing the asymptotic expansions of the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers shows that the Euler numbers are in magnitude approximately (4<sup>2n</sup> − 2<sup>2n</sup>)}} times larger than the Bernoulli numbers . In consequence: : <math> \pi \sim 2 (2^{2n} - 4^{2n}) \frac{B_{2n}}{E_{2n}}. </math> This asymptotic equation reveals that lies in the common root of both the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers. In fact could be computed from these rational approximations. Bernoulli numbers can be expressed through the Euler numbers and vice versa. Since, for odd , E<sub>n</sub> 0}} (with the exception ), it suffices to consider the case when is even. :<math>\begin{align} B_n &\sum_{k0}^{n-1}\binom{n-1}{k} \frac{n}{4^n-2^n}E_k & n&=2, 4, 6, \ldots \\[6pt] E_n &\sum_{k1}^n \binom{n}{k-1} \frac{2^k-4^k}{k} B_k & n&=2,4,6,\ldots \end{align}</math> These conversion formulas express a connection between the Bernoulli and the Euler numbers. But more important, there is a deep arithmetic root common to both kinds of numbers, which can be expressed through a more fundamental sequence of numbers, also closely tied to . These numbers are defined for as :<math> S_n 2 \left(\frac{2}{\pi}\right)^n \sum_{k 0}^\infty \frac{ (-1)^{kn} }{(2k+1)^n} 2 \left(\frac{2}{\pi}\right)^n \lim_{K\to \infty} \sum_{k -K}^K (4k+1)^{-n}. </math> The magic of these numbers lies in the fact that they turn out to be rational numbers. This was first proved by Leonhard Euler in a landmark paper De summis serierum reciprocarum (On the sums of series of reciprocals) and has fascinated mathematicians ever since. The first few of these numbers are : <math> S_n 1,1,\frac{1}{2},\frac{1}{3},\frac{5}{24}, \frac{2}{15},\frac{61}{720},\frac{17}{315},\frac{277}{8064},\frac{62}{2835},\ldots </math> ( / ) These are the coefficients in the expansion of . The Bernoulli numbers and Euler numbers can be understood as special views of these numbers, selected from the sequence and scaled for use in special applications. : <math>\begin{align} B_{n} &(-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [ n \text{ even}] \frac{n! }{2^n - 4^n}\, S_{n}\ , & n& 2, 3, \ldots \\ E_n &(-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [ n \text{ even}] n! \, S_{n+1} & n & 0, 1, \ldots \end{align}</math> The expression [ even] has the value 1 if is even and 0 otherwise (Iverson bracket). These identities show that the quotient of Bernoulli and Euler numbers at the beginning of this section is just the special case of }} when is even. The are rational approximations to and two successive terms always enclose the true value of . Beginning with 1}} the sequence starts ( / ): : <math> 2, 4, 3, \frac{16}{5}, \frac{25}{8}, \frac{192}{61}, \frac{427}{136}, \frac{4352}{1385}, \frac{12465}{3968}, \frac{158720}{50521},\ldots \quad \longrightarrow \pi. </math> These rational numbers also appear in the last paragraph of Euler's paper cited above. Consider the Akiyama–Tanigawa transform for the sequence () / (): :{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right;" ! 0 |1||||0||−||−||−||0 |- ! 1 | || 1|| || 0|| −|| −|| |- ! 2 | −|| || || || || || |- ! 3 | −1|| −|| −|| || || || |- ! 4 | || −|| −|| || || || |- ! 5 | 8|| || || || || || |- ! 6 | −|| || || || || || |} From the second, the numerators of the first column are the denominators of Euler's formula. The first column is − × .An algorithmic view: the Seidel triangleThe sequence S<sub>n</sub> has another unexpected yet important property: The denominators of S<sub>n+1</sub> divide the factorial . In other words: the numbers , sometimes called Euler zigzag numbers, are integers. : <math> T_n 1,\,1,\,1,\,2,\,5,\,16,\,61,\,272,\,1385,\,7936,\,50521,\,353792,\ldots \quad n0, 1, 2, 3, \ldots </math> (). See (). Their exponential generating function is the sum of the secant and tangent functions. : <math> \sum_{n0}^\infty T_n \frac{x^n}{n!} \tan \left(\frac\pi4 + \frac x2\right) = \sec x + \tan x</math>. Thus the above representations of the Bernoulli and Euler numbers can be rewritten in terms of this sequence as :<math>\begin{align} B_n &= (-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [n\text{ even}] \frac{n }{2^n-4^n}\, T_{n-1}\ & n &\geq 2 \\ E_n &= (-1)^{\left\lfloor \frac{n}{2}\right\rfloor} [n\text{ even}] T_{n} & n &\geq 0 \end{align}</math> These identities make it easy to compute the Bernoulli and Euler numbers: the Euler numbers are given immediately by and the Bernoulli numbers are fractions obtained from by some easy shifting, avoiding rational arithmetic. What remains is to find a convenient way to compute the numbers . However, already in 1877 Philipp Ludwig von Seidel published an ingenious algorithm, which makes it simple to calculate . |content=<math> \begin{array}{crrrcc} { } & { } & {\color{red}1} & { } & { } & { } \\ { } & {\rightarrow} & {\color{blue}1} & {\color{red}1} & { } \\ { } & {\color{red}2} & {\color{blue}2} & {\color{blue}1} & {\leftarrow} \\ {\rightarrow} & {\color{blue}2} & {\color{blue}4} & {\color{blue}5} & {\color{red}5} \\ {\color{red}16} & {\color{blue}16} & {\color{blue}14} & {\color{blue}10} & {\color{blue}5} & {\leftarrow} \end{array} </math>}} #Start by putting 1 in row 0 and let denote the number of the row currently being filled #If is odd, then put the number on the left end of the row in the first position of the row , and fill the row from the left to the right, with every entry being the sum of the number to the left and the number to the upper #At the end of the row duplicate the last number. #If is even, proceed similar in the other direction. Seidel's algorithm is in fact much more general (see the exposition of Dominique Dumont ) and was rediscovered several times thereafter. Similar to Seidel's approach D. E. Knuth and T. J. Buckholtz gave a recurrence equation for the numbers and recommended this method for computing and 'on electronic computers using only simple operations on integers'. V. I. Arnold rediscovered Seidel's algorithm and later Millar, Sloane and Young popularized Seidel's algorithm under the name boustrophedon transform. Triangular form: :{| style="text-align:right" | || || || || || || 1|| || || || || || |- | || || || || || 1|| || 1|| || || || || |- | || || || || 2|| || 2|| || 1|| || || || |- | || || || 2|| || 4|| || 5|| || 5|| || || |- | || || 16|| || 16|| || 14|| || 10|| || 5|| || |- | || 16|| || 32|| || 46|| || 56|| || 61|| || 61|| |- |272|| ||272|| ||256|| ||224|| ||178|| ||122|| || 61 |} Only , with one 1, and , with two 1s, are in the OEIS. Distribution with a supplementary 1 and one 0 in the following rows: :{| style="text-align:right" | || || || || || || 1|| || || || || || |- | || || || || || 0|| || 1|| || || || || |- | || || || || −1|| || −1|| || 0|| || || || |- | || || || 0|| || −1|| || −2|| || −2|| || || |- | || || 5|| || 5|| || 4|| || 2|| || 0|| || |- | || 0|| || 5|| || 10|| || 14|| || 16|| || 16|| |- |−61|| ||−61|| ||−56|| ||−46|| ||−32|| ||−16|| || 0 |} This is , a signed version of . The main andiagonal is . The main diagonal is . The central column is . Row sums: 1, 1, −2, −5, 16, 61.... See . See the array beginning with 1, 1, 0, −2, 0, 16, 0 below. The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () yields: :{| style="text-align:right" | 1|| 1|| || 0|| −|| −|| − |- | 0|| 1|| || 1|| 0|| − |- | −1|| −1|| || 4|| |- | 0|| −5|| −|| 1 |- | 5|| 5|| − |- | 0|| 61 |- | −61 |} 1. The first column is . Its binomial transform leads to: :{| style="text-align:right" |- | 1|| 1|| 0|| −2|| 0|| 16|| 0 |- |0||−1||−2||2||16||−16 |- |−1||−1||4||14||−32 |- |0||5||10||−46 |- |5||5||−56 |- |0||−61 |- |−61 |} The first row of this array is . The absolute values of the increasing antidiagonals are . The sum of the antidiagonals is ().}} 2. The second column is . Its binomial transform yields: :{| style="text-align:right" |- | 1|| 2|| 2|| −4|| −16|| 32|| 272 |- |1||0||−6||−12||48||240 |- |−1||−6||−6||60||192 |- |−5||0||66||32 |- |5||66||66 |- |61||0 |- |−61 |} The first row of this array is . The absolute values of the second bisection are the double of the absolute values of the first bisection. Consider the Akiyama-Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / ( () abs( ()) + 1 = , 1, , , , 1, , , ...}}. :{| style="text-align:right" |1||2||2||||1|||| |- |−1||0||||2||||0 |- |−1||−3||−||3|| |- |2||−3||−||−13 |- |5||21||− |- |−16||45 |- |−61 |} The first column whose the absolute values are could be the numerator of a trigonometric function. is an autosequence of the first kind (the main diagonal is ). The corresponding array is: :{| style="text-align:right" |0||−1||−1||2||5||−16||−61 |- |−1||0||3||3||−21||−45 |- |1||3||0||−24||−24 |- |2||−3||−24||0 |- |−5||−21||24 |- |−16||45 |- |−61 |} The first two upper diagonals are × . The sum of the antidiagonals is 2 × (n + 1). − is an autosequence of the second kind, like for instance / . Hence the array: :{| style="text-align:right" |- |2||1||−1||−2||5||16||−61 |- |−1||−2||−1||7||11||−77 |- |−1||1||8||4||−88 |- |2||7||−4||−92 |- |5||−11||−88 |- |−16||−77 |- |−61 |} The main diagonal, here , is the double of the first upper one, here . The sum of the antidiagonals is 2 × (1). − 2 × .A combinatorial view: alternating permutations Around 1880, three years after the publication of Seidel's algorithm, Désiré André proved a now classic result of combinatorial analysis. Looking at the first terms of the Taylor expansion of the trigonometric functions and André made a startling discovery. :<math>\begin{align} \tan x &= x + \frac{2x^3}{3!} + \frac{16x^5}{5!} + \frac{272x^7}{7!} + \frac{7936x^9}{9!} + \cdots\\[6pt] \sec x &= 1 + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{5x^4}{4!} + \frac{61x^6}{6!} + \frac{1385x^8}{8!} + \frac{50521x^{10}}{10!} + \cdots \end{align}</math> The coefficients are the Euler numbers of odd and even index, respectively. In consequence the ordinary expansion of has as coefficients the rational numbers . : <math> \tan x + \sec x = 1 + x + \tfrac{1}{2}x^2 + \tfrac{1}{3}x^3 + \tfrac{5}{24}x^4 + \tfrac{2}{15}x^5 + \tfrac{61}{720}x^6 + \cdots </math> André then succeeded by means of a recurrence argument to show that the alternating permutations of odd size are enumerated by the Euler numbers of odd index (also called tangent numbers) and the alternating permutations of even size by the Euler numbers of even index (also called secant numbers). Related sequences The arithmetic mean of the first and the second Bernoulli numbers are the associate Bernoulli numbers: , , }}, , }}, / . Via the second row of its inverse Akiyama–Tanigawa transform , they lead to Balmer series / . The Akiyama–Tanigawa algorithm applied to () / () leads to the Bernoulli numbers / , / , or without , named intrinsic Bernoulli numbers . :{| style="text-align:center; padding-left; padding-right: 2em;" |- |1|||||||| |- ||||||||| |- |0|||||||| |- |−||−||−||−||0 |- |0||−||−||−||− |} Hence another link between the intrinsic Bernoulli numbers and the Balmer series via (). () 0, 2, 1, 6,... is a permutation of the non-negative numbers. The terms of the first row are f(n) + }}. 2, f(n) is an autosequence of the second kind. 3/2, f(n) leads by its inverse binomial transform to 3/2 −1/2 1/3 −1/4 1/5 ... 1/2 + log 2. Consider g(n) 1/2 – 1 / (n+2) 0, 1/6, 1/4, 3/10, 1/3. The Akiyama-Tanagiwa transforms gives: :{| style="text-align:center; padding-left; padding-right:2em;" |- |0||||||||||||... |- |−||−||−||−||−||−||... |- |0||−||−||−||−||−||... |- |||||||||0||−||... |} 0, g(n), is an autosequence of the second kind. Euler () / () without the second term () are the fractional intrinsic Euler numbers 1, 0, −, 0, , 0, −, 0, ...}} The corresponding Akiyama transform is: :{| style="text-align:center; padding-left; padding-right: 2em;" |- |1||1|||||| |- |0|||||||| |- |−||−||0|||| |- |0||−||−||−||− |- |||||−||−||− |} The first line is . preceded by a zero is an autosequence of the first kind. It is linked to the Oresme numbers. The numerators of the second line are preceded by 0. The difference table is: :{| style="text-align:center; padding-left; padding-right: 2em;" |- |0||1||1|||||||| |- |1||0||−||−||−||−||− |- |−1||−||0|||||||| |} Arithmetical properties of the Bernoulli numbers The Bernoulli numbers can be expressed in terms of the Riemann zeta function as −nζ(1 − n)}} for integers provided for 0}} the expression is understood as the limiting value and the convention }} is used. This intimately relates them to the values of the zeta function at negative integers. As such, they could be expected to have and do have deep arithmetical properties. For example, the Agoh–Giuga conjecture postulates that is a prime number if and only if is congruent to −1 modulo . Divisibility properties of the Bernoulli numbers are related to the ideal class groups of cyclotomic fields by a theorem of Kummer and its strengthening in the Herbrand-Ribet theorem, and to class numbers of real quadratic fields by Ankeny–Artin–Chowla. The Kummer theorems The Bernoulli numbers are related to Fermat's Last Theorem (FLT) by Kummer's theorem, which says: :If the odd prime does not divide any of the numerators of the Bernoulli numbers then 0}} has no solutions in nonzero integers. Prime numbers with this property are called regular primes. Another classical result of Kummer are the following congruences. :Let be an odd prime and an even number such that does not divide . Then for any non-negative integer :: <math> \frac{B_{k(p-1)+b}}{k(p-1)+b} \equiv \frac{B_{b}}{b} \pmod{p}. </math> A generalization of these congruences goes by the name of -adic continuity. -adic continuity If , and are positive integers such that and are not divisible by and , then :<math>(1-p^{m-1})\frac{B_m}{m} \equiv (1-p^{n-1})\frac{B_n} n \pmod{p^b}.</math> Since −nζ(1 − n)}}, this can also be written :<math>\left(1-p^{-u}\right)\zeta(u) \equiv \left(1-p^{-v}\right)\zeta(v) \pmod{p^b},</math> where 1 − m}} and 1 − n}}, so that and are nonpositive and not congruent to 1 modulo . This tells us that the Riemann zeta function, with taken out of the Euler product formula, is continuous in the -adic numbers on odd negative integers congruent modulo to a particular , and so can be extended to a continuous function for all -adic integers <math>\mathbb{Z}_p,</math> the -adic zeta function. Ramanujan's congruences The following relations, due to Ramanujan, provide a method for calculating Bernoulli numbers that is more efficient than the one given by their original recursive definition: :<math>\binom{m+3}{m} B_m=\begin{cases} \frac{m+3}{3}-\sum\limits_{j=1}^\frac{m}{6}\binom{m+3}{m-6j}B_{m-6j}, & \text{if } m\equiv 0\pmod 6;\\ \frac{m+3}{3}-\sum\limits_{j=1}^\frac{m-2}{6}\binom{m+3}{m-6j}B_{m-6j}, & \text{if } m\equiv 2\pmod 6;\\ -\frac{m+3}{6}-\sum\limits_{j1}^\frac{m-4}{6}\binom{m+3}{m-6j}B_{m-6j}, & \text{if } m\equiv 4\pmod 6.\end{cases}</math> Von Staudt–Clausen theorem The von Staudt–Clausen theorem was given by Karl Georg Christian von Staudt and Thomas Clausen independently in 1840. The theorem states that for every , : <math> B_{2n} + \sum_{(p-1)\,\mid\,2n} \frac1p</math> is an integer. The sum extends over all primes for which divides . A consequence of this is that the denominator of is given by the product of all primes for which divides . In particular, these denominators are square-free and divisible by 6. Why do the odd Bernoulli numbers vanish? The sum :<math>\varphi_k(n) \sum_{i0}^n i^k - \frac{n^k} 2</math> can be evaluated for negative values of the index . Doing so will show that it is an odd function for even values of , which implies that the sum has only terms of odd index. This and the formula for the Bernoulli sum imply that is 0 for even and ; and that the term for is cancelled by the subtraction. The von Staudt–Clausen theorem combined with Worpitzky's representation also gives a combinatorial answer to this question (valid for n > 1). From the von Staudt–Clausen theorem it is known that for odd the number is an integer. This seems trivial if one knows beforehand that the integer in question is zero. However, by applying Worpitzky's representation one gets : <math> 2B_n \sum_{m0}^n (-1)^m \frac{2}{m+1}m! \left\{{n+1\atop m+1} \right\} = 0\quad(n>1 \text{ is odd})</math> as a sum of integers, which is not trivial. Here a combinatorial fact comes to surface which explains the vanishing of the Bernoulli numbers at odd index. Let be the number of surjective maps from } to }, then m!<big><big>{</big></big><big><big>}</big></big>}}. The last equation can only hold if : <math> \sum_{\text{odd }m1}^{n-1} \frac 2 {m^2}S_{n,m}\sum_{\text{even } m=2}^n \frac{2}{m^2} S_{n,m} \quad (n>2 \text{ is even}). </math> This equation can be proved by induction. The first two examples of this equation are :, :. Thus the Bernoulli numbers vanish at odd index because some non-obvious combinatorial identities are embodied in the Bernoulli numbers. A restatement of the Riemann hypothesis The connection between the Bernoulli numbers and the Riemann zeta function is strong enough to provide an alternate formulation of the Riemann hypothesis (RH) which uses only the Bernoulli numbers. In fact Marcel Riesz proved that the RH is equivalent to the following assertion: :For every }} there exists a constant (depending on ) such that < C<sub>ε</sub>x<sup>ε</sup>}} as . Here is the Riesz function : <math> R(x) 2 \sum_{k1}^\infty \frac{k^{\overline{k}} x^{k}}{(2\pi)^{2k}\left(\frac{B_{2k}}{2k}\right)} 2\sum_{k1}^\infty \frac{k^{\overline{k}}x^k}{(2\pi)^{2k}\beta_{2k}}. </math> </sup>}} denotes the rising factorial power in the notation of D. E. Knuth. The numbers }} occur frequently in the study of the zeta function and are significant because is a -integer for primes where does not divide . The are called divided Bernoulli numbers.<span id"Generalized Bernoulli numbers"></span>Generalized Bernoulli numbers The generalized Bernoulli numbers are certain algebraic numbers, defined similarly to the Bernoulli numbers, that are related to special values of Dirichlet -functions in the same way that Bernoulli numbers are related to special values of the Riemann zeta function. Let be a Dirichlet character modulo . The generalized Bernoulli numbers attached to are defined by : <math>\sum_{a1}^f \chi(a) \frac{te^{at}}{e^{ft}-1} \sum_{k=0}^\infty B_{k,\chi}\frac{t^k}{k!}.</math> Apart from the exceptional }}, we have, for any Dirichlet character , that 0}} if . Generalizing the relation between Bernoulli numbers and values of the Riemann zeta function at non-positive integers, one has the for all integers : : <math>L(1-k,\chi)=-\frac{B_{k,\chi}}k,</math> where is the Dirichlet -function of . Eisenstein–Kronecker number Eisenstein–Kronecker numbers are an analogue of the generalized Bernoulli numbers for imaginary quadratic fields. They are related to critical L-values of Hecke characters. Appendix Assorted identities : : <math>S_m(n) = \frac 1 {m+1} ((\mathbf{B} + n)^{m+1} - B_{m+1}) </math> where the symbol that appears during binomial expansion of the parenthesized term is to be replaced by the Bernoulli number (and +}}). More suggestively and mnemonically, this may be written as a definite integral: :<math>S_m(n) = \int_0^n (\mathbf{B}+x)^m\,dx </math> Many other Bernoulli identities can be written compactly with this symbol, e.g. :<math> (1-2\mathbf{B})^m = (2-2^m) B_m </math> |2 = Let be non-negative and even :<math> \zeta(n) = \frac{(-1)^{\frac{n}{2} - 1} B_n (2\pi)^n}{2(n!)}</math> |3 = The th cumulant of the uniform probability distribution on the interval [−1, 0] is }}. |4 Let }} and . Then is the following determinant: : <math> \begin{align} B_n & = n! \begin{vmatrix} 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 1 \\ 2? & 1 & \cdots & 0 & 0 \\ \vdots & \vdots & & \vdots & \vdots \\ n? & (n-1)? & \cdots & 1 & 0 \\ (n+1)? & n? & \cdots & 2? & 0 \end{vmatrix} \\[8pt] & = n! \begin{vmatrix} 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 1 \\ \frac{1}{2!} & 1 & \cdots & 0 & 0 \\ \vdots & \vdots & & \vdots & \vdots \\ \frac{1}{n!} & \frac{1}{(n-1)!} & \cdots & 1 & 0 \\ \frac{1}{(n+1)!} & \frac{1}{n!} & \cdots & \frac{1}{2!} & 0 \end{vmatrix} \end{align} </math> Thus the determinant is , the Stirling polynomial at 1}}. |5 = For even-numbered Bernoulli numbers, is given by the determinant:: :<math> B_{2p} = -\frac{(2p)!}{2^{2p} - 2} \begin{vmatrix} 1 & 0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 1 \\ \frac{1}{3!} & 1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & 0 \\ \frac{1}{5!} & \frac{1}{3!} & 1 & \cdots & 0 & 0 \\ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & & \vdots& \vdots \\ \frac{1}{(2p+1)!} & \frac{1}{(2p-1)!} & \frac{1}{(2p-3)!} &\cdots & \frac{1}{3!} & 0 \end{vmatrix}</math> |6 = Let . Then (Leonhard Euler) : <math> \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k1}^n \binom{n}{k}B_k B_{n-k}+B_{n-1}-B_n </math> |7 = Let . Then : <math> \sum_{k0}^n \binom{n+1}k (n+k+1)B_{n+k}0 </math> |8 = Let . Then (Leopold Kronecker 1883) : <math> B_n - \sum_{k1}^{n+1} \frac{(-1)^k}{k} \binom{n+1}{k} \sum_{j=1}^k j^n </math> |9 = Let and . Then : <math> (-1)^m \sum_{r0}^m \binom{m}{r} B_{n+r}(-1)^n \sum_{s=0}^n \binom{n}{s} B_{m+s} </math> |10 = Let and : <math> H_n\sum_{k1}^n k^{-1} </math> the harmonic number. Then (H. Miki 1978) : <math> \frac{n}{2}\sum_{k2}^{n-2}\frac{B_{n-k}}{n-k}\frac{B_k}{k} - \sum_{k2}^{n-2} \binom{n}{k}\frac{B_{n-k}}{n-k} B_k =H_n B_n</math> |11 = Let . Yuri Matiyasevich found (1997) : <math> (n+2)\sum_{k2}^{n-2}B_k B_{n-k}-2\sum_{l2}^{n-2}\binom{n+2}{l} B_l B_{n-l}=n(n+1)B_n </math> |12 = Faber–Pandharipande–Zagier–Gessel identity: for , : <math> \frac{n}{2}\left(B_{n-1}(x)+\sum_{k=1}^{n-1}\frac{B_{k}(x)}{k} \frac{B_{n-k}(x)}{n-k}\right) -\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\binom{n}{k}\frac{B_{n-k}} {n-k} B_k(x) =H_{n-1}B_n(x).</math> Choosing 0}} or 1}} results in the Bernoulli number identity in one or another convention. |13 The next formula is true for if B<sub>1</sub>(1) }}, but only for if B<sub>1</sub>(0) −}}. :<math> \sum_{k0}^n \binom{n}{k} \frac{B_k}{n-k+2} \frac{B_{n+1}}{n+1} </math> |14 = Let . Then :<math> -1 + \sum_{k0}^n \binom{n}{k} \frac{2^{n-k+1}}{n-k+1}B_k(1) 2^n </math> and :<math> -1 + \sum_{k0}^n \binom{n}{k} \frac{2^{n-k+1}}{n-k+1}B_{k}(0) \delta_{n,0} </math> |15 = A reciprocity relation of M. B. Gelfand: : <math> (-1)^{m+1} \sum_{j0}^k \binom{k}{j} \frac{B_{m+1+j}}{m+1+j} + (-1)^{k+1} \sum_{j0}^m \binom{m}{j}\frac{B_{k+1+j}}{k+1+j} = \frac{k!m!}{(k+m+1)!} </math> }} See also * Bernoulli polynomial * Bernoulli polynomials of the second kind * Bernoulli umbra * Bell number * Euler number * Genocchi number * Kummer's congruences * Poly-Bernoulli number * Hurwitz zeta function * Euler summation * Stirling polynomial * Sums of powers Notes References Bibliography * . * * . * . * . * . *. * . * . * * * . * . * * * . *. * |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190510171712/https://genealogy.math.ndsu.nodak.edu/ |archive-date10 May 2019 |url-statusdead }}. *. *. * . * . * . *. * . * . External links * * The first 498 Bernoulli Numbers from Project Gutenberg * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304004018/http://web.maths.unsw.edu.au/~davidharvey/papers/bernmm/ A multimodular algorithm for computing Bernoulli numbers] * [http://www.bernoulli.org The Bernoulli Number Page] * Bernoulli number programs at [http://en.literateprograms.org LiteratePrograms] * * * * * Category:Number theory Category:Topology Category:Integer sequences Category:Eponymous numbers in mathematics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernoulli_number
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Bubble Bobble (video game)
| designer = Fukio Mitsuji | composer = Tadashi Kimijima | released Arcade Famicom Disk SystemNES | genre = Platform | modes = Single-player, multiplayer | series = Bubble Bobble | platforms = Arcade, Amiga, Apple II, Atari ST, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Game Boy, Game Boy Color, Game Gear, Nintendo Entertainment System, iOS, Android, PlayStation, Master System, Saturn, X68000 | arcade system = Taito Bubble Bobble }} is a 1986 platform game developed and published by Taito for arcades. It was distributed in the United States by Romstar, and in Europe by Electrocoin. Players control Bub and Bob, two dragons that set out to save their girlfriends from a world known as the Cave of Monsters. In each level, Bub and Bob must defeat each enemy present by trapping them in bubbles and popping, who turn into bonus items when they hit the ground. There are 100 levels total, each becoming progressively more difficult. Bubble Bobble was designed by Fukio "MTJ" Mitsuji. When he joined Taito in 1986, he felt that Taito's game output was of mediocre quality. In response, he decided to make a game that was fun to play and could rejuvenate the company's presence in the industry. Mitsuji hoped his game would appeal to women, specifically couples that visited arcades. As such, he decided to make Bubble Bobble focus largely on its two player co-operative mode. He made bubbles the core mechanic as he thought they would be a fun element that girls would enjoy. Bubble Bobble became one of Taito's biggest arcade successes, and is credited with inspiring the creation of many similar screen-clear platform games that followed. It was acclaimed by critics for its character design, memorable soundtrack, gameplay, and multiplayer, and is often listed among the greatest games of all time. Bubble Bobble was followed by a long list of sequels and successors for multiple platforms; one of these, Puzzle Bobble, has become successful in its own right and spawned its own line of sequels. Plot Brothers Bub and Bob are two happy go lucky dragons [sic] living in a magical forest. "Baron Von Blubba" has kidnapped the brothers' girlfriends. Bub and Bob have to finish 100 levels in the Cave of Monsters in order to rescue them. At the end of the game after fighting Super Drunk on level 100 in cooperative mode, it is revealed that Bub, Bob, and their girlfriends are humans transformed by magic and that Bub and Bob's parents were kidnapped as well. Gameplay In the game, each player controls one of the two dragons. Players can move along platforms, fall to lower ones, and jump to higher ones and over gaps. Each level is limited to a single screen, with no left/right scrolling; however, if a screen has gaps in its bottom edge, players can fall through these and reappear at the top. Each level has a certain number of enemies that must be defeated in order to advance. The players must blow bubbles to trap the enemies and then burst these bubbles by colliding with them. Magic items appear from time to time and grant special abilities and advantages when picked up. Special bubbles occasionally appear that can be burst to attack enemies with fire, water, or lightning. Each defeated enemy turns into a food item that can be picked up for extra points. Defeating multiple enemies at once awards higher scores and causes more valuable food items to appear. Furthermore, if a player collects letter bubbles to spell the word EXTEND, a bonus life is earned and both players immediately advance to the next level. All bubbles will float for a certain length of time before bursting on their own; players can jump on these and ride them to otherwise inaccessible areas to reach enemies and/or powerups. A player loses one life upon touching any free enemies or their projectiles (rocks, fireballs, lasers, bottles). Enemies turn "angry"—turning pink in color and moving faster—if they escape from a bubble after being left too long or the players spend a certain amount of time on the current level. They return to normal if either player loses a life. After a further time limit expires, an additional invincible enemy appears for each player, actively chasing them using only vertical and horizontal movements. These disappear once the level is cleared, or when a player loses a life. When there is only one enemy left, it immediately becomes angry and remains in this state until defeated. In the 100th and final level, players face a boss. This is one of the first games to feature multiple endings. Completing Level 100 in single-player mode reveals a message stating that the game has not truly ended and a hint to the player: "Come here with your friend". If two players complete the game, they see a "happy end", in which the brothers are transformed to their human selves and reunited with their girlfriends. This ending also includes a code that, when deciphered, allows the game to be played in the faster and more difficult "super" mode. If this mode is completed with two players, a second "happy end" is displayed in which Super Drunk (the defeated boss) is revealed to be the brothers' parents under the control of some outside influence. The brothers return to normal and are reunited with their parents and girlfriends. His first game was the four-screen racer Super Dead Heat in 1985, followed by the shoot'em up ''Halley's Comet the same year. His initial idea was to have the player control a robot with a spike on its head to pop bubbles—Mitsuji disliked it for not being "cool", instead preferring dinosaurs with ridges along their back. Mitsuji intended the game to be played by couples, leading to the creation of the multiple endings, which differ based on player performance. Bubble Bobble was first published in Japan on June 16, 1986, followed by a wide release in Japan in September and internationally in October of the same year. and to Electrocoin Automatics for Europe. In 1996, Taito announced that the source code for Bubble Bobble had been lost, leading to all subsequent home conversions to be reverse-engineered from an original arcade board. | CRASH_ARC Positive | CRASH_ZX 90% | CVG_ARC Positive | EGM_SGG 31/40 | TGM_C64 93% | YSinclair_ZX 90% | Z64_C64 97% | award1Pub = Zzap!64 | award1 = Gold Medal | award2Pub = Crash | award2 = Smash }} In Japan, Game Machine listed Bubble Bobble on their November 1, 1986, issue as the second-most-successful table arcade cabinet of the month, after Taito's Arkanoid. It went on to be the fifth-highest-grossing table arcade game of 1987 in Japan. In the United Kingdom, Bubble Bobble was the top-grossing arcade game for three months in 1987, from April to June. The home conversions were also successful in the United Kingdom, where the game appeared on the sales charts for several years. The ZX Spectrum budget re-release topped the UK charts in July 1991. The arcade game received positive reviews from Computer and Video Games and Crash. Mean Machines gave the Game Boy port of the game a score of 91%, noting that, while some changes had been made, the game played identical to the original arcade port and "provides much addiction and challenge". The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly stated that the Game Gear version is a faithful conversion of the original which works well in portable form. They particularly praised the simplicity of the gameplay concept and the graphics, and the two-player link option. Bubble Bobble has been listed by numerous publications among the greatest video games of all time. Your Sinclair magazine ranked the ZX Spectrum version at #58 in their "Top 100 Games of All Time" in 1993 based on reader vote. In 1996, GamesMaster rated the game 19th on its "Top 100 Games of All Time". Yahoo! ranked it at #71 in their "100 Greatest Computer Games Of All Time" in 2005 for its charming premise and cute character designs. Stuff magazine listed it as part of their "100 Greatest Games" in 2008, while GamesTM magazine listed it in their "Top 100 Games" in 2010. Stuff.tv ranked it at #47 in their Top 100 Games in 2009, saying "Today's kids might laugh, but this was gold in 1986". GamesRadar+ ranked it at #95 in their "100 Best Games Of All Time" list in 2011, praising its multiplayer and secrets. GamesRadar+ also labeled it the 24th greatest Nintendo Entertainment System game of all time in 2012 for its advancements over other games of its genre and its usage of multiple endings. IGN named it the 23rd best NES game. Hardcore Gaming 101 listed it in their book The 200 Best Video Games of All Time in 2015. Game Informer placed it in their "Top 300 Games of All Time" in 2018 for its long-lasting appeal and multiplayer. Legacy Re-releases The game has had at least 30 official ports to a large array of computers and consoles throughout the decades. A remastered version named Bubble Bobble Old & New was made for Game Boy Advance, which also included the original arcade version. * Europe and North American versions by Empire Interactive * Japan version by MediaKite In October 2005, a version was released for the Xbox, PlayStation 2, and Microsoft Windows as part of the Taito Legends compilation. In December 2007, the NES version of Bubble Bobble was released in North America on Nintendo's Virtual Console service for the Wii. The Famicom Disk System version of Bubble Bobble was also released for the Nintendo eShop on October 16, 2013, for the Nintendo 3DS and on January 29, 2014, for the Wii U. In July 2020, the MORIBIX Corporation released a mobile port, titled "Bubble Bobble Classic," on iOS and Android.NotesReferencesExternal links * * [http://www.atarimania.com/game-atari-st-bubble-bobble_s7652.html Bubble Bobble] for the Atari ST at Atari Mania * Category:1986 video games Category:Amiga games Category:Amstrad CPC games Category:Apple II games Category:Arcade video games Category:Atari ST games Category:Commodore 64 games Category:Cooperative video games Category:DOS games Category:Famicom Disk System games Category:Game Boy Color games Category:Game Boy games Category:Game Gear games Category:MSX2 games Category:Nintendo Entertainment System games Category:Nintendo Switch games Category:FM Towns games Category:Platformers Category:PlayStation (console) games Category:PlayStation 4 games Category:Romstar games Category:Master System games Category:X68000 games Category:Video games scored by David Whittaker Category:Video games scored by Tim Follin Category:Virtual Console games for Wii U Category:ZX Spectrum games Category:Taito arcade games Category:Arcade Archives games Category:Hamster Corporation games Category:NovaLogic games Category:Video games developed in Japan Category:Multiplayer and single-player video games
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubble_Bobble_(video_game)
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Blackwood convention
In the partnership card game contract bridge, the Blackwood convention is a bidding convention developed by Easley Blackwood in 1933 and still widely used in the modern game. Its purpose is to enable the partnership to explore its possession of aces, kings and in some variants, the queen of trumps to judge whether a slam would be a feasible contract. The essence of the convention is the use of an artificial 4NT bid made under certain conditions to ask partner how many aces he has; responses by partner are made in step-wise fashion to indicate the number held. Blackwood's original summary After developing the concept in 1933, Easley Blackwood submitted an article proposing his slam-seeking convention to The Bridge World magazine but it was rejected. Nevertheless, it gained awareness and use amongst players and was written about by several authors. In his own first publication on the convention in 1949, Easley Blackwood comments on the entries in books by others and noted that "...in every one of these books, they have it wrong!" A synopsis of that summary follows: In order to make the 4NT ace-asking bid, you must first: think your partnership has sufficient strength for a slam, expect to be able to make at the five-level even if partner has no aces, and be prepared with a sound rebid no matter how partner responds Partner's responses to the 4NT ace-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion: 5 to indicate 0 or 4 aces 5 to indicate 1 ace 5 to indicate 2 aces 5 to indicate 3 aces When responding, do not count a void as an ace. Generally, 4NT is ace-asking when your side has bid a suit. There are exceptions: when notrump has previously been bid by partner and he subsequently removes one's four-level suit bid to 4NT when a previous opportunity to employ 4NT as ace-asking has not been taken When clubs are expected to be trumps, one must have at least two aces to employ 4NT ace-asking and when diamonds are to be trump, one must have at least one ace. The 4NT bidder is only partial captain of the auction and responder has certain rights: the 4NT bidder sets the level of the contract but partner may correct the denomination when responder has a void in the suit in which he would convey, at the five-level, the number of aces he possesses, he may jump to six of the void suit to convey both the number of aces and the location of the void. when responder has a void and his ace-showing response is in a suit of lower rank than the trump suit, he first tells partner the number of aces he has. If partner signs-off at the five-level, responder may continue to slam if his holding justifies it. If the 4NT bidder, after hearing partner's response, bids a previously unmentioned suit, responder must bid 5NT to end the auction. An ace shown by a cuebid by either partner should not be counted in responding to the 4NT ace-asking bid. A 5NT bid after a response to a 4NT ace-asking bid, asks for kings. Partner's responses to the 5NT king-asking bid are made in step-wise fashion: 6 to indicate 0 kings 6 to indicate 1 king 6 to indicate 2 kings 6 to indicate 3 kings 6NT to indicate 4 kings To ask for kings via 5NT, one must first ask for aces via 4NT even when possessing all four aces oneself. A jump to 5NT without employing the 4NT ace-asking bid is the Culbertson Grand Slam Force and obliges partner to bid the grand slam if he holds two of the three top trumps and a small slam if he does not. If the opponents interfere after the 4NT ace-asking bid, a Pass by responder indicates no aces, the suit one above the opponent's indicates one ace, two above indicates two and so on. Except in duplicate, the king-asking 5NT bid assures partner possession of all four aces. After a 5NT king-asking bid, neither partner is captain and either can set the final contract.) recommend the 5NT reply to 4NT – the cheapest with no standard assigned meaning – to show a void plus two aces and six of a suit to show a void in the bid suit plus one ace. Roman Blackwood A variation of the standard Blackwood convention, known as Roman Blackwood, was popularized by the Italian Blue Team in the 1960s. In Roman Blackwood, the responses are more ambiguous, but more space-conserving. The basic outline of responses is: 5– 0 or 3 aces5– 1 or 4 aces5– 2 aces In practice, the ambiguity is unlikely to occur, as a strength difference between hands with 0 or 1 and 3 or 4 aces is big enough that it can be established in previous rounds of bidding. In other words, a partner who has previously shown, for example, 12-15 range of high points is unlikely to hold 3 aces for his bid, etc. Even Roman Blackwood convention has several variations, revolving around 5 and 5 responses. In all variants, they denote 2 aces. One variation is that 5 shows extra values, while 5 does not. In other variations, responses 5 - 5NT denote specific combinations of aces (same color, same rank, or "mixed"). If the querying partner ascertains that all aces are present, he can continue as follows: 5NT is the Grand slam force The first available bid which is not the agreed suit is the Roman Blackwood for kings. The partner responds stepwise, as above. Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB) has largely replaced the standard version among tournament players. It developed from the Roman Blackwood variant (see above). According to RKCB there are five equivalent key cards rather than just the four aces: the trump king is counted as the fifth key card. The key card replies to 4NT are more compressed than standard ones and they also begin to locate the queen of trumps. 5– 0 or 3 key cards5– 1 or 4 key cards5– 2 or 5 cards without the trump queen5– 2 or 5 key cards with the trump queen Although the replies to 4NT are more compressed, it is almost always possible to infer which number of keycards is correct: 0 or 3, 1 or 4, 2 or 5. Evidence for that inference includes the entire auction as well as the number of key cards that the 4NT bidder holds. The 5 and 5 replies with 2 or 5 key cards also deny and show the trump queen, respectively. (Responder may also show the queen with extra length in trumps, where the ace and king will probably draw all outstanding cards in the suit.) The 5 and 5 replies tell nothing about the queen or extra length, but the 4NT bidder may ask about that using the cheapest bid other than five of the trump suit. The code for replies to that "queen ask" vary; a common rule is that the cheapest bid in the trump suit denies the queen or extra length and any other call shows it. An option is for the positive calls to show a feature, such as a king in that suit, and 6 of the trump suit can show the queen of trumps with no outside kings. Roman Key Card Blackwood is predicated on existence of a trump suit, which determines which of the four kings and queens responder should show as key cards. Trump agreement is not necessary, however. One common rule is that the last suit bid before 4NT bid is the key suit, lacking trump agreement. Some partnerships use the club response to show 1 or 4 and the diamond response to show 3 or none, dubbed "1430" (coincidentally the score for making a vulnerable small slam in a major suit), with the original version being dubbed "3014" when distinction is necessary. In order to facilitate the Queen Ask, an experts' version has been developed, where "1430" is used by the strong hand and "3014" is used by the weak hand. There are specific rules which determine when the asker hand is the weak one and when it is the strong one. Key Card Blackwood (KCB) A half-way house between standard Blackwood and RKCB is Keycard Blackwood. Again there are five key cards, including the trump king, but unlike RKCB, the queen of trumps is not considered. 5♣ – 0 or 4 key cards 5 – 1 or 5 key cards 5 – 2 key cards 5♠ – 3 key cards This is advocated by Bernard Magee as being simpler for club players, as with RKCB players are sometimes unsure whether partner holds 0 or 3 key cards, or 1 or 4. Variations not based on 4NT Kickback "Kickback" is the variant of RKCB devised by Jeff Rubens in accordance with the Useful Space Principle. The step responses are the same as in RKCB, but the ask is not necessarily 4NT. Instead it is the 4-level bid immediately above the agreed trump suit; i.e.: 4– RKCB for clubs4– RKCB for diamonds4– RKCB for hearts4NT– RKCB for spades Kickback has the advantage that it saves bidding space and, especially for minor-suit fits, provides safety at the 5-level if the required key cards are missing. Because the Kickback bid would otherwise be a control bid, 4NT is usually substituted as the control bid in that suit (e.g., 4NT is a control bid in hearts if the agreed trump suit is diamonds). The drawback is that in unpracticed partnerships there can be confusion as to whether a bid is Kickback, a control bid or preference for a different strain: WestEast112344Pass East intended 4 as Kickback, but West thought it was secondary support for hearts, and decided to pass with minimum values. As result, a reasonable grand slam in diamonds was missed. An established partnership might have agreed that as hearts were not supported after opener's rebid, 4 cannot possibly show support, and must be ace asking in diamonds. Redwood "Redwood" is a variation of Kickback that is only used when a minor suit is trumps. A 4 level bid in the suit above the agreed trump suit is the ace / key card ask and the name comes from the fact that this bid will always be a red suit: 4– RKCB for clubs 4– RKCB for diamonds Once key cards have been identified the next step bid (other than trumps) can be used to ask for Kings. One advantage of this approach is that it avoids the potential for misunderstanding that can occur when using Minorwood but one disadvantage is that it uses up one more bid (than Minorwood) and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens. Using "Redwood," the ace/key card ask of 4NT is still used when the trump suit is a major (hearts or spades). Minorwood "Minorwood" is a variation of Blackwood, in which the minor suit which the partners agree will be trumps is itself used as the ace/key card ask. The ask will be at the four level. Hence: 4– RKCB for clubs 4– RKCB for diamonds One disadvantage to this convention is that either the partnership must agree to lose the natural 4 level bid in trumps or have clear agreement on which sequences are slam seeking and which are natural bids. The advantage of this approach is that it conserves bidding space. For example, the use of Redwood reduces the risk of a misunderstanding but uses up one more bid and might constrain the bidding later when asking for Kings or Queens. Exclusion Blackwood Exclusion Blackwood or Voidwood. was devised by Bobby Goldman as an attempt to resolve the situation when the Blackwood-asker has a void. In that case, he is not interested in the partner's ace in the void suit, as he already has the first-round control; partner's ace would present a duplicated value in that case. Many players, even experts, refuse to play Exclusion Blackwood because of the potential disaster of forgetting the agreement. It is usually played as the Roman Key Card Blackwood, with only four key cards: the three Aces outside the void suit and the King of trumps. However, the asking bid is not 4NT, but the void suit — Voidwood is made by jumping on level 4 or 5 in the void suit after a fit has been found, for example: WestEast135 Bids of 5, 5 and 5 present a Voidwood, denoting the void in the suit bid and asking for other key cards. The responses are, as in RKCB: 1st step – 0 or 3 key cards (1 or 4, if playing 1430) 2nd step – 1 or 4 key cards (0 or 3) 3rd step – 2 key cards without trump queen 4th step – 2 key cards with trump queen See also Gerber convention Glossary of contract bridge terms Grand slam force Norman four notrump Quantitative no trump bids San Francisco convention Slam-seeking conventions Notes References Further reading Ron Klinger in collaboration with Pat Husband and Andrew Kambites (1994). Basic Bridge: the guide to good Acol bidding and play. Victor Gollancz Ltd in association with Peter Crawley, London. Paul Mendelson (1998). Mendelson's Guide to the Bidding Battle. Colt Books, Cambridge, UK. Ben Cohen and Rhoda Barrow, eds. (1967). The Bridge Players' Encyclopedia. Paul Hamlyn, London. Eric Crowhurst and Andrew Kambites (1992). Understanding Acol: the good bidding guide. Gollancz in association with Crawley, London. External links "Roman Key Card Blackwood" at Bridge Bum "Roman Key Card Blackwood" at Bridge Guys "Roman Blackwood" at Bridge Guys "Blue Team Roman Blackwood" at Bridge Guys "Exclusion Keycard Blackwood" at Bridge Guys Eddie Kantar's bidding tips Category:Bridge conventions
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackwood_convention
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Bill Bixby
| birth_place = San Francisco, California, U.S. | death_date | death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S. | television = My Favorite Martian, ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father, The Magician, The Incredible Hulk | alma_mater = University of California, Berkeley | years_active = 1959–1993 | occupation = | spouse ||}} | children = 1 }} Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III (January 22, 1934 – November 21, 1993) was an American actor and television director. His career spanned more than three decades, including appearances on stage, in films, and on television series. He is known for his roles in the CBS sitcom My Favorite Martian'' as Tim O'Hara, in the ABC sitcom ''The Courtship of Eddie's Father as Tom Corbett, in the NBC crime drama series The Magician as stage Illusionist Anthony Blake, in the ABC mini-series Rich Man, Poor Man as Willie Abbott, and the CBS science-fiction drama series The Incredible Hulk'' as Dr. David Bruce Banner. Early life A fourth-generation Californian of English descent and an only child, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby III was born on January 22, 1934, in San Francisco, California. His father, Wilfred Bailey Everett Bixby II, was a store clerk. His mother, Jane (née McFarland) Bixby, was a senior manager at I. Magnin & Co. In 1942, when Bixby was eight years old, his father enlisted in the Navy during World War II and traveled to the South Pacific. While in the seventh grade, Bixby attended Grace Cathedral and sang in the church's choir. In one notable incident, he shot the bishop using a slingshot during a service and was kicked out of the choir. In 1946, his mother encouraged him to take ballroom dance lessons and from there he started dancing all around the city. While dancing, he attended Lowell High School, where he perfected his oratory and dramatic skills as a member of the Lowell Forensic Society. Though he received average grades, he also competed in high-school speech tournaments regionally. After graduation from high school in 1952, he majored in drama at City College of San Francisco, against his parents' wishes. He served primarily in personnel management with Marine Attack Squadron 141 (VMA-141) at Naval Air Station Oakland, and attained the rank of private first class before his 1956 discharge. Later, he attended the University of California, Berkeley, his parents' alma mater, and left just a few credits short of earning a degree. He then moved to Hollywood, California, where he had a string of odd jobs that included bellhop and lifeguard. He organized shows at a resort in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, and in 1959 was hired to work as a model and to do commercial work for General Motors and Chrysler. In a 2011 interview with Marilyn Beck and Stacy Jenel Smith about how Bill Bixby's fame was supposed to posthumously honor him for a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, Cruz said, "When I found out they were putting this out, I thought, 'It's about time.' Bill Bixby had an amazing body of work, not only ''Courtship of Eddie's Father, but My Favorite Martian, The Magician, The Incredible Hulk'', and so many other things, as an actor, as a director — and he never got an Emmy. He's never been recognized posthumously by the Academy. And he doesn't have a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. That is criminal.... There are people who have stars that, not to be blunt, but I wouldn't bother spitting on their stars. Bill's talent would take a couple of blocks of stars compared to them. It really demeans the whole thing that Bill is not included." 1973 to 1977 In 1973, Bixby starred in The Magician. The series was well liked, but lasted for only one season. An accomplished amateur magician himself, he hosted several TV specials in the mid-1970s which featured other amateur magicians, and was a respected member of the Hollywood magic community, belonging to The Magic Castle, an exclusive club for magicians. During the show's popular, although short-lived, production, Bixby invited a few old friends along to co-star such as Pamela Britton (in her final role), Kristina Holland, and Ralph O'Hara. Also in 1973, he starred in Steambath, a play by author Bruce Jay Friedman, on PBS with Valerie Perrine and Jose Perez. Bixby became a popular game-show panelist, appearing mostly on Password and The Hollywood Squares. He was also a panelist on the 1974 revival of Masquerade Party, which was hosted by Richard Dawson. He had also appeared with Dawson on Cop-Out, an unsold 1972 pilot produced by Chuck Barris, and on the 1972 revival of ''I've Got a Secret. In 1974–1975, he directed four episodes of the eighth season of Mannix'', guest-starring as Mannix's friend-turned-villain in one of the episodes. In 1975, he co-starred with Tim Conway and Don Knotts in the Disney movie The Apple Dumpling Gang, which was well received by the public. Returning to television, Bixby worked with Susan Blakely on Rich Man, Poor Man, a highly successful television miniseries in 1976. He played a daredevil stunt pilot in an episode of the short-lived 1976 CBS adventure series ''Spencer's Pilots, starring Gene Evans. In 1977, he co-starred in the pilot for the television series Fantasy Island; starred in "No Way Out", the final episode of the NBC anthology series Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected (known in the United Kingdom as Twist in the Tale''); and appeared with Donna Mills, Richard Jaeckel, and William Shatner in the last episode, "The Scarlet Ribbon", of NBC's Western series The Oregon Trail, starring Rod Taylor and Andrew Stevens. Bixby directed two episodes of The Oregon Trail. In 1976, he was honored with two Emmy Award nominations, one for Outstanding Lead Actor for a Single Appearance in Drama or Comedy for The Streets of San Francisco and the other for Outstanding Single Performance by a Supporting Actor in Comedy or Drama Series for Rich Man, Poor Man. Bixby hosted Once Upon a Classic on PBS from 1976 to 1980. The Incredible Hulk .]] Bixby starred in the role of Dr. David Bruce Banner in the pilot movie The Incredible Hulk, based on the Stan Lee and Jack Kirby Marvel characters. Kenneth Johnson, the creator, director, and writer, said that Bixby was his only choice to play the part. When Bixby was offered the role, he declined it – until he read the script and discussed it with Johnson. The success of the pilot (coupled with some theatrical releases of the film in Europe) convinced CBS to turn it into a weekly series, which began airing in the spring of 1978. The pilot also starred Susan Sullivan as Dr. Elaina Marks, who tries to help the conflicted and widowed Dr. Banner overcome his "problem" and falls in love with him in the process. In a retrospective on The Incredible Hulk, Glenn Greenberg declared Bixby's performance to be the series' "foremost" strength, elaborating that he "masterfully conveyed the profound loneliness and tragedy of Dr. Banner while also bringing to the role an abundance of warmth, intelligence, humor, nobility, likability, and above all else, humanity." During the series' run, Bixby invited two of his longtime friends, Ray Walston and Brandon Cruz, to guest-star with him in different episodes of the series. He also worked on the series with his friend, movie actress Mariette Hartley, who later starred with Bixby in his final series, Goodnight, Beantown, in 1983. Hartley appears in the well-regarded double-length episode "Married", and The Elvis Conspiracy (1992). Bixby made his last acting appearance in 1992, guest-starring in the television movie Diagnosis Murder: Diagnosis of Murder. He finished his career by directing 30 episodes (in seasons two and three) of the NBC sitcom Blossom. Personal life and death Bixby's first marriage was to actress Brenda Benet. They were married in 1971, and she gave birth to their son, Christopher, in September 1974. They divorced in 1980. A few months later, in March 1981, six-year-old Christopher died while on a skiing vacation at Mammoth Lakes with Benet. He went into cardiac arrest after doctors inserted a breathing tube when he suffered acute epiglottitis. Benet committed suicide the following year. Bixby met Laura Michaels, who had worked on the set of one of his Hulk movies, in 1989. They married a year later in Hawaii. In early 1991, he was diagnosed with prostate cancer and underwent treatment. He was divorced in the same year. In late 1992, friends introduced Bixby to the artist Judith Kliban, widow of the cartoonist B. Kliban. He married her in October 1993. In early 1993, after rumors began circulating about his health, Bixby went public with his illness, making several appearances on shows such as Entertainment Tonight, Today, and Good Morning America, among others. On November 21, 1993, six days after his final assignment on Blossom, Bixby died of complications from prostate cancer in Century City, Los Angeles, California. He was 59 years old. Filmography Film {| class="wikitable" ! scope"col" style"width:1em;"| Year ! scope"col" style"width:35em;"| Title ! scope"col" style"width:10em;"| Role ! scope"col" style"width:35em;"| Notes |- |1962 |Lonely Are the Brave |Airman in Helicopter |Billy Mims |- |1963 |Irma la Douce |Tattooed Sailor | |- |1963 |Under the Yum Yum Tree |Track Team Coach |Uncredited |- |1966 |Ride Beyond Vengeance |Johnsy Boy Hood | |- |1967 |''Doctor, You've Got to Be Kidding! |Dick Bender | |- |1967 |Clambake |James J. Jamison III | |- |1968 |Speedway |Kenny Donford | |- |1975 |The Apple Dumpling Gang |Russell Donovan | |- |1977 |The Kentucky Fried Movie |Himself |(segment "Headache Clinic") |} Television {| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Role !Notes |- |1961 |Hennesey |Intern |Episode: "Welcome Home, Dr. Blair" |- |1961 |Straightaway |unknown role |Episode: "The Tin Caesar" |- |1961 |The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis |Roger |Episode: "The Gigolo" |- |1961 |Ben Casey |Intern at Party |Episode: "A Few Brief Lines for Dave" |- |1961 |Bachelor Father |Paul |Episode: "The Law and Kelly Gregg" |- |1961 |Checkmate |Pete Canaday |Episode: "To the Best of My Recollection" |- |1961 |Make Room for Daddy |Joey |Episode: "Danny Weaves a Web" |- |1961 |Make Room for Daddy |Mack |Episode: "Danny and Durante" |- |1962 |The Andy Griffith Show'' |Ronald Bailey |Episode: "Bailey's Bad Boy" |- |1962 |Death Valley Days |Kinney |Episode: "Justice at Jackson Creek" |- |1962 |Follow the Sun |Jason Wylie |Episode: "Chalk One Up for Johnny" |- |1962 |The Joey Bishop Show |Charles Raymond |recurring role (6 episodes) |- |1962 |Alcoa Premiere |Bruce |2 episodes<br />– "Once a Bachelor"<br />– "The Voice of Charlie Pont" |- |1962 |Dr. Kildare |Dr. John Grant |Episode: "The Soul Killer" |- |1963 |The Twilight Zone |OOD Smith |Episode: "The Thirty-Fathom Grave" |- |1963 |The Eleventh Hour |Art |Episode: "Try to Keep Alive Until Next Tuesday" |- |1963 |Dr. Kildare |Dr. Ben Mollenhour |Episode: "The Balance and the Crucible" |- |1963 |Make Room for Daddy |Tom Bradley, the Rival |Episode: "Jose's Rival" |- |1963 |The Lieutenant |Private Stu Sallaway |Episode: "A Million Miles from Clary" |- |1963–1966 |My Favorite Martian |Tim O'Hara |series regular (107 episodes) |- |1964–1965 |''Valentine's Day |Carl Pierce |recurring role (9 episodes) |- |1966 |Combat! |Kline |Episode: "The Losers" |- |1966–1974 |Hollywood Squares |Himself (Center Square/Panelist) |series regular (114 episodes) |- |1967 |Iron Horse |Dan Gilmore |Episode: "Appointment with Epitaph" |- |1967 |That Girl |Harry Banner |Episode: "The Apartment" |- |1967 |Dream Girl of '67 |Himself (Bachelor Judge) |recurring role (10 episodes) |- |1968 |The Danny Thomas Hour |David |Episode: "Two for Penny" |- |1968 |It Takes a Thief |George Palmer |Episode: "To Steal a Battleship" |- |1968 |The Ghost & Mrs. Muir |Paul Wilkie |Episode: "The Ghost Hunter" |- |1968 |Ironside |Edward Neufane |Episode: "Sergeant Mike" |- |1968 |Hollywood Squares |Himself (Panelist) |recurring role (3 episodes) |- |1969–1971 |Insight |Johnny |2 episodes<br />– "The Poker Game" (1969)<br />– "The War of the Eggs" (1971) |- |1969 |Love, American Style |Darian Patrick |Episode: "Love and the Legal Agreement" |- |1969 |Win with the Stars |Himself (Celebrity Contestant) |Episode: "Rosemary Clooney/Bill Bixby" |- |1969 |Stump the Stars |Himself (Panelist) |Episode: "09.29.1969" |- |1969–1972 |The Courtship of Eddie's Father |Tom Corbett |series regular (73 episodes)<br />Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (1971) |- |1970 |Love, American Style |Alan |Episode: "Love and the Eskimo" |- |1970 |Ironside |Tom Dayton |Episode: "Tom Dayton Is Loose Among Us" |- |1970 |It Takes Two |Himself |Episode: "05.04.1970" |- |1970 |The Dating Game |Himself (Panelist) |Episode: "09.07.1970" |- |1971 |Big Fish, Little Fish |Ronnie Johnson |Television film |- |1971 |Congratulations, It's a Boy! |Johnny Gaines |Television film |- |1971–1972 |Love, American Style |Kenny Frasier |2 episodes<br />– "Love and the Rug"<br />– "Love and the Overnight Guests" |- |1971–1974 |Password All-Stars |Himself (Celebrity Contestant) |recurring role (7 episodes) |- |1972 |Night Gallery |Noel / Bruce Tarrady |2 episodes<br />– "Last Rites for a Dead Druid"<br />– "The Return of the Sorcerer" |- |1972 |Search |Mark Elliott |Episode: "The Adonis File" |- |1972 |The Couple Takes a Wife |Jeff Hamilton |Television film |- |1972 |Medical Center |Dr. Hurst |Episode: "Pressure Point" |- |1973 |Barnaby Jones |Alex Chandler |Episode: "To Denise, with Love and Murder" |- |1973 |Steambath |Tandy |Television film |- |1973 |Shirts/Skins |Teddy Bush |Television film |- |1973–1974 |The Magician |Anthony Blake / Anthony Dorian |series regular (22 episodes) |- |1974 |Rex Harrison Presents Stories of Love |William |Television film |- |1974 |Ironside |Dr. Gallin |Episode: "Raise the Devil" |- |1974 |The Streets of San Francisco |Jerry Schilling |Episode: "Target: Red"<br />Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series |- |1975 |Mannix |Tony Elliott |Episode: "The Empty Tower" |- |1975 |Barbary Coast |Philippe Despard |Episode: "The Barbary Coast" |- |1976 |The Streets of San Francisco |Eric Doyle |Episode: "Police Buff" |- |1976 |Rich Man, Poor Man |Willie Abbott |Television miniseries (4 episodes)<br />– "Part II: Chapters 3 and 4"<br />– "Part III: Chapter 5"<br />– "Part IV: Chapter 6"<br />– Part VI: Chapter 8"<br />Nominated—Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Miniseries or Movie |- |1976 |Spencer's Pilots |Philo McGraw |Episode: "Pilot" |- |1976 |The Invasion of Johnson County |Sam Lowell |Television film |- |1976 |The Great Houdini |Reverend Ford |Television film |- |1976 |Once Upon a Classic'' |Himself (Host) |series regular (4 episodes)<br />Nominated—Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in a Children's Program (1981) |- |1977 |Fantasy Island |Arnold Greenwood |Episode: "Pilot" |- |1977 |''Quinn Martin's Tales of the Unexpected |Lieutenant Commander John Kelty |Episode: "No Way Out" |- |1977 |Black Market Baby |Herbert Freemont |Television film |- |1977 |The Love Boat |John Ballard |Episode: "Message for Maureen/Gotcha/Acapulco Connection" |- |1977 |The Oregon Trail |Fred F. Mason |Episode: "The Scarlet Ribbon" |- |1977–1982 |The Incredible Hulk'' |David Bruce Banner |series regular (82 episodes)<br />TV Land Award for Character You REALLY Don't Want to Make Angry (2008) |- |1978 |Once Upon a Classic |Himself (Host) |Episode: "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court" |- |1982 |Murder Is Easy |Professor Luke Williams |Television film |- |1982 |The Book of Lists |Himself (Host) |unknown episodes |- |1982 |''I've Had It Up to Here |unknown role |Television film |- |1983–1984 |Goodnight, Beantown |Matt Cassidy |series regular (18 episodes) |- |1985 |International Airport |Harvey Johnson |Television film |- |1986 |Sin of Innocence |David McGary |Television film |- |1986 |True Confessions |Himself (Host) |series regular (7 episodes) |- |1987 |J.J. Starbuck |Donald Iskin |Episode: "Pilot" |- |1987 |Sledge Hammer! |Zeke |Episode: "Hammer Hits the Rock" |- |1988 |The Incredible Hulk Returns |David Bruce Banner |Television film |- |1989 |The Trial of the Incredible Hulk |David Bruce Banner |Television film |- |1990 |The Death of the Incredible Hulk |David Bruce Banner |Television film |- |1991 |An American Story |Himself |Television special |- |1992 |Diagnosis Murder: Diagnosis of Murder |Nick Osborne |Television film |- |1993 |Blossom'' |Cop (voice) |Episode: "Blossom's Dilemma" |} Production credits Television {| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Contribution !Notes |- |1970–1972 |''The Courtship of Eddie's Father'' |Director |Director (8 episodes)<br />– "Gifts Are for Giving" (1970)<br />– "Two's Company" (1971)<br />– "Happy Birthday to You" (1971)<br />– "A Brave at Natchanoomi" (1971)<br />– "The Karate Story" (1972)<br />– "The Investors" (1972)<br />– "In the Eye of the Beholder" (1972)<br />– "Time for a Change" (1972) |- |1972–1973 |Room 222 |Director |Director (2 episodes)<br />– "Elizabeth Brown Is Failing" (1972)<br />– "The Noon Goon" (1973) |- |1974 |The Magician |Director |Episode: "The Illusion of the Evil Spikes" |- |1975 |Mannix |Director |Director (4 episodes)<br />– "A Word Called Courage"<br />– "A Ransom for Yesterday"<br />– "The Empty Tower"<br />– "Hardball" |- |1975 |Barbary Coast |Director |Director (2 episodes)<br />– "The Barbary Coast"<br />– "Jesse Who?" |- |1975 |Kate McShane |Director |Episode: "God at $15,732 a Year" |- |1976 |''Ber D'Angelo/Superstar |Director |Episode: "A Noise in the Streets" |- |1976 |Spencer's Pilots |Director |Director (2 episodes)<br />– "The Drone"<br />– "The Hunted" |- |1976–1977 |Rich Man, Poor Man — Book II |Director |Director (2 episodes)<br />– "Chapter III (1976)<br />– "Chapter XVIII" (1977)<br />Nominated—Directors Guild Award for Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Dramatic Series (1977) |- |1977 |Charlie's Angels |Director |Episode: "Dirty Business" |- |1977 |The Oregon Trail |Director |Episode: "The Scarlet Ribbon" |- |1978 |Three on a Date |Director |Television film |- |1978 |The Many Loves of Arthur |Director |Television film |- |1981 |The Incredible Hulk |Director |Episode: "Bring Me the Head of the Hulk" |- |1981–1982 |Mr. Merlin |Director |Director (5 episodes)<br />– "The Cloning of the Green" (1981)<br />– "The Two Faces of Zac" (1981)<br />– "Take My Tonsils...Please!" (1981)<br />– "Change of Venue" (1982)<br />– "I Was a Teenage Loser" (1982) |- |1982 |Herbie, the Love Bug |Director |Director (3 episodes)<br />– "My House Is Your House"<br />– "Calling Doctor Herbie"<br />– "Herbie the Third" |- |1983 |Wizards and Warriors |Director |Director (3 episodes)<br />– "The Unicorn of Death"<br />– "Night of Terror"<br />– "Skies of Death" |- |1983–1984 |Goodnight, Beantown |Director/Executive Producer |Director (3 episodes)<br />– "Hooking for Mr. Goodbar" (1983)<br />– "A Felon Needs a Girl" (1983); also Executive Producer<br />– "Peace on Earth"<br />Executive Producer (2 episodes)<br />– "An Old Flame Flickers" (1984) |- |1983 |The Best of Times |Director |Television pilot |- |1984 |W*A*L*T*E*R |Director |Television pilot |- |1984 |Dreams |Director/Producer |Director (5 episodes)<br />– "Kiss Me Red"; also Producer<br />– "Boys Are the Best"; also Producer<br />– "Working Life"; also Producer<br />– "Stuttering"; also Producer<br />– "Suspicion"; also Producer<br />Executive Producer (12 episodes)<br />– "Friends"<br />– "Fortune and Fame"<br />– "Alone"<br />– "Head Over Heels"<br />– "Rusted Dreams"<br />– "Tears in the Night"<br />– "The Birthday Party" |- |1985 |Rockhopper |Director |Television film |- |1985 |I Had Three Wives'' |Director |Director (3 episodes)<br />– "You and I Know"<br />– " 'Til Death Do Us Part"<br />– "Bedtime Stories"<br />– "Butterfly Murder"<br />– "Runaround Sue" |- |1986 |Better Days |Director |Director (3 episodes)<br />– "Cheaters Never Win"<br />– "Ground Rules"<br />– "Never Blow Up the World" |- |1987–1988 |Sledge Hammer! |Director |Director (8 episodes)<br />– "Play It Again Sledge" (1987)<br />– "Death a Few Salesmen" (1987)<br />– "Hammer Hits the Rock" (1987)<br />– "The Last of the Red Hot Vampires" (1987)<br />– "Icebreaker" (1987)<br />– "Sledge, Rattle 'n' Roll" (1988)<br />– "It Happened What Night?" (1988)<br />– "Here's to You, Mrs. Hammer" (1988) |- |1988 |The Incredible Hulk Returns |Executive Producer |Television film |- |1988 |Some Kinda Woman |Director |Television film |- |1988 |''Murphy's Law |Director |Director (2 episodes)<br />– "Where Are My Socks and Other Mysteries of Love"<br />– "Do Someone a Favor and It Becomes Your Job" |- |1989 |The Trial of the Incredible Hulk |Director/Executive Producer |Television film |- |1989 |The Nutt House |Director |Episode: "The Accidental Groom" |- |1990 |The Death of the Incredible Hulk |Director/Executive Producer |Television film |- |1990 |Ferris Bueller'' |Director |Director (2 episodes)<br />– "Behind Every Dirtbag"<br />– "Baby You Can't Drive My Car" |- |1991 |Sons and Daughters |Director |Episode: "Melanie" |- |1991 |Another Pair of Aces: Three of a Kind |Director |Television film |- |1991 |Man of the People |Director |Episode: "Sleeping with the Enemy" |- |1991 |Baby of the Bride |Director |Television film |- |1992–1994 |Blossom |Director |Director (30 episodes)<br />– "Runaway" (1992)<br />– "Dear Mom" (1992)<br />– "What Price Love?" (1992)<br />– "The Joey Chronicles" (1992)<br />– "Kids" (1992)<br />– "Only When I Laugh" (1992)<br />– "I Killed Chico Barranca" (1992)<br />– "All Hallows Eve" (1992)<br />– "The Making of the President" (1992)<br />– "My Girl" (1992)<br />– "The Frat Party" (1992)<br />– "Losing Your...Religion" (1992)<br />– "Ruby" (1992)<br />– "Time" (1993)<br />– "Mystery Train" (1993)<br />– "The Best Laid Plans of Mice and Men" (1993)<br />– "All Dressed Up" (1993)<br />– "You Did What?" (1993)<br />– "Sitcom" (1993)<br />– "Hunger" (1993)<br />– "Paris" (1993)<br />– "Transitions" (1993)<br />– "Kiss and Tell" (1993)<br />– "Six and Sonny" (1993)<br />– "Blossom's Dilemma" (1993)<br />– "The Fifty-Minute Hour" (1993)<br />– "True Romance" (1993)<br />– "Let's Talk About Sex" (1993)<br />– "Getting Lucky" (1994)<br />– "Meat" (1994) |- |1993 |The Woman Who Loved Elvis |Director |Television film |} References External links * * * * Category:1934 births Category:1993 deaths Category:20th-century American businesspeople Category:20th-century American male actors Category:American male film actors Category:American male stage actors Category:American male television actors Category:American people of English descent Category:American television directors Category:City College of San Francisco alumni Category:Deaths from prostate cancer in California Category:Film directors from California Category:Male actors from San Francisco Category:Television personalities from San Francisco Category:Television producers from California Category:United States Marine Corps reservists Category:United States Marines Category:University of California, Berkeley alumni Category:Phi Delta Theta members
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Bixby
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4971
Boers
| image = Boerfamily1886.jpg | image_upright = 1.2 | caption = Boer family in 1886 | pop | languages = Afrikaans | religions = Protestant Christianity | related = }} Boers ( ; ; ) are the descendants of the proto Afrikaans-speaking Free Burghers of the eastern Cape frontier in Southern Africa during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. From 1652 to 1795, the Dutch East India Company controlled the Dutch Cape Colony, which the United Kingdom incorporated into the British Empire in 1806. The name of the group is derived from Trekboer then later "boer", which means "farmer" in Dutch and Afrikaans. In addition, the term also applied to those who left the Cape Colony during the 19th century to colonise the Orange Free State, and the Transvaal (together known as the Boer Republics), and to a lesser extent Natal. They emigrated from the Cape to live beyond the reach of the British colonial administration, with their reasons for doing so primarily being the new Anglophone common law system being introduced into the Cape and the British abolition of slavery in 1833. The term Afrikaners or Afrikaans people is generally used in modern-day South Africa for the white Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa (the largest group of White South Africans) encompassing the descendants of both the Boers, and the Cape Dutch who did not embark on the Great Trek. Origin European colonists ]] The Dutch East India Company (; VOC) was formed in the Dutch Republic in 1602, and at this time the Dutch had entered the competition for the colonial and imperial trade of commerce in Southeast Asia. The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 saw European soldiers and refugees widely dispersed across Europe. Immigrants from Germany, Scandinavia, and Switzerland traveled to the Netherlands in the hope of finding employment with the VOC. During the same year, one of their ships was stranded in Table Bay near what would eventually become Cape Town, and the shipwrecked crew had to forage for themselves on shore for several months. They were so impressed with the natural resources of the country that on their return to the Dutch Republic, they represented to the VOC directors the advantages to be had for the Dutch Eastern trade from a properly provided and fortified station at the Cape. As a result, the VOC sent a Dutch expedition in 1652 led by Jan van Riebeek, who constructed a fort and laid out vegetable gardens at Table Bay and took control over Cape Town, which he governed for a decade. Free Burghers VOC favoured the idea of freemen at the Cape and many workers of VOC requested to be discharged in order to become free burghers (citizens). As a result, Jan van Riebeek approved the notion on favourable conditions and earmarked two areas near the Liesbeek River for farming purposes in 1657. The two areas which were allocated to the freemen, for agricultural purposes, were named Greenfield and Dutch Garden. These areas were separated by the Amstel River (Liesbeek River). Nine of the best applicants were selected to use the land for agricultural purposes. The freemen or free burghers as they were afterwards termed, thus became subjects of VOC and were no longer its servants. In 1671, the Dutch first purchased land from the indigenous Khoikhoi beyond the limits of the fort built by Van Riebeek; this marked the development of the Colony proper. As the result of the investigations of a 1685 commissioner, the government worked to recruit a greater variety of immigrants to develop a stable community. They formed part of the class of , also known as ('free citizens'), former VOC employees who remained at the Cape after serving their contracts. A large number of became independent farmers and applied for grants of land, as well as loans of seed and tools, from VOC administration. French Huguenots During 1688–1689, the colony was greatly strengthened by the arrival of nearly two hundred French Huguenots, who were political refugees from the religious wars in France following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. They joined colonies at Stellenbosch, Drakenstein, Franschhoek and Paarl. The influence of the Huguenots on the character of the colonists was marked, leading to the VOC directing in 1701 that only Dutch should be taught in schools. This resulted in the Huguenots assimilating by the middle of the 18th century, with a loss in the use and knowledge of French. The colony gradually spread eastwards, and in 1754 land as far as Algoa Bay was included in the colony. At this time the European colonists numbered eight to ten thousand. They possessed numerous slaves, grew wheat in sufficient quantity to make it a commodity crop for export, and were famed for the good quality of their wines. But their chief wealth was in cattle. They enjoyed considerable prosperity. Through the latter half of the 17th and the whole of the 18th century, troubles arose between the colonists and the government as the VOC administration was despotic. Its policies were not directed at development of the colony, but to profit the VOC. The VOC closed the colony against free immigration, kept the whole of the trade in its own hands, combined the administrative, legislative and judicial powers in one body, prescribed to the farmers the nature of the crops they were to grow, demanded a large part of their produce as a kind of tax, and made other exactions. Trekboers From time to time, indentured VOC servants were endowed with the right of freeburghers but the VOC retained the power to compel them to return into its service whenever they deemed it necessary. This right to force into servitude those who might incur the displeasure of the governor or other high officers was not only exercised with reference to the individuals themselves; it was claimed by the government to be applicable to their children as well. The tyranny caused many to feel desperate and to flee from oppression, even before the 1700 trekking began. In 1780, Joachim van Plettenberg, the governor, proclaimed the Sneeuberge to be the northern boundary of the colony, expressing "the anxious hope that no more extension should take place, and with heavy penalties forbidding the rambling peasants to wander beyond". In 1789, so strong had feelings amongst the burghers become that delegates were sent from the Cape to interview the authorities at Amsterdam. After this deputation, some nominal reforms were granted. <gallery mode"packed" heights"150px"> Image:Burchell02.jpg|Descending from the Sneeuberge, a scene near Graaff-Reinet, by Burchell Image:Charles Michell03.jpg|Passing Cradock Pass, Outeniqua Mountains, by Charles Collier Michell Image:Daniell Trekboer.jpg|An aquatint by Samuel Daniell of Trekboers making camp Image:TrekBoers crossing the Karoo.jpg|Trekboers crossing the Karoo by Charles Davidson Bell </gallery> It was largely to escape oppression that the farmers trekked farther and farther from the seat of government. VOC, to control the emigrants, established a magistracy at Swellendam in 1745 and another at Graaff Reinet in 1786. The Gamtoos River had been declared, , the eastern frontier of the colony but it was soon passed. In 1780, however, the Dutch, to avoid collision with the Bantu peoples, agreed with them to make the Great Fish River the common boundary. In 1795 the heavily taxed burghers of the frontier districts, who were afforded no protection against the Bantus, expelled the VOC officials, and set up independent governments at Swellendam and Graaff Reinet. The trekboers of the 19th century were the lineal descendants of the trekboers of the 18th century. The end of the 19th century saw a revival of the same tyrannical monopolist policy as that in the VOC government in the Transvaal. If the formula, "In all things political, purely despotic; in all things commercial, purely monopolist", was true of the VOC government in the 18th century, it was equally true of Kruger's government in the latter part of the 19th. The underlying fact which made the trek possible is that the Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony were not cultivators of the soil, but of purely pastoral and nomadic habits, ever ready to seek new pastures for their flocks and herds, possessing no special affection for any particular locality. These people, thinly scattered over a wide territory, had lived for so long with little restraint from the law that when, in 1815, by the institution of "Commissions of Circuit", justice was brought nearer to their homes, various offences were brought to light, the remedying of which caused much resentment. The Dutch-descended colonists in the eastern and northeastern parts of the colony, as a result of the Great Trek, had removed themselves from governmental rule and become widely spread out. However, the institution of "Commissions of Circuit" in 1815 allowed the prosecution of crimes, with offences committed by the trekboers—notably including many against people they had enslaved—seeing justice. These prosecutions were very unpopular amongst the trekkers and were seen as interfering with their rights over the enslaved people they viewed as their property. <gallery mode"packed" heights"150px"> Image:Trekboer migration map.png|A map of the expansion of the Trekboers (1700–1800) Image:Nederlandse Kaapkolonie.svg|Evolution of the Dutch Cape Colony (1700–1800) Image:Kapkolonie 1795.jpg|Administrative divisions of the Dutch Cape Colony </gallery> <!-- Quote is too big. Either convert to prose or remove (August 2018) --> Invasion of the Cape Colony The Invasion of the Cape Colony was a British military expedition launched in 1795 against the Dutch Cape Colony at the Cape of Good Hope. The Netherlands had fallen under the revolutionary government of France and a British force under General Sir James Henry Craig was sent to Cape Town to secure the colony from the French for the Prince of Orange, a refugee in England. The governor of Cape Town at first refused to obey the instructions from the Prince, but when the British proceeded to land troops to take possession anyway, he capitulated. His action was hastened by the fact that the Khoikhoi, escaping from their former enslavers, flocked to the British standard. The burghers of Graaff Reinet did not surrender until a force had been sent against them; in 1799 and again in 1801 they rose in revolt. In February 1803, as a result of the peace of Amiens (February 1803), the colony was handed over to the Batavian Republic which introduced many reforms, as had the British during their eight years' rule. One of the first acts of General Craig had been to abolish torture in the administration of justice. The country still remained essentially Dutch, and few British citizens were attracted to it. Its cost to the British exchequer during this period was £16,000,000. The Batavian Republic entertained very liberal views as to the administration of the country, but had little opportunity to enact them. When the War of the Third Coalition broke out in 1803, a British force was once again sent to the Cape. After an engagement (January 1806) on the shores of Table Bay, the Dutch garrison of Castle of Good Hope surrendered to the British under Sir David Baird, and in the 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty the colony was ceded outright by The Netherlands to the British crown. At that time the colony extended to the line of mountains guarding the vast central plateau, then called Bushmansland (after a name for the San people), and had an area of about sq km and a population of some , of whom were whites, free Khoikhoi and the rest enslaved people, mostly non-indigenous blacks and Malays. Dislike of British rule Although the colony was fairly prosperous, many of the Dutch farmers were as dissatisfied with British rule as they had been with that of the VOC, though their grounds for complaint were not the same. In 1792, Moravian missions had been established which targeted the Khoikhoi, and in 1799 the London Missionary Society began work among both Khoikhoi and the Bantu peoples. The missionaries' championing of Khoikhoi grievances caused much dissatisfaction among the majority of the Dutch colonists, whose views temporarily prevailed, for in 1812 an ordinance was issued which empowered magistrates to bind Khoikhoi children as apprentices under conditions which differed little from slavery. Simultaneously, the movement for the abolition of slavery was gaining strength in England, and the missionaries appealed from the colonists to the mother country. Slachter's Nek A farmer named Frederick Bezuidenhout refused to obey a summons issued on the complaint of a Khoikhoi, and, firing on the party sent to arrest him, was killed by the return fire. This caused a small rebellion in 1815, known as Slachters Nek, described as "the most insane attempt ever made by a set of men to wage war against their sovereign" by Henry Cloete. Upon its suppression, five ringleaders were publicly hanged at the spot where they had sworn to expel "the English tyrants". The feeling caused by the hanging of these men was deepened by the circumstances of the execution, as the scaffold on which the rebels were simultaneously hanged broke down from their united weight and the men were afterwards hanged one by one. An ordinance was passed in 1827, abolishing the old Dutch courts of and (resident magistrates being substituted) and establishing that henceforth all legal proceedings should be conducted in English. The granting in 1828, as a result of the representations of the missionaries, of equal rights with whites to the Khoikhoi and other free coloured people, the imposition (1830) of heavy penalties for harsh treatment of enslaved people, and finally the emancipation of the enslaved people in 1834, were measures which combined to aggravate the farmers' dislike of government. Moreover, what the Boers viewed as the inadequate compensation for the freeing of the slaves, and the suspicions engendered by the method of payment, caused much resentment; and in 1835 the farmers again removed themselves to unknown country to escape the government. While emigration beyond the colonial border had been continuous for 150 years, it now took on larger proportions. Cape Frontier Wars (1779–1879) in 1809, early British rule]] The migration of the trekboers from the Cape Colony into the Eastern Cape parts of South Africa, where the native Xhosa people had established settlements, gave rise to a series of conflicts between the Boers and the Xhosas. In 1775 the Cape government established a boundary between the trekboers and the Xhosas at the Bushmans and Upper Fish Rivers. The Boers and Xhosas ignored the boundary, with both groups establishing homes on either side of the frontier. Governor van Plettenberg attempted to persuade both groups to respect the boundary line without success. The Xhosas were accused of stealing cattle and in 1779 a series of skirmishes erupted along the border which initiated the 1st Frontier War. The frontier remained unstable, resulting in the outbreak of the 2nd Frontier War in 1789. Raids carried out by Boers and Xhosas on both sides of the boundary caused much friction in the area which resulted in several groups being drawn into the conflict. In 1795, the British invasion of the Cape Colony resulted in a change of government. After the government takeover the British began to draw up policies with regards to the frontier resulting in a Boer rebellion in Graaff-Reinet. The policies caused the Khoisan tribes to join some Xhosa chiefs in attacks against British forces during the 3rd Frontier War (1799–1803). Boer states and republics As the Voortrekkers progressed further inland, they continued to establish Boer colonies on the interior of South Africa. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Description !! Dates !! Area |- | Republic of Swellendam || 17 June – 4 November 1795 || Swellendam, Western Cape |- | Republic of Graaff-Reinet ||1 February 1795 – November 1796|| Graaff-Reinet, Eastern Cape |- | Zoutpansberg ||1835–1864|| Limpopo |- | Winburg ||1836–1844|| Free State |- | Potchefstroom ||1837–1844|| North West |- | ||1839–1902|| Eastern Cape |- | Winburg-Potchefstroom ||1844–1843|| Potchefstroom, North West |- | Republic of Klip River ||1847–1848|| Ladysmith, KwaZulu-Natal |- | Lydenburg Republic ||1849–1860|| Lydenburg, Mpumalanga |- | Utrecht Republic ||1852–1858|| Utrecht, KwaZulu-Natal |- | || 1852–1877, 1881–1902|| Gauteng, Limpopo |- | ||1854–1902|| Free State |- | Klein Vrystaat ||1876–1891|| Piet Retief, Mpumalanga |- | State of Goshen ||1882–1883|| North West |- | Republic of Stellaland ||1882–1883|| North West |- | United States of Stellaland ||1883–1885|| North West |- | New Republic ||1884–1888|| Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal |- | Republic of Upingtonia/Lijdensrust ||1885–1887|| Namibia |} Anglo-Boer wars Following the British annexation of the Transvaal in 1877, Paul Kruger was a key figure in organizing a Boer resistance which led to expulsion of the British from the Transvaal. The Boers then fought the Second Boer War in the late 19th and early 20th century against the British in order to ensure the republics of the Transvaal (the ) and the Orange Free State, remaining independent, ultimately capitulating in 1902. Boer War diaspora After the Second Boer War, a Boer diaspora occurred. Starting in 1903, the largest group emigrated to the Patagonia region of Argentina and to Brazil. Another group emigrated to the British colony of Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s, while a third group under the leadership of General Ben Viljoen emigrated to Mexico and to New Mexico and Texas in the southwestern United States. 1914 Boer Revolt The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt, the Five Shilling Rebellion or the Third Boer War) occurred in 1914 at the start of World War I, in which men who supported the re-creation of the Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa because they did not want to side with the British against the German Empire so soon after the war with the British. Many Boers had German ancestry and many members of the government were themselves former Boer military leaders who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Boer War. The rebellion was put down by Louis Botha and Jan Smuts, and the ringleaders received heavy fines and terms of imprisonment. One, Jopie Fourie, an officer in the Union Defence Force, was convicted for treason when he refused to take up arms alongside the British, and was executed by the South African government in 1914. Characteristics Language Afrikaans is a West Germanic language spoken widely in South Africa and Namibia, and to a lesser extent in Botswana and Zimbabwe. It evolved from the Dutch vernacular of South Holland (Hollandic dialect) spoken by the mainly Dutch colonists of what is now South Africa, where it gradually began to develop distinguishing characteristics in the course of the 18th century. Hence, it is a daughter language of Dutch, and was previously referred to as Cape Dutch (also used to refer collectively to the early Cape colonists) or kitchen Dutch (a derogatory term used in its earlier days). However, it is also variously (although incorrectly) described as a creole or as a partially creolised language. The term is ultimately derived from Dutch meaning African Dutch. Culture The desire to wander, known as , was a notable characteristic of the Boers. It figured prominently in the late 17th century when the Trekboers began to inhabit the northern and eastern Cape frontiers, again during the Great Trek when the Voortrekkers left the eastern Cape en masse, and after the major republics were established during the Thirstland ('') Trek. One such trekker described the impetus for emigrating as, "a drifting spirit was in our hearts, and we ourselves could not understand it. We just sold our farms and set out northwestwards to find a new home". Beliefs The Boers of the frontier were known for their independent spirit, resourcefulness, hardiness, and self-sufficiency, whose political notions verged on anarchy but had begun to be influenced by republicanism. The Boers possessed a distinct Protestant culture, and the majority of Boers and their descendants were members of a Reformed Church. The ('Dutch Reformed Church') was the national Church of the South African Republic (1852–1902). The Orange Free State (1854–1902) was named after the Protestant House of Orange in the Netherlands. The Calvinist influence, in such fundamental Calvinist doctrines such as unconditional predestination and divine providence, remains present in a minority of Boer culture, who see their role in society as abiding by the national laws and accepting calamity and hardship as part of their Christian duty. Many Boers have since converted denominations and are now members of Baptist, Charismatic, Pentecostal or Lutheran Churches. Modern usage During recent times, mainly during the apartheid reform and post-1994 eras, some white Afrikaans-speaking people, mainly with conservative political views, and of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent, have chosen to be called , rather than Afrikaners, to distinguish their identity. They believe that many people of Voortrekker descent were not assimilated into what they see as the Cape-based Afrikaner identity. They suggest that this developed after the Second Anglo-Boer War and the subsequent establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Some Boer nationalists have asserted that they do not identify as a right-wing element of the political spectrum. They contend that the Boers of the South African Republic and Orange Free State republics were recognised as a separate people or cultural group under international law by the Sand River Convention (which created the South African Republic in 1852), the Bloemfontein Convention (which created the Orange Free State Republic in 1854), the Pretoria Convention (which re-established the independence of the South African Republic 1881), the London Convention (which granted the full independence to the South African Republic in 1884), and the Vereeniging Peace Treaty, which formally ended the Second Anglo-Boer War on 31 May 1902. Others contend, however, that these treaties dealt only with agreements between governmental entities and do not imply the recognition of a Boer cultural identity per se. The supporters of these views feel that the Afrikaner label was used from the 1930s onwards as a means of politically unifying the white Afrikaans speakers of the Western Cape with those of Trekboer and Voortrekker descent in the north of South Africa, where the Boer Republics were established. In contemporary South Africa, Boer and Afrikaner have often been used interchangeably. directly translated means African, and thus refers to all Afrikaans-speaking people in Africa who have their origins in the Cape Colony founded by Jan Van Riebeeck. Boer is a specific group within the larger Afrikaans-speaking population. During apartheid, Boer was used by opponents of apartheid in various contexts, referring to institutional structures such as the National Party, or to specific groups of people, such as members of the Police Force (colloquially known as Boere) and Army, Afrikaners, or white South Africans generally. This usage is often viewed as pejorative in contemporary South Africa. Politics * Boere-Vryheidsbeweging * Boerestaat Party * Freedom Front Plus * Front National * Herstigte Nasionale Party * National Conservative Party of South Africa Education The Movement for Christian-National Education is a federation of 47 Calvinist private schools, primarily in the Free State and the Transvaal, committed to educating Boer children from grade 0 through to 12. Media Some local radio stations promote the ideals of those who identify with the Boer people, like Radio Rosestad 100.6 FM (in Bloemfontein), Overvaal Stereo and Radio Pretoria. An internet-based radio station, Boerevolk Radio, promotes Boer separatism. Territories Territorial areas in the form of a ('Boer State') are being developed as colonies exclusively for Boers/Afrikaners, notably Orania in the Northern Cape and Kleinfontein near Pretoria. Notable Boers <!-- This section is linked from Lists of people by nationality --> Voortrekker leaders * Sarel Cilliers * Andries Hendrik Potgieter * Andries Pretorius * Piet Retief Great trek * Racheltjie de Beer * Dirkie Uys * Marthinus Jacobus Oosthuizen Participants in the Second Anglo-Boer War * Koos de la Rey, general; regarded as being one of the great military leaders of the Second Anglo-Boer War * Danie Theron, soldier * Christiaan Rudolf de Wet, general * Siener van Rensburg, considered a prophet by some Politicians * Louis Botha, first prime minister of South Africa (1910–1919) and former Boer general * Petrus Jacobus Joubert, general and cabinet member of the Transvaal Republic * Paul Kruger, president of the Transvaal Republic * Martinus Theunis Steyn, 6th State President of the Orange Free State Spies * Robey Leibbrandt * Fritz Joubert Duquesne, Boer captain known as the Black Panther who served in the Second Boer War Persecution Since the early 2000s, South African farmers, including many Boers, have faced a wave of violent attacks in rural areas, often involving extreme brutality such as torture and murder. These incidents, which have drawn international attention, have led many within the Boer community to fear for their safety. Some have emigrated to countries like Australia, while others have invested in private security measures to protect their families and property. The ongoing attacks remain a significant concern for South Africa's rural communities. In 2020 a group of protestors in Senekal demanded that two men accused of murdering white farmers be handed over to them. The protest fell into chaos, and was described as “anarchic” by Justice Minister Ronald Lamola. Protestors attempted to force their way into the court cells, and a police vehicle was overturned and set alight.In modern fiction The history of the Cape Colony and the Boers in South Africa is covered at length in the 1980 novel The Covenant by American author James A. Michener. The Boers appear as a civilization in the 'Scramble to Africa' scenario in Civilization V: Brave New World. Paul Kruger leads the civilization during the scenario. The Boers' unique unit is the foreign volunteer. See also Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * * Category:Afrikaans words and phrases Category:Dutch words and phrases Category:Great Trek Category:Society of South Africa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boers
2025-04-05T18:27:01.889918
4972
Bronze Star Medal
Bronze Award|Bronze medal|Bronze Medallion (disambiguation)Bronze Medallion}} |established=Executive Order 9419, 4 February 1944 (superseded by E.O. 11046, 24 August 1962) |firstawarded=4 February 1944 (retroactive through 7 December 1941) |lastawarded=Currently awarded |total_awarded|total_awarded_posthumously |total_recipients|higherArmy: Soldier's Medal<br>Naval Service: Navy and Marine Corps Medal<br>Air and Space Forces: Airman's Medal<br>Coast Guard: Coast Guard Medal |same|lowerPurple Heart |caption2=Medal ribbon (above) – Reverse side of star (below) |image2=<br /><br /> }} The Bronze Star Medal (BSM) is a United States Armed Forces decoration awarded to members of the United States Armed Forces for either heroic achievement, heroic service, meritorious achievement, or meritorious service in a combat zone. When the medal is awarded by the Army, Air Force, or Space Force for acts of valor in combat, the "V" device is authorized for wear on the medal. When the medal is awarded by the Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard for acts of valor or meritorious service in combat, the Combat "V" is authorized for wear on the medal. Officers from the other Uniformed Services of the United States are eligible to receive this award, as are foreign soldiers who have served with or alongside a service branch of the United States Armed Forces. Civilians serving with U.S. military forces in combat are also eligible for the award. For example, UPI reporter Joe Galloway was awarded the Bronze Star with "V" device for actions during the Vietnam War, specifically rescuing a badly wounded soldier under fire in the Battle of Ia Drang Valley, in 1965. Another civilian recipient was writer Ernest Hemingway. General information The Bronze Star Medal was established by Executive Order 9419, 4 February 1944 (superseded by Executive Order 11046, 24 August 1962, as amended by Executive Order 13286, 28 February 2003). <!-- Deleted image removed: --> The Bronze Star Medal may be awarded by the Secretary of a military department or the Secretary of Homeland Security with regard to the Coast Guard when not operating as a service in the Department of the Navy, or by such military commanders, or other appropriate officers as the Secretary concerned may designate, to any person who, while serving in any capacity in or with the Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, Coast Guard, or Space Force of the United States, after 6 December 1941, distinguishes, or has distinguished, herself or himself by heroic or meritorious achievement or service, not involving participation in aerial flight— :(a) while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States; :(b) while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing foreign force; or :(c) while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party. The acts of heroism are of a lesser degree than required for the award of the Silver Star. The acts of merit or acts of valor must be less than that required for the Legion of Merit but must nevertheless have been meritorious and accomplished with distinction. The Bronze Star Medal (without the "V" device) may be awarded to each member of the Armed Forces of the United States who, after 6 December 1941, was cited in orders or awarded a certificate for exemplary conduct in ground combat against an armed enemy between 7 December 1941 and 2 September 1945. For this purpose, the US Army's Combat Infantryman Badge or Combat Medical Badge award is considered as a citation in orders. Documents executed since 4 August 1944 in connection with recommendations for the award of decorations of higher degree than the Bronze Star Medal cannot be used as the basis for an award under this paragraph. Effective 11 September 2001, the Meritorious Service Medal may also be bestowed in lieu of the Bronze Star Medal (without Combat "V" device) for meritorious achievement in a designated combat theater.AppearanceThe Bronze Star Medal was designed by Rudolf Freund (1878–1960) of the jewelry firm Bailey, Banks & Biddle. (Freund also designed the Silver Star.) The medal is a bronze star in circumscribing diameter. In the center is a diameter superimposed bronze star, the center line of all rays of both stars coinciding. The reverse bears the inscription <small>"HEROIC OR MERITORIOUS ACHIEVEMENT"</small> with a space for the name of the recipient to be engraved. The star hangs from its ribbon by a rectangular metal loop with rounded corners. The suspension ribbon is wide and consists of the following stripes: white 67101; scarlet 67111; white; center stripe ultramarine blue 67118; white; scarlet; and white. the oak leaf cluster is worn to denote additional awards. * <sup>5</sup><small>/</small><sub>16</sub> inch star – In the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard, the <sup>5</sup><small>/</small><sub>16</sub> inch star is worn to denote additional awards. * "V" device – In the Army, the "V" is worn solely to denote "participation in acts of heroism involving conflict with an armed enemy."; The idea eventually rose through the military bureaucracy and gained supporters. General George C. Marshall, in a memorandum to President Franklin D. Roosevelt dated 3 February 1944, wrote The Air Medal had been adopted two years earlier to raise airmen's morale. President Roosevelt authorized the Bronze Star Medal by Executive Order 9419 dated 4 February 1944, retroactive to 7 December 1941. This authorization was announced in War Department Bulletin No. 3, dated 10 February 1944. President John F. Kennedy amended Executive Order 9419 per Executive Order 11046 dated 24 August 1962 to expand the authorization to include those serving with friendly forces. This allowed for awards where US service members become involved in an armed conflict where the United States was not a belligerent. At the time of the Executive Order, for example, the US was not a belligerent in Vietnam, so US advisers serving with the Republic of Vietnam Armed Forces would not have been eligible for the award. Since the award criteria state that the Bronze Star Medal may be awarded to "any person ... while serving in any capacity in or with" the US Armed Forces, awards to members of foreign armed services serving with the United States are permitted. Thus, a number of Allied soldiers received the Bronze Star Medal in World War II, as well as UN soldiers in the Korean War, Vietnamese and allied forces in the Vietnam War, and coalition forces in recent military operations such as the Persian Gulf War, War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. A number of Bronze Star Medals with the "V" device were awarded to veterans of the Battle of Mogadishu. World War II infantry award As a result of a study conducted in 1947, a policy was implemented that authorized the retroactive award of the Bronze Star Medal (without the "V" device) to all soldiers who had received the Combat Infantryman Badge or the Combat Medical Badge during World War II. The basis for this decision was that these badges were awarded only to soldiers who had borne the hardships which resulted in General Marshall's support of the establishment of the Bronze Star Medal. Both badges required a recommendation by the commander and a citation in orders.U.S. Air Force criteria controversy In 2012, two U.S. airmen were allegedly subjected to cyber-bullying after receiving Bronze Star Medals for meritorious non-combat service. The two airmen, who had received the medals in March 2012, had been finance NCOICs in medical units deployed to the War in Afghanistan. The awards sparked a debate as to whether or not the Air Force was awarding too many medals to its members, and whether the Bronze Star should be awarded for non-combat service. This prompted the Air Force to take down stories of the two posted to the internet, and to clarify its criteria for awarding medals. The Air Force contended that meritorious service awards of the Bronze Star outnumber valor awards, and that it views awards on a case-by-case basis to maintain the integrity of the award. This is not the first time that the USAF has been criticized for offering this award. The Department of Defense investigated the award of the Bronze Star Medal (BSM) by the USAF to some 246 individuals after operations in Kosovo in 1999. All but 60 were awarded to officers, and only 16 of those awarded were actually in the combat zone. At least five were awarded to officers who never left Whiteman Air Force Base in Missouri. During this campaign, the Navy had awarded 69 BSMs, and the Army with 5,000 troops in neighboring Albania (considered part of the combat zone) awarded none. In the end, there was a Pentagon review and decision by Congress in 2001 to stop the awarding of Bronze Stars to personnel outside the combat zone.Notable recipients ]] ]] *Joe Medicine Crow, Crow War Chief and historian *Julius Ochs Adler, publisher and journalist *Eddie Albert, actor *James Arness, actor *Robert H. Barrow, 27th Commandant of the Marine Corps *Eben Bartlett, member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives *Tony Bennett, singer *Allison Black, Air Force officer *Rocky Bleier, NFL football player *Rudy Boesch, contestant on Survivor: Borneo and Survivor All Stars *Bill Bowerman, coach and co-founder of Nike, Inc., 4 Bronze Stars received *Omar Bradley, US Army Chief of Staff and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff *Edward Brooke, US Senator *Russell Adam Burnham, U.S. Army Soldier of the Year in 2003 *Hugh Carey, Former Governor of New York State *Leonard F. Chapman Jr., 24th Commandant of the Marine Corps *Joseph S. Clark Jr., Mayor of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania *Cordelia E. Cook, first woman recipient of the Bronze Star Medal and the Purple Heart *Erastus Corning 2nd, Mayor of Albany, New York *Tom Cotton, US Senator *Alan "Ace" Cozzalio, US Army helicopter pilot *Dan Crenshaw, former United States Navy SEAL officer, serving as the U.S. representative for Texas's 2nd congressional district since 2019. *Robert E. Cushman Jr., 25th Commandant of the Marine Corps *Dieter Dengler, aviator and POW escapee *Ron DeSantis, Governor of Florida *Bob Dole, former US Senator *Desmond Doss, combat medic awarded the Medal of Honor in the Battle of Okinawa, 2 Bronze Stars *Dale Dye, actor *Frank Sutton, actor *George Kennedy, actor *Jeremiah Denton, US Senator *Donnie Dunagan, actor *Mark Esper, 27th US Secretary of Defense *Walter Fetterly, Colonel who led a rescue mission deep in enemy territory *Kenneth Raymond Fleenor, Mayor of Selma, Texas *Henry Fonda, actor *Joseph L. Galloway, war correspondent *Maurice R. Greenberg, CEO of American International Group (AIG) *Eric Greitens, Governor of Missouri *Bob Gunton, actor *Michael Hagee, 33rd Commandant of the Marine Corps *Pete Hegseth, two-time recipient, nominee for 29th US Secretary of Defense. *Ernest Hemingway, writer and war correspondent *Gil Hodges, Hall of Fame baseball player and manager *Leo Hoegh, former Governor of Iowa *Samuel M. Hogan, youngest tank battalion commander during WWII, of Task Force Hogan fame. *Daniel Inouye, US Senator *Isadore Jachman, Medal of Honor recipient *Bernard Jackvony, Lieutenant Governor of Rhode Island *Rick James, Kansan legislator *James L. Jones, 32nd Commandant of the Marine Corps, 22nd US National Security Advisor *Bob Kalsu, NFL football player *Otto Kerner Jr., Governor of Illinois *Bob Kerrey, US Senator *John Kerry, 68th US Secretary of State, senator of Massachusetts *Ben Key, Royal Navy Admiral *Henry Kissinger, Secretary of State and foreign affairs consultant *Kareem Rashad Sultan Khan, Muslim-American soldier *Charles C. Krulak, 31st Commandant of the Marine Corps *Sharon Ann Lane, Army Nurse Corps *Eddie LeBaron, NFL football player *Jessica Lynch, POW in Iraq *Douglas MacArthur, US General of the Army and Field Marshal of the Philippines *James "Mad Dog" Mattis, 26th US Secretary of Defense *John McCain, US Senator *Dave McCormick, US Senator *Ed Meads, NFL player *Charles Mergendahl, novelist, television writer *Glenn Miller, jazz musician and band leader *John U. Monro, Dean of Harvard College *Bud Moore, NASCAR team owner and crew chief, two Bronze Stars received *Hal Moore, US Army Lieutenant General *Seth Moulton. USMC Captain, United States Congressman *Robert Neller, 37th Commandant of the Marine Corps * Scott O'Grady, USAF Lieutenant shot down during the Bosnian War and evaded capture for nearly a week, which inspired the 2001 film Behind Enemy Lines *Peter Pace, 16th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff *Ferruccio Parri, leader of the Italian resistance movement *George S. Patton, famed US Army major general *David Petraeus, Army General and former Director of the CIA *Colin Powell, 65th US Secretary of State, 12th Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff *Geronimo Pratt, high-ranking member of the Black Panther Party, two Bronze Stars received *Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller, famed US Marine Corps general *Tony Radakin, 24th Chief of the Defence Staff *Elliot Richardson, 11th US Secretary of Defense, 69th Attorney General, and Secretary of Commerce *Tom Ridge, former Governor of Pennsylvania and 1st Secretary, US Department of Homeland Security *Mickey Rooney, actor *Justus Rosenberg, member of the French Resistance, Commandeur de la ''Légion d'honneur, and Emeritus Professor of Languages and Literature *Jack Rudin, real estate developer *Rod Serling, writer/creator of The Twilight Zone'' *Raymond P. Shafer, Governor of Pennsylvania *Tim Sheehy, US Senator *Lloyd Stowell Shapley *Larry Siegel, writer *EJ Snyder, survivalist and television personality *Oliver Stone, Film Director *Grace Thorpe, environmentalist and Native rights activist *Pat Tillman, NFL player and US Army Ranger *Lee Van Cleef, actor *John Paul Vann, soldier and state department official *Richard Vinroot, Mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina *John Walsh, US Senator *Edward Warburg, Philanthropist *Leroy H. Watson, Mayor of Beverly Hills, California *Douglas Wilder, former Governor of Virginia *Elmo Zumwalt, 19th Chief of Naval Operations Command *Cai Dexian, Chief Of Army, Singapore Armed Forces *Lauri Törni (Larry Thorne), Army, Vietnam, Former Finnish And Waffen SS captain References External links <!-- WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS. Only a limited number of new links should be added to this article. PLEASE DO NOT ADD external links to sites with information already in the article or in its sources. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for further details --> * <!-- EDITORS NOTE: Please follow the WP:EL guideline where possible and consider discussing on the talk page. Thank you. --> Category:Awards established in 1944 Category:Courage awards Category:Military awards and decorations of the United States Category:Awards and decorations of the United States Air Force Category:Awards and decorations of the United States Army Category:Awards and decorations of the United States Coast Guard Category:Awards and decorations of the United States Marine Corps Category:Awards and decorations of the United States Navy Category:Awards and decorations of the United States Space Force
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Star_Medal
2025-04-05T18:27:01.904704
4973
Ballarat
Panorama |caption1 = City centre | image2 = Ballarat Town Hall 2011 004.JPGBallarat Town Hall |caption2 = Town Hall | image3 = Ballarat Victoria (60458582).jpeg Post Office |caption3 = Post Office | image4 = Ballarat Station - panoramio.jpgBallarat station |caption4 = Ballarat station | image5 = Ballarat Craig's Hotel 001.JPGCraig's Royal Hotel |caption5 = Craig's Royal Hotel }} |caption |pop 111,973 <!-- Do not use the LGA area figure here as it is misleading --> |pop_year = | pop_footnotes |poprank = 18th |elevation = 435-630 <!--1427 ft--> |elevation_footnotes = AHD |coordinates |est = 1838 | area = 343.6 |area_footnotes (2016 census – SUA) |timezone = AEST |utc = +10 |timezone-dst = AEDT |utc-dst = +11 |postcode = 3350 |stategov = Eureka |stategov2 = Ripon |stategov3 = Wendouree |fedgov = Ballarat |lga = City of Ballarat |regionGrampians|maxtemp 17.4 |mintemp = 7.1 |rainfall = 688.7 |native_name= |dist1 = 110 |dir1 = NW |location1 = Melbourne |dist2 = 82 |dir2 = NW |location2 = Geelong |dist3 = 95 |dir3 = SW |location3 = Bendigo |mayor=Cr. Ben Taylor }} Ballarat ( ) () is a city in the Central Highlands of Victoria, Australia. At the 2021 census, Ballarat had a population of 111,973, making it the third-largest urban inland city in Australia and the third-largest city in Victoria. Within months of Victoria separating from the colony of New South Wales in 1851, gold was discovered near Ballarat, sparking the Victorian gold rush. Ballarat subsequently became a thriving boomtown that for a time rivalled Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, in terms of wealth and cultural influence. In 1854, following a period of civil disobedience in Ballarat over gold licenses, local miners launched an armed uprising against government forces. Known as the Eureka Rebellion, it led to the introduction of white male suffrage in Australia, and as such is interpreted as the origin of Australian democracy. The rebellion's symbol, the Eureka Flag, has become a national symbol. Proclaimed a city on 9 September 1870, Ballarat's prosperity, unlike that of many other gold boomtowns, continued until the late 19th century, as the city's fields experienced sustained high gold yields for many decades. By the turn of the century, Ballarat's importance relative to Melbourne rapidly faded with the slowing of gold extraction. It has endured as a major regional centre and is the commercial capital and largest city of the Central Highlands, as well as a significant tourist destination. Ballarat is known for its history, culture and well-preserved colonial-era heritage, with much of the city subject to heritage overlays. History Prehistory and European settlement The Ballarat region was first populated by the Wadawurrung people, an Indigenous Australian people. The first Europeans to sight the area were an August 1837 party of six men, including Thomas Livingstone Learmonth and Henry Anderson, who scaled Mount Buninyong. Some of this party set off again in January 1838, this time with others including Thomas' brother Somerville Learmonth and William Cross Yuille and his cousin Archibald Buchanan Yuille. The Yuille cousins arrived in 1838 and took up a sheep run at Ballarat. The first houses were built near Woolshed Creek (Sebastopol) by Henry Anderson and taken over by the Yuilles. William Yuille established a hut on the northern edge of the swamp which would be called Yuille's Swamp, later Lake Wendouree. Archibald Yuille named his property "Ballaarat", from the local Wathaurong Aboriginal words, balla and arat, meaning a camping or 'resting place', with the word 'balla' meaning bent elbow. Both 'Ballaarat' and 'Ballarat' were used interchangeably until the present spelling was officially adopted by the City of Ballarat in 1994, when the city amalgamated with surrounding local government areas. Gold rush era of Ballarat's tent city in the summer of 1853–54.]] The first publicised discovery of gold in the region was by Thomas Hiscock on 2 August 1851, in Buninyong to the south. The find brought other prospectors to the area and on 19 August 1851, more gold was found at Poverty Point. Within days, a gold rush began, bringing thousands of prospectors to the Yarrowee Valley, which became known as the Ballarat diggings. Yields were particularly high, with the first prospectors in the area extracting between half an ounce (which was more than the average wage of the time) and up to five ounces of alluvial gold per day. As news of the Victorian gold rush reached the world, Ballarat gained an international reputation as a particularly rich goldfield. As a result, a huge influx of immigrants occurred, including many from Ireland and China, gathering in a collection of prospecting shanty towns around the creeks and hills. Within a few months, numerous alluvial runs were established, several deep mining leads began, and the population had swelled to over 1,000 people. The first post office opened on 1 November 1851, the first to open in a Victorian gold-mining settlement. Parts of the district were first surveyed by William Urquhart as early as October 1851. By 1852 his grid plan and wide streets for land sales in the new township of West Ballarat, built upon a plateau of basalt, contrasted markedly with the existing narrow unplanned streets, tents, and gullies of the original East Ballarat settlement. The new town's main streets of the time were named in honour of police commissioners and gold commissioners of the time, with the main street, Sturt Street, named after Evelyn Pitfield Shirley Sturt; Dana Street named after Henry Dana; Lydiard Street after his assistant; Doveton Street after Francis Crossman Doveton, Ballarat's first gold commissioner; Armstrong after David Armstrong; and Mair Street after William Mair. These officials were based at the government encampment (after which nearby Camp Street was named), which was strategically positioned on an escarpment with an optimal view over the district's diggings. The first newspaper, The Banner, published on 11 September 1853, was one of many to be distributed during the gold-rush period. Print media played a large role in the early history of the settlement. Ballarat attracted a sizable number of miners from the Californian 1848 gold rush, and some were known as Ballafornians. .]] Civil disobedience in Ballarat led to an armed civil uprising, the Eureka Rebellion (colloquially referred to as the "Eureka Stockade") which took place in Ballarat on 3 December 1854. The event, in which 22 miners were killed, is considered to be a defining moment in Australian history. The city earned the nickname "The Golden City" in the 1850s. The gold rush population peaked at almost 60,000, mostly male diggers, by 1858. However the early population was largely itinerant. As quickly as the alluvial deposits drew prospectors to Ballarat, the rate of gold extraction fluctuated and, as they were rapidly worked dry, many quickly moved to rush other fields as new findings were announced, particularly Mount Alexander in 1852, Fiery Creek in 1855, and Ararat in 1857. By 1859, a smaller number of permanent settlers numbering around 23,000, many of whom had built personal wealth in gold, established a prosperous economy based around a shift to deep underground gold mining. Confidence of the city's early citizens in the enduring future of their city is evident in the sheer scale of many of the early public buildings, generous public recreational spaces, and opulence of many of its commercial establishments and private housing. A local steam locomotive industry developed from 1854 with the Phoenix Foundry operating until 1906. The railway came to the town with the opening of the Geelong–Ballarat line in 1862 and Ballarat developed as a major railway town. As the city grew the region's original indigenous inhabitants were quickly expelled to the fringe and by 1867 few remained. The Prince Room was prepared at Craigs Royal Hotel for his stay. The city's first civic centre—Prince Alfred Hall—erected over the Yarrowee between the two municipalities, was named in his honour during his visit. The later attempt by Ballaratian Henry James O'Farrell to assassinate the Prince was met with shock and great horror from locals. Many industries and workshops had been established as a result of manufacturing and servicing for the deep lead mining industry. 20th century Local boosters at the start of the 20th century adopted the nickname "Athens of Australia", first used to describe Ballarat by the jurist and politician Sir John Madden. The first electricity supply was completed in 1901, and that year a bluestone power station was built at the corner of Ripon Street and Wendouree Parade with the main aim of electrifying the city's tramway network. Despite such advancements, mining activity slowed at this time and Ballarat's growth all but stopped, leading to a decades-long period of decline. The Sunshine rail disaster in 1908 resulted in the death of dozens of Ballarat residents, and in August 1909, a great storm lashed the city, resulting in the death of one person and the injury of seven others, as well as the destruction of numerous homes. Ballarat's significant representation in World War I resulted in heavy human loss. Around this time, it was overtaken in population by the port city of Geelong, further diminishing its provincial status. In response, local lobbyists continually pushed the Victorian government for decentralisation, the greatest success being the Victorian Railways opening the Ballarat North Workshops in April 1917. The Great Depression proved a further setback for Ballarat, with the closure of many institutions and causing the worst unemployment in the city's history, with over a thousand people in the dole queue. During World War II an expanded Ballarat airport was the base of the RAAF Wireless Air Gunners' School as well as the base for USAAF Liberator bomber squadrons. In 1942, Ballarat became connected to the state electricity grid by a 66,000 kV line. In the post-war era, Ballarat's growth continued. In response to an acute housing shortage, significant suburban expansion occurred. An extensive Housing Commission of Victoria estate was built on the former Ballarat Common (today known as Wendouree West). The estate was originally planned to contain over 750 prefabricated houses. While planning for the estate began in 1949, main construction occurred between 1951 and 1962. The 1950s brought a new optimism to the city. On 17 April 1952 it was announced that Lake Wendouree was to be the venue for rowing events of the 1956 Summer Olympics, The first Begonia Festival, a highly successful community celebration, was held in 1953. Elizabeth II visited on 8 March 1954. Ballarat played an important role in the Stolen Generation throughout the 20th century, where the Ballarat Orphanage saw Aboriginal children who had been taken from their families. The Ballarat and District Aboriginal Co-operative (BADAC) was established by members of the Ballarat and district Aboriginal community in 1979. It became a co-operative to deliver health, social, welfare and community development programs to local Aboriginal people. In 2017, local Aboriginal community elder Ted Lovett was awarded the Order of Australia Medal for services to the indigenous community and for his works in eliminating racism in sports in south-west Victoria. Karen Heap and Ted Lovett were listed on the Victoria's Aboriginal Honour Role both in part for their work at BADAC. 21st century The city continued to grow at the national average throughout the late 20th century and early 21st century. In 2008 the City of Ballarat released a plan directing that growth of the city over the next 30 years is to be concentrated to the west of the city centre. The Ballarat West Growth Area Plan was approved by the city and state government in 2010, planning an extensive fringe development consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents including new activity centres and employment zones. The Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse final report, published on 15 December 2017, found that 139 people made a claim of child sexual abuse to the Diocese of Ballarat between 1980 and 2015, and 21 alleged perpetrators were identified in these claims. Seventeen of the 21 alleged and convicted perpetrators were priests, which is 8.7% of the priests who ministered during this period. About 45 victims are estimated to have committed suicide. Geography Ballarat lies at the foothills of the Great Dividing Range in Central Western Victoria. Also known as the Central Highlands, it is named so because of its elevated position and moderate hills and terrain with a lack of any alpine mountains that are situated a few hundred kilometres NE. The city lies within a mostly gently undulating section of the midland volcanic plains which stretch from Creswick in the north, to Rokewood in the south, and from Lal Lal in the south-east to Pittong in the west. Geologically, the area consists of alluvial sediment and volcanic flows originating from now-extinct volcanoes such as nearby Buninyong (750m, 2460 ft) and Warrenheip (746m, 2446 ft), which are the area's tallest peaks. As a result, the basin contains large areas of fertile agricultural soil. Ballarat itself is situated on an alluvial basin of the Yarrowee catchment and its tributary creeks, penetrated by sub-ranges of schists composed of granites and quartz. Along with the visible river and creeks, the catchment basin has numerous active and inactive aquifers and natural wetlands, which are used for urban water supply, agriculture and recreation. There are numerous densely forested areas around Ballarat; however due to historic wood milling and land clearing there remain no old-growth forests. The major natural bodies of water are in the west and include the former shallow swamps of Lake Wendouree which is central to the city's western suburbs and beyond Winter's Swamp and the large Lake Burrumbeet wetland complex. Almost all of the other numerous bodies of water have been created artificially and include several reservoirs, the largest being the White Swan Reservoir and smaller suburban lakes such as Lake Esmond. The contiguous urban area of Ballarat covers approximately of the local government area's . Approximately 90% of the urban area's land use is residential and suburban. with the greatest concentration of public statuary, the official Prime Ministers Avenue, the longest running lyric theatre building (Her Majesty's Theatre, established 1875), the first municipal observatory, established 1886, and the earliest and longest war memorial avenue (the Avenue of Honour, established between 1917 and 1919). Ballarat is a primarily low-rise city. The City of Ballarat defines two Major Activity Centres within the urban area – the Central Business District (CBD) and Wendouree with a high concentration of business, retail and community function based primarily on the Melbourne 2030 planning model and a further 11 neighbourhood activity centres. The tallest building in urban Ballarat is the seven-storey Henry Bolte wing of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1994). Beyond the central area, urban Ballarat extends into several suburban areas with a mixture of housing styles. Predominant styles are 19th-century villas, Victorian terraces, Federation homes and Georgian red brick homes. Settlement patterns around Ballarat consist of small villages and country towns, some with less than a few thousand people. The central business district (located in Ballarat Central) is a large mixed-use office and retail district bounded to the north by railway lines, to the west by Drummond Street, to the south to Grant Street and to the east by Princes Street and spanning the floodplain of the Yarrowee River. Lydiard, Sturt Streets, Armstrong, Doveton, Dana Street and Bridge Street (known as Bridge Mall) along with the historic centre of East Ballarat—Main Street and Bakery Hill have retained stands of commercial and civic buildings of state and national heritage significance. The inner established suburbs were initially laid out around the key mining areas and include Ballarat East, Bakery Hill, Golden Point, Soldiers Hill, Black Hill, Brown Hill, Eureka, Canadian, Mount Pleasant, Redan, Sebastopol and Newington. The post gold rush era has seen a boom in expansion, extending the conurbation north, south and west. To the west, Ballarat has expanded West to Lucas, Alfredton, Delacombe To The North West Wendouree, Wendouree West and Miners Rest To the north it has expanded to Ballarat North, Invermay Park, Invermay, Victoria Invermay and Nerrina; to the east to Warrenheip and south to Sebastopol, Mount Clear and Mount Helen with the urban area encroaching the large town of Buninyong. Wendouree is currently the only major suburban activity centre with a large indoor shopping mall—Stockland Shopping Centre (expanded in 2007) and also has a number of surrounding retail parks including a strip shopping centre along Howitt Street including the large retail chain Harvey Norman. Elsewhere are small suburban hubs with supermarkets such as IGA (supermarkets) and small stretches of shopfronts. Unlike Melbourne, Ballarat does not have a defined urban growth boundary. This has put continuing pressure on the city council to approve development applications for subdivisions outside of the city fringe. In response to lobbying by landholders, the Ballarat West Growth Area Plan, a major greenfield land development plan, was prepared and has approved by the city and state government to allow for planned fringe communities consisting of 14,000 new homes and up to 40,000 new residents, effectively doubling the city's urban area by extending the urban sprawl from Sebastopol, Delacombe and Alfredton west toward Bonshaw, Smythes Creek and Cardigan New activity centres have been developed at Delacombe and Alfredton. Architecture Ballarat is renowned for its Victorian architectural heritage. In 2003 Ballarat was the first of two Australian cities to be registered as a member of the International League of Historical Cities and in 2006 hosted the 10th World League of Historical Cities Congress. The city's history is a major focus of the Collaborative Research Centre in Australian History, part of Federation University Australia, and is located at old Ballarat Gaol. The legacy of the wealth generated during Ballarat's gold boom is still visible in a large number of fine stone buildings in and around the city, especially in the Lydiard Street area. This precinct contains some of Victoria's finest examples of Victorian era buildings, many of which are on the Victorian Heritage Register or classified by the National Trust of Australia. Notable civic buildings include the Town Hall (1870–72), the former Post Office (1864), the Ballarat Fine Art Gallery (1887), the Mechanics' Institute (1860, 1869), the Queen Victoria Wards of the Ballarat Base Hospital (1890s) and the Ballarat railway station (1862, 1877, 1888). Other historic buildings include the Provincial Hotel (1909), Reid's Coffee Palace (1886), Craig's Royal Hotel (1862–1890) and Her Majesty's Theatre (1875), the oldest intact and operating lyric theatre in Australia and the Jewish synagogue (1861) the oldest surviving synagogue on the Australian mainland. , the oldest continually operating fire station in the Southern Hemisphere, and the site of the first operational telephone, made by Henry Sutton.]] Restoration of historic buildings is encouraged including a low interest council Heritage Loans Scheme. and the prevention of demolition by neglect discouraged by council policies. Since the 1970s, the local council has become increasingly aware of the economic and social value of heritage preservation. This is in stark contrast to the 1950s and 60s when Ballarat followed Melbourne in encouraging the removal of Victorian buildings, verandahs in particular. Recent restoration projects funded by the Ballarat include the reconstruction of significant cast iron lace verandahs including the Mining Exchange, Art Gallery (2007), Mechanics institute (2005–) on Lydiard Street and in 2010 the restoration of the Town Hall and the long neglected Unicorn Hotel façade on Sturt Street. Ballarat Citizens for Thoughtful Development formed in 1998 and was incorporated as Ballarat Heritage Watch in 2005 to ensure that the city's architectural heritage is given due consideration in the planning process. The Ballarat Botanical Gardens (established in 1858) are recognised as the finest example of a regional botanical gardens in Australia and are home to many heritage listed exotic tree species and feature a modern glasshouse and horticultural centre and the Prime Ministers Avenue which features bronze busts of every past Australian Prime Minister. Ballarat is notable for its very wide boulevards. The main street is Sturt Street with over of central gardens known as the Sturt Street Gardens featuring bandstands, fountains, statues, monuments, memorials and lampposts. Ballarat is home to the largest of a collection of Avenues of Honour in Victoria. The Ballarat Avenue of Honour consists of a total of approximately 4,000 trees, mostly deciduous which in many parts arch completely over the road. Each tree has a bronze plaque dedicated to a soldier from the Ballarat region who enlisted during World War I. The Avenue of Honour and the Arch of Victory are on the Victorian Heritage Register and are seen by approximately 20,000 visitors each year. The city also has the greatest concentration of public statuary in any Australian city with many parks and streets featuring sculptures and statues dating from the 1860s to the present. Some of the other notable memorials located in the Sturt Street Gardens in the middle of Ballarat's main boulevard include a bandstand situated in the heart of the city that was funded and built by the City of Ballarat Band in 1913 as a tribute to the bandsmen of the , a fountain dedicated to the early explorers Burke and Wills, and those dedicated to monarchs and those who have played pivotal roles in the development of the city and its rich social fabric. These include, Robert Burns, Peter Lalor, Sir Albert Coates, Harold "Pompey" Elliott, William Dunstan, King George V, Queen Victoria and more. Ballarat has an extensive array of significant war memorials, the most recent of which is the Australian Ex Prisoner of War Memorial. The most prominent memorial in the city is the Ballarat Victory Arch that spans the old Western Highway on the Western approaches of the city. The archway serves as the focal point for the Avenue of Honour. Other significant individual monuments located along Sturt Street include those dedicated to the Boer War (1899–1901), the World War II (1939–1945) cenotaph, and Vietnam (1962–1972) (located adjacent to the Arch of Victory). Climate Ballarat has a moderate oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb) with four distinct seasons. Its elevation, ranging between above sea level, causes its mean monthly temperatures to tend to be on average below those of Melbourne, especially in winter. The mean daily maximum temperature for January is , while the mean minimum is . Perhaps the most infamous feature of Ballarat's climate is the chilly winter, often accentuated by driving winds. In 2023, a journalist for ABC Ballarat wrote that Ballarat "is notorious for its frosty winters and the near year-round puffer jacket uniform of its residents". When measured by mean temperatures, Ballarat is the coldest city in Victoria. is common on autumn and winter mornings but usually dissipates by mid-morning.]] Temperatures can dip below freezing from May to September, however, a low of 0-2 °C is more common - widespread frosts and fog are a regular sight. Snowfall typically falls on nearby Mount Buninyong and Mount Warrenheip several times a year, but in the urban area only once or twice, particularly during heavy winters. Snow has been known to fall heavily with several centimetres accumulating even in the CBD. Heavy snow seasons occurred in 1900–1902 and 1905–1907 (with record falls in 1906), and moderate snow seasons were recorded during the 1940s and 1980s. Snowfalls in the urban area have occurred in recent years: November 2006 (light), July 2007 (heavy), June 2008 (light), August 2008 (light), August 2014 (moderate) and June 2016 (light), July 2017 (light), June 2018 (moderate), May 2019 (light), and August and September 2020 (light and heavy).The mean annual rainfall is , Prolonged drought (an average annual rainfall with falls averaging as low as per year since 2001) caused Lake Wendouree to dry up completely for the first time in its history between 2006 and 2007. More recently higher rainfall levels have been recorded including in the 24 hours to 9 am on 14 January 2011, ending a four-day period of flooding rains across much of Victoria and Tasmania, and contributing to the wettest January on record, with a total of of rain for the month. The city's mean daily wind run is 470 km, almost twice that of Melbourne, making it one of the windiest cities in Australia. This in turn causes warm summers to feel substantially cooler and near-freezing winter days to have a far below zero wind chill. Ballarat's highest maximum recorded temperature was on 7 February 2009 during the 2009 southeastern Australia heat wave. The lowest recorded minimum was on 21 July 1982. , (1991–2020 means, extremes 1951–present) |Jan record high C = 42.0 |Feb record high C = 44.1 |Mar record high C = 37.9 |Apr record high C = 32.2 |May record high C = 26.1 |Jun record high C = 21.6 |Jul record high C = 19.1 |Aug record high C = 23.0 |Sep record high C = 27.9 |Oct record high C = 33.4 |Nov record high C = 37.3 |Dec record high C = 43.5 | year record high C = 44.1 |Jan record low C = 0.7 |Feb record low C = -1.4 |Mar record low C = -0.6 |Apr record low C = -4.1 |May record low C = -4.5 |Jun record low C = -4.6 |Jul record low C = -6.0 |Aug record low C = -5.0 |Sep record low C = -4.6 |Oct record low C = -3.6 |Nov record low C = -1.0 |Dec record low C = -1.0 | year record low C = -6.0 |Jan high C = 26.2 |Feb high C = 25.7 |Mar high C = 22.9 |Apr high C = 18.4 |May high C = 14.2 |Jun high C = 11.3 |Jul high C = 10.5 |Aug high C = 11.8 |Sep high C = 14.1 |Oct high C = 17.3 |Nov high C = 20.5 |Dec high C = 23.4 | year high C = 18.0 |Jan low C = 11.6 |Feb low C = 11.6 |Mar low C = 9.9 |Apr low C = 7.0 |May low C = 5.1 |Jun low C = 3.6 |Jul low C = 3.0 |Aug low C = 3.1 |Sep low C = 4.4 |Oct low C = 5.9 |Nov low C = 8.0 |Dec low C = 9.4 | year low C = 6.9 |rain colour = green |Jan rain mm = 45.1 |Feb rain mm = 39.5 |Mar rain mm = 31.5 |Apr rain mm = 42.4 |May rain mm = 50.4 |Jun rain mm = 60.2 |Jul rain mm = 61.4 |Aug rain mm = 66.5 |Sep rain mm = 69.2 |Oct rain mm = 53.8 |Nov rain mm = 54.5 |Dec rain mm = 46.2 |year rain mm = 620.9 |unit rain days = 0.2 mm | Jan rain days = 7.7 | Feb rain days = 6.9 | Mar rain days = 8.5 | Apr rain days = 11.7 | May rain days = 15.8 | Jun rain days = 18.2 | Jul rain days = 19.9 | Aug rain days = 18.6 | Sep rain days = 16.8 | Oct rain days = 14.5 | Nov rain days = 11.7 | Dec rain days = 10.4 | year rain days = 160.7 | humidity colour = green | time day =3 P.M. | Jan afthumidity = 43 | Feb afthumidity = 43 | Mar afthumidity = 46 | Apr afthumidity = 54 | May afthumidity = 67 | Jun afthumidity = 77 | Jul afthumidity = 75 | Aug afthumidity = 71 | Sep afthumidity = 65 | Oct afthumidity = 58 | Nov afthumidity = 55 | Dec afthumidity = 47 | year afthumidity = 58 | Jan dew point C =9.0 | Feb dew point C =9.2 | Mar dew point C =7.8 | Apr dew point C =6.7 | May dew point C =6.9 | Jun dew point C =6.2 | Jul dew point C =5.2 | Aug dew point C =5.1 | Sep dew point C =5.9 | Oct dew point C =6.4 | Nov dew point C =7.8 | Dec dew point C =8.1 | year dew point C = 7.0 |source 1 Australian Bureau of Meteorology (Dew point at 3 P.M.) | date = 5 January 2022 }} Environment Natural reserves and commons While there are no national parks in Ballarat's proximity, Ballarat is bordered by extensive bushland to the north, south and south west and sensitive wetlands to the east. The most central park to the city is the 130 ha Victoria Park, with a plethora of ovals and fields, playgrounds, walking tracks and quiet roads. There are a number of nearby state parks and large reserves including the Enfield State Park, Creswick Regional Park, Mount Warrenheip Flora Reserve, Mount Buninyong Reserve and Lake Burrumbeet park. There are also smaller parks, like Black Hill, Victoria Park, Pioneer Park and Yarowee Reserve, located within walking distance of the city centre. Ballarat is unique in Australia—and internationally—for having retained much of its commons land, which can be used by any resident of Ballarat. Ballarat Town Common, Ballarat West Town Common and Ballarat Common are located to the west of the city. Ballarat Town Common can be accessed via Howe Street in Miners Rest and is used by dog walkers and ramblers, especially because of its open grass fields and native wetland. Ballarat West Town Common is presently farmed on by licensed farmers. The commons were reduced in size during the 20th century for property development. The region is home to a large koala population with protected areas established in the city's outer southern and eastern settlements.PollutionAir quality in Ballarat is generally good, however dust is sometimes an issue in the summer months and woodsmoke from fireplaces contributes to reductions in visibility in the winter months. Ballarat's waterways have historically been affected by heavy pollution from both mining and industry. The Ballarat Environment Network formed in 1993 to provide a voice for environmental and nature conservation issues in Ballarat and its surroundings. Another large lobby group for sustainability in the city is the Ballarat Renewable Energy And Zero Emissions (BREAZE) formed in 2006. The City of Ballarat released an Environment Sustainability Strategy for the city in 2007. Many parts of urban Ballarat have been affected by the introduction of exotic species, particularly introduced flora. Common gorse is one such problem which has prompted the formation of an official Ballarat Region Gorse Task Force in 1999 to control. European rabbits and red foxes cause significant environmental damage in the region's agriculture areas. Economy The economy of Ballarat is driven by all three economic sectors, though contemporary Ballarat has emerged as a primarily service economy with its main industry being the service industry and its key areas of business including tourism, hospitality, retail, professional services, government administration and education. Secondary sector including manufacturing, which had grown in the 20th century remains an important sector. The city's historic primary sector roots including mining and agriculture continue to play a role, though one that has declined since the 20th century. Industries emerging this century include information technology service sector and renewable energy. Service industries As a major service centre for the populous goldfields region, Ballarat has large sectors of employment in business including retail, professional services and trades as well as state and federal government branch offices for public services and health care and non-government service organisations. Collectively these industries employ more than half of the city's workforce and generate the bulk of the city's economic activity. Ballarat is the main retail economy in the region. The city has several key retail districts including a pedestrian mall known as Bridge Mall comprising over 100 traders. There are also indoor shopping malls including Central Square Shopping Centre and Stockland Wendouree. better known as Wendouree Village, with a large number of specialty stores. Major department stores include Myer, Target, Big W, Kmart, Harvey Norman and Harris Scarfe. Additionally each of the major supermarkets (Coles, Woolworths, IGA and Aldi) are represented. Servicing the financial sector are branches of the big four Australian retail banks (National Australia Bank, ANZ, Commonwealth Bank and Westpac) along with Bendigo & Adelaide Bank and St George Bank and a number of smaller independent financial services firms. Federation University Australia exports education through a large international students program and throughout Australia through distance education programs. In recent years, a large technology park, the Ballarat Technology Park with communications centre has been established, with tenants including IBM and employing over 1,400 people. Ballarat West Employment Zone (BWEZ) is located on the north-west fringe of Ballarat, adjacent to the Ballarat Airport, existing rail infrastructure and the Ballarat Western Link Road. Ballarat West Employment Zone (BWEZ) will become the engine room for jobs and economic growth in Ballarat over the next 20 years. The project involves the development of surplus Crown Land for industrial, wholesale, logistics, construction, commercial and residential uses, encouraging employment growth in Ballarat and the surrounding region. BWEZ will also include a freight hub, secure infrastructure and access to road, rail and ports. and the tourism and hospitality industry is a A$480 million a year sector which accounts for around 15% of Ballarat's economy and employs around 2,870 people. Tourism in Ballarat is promoted by Ballarat Regional Tourism. A significant heritage tourism industry has grown substantially in Ballarat since the 1960s. Ballarat is most notable for the award-winning open-air museum known as Sovereign Hill, a recreated 1850s gold mining settlement opened in 1970. Sovereign Hill is Ballarat's biggest tourism drawcard and is consistently rated among the best outdoor museums in the world and continues to expand. Sovereign Hill accounts for over half a million of Ballarat's visitors and $40 million in tourism revenue. Several businesses and attractions have capitalised on Ballarat's gold mining history. They include Kryal Castle (1972), "Gold Rush Mini Golf" (2002) featuring the "Big Miner" (2006) one of Australia's big things (although the original proposal appeared larger and for the miner to hold the Eureka Flag) at Ballarat's eastern entrance. Other tourist attractions include the Eureka Centre; The Gold Museum, Ballarat; Ballarat Botanic gardens and Lake Wendouree; the Ballarat Tramway Museum and Ballarat Wildlife Park. A large number of Ballarat hotels, motels and restaurants service the tourism industry. The Ballarat Tourist Association is an industry based non-profit, membership organisation representing the city's tourism industry. Ballarat hosts a number of annual festivals with historical and cultural focus including the Ballarat Begonia Festival, Ballarat Heritage Weekend and Ballarat Beat Rockabilly Festival.ManufacturingAccording to the 2021 Australian Census, manufacturing is Ballarat's sixth largest employment sector, accounting for 7% of all workers. Ballarat attracts investment from several international manufacturers. The Australian headquarters of Mars, Incorporated was established in Ballarat in 1979 with the main Ballarat factory producing popular confectionery including Mars bars, Snickers and M&M's for the Australian market as well as expanding in 2013 to produce Maltesers. McCain Foods Limited Australian headquarters was established in Ballarat in 1970 and the company continues to expand its operations. The Ballarat North Workshops is a major manufacturer of public transportation products with current investment from Alstom. Ballarat also has a large number of home-grown companies producing textiles, general industrial engineering, food products, brick and tiles, building components, prefabricated housing components and automotive components. Brewing was once a large-scale operation, with many large businesses including the public company Phoenix Brewery, and although large-scale brewing has ceased, the city retains a substantial microbrewery industry.Primary sector ", found at Ballarat, the second-largest gold nugget discovered in recorded history]] Though historically an important sector, the production of Ballarat's primary sector declined for many decades, recovering only marginally since 2006. Where historically the mining industry supported tens of thousands of workers or the majority of the population, today agriculture dominates the sector, though collectively both industries employ less than thousand people or just over 2% of the City of Ballarat's total workforce. Ballarat rose to prominence as a goldrush boomtown, though gold no longer plays a pivotal role in the economy of the city. Nevertheless, deep underground mining continues to the present date with a single main mine operating. There are still thought to be large, undiscovered gold reserves in the Ballarat region, with investigations being made by local and national companies. Lihir Gold invested in Ballarat Goldfields in 2006, however it downscaled its operations in 2009 due to the expense of extraction before selling its stake in 2010 to Castlemaine Goldfields. Along with gold, lignite (coal), kaolin (clay) and iron ore have also been mined in the Ballarat region and nearby Lal Lal however many of the resource deposits have since been exhausted. An active quarrying industry with large enterprises including Boral Limited extracts and manufactures building materials from the Ballarat region, including clays, aggregates, cements, asphalts. Approximately half () of the municipality's area is rural with optimal conditions for agriculture including rich volcanic soils and climate. The region supports an active potato growing industry that has supplied local food manufacturers including McCain, though more recently has been threatened by cheaper imports. Other large crops include grains, vegetables, grapes and berries. Cattle and poultry stocks, including sheep, cows and pigs, support an active local meat and dairy industry. The Ballarat Livestock Selling Centre is the largest cattle exchange in regional Victoria. The Ballarat Agricultural and Pastoral Society formed in 1856 and has run the Ballarat Show annually since 1859. A$7.5 million forestry industry is active in nearby state forests as well as on a small scale in the urban area along the Canadian Valley around the suburbs of Mt Clear and Mt Helen areas with pine plantations and sawmill operations.Renewable energyThe Ballarat region has a rapidly growing renewable energy industry, in particular due to its abundant wind energy, attracting significant investment and generating revenue for local landholders and local councils. The region is also a source of bountiful geothermal energy, solar power although to date, only its wind, solar and hydroelectricity has been harvested commercially. All local commercially produced electricity is sent to the National Electricity Market. Wind energy is generated by local wind farms. The largest, Waubra Wind Farm, completed in 2009, is capable of producing enough electricity to power a city 3 to 4 times the size of Ballarat. Other significant nearby wind farms include Mount Mercer, completed 2014, which produces enough energy to power 100,000 homes, equivalent to Ballarat's population. The first community-owned wind farm in Australia, the Hepburn Wind Project at Leonards Hill, completed in 2011, produces the equivalent amount of electricity used by the town of Daylesford. Hydroelectricity is generated at White Swan reservoir micro hydro plant established in 2008 and producing the equivalent electricity needs of around 370 homes. Ballarat Solar Park, opened in 2009 at the Airport site in Mitchell Park, is Victoria's first ground-mounted, flat-plate and grid-connected photovoltaic farm. Built by Sharp Corporation for Origin Energy, it is and generates the equivalent electricity needs of around 150 homes. Demographics Ballarat is the 4th largest inland city in Australia, and the 3rd largest Victorian city behind Melbourne and Geelong. According to the 2021 census, there were 111,973 people in Ballarat, This follows annual growth of 1.78% since June 2013 (slightly faster than the national rate of 1.56% during the same period). These include people from England (2.1%), India (1.6%), New Zealand (0.9%), China (0.6%), and the Philippines (0.6%). According to the 2021 Census, Ballarat's working population include Professionals (22.8%), Community and Personal Service Workers (13.8%), Technicians and Trades Workers (13.8%), Clerical and Administrative Workers (12.3%), and Managers (11.2%).ReligionChristianity is the most common religion in Ballarat. Catholics (21.3%), Anglicans (7.9%) and the Uniting Church (4.7%) were the largest Christian denominations. 47.6% stated they had no religion and a further 5.9% did not answer the question. The Mayor of Ballarat, currently Des Hudson, is elected from these councillors by their colleagues for a one-year term. The Town Hall and annexe contains some council offices, however the council's administrative headquarters are located at the council owned Phoenix Building and the leased Gordon Buildings on the opposite side of Bath Lane. In state politics, Ballarat is located in the Legislative Assembly districts of Eureka and Wendouree, with both of these seats currently held by the Australian Labor Party. In federal politics, Ballarat is located in a single House of Representatives division—the Division of Ballarat. The Division of Ballarat has been a safe Australian Labor Party seat since 2001, and was the seat of the second Prime Minister of Australia, Alfred Deakin. Law enforcement is overseen from regional police headquarters at the law complex in Dana Street with a single local police station operating in Buninyong. Due to an increase in crime rates and population, two additional local police stations were proposed in 2011 one each for the suburbs of North Ballarat and Sebastopol. Justice is conducted locally overseen through branches of the Supreme, County, Magistrates and Children's Court of Victoria which operate out of the Ballarat courts Complex adjacent police headquarters in Dana Street. Corrections, at least in the longer term are no longer handled locally since the closure of the Ballarat Gaol in 1965. Offenders can be detained in 25 available cells at the police complex though are commonly transferred to nearby Corrections Victoria facilities such as the Hopkins Correctional Centre in Ararat. Public safety and emergency services are provided by several state funded organisations including local volunteer based organisations. Storms and flooding are handled by the State Emergency Service (SES) Mid West Region Headquarters at Wendouree. Bushfires are handled by the Country Fire Authority District 15 Headquarters and Grampians Region Headquarters at Wendouree and urban structure fires are handled by multiple urban fire brigades operating at fire stations including the Ballarat Fire Brigade at Barkly Street Ballarat East, Ballarat City Fire Brigade at Sturt Street Ballarat Central and suburban stations including Wendouree and Sebastopol. Medical emergency and paramedic services are provided through Ambulance Victoria and include the Rural Ambulance Victoria, St. John Ambulance and Ballarat Base Hospital ambulance services. City of Ballarat is responsible for coordinating the Municipal Emergency Management Planning Committee (MEMPC) which prepares the Municipal Emergency Management Plan which is actioned in conjunction with local police.MediaNewspapersBallarat has two local newspapers, one owned by Australian Community Media and one a private equity. The Courier is a daily and The Ballarat Times News Group is a free weekly. The latter is distributed across most of the city on Thursday and contains news of community events, advertisements for local businesses, and a classifieds section. Ballarat was the hub of Australian Community Media's Victoria production and manufacturing with all printed material for the state coming from the Wendouree print site until it closed in September 2020.Radio stations Local radio stations include 3BA, Power FM and several community radio stations. There is also a Ballarat branch of ABC Local Radio's national network. * 102.3 FM – 3BA (local "classic hits" commercial radio station) * 103.1 FM – Power FM 103.1 FM (local "top-40" commercial radio station) * 99.9 FM – Voice FM 99.9 – formerly known as 3BBB (local community radio station) * 107.9 FM – ABC Ballarat (government-funded local news, current affairs, light entertainment and talkback) * 103.9 FM – Good News Radio 103.9 (Christian community-based radio station) Television Television station BTV Channel 6 Ballarat commenced transmission of test patterns on 17 March 1962. Today Ballarat is serviced by numerous "free to air" High Definition and Standard Definition Digital television services. Two television broadcasting stations are located in the city, including WIN, WIN HD, 9Life, 9Go! and 9Gem (sub-licensees of the Nine Network) and Seven, 7HD, 7two, 7mate, 7Bravo and 7flix (Seven Network owned and operated). These two stations broadcast relayed services throughout regional Victoria. The city also receives 10, 10 HD, 10 Peach Comedy, 10 Bold Drama, Nickelodeon and Sky News Regional (Network 10 owned and operated) which is based in Bendigo but operates a local office. Ballarat television maintains a similar schedule to the national television network but maintains local commercials and regional news programming. *WIN previously presented a 30-minute local WIN News bulletin from its studios in the city, where WIN News bulletins for Albury, Bendigo, Gippsland, Shepparton and Mildura were also broadcast. In 2015, the Ballarat studios closed with production of the regional Victorian news bulletins being relocated to Wollongong in New South Wales, where they now originate from. WIN retains reporters and camera crews for its Ballarat bulletin in the city. *Southern Cross 10, airs short local news updates like Seven throughout the day, broadcast from its Hobart studios. *Seven airs short local news and weather updates throughout the day, broadcast from its Canberra studios with an office in the city. In addition to commercial television services, Ballarat receives Government funded ABC (ABC TV, ABC Family, ABC Kids, ABC Entertains, ABC News) and SBS (SBS TV, SBS Viceland, SBS World Movies, SBS WorldWatch, SBS Food and NITV) television services. On 5 May 2011, analog television transmissions ceased in most areas of regional Victoria and some border regions including Ballarat and surrounding areas. All local free-to-air television services are now broadcasting in digital transmission only. This was done as part of the federal government's plan for digital terrestrial television in Australia, where all analogue transmission systems are gradually turned off and replaced with modern DVB-T transmission systems. Subscription television services are provided by Neighbourhood Cable, Foxtel and SelecTV. Education 's SMB campus is set among heritage buildings, including the former School of Mines and Industry (left).]] Ballarat has two universities, Federation University and a campus of the Australian Catholic University. Formerly the University of Ballarat, Federation University Australia was opened in 2014. It originated as the Ballarat School of Mines, founded in 1870, and was once affiliated with the University of Melbourne. The main campus is located in Mount Helen, approximately southeast of the city. The university also has campuses in the Ballarat CBD, Horsham, Berwick, Brisbane, Churchill, Ararat and Stawell. The Australian Catholic University's Ballarat campus is located on Mair Street. It was formerly the Aquinas Training College, run by the Ballarat East Sisters of Mercy in 1909. It is ACU's only campus located outside of a capital city. Ballarat has five State Government-operated secondary schools of which Ballarat High School (established in 1907) is the oldest. Ballarat High School and Mount Clear College are the only state school members of the Ballarat Associated Schools. The three remaining schools are Phoenix College and the two newly formed schools Mount Rowan Secondary College and Woodmans Hill Secondary College which emerged from the old Ballarat Secondary College. Phoenix College was formed in 2012 as an amalgamation of Sebastopol College and Redan Primary School. The city is well serviced by Catholic schools, with eight primary schools and three secondary colleges which include the all-boys St Patrick's College, the all-girls Loreto College and the co-educational Damascus College, which was formed by the amalgamation of St Martin's in the Pines, St Paul's College and Sacred Heart College in 1995. Ballarat has three other non-government secondary schools: Ballarat Christian College, Ballarat Clarendon College and Ballarat Grammar School. The later two schools are day and boarding schools who provide education from Preschool to Year 12. Both of these co-educational schools are classified as academically excellent as the only Ballarat schools to be ranked on the tables of the top 100 Victorian schools based on median VCE scores and percentage of scores of 40 and above. In 2015, Clarendon was placed at 9th best VCE results in the State, above Melbourne Grammar, Geelong College, Scotch College, Trinity Grammar School (Victoria), Xavier College, and Haileybury College. Ballarat Grammar was placed at 82nd, above Wesley College, Geelong Grammar and Tintern. The City of Ballarat has three public libraries, the largest and most extensive of which is the Ballarat Library, run by the City of Ballarat and located on Doveton Street North. Another library service is provided by the Ballarat Mechanics' Institute in Sturt Street, which is the oldest library in the city and a significant heritage site; it contains a collection of historic, archival and rare reference material as well as more general books. The Xin Jin Shan Chinese Library opened in 2022. It contains over 240,000 Chinese-language books, reportedly the largest collection in the Southern Hemisphere. Arts and culture , the oldest and largest art gallery in regional Australia]] Galleries The Art Gallery of Ballarat houses one of Australia's oldest and most extensive collections of early Australian works. It is the oldest and largest regional gallery in Australia. Federation University Australia operates the Post Office Gallery in the Wardell-designed former Post Office on the corner of Sturt and Lydiard Streets. Performing arts Ballarat has a lively and well-established theatrical community, with several local ensembles as well as a number of large performing arts venues. Major performing arts venues include the 900-capacity Her Majesty's Theatre, the Wendouree Centre for Performing Arts, Mary's Mount Theatre, and the Post Office Box Theatre. Some notable theatre organisations in Ballarat include Ballarat National Theatre (since 1938); BLOC (Ballarat Light Opera Company; since 1959); the amateur theatre troupe Creswick Theatre Company (since 1981); and the female-led boutique company, Salty Theatre (established 2018). The Ballarat Civic Hall is a large public building constructed in 1956 as a general purpose venue. Its stripped classical design was heavily criticised during its planning, however it has gained some cultural significance to the city with its cavernous spaces holding many significant events over the years. Civic Hall was closed in 2002 and public pressure forced the council to redevelop it in 2018 as a modern performing arts and exposition centre. The refurbished building is a modern interpretation of its original 1950s built form and features a 1000 capacity main hall capable of use for concerts, meetings and civic events. The Regent Cinemas, which opened in the heart of the city in 1928, was once the largest picture palace in regional Victoria, with nearly 2,000 seats in stalls and balcony.<!---ABC article says also Arthur W. Purnell, but not borne out by other sources, and seems unlikely---> or 1970. It was acquired and renovated by the Anderson family, who reopened it in 1976. It was completely refurbished and the interiors redesigned to create a multiplex containing three separate theatres in 1986, and a further three screens were added in the early 2000s. The facade remained intact, and the sign at its entrance showed the words "The Regent Multiplex", while the vertical sign simply said "Regent". On 24 June, 2024, the owners announced the closure of the cinema, effective immediately, to the dismay of many patrons and the mayor of Ballarat. Ballarat has its own symphony orchestra, the Ballarat Symphony Orchestra, which was formed in 1987. The city has several dance clubs as well as a highly active live music and jazz scene. Events and festivals Ballarat is home to many annual festivals and events that attract thousands of visitors. The oldest large annual event is the Ballarat Agricultural Show (since 1859), currently held at the Ballarat Showgrounds and has attracted attendances of up to 30,000 and is an official public holiday for residents of the city. Ballarat is home to Australia's oldest and largest annual performing arts eisteddfod. The Royal South Street Eisteddfod is an all-encompassing performing arts festival and competition event that is conducted over twelve weeks annually. From the late 1880s, there were annual competitions run by the South Street Society, later revived as the Royal South Street Eisteddfod (in recess in 2020 due to COVID-19 restrictions). Lake Wendouree is featured in many including the biggest and most prominent is the Begonia Festival (held annually since 1953). SpringFest (held annually since 2001) attracts more than 15,000 people from around Victoria and features market stalls and activities around the lake. The Ballarat Swap Meet (formerly the Super Southern Swap Meet and held annually since 1989) attracts 30,000 visitors a year. Ballarat Heritage Weekend (held annually since 2006) celebrates the city's heritage with activities such as historic vehicles and displays in and around the CBD and has attracted as many as 14,500 visitors a year from around Victoria. The Ballarat Beer Festival at the City Oval (since 2012) has attracted more than 4,000 visitors. The Ballarat Airport Open Day (Ballarat's unofficial air show, held annually since 2009) also attracts thousands. Other minor cultural festivals include the Ballarat Writers Festival, Ballarat International Foto Biennale and the Goldfields Music Festival.Other entertainmentIn the 1970s the Ballarat urban area contained around 60 hotels. The introduction of gaming machines in the early 1990s has brought about significant change in the city entertainment precincts. By 2006 at least 20 hotels had closed and some of the remaining ones had been redeveloped as dining and/or gaming venues. Gaming machines brought significant revenue to the remaining hotels, sports and social clubs, enabling expansion and modernisation. The city has many restaurants and wine bars. Cultural depictions Ballarat has inspired many visual artists. Eugene von Guerard documented the city's establishment as a gold digging settlement, while Albert Henry Fullwood and Knut Bull depicted the city's boom era streetscapes. Ballarat features prominently in literature and fiction, including "The Boscombe Valley Mystery", a short story from Arthur Conan Doyle's The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes (1891); King Billy of Ballarat and Other Stories (1892) by Morley Roberts; The Fortunes of Richard Mahony (1917) by Henry Handel Richardson; Murder on the Ballarat Train (1993) by Kerry Greenwood; and Illywhacker (1985) by Peter Carey. Ballarat is also a popular filming location. Australia's second oldest feature film, Eureka Stockade (1907), is the first in a line of films about the historic Ballarat event. The city makes cameos in Dogs in Space (1986), My Brother Jack (2001), Ned Kelly (2003) and The Writer (2005). The television series The Doctor Blake Mysteries (2012–2017) is set in Ballarat and also mostly shot there. The series was picked by the Seven Network, which proposes to make several telemovies without the Blake character, picking up the story line after his death, leaving his widow Jean. Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Ballarat after the city, the corvette HMAS Ballarat (J184) and the frigate HMAS Ballarat (FFH 155).Sport and recreation Ballarat Highlanders Rugby Football Club (est. 1976) is based at Doug Dean Reserve, Delecombe. They play in the statewide Victoria Rugby Championship, which they last won in 2016. They also host the Ballarat Charity 7s (est 2022), a short form version of Rugby Union and all proceeds from the event get donated to a local charity (2022 – Ballarat Men's Mental Health, 2023 – GROW Group Ballarat). , 1889. The club was founded in 1860 and is one of the oldest football clubs in the world.]] Australian rules football is the most popular spectator and participation sports in Ballarat. It has its own dedicated stadium, Eureka Stadium, which serves as a venue of the Australian Football League (AFL), as well as the home ground of the semi-professional North Ballarat Roosters, which formerly competed in the Victorian Football League (VFL). The Ballarat Football League, established in 1893, features six local teams, including the Ballarat Football Club, which was founded in 1860 and remains one of the world's oldest football clubs. Other Ballarat-based teams compete in the regional Central Highlands Football League. Cricket is Ballarat's second most-popular sport. It has three international standard cricket ovals, including Eastern Oval, which was one of the host venues of the 1992 Cricket World Cup. The Ballarat Cricket Association is the city's principle cricket competition. Soccer is also popular in Ballarat. Based at Morshead Park Stadium, the semi-professional Ballarat City FC competes in the National Premier League, the third tier competition of Australian soccer. Melbourne's Western United FC plays four A-League matches per year at Eureka Stadium. Basketball is played in Ballarat with the Ballarat Sports Events Centre hosting South East Australian Basketball League matches involving the Ballarat Miners and Ballarat Rush. Netball is similarly popular, with many netball clubs affiliated with local Australian rules clubs. Athletics is and has historically been very popular with 4 local clubs competing at the BRAC (Ballarat Regional Athletics Centre) located at the Llanberis Athletics Track in Golden Point, 5 minutes from the CBD. The city features a rich and decorated athletics history with Australia's most successful track and field athlete (Jared Tallent - Racewalker), and many other Olympians (Steve Moneghetti, Greg Smith (Paralympian)) having been born in Ballarat. hosted the rowing and canoeing events for the 1956 Summer Olympics.]] Rowing and kayaking are centred on Lake Wendouree, which hosts the Victorian Schools Rowing Championships as well as the annual "Head of the Lake" rowing regatta. The city hosted rowing events for the 1956 Summer Olympic Games. Horse racing and greyhound racing are also popular, with dedicated facilities. The Ballarat Turf Club schedules around 28 race meetings a year including the Ballarat Cup meeting in mid-November. Athletics facilities include an international standard athletics track at Golden Point. Swimming and water sport is facilitated at two Olympic-sized pools as well as an indoor competition short course pool. The main facility is the Ballarat Aquatic Centre located in Lake Gardens. Baseball was first organised in Australia at Ballarat in 1857, and three local teams compete in the Geelong Baseball Association. Golf is played at four main venues which include the Ballarat Golf Course in Alfredton, home to the Ballarat Golf Club. The Ballarat Roller Derby League was formed in 2008, and held their first match in 2009. They have two teams who compete in local events, and a combined travelling team, the Rat Pack, who compete in interleague roller derby competitions. The World Athletics-Certified Ballarat Marathon Road Running Festival, inaugurated in 2024, is now an annual event. It features a variety of road running events, including a full marathon, half marathon, 10km run, and family-friendly fun runs, attracting participants from across the region and beyond. The 2024 Marathon Event was a qualifying race for the Abbott World Marathon Majors 2025 Age Group Championships. The festival promotes community participation, and showcases Ballarat's scenic landmarks. Until they were cancelled in July 2023, Ballarat, along with other cities in regional Victoria, was scheduled to host the 2026 Commonwealth Games with Eureka Stadium flagged to host athletics, the Eastern Oval T20 cricket, and Selkirk Stadium to host boxing. ]] Infrastructure Health 's Henry Bolte wing]] Ballarat has two major hospitals. The public health services are managed by Grampians Health Ballarat including the Ballarat Base which services the entire region and the Queen Elizabeth Centre for aged care on Ascot Street Sth. The St John of God Health Care centre also on Drummond Street Nth, established in 1915 is currently the largest private hospital in regional Victoria. The Ballarat Regional Integrated Cancer Centre (BRICC) on the corner of Drummond and Sturt Street includes a number of facilities focused on cancer treatment. The Heart Foundation did a study in 2014 that Ballarat had the highest level of physical inactivity (85.3 per cent) in Australia and that 32.9 per cent of residents were deemed obese. Utilities Ballarat's residents are serviced by a wide range of public utilities including water, gas and electricity, telephony and data communications supplied, overseen and regulated by state based authorities and private enterprise and local council. Water supply as well as sewage collection and disposal are provided by Central Highlands Water. Drinking water is sourced from a network reservoirs all located in the highlands to the east, however the majority is sourced from two main reservoirs—Lal Lal and White Swan. The Lal Lal Reservoir (built in 1970 The White Swan reservoir (built in 1952 with a capacity) supplies most of the remainder. Since May 2008, the White Swan has been topped up by water from Bendigo's Sandhurst Reservoir through the Goldfields Superpipe with water originally sourced from the Goulburn River system. Kirks Reservoir (built between 1860 and 1862 with a capacity of ) and Gong Gong Reservoir (built in 1877 at Gong Gong, Victoria with a capacity of Other reservoirs supplying Ballarat include Moorabool reservoir (located in Bolwarrah, Victoria with a capacity of ), Wilson's Reservoir (located in the Wombat State Forest with a capacity of ), Beales reservoir (built 1863 located at Wallace with a capacity of ) and Pincotts reservoir (built 1867 with a capacity of ). Sewage is managed by two plants—the Ballarat North Wastewater Treatment Plant and the Ballarat South Waste Water Treatment Plant. Residential electricity is supplied by Victorian electricity distributor Powercor, while residential natural gas is supplied by AGL Energy. Telephone services are provided via the Doveton Street (BRAT) telephone exchange which was originally built by the Australian Telecommunications Commission (now known as Telstra) who remains its owner, though Optus now also operates services from this facility. The city's cellular network currently uses Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS). Telstra has provided mobile telecommunications to Ballarat since 2003 (initially as CDMA). Optus provided competition with its entrance to the market in 2003 along with significant service upgrades in 2004 followed by Vodafone in mid-2009. Data communications are provided by several companies. Telstra was the first company to provide dial-up Internet access via the Ballarat exchange, however the first network for broadband Internet access available in the city was a hybrid optical fiber cable and coaxial cable built by Neighbourhood Cable in 2001. Since then, Telstra and Optus have entered the Ballarat market, providing Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) services for residential Internet access from four main exchanges—Ballarat, Wendouree (Howitt Street), Sebastopol (Skipton Street) and Alfredton (Cuthberts Road). These companies also provide mobile data access Evolved HSPA and since late 2011 3GPP Long Term Evolution (4G). Ballarat's rollout of the National Broadband Network (NBN) is seen as vital for the city's growing IT industry. During Ballarat's first stage NBN rollout in 2012, 17,800 homes will be directly connected to the network via optical fibre cable. Suburbs Ballarat has the following suburbs: Addington, Alfredton, Ascot, Bakery Hill, Ballarat Central, Ballarat East, Ballarat North, Black Hill, Blowhard, Bonshaw, Brown Hill, Bunkers Hill, Canadian, Cardigan, Cardigan Village, Chapel Flat, Coghills Creek, Delacombe, Eureka, Glendaurel, Glendonald, Golden Point, Gong Gong, Invermay Park, Lake Gardens, Lake Wendouree, Learmonth, Lucas, Magpie, Miners Rest, Mitchell Park, Mount Bolton, Mount Clear, Mount Helen, Mount Pleasant, Mount Rowan, Nerrina, Newington, Redan, Scotchmans Lead, Sebastopol, Soldiers Hill, Tourello, Weatherboard, Wendouree, Windermere and Winter Valley. Transportation ]] The motor vehicle is the main form of transport in Ballarat. A network of state highways radiate from Ballarat and the Western Freeway (A8) dual carriageway bypasses the central city to the north of the urban area, providing a direct road connection to Melbourne (approximately 90 minutes), westward to Ararat (approximately 75 minutes) and Horsham. Five freeway interchanges service the urban area, East Ballarat (half diamond) interchange at Victoria Street (C805); Brown Hill interchange (full diamond) at Daylesford-Ballarat Road (C292), Creswick Road interchange (full diamond) at Wendouree (A300); the Mount Rowan interchange (half diamond) at Gillies Road, Wendouree (C307) and the Mitchell Park interchange (full diamond) at Howe Street (C287). The Midland Highway is a dual carriageway which runs north along Creswick Road to the Western Freeway interchange but becomes a single carriageway north of Ballarat to Creswick (approximately 25 minutes) and runs south as the dual carriageway of Skipton Road to Magpie before becoming a single carriageway to Geelong (approximately 87 minutes). The Glenelg Highway connects directly to Mount Gambier and the Sunraysia Highway west of Ballarat which connects directly to Mildura. Sturt Street and Victoria Street, both dual carriageways carry the bulk of the east-west CBD traffic, while Mair Street is planned to become a four lane dual carriageway to relieve pressure on these main streets. Other dual carriageway main roads in the west include Howitt Street and Gillies Street. The busiest roads by far are located in the west and south at Albert Street in Redan, Sturt Street in Newington and Gillies Street in Lake Gardens which carry 22,400, 22,000 and 21,500 vehicles per day respectively and all have 4 traffic lanes. From Ballarat station, V/Line operates VLocity trains to Melbourne, west to Ararat and north to Maryborough. Since the controversial removal of "flagship" express services in 2011, successive timetable changes have slowed peak hour services to Southern Cross, with the current journey taking a minimum of 73 minutes. Patronage however has continued to grow. The Regional Rail Link project was built in 2015 to separate Ballarat trains from Melbourne's suburban rail network. Interurban services (Ballarat-Melbourne) now run half-hourly during weekday peak and hourly during weekday non-peak and on weekends from Ballarat station. A twice daily (thrice daily on weekdays) (57 minute) service connects Ballarat to Ararat (stopping at Beaufort) while there is a (53 minute) service to and from Maryborough (stopping at Creswick, Clunes, and Talbot) once a day (twice a day on weekdays) each way. Victoria's electronic ticketing system, Myki, was implemented on rail services between Wendouree and Melbourne on 24 July 2013. Ballarat is connected to Geelong by rail via the Geelong-Ballarat railway line, which currently operates only for freight. Bus CDC Ballarat operates the bus network covering the city centre, Ballarat and Wendouree stations, and most surrounding suburbs, contracted by Public Transport Victoria. Tram The once extensive Ballarat tramway network operated between 1887 and 1971 with a small section of remaining track being utilised as a tourist and museum tramway. There have been proposals to extend the network, particularly as a major tourist facility but also to connect it to the railways and return it as a viable component of the Ballarat public transport system, including a strong lobby in 2001–2002, 2010–11 and 2014, however Ballarat City Council and federal member of parliament have dismissed recent proposals. Airport Ballarat Airport located north-west of the CBD consists of two sealed runways (each approximately long and wide) as well as extensive sealed aprons, night lighting and NDB navaid. Master Plans for the Airport were completed in 2005 and subsequently 2013. The report made a series of recommendations and forecasts that included lengthening, widening and strengthening of the existing main runway, consideration for expansion of the passenger terminal, recommendations for future use of aprons, and development of future structures supporting larger aircraft that would result from the forecast increased frequent usage. In 2020, initial Federal funding was provided to enable the re-building and re-instatement of the main north–south runway to 1900m (6233 feet). Cycling and walking Ballarat has a long history of cycling as a form of transport and recreation. The current cycling network continues to grow and consists of several marked on-road routes and of segregated bicycle facilities including several main routes: the Ballarat–Skipton Rail Trail and the Yarrowee River Trail with connections to the Gong Gong Reservoir. The Ballarat Bicycle Users Group provides advocacy for the growing number of cyclists in the city. The popularity of cycling in Ballarat is also demonstrated by the large number of spectators and participants drawn to cycling sporting events held in the city. Crime In 2014, the city was one of a number of Australian regional centres examined by an ABC Four Corners report on the use of methamphetamine, along with Devonport, Burnie, Castlemaine and St Arnaud.See also *List of people from Ballarat References Bibliography History books * Bate, Weston. Lucky City: The First Generation of Ballarat 1851–1901 (1978) * Bate, Weston. Life After Gold: Twentieth-Century Ballarat Melbourne University Press (1993) * Carboni, Raffaello. The Eureka Stockade (1980) first published (1855) * Goodman, David. Gold Seeking: Victorian and California in the 1850s (1994) * Jacobs, Wendy. Ballarat: A Guide to Buildings and Areas 1851–1940 Jacob Lewis Vines Conservation Architects and Planners (1981) * Lynch, John. The Story of the Eureka Stockade: Epic Days in the early fifties at Ballarat, (1947?) * Flett, James. The History of Gold Discovery in Victoria * Molony, John. Eureka, (1984) * Molony, John. By Wendouree, (2010) * Serle, Geoffrey. The Golden Age: A History of the Colony of Victoria, 1851–1860, (1963) * Freund, Peter, with Val Sarah. ''Her Maj: A History of Her Majesty's Theatre, Ballarat'' (2007) * Ballarat City Council * Victorian Heritage Register, Heritage Victoria External links * [http://www.ballarat.vic.gov.au/ Ballarat City Council] * [http://www.visitballarat.com.au/ Visit Ballarat] – Ballarats Official Tourism website * [http://www.visitvictoria.com/Regions/Goldfields/Destinations/Ballarat.aspx Ballarat – Tourism Victoria] – Government tourism site. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111210195544/http://bih.ballarat.edu.au/index.php/Ballarat_and_District_Industrial_Heritage_Project Ballarat and District Industrial Heritage Project] Category:Mining towns in Victoria (state) Category:Cities in Victoria (state) Category:1838 establishments in Australia Category:Populated places established in 1838
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballarat
2025-04-05T18:27:01.990806
4975
Battle of Abritus
<br/>Herennius Etruscus | strength1 = Unknown | strength2 = Unknown | casualties1 = Unknown | casualties2 = Heavy }} The Battle of Abritus also known as the Battle of Forum Terebronii occurred near Abritus (modern Razgrad) in the Roman province of Moesia Inferior in the summer of 251. It was fought between the Romans and a federation of Gothic and Scythian tribesmen under the Gothic king Cniva. The Roman army was soundly defeated, and Roman emperors Decius and Herennius Etruscus, his son, were both killed in battle. It was one of the worst defeats suffered by the Roman Empire against the Germanic tribes, rated by the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus as on par with the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9, the Marcomannic invasion of Roman Italy in 170, and the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The defeat was a disaster for Rome. The emperors' deaths led to more political instability at home; and the loss of the army allowed repeated barbarian incursions in the region for the next two decades. The new Roman emperor Trebonianus Gallus was forced to allow the Goths to return home with their loot and prisoners. The barbarians would not be expelled from Roman territory until 271.LocationThe long-debated location of Abritus was thought to be east of the city of Razgrad after excavations by T. Ivanov in 1969 and 1971. However recent work has shown it took place about northwest of Abritus, in the valley of the river Beli Lom, to the south of the village of Dryanovets near the site known locally as "Poleto" (the Field). This is evidenced by the large number of Roman coins and arms including swords, shields, spears, armour, greaves, and even military tentpoles found by archaeologists and local residents on the site which must be the last Roman camp. Background Soon after Decius ascended to the throne in 249, barbarian tribes invaded the Roman provinces of Dacia, Moesia Superior, and Moesia Inferior. Two factors had contributed to growing unrest in the area north of the Danube. First, Decius' predecessor Philip the Arab had refused to continue payments, initiated by Emperor Maximinus Thrax in 238, of annual subsidies to the aggressive tribes of the region. Second and more important, there were continuous movements of new peoples since the time of Emperor Severus Alexander. Decius may also have taken with him troops from the Danube frontier, in order to depose Philip in 249. He probably had with him three legions: legio XIV Gemina from Carnuntum, legio IV Flavia Felix from Singidunum, and legio VII Claudia from Viminacium and/or their vexillationes. The resultant military vacuum would inevitably attract invaders. In 250 a tribal coalition under Cniva crossed the Roman Danube frontier, probably advancing in two columns. Whether these were consisted only of Goths is rather unlikely so the name "Scythians" by which the Greek sources called them (a geographical definition) seems more appropriate. It is quite possible that other people of Germanic and Sarmatian origin (like Bastarnae, Taifals, and Hasdingian Vandals), perhaps Roman deserters as well, had joined the invaders. Meanwhile, the Carpi invaded Dacia, eastern Moesia Superior, and western Moesia Inferior. Then they probably headed south to besiege Philippopolis (now Plovdiv in Bulgaria). Cniva's main column of 70,000 under the King himself crossed the Danube at Oescus then headed eastwards to Novae, where he was repelled by the provincial governor (and future emperor) Trebonianus Gallus. Then the invaders headed south to plunder Nicopolis ad Istrum where Decius defeated them but not decisively. After these initial setbacks, the barbarians moved southwards through Haemus mountain and Decius pursued them (likely through the Shipka Pass) to save Philippopolis. It seems that Priscus, after receiving the news of the defeat at Beroe, thought that the Goths would spare him and the city. He was wrong and was probably killed when the city fell. Then some of Cniva's forces began returning to their homeland, laden with booty and captives, among them many of senatorial rank. Battle In either June, July, or August of 251, the Roman army engaged the forces under Cniva near Abritus. The strengths of the belligerent forces are unknown, but we know that Cniva divided his forces into three units, with one of these parts concealed behind a swamp. Jordanes and Aurelius Victor claim that Herennius Etruscus was killed by an arrow during a skirmish before the battle but his father addressed his soldiers as if the loss of his son did not matter. He allegedly said, "Let no one mourn. The death of one soldier is not a great loss to the Republic". However, other sources state that Herennius died with his father. Decius' forces initially defeated their opponents in the front line, but made the fatal mistake of pursuing their fleeing enemy into the swamp, where they were ambushed and completely routed under a barrage of Gothic missiles. The immense slaughter that ensued marked one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of the Roman Empire. Decius died in the midst of the chaos and slaughter, buried under the mud. The bodies of Decius and Herennius were never found. The Goths captured Decius' treasury of tons of gold coins and many weapons which have since been discovered in many locations across Gothic territories. Zonaras vividly narrates how: <blockquote>He and his son and a large number of Romans fell into the marshland; all of them perished there, none of their bodies to be found, as they were covered by the mud.</blockquote> A 6th-century Byzantine scholar, Zosimus, also described the total massacre of Decius' troops and the fall of the pagan emperor: "Proceeding therefore incautiously in an unknown place, he and his army became entangled in the mire, and under that disadvantage were so assailed by the missiles of the Barbarians, that not one of them escaped with life. Thus ended the life of the excellent emperor Decius." Lactantius, a 4th-century early Christian and advisor to Roman Emperor Constantine the Great, described the emperor's demise as following: <blockquote>He was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians, and slain, together with great part of his army; nor could he be honoured with the rites of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he lay to be devoured by wild beasts and birds, a fit end for the enemy of God.</blockquote> D. S. Potter rejects the story of Zosimus about Treboniannus Gallus who supposedly conspired with the enemies of Romans for delivering Decius' army into the Gothic trap since it seems impossible that, afterwards, the shattered Roman legions proclaimed emperor a traitor who was responsible for the loss of so many soldiers from their ranks. Another strong point against Gallus' treason is the fact that he adopted Hostilian, the younger son of Decius, after returning to Rome. Aftermath Gallus, who became emperor upon Decius' death, negotiated a treaty with the Goths under duress, which allowed them to keep their booty and return to their homes on the other side of the Danube. It is also possible that he agreed to pay an annual tribute in return for the Goths' promise to respect Roman territory. This humiliating treaty, the contemporary spread of the Plague of Cyprian with its devastating effects, and the chaotic situation in the East with the Sassanian invasions left Gallus with a very bad reputation amongst the later Roman historians. However, D. S. Potter suggests that, before the defeat at Abritus, the situation was not so serious that the available Roman forces would not be able to manage the invasions. Therefore, it is Decius' bad conduct which was responsible for the disastrous turn of the events. In any case, Gallus had no choice but to get rid of the Goths as soon as possible. In 271, the Emperor Aurelian conclusively defeated the Goths and killed their king Cannabaudes in battle. Based on the similarity of the names, that king might coincide with the King Cniva who defeated Decius in Abritus. See also *Roman army *Gothic and Vandal warfare Citations References Primary sources * Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, par. 29.4–5 in Liber de Caesaribus of Sextus Aurelius Victor, critical edition by H. W. Bird, Liverpool University Press, 1994, * Dexippus, Scythica, (fragments of a lost work which is the main known source of all later Roman and Byzantine historians and chronographers), in Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, entry 100, ed. Felix Jacoby, Brill Academic Publishing, 2001 * George Syncellus, Chronographia (), in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, ed. Dindorf, Weber, Bohn, 1829 * Jordanes, Getica, par. 101–103 from The Gothic History of Jordanes (English Version), ed. Charles C. Mierow, Arx Publishing, 2006, * Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum, from [https://web.archive.org/web/20070221192228/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.iii.i.html Christian Classics Ethereal Library] * Zonaras, Epitome historiarum (), book 12, in Patrologia Graeca, ed. J. P. Migne, Paris, 1864, vol 134 * Zosimus, Historia Nova (), book 1, in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, ed. Bekker, Weber, Bonn, 1837 Secondary sources * Bowman A. K., Garnsey P., Cameron A. (ed.). The Cambridge Ancient History - vol XII The Crisis of Empire, Cambridge University Press, 2005. * * Ivanov Teofil and Stojanof Stojan. ABRITVS: Its History and Archaeology, Cultural and Historical Heritage Directorate, Razgrad, 1985 * Potter, David S. The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180&ndash;395, Routledge, 2004. * Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001. * [http://icarus.umkc.edu/sandbox/perseus/pecs/page.11.a.php Stillwell, Richard (ed.). Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites, 1976:] "Abrittus (Razgrad), Bulgaria" * Talbert Richard J. A. (ed.). Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, Princeton University Press, 2000. * Wolfram, Herwig. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eCf0Tjg0BukC History of the Goths] (transl. by Thomas J. Dunlap), University of California Press, 1988, Abritus Abritus Abritus 251 Abritus 251 Abritus 251 Category:Military history of Bulgaria Category:History of Razgrad Province Abritus 251 Abritus Abritus Category:Decian dynasty
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Abritus
2025-04-05T18:27:01.999626
4978
Battle of Berestechko
| commander2 = John II Casimir <br /> Jeremi Wisniowiecki <br /> Mikołaj Potocki <br /> Marcin Kalinowski <br /> Stefan Czarniecki <br /> Stanisław Lanckoroński<br /> Paweł Jan Sapieha | strength1 = 200,000 total<br>33,000 Cossacks<br>many thousands of peasants<br> 30,000 Crimean Tatars<br> 2,000 Don Cossacks<br>Several thousand Turks and Vlachs | strength2 80,000 total<br>17,000 cavalry <br> 16,000 infantry<br> 56,000 Pospolite ruszenie | casualties1 = 30,000–40,000 killed | casualties2 = 700 }} The Battle of Berestechko (Ukrainian: Битва під Берестечком, Polish: Bitwa pod Beresteczkiem; 28 June – 10 July 1651) was fought between the Cossack Hetmanate and Crimean Khanate against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a part of the Khmelnytsky Uprising. Near the site of the present-day city of Berestechko in Ukraine, a forces of the Zaporozhian Cossacks and Crimean Tatars under the command of Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Otaman Tymofiy Khmelnytsky, Colonels Ivan Bohun and Fylon Dzhalaliy with Khan İslâm III Giray and Tugay Bey, who was killed in the battle, was defeated by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's forces under the command of the Polish King John II Casimir, Prince Jeremi Wiśniowiecki, Hetmans Marcin Kalinowski and Stanisław Lanckoroński. The battle took place in the Volhynian Voivodeship on the hilly plain south of the Styr River. The Polish–Lithuanian camp was on the Styr River opposite Berestechko and faced south, towards the Zaporozhian Cossacks about two kilometers away, whose right flank was against the Pliashivka (Pliashova) River and the Crimean Tatars on their left flank. It is considered to have been among the largest European land battles of the 17th century.Armies The number of Polish troops is uncertain. One of the senior Polish commanders, Duke Bogusław Radziwiłł, wrote that the Crown Army had 80,000 soldiers, which included "40,000 regulars and 40,000 nobles of the levée en masse, accompanied by roughly the same number of various servants, footmen, and such." Some modern historians, such as Zbigniew Wójcik, Józef Gierowski, and Władysław Czapliński, have reduced this figure to 60,000–63,000 soldiers. There is no reliable source on the number of Zaporozhian Cossack and Crimean Tatar troops. The possible estimates range from 90,000 men to 130,000 men. The core of Cossack forces at Berestechko consisted of 12 Registered Cossack regiments named after towns they were stationed in (list numbers provided according to the Treaty of Zboriv (1649): {| class="wikitable" |+ !Regiment of !Colonel !Strength |- |Chyhyryn |Mykhailo Krysa |3,220 |- |Cherkasy |Yakiv Voronchenko |2,990 |- |Korsun |Ivan Gulyanitsky |3,470 |- |Bila Tserkva |Mykhailo Gromyka |2,990 |- |Uman |Yosyp Glukh |2,977 |- |Bratslav |Danylo Nechai |2,662 |- |Vinnytsia |Ivan Bohun |2,050 |- |Pereiaslav |Fedir Loboda |2,986 |- |Kropyvna |Filon Dzhelaliy |1,993 |- |Myrhorod |Matviy Hladky |3,009 |- |Poltava |Martyn Pushkar |2,970 |- |Pryluky |Tymofiy Nosach |1,996 |- | colspan="2" |Total |33,313 |} A total of 33,313 from the above. Additional 5 Cossack regiments (of Kyiv, Kaniv, Chernihiv, Nizhyn, Pavoloch) didn't participate in the battle being deployed mostly against the Lithuanian forces of Janusz Radziwiłł advancing on Kyiv. The Registered Cossack force was supported by a large number of Ukrainian peasants armed with scythes, flails and the likes which were rather undisciplined and organised poorly. The Crimean Tatar force is estimated to 25,000–30,000 men, though might be lower. There were also 2,000 Don Cossacks and a few thousand of Turks and Vlachs. On 19 June 1651, the Crown Army numbered 14,844 Polish cavalry, 2,250 German-style cavalry, 11,900 German-style infantry and dragoons, 2,950 Hungarian-style infantry (haiduks), 1,550 Lithuanian volunteers, and 960 Lipka Tatars. A number of registered Cossacks remained loyal and participated in the battle on the Polish side. Many magnates brought in their large private armies. In addition, there was a huge militia force, of limited value, numbering 30,000 noblemen of the levée en masse. The Polish commanders were hoping to break the Cossack ranks with a charge of the Polish Winged Hussars, a tactic that had proven effective in many previous battles, including at Kircholm, and Kłuszyn (and which would later prove successful at the 1683 Battle of Vienna against the Turks). The Cossack Army was well acquainted with this Polish style of war, having had much experience fighting against the Poles and alongside them. Their preferred tactic was to avoid an open field battle, and to fight from the cover of a huge fortified camp. First day of the battle 2,000 Polish cavalry (one regiment under the command of Aleksander Koniecpolski, supported by Jerzy Lubomirski, six pancern cavalry companies of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki and Winged Hussars under the command of Stefan Czarniecki) repulsed the Crimean Tatars, who suffered heavy losses. During the first day of "skirmishes by the Tatar and Cossack vanguard regiments", the Poles were victorious "since their army sustained that first attack cheerfully and in high spirits".Second day of the battleThe Poles, encouraged by their success on the first day, deployed all their available cavalry against the "main Tatar horde" and "Cossack vanguard regiments". At 3 p.m. Duke Jeremi Wiśniowiecki led a successful charge of 18 cavalry companies against the right wing of the Cossack-Tatar armies and "the zealous cavalry attack was a success: it broke up the rows of Cossack infantry and the wagons moving in corral formation". However the Cossacks regrouped, pushed the Polish cavalry out of the camp and advanced further with the help of the Tatars. The left flank of the Polish army started to retreat when the King reinforced it with all German mercenaries under command of Colonel Houwaldt who repulsed the attack and "drove the Tatars from the field". During the fighting, a Polish nobleman called Otwinowski noticed the Tatar Khan's standard, and Polish artillery was directed to fire at it. The Khan's brother Amurat was wounded mortally. With the battle already turning against them, the Tatar forces panicked, "abandoning the Khan's camp as it stood", and fled the battlefield leaving most of their belongings behind. Khmelnytsky and Vyhovsky with a few Cossacks chased Khan attempting to bring him with his force back, but were taken hostage to be released when the battle was over. A heavy rain started which complicated cavalry operations. With the Tatar cavalry gone, the Cossacks moved their wagons in the night to a better defensive position closer to the river, dug trenches and constructed walls to Polish surprise in the morning. Siege of the Cossack–Tatar camp The Crown Army and Cossack camp exchanged artillery fire for ten days while both sides built fortifications. The Poles tried to blockade the camp. Leaderless without Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the Cossacks were commanded by Colonel Fylon Dzhalaliy who was replaced by Ivan Bohun on 9 July. Other accounts state the commander was Matviy Hladky. The Cossack morale was decreasing and desertions started to the other river side, though they maintained a high rate of artillery fire and made occasional sorties. When the offered terms for surrender were rejected, the Poles prepared to dam the Pliashivka River so as to flood the Cossack camp. Stanisław Lanckoroński with a cavalry force of 2,000 moved across the river on 9 July to complete the encirclement of the Cossacks. When they found out about the Polish advance, Bohun called for a council with other leaders of the registered Cossacks on further actions. However, none of the peasant militia was invited to the council. The Cossacks built three bridges and Bohun led 2,000 cavalry with two cannons to the other river side by the morning of 10 July to attack Lanckoroński. The uninformed peasants thought they were abandoned, started to panic and flee across the river. Lanckoroński didn't expect a large movement in his direction and retreated. Bohun returned to the camp and tried to restore order, but in vain. The main Polish force observed the disorder, but didn't launch an attack on the Cossack camp immediately thinking of a trap. They assaulted eventually, breached the defences and made their way to the river crossing. A few Cossack regiments managed to retreat in order though. Some Cossacks drowned, but archaeological excavations on the river crossing site revealed about a hundred Cossack human remains all showing damage from melee weapons which suggested heavy fighting. A rearguard of 200 to 300 Cossacks heroic protected the river crossing; all of them were killed in battle rejecting surrender offers. "Khmelnytsky's tent was captured intact, with all his belongings", which included two banners, one he received from John II Casimir's 1649 commission and one from Wladyslaw IV in 1646. Although it was difficult to estimate how many Cossacks and peasants were killed in the retreat, Piasecki and Brzostowski, who participated in the battle, mentioned 3,000 killed. Tsar's ambassador podyachy Bogdanov in his report to Moscow mentioned 4,000 killed. Most Cossack artillery pieces were either lost to the Poles or drowned in the marshes. Many spoils were collected in the Cossack camp including the army treasury of 30,000 talers. Schematic map of the battle Aftermath As the battle ended, King John Casimir made the error of not pressing even harder the pursuit of the fleeing Cossacks, "the first several days following ... defeat of the enemy were so blatantly wasted" but there "was the unwillingness of the nobility's levée en masse to proceed into Ukraine" plus "rainy weather and a lack of food and fodder, coupled with epidemics and diseases that were becoming active in the army, were generally undercutting any energy for war". The "king left the whole army to Potocki" on 17 July 1651, and returned "to Warsaw to celebrate his victories over the Cossacks". The Ukrainian revolt, far from ending, would continue for several more years under Khmelnytsky. <poem> There is a little town on it, In the middle of Volhynia, called Berestechko, Belonging to the Leszczynski family, that was not as famous in the past As it has now become – both ancient Cannae And Khotyn are far outshone by it, because as many heads here Our eyes have seen as at Thermopylae Or Marathon they counted, although there the whole strength Of Europe and Asia had come together. Since our arrival – hilly roads And steep slopes, until open Meadows unfold near the Styr's Low banks. It was pleasant to look from the south At the pyramid of the Pronskis and the groves that are green In winter always. And to th east there lies as if a natural Field for a camp – and there it was indeed placed Later, but first – this was pondered for a long time. </poem> The Battle of Berestechko is commemorated on the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw, with the inscription "BERESTECZKO 28-30 VI 1651". References External links * http://www.kismeta.com/diGrasse/Berest.htm * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161112212930/https://www.msz.gov.pl/resource/21badcbf-0c18-4fb8-8b19-3d382469d25f%3AJCR Winged Hussars], Radoslaw Sikora, Bartosz Musialowicz, BUM Magazine, 2016. Category:Conflicts in 1651 Berestechko Category:Battles involving the Crimean Khanate Category:History of Volyn Oblast Category:Battles involving the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Berestechko
2025-04-05T18:27:02.009620
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Bohdan Khmelnytsky
}}<br/><br/> | birth_name = Bohdan Zynovii Mykhailovych Khmelnytskyi | image = Bohdan Khmelnytsky (Portrait, sec. half 17th century, Chernihiv Historical Museum) (cropped).jpg | caption = Portrait of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, second half of the 17th century | order = Hetman of Zaporizhian Host | term_start = 30 January 1648 | term_end = 6 August 1657 | predecessor = position created | successor = Yurii Khmelnytsky | birth_date = circa 1595 | birth_place = Subotiv, Kiev Voivodeship, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth | death_date = 6 August | death_place = Chyhyryn, Cossack Hetmanate | resting_place = Illinska Church in Subotiv | spouse = | children Tymish, Yurii, Hryhorii, Ostap, , Stepanyda, , Maria | nationality = Ruthenian | signature = Xm avt2.jpg }} Bohdan Zynoviy Mykhailovych Khmelnytsky (Ruthenian: Ѕѣнові Богданъ Хмелнiцкiи; modern , Polish: ; 15956 August 1657) was a Ruthenian nobleman and military commander of Zaporozhian Cossacks as Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host, which was then under the suzerainty of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He led an uprising against the Commonwealth and its magnates (1648–1654) that resulted in the creation of an independent Cossack state in Ukraine. In 1654, he concluded the Treaty of Pereiaslav with the Russian Tsar and allied the Cossack Hetmanate with Tsardom of Russia, thus placing central Ukraine under Russian protection. During the uprising, the Cossacks under his leadership massacred tens of thousands of Poles and Jews, making it one of the most traumatic events in Polish and Jewish history.Early life during the reign of Władysław IV, c. 1635]] Although there is no definite proof of the date of Khmelnytsky's birth, Ukrainian-born historian Mykhailo Maksymovych suggests that it is likely 27 December 1595 Julian (St. Theodore's day). As was the custom in the Orthodox Church, he was baptized with one of his middle names, Theodore, translated into Ukrainian as Bohdan. A biography of Khmelnytsky by Smoliy and Stepankov, however, suggests that it is more likely he was born on 9 November (feast day of St Zenoby, 30 October in Julian calendar) and was baptized on 11 November (feast day of St. Theodore in the Catholic Church). In the work of Paul of Aleppo, "the Travels of Macarius: Patriarch of Antioch", Khmelnytsky is called as the Khatman Zenobius Akhmil. Khmelnytsky was probably born in the village of Subotiv, near Chyhyryn in the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland at the estate of his father Mykhailo Khmelnytsky. He was born into Ukrainian lesser nobility. Some sources state that in 1590 his father Mykhailo was appointed as a sotnyk for the Korsun-Chyhyryn starosta Jan Daniłowicz, who continued to colonize the new Ukrainian lands near the Dnieper river. Khmelnytsky attended a Jesuit college, possibly in Jarosław, but more likely in Lviv in the school founded by hetman Żółkiewski. He completed his schooling by 1617, acquiring a broad knowledge of world history and learning Polish and Latin. Later he learned Turkish, Tatar, and French. Unlike many of the other Jesuit students, he did not embrace Roman Catholicism but remained Orthodox.Marriage and familyKhmelnytsky married Hanna Somkivna, a sister of a rich Pereyaslav Cossack; the couple settled in Subotiv. By the second half of the 1620s, they had three daughters: Stepanyda, Olena, and Kateryna. His first son Tymish (Tymofiy) was born in 1632, and another son Yuriy was born in 1640.Registered Cossack Upon completion of his studies in 1617, Khmelnytsky entered into service with the Cossacks. As early as 1619, he was sent together with his father to Moldavia, when the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth entered into war against the Ottoman Empire. During the battle of Cecora (Țuțora) on 17 September 1620, his father was killed, and young Khmelnytsky, among many others including future hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski, was captured by the Turks. He spent the next two years in captivity in Constantinople as a prisoner of an Ottoman Kapudan Pasha (presumably Parlak Mustafa Pasha). Other sources claim that he spent his slavery in Ottoman Navy on galleys as an oarsman, where he picked up a knowledge of Turkic languages. While there is no concrete evidence as to his return to Ukraine, most historians believe Khmelnytsky either escaped or was ransomed. Sources vary as to his benefactor – his mother, friends, the Polish king – but perhaps by Krzysztof Zbaraski, ambassador of the Commonwealth to the Ottomans. In 1622 he paid 30,000 thalers in ransom for all prisoners of war captured at the Battle of Cecora. Upon return to Subotiv, Khmelnytsky took over operating his father's estate and became a registered Cossack in the Chyhyryn Regiment. He most likely did not take part in any of the Cossack uprisings that broke out in Ukraine at that time. His loyal service achieved him the rank of military clerk (pisarz wojskowy) of the registered Cossacks in 1637. It happened after the capitulation of the Pavlyuk uprising in the town Borowica on 24 December 1637, when field hetman Mikołaj Potocki appointed new Cossack eldership. He had to do it because some of the elders either joined Pavlyuk or were killed by him (like former military clerk, Teodor Onuszkowicz). Because of his new position Khmelnytsky was the one who prepared and signed an act of capitulation. Fighting didn't stop in Borowica, rebel Cossacks rose up again under the new command of Ostryanyn and Hunia in the spring next year. Mikołaj Potocki was successful again and after a six week long siege, the rebel Cossacks were forced to capitulate on 3 August 1638. Like the year before, some registered Cossacks joined the rebels, while some of them remained loyal. Unlike the last time, Potocki decided not to punish the rebel Cossacks, but forced all of them to swear loyalty to the king and the state and swear not to seek revenge against each other. The Hetman also agreed to their request to send emissaries to the king to seek royal grace and preserve Cossack rights. They were elected on a council on 9 September 1638 in Kiev. Bohdan Khmelnytsky was one of them; the other three were Iwan Bojaryn, colonel of Kaniów, Roman Połowiec and Jan Wołczenko. The emissaries didn't achieve much, mostly because all decisions were already made by the Sejm earlier this year, when deputies accepted the project presented by the grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski. Cossacks were forced to accept harsh new terms at the next council in Masłowy Staw, at the Ros river. According to one of the articles of the Ordynacya Woyska Zaporowskiego ("Ordinance of the Zaporozhian Army") registered Cossacks lost the right to elect their own officers and a commander, called elder (starszy) or commissar. From now on, the elder was to be nominated by the Sejm, from the Grand Hetman's recommendation. The Grand Hetman also got the right to appoint all officers. Commissars, colonels and osauls had to be a noblemen, while sotniks and atamans had to be Cossacks, who were "distinguished in a service for Us and the Commonwealth". Khmelnytsky became one of the sotniks of Chyhryn regiment. In 1663 in Paris Pierre Chevalier published a book about Cossack uprising called Histoire de la guerre des Cosaques contre la Pologne, which he dedicated to Nicolas Léonor de Flesselles, count de Brégy, who was an ambassador to Poland in 1645. In the dedication he described the meeting de Brégy had with Khmelnytsky in France, and group of Cossacks he brought to France to fight against Spain in Flanders. Chevalier also claimed that he himself commanded Cossacks in Flanders. Although in distant parts of the book Chevalier doesn't mention either Cossacks or Khmelnytsky even once. In his other writing, ''Relation des Cosaques (avec la vie de Kmielniski, tirée d'un Manuscrit), published the same year, which also contains a biography of Khmelnytsky, there is no mention about his or any other Cossacks stay in France or Flanders. Moreover, first Chevalier book is the only source that mention such an event, there is not trace of it even in correspondence of count de Brègy. Although it is true that he was conducting a recruitment of soldiers in Poland for French army in years 1646–1648. In fact he succeeded and about 3000 of them travelled via Gdańsk to Flanders and took part in fights around Dunkirk. French sources describes them as infanterie tout Poulonnois qu'Allemand. They were commanded by colonels Krzysztof Przyjemski, Andrzej Przyjemski and Georges Cabray. Second recruitment that shipped off in 1647 were commanded by Jan Pleitner, Dutch military engineer in service of Władysław IV and Jan Denhoff, colonel of Royal Guard. 17th century French historian Jean-François Sarasіn in his Histoire de siège de Dunkerque when describing participation of Polish mercenaries in fights over Dunkirk, notes that they were commanded by some "Sirot". Some historians identify him as Ivan Sirko, Cossack Otaman. Claims that Khmelnytsky and Cossacks were actually in France are supported by some Ukrainian historians, while other and most Polish scholarship finds it unlikely.Czapliński Affair Upon the death of magnate Stanisław Koniecpolski (March 1646) his successor, Aleksander, redrew the maps of his possessions. He laid claim to Khmelnytsky's estate, claiming it as his. Trying to find protection from this grab by the powerful magnate, Khmelnytsky wrote numerous appeals and letters to different representatives of the Polish crown but to no avail. At the end of 1645 the Chyhyryn starosta Daniel Czapliński officially received authority from Koniecpolski to seize Khmelnytsky's Subotiv estate. . Khmelnytsky obtained ready-made garments from the East. According to a 1651 message, Sultan Mehmed IV sent to him "a samite caftan, one of his honorable royal caftans." Religion, ethnicity, and economics factored into this discontent. While the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth remained a union of nations, a sizable population of Orthodox Ruthenians were ignored. Oppressed by the Polish magnates, they took their wrath out on Poles, as well as the Jews, who often managed the estates of Polish nobles. The advent of the Counter-Reformation worsened relations between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. Many Orthodox Ukrainians considered the Union of Brest as a threat to their Orthodox faith. Initial successes At the end of 1647 Khmelnytsky reached the estuary of the Dnieper river. On 7 December, his small detachment (300–500 men), with the help of registered Cossacks who went over to his side, disarmed the small Polish detachment guarding the area and took over the Zaporozhian Sich. The Poles attempted to retake the Sich but were decisively defeated as more registered Cossacks joined the forces. At the end of January 1648, a Cossack Rada was called and Khmelnytsky was unanimously elected a hetman. A period of feverish activity followed. Cossacks were sent with hetman's letters to many regions of Ukraine calling on Cossacks and Orthodox peasants to join the rebellion, Khortytsia was fortified, efforts were made to acquire and make weapons and ammunition, and emissaries were sent to the Khan of Crimea, İslâm III Giray. Initially, Polish authorities took the news of Khmelnytsky's arrival at the Sich and reports about the rebellion lightly. The two sides exchanged lists of demands: the Poles asked the Cossacks to surrender the mutinous leader and disband, while Khmelnytsky and the Rada demanded that the Commonwealth restore the Cossacks' ancient rights, stop the advance of the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church, yield the right to appoint Orthodox leaders of the Sich and of the Registered Cossack regiments, and to remove Commonwealth troops from Ukraine. The Polish magnates considered the demands an affront, and an army headed by Stefan Potocki moved in the direction of the Sich. Had the Cossacks stayed at Khortytsia, they might have been defeated, as in many other rebellions. However, Khmelnytsky marched against the Poles. The two armies met on 16 May 1648 at Zhovti Vody, where, aided by the Tatars of Tugay Bey, the Cossacks inflicted their first crushing defeat on the Commonwealth. It was repeated soon afterwards, with the same success, at the Battle of Korsuń on 26 May 1648. Khmelnytsky used his diplomatic and military skills: under his leadership, the Cossack army moved to battle positions following his plans, Cossacks were proactive and decisive in their manoeuvrers and attacks, and most importantly, he gained the support of both large contingents of registered Cossacks and the Crimean Khan, his crucial ally for the many battles to come. Establishment of Cossack Hetmanate ]] The Patriarch of Jerusalem Paiseus, who was visiting Kiev at this time, referred to Khmelnytsky as the Prince of Rus. In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation headed by Senator Adam Kysil, Khmelnytsky declared that he was "the sole autocrat of Rus" and that he had "enough power in Ukraine, Podilia, and Volhynia... in his land and principality stretching as far as Lviv, Kholm (modern Chełm), and Halych." After the period of initial military successes, the state-building process began. His leadership was demonstrated in all areas of state-building: military, administration, finance, economics and culture. Khmelnytsky made the Zaporozhian Host the supreme power in the new Ukrainian state and unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. Khmelnytsky built a new government system and developed military and civilian administration. A new generation of statesmen and military leaders came to the forefront: Ivan Vyhovsky, Pavlo Teteria, Danylo Nechai and Ivan Nechai, Ivan Bohun, Hryhoriy Hulyanytsky. From Cossack polkovnyks, officers, and military commanders, a new elite within the Cossack Hetman state was born. Throughout the years, the elite preserved and maintained the autonomy of the Cossack Hetmanate in the face of Russia's attempt to curb it. It was also instrumental in the onset of the period of Ruin that followed, eventually destroying most of the achievements of the Khmelnytsky era. Complications . It was later taken by the Swedes in Warsaw 1655 and is now to be seen at Armémuseum, Stockholm, Sweden.]] Khmelnytsky's initial successes were followed by a series of setbacks as neither Khmelnytsky nor the Commonwealth had enough strength to stabilise the situation or to inflict a defeat on the enemy. What followed was a period of intermittent warfare and several peace treaties, which were seldom upheld. From spring 1649 onward, the situation turned for the worse for the Cossacks; as Polish attacks increased in frequency, they became more successful. The resulting Treaty of Zboriv on 18 August 1649 was unfavourable for the Cossacks. It was followed by another defeat at the battle of Berestechko on 18 June 1651 in which the Tatars betrayed Khmelnytsky and held the hetman captive. The Cossacks suffered a crushing defeat, with an estimated 30,000 casualties. They were forced to sign the Treaty of Bila Tserkva, which favoured the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Warfare broke open again and, in the years that followed, the two sides were almost perpetually at war. Now, the Crimean Tatars played a decisive role and did not allow either side to prevail. It was in their interests to keep both Ukraine and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from getting too strong and becoming an effective power in the region. Khmelnytsky started looking for another foreign ally. Although the Cossacks had established their de facto independence from Poland, the new state needed legitimacy, which could be provided by a foreign monarch. In search of a protectorate, Khmelnytsky approached the Ottoman sultan in 1651, and formal embassies were exchanged. The Turks offered vassalship, like their other arrangements with contemporary Crimea, Moldavia and Wallachia. However, the idea of a union with the Muslim monarch was not acceptable to the general populace and most Cossacks. The other possible ally was the Tsardom of Russia. However, despite appeals for help from Khmelnytsky in the name of the shared Orthodox faith, the tsar preferred to wait, until the threat of a Cossack-Ottoman union in 1653 finally forced him to action. The differences were expressed during the ceremony of the oath of allegiance to the tsar: the Russian envoy refused to reciprocate with an oath from the ruler to his subjects, as the Cossacks and Ruthenians expected since it was the custom of the Polish king. Khmelnytsky stormed out of the church and threatened to cancel the entire treaty. The Cossacks decided to rescind the demand and abide by the treaty. Final years As a result of the 1654 Treaty of Pereiaslav, the geopolitical map of the region changed. Russia entered the scene, and the Cossacks' former allies, the Tatars, had switched sides and gone over to the Polish side, initiating warfare against Khmelnytsky and his forces. Tatar raids depopulated whole areas of Sich. Cossacks, aided by the Tsar's army, took revenge on Polish possessions in Belarus, and in the spring of 1654, the Cossacks drove the Poles from much of the country. Sweden entered the mêlée. Old adversaries of both Poland and Russia, they occupied a share of Lithuania before the Russians could get there. The occupation displeased Russia because the tsar sought to take over the Swedish Baltic provinces. In 1656, with the Commonwealth increasingly war-torn but also increasingly hostile and successful against the Swedes, the ruler of Transylvania, George II Rákóczi, also joined in. Charles X of Sweden had solicited his help because of the massive Polish popular opposition and resistance against the Swedes. Under blows from all sides, the Commonwealth barely survived. , Ukraine, where Khmelnytsky was buried]] Russia attacked Sweden in July 1656, while its forces were deeply involved in Poland. That war ended in status quo two years later, but it complicated matters for Khmelnytsky, as his ally was now fighting his overlord. In addition to diplomatic tensions between the tsar and Khmelnytsky, a number of other disagreements between the two surfaced. In particular, they concerned Russian officials' interference in the finances of the Cossack Hetmanate and in the newly captured Belarus. The tsar concluded a separate treaty with the Poles in Vilnius in 1656. The Hetman's emissaries were not even allowed to attend the negotiations. Khmelnytsky wrote an irate letter to the tsar accusing him of breaking the Pereiaslav agreement. He compared the Swedes to the tsar and said that the former were more honourable and trustworthy than the Russians. and Oles Sydoruk.]] On 22 July, he suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and became paralysed after his audience with the Kiev Colonel Zhdanovich. His expedition to Halychyna had failed because of mutiny within his army. Less than a week later, Bohdan Khmelnytsky died at 5 a.m. on 27 July 1657. His funeral was held on 23 August, and his body was taken from his capital, Chyhyryn, to his estate, at Subotiv, for burial in his ancestral church. In 1664 a Polish hetman Stefan Czarniecki recaptured Subotiv and, according to some Ukrainian historians, ordered the bodies of the hetman and his son, Tymish, to be exhumed and desecrated, while others claim that is not the case. Influences Khmelnytsky had a crucial influence on the history of Ukraine. He not only shaped the future of Ukraine but affected the balance of power in Europe, as the weakening of Poland-Lithuania was exploited by Austria, Saxony, Prussia, and Russia. His actions and role in events were viewed differently by different contemporaries, and even now there are greatly differing perspectives on his legacy. Ukrainian assessment banknote depicting Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky]] in 1905]] In Ukraine, Khmelnytsky is generally regarded as a national hero. A city and a region of the country bear his name. His image is prominently displayed on Ukrainian banknotes and his monument in the centre of Kyiv is a focal point of the Ukrainian capital. There have also been several issues of the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky – one of the highest decorations in Ukraine and in the former Soviet Union. However, with all this positive appreciation of his legacy, even in Ukraine it is far from being unanimous. He is criticised for his union with Russia, which in the view of some, proved to be disastrous for the future of the country. Prominent Ukrainian poet, Taras Shevchenko, was one of Khmelnytsky's very vocal and harsh critics. Others criticize him for his alliance with the Crimean Tatars, which permitted the latter to take a large number of Ukrainian peasants as slaves, as the Cossacks as a military caste did not protect the kholopy, the lowest stratum of the Ukrainian people. Folk songs capture this. On the balance, the view of his legacy in present-day Ukraine is more positive than negative, with some critics acknowledging that the union with Russia was dictated by necessity and an attempt to survive in those difficult times. In a 2018 Ukraine's Rating Sociological Group poll, 73% of Ukrainian respondents had a positive attitude to Khmelnytsky. Polish assessment Khmelnytsky's role in the history of the Polish State has been viewed mostly in a negative light. The rebellion of 1648 proved to be the end of the Golden Age of the Commonwealth and the beginning of its demise. Although it survived the rebellion and the following war, within less than two hundred years it was divided amongst Russia, Prussia, and Austria in the partitions of Poland. Many Poles blamed Khmelnytsky for the decline of the Commonwealth. Khmelnytsky has been a subject to several works of fiction in the 19th century Polish literature, but the most notable treatment of him in Polish literature is found in Henryk Sienkiewicz's With Fire and Sword. The rather critical portrayal of him by Sienkiewicz has been moderated in the 1999 movie adaptation by Jerzy Hoffman. Russian and Soviet history The official Russian historiography stressed the fact that Khmelnytsky entered into union with Moscow's Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich with an expressed desire to "re-unify" Ukraine with Russia. This view corresponded with the official theory of Moscow as an heir of the Kievan Rus', which appropriately gathered its former territories. Khmelnytsky was viewed as a national hero of Russia for bringing Ukraine into the "eternal union" of all the Russias – Great (Russia), Little (Ukraine) and White (Belarus) Russia. As such, he was much respected and venerated during the existence of the Russian Empire. His role was presented as a model for all Ukrainians to follow: to aspire for closer ties with Great Russia. This view was expressed in a monument commissioned by the Russian nationalist Mikhail Yuzefovich, which was installed in the centre of Kiev in 1888. Russian authorities decided the original version of the monument (created by Russian sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin) was too xenophobic; it was to depict a vanquished Pole noble, Jewish landlord, and a Catholic priest under the hooves of the horse. The inscription on the monument reads "To Bohdan Khmelnytsky from one and indivisible Russia." Mikeshin also created the Monument to the Millennium of Russia in Novgorod, which has Khmelnytsky shown as one of Russia's prominent figures. Soviet historiography followed in many ways the Imperial Russian theory of re-unification while adding the class struggle dimension to the story. Atrocity stories about massacre victims who had been buried alive, cut to pieces or forced to kill one another spread throughout Europe and beyond. The pogroms contributed to a revival of the ideas of Isaac Luria, who revered the Kabbalah, and the identification of Sabbatai Zevi as the Messiah. Orest Subtelny writes: <blockquote>Between 1648 and 1656, tens of thousands of Jews—given the lack of reliable data, it is impossible to establish more accurate figures—were killed by the rebels, and to this day the Khmelnytsky uprising is considered by Jews to be one of the most traumatic events in their history.</blockquote> Commemoration *The Ukrainian city of Khmelnytskyi is named after Khmelnytsky. *In most Ukrainian cities there are streets named after Bohdan Khmelnytskyi. There is also Bohdan Khmelnytskyi Avenue in the city of Dnipro. *There are monuments to Khmelnytsky in Kyiv, Chyhyryn, Chernihiv, Khmelnytskyi, Cherkasy, Nikopol, Kropyvnytskyi, Zaporizhzhia, and Subotiv. *The Separate Presidential Brigade "Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytskyi", a unit of the Armed Forces of Ukraine tasked with protecting the president of Ukraine, is named in honor of Khmelnytsky. *The National Academy of the State Border Service of Ukraine is named after Khmelnytsky. *The Bohdan Khmelnytsky Battalion, a Russian battalion allegedly formed from Ukrainian POWs is named in honor of Khmelnytsky.See also * , known as Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky 1918–1922 *Bohdan Khmelnytsky Bridge in Moscow *Hetman of Zaporizhian Cossacks *Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, a state military award in Ukraine *Order of Bogdan Khmelnitsky (Soviet Union) *With Fire and Sword (1884), a historical novel by Polish author Henryk Sienkiewicz about these events. References Further reading <!--Put and keep in alphabetical order by author's surname--> * Władysław Andrzej Serczyk, Na dalekiej Ukrainie. Dzieje Kozaczyzny do 1648 roku, Kraków 2008. * Władysław Andrzej Serczyk, Na płonącej Ukrainie. Dzieje Kozaczyzny 1648–1651, Kraków 2009. * Valeriy Smoliy, Valeriy Stepankov, Bohdan Khmelnytsky. Sotsialno-politychnyi portret Second Edition. Lebid, Kyiv. 1995. . * Orest Subtelny. Ukraine. A history. University of Toronto press. 1994. . * Zbigniew Wójcik, [https://web.archive.org/web/20200606012701/http://bazhum.muzhp.pl/media/files/Przeglad_Historyczny/Przeglad_Historyczny-r1973-t64-n3/Przeglad_Historyczny-r1973-t64-n3-s575-585/Przeglad_Historyczny-r1973-t64-n3-s575-585.pdf Czy Kozacy Zaporoscy byli na służbie Mazarina?], "Przegląd Historyczny", vol. 64/3 (1973). * Stephen Velychenko, [http://aleph.ukma.kiev.ua/e-lib/V/Velychenko_The%20Influence.pdf The influence of historical, political and social ideas on the politics of Bohdan Khmelnytsky and the Cossack officers between 1648 and 1657], Ph.D. dissertation, University of London, 1981. *Mykhailo Hrushevsky. [https://ciuspress.com/product/history-of-ukraine-rus-volume-8/?v=3e8d115eb4b3 History of Ukraine-Rus. Volume 8, "The Cossack Age, 1626 to 1650"]: trans. Marta Daria Olynyk, ed. Frank Sysyn, with Myroslav Yurkevich. 2002. *Mykhailo Hrushevsky. [https://ciuspress.com/product/history-of-ukraine-rus-volume-9-book-1/?v=3e8d115eb4b3 History of Ukraine-Rus. Volume 9-1, "The Khmelnytsky Era, 1651 to 1653"]: trans. Bohdan Strumiński, ed. Serhii Plokhy and Frank E. Sysyn, with Uliana M. Pasicznyk. 2005. *Mykhailo Hrushevsky. [https://ciuspress.com/product/history-of-ukraine-rus-volume-9-book-2-part-1/?v=3e8d115eb4b3 History of Ukraine-Rus. Volume 9-2, "The Khmelnytsky Era, 1654 to 1657"], part 1: trans. Marta Daria Olynyk, ed. Serhii Plokhy and Frank E. Sysyn, with Myroslav Yurkevich. 2008. *Mykhailo Hrushevsky. [https://ciuspress.com/product/history-of-ukraine-rus-volume-9-book-2-part-2/?v3e8d115eb4b3 History of Ukraine-Rus. Volume 9-2, "The Khmelnytsky Era, 1654 to 1657"], part 2: trans. Marta Daria Olynyk, ed. Yaroslav Fedoruk and Frank E. Sysyn, with Myroslav Yurkevich. 2010.External links * *Oleksander Ohloblyn, [http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CK%5CH%5CKhmelnytskyBohdan.htm Khmelnytsky, Bohdan, article originally appeared in the Encyclopedia of Ukraine, vol. 2 (1989).] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20041124052838/http://sumy.net.ua/History/map/12!.php Cossack State after 1649 (map)] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20111127044252/http://www.lvivbest.com/en/people/bohdan-khmelnytsky Biography of Bohdan Khmelnytsky] *[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=29GwAWO8t9k Mykola Mashchenko, Film about Khmelnytsky (2008)], Dovzhenko Film Studios *[https://jewishhistorylectures.org/2013/02/19/nathan-of-hanover-and-the-ukrainian-revolution-of-1648-1649/ Dr. Henry Abramson, Video on Nathan of Hanover and the Ukrainian Revolution of 1648–1649], 19 February 2013, Jewish Biography as History, Jewish History lectures, Henry Abramson website Category:1590s births Category:1657 deaths Category:Year of birth uncertain Category:Antisemitism in Ukraine Category:17th-century Ukrainian people Category:Founding monarchs Category:Ukrainian mass murderers Category:Hetmans of Zaporizhian Host Category:People from Cherkasy Oblast Category:Genocide perpetrators
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bohdan_Khmelnytsky
2025-04-05T18:27:02.031096
4982
Ben Bova
| birth_place = Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S. | death_date | death_place = Naples, Florida, U.S. | occupation = | education = South Philadelphia High School<br>Temple University<br>University at Albany, SUNY (MA)<br>California Coast University (EdD) | genre = Science fiction | movement | notableworks | awards Inkpot Award, Hugo Award for Best Professional Editor | spouse <br> | <!-- website = - not working --> }} Benjamin William Bova (November 8, 1932November 29, 2020) was an American writer and editor. During a writing career of 60 years, he was the author of more than 120 works of science fact and fiction, an editor of Analog Science Fiction and Fact, for which he won a Hugo Award six times, and an editorial director of Omni; he was also president of both the National Space Society and the Science Fiction Writers of America. Personal life and education Ben Bova was born on November 8, 1932, in Philadelphia. He graduated from South Philadelphia High School in 1949. In 1953, while attending Temple University in Philadelphia, he married Rosa Cucinotta; they had a son and a daughter. The couple divorced in 1974. That year he married Barbara Berson Rose. Barbara Bova died on September 23, 2009. Bova dedicated his 2011 novel Power Play to Barbara. In March 2013, he announced on his website that he had remarried, to Rashida Loya. He wrote an op-ed piece in 2012, in which he argued that atheists can be just as moral as religious believers. He went back to school in the 1980s, earning a Master of Arts degree in communications in 1987 from the State University of New York at Albany and a Doctor of Education degree from California Coast University in 1996.Career '', illustrated by Ed Emshwiller.]] Bova worked as a technical writer for Project Vanguard in the 1950s and later for the Avco Everett Research Laboratory In 1972, Bova became editor of Analog Science Fact & Fiction, after John W. Campbell's death in 1971. At Analog, Bova won six Hugo Awards for Best Professional Editor. resigning as he lacked the "contractual right to remove his name from the credits."<!-- Unsourcable:and left in disgust after the airing of the first episode (1973) --> His novel The Starcrossed, loosely based on his experiences, featured a characterization of his friend and colleague Harlan Ellison as "Ron Gabriel".<!-- trivia and unsourced:Bova dedicated the novel to "Cordwainer Bird", the pen name Ellison uses when he did not want to be associated with a television or film project. --> In 1974, he co-wrote the screenplay for an episode of the children's science-fiction television series Land of the Lost, titled "The Search". After leaving Analog in 1978, Bova went on to edit Omni, from 1978 to 1982. In 2000, he attended the 58th World Science Fiction Convention (Chicon 2000) as the Author Guest of Honor. In 2007, Stuber/Parent Productions hired him as a consultant to provide insight into what the world may look like in the near future, for their film Repo Men (2010) starring Jude Law and Forest Whitaker. Also in 2007 he provided consulting services to Silver Pictures on the film adaptation of Richard K. Morgan's hardboiled cyberpunk science-fiction novel Altered Carbon (2002). He was awarded the Robert A. Heinlein Award in 2008 for his work in science fiction.Published works, Bova had written over 124 books in various genres. He edited several works, including The Science Fiction Hall of Fame, Volume Two (1973) and Nebula Awards Showcase 2008. He wrote the Grand Tour novel series about exploration and colonization of the Solar System by humans. Reviewing a collection of 12 of the series published in 2004, Gerald Jonas in The New York Times described Bova as "the last of the great pulp writers". References External links * * * * * * * * * [https://www.analogsf.com/the-rivets/in-memoriam/ Obituary] at Analog * Category:1932 births Category:2020 deaths Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American novelists Category:20th-century American short story writers Category:20th-century American essayists Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American novelists Category:21st-century American short story writers Category:21st-century American essayists Category:American atheists Category:American male essayists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American male novelists Category:American male short story writers Category:American writers of Italian descent Category:American science fiction writers Category:Analog Science Fiction and Fact people Category:American anthologists Category:California Coast University alumni Category:American critics of religions Category:Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in Florida Category:Deaths from pneumonia in Florida Category:Hugo Award–winning editors Category:Inkpot Award winners Category:The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction people Category:Novelists from Connecticut Category:Novelists from Pennsylvania Category:People from West Hartford, Connecticut Category:American science fiction critics Category:American science fiction editors Category:Technical writers Category:Temple University alumni Category:Writers about religion and science Category:Writers from Philadelphia Category:Writers of books about writing fiction Category:Presidents of the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers Association
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Bova
2025-04-05T18:27:02.040703
4986
Battle of Okinawa
Battle of Okinawa (film)}} ) | place = Okinawa Island and Prefecture, Ryukyu Islands, Japan | coordinates | map_type = Japan#Pacific Ocean | map_size = 300 | result = Allied victory | territory | combatant1 Ground forces:<br /><br />Naval forces:<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> | combatant2 = Japan | commander1 = Chester W. Nimitz |Tenth Army: | Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr.}} | Joseph Stilwell | Roy Geiger | John R. Hodge |Fifth Fleet: || Raymond A. Spruance | Richmond K. Turner | Bernard Rawlings | Marc Mitscher }} | commander2 = Soemu Toyoda | Minoru Ōta |32nd Army: | Mitsuru Ushijima | Isamu Chō | Hiromichi Yahara}} |Special Attack Force: | Seiichi Itō }} | units1 = Ground units:<br /> Tenth Army * III Amphibious Corps ** 1st Marine Division ** 2nd Marine Division ** 6th Marine Division * XXIV Corps ** 7th Infantry Division ** 27th Infantry Division ** 77th Infantry Division ** 96th Infantry Division Naval units:<br /> Fifth Fleet * Task Force 50 ** Task Force 58 ** Task Force 57 * Joint Exp. Force | units2 = Ground units: <br /> 32nd Army * 24th Infantry Division * 28th Infantry Division * 62nd Infantry Division * 44th Mixed Brigade * 45th Mixed Brigade * 59th Mixed Brigade * 60th Mixed Brigade * 27th Tank Regiment Naval units:<br /> Combined Fleet * 2nd Fleet | strength1 = United States Navy *7 fleet carriers, *6 light carriers, *18 escort carriers, *8 fast battleships, *10 old battleships, *14 heavy cruisers, *17 light cruisers, *132 destroyers, *45 destroyer escorts Royal Navy *5 fleet carriers *6 escort carriers *2 fast battleships *4 light cruisers *12 destroyers * 251 carrier based aircraft Royal Australian Navy *4 destroyers Royal New Zealand Navy *2 light cruisers Royal Canadian Navy *1 light cruiser Ground forces ~541,000 in Tenth Army <br />~183,000 combat troops rising to ~250,000 | strength2 = Imperial Japanese Navy *1 battleship *1 light cruiser *8 destroyers * 1815 aircraft (of which 1050 were kamikazes) Ground forces * ~76,000+ Japanese soldiers * ~40,000+ Okinawan conscripts and boeitai | casualties1 American personnel:<br />Battle casualties:<br />~50,000, including ~12,500 dead<br />Army: 19,929<br />Navy: 10,007 at Okinawa, 1,294 on USS Franklin<br />Marines: 19,460<br />Non-battle casualties: 26,211 to 33,096 (all causes)<br /> British personnel:<br />Battle casualties:<br>119 killed<br>83 wounded<br>228 aircraft lost<br>4 fleet carriers damaged in kamikaze strikes <br />13 destroyers sunk<br />15 amphibious ships sunk<br />8 other ships sunk<br />386 ships damaged<br />763 aircraft lost | casualties2 Japanese personnel:<br />Battle & non-battle casualties:<br />94,136 soldiers and sailors dead (all causes)<br />4,037 dead from Yamato task force<br />7,401 captured (by 30 June)<br />Total casualties: ~105,000 to 110,000 <br />Materiel:<br /> 1 battleship sunk<br />1 light cruiser sunk<br />5 destroyers sunk<br />9 other warships sunk<br />1,430 aircraft lost<br />27 tanks destroyed<br />743–1,712 artillery pieces, anti-tank guns, mortars and anti-aircraft guns lost<!-- also reverted, estimates vary and even remotely exact number will probably never be known --> | campaignbox = }} The , codenamed Operation Iceberg, was a major battle of the Pacific War fought on the island of Okinawa by United States Army and United States Marine Corps forces against the Imperial Japanese Army. The initial invasion of Okinawa on April 1, 1945 was the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific Theater of World War II. The Kerama Islands surrounding Okinawa were preemptively captured on March 26 by the 77th Infantry Division. The 82-day battle on Okinawa itself lasted from April 1, 1945 until June 22, 1945. After a long campaign of island hopping, the Allies were planning to use Kadena Air Base on the island as a staging point for Operation Downfall, the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands, away. The United States created the Tenth Army, a cross-branch force consisting of the U.S. Army 7th, 27th, 77th and 96th Infantry Divisions with the 1st, 2nd, and 6th Marine Divisions, to seize the island. The Tenth Army was unique because it had its own Tactical Air Force (joint Army-Marine command) and was supported by combined naval and amphibious forces. Opposing the Allied forces on the ground was the Japanese Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima's Thirty-Second Army, a mixed force consisting of regular army troops, naval infantry and conscripted local Okinawans. Total Japanese troop strength on the island was about 100,000 at the onset of the invasion. The Battle of Okinawa was the single longest sustained carrier campaign of the Second World War.<!--Needs more about the other forces, including on the Japanese side--> The battle has been referred to as the "typhoon of steel" in English, known in Japanese as "tetsu no bo&#772;fu&#772;". The nicknames refer to the ferocity of the fighting, the intensity of Japanese kamikaze attacks and the sheer numbers of Allied ships and armored vehicles that assaulted the island. The battle was the bloodiest and fiercest in the Pacific Ocean Theatre, with some 50,000 Allied and around 100,000 Japanese casualties, over 88,000 Marines and 18,000 Navy personnel (mostly Seabees and medical personnel). The British naval contingent accompanied 251 British naval aircraft and included a British Commonwealth fleet with Australian, New Zealand and Canadian ships and personnel.Japanese The Japanese land campaign (mainly defensive) was conducted by the 67,000-strong (77,000 according to some sources) regular 32nd Army and some 9,000 Imperial Japanese Navy troops at Oroku Naval Base (only a few hundred of whom had been trained and equipped for ground combat), supported by 39,000 drafted local Ryukyuan people (including 24,000 hastily drafted rear militia called Boeitai and 15,000 non-uniformed laborers). The Japanese had used kamikaze tactics since the Battle of Leyte Gulf, but now for the first time they became a major institutionalized aspect of the Japanese defensive strategy. Between the American landing on 1 April and 25 May, seven major kamikaze attacks were attempted, involving more than 1,500 planes. The 32nd Army initially consisted of the 9th, 24th and 62nd Divisions and the 44th Independent Mixed Brigade. The 9th Division was moved to Taiwan before the invasion, resulting in shuffling of Japanese defensive plans. Primary resistance was to be led in the south by Lieutenant General Mitsuru Ushijima, his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Isamu Chō and his chief of operations, Colonel Hiromichi Yahara. Yahara advocated a defensive strategy, whilst Chō advocated an offensive one. In the north, Colonel Takehido Udo was in command. The naval troops were led by Rear Admiral Minoru Ōta. They expected the Americans to land 6–10 divisions against the Japanese garrison of two and a half divisions. The staff calculated that superior quality and numbers of weapons gave each US division five or six times the firepower of a Japanese division. To this, would be added the Americans' abundant naval and air firepower. Japanese use of children On Okinawa, the Imperial Japanese Army mobilized 1,780 schoolboys aged 14–17 years into front line service as an Iron and Blood Imperial Corps (), while female Himeyuri students were organized into a nursing unit.Naval battle}} The US Navy's Task Force 58, deployed to the east of Okinawa with a picket group of 6 to 8 destroyers, kept 13 carriers (7 fleet carriers and 6 light carriers) on duty from 23 March to 27 April and a smaller number thereafter. Until 27 April, a minimum of 14 and up to 18 escort carriers were in the area at all times. Until 20 April, British Task Force 57, with 4 large and 6 escort carriers, remained off the Sakishima Islands to protect the southern flank. During the period of 26 March to 30 April, 20 American ships were sunk and 157 damaged by enemy action. By 30 April the Japanese had lost more than 1,100 planes to Allied naval forces alone. The ships lost were smaller vessels, particularly the destroyers of the radar pickets, as well as destroyer escorts and landing ships. While no major Allied warships were lost, several fleet carriers were severely damaged. Land-based Shin'yō-class suicide motorboats were also used in the Japanese suicide attacks, although Ushijima had disbanded the majority of the suicide boat battalions before the battle because of expected low effectiveness against a superior enemy. The boat crews were re-formed into three additional infantry battalions. <gallery mode"packed" heights"225px"> File:Yamato battleship explosion.jpg|The super battleship explodes after persistent attacks from US aircraft. File:USS Bunker Hill hit by two Kamikazes.jpg|American aircraft carrier burns after being hit by two kamikaze planes within 30 seconds. </gallery> Operation Ten-Go Operation Ten-Go (Ten-gō sakusen) was the attempted attack by a strike force of ten Japanese surface vessels, led by Yamato and commanded by Admiral Seiichi Itō. This small task force had been ordered to fight through enemy naval forces, then beach Yamato and fight from shore, using her guns as coastal artillery and her crew as naval infantry. The Ten-Go force was spotted by submarines shortly after it left the Japanese home waters and was intercepted by US carrier aircraft. Under attack from more than 300 aircraft over a two-hour span, the world's largest battleship sank on 7 April 1945 after a one-sided battle, long before she could reach Okinawa. (US torpedo bombers were instructed to aim for only one side to prevent effective counter flooding by the battleship's crew, and to aim for the bow or the stern where armor was believed to be the thinnest.) Of Yamatos screening force, the light cruiser and four of the eight destroyers were also sunk. The Imperial Japanese Navy lost some 3,700 sailors, including Admiral Itō, at the cost of ten US aircraft and twelve airmen. British Pacific Fleet The British Pacific Fleet, taking part as Task Force 57, was assigned the task of neutralizing the Japanese airfields in the Sakishima Islands, which it did successfully from March 26 to April 10. On April 10, its attention was shifted to airfields in northern Formosa. The force withdrew to San Pedro Bay on April 23. On May 1, the British Pacific Fleet returned to action, subduing the airfields as before, this time with naval bombardment as well as aircraft (they only used aircraft during their first mission of destroying airfields in the Sakishima Islands). Several kamikaze attacks caused significant damage, but as the Royal Navy carriers had armored flight decks, they experienced only a brief interruption to their force's operations.<gallery mode"packed" heights="225px"> File:HMS Implacable AWM 019037.jpg|Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Avengers, Seafires and Fireflies on warm up their engines before taking off. File:HMS Formidable (67) on fire 1945.jpg| on fire after a kamikaze attack on May 4. The ship was out of action for fifty minutes. </gallery> Land battle The land battle took place over about 81 days beginning on 1 April 1945. The first Americans ashore were soldiers of the 77th Infantry Division who landed in the Kerama Islands, west of Okinawa on 26 March. Subsidiary landings followed, and the Kerama group was secured over the next five days. In these preliminary operations, the 77th Infantry Division suffered 27 dead and 81 wounded, while the Japanese dead and captured numbered over 650. On March 28, 1945, 394 civilians on Tokashiki island were forced by Japanese soldiers to kill themselves after the landing of US troops. The operation provided a protected anchorage for the fleet and eliminated the threat from suicide boats. the 1st Marine Division relieved the 27th Infantry Division and the 77th Infantry Division relieved the 96th. When the 6th Marine Division arrived, the III Amphibious Corps took over the right flank and Tenth Army assumed control of the battle. The 32nd Army withdrew to the south and thus the Marines had an easy task of securing Shuri Castle. The castle, however, was outside the 1st Marine Division's assigned zone, and only frantic efforts by the commander and staff of the 77th Infantry Division prevented an American airstrike and artillery bombardment which would have resulted in many friendly fire casualties. before being removed and replaced by a US flag three days later on orders of General Buckner. The Japanese retreat, although harassed by artillery fire, was conducted with great skill at night and aided by the monsoon storms. The 32nd Army was able to move nearly 30,000 personnel into its last defense line on the Kiyan Peninsula, which ultimately led to the greatest slaughter on Okinawa in the latter stages of the battle, including the deaths of thousands of civilians. In addition, there were 9,000 IJN troops supported by 1,100 militia, with approximately 4,000 holed up at the underground headquarters on the hillside overlooking the Okinawa Naval Base in the Oroku Peninsula, east of the airfield. Ushijima and Chō committed suicide by seppuku in their command headquarters on Hill 89 in the closing hours of the battle. The most complete tally of deaths during the battle is at the Cornerstone of Peace monument at the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum, which identifies the names of each individual who died at Okinawa in World War II. As of 2023, the monument lists 242,046 names, including 149,634 Okinawans, 77,823 Imperial Japanese soldiers, 14,010 Americans, and smaller numbers of people from South Korea (381), the United Kingdom (82), North Korea (82) and Taiwan (34). 234,183 names were inscribed by the time of unveiling, and new names are added as necessary. 40,000 of the Okinawan civilians killed had been drafted or impressed by the Japanese army and are often counted as combat deaths. Military losses American tanks knocked out by Japanese artillery at Bloody Ridge, 20 April 1945]] The Americans suffered some 48,000 casualties, not including some 33,000 non-battle casualties (psychiatric, injuries, illnesses), of whom over 12,000 were killed or missing. Killed in action were 4,907 Navy, 4,675 Army, and 2,938 Marine Corps personnel; when excluding naval losses at sea and losses on the surrounding islands (such as Ie Shima), 6,316 killed and over 30,000 wounded occurred on Okinawa proper. Other authors such as John Keegan have come up with higher numbers. The battle caused more than twice the number of American casualties than both the Guadalcanal Campaign and Battle of Iwo Jima combined, with the Japanese kamikaze effort causing the American Navy to suffer more casualties than any previous engagement in the Atlantic or Pacific. The most famous American casualty was Lieutenant General Buckner, whose decision to attack the Japanese defenses head-on, although extremely costly in American lives, was ultimately successful. Four days from the closing of the campaign, Buckner was killed by Japanese artillery fire, which blew lethal slivers of coral into his body, while inspecting his troops at the front line. He was the highest-ranking US officer to be killed by enemy fire during the Second World War. The day after Buckner was killed, Brigadier General Easley was killed by Japanese machine-gun fire. War correspondent Ernie Pyle was also killed by Japanese machine-gun fire on Ie Shima, a small island just off of northwestern Okinawa. (right), taken on 18 June 1945. Later in the day, he was killed by Japanese artillery fire.]] , taken on 19 June 1945. He was later killed by Japanese machine-gun fire.]] Aircraft losses over the three-month period were 768 US planes, including those bombing the Kyushu airfields launching kamikazes. Combat losses were 458, and the other 310 were operational accidents. At sea, 368 Allied ships—including 120 amphibious craft—were damaged while another 36—including 15 amphibious ships and 12 destroyers—were sunk during the Okinawa campaign. The US Navy's dead exceeded its wounded, with 4,907 killed and 4,874 wounded, primarily from kamikaze attacks. American personnel casualties included thousands of cases of mental breakdown. According to the account of the battle presented in Marine Corps Gazette: Medal of Honor recipients from Okinawa are: <br /> Marine Corps * Richard E. Bush – 16 April * Henry A. Courtney Jr. – 14–15 May () * James L. Day – 14–17 May * John P. Fardy – 7 May (posth.) * William A. Foster – 2 May (posth.) * Harold Gonsalves – 15 April (posth.) * Dale M. Hansen – 7 May (posth.) * Louis J. Hauge Jr. – 14 May (posth.) * Elbert L. Kinser – 4 May (posth.) * Robert M. McTureous Jr. – 7 June (posth.) * Albert E. Schwab – 7 May (posth.) Army * Beauford T. Anderson – 13 April * Clarence B. Craft – 31 May * Desmond Doss – 29 April – 21 May * Martin O. May – 19–21 April (posth.) * Seymour W. Terry – 11 May * John W. Meagher – 19 June * Edward J. Moskala – 9 April (posth.) * Joseph E. Muller – 15–16 May (posth.) * Alejandro R. Ruiz – 28 April Navy * Robert Eugene Bush – 2 May * William D. Halyburton Jr. – 10 May (posth.) * Fred F. Lester – 8 June (posth.) * Richard M. McCool Jr. – 10–11 June Allied naval vessels sunk or damaged at Okinawa The following table lists the Allied naval vessels that received damage or were sunk in the Battle of Okinawa between 19 March – 30 July 1945. The table lists a total of 147 damaged ships, five of which were damaged by enemy suicide boats and another five by mines. During the naval battle, which started before the amphibious landings on Okinawa on 1 April, suffered over 800 killed and missing and suffered 396 killed and missing. These were the first and third largest loss of life on damaged or sunken American aircraft carriers during World War II. USS Franklin (hit by two bombs in a level bombing attack by a D4Y Suisei (Judy) on 19 March 1945) and USS Bunker Hill were the only two aircraft carriers that sustained very severe damage from Japanese attacks and as a result were the only aircraft carriers in the that did not experience any active service after the end of World War II. One source estimated that total Japanese sorties during the entire Okinawa campaign exceeded 3,700, with a large percentage being kamikaze attacks, and that the attackers damaged slightly more than 200 Allied vessels, with 4,900 naval officers and seamen killed and roughly 4,824 wounded or missing. USS Thorton was damaged as the result of a collision with another US ship. The Japanese air attacks were so intense that Fifth Fleet commander Admiral Spruance's flagships were struck two separate times ( was hit in March and had to retire for repairs which forced him to transfer to which was also hit in May). Fast Carrier Task Force commander Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher and his chief of staff Commodore Arleigh Burke were yards away from getting killed or wounded by kamikazes on his flagship USS Bunker Hill, which killed three of Mitscher's staff officers and eleven of his enlisted staff members and also destroyed his flag cabin along with all of his uniforms, personal papers, and possessions. Just three days later Mitscher's new flagship was also struck by a kamikaze forcing him to have to change his flagship yet again. Both fleet carriers were knocked out for the rest of the war. }} sunk or had to be scuttled due to irreparable damage. Of those sunk, the majority were relatively smaller ships; these included destroyers of around 300–450 feet. A few small cargo ships were also sunk, several containing munitions which caught fire. }} scrapped or decommissioned as a result of damage. {| class="wikitable sortable" |- |+ Allied Naval vessels sunk or damaged by Japanese forces at Okinawa, primarily kamikazes, 19 March – 30 July 1945 |- ! style="text-align:center; width:55px;" |Day ! style="text-align:center;" |Ship ! style="text-align:center;" |Type ! style="text-align:center;" |Cause ! style="text-align:center;" |Killed ! style="text-align:center;" |Wounded |- | 19 Mar 45 | USS Wasp | Carrier | Air attack, bomb through flight, & hangar decks | 102 | 269 |- | 19 Mar 45 | USS Franklin | Carrier | Air attack | 807 | 487 |- | 20 Mar 45 | USS Enterprise | Carrier | Air attack, two near misses from bombs, at the same time of near misses immediately hit by two 5-inch AA shells from U.S. ships | 9 | 28 |- | 20 Mar 45 | USS Hasley Powell | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze | 12 | 29 |- | 24 Mar 45 | USS Nevada | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze hit and knocked out 14-inch guns in turret number 3 | 11 | 49 |- | 26 Mar 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Haligan | Destroyer | Mine, 3 miles SE of Maye Shima, exploded two forward magazines, bow blown off | 153 | 39 |- | 26 Mar 45 | USS Kimberly | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze | 4 | 57 |- | 27 Mar 45 | USS Murray | Destroyer | Air attack, bomb | 1 | 116 |- | 27 Mar 45 | USS ''O'Brian | Destroyer | Air attack, Val kamikaze with bomb | 50 | 76 |- | 28 Mar 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Skylark | Small Minesweeper | Mine, struck mines twice off Hagushi beaches | 5 | 25 |- | 28 Mar 45 | USS LSM(R)-188 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze | 15 | 32 |- | 29 Mar 45 | USS Wyandot | Attack Cargo Ship | Mine, possibly bomb | 0 | 1 |- | 31 Mar 45 | USS Indianapolis | Cruiser | Air attack, kamikaze with bomb through fuel tanks and propeller shafts | 9 | 20 |- | 1 Apr 45 | USS Adams | Destroyer Minelayer | Air attack, kamikaze with bombs to fantail | 0 | 0 |- | 1 Apr 45 | USS Alpine | Attack Transport | Air attack, bomb and kamikaze | 16 | 27 |- | 1 Apr 45 | USS Hinsdale | Attack Transport | Air attack, kamikaze with bombs at waterline | 16 | 39 |- | 1 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS LST-884 | Tank Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze, scuttled 6 May | 24 | 21 |- | 1 Apr 45 | HMS Ulster | Destroyer | Air attack, near miss bomb, badly damaged | 2 | 1 |- | 1 Apr 45 | USS West Virginia | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze | 4 | 23 |- | 2 Apr 45 | USS New York | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze destroyed search plane on catapult | 0 | 2 |- | 2 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Dickerson | Destroyer Transport | Air attack, kamikaze Nick crashed bridge, towed, scuttled | 54 | 23 |- | 2 Apr 45 | USS Goodhue | Attack Transport | Air attack, kamikaze aimed at bridge glanced mainmast, hit cargo boom, gun tubs, over side | 24 | 119 |- | 2 Apr 45 | USS Henrico | Attack Transport | Air attack, kamikaze w/bombs hit bridge | 49 | 125 |- | 2 Apr 45 | USS Achernar | Attack Cargo Ship | Air attack, kamikaze w/bomb hit starboard | 5 | 41 |- | 3 Apr 45 | USS Wake Island | Escort Carrier | Air attack, kamikaze blew below waterline | 0 | 0 |- | 3 Apr 45 | USS Pritchett | Destroyer | Air attack, 500 lb bomb | 0 | 0 |- | 3 Apr 45 | USS Foreman | Destroyer | Air attack, bomb passed through her bottom, exploded below | 0 | 3 |- | 3 Apr 45 | USS LST-599 | Tank Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze through main deck, fires | Landing Craft, Infantry | Suicide boat | 8 | 11 |- | 5 Apr 45 | USS Nevada | Battleship | Air attack 25 Mar and 5 April coastal battery | 2 | 16 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Bush | Destroyer | Air attack, three kamikaze hits, two between stacks, blew forward engine room, broke in half | 94 | 32 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Colhoun | Destroyer | Air attack, four kamikaze hits, bombs blew forward, & aft fire rooms at waterline | 9 | 14 |- | 6 Apr 45 | USS Hyman | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze Hampton hit torpedo tubes twixt stacks | 10 | 40 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Leutze | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze blew at fantail, bad flooding | 7 | 34 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Morris | Destroyer | Air attack, kate kamikaze portside | 0 | 5 |- | 6 Apr 45 | USS Mullany | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit depth charges | 13 | 45 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Newcomb | Destroyer | Air attack, multiple kamikazes | 40 | 24 |- | 6 Apr 45 | USS Haynsworth | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze | 7 | 25 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Witter | Destroyer Escort | Starboard waterline kamikaze | 0 | 5 |- | 6 Apr 45 | USS Fieberling | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze near miss | 6 | 6 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Emmons | Destroyer Minesweeper | Air attack, five kamikaze hits, scuttled 7 April | 64 | 71 |- | 6 Apr 45 | USS Rodman | Destroyer Minesweeper | Air attack, four kamikaze hits | 16 | 20 |- | 6 Apr 45 | USS Defense | Small Minesweeper | Air attack, two kamikaze strikes | 0 | 9 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LST-447 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze hit close above waterline, bomb blew | 5 | 17 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* SS Hobbs Victory | Cargo | Air attack, kamikaze struck port, flames ignited ammunition | 15 | 3 |- | 6 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* SS Logan Victory | Cargo | Air attack, kamikaze struck superstructure, flames ignited ammunition | 16 | 11 |- | 7 Apr 45 | USS Hancock | Carrier | Air attack, cartwheeling kamikaze | 72 | 82 |- | 7 Apr 45 | USS Maryland | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard | 16 | 37 |- | 7 Apr 45 | USS Bennett | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit engine room | 3 | 18 |- | 7 Apr 45 | USS Wesson | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze starboard | 8 | 23 |- | 7 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS PGM-18 | Small Gunboat | Mine, powerful explosion | 14 | 14 |- | 7 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* YMS-103 | Small Minesweeper | Mine, struck two mines, blowing off her bow and stem rescuing PGM-18 | 5 | 0 |- | 8 Apr 45 | USS Gregory | Destroyer | Air attack, port kamikaze amidships near waterline | 0 | 2 |- | 8 Apr 45 | USS YMS-92 | Small Sweeper | Air attack | 0 | 0 |- | 9 Apr 45 | USS Charles J. Badger | Destroyer | Suicide boat threw depth charge or mine | 0 | 0 |- | 9 Apr 45 | USS Sterett | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard at waterline | 0 | 9 |- | 9 Apr 45 | USS Hopping | Destroyer Transport | Coastal Battery, damaging hits off Buckner Bay | 2 | 18 |- | 11 Apr 45 | USS Enterprise | Carrier | Air attack, two kamikazes hit at the waterline near her hull | 1 | 18 |- | 11 Apr 45 | USS Kidd | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze | 38 | 55 |- | 11 Apr 45 | USS Missouri | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze | 0 | 0 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Idaho | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze hit port side anti-torpedo bulge | 0 | 0 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Tennessee | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze hit signal bridge | 25 | 104 |- | 12 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Mannert L. Abele | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze | 79 | 35 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Purdy | Destroyer | Air attack, splashed kamikaze bomb skidded in | 13 | 27 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Cassin Young | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit foremast | 1 | 59 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Zellars | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze crashed port, bomb blew | 29 | 37 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Rall | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze starboard aft, bomb blew | 21 | 38 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Whitehurst | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, kamikaze with bomb crashed into pilot house | 37 | 37 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS Lindsey | Destroyer Minelayer | Air attack, two kamikaze Val strikes | 56 | 51 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS LSM(R)-189 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze | 0 | 4 |- | 12 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LCS(L)-33 | Landing Craft | Air attack, kamikaze Val amidships | 4 | 29 |- | 12 Apr 45 | USS LCS(L)-57 | Landing Craft | Air attack, three kamikaze strikes | 2 | 6 |- | 14 Apr 45 | USS Sigsbee | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze damaged port engine | 4 | 74 |- | 16 Apr 45 | USS Intrepid | Carrier | Air attack, kamikaze crashed deck, fires put out | 10 | 87 |- | 16 Apr 45 | USS Bryant | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze to bridge, with explosion | 34 | 33 |- | 16 Apr 45 | USS Laffey | Destroyer | Air attack, multiple kamikaze hits | 31 | 72 |- | 16 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Pringle | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze Val hit abaft stack No. 1, explosion, broke in half | 65 | 110 |- | 16 Apr 45 | USS Bowers | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, kamikaze to bridge, bomb hit pilot house | 48 | 56 |- | 16 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Harding | Destroyer Minesweeper | Air attack, kamikaze struck side near bridge | 22 | 10 |- | 16 Apr 45 | USS Hobson'' | Destroyer Minesweeper | Air attack, near miss kamikaze's bomb veered in | 4 | 8 |- | 16 Apr 45 | USS LCS(L)-116 | Landing Craft | Air attack, kamikaze hit aft gun mount | 12 | 12 |- | 16 Apr 45 | USS Missouri | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze hit stern crane | 0 | 2 |- | 18 Apr 45 | USS LSM-28 | Landing Ship | Air attack | 0 | 0 |- | 22 Apr 45 | USS Isherwood | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze w/bomb crashed gun mount | 42 | 41 |- | 22 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Swallow | Small Sweeper | Air attack, bad kamikaze hit flooded her, 3 mins sunk | 2 | 9 |- | 22 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LCS(L)-15 | Landing Craft | Air attack | 15 | 11 |- | 27 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Hutchins | Destroyer | Suicide boat explosive blew close | 0 | 0 |- | 27 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Rathburne | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit port bow waterline | 0 | 0 |- | 27 Apr 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* SS Canada Victory | Cargo | Air attack, kamikaze hit stern, lit ammo, sunk in ten minutes | 12 | 27 |- | 28 Apr 45 | USS Pinkney | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit aft of superstructure, lit ammo | 35 | 12 |- | 28 Apr 45 | USS Comfort | Hospital Ship | Air attack, kamikaze through three decks to surgery | 30 | 48 |- | 29 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Haggard | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze went through hull, blew engine room | 11 | 40 |- | 29 Apr 45 | USS Hazelwood | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze zero hit port bridge | 46 | 26 |- | 29 Apr 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS LCS(L)-37 | Landing Craft | Suicide boat | 0 | 4 |- | 30 Apr 45 | USS Terror | Minelayer | Air attack, kamikaze blew through main deck | 48 | 123 |- | 3 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Little | Destroyer | Air attack, five kamikaze strikes | 30 | 79 |- | 3 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Aaron Ward | Destroyer Minelayer | Air attack; three kamikaze hits and bomb frags | 45 | 49 |- | 3 May 45 | USS Macomb | Destroyer Minelayer | Air attack, kamikaze | 7 | 14 |- | 3 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LSM(R)-195 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze hit rockets, sunk | 8 | 16 |- | 4 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Sangamon | Escort Carrier | Air attack, kamikaze & bomb blew through flight deck | 46 | 116 |- | 4 May 45 | USS Birmingham | Light Cruiser | Air attack, kamikaze hit forward | 51 | 81 |- | 4 May 45 | USS Ingraham | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze above port waterline, bomb blew | 14 | 37 |- | 4 May 45 | HMS Formidable | Carrier | Air attack, kamikaze & bomb blew through flight deck | 8 | 55 |- | 4 May 45 | USS Hopkins | Destroyer Minesweeper | Air attack, glancing blow by burning kamikaze | 0 | 1 |- | 4 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Luce | Destroyer | Air attack, first kamikaze bomb hit, second kamikaze struck aft | 149 | 94 |- | 4 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Morrison | Destroyer | Air attack, first kamikaze hit bridge, then three more hits | 159 | 102 |- | 4 May 45 | USS Shea | Destroyer | Air attack, Ohka kamikaze through starboard bridge | 27 | 91 |- | 4 May 45 | USS Carina | Cargo Ship | Suicide boat ramming caused explosion | 0 | 6 |- | 4 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LSM(R)-190 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze set off her rockets | 13 | 18 |- | 4 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LSM(R)-194 | Landing Ship | Air attack | 13 | 23 |- | 9 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS England | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze dive bomber | 35 | 27 |- | 9 May 45 | HMS Formidable | Carrier | Air attack, kamikaze | 1 | 4 |- | 9 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Oberrender | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, kamikaze hit starboard gun mount, bomb through main deck | 8 | 53 |- | 11 May 45 | USS Bunker Hill | Carrier | Air attack, three kamikaze hits with bombs through flight deck | 396 | 264 |- | 11 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Hugh W. Hadley | Destroyer | Air attack, aft bomb, an Ohka, and two more kamikazes struck | 28 | 67 |- | 11 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Evans | Destroyer | Air attack, struck by four kamikazes, fires put out | 30 | 29 |- | 11 May 45 | USS LCS(L)-88 | Landing Craft | Air attack | 7 | 9 |- | 12 May 45 | USS New Mexico | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze hit, bomb | 54 | 119 |- | 13 May 45 | USS Bache | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit, bomb exploded amidships just above main deck | 41 | 32 |- | 13 May 45 | USS Bright | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, kamikaze zero hit fantail, bomb exploded | 0 | 2 |- | 14 May 45 | USS Enterprise | Carrier | Air attack, two kamikazes, struck port, & under starboard bow | 14 | 68 |- | 17 May 45 | USS Douglas H. Fox | Destroyer | Two kamikaze strikes, one to forward gun mounts, one to fantail | 9 | 35 |- | 18 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Longshaw | Destroyer | Coastal Battery, four hits, one ignited magazine, blew off bow back to bridge | 86 | 97 |- | 18 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LST-808 | Landing Ship Tank | Air attack | 11 | 11 |- | 20 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Chase | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, splashed kamikaze skidded in, bombs opened hull, with flooding | 0 | 35 |- | 20 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Thatcher | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze Oscar struck aft of bridge, large hole | 14 | 53 |- | 20 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS John C. Butler | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, kamikaze hit to mast and antennas | 0 | 0 |- | 25 May 45 | USS Stormes | Destroyer | Air attack, crashed aft torpedo mount, bomb blew large hole, flooded aft | 21 | 6 |- | 25 May 45 | USS ''O'Neill | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, kamikaze | 0 | 16 |- | 25 May 45 | USS Butler | Destroyer Minesweeper | Air attack, kamikaze bombs exploded under keel | 0 | 15 |- | 25 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Spectacle | Small Minesweeper | Air attack, kamikaze crashed port gun tub causing fires | 29 | 6 |- | 25 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Barry | Destroyer Transport | Air attack, kamikaze badly crashed starboard side, fires, abandoned | 0 | 30 |- | 25 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Bates | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, two kamikaze hits, fires, abandoned, towed, later sank | 21 | 35 |- | 25 May 45 | USS Roper | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze hit off Hanagushi, Okinawa | 1 | 10 |- | 25 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* LSM-135 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze caused fires, beached, abandoned | 11 | 10 |- | 25 May 45 | SS William B. Allison (aka USS Inca) | Cargo Ship, Liberty Ship | Air attack, Aerial Torpedo off Nakagusuku Wan | 8 | 2 |- | 27 May 45 | USS Braine | Destroyer | Air attack, two kamikazes, first hit bridge, and second hit amidships | 66 | 78 |- | 27 May 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS Forrest | Destroyer Minesweeper | Air attack, kamikaze crashed starboard side waterline | 5 | 13 |- | 27 May 45 | USS Rednour | Transport | Air attack, two kamikazes hits, one made ten foot hole in main deck | 3 | 13 |- | 27 May 45 | USS Loy | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, kamikaze near miss sprayed fragments | 3 | 15 |- | 27 May 45 | LCS(L)-119 | Landing Craft | Air attack | 12 | 6 |- | 28 May 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Drexler | Destroyer | Air attack, first kamikaze Frances hit topside, second Francis with bombs crashed into superstructure | 158 | 51 |- | 28 May 45 | USS Sandoval | Attack Transport | Air attack, kamikaze hit portside of wheelhouse | 8 | 26 |- | 28 May 45 | SS Brown Victory | Cargo | Air attack, kamikaze hit | 4 | 16 |- | 28 May 45 | SS Josiah Snelling | Cargo | Air attack, kamikaze hit | 0 | 11 |- | 28 May 45 | SS Mary A. Livermore | Cargo | Air attack, kamikaze hit on starboard | 10 | 4 |- | 29 May 45 | USS Shubrick | Destroyer | Air attack, kamikaze bomb hit starboard causing hole, exploding depth charge | 32 | 28 |- | 3 June 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS LCI-90 | Landing Craft Infantry | Air attack, kamikaze | 1 | 7 |- | 5 Jun 45 | USS Louisville | Cruiser | Air attack, kamikaze hit quad 40mm AA gun mount and number 1 smoke stack | 8 | 45 |- | 5 Jun 45 | USS Mississippi | Battleship | Air attack, kamikaze hit | 1 | 2 |- |- | 6 June 45 | style="background:wheat;" | # USS J. William Ditter | Destroyer Minelayer | Air attack, first kamikaze glanced, second hit port near main deck | 10 | 27 |- | 6 Jun 45 | USS Harry F. Bauer | Destroyer Minelayer | Air attack, kamikaze hit superstructure | 0 | 0 |- | 7 June 45 | USS Natoma Bay | Escort carrier | Air attack, kamikaze hit flight deck | 1 | 4 |- | 10 Jun 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS William D. Porter'' | Destroyer | Air attack, splashed kamikaze Val's bomb exploded close underwater | 0 | 61 |- | 11 Jun 45 | USS LCS(L)-122 | Landing Craft | Air attack kamikaze hit conning tower base, bomb fragments caused fires | 11 | 29 |- | 16 Jun 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS Twiggs | Destroyer | Air attack, splashed kamikaze and bomb blew in hull plating, with structural damage | 126 | 34 |- | 21 Jun 45 | USS Halloran | Destroyer Escort | Air attack, splashed kamikaze's bomb struck | 3 | 24 |- | 21 Jun 45 | USS Curtiss | Seaplane Tender | Air attack, kamikaze and bomb ripped two holes in hull and blew | 41 | 28 |- | 21 Jun 45 | style="background:lightpink" |* USS LSM-59 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze strike while towing USS Barry, sank in four minutes | 2 | 8 |- | 22 Jun 45 | USS LSM-213 | Landing Ship | Air attack, kamikaze strike at Kimmu Wan, hull damage | 3 | 10 |- | 22 Jun 45 | USS LST-534 | Landing Ship Tank | Air attack, while offloading on Nagagusuku Wan, kamikaze hit bow doors, tank deck </blockquote> with an Okinawan war orphan in April 1945.]] In its history of the war, the Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum presents Okinawa as being caught between Japan and the United States. During the battle, the Imperial Japanese Army showed indifference to Okinawans' safety, and its soldiers used civilians as human shields or outright killed them. The Japanese military also confiscated food from the Okinawans and executed those who hid it, leading to mass starvation, and forced civilians out of their shelters. Japanese soldiers also killed about 1,000 people who spoke in the Okinawan language to suppress spying. The museum writes that "some were blown apart by [artillery] shells, some finding themselves in a hopeless situation were driven to suicide, some died of starvation, some succumbed to malaria, while others fell victim to the retreating Japanese troops." Thousands of civilians, having been induced by Japanese propaganda to believe that American soldiers were barbarians who committed horrible atrocities, killed their families and themselves to avoid capture at the hands of the Americans. Some of them threw themselves and their family members from the southern cliffs where the Peace Museum now resides. Okinawans "were often surprised at the comparatively humane treatment they received from the American enemy". Islands of Discontent: Okinawan Responses to Japanese and American Power by Mark Selden states that the Americans "did not pursue a policy of torture, rape, and murder of civilians as Japanese military officials had warned". American Military Intelligence Corps combat translators such as Teruto Tsubota managed to convince many civilians not to kill themselves. Survivors of the mass suicides blamed also the indoctrination of their education system of the time, in which the Okinawans were taught to become "more Japanese than the Japanese" and were expected to prove it. , one of which is being read by a prisoner awaiting transport.]] Witnesses and historians claim that American and Japanese soldiers raped Okinawan women during the battle. Rape by Japanese troops reportedly "became common" in June, after it became clear that the Imperial Japanese Army had been defeated. There are, however, numerous credible testimony accounts which note that a large number of rapes were committed by American forces during the battle. This includes stories of rape after trading sexual favors or even marrying Americans, such as the alleged incident in the village of Katsuyama, where civilians said they had formed a vigilante group to ambush and kill three black American soldiers who they claimed would frequently rape the local girls there. MEXT textbook controversy There is ongoing disagreement between Okinawa's local government and Japan's national government over the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides during the battle. In March 2007, the national Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) advised textbook publishers to reword descriptions that the embattled Imperial Japanese Army forced civilians to kill themselves in the war to avoid being taken prisoner. MEXT preferred descriptions that just say that civilians received hand grenades from the Japanese military. This move sparked widespread protests among Okinawans. In June 2007, the Okinawa Prefectural Assembly adopted a resolution stating, "We strongly call on the (national) government to retract the instruction and to immediately restore the description in the textbooks so the truth of the Battle of Okinawa will be handed down correctly and a tragic war will never happen again." On 29 September 2007, about 110,000 people held the biggest political rally in the history of Okinawa to demand that MEXT retract its order to textbook publishers regarding revising the account of the civilian suicides. The resolution states, "It is an undeniable fact that the 'multiple suicides' would not have occurred without the involvement of the Japanese military and any deletion of or revision to (the descriptions) is a denial and distortion of the many testimonies by those people who survived the incidents." In December 2007, MEXT partially admitted the role of the Japanese military in civilian mass suicides. The ministry's Textbook Authorization Council allowed the publishers to reinstate the reference that civilians "were forced into mass suicides by the Japanese military", on condition it is placed in sufficient context. The council report states, "It can be said that from the viewpoint of the Okinawa residents, they were forced into the mass suicides." That was not enough for the survivors who said it is important for children today to know what really happened. The Nobel Prize-winning author Kenzaburō Ōe wrote a booklet that states that the mass suicide order was given by the military during the battle. He was sued by revisionists, including a wartime commander during the battle, who disputed this and wanted to stop publication of the booklet. At a court hearing, Ōe testified "Mass suicides were forced on Okinawa islanders under Japan's hierarchical social structure that ran through the state of Japan, the Japanese armed forces and local garrisons." In March 2008, the Osaka Prefecture Court ruled in favor of Ōe, stating, "It can be said the military was deeply involved in the mass suicides." The court recognized the military's involvement in the mass suicides and murder-suicides, citing the testimony about the distribution of grenades for suicide by soldiers and the fact that mass suicides were not recorded on islands where the military was not stationed. In 2012, Korean-Japanese director Pak Su-nam announced her work on the documentary Nuchigafu (Okinawan for "only if one is alive") collecting living survivors' accounts to show "the truth of history to many people", alleging that "there were two types of orders for 'honorable deaths'—one for residents to kill each other and the other for the military to kill all residents". In March 2013, Japanese textbook publisher Shimizu Shoin was permitted by MEXT to publish the statements that "Orders from Japanese soldiers led to Okinawans committing group suicide" and "The [Japanese] army caused many tragedies in Okinawa, killing local civilians and forcing them to commit mass suicide." Aftermath Memorial with names of all military and civilians from all countries who died in the Battle of Okinawa]] on Okinawa, August 1945]] Military historian and journalist Hanson W. Baldwin stated about scale and ferocity of the battle, especially for American forces, that:According to historian George Feifer, Okinawa was the "site of the largest land-sea-air battle in history" and that the battle was the "last major one before the start of the atomic age". At least 90% of the buildings on the island were destroyed, along with countless historical documents, artifacts, and cultural treasures, and the tropical landscape was turned into "a vast field of mud, lead, decay and maggots". The military value of Okinawa was significant, as Okinawa provided a fleet anchorage, troop staging areas, and airfields in proximity to Japan. The US cleared the surrounding waters of mines in Operation Zebra, occupied Okinawa, and set up the United States Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands, a form of military government, after the battle. In 2011, one official of the prefectural government told David Hearst of The Guardian: Effect on the wider war Because the next major event following the Battle of Okinawa was the total surrender of Japan, the effect of this battle is more difficult to consider. Because Japan surrendered when it did, the anticipated series of battles and the invasion of the Japanese homeland never occurred, and all military strategies on both sides which presupposed this apparently-inevitable next development were immediately rendered moot. Some military historians believe that the Okinawa campaign led directly to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, as a means of avoiding the planned ground invasion of the Japanese mainland. This view is explained by Victor Davis Hanson in his book Ripples of Battle: Meanwhile, many parties continue to debate the broader question of "why Japan surrendered", attributing the surrender to a number of possible reasons including: the atomic bombings, the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, and Japan's depleted resources. Memorial In 1995, the Okinawa government erected a memorial monument named the Cornerstone of Peace in Mabuni, the site of the last fighting in southeastern Okinawa. The memorial lists all the known names of those who died in the battle, civilian and military, Japanese and foreign. As of 2024, the monument lists 242,225 names.Modern US baseSignificant US forces remain garrisoned on Okinawa as the United States Forces Japan, which the Japanese government sees as an important guarantee of regional stability, and Kadena remains the largest US air base in Asia. Local residents have long protested against the size and presence of the base. See also * Himeyuri students * Chiran Peace Museum for Kamikaze Pilots * History of the Ryukyus * Josef R. Sheetz * Rape during the occupation of Japan * Suicide in Japan * Okinawa Memorial Day * Naval Base Okinawa * Marine Corps Air Station Futenma * Camp Hansen * Torii Station * Camp Schwab * Camp Foster * Camp Kinser * Giretsu Kuteitai * Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum Notes References Citations Sources : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * , famous Marine memoir * * * – Firsthand account of the battle by a surviving Japanese officer. * External links * * * * * * * [http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/okinawa/ US military on the Battle of Okinawa] * [https://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-WH2Navy-c24.html New Zealand account with reference to Operation Iceberg] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120606184144/http://www.pref.okinawa.jp/summit/a_la/peace/ishiji/index2.htm Cornerstone of Peace] * [http://www.peace-museum.pref.okinawa.jp/english/index.html Okinawa Prefectural Peace Memorial Museum] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120623222533/http://peacelearning.jp/ The Peace Learning Archive in OKINAWA] * [http://www.naval-history.net/WW2Memoir-Indomitable-Whiteing4.htm A photographic record of aircraft carrier HMS Indomitable, 1944–45, including Operation Iceberg, the attack on the Sakashimas] * [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/41302/wwii-battle-of-okinawa WWII: Battle of Okinawa] – slideshow by Life magazine * [http://cgsc.cdmhost.com/cdm4/results.php?CISOOP4all&CISOFIELD4CISOSEARCHALL&CISOBOX4iceberg&call&CISOROOT%2Fp4013coll8 Operation Iceberg Operational Documents] Combined Arms Research Library, Fort Leavenworth, KS * [http://content.library.ccsu.edu/u?/VHP,5460 Oral history interview with Mike Busha, a member of the 6th Marine Division during the Battle of Okinawa] from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University * [http://content.library.ccsu.edu/u?/VHP,5592 Oral history interview with Albert D'Amico, a Navy Veteran who was aboard LST 278 during the landing at Okinawa] from the Veterans History Project at Central Connecticut State University * [http://www.c-span.org/video/?66766-1/book-discussion-okinawa-last-battle-world-war-ii Booknotes interview with Robert Leckie on Okinawa: The Last Battle of World War II, September 3, 1995.] Category:1945 in Japan Category:Battles of World War II involving New Zealand Category:Battles of World War II involving Australia Category:Naval battles of World War II involving Canada Category:Battles of World War II involving Japan Category:Battles of World War II involving the United States Category:Military history of Okinawa Prefecture Category:Japan campaign Category:Murder–suicides in Japan Category:United States Armed Forces in Okinawa Prefecture Category:United States Marine Corps in World War II Category:World War II invasions Category:World War II operations and battles of the Pacific theatre Category:Invasions of Japan Category:Invasions by the United States Category:Invasions by the United Kingdom Category:Naval battles and operations of World War II involving the United Kingdom Category:Amphibious operations of World War II Category:April 1945 in Asia Category:May 1945 in Asia Category:June 1945 in Asia Category:Amphibious operations involving the United States Category:Japan–United Kingdom military relations Category:Itoman, Okinawa Category:Rape in Japan Category:Sexual violence in Asia during World War II Category:Human shield incidents in World War II Category:Japanese war crimes Category:War crimes by the United States during World War II Category:United States military scandals in Japan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Okinawa
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Battle of El Alamein
There were two Battles of El Alamein in World War II, both fought in 1942. The battles occurred during the North African campaign in Egypt, in and around an area named after a railway stop called El Alamein. First Battle of El Alamein: 1–27 July 1942 Second Battle of El Alamein: 23 October – 4 November 1942 In addition, the Battle of Alam el Halfa (30 August – 5 September 1942) was fought during the same period and in the same location. ja:エル・アラメインの戦い
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_El_Alamein
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Brezhnev Doctrine
thumb|upright|Eastern Bloc: the USSR and its satellite states The Brezhnev Doctrine was a Soviet foreign policy that proclaimed that any threat to "socialist rule" in any state of the Soviet Bloc in Central and Eastern Europe was a threat to all of them, and therefore, it justified the intervention of fellow socialist states. It was proclaimed in order to justify the Soviet-led occupation of Czechoslovakia earlier in 1968, with the overthrow of the reformist government there. The references to "socialism" meant control by the communist parties which were loyal to the Kremlin. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev repudiated the doctrine in the late 1980s, as the Kremlin accepted the peaceful overthrow of Soviet rule in all its satellite countries in Eastern Europe. The policy was first and most clearly outlined by Sergei Kovalev in a September 26, 1968 Pravda article entitled "Sovereignty and the International Obligations of Socialist Countries". Leonid Brezhnev reiterated it in a speech at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers' Party on November 13, 1968, which stated: "When forces that are hostile to socialism try to turn the development of some socialist country towards capitalism, it becomes not only a problem of the country concerned, but a common problem and concern of all socialist countries." This doctrine was announced to retroactively justify the invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 that ended the Prague Spring, along with earlier Soviet military interventions, such as the invasion of Hungary in 1956. These interventions were meant to put an end to liberalization efforts and uprisings that had the potential to compromise Soviet hegemony inside the Soviet Bloc, which was considered by the Soviet Union to be an essential and defensive and strategic buffer in case hostilities with NATO were to break out. In practice, the policy meant that only limited independence of the satellite states' communist parties was allowed and that none would be allowed to compromise the cohesiveness of the Eastern Bloc in any way. That is, no country could leave the Warsaw Pact or disturb a ruling communist party's monopoly on power. Implicit in this doctrine was that the leadership of the Soviet Union reserved, for itself, the power to define "socialism" and "capitalism". Following the announcement of the Brezhnev Doctrine, numerous treaties were signed between the Soviet Union and its satellite states to reassert these points and to further ensure inter-state cooperation. The principles of the doctrine were so broad that the Soviets even used it to justify their military intervention in the communist (but non-Warsaw Pact) nation of Afghanistan in 1979. The Brezhnev Doctrine stayed in effect until it was ended with the Soviet reaction to the Polish crisis of 1980–1981. Mikhail Gorbachev refused to use military force when Poland held free elections in 1989 and Solidarity defeated the Polish United Workers' Party. It was superseded by the facetiously named Sinatra Doctrine in 1989, alluding to the Frank Sinatra song "My Way". The refusal to intervene in the emancipation of the Eastern European satellite states and the Pan-European Picnic then led to the fall of the Iron Curtain and the largely peaceful collapse of the Eastern Bloc. Origins 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Soviet invasion The period between 1953 and 1968 was saturated with dissidence and reformation within the Soviet satellite states. 1953 saw the death of Soviet Leader Joseph Stalin, followed closely by Nikita Khrushchev's 1956 "Secret Speech" denouncing Stalin. This denouncement of the former leader led to a period of the Soviet Era known commonly as "De-Stalinization." Under the blanket reforms of this process, Imre Nagy came to power in Hungary as the new prime minister, taking over for Mátyás Rákosi. Almost immediately Nagy set out on a path of reform. Police power was reduced, collectivized farms were split up and being returned to individual peasants, industry and food production shifted and religious tolerance was becoming more prominent. These reforms shocked the Hungarian Communist Party. Nagy was quickly overthrown by Rákosi in 1955, and stripped of his positions. Shortly after this coup, Khrushchev signed the Belgrade Declaration which stated "separate paths to socialism were permissible within the Soviet Bloc." With hopes for serious reform just having been extinguished in Hungary, this declaration was not received well by the Hungarians. Although order was restored, tensions remained on both sides of the conflict. Hungarians resented the end of the reformation, and the Soviets wanted to avoid a similar crisis from occurring again anywhere in the Soviet Bloc. A peaceful Brezhnev Doctrine When the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was suppressed, the Soviets adopted the mindset that governments supporting both communism and capitalism must coexist, and more importantly, build relations. This idea stressed that all people are equal, and own the right to solve the problems of their own countries themselves, and that in order for both states to peacefully coexist, neither country can exercise the right to get involved in each other's internal affairs. While this idea was brought up following the events of Hungary, they were not put into effect for a great deal of time. This is further explained in the Renunciation section. 1968 Prague Spring Notions of reform had been slowly growing in Czechoslovakia since the early-mid 1960s. However, once the Stalinist President Antonín Novotný resigned as head of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia in January 1968, the Prague Spring began to take shape. Alexander Dubček replaced Novotný as head of the party, initially thought a friend to the Soviet Union. It was not long before Dubček began making serious liberal reforms. In an effort to establish what Dubček called "developed socialism", he instituted changes in Czechoslovakia to create a much more free and liberal version of the socialist state. Aspects of a market economy were implemented, travel restrictions were eased for citizens, state censorship loosened, the power of the StB secret police was limited, and steps were taken to improve relations with the west. As the reforms piled up, the Kremlin quickly grew uneasy as they hoped to not only preserve their power within Czechoslovakia, but to avoid another Hungarian-style revolution as well. Soviet panic compounded in March 1968 when student protests erupted in Poland and Antonín Novotný resigned as the Czechoslovak president. On March 21, Yuri Andropov, the KGB Chairman, issued a grave statement concerning the reforms taking place under Dubček. "The methods and forms by which the work is progressing in Czechoslovakia remind one very much of Hungary. In this outward appearance of chaos…there is a certain order. It all began like this in Hungary also, but then came the first and second echelons, and then, finally the social democrats." Leonid Brezhnev sought clarification from Dubček on March 21, with the Politburo convened, on the situation in Czechoslovakia. Eager to avoid a similar fate as Imre Nagy, Dubček reassured Brezhnev that the reforms were totally under control and not on a similar path to those seen in 1956 in Hungary. By May 6, Brezhnev condemned Dubček's system, declaring it a step toward "the complete collapse of the Warsaw Pact." "Economic integration, political consolidation, a return to ideological orthodoxy, and inter-Party cooperation became the new watchwords of Soviet bloc relations." On November 12, 1968, Brezhnev stated that "[w]hen external and internal forces hostile to socialism try to turn the development of a given socialist country in the direction of … the capitalist system ... this is no longer merely a problem for that country's people, but a common problem, the concern of all socialist countries." Brezhnev's statement at the Fifth Congress of the Polish United Workers Party effectively classified the issue of sovereignty as less important than the preservation of Soviet-style socialism. While no new doctrine had been officially announced, it was clear that Soviet intervention was imminent if Moscow perceived any satellite to be at risk of jeopardizing the Soviet hegemony. Brezhnev Doctrine in practice The vague, broad nature of the Brezhnev Doctrine allowed application to any international situation the USSR saw fit. This is clearly evident not only through the Prague Spring in 1968, and the indirect pressure on Poland from 1980 to 1981, but also in the Soviet involvement in Afghanistan starting in the 1970s. Any instance which caused the USSR to question whether or not a country was becoming a "risk to international socialism", the use of military intervention was, in Soviet eyes, not only justified, but necessary. Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 The Soviet government's desire to link its foreign policy to the Brezhnev Doctrine was evoked again when it ordered a military intervention in Afghanistan in 1979. This was perhaps the last chapter of this doctrine's saga. In April 1978, a coup in Kabul brought the Afghan Communist Party to power with Nur Muhammad Taraki being installed as the second president of Afghanistan. The previous president, Mohammed Daoud Khan was killed during the coup. The Saur Revolution (as the coup was known) took Moscow by surprise, who preferred that the pro-Soviet Daoud Khan stay in power. The previous regime had maintained a pro-Soviet foreign policy as Daoud Khan was a Pashtun who rejected the Durand Line as the frontier with Pakistan. The Afghan Communist Party was divided into a factional struggle between factions known as the Khalq and Parcham. The Parcham was the more moderate of the two factions, arguing that Afghanistan was not ready for socialism, requiring more gradual process while the ultra-Communist Khalq favored a more radical approach. The Khalq faction was victorious and the leader of the Pacham faction Babrak Karmal fled to Moscow in fear of his life, to take up the position as Afghan ambassador in Moscow. Islamic fundamentalists took issue with the Communist party in power. As a result, a jihad was proclaimed against the Communist government. Brezhnev and other Soviet leaders falsely portrayed the United States as the one behind the jihad in Afghanistan, and the rebellion in Afghanistan was seen in Moscow not so much in the context of Afghan politics with an unpopular government pursuing policies that much of the population rejected (such as the collectivisation of agriculture), but rather in the context of the Cold War, being seen as the first stage of an alleged American plot to instigate a jihad in Soviet Central Asia where the majority of the population was Muslim. To assist the government, the Soviet Union drastically increased its military aid to Afghanistan while sending Soviet advisers to train the Afghan military. Following a split in the Communist Party, the leader of the Khalq faction, Hafizullah Amin, overthrew President Nur Muhammad Taraki and had him murdered on 8 October 1979. Soviet diplomats in Kabul had a low opinion of Taraki's ability to handle the rebellion, and an even lower one of Amin, who was regarded as a fanatic, but incompetent leader who lost control of the situation. In the fall of 1979, the leaders who pressed the most strongly for an invasion of Afghanistan to replace the incompetent Amin with Karmal, who was the man better able to preserve the communist regime's existence, were the Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko, the Chairman of KGB, Yuri Andropov and the Defense Minister Marshal Dmitry Ustinov. The intervention was envisioned in Moscow was merely a short conflict to stabilize the situation and allow the Communist regime to regain power. Brezhnev was indecisive, fearing that an occupation of Afghanistan might not be the short war that Gromyko, Ustinov and Andropov kept insisting it would be, but was fearful of the possibility of an Islamic fundamentalist regime being established that would export Islam into Soviet Central Asia. As it was, the inability and unwillingness of much of the Soviet-controlled Afghan Army to fight led the Soviets to involve themselves in Afghanistan for almost 10 years. Ironically, despite what was being feared in Moscow, the United States was not supporting the Islamic fundamentalist rebellion in Afghanistan, and only started to support the mujahideen ("warriors of Allah") with weapons after the Soviet invasion, concentrating foreign policy matters in the form of linkage towards preventing Soviet expansion. During his talks with the Soviets during his time as Ambassador, Karmal coordinated with the Soviet government to replace Amin. It was this coordination that led to both Soviet soldiers and airborne units organizing a coup against the Amin-led Afghanistan government, during which Amin was assassinated. In his place, the Soviets installed their ally, former-Ambassador Babrak Karmal, as the new lead of the government in Afghanistan. Post-Brezhnev Doctrine The abandonment of the doctrine had a major effect on the way that the Soviets dealt with countries they once tried to control. The new Sinatra doctrine allowed other countries that were oppressed under communist intervention, to go about their own political reform. This carried over internally as well. In fact, the Soviet Union's biggest problem after the removal of the Brezhnev Doctrine, was the Khrushchev Dilemma. This did not address how to stop internal political reform, but how to tame the physical violence that comes along with it. It had become clear that the Soviet Union was beginning to loosen up. It is possible to pinpoint the renouncement of the Brezhnev Doctrine as a factor in the dissolution of the Soviet Union. Countries that were once micromanaged now could do what they wanted to politically, because the Soviets could no longer try to conquer where they saw fit. With that, the Soviet Union began to collapse. While the communist agenda had caused infinite problems for other countries, it was the driving force behind the Soviet Union staying together. After all, it seems that the removal of the incentive to conquer, and forcing of communism upon other nations, defeated the one thing Soviet Russia had always been about, the expansion of Communism. See also Captive Nations Imperialism Monroe Doctrine Truman Doctrine Russian-occupied territories Soviet Empire Sovietization Soviet occupations Satellite state Tankie Ulbricht Doctrine Western betrayal References Bibliography Freedman, Lawrence, and Jeffrey Michaels. "Soviet Doctrine from Brezhnev to Gorbachev." in The Evolution of Nuclear Strategy (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2019) pp. 527–542. . Hunt, Lynn. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures (Bedford/St. Martin's, Boston and London. 2009). Jones, Robert A. The Soviet Concept of 'Limited Sovereignty' from Lenin to Gorbachev: The Brezhnev Doctrine (Springer, 2016). Kemp-Welch, Anthony. "Poland and the Brezhnev Doctrine (1968–1989)." Wolność i Solidarność 10 (2017): 155–223. online in English Kramer, Mark. "The Kremlin, the Prague Spring, and the Brezhnev Doctrine." in Promises of 1968 (2010) pp: 285–370. online Lesaffer, Randall. "Brezhnev Doctrine." in The Encyclopedia of Diplomacy (2018) pp: 1–5. Loth, Wilfried. "Moscow, Prague and Warsaw: Overcoming the Brezhnev Doctrine." Cold War History 1.2 (2001): 103–118. Mitchell, R. Judson. "The Brezhnev doctrine and communist ideology." The Review of Politics 34.2 (1972): 190–209. online Ouimet, Matthew: The Rise and Fall of the Brezhnev Doctrine in Soviet Foreign Policy. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London. 2003. Pravda, September 25, 1968; translated by Novosti, Soviet press agency. Reprinted in L. S. Stavrianos, The Epic of Man (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1971), pp. 465–466. Valenta, Jiri. "Soviet Decisionmaking on Afghanistan, 1979." im Soviet Decisionmaking for National Security (Routledge, 2021) pp. 218–236. External links Category:1968 in international relations Category:1968 in the Soviet Union Category:Czechoslovakia–Soviet Union relations Category:Eastern Bloc Category:Foreign policy doctrines Category:Foreign relations of the Soviet Union Category:Leonid Brezhnev Category:Neo-Stalinism Category:Neo-Sovietism Category:Prague Spring
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brezhnev_Doctrine
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4990
Bain-marie
thumb|A bain-marie on a stovetop A bain-marie ( , ), also known as a water bath or double boiler, a type of heated bath, is a piece of equipment used in science, industry, and cooking to heat materials gently or to keep materials warm over a period of time. A bain-marie is also used to melt ingredients for cooking. History upright|thumb|An alchemical balneum Mariae from Coelum philosophorum, Philip Ulstad, 1528, Science History Institute The name comes from the French or , in turn derived from the medieval Latin and the Arabic , all meaning 'Mary's bath'. In his books, the 300 AD alchemist Zosimos of Panopolis credits for the invention of the device Mary the Jewess, an ancient alchemist. However, the water bath was known many centuries earlier (Hippocrates and Theophrastus), and the balneum Mariae attributed to Mary the Jewess was used to heat its contents above , while the bain-marie that continues to be used today only heats its contents up to a gentle heat of less than . Description thumb|Schematic of an improvised double boiler, as used in outdoor cooking The double boiler comes in a wide variety of shapes, sizes, and types, but traditionally is a wide, cylindrical, usually metal container made of three or four basic parts: a handle, an outer (or lower) container that holds the working fluid, an inner (or upper), smaller container that fits inside the outer one and which holds the material to be heated or cooked, and sometimes a base underneath. Under the outer container of the bain-marie (or built into its base) is a heat source. Typically, the inner container is immersed about halfway into the working fluid. The inner container, filled with the substance to be heated, fits inside the outer container filled with the working fluid (often water, but alternatively steam or oil). The outer container is heated at or below the base, causing the temperature of the working fluid to rise and thus transferring heat to the inner container. The maximum obtainable temperature of the working fluid is dictated by its composition and boiling point at the ambient pressure. Since the surface of the inner container is always in contact with the working fluid, the double boiler serves as a constant-temperature heat source for the substance being heated, without hot or cold spots that can affect its properties. When the working fluid is water and the bain-marie is used at sea level, the maximum temperature of the material in the lower container will not exceed , the boiling point of water at sea level. Using different working fluids such as oil in the outer container, or pressurizing the outer container, will result in different maximum temperatures obtainable in the inner container. Alternatives A contemporary alternative to the traditional, liquid-filled bain-marie is the electric "dry-heat" bain-marie, heated by elements below both pots. The dry-heat form of electric bains-marie often consumes less energy, requires little cleaning, and can be heated more quickly than traditional versions. They can also operate at higher temperatures, and are often much less expensive than their traditional counterparts. Electric bains-marie can also be wet, using either hot water or vapor, or steam, in the heating process. The open, bath-type bain-marie heats via a small, hot-water tub (or "bath"), and the vapour-type bain-marie heats with scalding-hot steam. Culinary applications In cooking applications, a bain-marie usually consists of a pan or pot of water in which another container or containers of food to be cooked is/are placed. thumb|An improvised bain-marie being used to melt chocolate Chocolate can be melted in a bain-marie to avoid splitting (separation of cocoa butter and cocoa solids, breaking emulsion) and caking onto the pot. Special dessert bains-marie usually have a thermally insulated container and can be used as a chocolate fondue for the purposes of dipping foods (typically fruits) at the table. Cheesecake is often baked in a bain-marie to prevent the top from cracking in the centre. Baked custard desserts such as custard tarts may be cooked in a bain-marie to keep a crust from forming on the outside of the custard before the interior is fully cooked. In the case of the crème brûlée, placing the ramekins in a roasting pan and filling the pan with hot water until it is half to two-thirds of the way up the sides of the ramekins transfers the heat to the custard gently, which prevents the custard from curdling. The humidity from the steam that rises as the water heats helps keep the top of the custard from becoming too dry. Classic warm high-fat sauces, such as Hollandaise and beurre blanc, are often cooked using a double-boiler bain-marie as they require enough heat to emulsify the mixture of fats and water but not enough to curdle or split the sauce. Similarly, the classic Italian dessert zabaglione (in French, sabayon), consisting of egg yolks, sugar and sweet wine, is made in a double boiler bain-marie to avoid over-cooking the egg yolks while whisking the mixture into a stable froth. Some charcuterie such as terrines and pâtés are cooked in an "oven-type" bain-marie. The making of clotted cream. Thickening of condensed milk, such as in confection-making, is done in a bain-marie. Controlled-temperature bains-marie can be used to heat frozen breast milk before feedings. Bains-marie can be used in place of chafing dishes for keeping foods warm for long periods of time, where stovetops or hot plates are inconvenient or too powerful. A simple or impromptu bain-marie can be used to re-liquefy hardened or "sugared" honey in a glass jar by placing the opened jar on top of any improvised platform sitting at the bottom of a partially-full pot of gently boiling water. Other uses In small scale soap-making, a bain-marie's inherent control over maximum temperature makes it optimal for liquefying melt-and-pour soap bases prior to molding them into bars. It offers the advantage of maintaining the base in a liquid state, or reliquefying a solidified base, with minimal deterioration. Similarly, using a water bath, traditional wood glue can be melted and kept in a stable liquid state over many hours without damage to the animal proteins it incorporates. See also Double steaming Heated bath Laboratory water bath References Sources External links Category:Vessels Category:Cooking vessels Category:Culinary terminology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bain-marie
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Belgian
Belgian may refer to: Something of, or related to, Belgium Belgians, people from Belgium or of Belgian descent Languages of Belgium, languages spoken in Belgium, such as Dutch, French, and German Ancient Belgian language, an extinct language formerly spoken in Gallia Belgica Belgian Dutch or Flemish, a variant of Dutch Belgian French, a variant of French Belgian horse (disambiguation), various breeds of horse Belgian waffle, in culinary contexts SS Belgian, a cargo ship in service with F Leyland & Co Ltd from 1919 to 1934 The Belgian, a 1917 American silent film See also Belgica (disambiguation) Belgic (disambiguation)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgian
2025-04-05T18:27:02.187807
4994
Ballu tundu
thumb|300px| or is a traditional Sardinian folk dance which is typically danced in a closed or open circle. The dance was described as early as 1805 by Mameli and by La Marmora in 1825. In northern and central Sardinia, the dance is lively and animated with leaps and agile movements and usually accompanied by a choir of three or more singers in the center of the circle. In other areas, the dance is done to launeddas and the shepherd's , but the accordion had also made its appearance by the 19th century. The introduction is in time but the dance itself is done in . At least in the past, the manner of holding hands was very important and followed strict rules. Married or engaged couples could hold hands palm to palm with fingers entwined, but a man could not do this with a young girl or another man's wife. If a stranger entered the circle, he had to do so to the woman's right so as not to come between her and her husband. References Category:Italian folk dances Category:Music in Sardinia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballu_tundu
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Barbagia
* * }} | photo = Rifugi Monte Ortobene 018.JPG | photo_caption = A view of the mountains around Nuoro, the main urban center in Barbagia | country = Italy | area_km2 = 1300.37 | region | border | highest = Punta La Marmora/Perdas Carpías | elevation_m = 1834 | range_coordinates | geology | period | orogeny | map_image = Sardegna Barbaria.png | map_caption = Localisation of the ancient region of Barbaria (in blue) in relation to the Roman-controlled areas (in yellow) }} Barbagia (; or ) is a geographical, cultural and natural region of inner Sardinia, contained for the most part in the province of Nuoro and Ogliastra and located alongside the Gennargentu massif. The name comes from Cicero, who described the land as inhabited by barbarians; Roman domination over this part of the island was in fact never more than nominal as a result of the Roman-Sardinian Wars. This word shares its etymology with the now antiquated Barbary. The Sardinians, many of whose revolts came from this area, were also mocked by the ancient Romans with the pejorative term 'thieves wearing rough woolen garments'. In 594, Pope Gregory the Great wrote a letter to Hospito, a Christian whom he calls the "leader of the Barbaricini" (). Hospito apparently permitted the evangelisation of pagan Barbagia by Christian missionaries. The area is usually divided into five Barbagias: the Barbagia of Ollolai, the Barbagia of Seulo, the Barbagia of Belvì, the Mandrolisai, and finally the , the historical name by which the area of Ogliastra was once referred to. The latter two are named after a sub-region, and the others after their main villages. The area comprises mainly rocky and steep hills and mountains, and there is little human presence. Barbagia is one of the least populated areas in Europe, which has allowed Barbagia to preserve better the island's cultural and natural treasures. According to a thesis by the archaeologist Giovanni Lilliu, Sardinian history has always been characterised by what he called the "constant of Sardinian resistance", opposed to the invaders who attempted at various times to lord over the indigenous inhabitants. Barbagia is one of the few Sardinian regions where the Sardinian language in its own varieties, both Nuorese and Campidanese, is still spoken on an everyday basis, while the rest of the island has already mostly undergone thorough Italianization and language shift to Italian. One of the most important villages is Gavoi. Orgosolo was famous for its bandits and kidnappers and typical murals. Oliena is well known for its wines (especially the Nepente, a wine made with Cannonau grapes). Another well known town is Fonni, the highest town in Sardinia at more than 1,000 meters above sea level. Fonni is also the gateway to the Gennargentu mountain system. The economy consists of agriculture, sheep breeding, art and tradition related business, tourism and light industry. See also *Roman-Sardinian Wars *Cantu a tenore References Category:Geography of Sardinia Category:Geographical, historical and cultural regions of Italy Category:Blue zones Category:Natural regions of Europe Category:History of Sardinia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbagia
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Brabham
Jack Brabham<br /> Dan Gurney<br /> Denny Hulme<br /> Jochen Rindt<br /> Jacky Ickx<br /> Silvio Moser<br /> Graham Hill<br /> Carlos Reutemann<br /> Niki Lauda<br /> Nelson Piquet<br /> Riccardo Patrese<br /> Elio de Angelis<br /> Derek Warwick<br /> Stefano Modena<br /> Martin Brundle<br /> David Brabham<br /> Damon Hill<br /> Héctor Rebaque<br /> John Watson<br /> Carlos Pace | Debut = 1962 German Grand Prix | Races = 403 entries (394 starts) <!-- 9 no-starts include 1992 Mexico, 1992 Brazil, 1992 Spain, 1992 San Marino, 1992 Monaco, 1992 Canada, 1992 France, 1992 Germany and 1992 Belgium. --> | Engines = Climax, Repco, Ford, Alfa Romeo, BMW, Judd, Yamaha | Cons_champ = 2 (, ) | Drivers_champ = 4 (, , , ) | Wins = 35 | Poles = 40 | Fastest_laps = 41 | Points = 832 | Podiums = 120 | Last race = 1992 Hungarian Grand Prix }} Motor Racing Developments Ltd., commonly known as Brabham ( ), was a British racing car manufacturer and Formula One racing team. It was founded in 1960 by the Australian driver Jack Brabham and the British-Australian designer Ron Tauranac. The team had a successful thirty-year history, winning four FIA Formula One World Drivers' Championships and two World Constructors' Championships. Under Brabham and Tauranac, Brabham won double world championships in 1966 and 1967, with the 1966 drivers' title going to Jack Brabham and the 1967 title going to Denny Hulme. Jack Brabham is the only Formula One driver to win a Drivers' Championship in a car bearing his own name. Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to design cars. It became the world's largest manufacturer of open-wheel racing cars sold to customer teams, having built more than 500 cars by 1970. Teams using Brabham cars won championships in Formula Two and Formula Three. The cars also competed in events like the Indianapolis 500 and Formula 5000 racing. The businessman Bernie Ecclestone owned Brabham during most of the 1970s and 1980s, and later became responsible for administering the commercial aspects of Formula One. Under Ecclestone and chief designer Gordon Murray, the team won two more Drivers' Championships in the 1980s with Brazilian Nelson Piquet. During this period, the team withdrew from manufacturing customer cars but introduced innovations such as carbon brakes and hydropneumatic suspension; it also reintroduced in-race refuelling. Its unique 'fan car' won its only race, in , before being withdrawn. Piquet won his first championship in in the ground effect BT49-Ford. In , he became the first driver to win a title with a turbocharged car, the Brabham BT52, which was powered by BMW's M12 straight-four engine and won four Grands Prix that season. Ecclestone sold the team in 1988. Midway through the 1992 season, the team collapsed financially and was investigated for fraud, as its new owner, Japanese engineering firm Middlebridge, failed to make its loan repayments. In 2009, a German organisation unsuccessfully attempted to enter the 2010 Formula One season using the Brabham name. Origins was 40 when he won the F1 drivers' title in a Brabham car]] The Brabham team was founded by Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac, who met in 1951 while both were successfully building and racing cars in their native Australia. Brabham, who was a highly successful dirt oval speedway Speedcar driver with multiple Australian national and state titles to his credit before moving full time into road racing in 1953, was the more successful driver and went to the United Kingdom in 1955 to further his racing career. There he started driving for the Cooper Car Company works team and by 1958 had progressed with them to Formula One, the highest category of open-wheel racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), motor sport's world governing body In 1959 and 1960, Brabham won the Formula One World Drivers' Championship in Cooper's revolutionary mid-engined cars. Despite their innovation of putting the engine behind the driver, the Coopers and their chief designer, Owen Maddock, were generally resistant to developing their cars. Brabham pushed for further advances, and played a significant role in developing Cooper's highly successful 1960 T53 "lowline" car, with input from his friend Tauranac. Brabham was confident he could do better than Cooper, and in late 1959 he asked Tauranac to come to the UK and work with him, initially producing upgrade kits for Sunbeam Rapier and Triumph Herald road cars at his car dealership, Jack Brabham Motors, but with the long-term aim of designing racing cars. Brabham describes Tauranac as "absolutely the only bloke I'd have gone into partnership with". Later, Brabham offered a Coventry-Climax FWE-engined version of the Herald, with and uprated suspension to match the extra power. To meet that aim, Brabham and Tauranac set up Motor Racing Developments Ltd. (MRD), deliberately avoiding the use of either man's name. The new company would compete with Cooper in the market for customer racing cars. As Brabham was still employed by Cooper, Tauranac produced the first MRD car, for the entry level Formula Junior class, in secrecy. Unveiled in the summer of 1961, the "MRD" was soon renamed. Motoring journalist Jabby Crombac pointed out that "[the] way a Frenchman pronounces those initials—written phonetically, 'em air day'—sounded perilously like the French word... merde." Gavin Youl achieved a second-place finish at Goodwood and another at Mallory Park in the MRD-Ford. The cars were subsequently known as Brabhams, with type numbers starting with BT for "Brabham Tauranac". By the 1961 Formula One season, the Lotus and Ferrari teams had developed the mid-engined approach further than Cooper. Brabham had a poor season, scoring only four points, and—having run his own private Coopers in non-championship events during 1961—left the company in 1962 to drive for his own team: the Brabham Racing Organisation, using cars built by Motor Racing Developments. The team was based at Chessington, England and held the British licence.Racing history—Formula OneJack Brabham and Ron Tauranac (1961–1970) , the first Brabham Formula One design]] Motor Racing Developments initially concentrated on making money by building cars for sale to customers in lower formulae, so the new car for the Formula One team was not ready until partway through the 1962 Formula One season. The Brabham Racing Organisation (BRO) started the year fielding a customer Lotus chassis, which was delivered at 3am to keep it a secret. From the 1963 season, Brabham was partnered by American driver Dan Gurney, the pair now running in Australia's racing colours of green and gold. Brabham took the team's first win at the non-championship Solitude Grand Prix in 1963. Gurney took the marque's first two wins in the world championship, at the 1964 French and Mexican Grands Prix. Brabham works and customer cars took another three non-championship wins during the 1964 season. The 1965 season was less successful, with no championship wins. Brabham finished third or fourth in the Constructors' Championship for three years running, but poor reliability marred promising performances on several occasions. Motor sport authors Mike Lawrence and David Hodges have said that a lack of resources may have cost the team results, a view echoed by Tauranac. The FIA doubled the Formula One engine capacity limit to 3 litres for the 1966 season and suitable engines were scarce. Brabham used engines from Australian engineering firm Repco, which had never produced a Formula One engine before, based on aluminium V8 engine blocks from the defunct American Oldsmobile F85 road car project, and other off-the-shelf parts. Consulting and design engineer Phil Irving (of Vincent Motorcycle fame) was the project engineer responsible for producing the initial version of the engine. Few expected the Brabham-Repcos to be competitive, but the light and reliable cars ran at the front from the start of the season. At the French Grand Prix at Reims-Gueux, Brabham became the first man to win a Formula One world championship race in a car bearing his own name. Only his former teammate, Bruce McLaren, has since matched the achievement. It was the first in a run of four straight wins for the Australian veteran. Brabham won his third title in 1966, becoming the only driver to win the Formula One World Championship in a car carrying his own name (cf Surtees, Hill and Fittipaldi Automotive). In 1967, the title went to Brabham's teammate, New Zealander Denny Hulme. Hulme had better reliability through the year, possibly due to Brabham's desire to try new parts first. The Brabham team took the Constructors' World Championship in both years. . Technically conservative, Brabham did not produce a monocoque car until 1970.]] For 1968, Austrian Jochen Rindt replaced Hulme, who had left to join McLaren. Repco produced a more powerful version of their V8 to maintain competitiveness against Ford's new Cosworth DFV, but it proved very unreliable. Slow communications between the UK and Australia had always made identifying and correcting problems very difficult. The car was fast—Rindt set pole position twice during the season—but Brabham and Rindt finished only three races between them, and ended the year with only ten points. Although Brabham bought Cosworth DFV engines for the 1969 season, Rindt left to join Lotus. His replacement, Jacky Ickx, had a strong second half to the season, winning in Germany and Canada, after Brabham was sidelined by a testing accident. Ickx finished second in the Drivers' Championship, with 37 points to Jackie Stewart's 63. Brabham himself took a couple of pole positions and two top-3 finishes, but did not finish half the races. The team were second in the Constructors' Championship, aided by second places at Monaco and Watkins Glen scored by Piers Courage, driving a Brabham for the Frank Williams Racing Cars privateer squad. Brabham took his last win in the opening race of the 1970 season and was competitive throughout the year, although mechanical failures blunted his challenge. After losing secured victories in the last corner at both Monaco and England, Jack decided he had had enough, and sold his part in the company to former Jochen Rindt manager, a businessman named Bernie Ecclestone, at the end of the year. Aided by number-two driver Rolf Stommelen, the team came fourth in the Constructors' Championship. Ron Tauranac (1971) . Graham Hill took his final Formula One win in the non-championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone.]]Tauranac signed double world champion Graham Hill and young Australian Tim Schenken to drive for the 1971 season. Tauranac designed the unusual 'lobster claw' BT34, featuring twin radiators mounted ahead of the front wheels, a single example of which was built for Hill. Although Hill, no longer a front-runner since his 1969 accident, took his final Formula One win in the non-championship BRDC International Trophy at Silverstone, the team scored only seven championship points. The highlights of an aimless year, during which the team ran three different models, were pole position for Argentinian driver Carlos Reutemann at his home race at Buenos Aires and a victory in the non-championship Interlagos Grand Prix. For the 1973 season, Ecclestone promoted the young South African engineer Gordon Murray to chief designer and moved Herbie Blash from the Formula Two programme to become the Formula One team manager. Both would remain with the team for the next 15 years. For 1973, Murray produced the triangular cross-section BT42, with which Reutemann scored two podium finishes and finished seventh in the Drivers' Championship. on display in 2003. The car was used in the and seasons.]] In the 1974 season, Reutemann took the first three victories of his Formula One career, and Brabham's first since 1970. The team finished a close fifth in the Constructors' Championship, fielding the much more competitive BT44s. After a strong finish to the 1974 season, many observers felt the team were favourites to win the 1975 title. The year started well, with a first win for Brazilian driver Carlos Pace at the Interlagos circuit in his native São Paulo. However, as the season progressed, tyre wear frequently slowed the cars in races, and the team was constantly outperformed by Ferrari and McLaren. Pace took another two podiums and finished sixth in the championship; while Reutemann had five podium finishes, including a dominant win in the 1975 German Grand Prix, and finished third in the Drivers' Championship. The team likewise ranked second in the Constructors' Championship at the end of the year. At that time, designer David North was hired to work alongside Murray. The 1976 and 1977 seasons saw Brabham fall toward the back of the field again. Reutemann negotiated a release from his contract before the end of the 1976 season and signed with Ferrari. Ulsterman John Watson replaced him at Brabham for 1977. Watson lost near certain victory in the French Grand Prix (Dijon) of that year when his car ran low on fuel on the last lap and was passed by Mario Andretti's Lotus, with Watson's second place being the team's best result of the season. The car often showed at the head of races, but the unreliability of the Alfa Romeo engine was a major problem. The team lost Pace early in the 1977 season when he died in a light aircraft accident. For the 1978 season, Murray's BT46 featured several new technologies to overcome the weight and packaging difficulties caused by the Alfa Romeo engines. Ecclestone signed then two-time Formula One world champion Niki Lauda from Ferrari through a deal with Italian dairy products company Parmalat which met the cost of Lauda ending his Ferrari contract and made up his salary to the £200,000 Ferrari was offering. 1978 was the year of the dominant Lotus 79 "wing car", which used aerodynamic ground effect to stick to the track when cornering, but Lauda won two races in the BT46, one with the controversial "B" or "fan car" version. The partnership with Alfa Romeo ended during the 1979 season, the team's first with young Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet. Murray designed the full-ground effect BT48 around a rapidly developed new Alfa Romeo V12 engine and incorporated an effective "carbon-carbon braking" system—a technology Brabham pioneered in 1976. However, unexpected movement of the car's aerodynamic centre of pressure made its handling unpredictable and the new engine was unreliable. The team dropped to eighth in the Constructors' Championship by the end of the season. Alfa Romeo started testing their own Formula One car during the season, prompting Ecclestone to revert to Cosworth DFV engines, a move Murray described as being "like having a holiday". The new, lighter, Cosworth-powered BT49 was introduced before the end of the year at the Canadian Grand Prix; where after practice Lauda announced his immediate retirement from driving, later saying that he "was no longer getting any pleasure from driving round and round in circles". competed over four seasons, winning one championship.]] The team used the BT49 over four seasons. In the 1980 season Piquet scored three wins and the team took third in the Constructors' Championship with Piquet second in the Drivers' Championship. This season saw the introduction of the blue and white livery that the cars would wear through several changes of sponsor, until the team's demise in 1992. With a better understanding of ground effect, the team further developed the BT49C for the 1981 season, incorporating a hydropneumatic suspension system to avoid ride height limitations intended to reduce downforce. Piquet, who had developed a close working relationship with Murray, took the drivers' title with three wins, albeit amid accusations of cheating. The team finished second in the Constructors' Championship, behind the Williams team. Ecclestone held BMW to their contract for the 1987 season, but the German company would only supply the laydown engine. The upright units, around which Brabham had designed their new car, were sold for use by the Arrows team. Senior figures at Brabham, including Murray, have admitted that by this stage Ecclestone had lost interest in running the team. The 1987 season was only slightly more successful than the previous year—Patrese and de Cesaris scoring 10 points between them, including two third places at the Belgian Grand Prix and the Mexican Grand Prix. Unable to locate a suitable engine supplier, the team missed the FIA deadline for entry into the 1988 world championship and Ecclestone finally announced the team's withdrawal from Formula One at the Brazilian Grand Prix in April 1988. During the season-ending Australian Grand Prix, Ecclestone announced he had sold MRD to EuroBrun team owner Walter Brun for an unknown price. Joachim Lüthi (1989) Brun soon sold the team on, this time to Swiss financier Joachim Lüthi, who brought it back into Formula One for the 1989 season. The new Brabham BT58, powered by a Judd V8 engine (originally another of Jack Brabham's companies), was produced for the 1989 season. Italian driver Stefano Modena, who had driven for the team in the 1987 Australian Grand Prix in a one off drive for the team, drove alongside the more experienced Martin Brundle who was returning to Formula One after spending 1988 winning the World Sportscar Championship for Jaguar. Modena took the team's last podium: a third place at the Monaco Grand Prix (Brundle, who had only just scraped through pre-qualifying by 0.021 seconds before qualifying a brilliant 4th, had been running third but was forced to stop to replace a flat battery, finally finishing sixth). The team also failed to make the grid sometimes: Brundle failed to prequalify at the Canadian Grand Prix and the French Grand Prix. The team finished 9th in the Constructors' Championship at the end of the season. several parties disputed the ownership of the team. Middlebridge Group Limited, a Japanese engineering firm owned by billionaire Koji Nakauchi, was already involved with established Formula 3000 team Middlebridge Racing and gained control of Brabham for the 1990 season. Herbie Blash had returned to run the team in 1989 and continued to do so in 1990. Middlebridge paid for its purchase using £1 million loaned to them by finance company Landhurst Leasing, but the team remained underfunded and would only score a few more points finishes in its last three seasons. Jack Brabham's youngest son, David, raced for the Formula One team for a short time in 1990 including the season-ending Australian Grand Prix (the first time a Brabham had driven a Brabham car in an Australian Grand Prix since 1968). 1990 was another disastrous year, with Modena's fifth place in the season-opening United States Grand Prix being the only top six finish. The team finished ninth in the Constructors' Championship. Brundle and fellow Briton Mark Blundell, scored only three points during the 1991 season. Due to poor results in the first half of 1991, they had to prequalify in the second half of the season; Blundell failed to do so in Japan, as did Brundle in Australia. The team finished 10th in the Constructors' Championship, behind another struggling British team, Lotus. The 1992 season started with Eric van de Poele and Giovanna Amati after Japanese Formula 3000 driver Akihiko Nakaya was denied a superlicense. Damon Hill, the son of another former Brabham driver and World Champion, debuted in the team after Amati was dropped when her sponsorship failed to materialise. Amati, the fifth and last () woman to race in Formula One, ended her career with three DNQs. Argentine Sergio Rinland designed the team's final cars around Judd engines, except for 1991 when Yamaha powered the cars. In the 1992 season the cars (which were updated versions of the 1991 car) rarely qualified for races. Hill gave the team its final finish, at the Hungarian Grand Prix, where he crossed the finish line 11th and last, four laps behind the winner, Ayrton Senna. After the end of that race the team ran out of funds and collapsed. Middlebridge Group Limited had been unable to continue making repayments against the £6 million ultimately provided by Landhurst Leasing, which went into administration. The Serious Fraud Office investigated the case. Landhurst's managing directors were found guilty of corruption and imprisoned, having accepted bribes for further loans to Middlebridge. Among these was the team's old factory in Chessington, which was acquired by Yamaha Motor Sports and used to house Activa Technology Limited, a company manufacturing composite components for race and road cars run by Herbie Blash. The factory was bought by the Carlin DPR GP2 motor racing team in 2006.Motor Racing Developments , FWRC, 1969).]] Brabham cars were also widely used by other teams, and not just in Formula One. Jack Brabham and Ron Tauranac called the company they set up in 1961 to design and build formula racing cars to customer teams Motor Racing Developments (MRD), and this company had a large portfolio of other activities. Initially, Brabham and Tauranac each held 50 per cent of the shares. From 1963 to 1965, MRD was not directly involved in Formula One, and often ran works cars in other formulae. A separate company, Jack Brabham's Brabham Racing Organisation, ran the Formula One works entry. Like other customers, BRO bought its cars from MRD, initially at £3,000 per car, although it did not pay for development parts. Tauranac was unhappy with his distance from the Formula One operation and before the 1966 season suggested that he was no longer interested in producing cars for Formula One under this arrangement. Brabham investigated other chassis suppliers for BRO, however the two reached an agreement and from 1966 MRD was much more closely involved in this category. After Jack Brabham sold his shares in MRD to Ron Tauranac at the end of 1969, the works Formula One team was MRD. model from Brabham.]] Despite only building its first car in 1961, by the mid-1960s MRD had overtaken established constructors like Cooper to become the largest manufacturer of single-seat racing cars in the world, and by 1970 had built over 500 cars. Of the other Formula One teams which used Brabhams, Frank Williams Racing Cars and the Rob Walker Racing Team were the most successful. The 1965 British Grand Prix saw seven Brabhams compete, only two of them from the works team, and there were usually four or five at championship Grands Prix throughout that season. The firm built scores of cars for the lower formulae each year, peaking with 89 cars in 1966. (1988)]] At the end of 1971 Bernie Ecclestone bought MRD. He retained the Brabham brand, as did subsequent owners. Although the production of customer cars continued briefly under Ecclestone's ownership, he believed the company needed to focus on Formula One to succeed. The last production customer Brabhams were the Formula Two BT40 and the Formula Three BT41 of 1973, although Ecclestone sold ex-works Formula One BT44Bs to RAM Racing as late as 1976. In 1988 Ecclestone sold Motor Racing Developments to Alfa Romeo. The Formula One team did not compete that year, but Alfa Romeo put the company to use designing and building a prototype "Procar"—a racing car with the silhouette of a large saloon (the Alfa Romeo 164) covering a composite racing car chassis and mid-mounted race engine. This was intended for a racing series for major manufacturers to support Formula One Grands Prix, and was designated the Brabham BT57. Racing history—other categories IndyCar }} Brabham cars competed at the Indianapolis 500 from the mid-1960s to the early 1970s. After an abortive project in 1962, MRD was commissioned in 1964 to build an IndyCar chassis powered by an American Offenhauser engine. The resultant BT12 chassis was raced by Jack Brabham as the "Zink-Urschel Trackburner" at the 1964 event and retired with a fuel tank problem. The car was entered again in 1966, taking a third place for Jim McElreath. From 1968 to 1970, Brabham returned to Indianapolis, at first with a 4.2-litre version of the Repco V8 the team used in Formula One—with which Peter Revson finished fifth in 1969—before reverting to the Offenhauser engine for 1970. The Brabham-Offenhauser combination was entered again in 1971 by J.C. Agajanian, finishing fifth in the hands of Bill Vukovich II. Although no Brabham car ever won at Indianapolis, McElreath won four United States Automobile Club (USAC) races over 1965 and 1966 in the BT12. The "Dean Van Lines Special" in which Mario Andretti won the 1965 USAC national championship was a direct copy of this car, made with permission from Brabham by Andretti's crew chief Clint Brawner. Revson took Brabham's final USAC race win in a BT25 in 1969, using the Repco engine.Formula TwoIn the 1960s and early 1970s, drivers who had reached Formula One often continued to compete in Formula Two. In 1966 MRD produced the BT18 for the lower category, with a Honda engine acting as a stressed component. The car was extremely successful, winning 11 consecutive Formula Two races in the hands of the Formula One pairing of Brabham and Hulme. Cars were entered by MRD and not by the Brabham Racing Organisation, avoiding a direct conflict with Repco, their Formula One engine supplier.Formula ThreeThe first Formula Three Brabham, the BT9, won only four major races in 1964. The BT15 which followed in 1965 was a highly successful design. 58 cars were sold, which won 42 major races. Further developments of the same concept, including wings by the end of the decade, were highly competitive up until 1971. The BT38C of 1972 was Brabham's first production monocoque and the first not designed by Tauranac. Although 40 were ordered, it was less successful than its predecessors. The angular BT41 was the final Formula Three Brabham.Formula 5000Brabham made one car for Formula 5000 racing, the Brabham BT43. Rolled out in late 1973 it was tested in early 1974 by John Watson at Silverstone before making its debut at the Rothmans F5000 Championship Round at Monza on 30 June 1974, driven by Martin Birrane. Former Australian Drivers' Champion Kevin Bartlett used the Chevrolet powered Brabham BT43 to finish 3rd in the 1978 Australian Drivers' Championship including finishing 5th in the 1978 Australian Grand Prix. The BT8A was the only one built in any numbers, and was quite successful in national level racing in the UK in 1964 and 1965. The design was "stretched" in 1966 to become the one-off BT17, originally fitted with the 4.3-litre version of the Repco engine for Can-Am racing. It was quickly abandoned by MRD after engine reliability problems became evident. Technical innovation won its only race before being banned. It was nicknamed the "Fan Car" due to the large fan at the rear of the car.]] Brabham was considered a technically conservative team in the 1960s, chiefly because it persevered with traditional spaceframe cars long after Lotus introduced lighter, stiffer monocoque chassis to Formula One in 1962. Chief designer Tauranac reasoned that monocoques of the time were not usefully stiffer than well designed spaceframe chassis, and were harder to repair and less suitable for MRD's customers. His "old fashioned" cars won the Brabham team the 1966 and 1967 championships, and were competitive in Formula One until rule changes forced a move to monocoques in 1970. Despite the perceived conservatism, in 1963 Brabham was the first Formula One team to use a wind tunnel to hone its designs to reduce drag and stop the cars lifting off the ground at speed. The practice became the norm in only the early 1980s, and is possibly the most important factor in the design of modern cars. Towards the end of the 1960s, teams began to exploit aerodynamic downforce to push the cars' tyres down harder on the track and enable them to maintain faster speeds through high-speed corners. At the 1968 Belgian Grand Prix, Brabham was the first, alongside Ferrari, to introduce full width rear wings to this effect. The team's most fertile period of technical innovation came in the 1970s and 1980s when Gordon Murray became technical director. During 1976, the team introduced carbon-carbon brakes to Formula One, which promised reduced unsprung weight and better stopping performance due to carbon's greater coefficient of friction. The initial versions used carbon-carbon composite brake pads and a steel disc faced with carbon "pucks." The technology was not reliable at first; in 1976, Carlos Pace crashed at at the Österreichring circuit after heat build-up in the brakes boiled the brake fluid, leaving him with no way of stopping the car. By 1979, Brabham had developed an effective carbon-carbon braking system, combining structural carbon discs with carbon brake pads. Although Brabham experimented with airdams and underbody skirts in the mid-1970s, the team, like the rest of the field, did not immediately understand Lotus's development of a ground effect car in 1977. The Brabham BT46B "Fan car" of 1978, generated enormous downforce with a fan, which sucked air from beneath the car, although its claimed use was for engine cooling. The car raced only once in the Formula One World Championship—Niki Lauda winning the 1978 Swedish Grand Prix—before a loophole in the regulations was closed by the FIA. Although in 1979 Murray was the first to use lightweight carbon fibre composite panels to stiffen Brabham's aluminium alloy monocoques, he echoed his predecessor Tauranac in being the last to switch to the new fully composite monocoques. Murray was reluctant to build the entire chassis from composite materials until he understood their behaviour in a crash, an understanding achieved in part through an instrumented crash test of a BT49 chassis. For the 1981 season the FIA introduced a minimum ride height for the cars, intended to slow them in corners by limiting the downforce created by aerodynamic ground effect. Gordon Murray devised a hydropneumatic suspension system for the BT49C, which allowed the car to settle to a much lower ride height at speed. Brabham was accused of cheating by other teams, although Murray believes that the system met the letter of the regulations. No action was taken against the team and others soon produced systems with similar effects. At the 1982 British Grand Prix, Brabham reintroduced the idea of re-fuelling and changing the car's tyres during the race, unseen since the 1957 Formula One season, to allow its drivers to sprint away at the start of races on a light fuel load and soft tyres. After studying techniques used at the Indianapolis 500 and in NASCAR racing in the United States, the team was able to refuel and re-tyre the car in 14 seconds in tests ahead of the race. In 1982 Murray felt the tactic did little more than "get our sponsors noticed at races we had no chance of winning," but in 1983 the team made good use of the tactic. Refuelling was banned for 1984, although it reappeared between 1994 and 2009, but tyre changes have remained part of Formula One.Controversy The fan car and hydropneumatic suspension exploited loopholes in the sporting regulations. In the early 1980s, Brabham was accused of going further and breaking the regulations. During 1981, Piquet's first championship year, rumours circulated of illegal underweight Brabham chassis. Driver Jacques Laffite was among those to claim that the cars were fitted with heavily ballasted bodywork before being weighed at scrutineering. The accusation was denied by Brabham's management. No formal protest was made against the team and no action was taken against it by the sporting authorities. From 1978, Ecclestone was president of the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA), a body formed by the teams to represent their interests. This left his team open to accusations of having advance warning of rule changes. Ecclestone denies that the team benefited from this and Murray has noted that, contrary to this view, at the end of 1982 the team had to abandon its new BT51 car, built on the basis that ground effect would be permitted in 1983. Brabham had to design and build a replacement, the BT52, in only three months. At the end of the 1983 season, Renault and Ferrari, both beaten to the Drivers' Championship by Piquet, protested that the Research Octane Number (RON) 102.4 of the team's fuel was above the legal limit of 102. The FIA declared that a figure of up to 102.9 was permitted under the rules, and that Brabham had not exceeded this limit. Later use of the Brabham name Revival attempts On 4 June 2009, Franz Hilmer confirmed that he had used the name to lodge an entry for the 2010 Formula One season as a cost-capped team under the new budget cap regulations. The Brabham family was not involved and announced that it was seeking legal advice over the use of the name. The team's entry was not accepted, and the Brabham family later obtained legal recognition of their exclusive rights to the Brabham brand. Brabham Racing In September 2014, David Brabham—the son of Brabham founder Sir Jack Brabham—announced the reformation of the Brabham Racing team under the name Project Brabham, with plans to enter the 2015 FIA World Endurance Championship and 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans in the LMP2 category using a crowdsourcing business model. The company also expressed interest in returning to Formula One, but did not have the financial capacity to do so. In 2019, Brabham Automotive announced its goal to enter the 2021 FIA World Endurance Championship using a BT62 in the GTE class. The team competed in the 2019 GT Cup Championship. It also entered the final two races of the 2019 Britcar Endurance Championship, winning on its debut. In 2021, Brabham Automotive debuted their BT63 GT2 car at the season finale of the 2021 GT2 European Series. Championship results Results achieved by the "works" Brabham team. Bold results indicate a championship win. {| class="wikitable" |+Summary of Brabham Formula One World Championship results |- ! scope="col" | Season ! scope="col" | Entrant ! scope="col" | Car ! scope="col" | Tyres ! scope="col" | Engine ! scope="col" | Drivers ! scope="col" | Constructors'<br />Championship |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Brabham Racing Organisation | Lotus 24<br />Brabham BT3 | | Coventry Climax FWMV | Jack Brabham | 7th (9 points) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Brabham Racing Organisation | Brabham BT3<br />Brabham BT7<br />Lotus 25 | | Coventry Climax FWMV | Jack Brabham<br />Dan Gurney | 3rd (28 points) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Brabham Racing Organisation | Brabham BT7 <br /> Brabham BT11 | | Coventry Climax FWMV | Jack Brabham<br />Dan Gurney | 4th (33 points) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Brabham Racing Organisation | Brabham BT7<br />Brabham BT11 | <br /> | Coventry Climax FWMV | Jack Brabham<br />Dan Gurney<br />Denny Hulme<br />Giancarlo Baghetti | 3rd (27 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Brabham Racing Organisation | Brabham BT19<br />Brabham BT20<br />Brabham BT22 | | Repco 620 <br />Coventry Climax FPF | Jack Brabham<br />Denny Hulme | Champion (42 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Brabham Racing Organisation | Brabham BT19<br />Brabham BT20<br />Brabham BT24 | | Repco 620 <br />Repco 740 | Jack Brabham<br />Denny Hulme | Champion (37 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Brabham Racing Organisation | Brabham BT24<br />Brabham BT26 | | Repco 740 <br />Repco 860 | Jack Brabham<br />Jochen Rindt<br />Dan Gurney | 8th (10 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments | Brabham BT26A | | Cosworth DFV | Jack Brabham<br />Jacky Ickx | 2nd (51 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments | Brabham BT33 | | Cosworth DFV | Jack Brabham<br />Rolf Stommelen | 4th (35 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments | Brabham BT33<br />Brabham BT34 | | Cosworth DFV | Graham Hill<br />Tim Schenken<br />Dave Charlton | 9th (5 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments | Brabham BT33<br />Brabham BT34<br />Brabham BT37 | | Cosworth DFV | Graham Hill<br />Carlos Reutemann<br />Wilson Fittipaldi | 9th (7 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments<br />Ceramica Pagnossin Team MRD | Brabham BT37<br />Brabham BT42 | | Cosworth DFV | Carlos Reutemann<br />Wilson Fittipaldi<br />Andrea de Adamich<br />Rolf Stommelen<br />John Watson | 4th (49 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments | Brabham BT42<br />Brabham BT44 | | Cosworth DFV | Carlos Reutemann<br />Carlos Pace<br />Rikky von Opel<br />Richard Robarts<br />Teddy Pilette | 5th (35 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Martini Racing | Brabham BT44B | | Cosworth DFV | Carlos Reutemann<br />Carlos Pace | 2nd (54 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Martini Racing | Brabham BT45 | | Alfa Romeo 115-12 | Carlos Reutemann<br />Carlos Pace<br />Rolf Stommelen<br />Larry Perkins | 9th (9 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Martini Racing | Brabham BT45B | | Alfa Romeo 115-12 | Carlos Pace<br />John Watson<br />Hans-Joachim Stuck<br />Giorgio Francia | 5th (27 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Parmalat Racing Team | Brabham BT45C<br />Brabham BT46/B/C | | Alfa Romeo 115-12 | Niki Lauda<br />John Watson<br />Nelson Piquet | 3rd (53 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Parmalat Racing Team | Brabham BT46<br />Brabham BT48<br />Brabham BT49 | | Alfa Romeo 115-12<br />Alfa Romeo 1260<br />Cosworth DFV | Niki Lauda<br />Nelson Piquet<br />Ricardo Zunino | 8th (6 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Parmalat Racing Team | Brabham BT49/B | | Cosworth DFV | Nelson Piquet<br />Ricardo Zunino<br />Héctor Rebaque | 3rd (55 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Parmalat Racing Team | Brabham BT49/B/C | <br /> | Cosworth DFV | Nelson Piquet<br />Héctor Rebaque<br />Ricardo Zunino | 2nd (61 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Parmalat Racing Team | Brabham BT49D<br />Brabham BT50 | | Cosworth DFV<br />BMW M12/13 | Nelson Piquet<br />Riccardo Patrese | 5th (41 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Fila Sport | Brabham BT52/B | | BMW M12/13 | Nelson Piquet<br />Riccardo Patrese | 3rd (72 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | MRD International | Brabham BT53 | | BMW M12/13 | Nelson Piquet<br />Teo Fabi<br />Corrado Fabi<br />Manfred Winkelhock | 4th (38 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments Ltd | Brabham BT54 | | BMW M12/13 | Nelson Piquet<br />Marc Surer<br />François Hesnault | 5th (26 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments Ltd | Brabham BT54<br />Brabham BT55 | | BMW M12/13/1 | Elio de Angelis<br />Riccardo Patrese<br />Derek Warwick | 9th (2 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments Ltd | Brabham BT56 | | BMW M12/13/1 | Riccardo Patrese<br />Andrea de Cesaris<br />Stefano Modena | 8th (10 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments | Brabham BT58 | | Judd EV | Martin Brundle<br />Stefano Modena | 9th (8 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments | Brabham BT58<br />Brabham BT59 | | Judd EV | Stefano Modena<br />David Brabham<br />Gregor Foitek | 10th (2 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments Ltd | Brabham BT59Y<br />Brabham BT60Y | | Yamaha OX99 | Martin Brundle<br />Mark Blundell | 9th (3 pts) |- style="vertical-align: top" ! scope="row" | | Motor Racing Developments Ltd | Brabham BT60B | | Judd GV | Eric van de Poele<br />Giovanna Amati<br />Damon Hill | NC (0 pts) |} See also * List of Brabham racing cars Notes Footnotes References ;Books * * . * * * * * * * * * * * * ;Newspapers and magazines * * * * * ;Websites * * Also available in hardcopy. Published by HMSO July 1998. All race and championship results are taken from the Official Formula 1 Website. [http://www.formula1.com/results/season/1962/ 1962 Season review.] www.formula1.com. Retrieved 27 April 2006 Further reading * External links * [http://www.forix.com/8w/jbrabham.html www.forix.com] Biography of Jack Brabham, with significant content on the early years of the Brabham team. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070116130341/http://www.nvo.com/brabhams/pictures/ www.nvo.com] Picture gallery of historic Brabhams. * [http://www.motorracing-archive.com/pdfs/Brabham_Chassis.pdf www.motorracing-archive.com] Summary history of Brabham 1961–1972, including significant race results and production numbers for all models. (Archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20050115120539/http://www.motorracing-archive.com/pdfs/Brabham_Chassis.pdf here]). * [http://www.oldracingcars.com/marques/brabham www.oldracingcars.com] Complete race history of all Brabham F1 models from 1966 to 1982 and links to Brabham research projects on other models. * [http://www.f3history.co.uk/ www.f3history.co.uk] History of Formula Three, including Brabham (under 'Manufacturers'). (Archived [https://web.archive.org/web/20051216113158/http://f3history.co.uk/Manufacturers/Brabham/brabham.htm here]) * Complete world championship Brabham team statistics –}} Category:British auto racing teams Category:British racecar constructors Category:Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England Category:Formula One constructors Category:Formula Two constructors Category:Formula One entrants Category:Formula Two entrants Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1960 Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1992 Category:1960 establishments in England Category:1992 disestablishments in England Category:Auto racing teams established in 1960 Category:Auto racing teams disestablished in 1992 Category:Formula One World Constructors' Champions Category:British Formula Three teams Category:Formula Three constructors
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brabham
2025-04-05T18:27:02.253347
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Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress
<!-- This article is a part of Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft. Please see Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout. --> |developed_into = Boeing 307 Stratoliner }} The Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress is an American four-engined heavy bomber aircraft developed in the 1930s for the United States Army Air Corps (USAAC). A fast and high-flying bomber, the B-17 dropped more bombs than any other aircraft during World War II, used primarily in the European Theater of Operations. It is the third-most produced bomber of all time, behind the American four-engined Consolidated B-24 Liberator and the German multirole, twin-engined Junkers Ju 88. The B-17 was also employed in transport, anti-submarine warfare, and search and rescue roles. In a USAAC competition, Boeing's prototype Model 299/XB-17 outperformed two other entries but crashed, losing the initial 200-bomber contract to the Douglas B-18 Bolo. Still, the Air Corps ordered 13 more B-17s for further evaluation, which were introduced into service in 1938. The B-17 evolved through numerous design advances but from its inception, the USAAC (from 1941 the United States Army Air Forces, USAAF) promoted the aircraft as a strategic weapon. It was a relatively fast, high-flying, long-range bomber with heavy defensive armament at the expense of bomb load. It also developed a reputation for toughness based upon stories and photos of badly damaged B-17s safely returning to base. The B-17 saw early action in the Pacific War, where it conducted air raids against Japanese shipping and airfields. But it was primarily employed by the USAAF in the daylight component of the Allied strategic bombing campaign over Europe, complementing RAF Bomber Command's night bombers in attacking German industrial, military and civilian targets. About 50 survive in storage or are on static display, the oldest of which is The Swoose, a B-17D which was flown in combat in the Pacific on the first day of the United States' involvement in World War II. There are also several reasonably complete wrecks, such as underwater, that have been found. B-17 survivors gained national attention in 2022 in the United States, when one was destroyed in a fatal mid-air collision with another warbird at an airshow. Development Origins On 8 August 1934, the USAAC tendered a proposal for a multiengine bomber to replace the Martin B-10. The Air Corps was looking for a bomber capable of reinforcing the air forces in Hawaii, Panama, and Alaska. The most distinctive mount was in the nose, which allowed the single machine gun to be fired toward nearly all frontal angles. Boeing was quick to see the value of the name and had it trademarked for use. Boeing also claimed in some of the early press releases that Model 299 was the first combat aircraft that could continue its mission if one of its four engines failed. On , the prototype flew from Seattle to Wright Field in nine hours and three minutes with an average ground speed of , much faster than the competition. Their opinions were shared by the air corps procurement officers, and even before the competition had finished, they suggested buying 65 B-17s. Doyle notes, "The loss of Hill and Tower, and the Model 299, was directly responsible for the creation of the modern written checklist used by pilots to this day." Initial orders plant in Long Beach, California, October 1942]] Despite the crash, the USAAC had been impressed by the prototype's performance, and on 1936, through a legal loophole,}} In one of their first missions, three B-17s, directed by lead navigator Lieutenant Curtis LeMay, were sent by General Andrews to "intercept" and photograph the Italian ocean liner Rex off the Atlantic coast. Scheduled to fly in 1937, it encountered problems with the turbochargers, and its first flight was delayed until 1938. Opposition to the Air Corps' ambitions for the acquisition of more B-17s faded, and in late 1937, 10 more aircraft designated B-17B were ordered to equip two bombardment groups, one on each U.S. coast. This production rate was, however, surpassed by that of the Consolidated B-24 Liberator: at its peak in 1944, the Willow Run plant alone produced one B-24 per hour and 650 B-24s per month.<!--end NoteTag-->}} The aircraft went on to serve in every World War II combat zone, and by the time production ended in May 1945, 12,731 B-17s had been built by Boeing, Douglas, and Vega (a subsidiary of Lockheed). {{blockquote|Though the crash of the prototype 299 in 1935 had almost wiped out Boeing, now it was seen as a boon. Instead of building models based on experimental engineering, Boeing had been hard at work developing their bomber and now had versions ready for production far better than would have been possible otherwise. One of the most significant weapons of World War II would be ready, but only by a hair.|Jeff Ethell, 1985 |} The aircraft went through several alterations in each of its design stages and variants. Of the 13 YB-17s ordered for service testing, 12 were used by the 2nd Bomb Group at Langley Field, Virginia, to develop heavy bombing techniques, and the 13th was used for flight testing at the Material Division at Wright Field, Ohio.}} the nose (especially the bombardier's framed, 10-panel nose glazing) remained relatively the same as the earlier B through D versions had; a Sperry electrically powered manned dorsal gun turret just behind the cockpit was added; a similarly powered (also built by Sperry) manned ventral ball turret just aft of the bomb bay – replaced the relatively hard-to-use, Sperry model 645705-D remotely operated ventral turret on the earliest examples of the E variant. These modifications resulted in a 20% increase in aircraft weight. By the time the definitive B-17G appeared, the number of guns had been increased from seven to 13, the designs of the gun stations were finalized, and other adjustments were completed. The B-17G was the final version of the Flying Fortress, incorporating all changes made to its predecessor, the B-17F, Operational history The B-17 began operations in World War II with the Royal Air Force (RAF) in 1941, and in the Southwest Pacific with the U.S. Army. During World War II, the B-17 equipped 32 overseas combat groups, inventory peaking in August 1944 at 4,574 USAAF aircraft worldwide. respectively. RAF use AN529, with He 111H-style "bathtub" ventral gondola]] The RAF entered World War II without a sufficient supply of modern heavy bombers, with the largest available long-range medium bombers in any numbers being the Vickers Wellington, which could carry of bombs. While the Short Stirling and Handley Page Halifax became its primary bombers by 1941, in early 1940, the RAF agreed with the U.S. Army Air Corps to acquire 20 B-17Cs, which were given the service name Fortress Mk.I. Their first operation, against Wilhelmshaven on 1941 was unsuccessful. By September, the RAF had lost eight B-17Cs in combat and had experienced numerous mechanical problems, and Bomber Command abandoned daylight bombing raids using the Fortress I because of the aircraft's poor performance. The experience showed both the RAF and USAAF that the B-17C was not ready for combat, and that improved defenses, larger bomb loads, and more accurate bombing methods were required. However, the USAAF continued using the B-17 as a day bomber, despite misgivings by the RAF that attempts at daylight bombing would be ineffective. Initial USAAF operations over Europe The air corps – renamed United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 20 June 1941 – used the B-17 and other bombers to bomb from high altitudes with the aid of the then-secret Norden bombsight, known as the "Blue Ox", which was an optical electromechanical gyrostabilized analog computer. The device was able to determine, from variables put in by the bombardier, the point at which the bombs should be released to hit the target. The bombardier essentially took over flight control of the aircraft during the bomb run, maintaining a level altitude during the final moments before release. Two additional groups arrived in Britain at the same time, bringing with them the first B-17Fs, which served as the primary AAF heavy bomber fighting the Germans until September 1943. As the raids of the American bombing campaign grew in numbers and frequency, German interception efforts grew in strength (such as during the attempted bombing of Kiel on 13 June 1943 Operation Pointblank opened with attacks on targets in Western Europe. General Ira C. Eaker and the Eighth Air Force placed highest priority on attacks on the German aircraft industry, especially fighter assembly plants, engine factories, and ball-bearing manufacturers. Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the B-17 aircrew were promptly engaged and shot down by three Lightnings, though these were also then lost. The allied fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed, while the B-17 crews claimed five more. Actual Japanese fighter losses for the day were seven destroyed and three damaged. At their peak, 168 B-17 bombers were in the Pacific theater in September 1942, but already in mid-1942 Gen. Arnold had decided that the B-17 was unsuitable for the kind of operations required in the Pacific and made plans to replace all of the B-17s in the theater with B-24s (and later, B-29s) as soon as they became available. Although the conversion was not complete until mid-1943, B-17 combat operations in the Pacific theater came to an end after a little over a year. Surviving aircraft were reassigned to the 54th Troop Carrier Wing's special airdrop section and were used to drop supplies to ground forces operating in close contact with the enemy. Special airdrop B-17s supported Australian commandos operating near the Japanese stronghold at Rabaul, which had been the primary B-17 target in 1942 and early 1943. B-17s were still used in the Pacific later in the war, however, mainly in the combat search and rescue role. A number of B-17Gs, redesignated B-17Hs and later SB-17Gs, were used in the Pacific during the final year of the war to carry and drop lifeboats to stranded bomber crews who had been shot down or crashed at sea. These aircraft were nicknamed Dumbos, and remained in service for many years after the end of World War II. Bomber defense over Merseburg, Germany]] Before the advent of long-range fighter escorts, B-17s had only their .50 caliber M2 Browning machine guns to rely on for defense during the bombing runs over Europe. As the war intensified, Boeing used feedback from aircrews to improve each new variant with increased armament and armor. Luftwaffe fighter pilots likened attacking a B-17 combat box formation to encountering a fliegendes Stachelschwein, "flying porcupine", with dozens of machine guns in a combat box aimed at them from almost every direction. However, the use of this rigid formation meant that individual aircraft could not engage in evasive maneuvers: they had to fly constantly in a straight line, which made them vulnerable to German flak. Moreover, German fighter aircraft later developed the tactic of high-speed strafing passes rather than engaging with individual aircraft to inflict damage with minimum risk. The B-17 was noted for its ability to absorb battle damage, still reach its target and bring its crew home safely. Luftwaffe attacks , Germany, on 1944; the bombardier was killed.]] After examining wrecked B-17s and B-24s, Luftwaffe officers discovered that on average it took about 20 hits with 20 mm shells fired from the rear to bring them down.]] During World War II approximately 40 B-17s were captured and refurbished by Germany after crash-landing or being forced down, with about a dozen put back into the air. Given German Balkenkreuz national markings on their wings and fuselage sides, and swastika tail fin–flashes, the captured B-17s were used to determine the B-17's vulnerabilities and to train German interceptor pilots in attack tactics. According to these allegations, the practice was initially successful, but Army Air Forces combat aircrews quickly developed and established standard procedures to first warn off, and then fire upon any "stranger" trying to join a group's formation. but they never saw combat. In 1946 (or 1947, according to Holm), the regiment was assigned to the Kazan factory (moving from Baranovichi) to help the Soviet effort to reproduce the more advanced Boeing B-29 as the Tupolev Tu-4. Swiss-interned B-17s During the Allied bomber offensive, some US and British bombers landed in Switzerland and were interned. Some had been damaged and were unable to get back to Allied bases. Others flew into Swiss airspace due to navigation errors, and on rare occasions, accidentally bombed Swiss cities. Swiss fighter aircraft intercepted such aircraft and sought to force them to land. In October 1943, a B-17F-25-VE (tail number 25841) developed engine trouble after a raid over Germany and was forced to land in Switzerland. The plane and its US flight crew were interned. The aircraft was turned over to the Swiss Air Force, which flew the bomber until the end of the war, using other interned but non-airworthy B-17s for spare parts. The bomber's topside surfaces were repainted a dark olive drab, but it retained its light gray underwing and lower fuselage surfaces. It carried the Swiss national white cross insignia in red squares on the topside and underside of its wings, and on both sides of its rudder and its fuselage, with the light gray flash letters "RD" and "I" on either side of the fuselage insignias. Japanese-captured B-17s In 1942, Japanese technicians and mechanics rebuilt three damaged B-17s, one "D" and two "E" series, using parts salvaged from abandoned B-17 wrecks in the Philippines and the Java East Indies. The three bombers, which still contained their top-secret Norden bombsights, were ferried to Japan where they underwent extensive technical evaluation by the Giken, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force's Air Technical Research Institute (Koku Gijutsu Kenkyujo) at Tachikawa's air field. The "D" model, later deemed an obsolescent design, was used in Japanese training and propaganda films. The two "E"s were used to develop air combat tactics for use against B-17s; they were also used as enemy aircraft in pilot and crew training films. One of the two "E"s was photographed late in the war by US aerial recon. It was code-named "Tachikawa 105" after the mystery aircraft's wingspan () but not correctly identified as a captured B-17 until after the war. No traces of the three captured Flying Fortresses were ever found in Japan by Allied occupation forces. The bombers were assumed either lost by various means or scrapped late in the war for their vital war materials. In 1946, surplus B-17s were chosen as drone aircraft for atmospheric sampling during the Operation Crossroads atomic bomb tests, being able to fly close to or even through the mushroom clouds without endangering a crew. This led to more widespread conversion of B-17s as drones and drone control aircraft, both for further use in atomic testing and as targets for testing surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles. Perhaps the most famous B-17, the Memphis Belle, has been restored – with the B-17D The Swoose under way – to her World War II wartime appearance by the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. In 1957 the surviving B-17s had been stripped of all weapons and painted black. One of these Taiwan-based B-17s was flown to Clark Air Base in the Philippines in mid-September, assigned for covert missions into Tibet. On 28 May 1962, N809Z, piloted by Connie Seigrist and Douglas Price, flew Major James Smith, USAF and Lieutenant Leonard A. LeSchack, USNR to the abandoned Soviet arctic ice station NP 8, as Operation Coldfeet. Smith and LeSchack parachuted from the B-17 and searched the station for several days. On 1 June, Seigrist and Price returned and picked up Smith and LeSchack using a Fulton Skyhook system installed on the B-17. N809Z was used to perform a Skyhook pick up in the James Bond movie Thunderball in 1965. This aircraft, now restored to its original B-17G configuration, was on display in the Evergreen Aviation & Space Museum in McMinnville, Oregon until it was sold to the Collings Foundation in 2015. Operators poses with their plane. The nose art on the bomber reads "Polar Star" (referring to the star (Polaris) in Russian.]] The B-17, a versatile aircraft, served in dozens of USAAF units in theaters of combat throughout World War II, and in other roles for the RAF. Its main use was in Europe, where its shorter range and smaller bombload relative to other aircraft did not hamper it as much as in the Pacific Theater. Peak USAAF inventory (in August 1944) was 4,574 worldwide. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Surviving aircraft and wrecks Of the more than 12,000 B-17 made, four were known to be in flying as of January 2025. and overall about 46 globally. There are also nearly complete or partially complete B-17 wrecks that have been discovered: an example of this is a B-17F that ditched in the Pacific on 11 July 1943, but was located in 1986. Fortresses as a symbol The B-17 Flying Fortress became symbolic of the United States of America's air power. In a 1943 Consolidated Aircraft poll of 2,500 men in cities where Consolidated advertisements had been run in newspapers, 73% had heard of the B-24 and 90% knew of the B-17. During the war, the largest offensive bombing force, the Eighth Air Force, had an open preference for the B-17. Lieutenant General Jimmy Doolittle wrote about his preference for equipping the Eighth with B-17s, citing the logistical advantage in keeping field forces down to a minimum number of aircraft types with their individual servicing and spares. For this reason, he wanted B-17 bombers and P-51 fighters for the Eighth. His views were supported by Eighth Air Force statisticians, whose mission studies showed that the Flying Fortress's utility and survivability was much greater than those of the B-24 Liberator. a survey of Eighth Air Force crews showed a much higher rate of satisfaction with the B-17. * All American – This B-17F survived having its tail almost cut off in a mid-air collision with a Bf 109 over Tunisia but returned safely to base in Algeria. * Snap! Crackle! Pop! – B-17F-27-BO, 41-24620, part of the 360th Bomb Squadron, 303rd Bomb Group, was on a daylight bombing run over Saint-Nazaire, France when downed by flak. The ball turret gunner, Alan Magee, his parachute damaged and unusable, free fell from 22,000 feet, survived and became a POW. * Chief Seattle – sponsored by the city of Seattle, she disappeared (MIA) on 14 August 1942 flying a recon mission for the 19th BG, 435th BS and the crew declared dead on 7 December 1945. * Hell's Kitchen'' – B-17F 41-24392 was one of only three early B-17F's in 414th BS to complete more than 100 combat missions. * Mary Ann – a fictional B-17D that was part of an unarmed flight which left Hamilton Air Field, Novato, California on 6 December 1941 en route to Hickam Field in Hawaii, arriving during the attack on Pearl Harbor. The plane and its crew were immediately forced into action on Wake Island and in the Philippines during the outbreak of World War II. The aircraft became famous when its fictional exploits were featured in Air Force, one of the first of the patriotic war films released in 1943. * Memphis Belle – one of the first B-17s to complete a tour of duty of 25 missions in the 8th Air Force and the subject of a feature film, now completely restored and on display since 17 May 2018 at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. * Milk Wagon - B-17G. Over the course of its tour of duty, Milk Wagon set a record in the 3rd Division, possibly the war, for 129 missions without aborting for mechanical failure. * ''Miss Every Morning Fix'n'' – B-17C. Previously named 'Pamela'. Stationed in Mackay, Queensland, Australia during World War II. On 14 June 1943, crashed shortly after takeoff from Mackay while ferrying U.S. forces personnel back to Port Moresby, with 40 of the 41 people on board killed. It remains the worst air disaster in Australian history. The sole survivor, Foye Roberts, married an Australian and returned to the States. He died in Wichita Falls, Texas, on 4 February 2004. * Murder Inc. – A B-17 bombardier wearing the name of the B-17 "Murder Inc." on his jacket was used for propaganda in German newspapers. * Old 666 – B-17E flown by the most highly decorated crew in the Pacific Theater * Royal Flush – B-17F 42-6087 from the 100th Bomb Group and commanded on one mission by highly decorated USAAF officer Robert Rosenthal, she was the lone surviving 100th BG B-17 of 10 October 1943 raid against Münster to return to the unit's base at RAF Thorpe Abbotts. * Sir Baboon McGoon – B-17F featured in the June 1944 issue of Popular Science magazine and the 1945 issue of Flying magazine. Articles discuss mobile recovery crews following October 1943 belly landing at Tannington, England. * The Swoose – Initially nicknamed Ole Betsy while in service, The Swoose is the only remaining intact B-17D, built in 1940, the oldest surviving Flying Fortress, and the only surviving B-17 to have seen action in the Philippines campaign (1941–1942); she is in the collection of the National Air and Space Museum and is being restored for final display at the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. The Swoose was flown by Frank Kurtz, father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, who named his daughter after the bomber. * Ye Olde Pub – A highly damaged B-17 piloted by Charlie Brown that was not shot down by Franz Stigler, as memorialized in the painting A Higher Call by John D. Shaw. * 5 Grand – 5,000th B-17 made, emblazoned with Boeing employee signatures, served with the 333rd Bomb Squadron, 96th Bomb Group in Europe. Damaged and repaired after gear-up landing, transferred to 388th Bomb Group. Returned from duty following V-E Day, flown for war bonds tour, then stored at Kingman, Arizona. Following an unsuccessful bid for museum preservation, the aircraft was scrapped. Accidents and incidents ) ]] Most of the losses were during WWII, however because of the Warbird flights there have been losses in the 2020s as well. Noted B-17 pilots and crew members receiving Medal of Honor from Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson]] receiving Medal of Honor from President Roosevelt]] , pilot and Betty (Huyler) Gillies, co-pilot, the first women to fly the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress heavy bomber for the WASP * 2nd Lt Robert Femoyer (navigator) – awarded posthumously * 1st Lt Donald J. Gott (pilot) – awarded posthumously * 2nd Lt David R. Kingsley (bombardier) – awarded posthumously for tending to injured crew and giving up his parachute to another * 1st Lt William R. Lawley Jr. – "heroism and exceptional flying skill" * Sgt Archibald Mathies (engineer-gunner) – awarded posthumously * 1st Lt Jack W. Mathis (bombardier) – posthumously, the first airman in the European theater to be awarded the Medal of Honor * 2nd Lt William E. Metzger Jr. (co-pilot) – awarded posthumously * 1st Lt John C. Morgan * Capt Harl Pease (awarded posthumously) * 2nd Lt Joseph Sarnoski (awarded posthumously) * S/Sgt Maynard H. Smith (gunner) * 1st Lt Walter E. Truemper (awarded posthumously) * Brigadier General Kenneth Walker Commanding officer of V Bomber Command, killed while leading small force in raid on Rabaul – awarded posthumously * Maj Jay Zeamer Jr. (pilot) – earned on unescorted reconnaissance mission in Pacific, same mission as Sarnoski Other military achievements or events * Lincoln Broyhill (1925–2008), tail-gunner on a B-17 in the 483rd Bombardment Group. He received a Distinguished Unit Citation and set two individual records in a single day: (1) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner in one mission (two), and (2) most German jets destroyed by a single gunner during the entirety of World War II. * Allison C. Brooks (1917–2006), a B-17 pilot who was awarded numerous military decorations and was ultimately promoted to the rank of major general and served in active duty until 1971. * 1st Lt Eugene Emond (1921–1998): Lead pilot for Man O War II Horsepower Limited. Received the Distinguished Flying Cross, Air Medal with three oak leaf clusters, American Theater Ribbon and Victory Ribbon. Was part of D-Day and witnessed one of the first German jets when a Me 262A-1a flew through his formation over Germany. One of the youngest bomber pilots in the U.S. Army Air Forces. * Immanuel J. Klette (1918–1988): Second-generation German-American whose 91 combat missions were the most flown by any Eighth Air Force pilot in World War II. * Capt Colin Kelly (1915–1941): Pilot of the first U.S. B-17 lost in action. * Col Frank Kurtz (1911–1996): The USAAF's most decorated pilot of World War II. Commander of the 463rd Bombardment Group (Heavy), 15th Air Force, Celone Field, Foggia, Italy. Clark Field Philippines attack survivor. Olympic bronze medalist in diving (1932), 1944–1945. Father of actress Swoosie Kurtz, herself named for the still-surviving B-17D mentioned above. * Gen Curtis LeMay (1906–1990): Became head of the Strategic Air Command and Chief of Staff of the USAF. * Lt Col Nancy Love (1914–1976) and Betty (Huyler) Gillies (1908–1998): The first women pilots to be certified to fly the B-17, in 1943 and to qualify for the Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron. on 3 February 1945, that is likely to have ended the life of Roland Freisler, the infamous "hanging judge" of the People's Court.Specifications (B-17G) s section "B-17" depict the nature of these missions. The Ball turret itself has inspired works like Steven Spielberg's The Mission. Artists who served on the bomber units also created paintings and drawings depicting the combat conditions in World War II. Masters of the Air, a 2024 American war drama television miniseries created by John Shiban and John Orloff, based on the 2007 book ''Masters of the Air: America's Bomber Boys Who Fought the Air War Against Nazi Germany'' by Donald L. Miller, follows the actions of the 100th Bomb Group, a B-17 unit in eastern England during World War II. See also . When testing concluded, the aircraft was restored to stock configuration as the "Liberty Belle", but was lost in a post-forced-landing fire near Oswego, Illinois, on 13 June 2011.]] Notes References Sources * Andrews, C.F. and E.B. Morgan. Vickers Aircraft since 1908. London: Putnam, 1988. . * Angelucci, Enzo and Paolo Matricardi. Combat Aircraft of World War II, 1940–1941. Westoning, Bedfordshire, UK: Military Press, 1988. . * Arakaki, Leatrice R. and John R. Kuborn. 1941: The Air Force Story. Hickam Air Force Base, Hawaii: Pacific Air Forces, Office of History, 1991. . * Birdsall, Steve. The B-24 Liberator. New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc., 1968. . * Bowers, Peter M. Boeing Aircraft Since 1916. London: Putnam, 1989. . * Borth, Christy. Masters of Mass Production. Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1945. . * Bowers, Peter M. Fortress in the Sky, Granada Hills, California: Sentry Books, 1976. . * Bowman, Martin W. Castles in the Air: The Story of the B-17 Flying Fortress Crews of the U.S. 8th Air Force. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2000, . * * Caidin, Martin. Black Thursday. New York: E.P. Dutton & Company, 1960. . * Caldwell, Donald and Richard Muller. The Luftwaffe over Germany: Defense of the Reich. London: Greenhill Books Publications, 2007. . * Carey, Brian Todd. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930220839/http://www.historynet.com/air_sea/airborne_operations/3026416.html?page4&cy "Operation Pointblank: Evolution of Allied Air Doctrine During World War II".] historynet.com, 12 June 2006. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141019054733/http://www.historynet.com/operation-pointblank-evolution-of-allied-air-doctrine-during-world-war-ii.htm archived version 19 October 2014]. * Chant, Christopher. Warplanes of the 20th century. London: Tiger Books International, 1996. . * Cora, Paul B. Diamondbacks Over Europe: B-17s of the 99th Bomb Group, Part Two. Air Enthusiast 111, May/June 2004, pp. 66–73. * Craven, Wesley Frank, James Lea Cate and Richard L. Watson, eds. [http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/AAF/IV/index.html "The Battle of the Bismarck Sea", pp. 129–62; The Pacific: Guadalcanal to Saipan, August 1942 to July 1944 (The Army Air Forces in World War II, Volume IV.] Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950. * Donald, David, ed. American Warplanes of World War Two. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1995. . * Donald, David. "Boeing Model 299 (B-17 Flying Fortress)." The Encyclopedia of World Aircraft. Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada: Prospero Books, 1997. . * Francillon, René J. McDonnell Douglas Aircraft since 1920. London: Putnam, 1979. . * Francillon, René J. Lockheed Aircraft since 1913. London: Putnam, 1982. . * Freeman, Roger A. B-17 Fortress at War. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1977. . * * Gamble, Bruce. Fortress Rabaul: The Battle for the Southwest Pacific, January 1942 – April 1943. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2010. . * * Gillison, Douglas. [https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/RCDIG1070209/ Australia in the War of 1939–1945: Series 3 – Air, Volume 1.] Canberra, Australia: Australian War Memorial, 1962. . * Gordon, Yefim. Soviet Air Power in World War 2. Hinckley, Lancashire, UK: Midland, Ian Allan Publishing, 2008. . * Herman, Arthur. ''Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II New York: Random House, 2012. . * Hess, William N. B-17 Flying Fortress: Combat and Development History of the Flying Fortress. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbook International, 1994. . * Hess, William N. B-17 Flying Fortress Units of the MTO. Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing Limited, 2003. . * Hess, William N. Big Bombers of WWII. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Lowe & B. Hould, 1998. . * Hess, William N. and Jim Winchester. "Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress: Queen of the Skies". Wings of Fame. Volume 6, 1997, pp. 38–103. London: Aerospace Publishing. . . * Hoffman, Wally and Philippe Rouyer. La guerre à 30 000 pieds[Available only in French]. Louviers, France: Ysec Editions, 2008. . * Jacobson, Capt. Richard S., ed. Moresby to Manila Via Troop Carrier: True Story of 54th Troop Carrier Wing, the Third Tactical Arm of the U.S. Army, Air Forces in the Southwest Pacific. Sydney, Australia: Angus and Robertson, 1945. * Johnsen, Frederick A. [http://www.airforce-magazine.com/MagazineArchive/Pages/2006/October%202006/1006bomber.aspx "The Making of an Iconic Bomber"]. Air Force Magazine, Volume 89, Issue 10, October 2006. Retrieved: 2012. * Knaack, Marcelle Size. Encyclopedia of U.S. Air Force Aircraft and Missile Systems: Volume II: Post-World War II Bombers, 1945–1973''. Washington, D.C.: Office of Air Force History, 1988. . * * *Listemann, Phil H. Allied Wings No. 7, Boeing Fortress Mk. I. www.raf-in-combat.com, 2009. First edition. . * Maurer, Maurer. Aviation in the U.S. Army, 1919–1939. Washington, D.C.: United States Air Force Historical Research Center, Office of Air Force History, 1987, pp. 406–08. . * * Parker, Dana T. Building Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II. Cypress, California, Dana Parker Enterprises, 2013. . * Parshall, Jonathon and Anthony Tulley. Shattered Sword: The Untold Story of the Battle of Midway. Dulles, Virginia: Potomac Books, 2005. . * Ramsey, Winston G. The V-Weapons. London, United Kingdom: After The Battle, Number 6, 1974. * Roberts, Michael D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080915133000/http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/dictvol2.htm Dictionary of American Naval Aviation Squadrons: Volume 2: The History of VP, VPB, VP(HL) and VP(AM) Squadrons]. Washington, D.C.: Naval Historical Center, 2000. * Sakai, Saburo with Martin Caidin and Fred Saito. Samurai!. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 1996. . * Salecker, Gene Eric. Fortress Against The Sun: The B-17 Flying Fortress in the Pacific. Conshohocken, Pennsylvania: Combined Publishing, 2001. . * Serling, Robert J. Legend & Legacy: The Story of Boeing and its People. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. . * Shores, Christopher, Brian Cull and Yasuho Izawa. Bloody Shambles: Volume One: The Drift to War to The Fall of Singapore. London: Grub Street, 1992. . * Stitt, Robert M. Boeing B-17 Fortress in RAF Coastal Command Service. Sandomierz, Poland: STRATUS sp.j., 2010 (second edition 2019). . * Swanborough, F. G. and Peter M. Bowers. United States Military aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, 1963. * Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, Second edition, 1976. . * Tate, James P. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pZyLTfJFaEgC The Army and its Air Corps: Army Policy toward Aviation 1919–1941]. Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama: Air University Press, 1998. . Retrieved: 1 August 2008. * Trescott, Jacqueline. "Smithsonian Panel Backs Transfer of Famed B-17 Bomber." The Washington Post Volume 130, Issue 333, 3 November 2007. * Weigley, Russell Frank. The American Way of War: A History of United States Military Strategy and Policy. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1977. . * Wixley, Ken. "Boeing's Battle Wagon: The B-17 Flying Fortress – An Outline History". Air Enthusiast, No. 78, November/December 1998, pp. 20–33. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. . * Wynn, Kenneth G. U-boat Operations of the Second World War: Career Histories, U511-UIT25. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1998. . * Yenne, Bill. B-17 at War. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2006. . * Yenne, Bill. The Story of the Boeing Company. St. Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2005. . * ; originally issued as an academic thesis . Further reading * Birdsall, Steve. The B-17 Flying Fortress. Dallas, Texas: Morgan Aviation Books, 1965. . * * * Davis, Larry. B-17 in Action. Carrollton, Texas: Squadron/Signal Publications, 1984. . * Jablonski, Edward. Flying Fortress. New York: Doubleday, 1965. . * Johnsen, Frederick A. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress. Stillwater, Minnesota: Voyageur Press, 2001. . * Gansz, David M. B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 4 January 1944 – 26 February 1944 B-17G-35 to G-45 42-31932 – 42-32116 and 42-97058 – 42-97407. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2020. . * Gansz, David M. B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 26 February 1944 – 25 April 1944 B-17G-50 to G-60 42-102379 – 42-102978. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2013. . * Gansz, David M. B-17 Production – Boeing Aircraft: 25 April 1944 – 22 June 1944 B-17G-65 to G-75 43-37509 – 43-38073. New Jersey: First Mountain Belgians, 2017. . * Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 11: Derivatives, Part 2. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1983. . * Lloyd, Alwyn T. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 20: More derivatives, Part 3. Blue Ridge Summit, Pennsylvania: Tab Books, 1986. . * Lloyd, Alwyn T. and Terry D. Moore. B-17 Flying Fortress in Detail and Scale, Vol. 1: Production Versions, Part 1. Fallbrook, California: Aero Publishers, 1981. . * O'Leary, Michael. Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress (Osprey Production Line to Frontline 2). Botley, Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1999. . * * Thompson, Scott A. Final Cut: The Post War B-17 Flying Fortress, The Survivors: Revised and Updated Edition. Highland County, Ohio: Pictorial Histories Publishing Company, 2000. . * Wagner, Ray, American Combat Planes of the 20th Century, Reno, Nevada, 2004, Jack Bacon & Company, . * Willmott, H.P. B-17 Flying Fortress. London: Bison Books, 1980. . * Wisker Thomas J. "Talkback". Air Enthusiast, No. 10, July–September 1979, p. 79. External links * B-17 manuals from [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/ The Museum of Flight Digital Collections] ** [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/items/show/46675 Pilot's flight operating instructions for the B-17F airplane] ** [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/items/show/46676 Pilot training manual for the Flying Fortress, B-17] ** [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/items/show/46312 Flight manual : Y1B-17 bombardment plane] ** [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/items/show/46310 Flight manual B-17E bombardment airplane] ** [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/items/show/49864 Boeing model B-17G bombardment airplane : The Flying Fortress field service manual] ** [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/items/show/49859 Boeing model B-17F bombardment airplane field service manual] ** [https://digitalcollections.museumofflight.org/items/show/61619 Familiarization and inspection manual for the B-17F Flying Fortress manufactured by Boeing Aircraft Company - Seattle, Washington] <!-- | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. Wikipedia | | is not a collection of links nor should it be used for advertising. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page, or submit your link | | to the relevant category at the Open Directory Project (dmoz.org) | | and link back to that category using the template. | =--> B-17 Flying Fortress Category:1930s United States bomber aircraft Category:Four-engined tractor aircraft Category:Low-wing aircraft Category:Aircraft first flown in 1935 Category:Four-engined piston aircraft Category:Aircraft with retractable conventional landing gear
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_B-17_Flying_Fortress
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Trieste (bathyscaphe)
{| |Ship name= Trieste |Ship ordered|Ship awarded |Ship builder= Acciaierie Terni/Cantieri Riuniti dell'Adriatico |Ship original cost|Ship laid down |Ship launched1 August 1953 |Ship completed|Ship acquired |Ship in service|Ship out of service |Ship refit|Ship homeport |Ship identification|Ship nickname |Ship fate= Sold to the United States Navy, 1958 |Ship notes= }} |Ship name= Trieste |Ship acquired=1958 |Ship commissioned|Ship recommissioned |Ship decommissioned=1966 |Ship in service|Ship out of service |Ship renamed|Ship reclassifiedDSV-0, 1 June 1971 |Ship refit|Ship struck |Ship reinstated|Ship homeport |Ship identification|Ship nickname |Ship fate|Ship statusPreserved as an exhibit in the U.S. Navy Museum |Ship notes|Ship badge }} |Ship length |Ship beam |Ship height|Ship draft |Ship power|Ship propulsion |Ship speed|Ship range |Ship endurance|Ship test depth |Ship complement=Two |Ship sensors|Ship armor |Ship notes= }} |} Trieste is a Swiss-designed, Italian-built deep-diving research bathyscaphe. In 1960, it became the first crewed vessel to reach the bottom of Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, the deepest point in Earth's seabed. The mission was the final goal for Project Nekton, a series of dives conducted by the United States Navy in the Pacific Ocean near Guam. The vessel was piloted by Swiss oceanographer Jacques Piccard and US Navy lieutenant Don Walsh. They reached a depth of about . The bathyscaphe was designed by Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard, the father of pilot Jacques Piccard. It was built in Italy and first launched in 1953. The vessel was first owned and operated by the French Navy until it was purchased by the US Navy in 1958. It was taken out of service in 1966. Since the 1980s, it has been on exhibit in the National Museum of the United States Navy in Washington, D.C. Design Trieste was designed by the Swiss scientist Auguste Piccard, based on his previous experience with the bathyscaphe FNRS-2. The term bathyscaphe refers to its capacity to dive and manoeuvre untethered to a ship in contrast to a bathysphere, bathys being ancient Greek meaning "deep" and scaphe being a light, bowl-shaped boat. Built in Italy and launched on 26 August 1953 near the Isle of Capri on the Mediterranean Sea it was operated in the Mediterranean by the French Navy for several years until it was purchased by the United States Navy in 1958 for US$250,000, equivalent to $ million today. Trieste consisted of a heavy crew sphere suspended from a hull containing tanks filled with gasoline (petrol) for buoyancy, ballast hoppers filled with iron shot and floodable water tanks to sink. This pressure sphere was replaced in December 1958 with another cast by the Krupp Steel Works of Essen, Germany in three sections; an equatorial ring and two caps, which were finely machined and joined by the Ateliers de Constructions Mécaniques de Vevey. The new sphere was also steel, but smaller at diameter and with thicker walls, at , Outside observations by the crew were made through a porthole made from a single, tapered block of acrylic glass; the only transparent material available that could withstand the pressure. Outside illumination was by quartz arc-light bulbs, which could withstand the pressure without modification. The buoyancy tanks were filled with gasoline, which floats in water and is similarly incompressible. Changes in the volume of the gasoline caused by any slight compression or temperature changes were accommodated by the free flow of seawater into and out of the bottom of the tanks during a dive via valves, equalising the pressure and allowing them to be lightly built.<br> Ballast was held in two conical hoppers fore and aft of the crew sphere each containing of iron shot. This shot ballast allowed the craft to sink, and its release caused it to ascend. The iron shot was locked in place at the throats of the hoppers by electromagnets thus was released either by switching the electromagnets off or automatically in the event of an electrical failure. Progressive release allowed buoyancy trim. Compressed-air–driven variable-buoyancy pressure vessels typically used in submarines are not feasible at extreme pressure.<br> Water tanks at each end of the hull were pumped out for flotation, lifting, and towing on the surface and fully flooded to allow sinking.<br> Following its acquisition by the United States Navy, Trieste was modified extensively by the Naval Electronics Laboratory, San Diego, California, tested in the Pacific Ocean over the next few years, and culminated in a dive to the bottom of Challenger Deep 23 January 1960.The Mariana Trench dives ]] Trieste departed San Diego on 5 October 1959 for Guam aboard the freighter Santa Maria to participate in Project Nekton, a series of very deep dives in the Mariana Trench. On 23 January 1960, it reached the ocean floor in the Challenger Deep (the deepest southern part of the Mariana Trench), carrying Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh. This was the first time a vessel, crewed or uncrewed, had reached the deepest known point of the Earth's oceans. The onboard systems indicated a depth of , although this was revised later to ; fairly recently, more accurate measurements have found Challenger Deep to be between and deep. The descent to the ocean floor took 4 hours 47 minutes at a descent rate of . After passing , one of the outer Plexiglas window panes cracked, shaking the entire vessel. The two men spent twenty minutes on the ocean floor. The temperature in the cabin was 7 °C (45 °F) at the time. While at maximum depth, Piccard and Walsh unexpectedly regained the ability to communicate with the support ship, USS Wandank (ATA-204), using a sonar/hydrophone voice communications system. At a speed of almost &ndash; about five times the speed of sound in air &ndash; it took about seven seconds for a voice message to travel from the craft to the support ship and another seven seconds for answers to return. While at the bottom, Piccard and Walsh reported observing a number of sole and flounder (both flatfish). The accuracy of this observation has later been questioned and recent authorities do not recognize it as valid. The theoretical maximum depth for fish is at about , beyond which they would become hyperosmotic. Invertebrates such as sea cucumbers, some of which potentially could be mistaken for flatfish, have been confirmed at depths of and more. Walsh later said that their original observation could be mistaken as their knowledge of biology was limited. Other deep dives and retirement ]] The Trieste performed a number of deep dives in the Mediterranean prior to being purchased by the U.S. Navy in 1958. Trieste<nowiki/>'s participation in the search earned it the Navy Unit Commendation. Following the mission, Trieste was returned to San Diego and taken out of service in 1966. Between 1964 and 1966, Trieste was used to develop its replacement, the Trieste II, with the original Terni pressure sphere reincorporated in its successor. In early 1980, it was transported to the Washington Navy Yard where it remains on exhibit today in the National Museum of the U.S. Navy, along with the Krupp pressure sphere. *Meritorious Unit Commendation with star *Navy E Ribbon *National Defense Service Medal with star See also * Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle * Deep Submergence Vehicle * Alvin (DSV-2) * Project Mohole * MIR (submersible) Notes and references Bibliography * * * External links * [http://www.navy.mil/submit/display.asp?story_id=50849 The Bathyscaph Trieste Celebrates the 50th Anniversary of the World's Deepest Dive] * [http://scilib.ucsd.edu/sio/hist/Dives%20Bathyscaph%20Trieste%20Dictabelts.pdf Dives of the Bathyscaph Trieste – dictabelt recordings (pdf, p. 38)] * [http://www.vvdailypress.com/article/20100322/LIFESTYLE/303229980/0/SEARCH 50th anniversary recollection by retired Navy Captain Don Walsh.] * [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/legendary-diver-known-as-captain-nemo-dies-986853.html 2008 obituary of diver Jaques Piccard] * [https://www.navalunderseamuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Trieste-Dive-Log-2014_020_001-low-res.pdf Trieste Program Dive Log from the Collection of the Naval Undersea Museum] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200228084338/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/fb6b/7ff824b790fb7c50daf5d0412fdf217a6a43.pdf The Bathyscaph Trieste Technical and Operational Aspects, 1958–1961 by LT Don Walsh, US Navy Electronics Laboratory] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190906130745/https://www.history.navy.mil/content/dam/nhhc/our-collections/artifacts/Artifact%20Conservation/Reports%20PDF/Trieste%20Conservation%20Report_508.pdf Conservation of the Trieste submarine at the National Museum of the United States Navy] Category:Trieste-class deep-submergence vehicle Category:Museum ships in Washington, D.C. Category:Ships preserved in museums Category:Submarines of Italy Category:Submarines of the United States Navy Category:Submarines of Switzerland Category:Ships built in Trieste Category:Swiss inventions Category:1953 ships Category:Washington Navy Yard
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trieste_(bathyscaphe)
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Battle of Bouvines
| result = French victory; Truce of Chinon | territory = Collapse of the Angevin Empire<br />Deposition of Otto IV | combatant1 | combatant2 County of Flanders<br>Kingdom of England<br>County of Boulogne<br>Barony of Boves | commander1 = }} | commander2 = (right flank) * Ferrand of Flanders (left flank)}} * William of Holland * Henry of Brabant * Philip II of Courtenay-Namur * Henry III of Limburg * Conrad of Dortmund right flank: * William Longespée * Hugh of Boves left flank: * Ferrand of Flanders * Arnulf IV of Oudenaarde}}}} | strength1 = 6,000–7,000 * 1,200–1,360 knights * 300 mounted sergeants * 5,000–6,000 infantry | strength2 = 8,800–9,000 * 1,300–1,500 knights * 7,500 infantry | casualties1 = Comparatively light * 2 knights killed * Unknown infantry losses | casualties2 = Heavy * 169 knights killed * 131 knights captured * Heavy infantry losses }} The Battle of Bouvines took place on 27 July 1214 near the town of Bouvines in the County of Flanders. It was the concluding battle of the Anglo-French War of 1213–1214. Although estimates on the number of troops vary considerably among modern historians, at Bouvines, a French army commanded by King Philip Augustus routed a larger allied army led by Holy Roman Emperor Otto IV in one of the rare pitched battles of the High Middle Ages and one of the most decisive medieval engagements. In early 1214, a coalition was assembled against King Philip Augustus of France, consisting of Otto IV, King John of England, Count Ferrand of Flanders, Count Renaud of Boulogne, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg. Its objective was to reverse the conquests made by Philip earlier in his reign. After initial manoeuvring in late July, battle was offered near Bouvines on 27 July. The long allied column deployed slowly into battle order, leaving the allies at a disadvantage. The superior discipline and training of the French knights allowed them to carry out a series of devastating charges, shattering the Flemish knights on the allied left wing. In the centre, the allied knights and infantry under Otto enjoyed initial success, scattering the French urban infantry and nearly killing Philip. A counterattack by French knights smashed the isolated Allied infantry and Otto's entire centre division fell back. Otto fled the battle and his knightly followers were defeated by the French knights, who went on to capture the Imperial eagle standard. With the allied centre and left wing routed, only the soldiers of the right wing under Renaud of Boulogne and William de Longespée held on. They were killed, captured or driven from the field. A pursuit was not conducted as it was nearly dark. The crushing French victory dashed English and Flemish hopes of regaining their lost territories. Having lost all credibility as emperor following the battle, Otto IV was deposed by Pope Innocent III, leading to Frederick II's accession to the Imperial throne. King John was compelled to hand over Anjou, the ancient patrimony of the Angevin kings of England, to Philip in a peace settlement. This confirmed the collapse of the Angevin Empire. The disaster at Bouvines forever altered the political situation in England, as John was so weakened that his discontented barons forced him to agree to Magna Carta in 1215. Counts Ferrand, Renaud and Longespée were captured and imprisoned. The balance of power shifted, with the popes of the 13th century increasingly seeking the support of a powerful France. Philip had achieved remarkable success in the expansion of his realm and by the end of his reign, in 1223, had not only laid the foundations for the era of Capetian pre-eminence in Europe which followed and marked much of the Late Middle Ages, but also those of the absolutism that came to define the Ancien Régime. Prelude In 1214, Count Ferdinand of Flanders desired the return of the cities of Aire-sur-la-Lys and Saint-Omer, which he had recently lost to King Philip II of France, in the Treaty of Pont-à-Vendin. He thus broke allegiance with Philip and assembled a broad coalition including Emperor Otto IV, King John of England, Duke Henry I of Brabant, Count William I of Holland, Duke Theobald I of Lorraine, and Duke Henry III of Limburg. The campaign was planned by John, who was the fulcrum of the alliance; his plan was to draw the French away from Paris southward towards his forces and keep them occupied, while the main army, under Emperor Otto IV, marched on Paris from the north. John's plan was followed initially, but the allies in the north moved slowly. John, after two encounters with the French, retreated to Aquitaine on 3 July. On 23 July, having summoned his vassals, Philip had an army consisting of 6,000 to 8,000 soldiers. The Emperor finally succeeded in concentrating his forces at Valenciennes, although this did not include John, and in the interval Philip had counter-marched northward and regrouped. Philip now took the offensive himself, and after manoeuvring to obtain good ground for his cavalry he offered battle on 27 July, on the plain east of Bouvines and the river Marque. Otto was surprised by the speed of his enemy and was thought to have been caught unprepared by Philip, who probably deliberately lured Otto into his trap. Otto decided to launch an attack on what was then the French rearguard. The allied army drew up facing south-west towards Bouvines, the heavy cavalry on the wings and the infantry in one great mass in the centre, supported by a cavalry corps under Otto himself. The French army formed up opposite in a similar formation, cavalry on the wings, infantry, including the town militias, in the centre. Philip, with the cavalry reserve and the royal standard, the Oriflamme, positioned himself to the rear of the men on foot. It is said by William the Breton, chaplain to Philip at the battle, that the soldiers stood in line in a space of 40,000 steps (), which leaves very little clearance and predisposes to hand-to-hand fighting. William the Breton also says in his chronicle that "the two lines of combatants were separated by a small space".Order of battleFrenchThe French army contained 1,200–1,360 knights (of whom 765 were from the royal demesne) and 300 mounted sergeants. Philip had launched an appeal to the municipalities in northern France, in order to obtain their support. Sixteen of the thirty-nine municipalities of the royal demesne answered the call to arms. They provided 3,160 infantry, broken down as: Amiens 250, Arras 1,000, Beauvais 500, Compiegne 200, Corbie 200, Bruyeres 120, Cerny and Crepy-en-Laonnais 80, Crandelain 40, Hesdin 80, Montreuil-sur-Mer 150, Noyon 150, Roye 100, Soissons 160, and Vailly 50. The balance of the infantry, possibly another 2,000 men, was composed of mercenaries. The other communes of the royal demesne were supposed to provide a further 1,980 infantry, but it is doubtful that they did. In total, the royal army totalled approximately 6,000–7,000 men. The royal fleur-de-lis standard was borne by Galon or Gales of Montigny. The royal army was divided into three parts, or "battles": * The right wing, composed of the knights of Champagne and Burgundy, was commanded by Eudes, Duke of Burgundy, and his lieutenants: Gaucher of Châtillon, Count of Saint-Pol, Count Guillaume I de Sancerre, Count de Beaumont, Mathieu of Montmorency and Adam II Viscount of Melun. In the front of the right wing were men-at-arms and militia from Burgundy, Champagne, and Picardy led by 150 mounted sergeants from Soissons. * The central battle was led by Philip Augustus and his chief knights – Guillaume des Barres, Bartholomé de Roye, Girard Scophe, Guillaume de Garland, Enguerrand of Coucy and Gautier of Nemours. In front of the King and his 175 knights were 2,150 infantry from the towns of the Île de France and Normandy. * The left wing was led by Robert of Dreux, supported by Count William of Ponthieu. The main body of the left wing consisted of Bretons and militia from Dreux, Perche, Ponthieu, and Vimeux. * The bridge of Bouvines, the only means of retreat across the marshes, was guarded by 150 sergeants-at-arms, who also formed the French reserve. Allied Otto's army contained some 1,300–1,500 knights: 600–650 Flemish, 425–500 Hainaulter and 275–350 from elsewhere. He also fielded approximately 7,500 infantry, to give a total force of just under 9,000 men. The imperial army was also formed up in three battles: * The left flank, under the command of Ferrand of Flanders with his Flemish knights – directed by Arnaud of Oudenaarde. The infantry were from Flanders and Hainaut. * The centre was under the command of Otto and of Theobald, Duke of Lorraine, Henry, Duke of Brabant, and Philip Courtenay, Marquis of Namur. It included many Saxons and infantry from Brabant and Germany. In the front of the battle stood German pike phalanxes. Saxon infantry formed the second line. Otto stood between these with 50 German knights. * The right flank, under the command of Renaud de Dammartin, included Brabant infantry and English knights, the latter under the command of the Earl of Salisbury, William Longespée. * On the extreme right, English archers supported the flank of both the Brabant infantry and the nobles of the two Lorraines (i.e. of the Duchy of Lorraine and the County of Bar). Battle Allied left in an illustration of the battle made around 1330.]] The battle opened with an attack by 150 light cavalrymen from the Abbey of Saint-Médard de Soissons against the Flemish knights on the allied left, aiming to throw it into confusion. The Flemish knights easily drove off the unarmoured horsemen. Some Flemish knights left their formations and chased the retreating light cavalry; 180 French knights from Champagne in turn attacked and killed or captured the over-aggressive Flemish knights. The Count of Flanders counter-attacked with his entire force of 600 knights and threw the French back. Gaucher de Châtillon launched his 30 knights at the Flemish force, followed by a further 250 knights. They carried out a continuous series of charges, and halted the allied advance. Many knights on both sides fell from their horses in the first clash. The French were better ordered than the more loosely formed Flemish knights, and the allied ranks grew thinner as they were assaulted by the compact French masses. Châtillon and Melun with their knights broke through the ranks of their Flemish counterparts, then wheeled and struck them from the rear, constantly switching targets. St. Pol's knights and the Burgundians engaged in an exhausting struggle against the Flemings, taking no prisoners. The Duke of Burgundy's horse was killed and the Duke thrown to the ground, but he was saved by his knights, who beat off the Flemish and found him a fresh horse. The Flemings fought on for three hours despite their increasingly desperate situation, driven by knightly honour. Finally, the wounded and unhorsed Count of Flanders was captured by two French knights, triggering the collapse of his knights' morale. Centre '', c. 1250, written and illustrated by Matthew Paris.]] The French urban militia infantry, 2,150 strong, were gathered under the Oriflamme in the centre, in front of Philip's knights and the fleur-de-lis standard. Soon after deploying, they were attacked by allied knights and infantry under Otto and thrown back. Otto and his knights had nearly reached the French king when they were halted by French knights. The allied infantrymen broke through to Philip and his handful of knightly companions, unhorsing him with their hooked pikes. The French king's armour deflected an enemy lance and saved his life. Galon or Gales de Montigny used the royal standard to signal for help and another knight gave Philip a fresh horse. The allied infantry used daggers to stab unhorsed French knights through the openings in their helmets and other weak spots in their armour. The Norman knight Etienne de Longchamp was killed in this way and the French suffered heavy losses. After repeated French counterattacks and a prolonged fight the allies were thrown back. The battle in the centre was now a mêlée between the two mounted reserves led by the King and the Emperor in person. The French knight Pierre Mauvoisin nearly captured Otto and his horse and Gérard la Truie stabbed the Emperor with a dagger, which bounced off his coat of mail and struck Otto's horse in the eye, killing it. Otto was saved by four German lords and their followers. As the French sent more knights to attack him personally he fled the field. The German knights fought to the bitter end to save their emperor, all being killed or captured. The Imperial Standard with the eagle and dragon was captured by the French knights, who brought it to their king. By this time, allied resistance in the centre had ceased. Allied right Meanwhile, on the French left Robert de Dreux's troops were at first pressed by men led by William Longespée. William Longespée was unhorsed and taken prisoner by Philip of Dreux, the Bishop of Beauvais, and the English soldiers fled. Mathieu de Montmorency captured twelve enemy imperial banners, in memory of which feat twelve more eagles were added to the existing four on the Montmorency coat of arms. Last stand and Reginald of Boulogne being conveyed as prisoners to Paris (from the Grandes Chroniques de France, c. 1375–1380). Ferrand was released in 1227 and died soon after of a disease contracted in prison. Renaud was kept in chains and killed himself in 1227.]] The day was already decided in favour of the French when their wings began to close inwards to cut off the retreat of the imperial centre. The battle closed with the celebrated stand of Reginald of Boulogne (Renaud de Dammartin), a former vassal of King Philip, who formed a ring of 400–700 Brabançon pikemen. They defied every attack by the French cavalry, while Reginald made repeated sorties with his small force of knights. Eventually, long after the Imperial army had retreated, the Brabant schiltrom was overrun by a charge of 50 knights and 1,000–2,000 infantry under Thomas de St. Valery. Reginald was taken prisoner in the melee. A pursuit was not conducted owing to the approaching nightfall and a fear that the prisoners might escape. The French formations were recalled using trumpets.AftermathThe French cavalry had 2 knights killed; the French infantry casualties are not recorded. The Allies had 169 knights killed and "heavy" but unquantified losses among the infantry; including between 400 and 700 Brabant infantry killed. As well as Reginald of Boulogne two other counts were captured by the French, Hainaut Ferrand and William Longespée, as well as twenty-five barons and over a hundred knights. The battle ended the threat from both Otto and John. According to Jean Favier, Bouvines is "one of the most decisive and symbolic battles in the history of France". For Philippe Contamine "the Battle of Bouvines had both important consequences and a great impact". Ferdinand Lot called it a "medieval Austerlitz". Philip returned to Paris triumphant, marching his captive prisoners behind him in a long procession, as his subjects lined the streets to greet the victorious king. In the aftermath of the battle, Otto retreated to his castle of Harzburg and was soon overthrown as Holy Roman Emperor by Frederick II, who had already been recognised as emperor in the south a year and a half earlier. Count Ferdinand remained imprisoned following his defeat, while King John obtained a five-year truce, on very lenient terms given the circumstances. Longespée was eventually exchanged for a high-ranking French captive, but the Count of Boulogne was imprisoned in a small cell, chained to a log and with little room for movement. He eventually committed suicide in 1227. Philip's decisive victory was crucial to the political situation in England. The battle ended all hope of a restoration of the Angevin Empire. So weakened was the defeated King John that he soon needed to submit to his barons' demands and agree to Magna Carta in 1215, limiting the power of the crown and establishing the basis for common law. <gallery widths"200px" heights"170px"> File:La France victorieuse à Bouvines.JPG|France Victorious at Bouvines, allegorical painting by Merry-Joseph Blondel, 1828, in the decoration of the Louvre File:St Pol.png|A detail of one of the stained-glass windows installed in the parish church of Bouvines in 1914 </gallery> Commemoration In thanksgiving for the victory, Philip Augustus founded the Abbey of Notre Dame de la Victoire, between Senlis and Mont l'Evêque. In 1914, to mark the seventh centenary, Félix Dehau had the parish church of Bouvines rebuilt with a number of stained-glass windows representing the history of the battle. In 2014, the eighth centenary was commemorated in Bouvines by an association called Bouvines 2014. A series of events, including an official ceremony and a show called "Bouvines la Bataille", attracted more than 6,000 viewers in Bouvines.See also * Anglo-French Wars References Sources * * }} * }} * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.deremilitari.org/RESOURCES/SOURCES/bouvines.htm Historical accounts] at De Re Militari, The Society for Medieval Military History Category:1214 in Europe Category:13th century in the county of Flanders Category:Battles of the Anglo-French wars Category:Battles involving Flanders Category:Battles involving the Kingdom of France (987–1792) Bouvines 1214 Category:Conflicts in 1214 Category:Military history of Nord (French department) Category:Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor Category:Philip II of France Category:13th-century military history of France Category:13th-century military history of the Kingdom of England
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bouvines
2025-04-05T18:27:02.355760
5008
Battle of Actium
| map_type = Greece#Mediterranean#Europe | map_relief | map_size 300px | map_caption | map_label | result = Octavian victory | combatant1 = Octavian's forces | combatant2 = Antony's forces<br>Ptolemaic Egypt | commander1 = Octavian<br>Marcus Agrippa<br>Lucius Arruntius<br>Marcus Lurius | commander2 = Mark Antony<br>Gaius Sosius<br>Lucius Gellius<br>Cleopatra | strength1 250–400 galleys<br>3,000 archers<br>16,000 infantry on ships | strength2 250–500 larger galleys<br>30–50 transports<br>20,000–70,000 infantry on ships<br>2,000 archers Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece, in a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Gaius Sosius and Agrippa. Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby. Octavian pursued them and defeated their forces in Alexandria on 1 August 30 BC—after which Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. He adopted the title of Princeps ("first citizen"), and in 27 BC was awarded the title of Augustus ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This became the name by which he was known in later times. As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but historians generally view his consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the Roman Republic and the beginning of the Roman Empire.Background as a younger Octavian, dated c. 30 BC]] of the consul and triumvir Mark Antony, Vatican Museums]] The alliance among Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus, commonly known as the Second Triumvirate, was renewed for a five-year term at Tarentum in 37 BC. However, the triumvirate broke down when Octavian saw Caesarion, the professed son of Julius Caesar and Queen Cleopatra VII of Egypt, as a major threat to his power. This occurred when Mark Antony, the other most influential member of the triumvirate, abandoned his wife, Octavian's sister Octavia Minor. Afterward he moved to Egypt to start a long-term romance with Cleopatra, becoming Caesarion's de facto stepfather. Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate saw Antony as leading a separatist movement that threatened to break the Roman Republic's unity. Octavian's prestige and, more importantly, his legions' loyalty had been boosted by Julius Caesar's legacy of 44 BC, by which he was officially adopted as Caesar's only son and the sole legitimate heir of his enormous wealth. Antony had been the most important and most successful senior officer in Caesar's army (magister equitum) and, thanks to his military record, claimed a substantial share of the political support of Caesar's soldiers and veterans. Both Octavian and Antony had fought against their common enemies in the Liberators' civil war that followed the assassination of Caesar. After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Antony started to act independently, eventually arousing his rival's suspicion that he was vying to become sole master of Rome. When he left Octavia Minor and moved to Alexandria to become Cleopatra's official partner, many Roman politicians suspected that he was trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and other eastern kingdoms while still maintaining his command over the many Roman legions in the East. As a personal challenge to Octavian's prestige, Antony tried to get Caesarion accepted as a true heir of Caesar, even though the legacy did not mention him. Antony and Cleopatra formally elevated Caesarion, then 13, to power in 34 BC, giving him the title "King of the Kings" (Donations of Alexandria). Such an entitlement was seen as a threat to Roman republican traditions. It was widely believed that Antony had once offered Caesarion a diadem. Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome and asserting that he intended to establish a monarchy over the Roman Empire on Caesarion's behalf, circumventing the Roman Senate. It was also said that Antony intended to move the imperial capital to Alexandria. As the Second Triumvirate formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate that he did not wish to be reappointed. He hoped that it might regard him as its champion against the ambition of Octavian, whom he presumed would not be willing to abandon his position in a similar manner. The causes of mutual dissatisfaction between the two had been accumulating. Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing Lepidus, in taking over the countries held by Sextus Pompeius and in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him. Octavian complained that Antony had no authority to be in Egypt; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal; that his treachery to the king of Armenia disgraced the Roman name; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement; and that his connection with Cleopatra and acknowledgement of Caesarion as a legitimate son of Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself. In 32 BC, one-third of the Senate and both consuls, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius, allied with Antony. The consuls had determined to conceal the extent of Antony's demands. Ahenobarbus seems to have wished to keep quiet, but on 1 January Sosius made an elaborate speech in favor of Antony, and would have proposed the confirmation of his act had it not been vetoed by a tribune. Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply that provoked both consuls to leave Rome to join Antony; Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, went at once to Ephesus with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion. After staying with his allies at Samos, Antony moved to Athens. His land forces, which had been in Armenia, came down to the coast of Asia and embarked under Publius Canidius Crassus. Octavian kept up his strategic preparations. Military operations began in 32 BC, when his general Agrippa captured Methone, a Greek town allied to Antony. But by the publication of Antony's will, which Lucius Munatius Plancus had put into Octavian's hands, and by carefully letting it be known in Rome what preparations were going on at Samos and how Antony was effectively acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained Antony's deposition from the consulship of 31 BC, for which Antony had been designated. In addition to the deposition, Octavian procured a proclamation of war against Cleopatra. This was well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named. In issuing a war declaration, the Senate deprived Antony of any legal authority.BattleAntony initially planned to anticipate an attack by descent upon Italy toward the end of 32 BC; he went as far as Corcyra. Finding the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, Antony retired to winter at Patrae while his fleet for the most part lay in the Ambracian Gulf, and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while the opposite side of the narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was protected by a tower and troops. After Octavian's proposals for a conference with Antony were scornfully rejected, both sides prepared for the struggle the next year. The early months passed without any notable events, other than some successful forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece, primarily designed to divert Antony's attention. In August, troops landed near Antony's camp on the north side of the strait. Still, Antony could not be tempted out. It took some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had wintered. During these months Agrippa continued his attacks upon Greek towns along the coast, while Octavian's forces engaged in various successful cavalry skirmishes, so that Antony abandoned the strait's north side between the Ambracian Gulf and the Ionian Sea and confined his soldiers to the southern camp. Cleopatra now advised that garrisons be put into strong towns and that the main fleet return to Alexandria. The large contingent furnished by Egypt gave her advice as much weight as her personal influence over Antony, and it appears that this movement was agreed to. Octavian learned of this and debated how to prevent it. At first of a mind to let Antony sail and then attack him, he was prevailed upon by Agrippa to give battle. On 1 September he addressed his fleet, preparing them for battle. The next day was wet and the sea was rough. When the trumpet signal for the start rang out, Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits and the ships moved into line and remained quiet. Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to the right and pass the enemy's ships. For fear of being surrounded, Antony was forced to give the word to attack.Order of battleThe two fleets met outside the Gulf of Actium on the morning of 2 September. Antony's fleet had 250 larger galleys, with towers full of armed men. He led them through the straits towards the open sea. Octavian's fleet had 400 galleys. His fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, Lucius Arruntius the centre and Marcus Lurius the right. Titus Statilius Taurus Antony's personal flagship, like his admirals', was a "ten". An "eight" war galley had around 200 heavy marines, archers and at least six ballista catapults. Larger than Octavian's ships, Antony's war galleys were very difficult to board in close combat and his troops were able to rain missiles onto smaller and lower ships. The harpax, Agrippa's device made for grappling and boarding enemy ships, made this task a bit easier. The galleys' bows were armoured with bronze plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. The only way to disable such a ship was to smash its oars, rendering it immobile and isolated from the rest of its fleet. Antony's ships' main weakness was lack of manoeuvrability; such a ship, once isolated from its fleet, could be swamped with boarding attacks. Also, many of his ships were undermanned with rowing crews; there had been a severe malaria outbreak while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive. e on a Roman ship]] Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller "Liburnian" vessels. His ships, though smaller, were still manageable in the heavy surf and could outmanoeuvre Antony's ships, get in close, attack the above-deck crew with arrows and ballista-launched stones, and retreat. Moreover, his crews were better-trained, professional, well-fed and rested. A medium ballista could penetrate the sides of most warships at close range and had an effective range of around 200 yards. Most ballistas were aimed at the marines on the ships' fighting decks. Before the battle one of Antony's generals, Quintus Dellius, defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's battle plans. Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the enemy. Seeing this, Octavian's fleet put to sea. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. By about noon the fleets were in formation but Octavian refused to be drawn out, so Antony was forced to attack. The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result. Cleopatra's fleet, in the rear, retreated to the open sea without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction and the Egyptian ships were soon out of sight. Lange argues that Antony would have had victory within reach were it not for Cleopatra's retreat. ]] Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and all was lost, followed the fleeing squadron. The contagion spread fast; everywhere sails unfurled and towers and other heavy fighting gear went by the board. Some fought on, and only long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, was the work done. Making the best of the situation, Antony burned the ships he could no longer man while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead or unfit to serve, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the Octaries had been designed was now impossible. Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those left behind were captured or sunk. J. M. Carter gives a differing account of the battle. He postulates that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. To turn this to his advantage, he gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety. Then, should Octavian's ships approach his, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony foresaw that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships, which until this point were tightly arranged. He sent Sosius to spread the remaining ships to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and, with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force. With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels and spent the whole night on board. The next day, as much of the land army had not escaped to their own lands, submitted, or were followed in their retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, Antony's camp was occupied, bringing an end to the war.Alternative theoriesScientists researching the "dead water" phenomenon are investigating whether the Egyptian fleet may have been trapped in dead water, which can substantially reduce the speed of a ship. Aftermath of Cleopatra wearing a diadem and 'melon' hairstyle similar to coinage portraits, marble, found near the Tomba di Nerone, Rome along the Via Cassia, Museo Pio-Clementino]] The battle had extensive political consequences. Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. Thus, after Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to Octavian's, deserted. Though he had not laid down his imperium, Antony was a fugitive and a rebel without that shadow of a legal position the presence of the consuls and senators had given him in the previous year. Some of the victorious fleet went in pursuit of him, but Octavian visited Greece and Asia and spent the winter at Samos, though he had to briefly visit Brundisium to settle a mutiny and arrange for assignations of land. At Samos Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favor of her sons. She was allowed to believe that she would be well treated, for Octavian was anxious to secure her for his triumph. Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure the army stationed near Paraetonium under Pinarius and sending his eldest son Antyllus with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides. Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium and Octavian landed at Pelusium, with the connivance, it was believed, of Cleopatra. Antony was defeated by Gallus and, returning to Egypt, advanced on Pelusium. drawn by four "mermen," with the two on each side carrying symbols of the naval victory]] Despite a minor victory at Alexandria on 31 July 30 BC, more of Antony's men deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. A slight success over Octavian's tired soldiers encouraged him to make a general attack, in which he was decisively beaten. Failing to escape by ship, he stabbed himself in the stomach upon mistakenly believing false rumours propagated by Cleopatra claiming that she had committed suicide. He did not die at once, and when he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, he insisted on being taken to the mausoleum where she was hiding and died in her arms. She was soon brought to the palace and vainly attempted to move Octavian to pity. Cleopatra killed herself on 12 August 30 BC. Most accounts say she put an end to her life by the bite of an asp conveyed to her in a basket of figs. Octavian had Caesarion killed later that month, finally securing his legacy as Caesar's only 'son', while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's older son. Octavian admired the bravery of Cleopatra and gave her and Antony a public military funeral in Rome. The funeral was grand and a few of Antony's legions marched alongside the tomb. A day of mourning throughout Rome was enacted. This was partly due to Octavian's respect for Antony and partly because it further helped show the Roman people how benevolent Octavian was. Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium. Further, after the battle, upon Octavian's return to Rome he celebrated his triple triumph spread over three days: the first for his victory over Illyria, the second for the Battle of Actium, and the third for his conquest of Egypt. Octavian's victory at Actium gave him sole, uncontested control of "Mare Nostrum" ("Our Sea", i.e., the Roman Mediterranean) and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. The victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked Rome's transition from republic to empire. Egypt's surrender after Cleopatra's death marked the demise of both the Hellenistic Period and the Ptolemaic Kingdom, turning it into a Roman province. , with cuttings for ship's rams]]To commemorate his victory, Octavian founded the nearby city of Nicopolis ("City of Victory") in 29 BC on the southernmost promontory of Epirus, opposite Actium at the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf. He also built a series of memorials around the battlefield and campsites. On a hill just north of the newly founded Nicopolis, at the site where he had made his camp during the war, he constructed the Campsite Memorial, a tropaion dedicated to Neptune, Mars, and Apollo, renown for the display of the bronze rostra (rams) taken from the captured warships. At the cape of Actium, Octavian built the Actian dekanaia, another tropaion composed of the dedication a whole set of ten warships captured from his enemy's fleet. The Actian dekanaia was symbolically located adjacent to the naval battlefield and probably within the area of Mark Antony's camp. Meanwhile, it was situated down the hill where the Temple of Apollo Aktios stood. Apollo Aktios was a deity which Octavian repetitively invoked in his post-war commemoration, and the temple was renovated and enlarged following his victory.See also * Altar of Victory * Antony and Cleopatra * Nicopolis * Shield of Aeneas Notes References * * * * * |editor-link=C.B.R. Pelling}} * * * Attribution* }}Further reading * Military Heritage published a feature about the Battle of Actium (Joseph M. Horodyski, August 2005, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 58–63, 78), . * * * * External links * [http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~murray/actium/brochure.html The Actium Project] * [https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/actium/actium.html The Naval Battle of Actium] * [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/50*.html Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 50] Category:30s BC conflicts Category:31 BC Actium Category:1st century BC in Egypt Category:1st century BC in the Roman Republic Category:Ancient Acarnania Category:Augustus Category:Caesarion Category:Cleopatra Actium Actium Actium Category:Roman Epirus Category:War of Actium
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Actium
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Zebrafish
| synonyms_ref }} The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish belonging to the family Danionidae of the order Cypriniformes. Native to South Asia, it is a popular aquarium fish, frequently sold under the trade name zebra danio (and thus often called a "tropical fish" although it is both tropical and subtropical). The zebrafish is an important and widely used vertebrate model organism in scientific research, particularly developmental biology, but also gene function, oncology, teratology, and drug development, in particular pre-clinical development. Zebrafish are also closely related to the genus Devario, as demonstrated by a phylogenetic tree of close species. Distribution Range The zebrafish is native to freshwater habitats in South Asia where it is found in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. The northern limit is in the South Himalayas, ranging from the Sutlej river basin in the Pakistan–India border region to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in northeast India. It has frequently been said to occur in Myanmar (Burma), but this is entirely based on pre-1930 records and likely refers to close relatives only described later, notably Danio kyathit. Likewise, old records from Sri Lanka are highly questionable and remain unconfirmed. Elsewhere the species has been introduced to Colombia and Malaysia. Habitats Zebrafish typically inhabit moderately flowing to stagnant clear water of quite shallow depth in streams, canals, ditches, oxbow lakes, ponds and rice paddies. One unusually cold site was only and another unusually warm site was , but the zebrafish still appeared healthy. The unusually cold temperature was at one of the highest known zebrafish locations at above sea level, although the species has been recorded to . In the wild it is typically an annual species. The Mauthner cells integrate a wide array of sensory stimuli to produce the escape reflex. Those stimuli are found to include the lateral line signals by McHenry et al. 2009 and visual signals consistent with looming objects by Temizer et al. 2015, Dunn et al. 2016, and Yao et al. 2016. Reproduction The approximate generation time for Danio rerio is three months. A male must be present for ovulation and spawning to occur. Zebrafish are asynchronous spawners and under optimal conditions (such as food availability and favorable water parameters) can spawn successfully frequently, even on a daily basis. Females are able to spawn at intervals of two to three days, laying hundreds of eggs in each clutch. Upon release, embryonic development begins; in absence of sperm, growth stops after the first few cell divisions. Fertilized eggs almost immediately become transparent, a characteristic that makes D. rerio a convenient research model species. Sex determination of common laboratory strains was shown to be a complex genetic trait, rather than to follow a simple ZW or XY system. The zebrafish embryo develops rapidly, with precursors to all major organs appearing within 36 hours of fertilization. The embryo begins as a yolk with a single enormous cell on top (see image, 0 h panel), which divides into two (0.75 h panel) and continues dividing until there are thousands of small cells (3.25 h panel). The cells then migrate down the sides of the yolk (8 h panel) and begin forming a head and tail (16 h panel). The tail then grows and separates from the body (24 h panel). The yolk shrinks over time because the fish uses it for food as it matures during the first few days (72 h panel). After a few months, the adult fish reaches reproductive maturity (bottom panel). To encourage the fish to spawn, some researchers use a fish tank with a sliding bottom insert, which reduces the depth of the pool to simulate the shore of a river. Zebrafish spawn best in the morning due to their Circadian rhythms. Researchers have been able to collect 10,000 embryos in 10 minutes using this method. Male zebrafish are furthermore known to respond to more pronounced markings on females, i.e., "good stripes", but in a group, males will mate with whichever females they can find. What attracts females is not currently understood. The presence of plants, even plastic plants, also apparently encourages spawning. Exposure to environmentally relevant concentrations of diisononyl phthalate (DINP), commonly used in a large variety of plastic items, disrupt the endocannabinoid system and thereby affect reproduction in a sex-specific manner. Feeding Zebrafish feeding practices vary significantly across different developmental stages, reflecting their changing nutritional needs. For newly hatched larvae, which begin feeding at approximately 5 days post-fertilization (dpf), small live prey such as Paramecium or rotifers are commonly used until they reach 9–15 dpf. This early diet is crucial for their growth and survival, as these small organisms provide essential nutrients. As the larvae develop, from 15 dpf onwards, they are typically transitioned to a diet that includes brine shrimp nauplii and dry feeds, which are more nutritionally balanced and easier to manage in laboratory settings. For larvae aged 25 dpf, feeding rates can range from 50% to 300% of their body weight (BW) per day, depending on their size and growth requirements. As zebrafish grow into juveniles (30–90 dpf), the recommended feeding rate decreases to about 6–8% of their BW per day, with a focus on high-quality dry feeds that meet their protein and energy needs. Upon reaching adulthood (over 90 dpf), zebrafish typically require a feeding rate of around 5% of their BW per day. Throughout these stages, it is essential to adjust the particle size of the feed: less than 100 μm for newly hatched larvae, 100–200 μm for those between 16 and 30 dpf, and larger particles for juveniles and adults. This structured approach to feeding not only supports optimal growth and health but also enhances the reliability of experimental outcomes in research settings. In the aquarium Zebrafish are hardy fish and considered good for beginner aquarists. Their enduring popularity can be attributed to their playful disposition, as well as their rapid breeding, aesthetics, cheap price and broad availability. They also do well in schools or shoals of six or more, and interact well with other fish species in the aquarium. However, they are susceptible to Oodinium or velvet disease, microsporidia (Pseudoloma neurophilia), and Mycobacterium species. Given the opportunity, adults eat hatchlings, which may be protected by separating the two groups with a net, breeding box or separate tank. In captivity, zebrafish live approximately forty-two months. Some captive zebrafish can develop a curved spine. They can range from a few centimeters to a few inches, and provide movement in a freshwater fish tank. The zebra danio was also used to make genetically modified fish and were the first species to be sold as GloFish (fluorescent colored fish). Strains In late 2003, transgenic zebrafish that express green, red, and yellow fluorescent proteins became commercially available in the United States. The fluorescent strains are trade-named GloFish; other cultivated varieties include "golden", "sandy", "longfin" and "leopard". The leopard danio, previously known as Danio frankei, is a spotted colour morph of the zebrafish which arose due to a pigment mutation. Xanthistic forms of both the zebra and leopard pattern, along with long-finned strains, have been obtained via selective breeding programs for the aquarium trade. Various transgenic and mutant strains of zebrafish were stored at the China Zebrafish Resource Center (CZRC), a non-profit organization, which was jointly supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology of China and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Wild-type strains The Zebrafish Information Network (ZFIN) provides up-to-date information about current known wild-type (WT) strains of D. rerio, some of which are listed below. *AB (AB) *AB/C32 (AB/C32) *AB/TL (AB/TL) *AB/Tuebingen (AB/TU) *C32 (C32) *Cologne (KOLN) *Darjeeling (DAR) *Ekkwill (EKW) *HK/AB (HK/AB) *HK/Sing (HK/SING) *Hong Kong (HK) *India (IND) *Indonesia (INDO) *Nadia (NA) *RIKEN WT (RW) *Singapore (SING) *SJA (SJA) *SJD (SJD) *SJD/C32 (SJD/C32) *Tuebingen (TU) *Tupfel long fin (TL) *Tupfel long fin nacre (TLN) *WIK (WIK) *WIK/AB (WIK/AB) Hybrids Hybrids between different Danio species may be fertile: for example, between D. rerio and D. nigrofasciatus. Its importance has been consolidated by successful large-scale forward genetic screens (commonly referred to as the Tübingen/Boston screens). The fish has a dedicated online database of genetic, genomic, and developmental information, the Zebrafish Information Network (ZFIN). The Zebrafish International Resource Center (ZIRC) is a genetic resource repository with 29,250 alleles available for distribution to the research community. D. rerio is also one of the few fish species to have been sent into space. Research with D. rerio has yielded advances in the fields of developmental biology, oncology, toxicology, reproductive studies, teratology, genetics, neurobiology, environmental sciences, stem cell research, regenerative medicine, muscular dystrophies and evolutionary theory. Furthermore, well-characterized mutant strains are readily available. Other advantages include the species' nearly constant size during early development, which enables simple staining techniques to be used, and the fact that its two-celled embryo can be fused into a single cell to create a homozygous embryo. The zebrafish embryos are transparent and they develop outside of the uterus, which allows scientists to study the details of development starting from fertilization and continuing throughout development. The zebrafish is also demonstrably similar to mammalian models and humans in toxicity testing, and exhibits a diurnal sleep cycle with similarities to mammalian sleep behavior. However, zebrafish are not a universally ideal research model; there are a number of disadvantages to their scientific use, such as the absence of a standard diet and the presence of small but important differences between zebrafish and mammals in the roles of some genes related to human disorders. Regeneration Zebrafish have the ability to regenerate their heart and lateral line hair cells during their larval stages. The cardiac regenerative process likely involves signaling pathways such as Notch and Wnt; hemodynamic changes in the damaged heart are sensed by ventricular endothelial cells and their associated cardiac cilia by way of the mechanosensitive ion channel TRPV4, subsequently facilitating the Notch signaling pathway via KLF2 and activating various downstream effectors such as BMP-2 and HER2/neu. In 2011, the British Heart Foundation ran an advertising campaign publicising its intention to study the applicability of this ability to humans, stating that it aimed to raise £50 million in research funding. Zebrafish have also been found to regenerate photoreceptor cells and retinal neurons following injury, which has been shown to be mediated by the dedifferentiation and proliferation of Müller glia. Researchers frequently amputate the dorsal and ventral tail fins and analyze their regrowth to test for mutations. It has been found that histone demethylation occurs at the site of the amputation, switching the zebrafish's cells to an "active", regenerative, stem cell-like state. In 2012, Australian scientists published a study revealing that zebrafish use a specialised protein, known as fibroblast growth factor, to ensure their spinal cords heal without glial scarring after injury. In addition, hair cells of the posterior lateral line have also been found to regenerate following damage or developmental disruption. Study of gene expression during regeneration has allowed for the identification of several important signaling pathways involved in the process, such as Wnt signaling and Fibroblast growth factor. In probing disorders of the nervous system, including neurodegenerative diseases, movement disorders, psychiatric disorders and deafness, researchers are using the zebrafish to understand how the genetic defects underlying these conditions cause functional abnormalities in the human brain, spinal cord and sensory organs. Researchers have also studied the zebrafish to gain new insights into the complexities of human musculoskeletal diseases, such as muscular dystrophy. Another focus of zebrafish research is to understand how a gene called Hedgehog, a biological signal that underlies a number of human cancers, controls cell growth. Genetics Background genetics Inbred strains and traditional outbred stocks have not been developed for laboratory zebrafish, and the genetic variability of wild-type lines among institutions may contribute to the replication crisis in biomedical research. Genetic differences in wild-type lines among populations maintained at different research institutions have been demonstrated using both Single-nucleotide polymorphisms and microsatellite analysis. Gene expression Due to their fast and short life cycles and relatively large clutch sizes, D. rerio or zebrafish are a useful model for genetic studies. A common reverse genetics technique is to reduce gene expression or modify splicing using Morpholino antisense technology. Morpholino oligonucleotides (MO) are stable, synthetic macromolecules that contain the same bases as DNA or RNA; by binding to complementary RNA sequences, they can reduce the expression of specific genes or block other processes from occurring on RNA. MO can be injected into one cell of an embryo after the 32-cell stage, reducing gene expression in only cells descended from that cell. However, cells in the early embryo (less than 32 cells) are permeable to large molecules, allowing diffusion between cells. Guidelines for using Morpholinos in zebrafish describe appropriate control strategies. Morpholinos are commonly microinjected in 500pL directly into 1–2 cell stage zebrafish embryos. The morpholino is able to integrate into most cells of the embryo. A known problem with gene knockdowns is that, because the genome underwent a duplication after the divergence of ray-finned fishes and lobe-finned fishes, it is not always easy to silence the activity of one of the two gene paralogs reliably due to complementation by the other paralog. Despite the complications of the zebrafish genome, a number of commercially available global platforms exist for analysis of both gene expression by microarrays and promoter regulation using ChIP-on-chip. Genome sequencing The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute started the zebrafish genome sequencing project in 2001, and the full genome sequence of the Tuebingen reference strain is publicly available at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI)'s [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome?termdanio%20rerio Zebrafish Genome Page]. The zebrafish reference genome sequence is annotated as part of the Ensembl [http://www.ensembl.org/Danio_rerio/Info/Index project], and is maintained by the Genome Reference Consortium. In 2009, researchers at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology in Delhi, India, announced the sequencing of the genome of a wild zebrafish strain, containing an estimated 1.7 billion genetic letters. The genome of the wild zebrafish was sequenced at 39-fold coverage. Comparative analysis with the zebrafish reference genome revealed over 5 million single nucleotide variations and over 1.6 million insertion deletion variations. The zebrafish reference genome sequence of 1.4GB and over 26,000 protein coding genes was published by Kerstin Howe et al. in 2013.Mitochondrial DNAIn October 2001, researchers from the University of Oklahoma published ''D. rerio's complete mitochondrial DNA sequence. Its length is 16,596 base pairs. This is within 100 base pairs of other related species of fish, and it is notably only 18 pairs longer than the goldfish (Carassius auratus) and 21 longer than the carp (Cyprinus carpio''). Its gene order and content are identical to the common vertebrate form of mitochondrial DNA. It contains 13 protein-coding genes and a noncoding control region containing the origin of replication for the heavy strand. In between a grouping of five tRNA genes, a sequence resembling vertebrate origin of light strand replication is found. It is difficult to draw evolutionary conclusions because it is difficult to determine whether base pair changes have adaptive significance via comparisons with other vertebrates' nucleotide sequences. The Bruce et al. team are known for this area, and in Bruce et al. 2003 & Bruce et al. 2005 uncover the role of two of these elements in oocytes of this species. Mutations in human MITF result in eye defects and loss of pigment, a type of Waardenburg Syndrome. In December 2005, a study of the golden strain identified the gene responsible for its unusual pigmentation as SLC24A5, a solute carrier that appeared to be required for melanin production, and confirmed its function with a Morpholino knockdown. The orthologous gene was then characterized in humans and a one base pair difference was found to strongly segregate fair-skinned Europeans and dark-skinned Africans. <!-- this article is on fish, not on studies...This study featured on the cover of the academic journal Science and demonstrates the power of zebrafish as a model organism in the relatively new field of comparative genomics.--> Zebrafish with the nacre mutation have since been bred with fish with a roy orbison (roy) mutation to make Casper strain fish that have no melanophores or iridophores, and are transparent into adulthood. These fish are characterized by uniformly pigmented eyes and translucent skin.TransgenesisTransgenesis is a popular approach to study the function of genes in zebrafish. Construction of transgenic zebrafish is rather easy by a method using the Tol2 transposon system. Tol2 element which encodes a gene for a fully functional transposase capable of catalyzing transposition in the zebrafish germ lineage. Tol2 is the only natural DNA transposable element in vertebrates from which an autonomous member has been identified. Examples include the artificial interaction produced between LEF1 and Catenin beta-1/β-catenin/CTNNB1. Dorsky et al. 2002 investigated the developmental role of Wnt by transgenically expressing a Lef1/β-catenin reporter. The Tol2 transposon system was used to develop transgenic zebrafish as sensitive biosensors for heavy metal detection. This involved creating a transgenic zebrafish line expressing a fluorescent protein under the control of a heavy metal-responsive promoter, enabling the detection of low concentrations of cadmium (Cd2+) and zinc (Zn2+). There are well-established protocols for editing zebrafish genes using CRISPR-Cas9 and this tool has been used to generate genetically modified models.Transparent adult bodiesIn 2008, researchers at Boston Children's Hospital developed a new strain of zebrafish, named Casper, whose adult bodies had transparent skin. In January 2013, Japanese scientists genetically modified a transparent zebrafish specimen to produce a visible glow during periods of intense brain activity. In January 2007, Chinese researchers at Fudan University genetically modified zebrafish to detect oestrogen pollution in lakes and rivers, which is linked to male infertility. The researchers cloned oestrogen-sensitive genes and injected them into the fertile eggs of zebrafish. The modified fish turned green if placed into water that was polluted by oestrogen.RNA splicingIn 2015, researchers at Brown University discovered that 10% of zebrafish genes do not need to rely on the U2AF2 protein to initiate RNA splicing. These genes have the DNA base pairs AC and TG as repeated sequences at the ends of each intron. On the 3'ss (3' splicing site), the base pairs adenine and cytosine alternate and repeat, and on the 5'ss (5' splicing site), their complements thymine and guanine alternate and repeat as well. They found that there was less reliance on U2AF2 protein than in humans, in which the protein is required for the splicing process to occur. The pattern of repeating base pairs around introns that alters RNA secondary structure was found in other teleosts, but not in tetrapods. This indicates that an evolutionary change in tetrapods may have led to humans relying on the U2AF2 protein for RNA splicing while these genes in zebrafish undergo splicing regardless of the presence of the protein.OrthologyD. rerio has three transferrins, all of which cluster closely with other vertebrates. Inbreeding depression When close relatives mate, progeny may exhibit the detrimental effects of inbreeding depression. Inbreeding depression is predominantly caused by the homozygous expression of recessive deleterious alleles. For zebrafish, inbreeding depression might be expected to be more severe in stressful environments, including those caused by anthropogenic pollution. Exposure of zebrafish to environmental stress induced by the chemical clotrimazole, an imidazole fungicide used in agriculture and in veterinary and human medicine, amplified the effects of inbreeding on key reproductive traits. Embryo viability was significantly reduced in inbred exposed fish and there was a tendency for inbred males to sire fewer offspring. Aquaculture research Zebrafish are common models for research into fish farming, including pathogens and parasites DNA repair Zebrafish have been used as a model for studying DNA repair pathways. Embryos of externally fertilized fish species, such as zebrafish during their development, are directly exposed to environmental conditions such as pollutants and reactive oxygen species that may cause damage to their DNA. Drug discovery and development on neurological development.]] The zebrafish and zebrafish larva is a suitable model organism for drug discovery and development. As a vertebrate with 70% genetic homology with humans, As demonstrated through ongoing research programmes, the zebrafish model enables researchers not only to identify genes that might underlie human disease, but also to develop novel therapeutic agents in drug discovery programmes. Zebrafish embryos have proven to be a rapid, cost-efficient, and reliable teratology assay model. Drug screens Drug screens in zebrafish can be used to identify novel classes of compounds with biological effects, or to repurpose existing drugs for novel uses; an example of the latter would be a screen which found that a commonly used statin (rosuvastatin) can suppress the growth of prostate cancer. To date, 65 small-molecule screens have been carried out and at least one has led to clinical trials. Within these screens, many technical challenges remain to be resolved, including differing rates of drug absorption resulting in levels of internal exposure that cannot be extrapolated from the water concentration, and high levels of natural variation between individual animals. Because of its small size, however, it is very challenging to quantify the internal drug exposure. Traditionally multiple blood samples would be drawn to characterize the drug concentration profile over time, but this technique remains to be developed. To date, only a single pharmacokinetic model for paracetamol has been developed in zebrafish larvae. Computational data analysis Using smart data analysis methods, pathophysiological and pharmacological processes can be understood and subsequently translated to higher vertebrates, including humans. An example is the use of systems pharmacology, which is the integration of systems biology and pharmacometrics. Systems biology characterizes (part of) an organism by a mathematical description of all relevant processes. These can be for example different signal transduction pathways that upon a specific signal lead to a certain response. By quantifying these processes, their behaviour in healthy and diseased situation can be understood and predicted. Pharmacometrics uses data from preclinical experiments and clinical trials to characterize the pharmacological processes that are underlying the relation between the drug dose and its response or clinical outcome. These can be for example the drug absorption in or clearance from the body, or its interaction with the target to achieve a certain effect. By quantifying these processes, their behaviour after different doses or in different patients can be understood and predicted to new doses or patients. By integrating these two fields, systems pharmacology has the potential to improve the understanding of the interaction of the drug with the biological system by mathematical quantification and subsequent prediction to new situations, like new drugs or new organisms or patients. Using these computational methods, the previously mentioned analysis of paracetamol internal exposure in zebrafish larvae showed reasonable correlation between paracetamol clearance in zebrafish with that of higher vertebrates, including humans. Zebrafish expressing mutated forms of either the BRAF or NRAS oncogenes develop melanoma when placed onto a p53 deficient background. Histologically, these tumors strongly resemble the human disease, are fully transplantable, and exhibit large-scale genomic alterations. The BRAF melanoma model was utilized as a platform for two screens published in March 2011 in the journal Nature. In one study, the model was used as a tool to understand the functional importance of genes known to be amplified and overexpressed in human melanoma. One gene, SETDB1, markedly accelerated tumor formation in the zebrafish system, demonstrating its importance as a new melanoma oncogene. This was particularly significant because SETDB1 is known to be involved in the epigenetic regulation that is increasingly appreciated to be central to tumor cell biology. In another study, an effort was made to therapeutically target the genetic program present in the tumor's origin neural crest cell using a chemical screening approach. This revealed that an inhibition of the DHODH protein (by a small molecule called leflunomide) prevented development of the neural crest stem cells which ultimately give rise to melanoma via interference with the process of transcriptional elongation. Because this approach would aim to target the "identity" of the melanoma cell rather than a single genetic mutation, leflunomide may have utility in treating human melanoma. Cardiovascular disease In cardiovascular research, the zebrafish has been used to model human myocardial infarction model. The zebrafish heart completely regenerates after about 2 months of injury without any scar formation. The Alpha-1 adrenergic signalling mechanism involved in this process was identified in a 2023 study. Zebrafish is also used as a model for blood clotting, blood vessel development, and congenital heart and kidney disease.Immune systemIn programmes of research into acute inflammation, a major underpinning process in many diseases, researchers have established a zebrafish model of inflammation, and its resolution. This approach allows detailed study of the genetic controls of inflammation and the possibility of identifying potential new drugs. Zebrafish has been extensively used as a model organism to study vertebrate innate immunity. The innate immune system is capable of phagocytic activity by 28 to 30 h postfertilization (hpf) while adaptive immunity is not functionally mature until at least 4 weeks postfertilization. Infectious diseases As the immune system is relatively conserved between zebrafish and humans, many human infectious diseases can be modeled in zebrafish. The transparent early life stages are well suited for in vivo imaging and genetic dissection of host-pathogen interactions. Zebrafish models for a wide range of bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens have already been established; for example, the zebrafish model for tuberculosis provides fundamental insights into the mechanisms of pathogenesis of mycobacteria. Other bacteria commonly studied using zebrafish models include Clostridioides difficile, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Furthermore, robotic technology has been developed for high-throughput antimicrobial drug screening using zebrafish infection models. Repairing retinal damage Another notable characteristic of the zebrafish is that it possesses four types of cone cell, with ultraviolet-sensitive cells supplementing the red, green and blue cone cell subtypes found in humans. Zebrafish can thus observe a very wide spectrum of colours. The species is also studied to better understand the development of the retina; in particular, how the cone cells of the retina become arranged into the so-called 'cone mosaic'. Zebrafish, in addition to certain other teleost fish, are particularly noted for having extreme precision of cone cell arrangement. This study of the zebrafish's retinal characteristics has also extrapolated into medical enquiry. In 2007, researchers at University College London grew a type of zebrafish adult stem cell found in the eyes of fish and mammals that develops into neurons in the retina. These could be injected into the eye to treat diseases that damage retinal neurons—nearly every disease of the eye, including macular degeneration, glaucoma, and diabetes-related blindness. The researchers studied Müller glial cells in the eyes of humans aged from 18 months to 91 years, and were able to develop them into all types of retinal neurons. They were also able to grow them easily in the lab. The stem cells successfully migrated into diseased rats' retinas, and took on the characteristics of the surrounding neurons. The team stated that they intended to develop the same approach in humans. Muscular dystrophies Muscular dystrophies (MD) are a heterogeneous group of genetic disorders that cause muscle weakness, abnormal contractions and muscle wasting, often leading to premature death. Zebrafish is widely used as model organism to study muscular dystrophies. The Machuca-Tzili and co-workers applied zebrafish to determine the role of alternative splicing factor, MBNL, in myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) pathogenesis. More recently, Todd et al. described a new zebrafish model designed to explore the impact of CUG repeat expression during early development in DM1 disease. Zebrafish is also an excellent animal model to study congenital muscular dystrophies including CMD Type 1 A (CMD 1A) caused by mutation in the human laminin α2 (LAMA2) gene. The zebrafish, because of its advantages discussed above, and in particular the ability of zebrafish embryos to absorb chemicals, has become a model of choice in screening and testing new drugs against muscular dystrophies. Bone physiology and pathology Zebrafish have been used as model organisms for bone metabolism, tissue turnover, and resorbing activity. These processes are largely evolutionary conserved. They have been used to study osteogenesis (bone formation), evaluating differentiation, matrix deposition activity, and cross-talk of skeletal cells, to create and isolate mutants modeling human bone diseases, and test new chemical compounds for the ability to revert bone defects. The larvae can be used to follow new (de novo) osteoblast formation during bone development. They start mineralising bone elements as early as 4 days post fertilisation. Recently, adult zebrafish are being used to study complex age related bone diseases such as osteoporosis and osteogenesis imperfecta. The (elasmoid) scales of zebrafish function as a protective external layer and are little bony plates made by osteoblasts. These exoskeletal structures are formed by bone matrix depositing osteoblasts and are remodeled by osteoclasts. The scales also act as the main calcium storage of the fish. They can be cultured ex-vivo (kept alive outside of the organism) in a multi-well plate, which allows manipulation with drugs and even screening for new drugs that could change bone metabolism (between osteoblasts and osteoclasts). Diabetes Zebrafish pancreas development is very homologous to mammals, such as mice. The signaling mechanisms and way the pancreas functions are very similar. The pancreas has an endocrine compartment, which contains a variety of cells. Pancreatic PP cells that produce polypeptides, and β-cells that produce insulin are two examples of those such cells. This structure of the pancreas, along with the glucose homeostasis system, are helpful in studying diseases, such as diabetes, that are related to the pancreas. Models for pancreas function, such as fluorescent staining of proteins, are useful in determining the processes of glucose homeostasis and the development of the pancreas. Glucose tolerance tests have been developed using zebrafish, and can now be used to test for glucose intolerance or diabetes in humans. The function of insulin are also being tested in zebrafish, which will further contribute to human medicine. The majority of work done surrounding knowledge on glucose homeostasis has come from work on zebrafish transferred to humans. Obesity Zebrafish have been used as a model system to study obesity, with research into both genetic obesity and over-nutrition induced obesity. Obese zebrafish, similar to obese mammals, show dysregulation of lipid controlling metabolic pathways, which leads to weight gain without normal lipid metabolism. Epilepsy Zebrafish have been used as a model system to study epilepsy. Mammalian seizures can be recapitulated molecularly, behaviorally, and electrophysiologically, using a fraction of the resources required for experiments in mammals. See also * Japanese rice fish or medaka, another fish used for genetic, developmental, and biomedical research * List of freshwater aquarium fish species *Denison barb References Further reading * * * * * * * * External links * [http://www.bazh.org.uk/ British Association of Zebrafish Husbandry] * [https://www.izfs.org International Zebrafish Society] (IZFS) * [https://www.eufishbiomed.kit.edu/211.php European Society for Fish Models in Biology and Medicine] (EuFishBioMed) * [http://zfin.org/ The Zebrafish Information Network] (ZFIN) * [http://zebrafish.org/ The Zebrafish International Resource Center] (ZIRC) * [http://ezrc.kit.edu/ The European Zebrafish Resource Center] (EZRC) * [http://zfish.cn/ The China Zebrafish Resource Center] (CZRC) * [http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/D_rerio/ The Zebrafish Genome Sequencing Project] at the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute * [https://archive.today/20121218212614/http://miracle.igib.res.in/cgi-bin/fishmap/gbrowse/ FishMap: The Zebrafish Community Genomics Browser] at the Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology (IGIB) * [https://sites.google.com/a/igib.in/fishwiki/ WebHome Zebrafish GenomeWiki Beta Preview] at the IGIB * [https://sites.google.com/a/igib.in/zebrafish/aswt-genome/ Genome sequencing initiative] at the IGIB * [http://www.danios.info/fish/rerio.aspx Danio rerio] at Danios.info * [http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/D_rerio/mutres/ Sanger Institute Zebrafish Mutation Resource] * [http://www.ensembl.org/Danio_rerio/Info/Index/ Zebrafish genome] via Ensembl * [http://www.fishforscience.com/ FishforScience.com] – using zebrafish for medical research * [http://www.fishforpharma.com/ FishForPharma] * [http://thefishdoctor.co.uk/breeding-zebrafish-zebra-danios/ Breeding Zebrafish] * Category:Fish described in 1822 Category:Danio Category:Fish of Bangladesh Category:Freshwater fish of India Category:Freshwater fish of Pakistan Category:Animal models Category:Stem cell research Category:Regenerative biomedicine Category:Animal models in neuroscience Category:Taxa named by Francis Buchanan-Hamilton Category:Fish of Nepal Category:Fish of Bhutan
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebrafish
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Balance
Balance may refer to: Common meanings Balance (ability) in biomechanics Balance (accounting) Balance or weighing scale Balance, as in equality (mathematics) or equilibrium Arts and entertainment Film Balance (1983 film), a Bulgarian film Balance (1989 film), a short animated film La Balance, a 1982 French film Television Balance: Television for Living Well, a Canadian television talk show "The Balance" (Roswell), an episode of the television series Roswell "The Balance", an episode of the animated series Justice League Music Performers Balance (band), a 1980s pop-rock group Albums Balance (Akrobatik album), 2003 Balance (Kim-Lian album), 2004 Balance (Leo Kottke album), 1978 Balance (Joe Morris album), 2014 Balance (Swollen Members album), 1999 Balance (Ty Tabor album), 2008 Balance (Melly Goeslaw album), 2013 Balance (Van Halen album), 1995 Balance (Armin van Buuren album), 2019 The Balance, a 2019 album by Catfish and the Bottlemen Songs "Balance", a song by Axium from The Story Thus Far "Balance", a song by Band-Maid from Unleash "Balance", a song by Ed Sheeran from - (Deluxe vinyl edition) "The Balance", a Moody Blues song on the 1970 album A Question of Balance Other Balance (game design), the concept and the practice of tuning relationships between a game's component systems Balance (installation), a 2013 glazed ceramic installation by Tim Ryan Balance (puzzle), a mathematical puzzle "Balance", a poem by Patti Smith from the book kodak Government and law BALANCE Act (Benefit Authors without Limiting Advancement or Net Consumer Expectations Act), a proposed US federal legislation Balance (apportionment), a criterion for fair allocation of seats among parties or states Census balance, a census-designated geography in the United States Other uses Balance (advertisement), a 1989 award-winning television advertisement for the Lexus LS 400 Balance (metaphysics), a desirable point between two or more opposite forces Balance (stereo), the amount of signal from each channel reproduced in a stereo audio recording The Balance, a personal finance website owned by Dotdash See also Balancing (disambiguation) Balanced, a wine tasting descriptor
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balance
2025-04-05T18:27:02.451771
5013
Battle of Adwa
| conflict = Battle of Adwa | partof = the First Italo-Ethiopian War | date | place = Adwa, Tigray Province, Ethiopia | result = Ethiopian victory | territory | combatant1 | combatant2 = | commander1 = Menelik II<br /> Taytu Betul<br> Ras Makonnen <br> Ras Mikael<br> Ras Mengesha<br> Tekle Haymanot<br> Ras Alula | commander2 = Oreste Baratieri<br> Vittorio Dabormida<br> Giuseppe Arimondi<br> Matteo Albertone }} | strength1 = 73,000–100,000 | strength2 14,519–17,770 | casualties1 = 3,886–7,000 killed | casualties2 = ~6,000 killed<br>3,865 captured }} The Battle of Adwa (; ; , also spelled Adowa'') was the climactic battle of the First Italo-Ethiopian War. The Ethiopian army defeated an invading Italian and Eritrean force led by Oreste Baratieri on March 1, 1896, near the town of Adwa. The victory, aided by vastly superior numbers, decisively thwarted the Kingdom of Italy's attempt to expand its colonial empire in the Horn of Africa. As a result, by the end of the 19th century Ethiopia was the only independent country left in Africa, which had otherwise been carved up by European powers following the Berlin Conference. The Italian government decided on a military solution to force Ethiopia to abide by the Italian version of the treaty. As a result, Italy and Ethiopia came into confrontation, in what was later to be known as the First Italo-Ethiopian War. In December 1894, Bahta Hagos led a rebellion against the Italians in Akele Guzai, in what was then Italian controlled Eritrea. Units of General Oreste Baratieri's army under Major Pietro Toselli crushed the rebellion and killed Bahta. In January 1895, Baratieri's army went on to defeat Ras Mengesha Yohannes in the Battle of Coatit, forcing Mengesha to retreat further south. By late 1895, Italian forces had advanced deep into Ethiopian territory and occupied much of Tigray. On 7 December 1895, Ras Makonnen Wolde Mikael, Fitawrari Gebeyehu and Ras Mengesha Yohannes commanding a larger Ethiopian group of Menelik's vanguard annihilated a small Italian unit at the Battle of Amba Alagi. The Italians were then forced to withdraw to more defensible positions in Tigray Province, where the two main armies faced each other. By late February 1896, supplies on both sides were running low. General Oreste Baratieri, commander of the Italian forces, knew the Ethiopian forces had been living off the land, and once the supplies of the local peasants were exhausted, Emperor Menelik II's army would begin to melt away. However, the Italian government insisted that General Baratieri act. On the evening of 29 February, Baratieri, about to be replaced by a new governor, General Baldissera, met with his generals Matteo Albertone, Giuseppe Arimondi, Vittorio Dabormida, and Giuseppe Ellena, concerning their next steps. He opened the meeting on a negative note, revealing to his brigadiers that provisions would be exhausted in less than five days, and suggested retreating, perhaps as far back as Asmara. His subordinates argued forcefully for an attack, insisting that to retreat at this point would only worsen the poor morale. Dabormida exclaimed, "Italy would prefer the loss of two or three thousand men to a dishonorable retreat." Baratieri delayed making a decision for a few more hours, claiming that he needed to wait for some last-minute intelligence, but in the end announced that the attack would start the next morning at 9:00am. His troops began their march to their starting positions shortly after midnight. Order of battle Ethiopian forces * Shewa; Negus Negasti Menelik II: 25,000 rifles / 3,000 horses / 32 guns * Semien; Itaghiè Taytu: 3,000 rifles / 600 horses / 4 guns The forces were divided among Emperor Menelik, Empress Taytu Betul, Ras Welle Betul, Ras Mengesha Atikem, Ras Mengesha Yohannes, Ras Alula Engida (Abba Nega), Ras Mikael of Wollo, Ras Makonnen Wolde Mikael, Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis, Fitawrari Gebeyyehu, and Negus Tekle Haymanot Tessemma. Pétridès (as well as Pankhurst, with slight variations) break the troop numbers down (over 100,000 by their estimates) as follows: 35,000 infantry (25,000 riflemen and 10,000 spearmen) and 8,000 cavalry under Emperor Menelik; 5,000 infantry under Empress Taytu; 8,000 infantry (6,000 riflemen and 2,000 spearmen) under Ras Wale; 8,000 infantry (5,000 riflemen and 3,000 spearmen) under Ras Mengesha Atikem, 12,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Alula Engida; 6,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 5,000 Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael of Wollo; 15,000 riflemen under Ras Makonnen; 8,000 infantry under Fitawrari Gebeyyehu Gora; 5,000 riflemen, 5,000 spearmen, and 3,000 cavalry under Negus Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam. In addition, the armies were followed by a similar number of camp followers who supplied the army, as had been done for centuries. Most of the army consisted of riflemen, a significant percentage of whom were in Menelik's reserve; however, there were also a significant number of cavalry and infantry only armed with lances (those with lances were referred to as "lancer servants"). <!-- Wollo cavalry This section seems to duplicate part of the "Battle" section, about Dabormida's force being wiped out while retreating, but with little detail and no clear reference: In a recent Amharic publication authored by Andargachew Tsige, an important figure in Ethiopian politics, he references the book "The Battle of Adwa" by Raymond Jonas, and wrote that a 70,000 strong army of Muslim horse men from Wollo (Negus Mikael's cavalry) engaged Italian advancing forces in fierce battles inflicting heavy damage.--> Italian forces Immediately before the battle of Adwa, the Italian army consisted of 29,700 Italians and 14,000 askaris. However, as Harold Marcus notes, "several thousand" soldiers were needed in support roles and to guard the lines of communication to the rear. He accordingly estimates that the Italian force at Adwa consisted of just 14,519 effective combat troops. Where as, David L. Lewis estimates that the Italian army consisted of four brigades, totaling 17,770 troops with fifty-six artillery pieces. One brigade under General Albertone was made up of Eritrean Ascari led by Italian officers. The remaining three brigades were Italian units under Brigadiers Dabormida, Ellena and Arimondi. While these included elite Bersaglieri and Alpini units, a large proportion of the troops were inexperienced conscripts recently drafted from metropolitan regiments in Italy into newly formed "d'Africa" battalions for service in Africa. Additionally, a limited number of troops were from the Cacciatori d'Africa; units permanently serving in Africa and in part recruited from Italian settlers. According to historian Chris Prouty: The Italian operational corps in Eritrea was under the command of General Oreste Baratieri. The chief of staff was Lieutenant Colonel Giacchino Valenzano. * Right column: (4,833 rifles / 18 cannons) 2nd Infantry Brigade (Gen. Vittorio Dabormida); ** 3rd Africa Infantry Regiment, (Col. Ottavio Ragni) *** 5th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Giordano) *** 6th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Leopoldo Prato) *** 10th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Gennaro De Fonseca) ** 6th Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Cesare Airaghi) *** 3rd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi Branchi) *** 13th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Alberto Rayneri) *** 14th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Secondo Solaro) ** Native Mobile Militia Battalion (Maj. Lodovico De Vito) ** Native Company from the Asmara Chitet (Cpt. Alberto Sermasi) ** 2nd Artillery Brigade (Maj. Alberto Zola) *** 5th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Giuseppe Mottino) *** 6th Mountain Artillery Battery (Col. Francesco Stevani) *** 1st Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Matteo De Stefano) *** 2nd Africa Bersaglieri Battalion (Maj. Lorenzo Compiano) ** 1st Africa Infantry Regiment (Col. Ugo Brusati) *** 2nd Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Flaciano Viancini) *** 4th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Luigi De Amicis) *** 9th Africa Infantry Battalion (Maj. Giuseppe Baudoin) ** 1st Company of the 5th Native Battalion (Cpt. Pietro Pavesi) ** 8th Mountain Artillery Battery (Cpt. Clemente Henry) *** 2nd Section of the 2nd Native Mountain Artillery Battery (Lt. Arnaldo Vibi) *** 3rd Mountain Artillery BatteryBattleOn the night of 29 February and the early morning of 1 March, three Italian brigades advanced separately towards Adwa over narrow mountain tracks, while a fourth remained camped. David Levering Lewis states that the Italian battle plan called for three columns to march in parallel formation to the crests of three mountains – Dabormida commanding on the right, Albertone on the left, and Arimondi in the center – with a reserve under Ellena following behind Arimondi. The supporting crossfire each column could give the others made the 'soldiers as deadly as razored shears'. Albertone's brigade was to set the pace for the others. He was to position himself on the summit known as Kidane Mehret, which would give the Italians the high ground from which to meet the Ethiopians. The Ethiopian forces positioned themselves on the hills overlooking the Adwa valley, in perfect position to receive the Italians, who were exposed and vulnerable to crossfire. Initially the Italian artillery inflicted heavy casualties on the Ethiopian formations until a portion of the Ethiopians led by Balcha Safo deployed their quick-firing Hotchkiss guns on the lower side of Mount Abba Gerima and Albertone's advantage in artillery fire was removed. General Baratieri, realizing that the battle was lost, ordered a general retreat. He tried to get the last uncommitted units of the Italian reserve column led by General Ellena to cover the retreat. But before they could form up, their lines were broken by a flood of fleeing Italian soldiers. The reserve had no chance to form a coherent defence and were overwhelmed within minutes. By noon, the Italian center was completely broken and the Ethiopian cavalry from Shewa and Wollo then pursued the fleeing Italians relentlessly, as Berkeley records from eyewitness accounts, "the Abyssinians wild with enthusiasm then rushed in upon them, reckless of losses and death." General Arimondi's mule ran away in the confusion and Arimondi as well as almost all his officers were cut down. Dabormida's Italian Brigade had moved to support Albertone but was unable to reach him in time. Cut off from the remainder of the Italian army, Dabormida was unaware that the other Italian troops had been annihilated as he had not received any communication from Baratieri. The Ethiopians who had just defeated Generals Arimondi's and Ellena's brigades were now moving to encircle Dabormida's brigade from the rear. By 3:00PM Dabormida, still unaware of the rout of the rest of the army, now began a desperate attempt to break out of the encirclement and make a hasty retreat. However, he inadvertently marched his command into a narrow valley where the Wollo Oromo cavalry under Ras Mikael slaughtered his brigade, shouting 'Ebalgume! Ebalgume!' ('Reap! Reap!'). Dabormida's remains were never found, although an old woman living in the area said that she had given water to a mortally wounded Italian officer, "a chief, a great man with spectacles and a watch, and golden stars". The retreating columns under Baratieri were harried for nine miles before the Ethiopian cavalry gave up the pursuit, fires were then lit on the highest hilltops to signal local peasants to attack Italian and Ascari stragglers. Baratieri's defeated army continued to retreat throughout the night, crossing the Belessa River and reaching Italian Eritrea by March 4. Back at the battlefield the Ethiopians were celebrating, chanting "Mow, mow down the tender grass! The corn of Italy that was sown in Tigré has been reaped by Menelik, and he has given it to the birds!"Immediate aftermath survivors after the Battle of Adwa]] George Berkeley records that the Italian casualties were approximately 6,100 men killed: 261 officers, 2,918 white NCOs and privates, with 954 permanently missing, and about 2,000 ascari dead. Another 1,428 were wounded – 470 Italians (including 31 officers) and 958 ascari. In addition, 1,865 Italians and 2,000 ascaris were taken prisoner. Richard Caulk estimates that the number of Italians killed were 300 officers, 4,600 Italian rank, and 1,000 askari for a total of 5,900 dead. Moreover, 1,000 escaped wounded and at least 2,000 were captured. Citing contemporary figures, Caulk records Ethiopian losses to be 3,886 killed and 6,000 wounded. On the other hand, Berkeley estimates Ethiopian losses to be 7,000 killed and 10,000 wounded. In their desperate flight to Eritrea, the Italians left behind all of their artillery and 11,000 rifles, as well as most of their transport. 800 captured Eritrean Ascari, regarded as traitors by the Ethiopians, had their right hands and left feet amputated. Augustus Wylde records that when he visited the battlefield months after the battle, the pile of severed hands and feet was still visible, "a rotting heap of ghastly remnants." Many mutilated Ascari did not survive. Wylde wrote how the neighborhood of Adwa "was full of their freshly dead bodies; they had generally crawled to the banks of the streams to quench their thirst, where many of them lingered unattended and exposed to the elements until death put an end to their sufferings." Despite some instances of abuse (including possibly some instances of castration), the Italian prisoners were generally treated better by the Ethiopians. Among the prisoners was General Albertone. Chris Prouty notes that Albertone was given into the care of Azaj Zamanel, commander of Empress Taytu's personal army, and "had a tent to himself, a horse and servants". However, around 70 Italian prisoners were massacred in retaliation for the death of Bashah Aboye. The officer responsible for the massacre was reportedly imprisoned by Menelik. Public opinion in Italy was outraged. Chris Prouty offers a panoramic overview of the response in Italy to the news: Aftermath Emperor Menelik decided not to follow up on his victory by attempting to drive the routed Italians out of their colony. The victorious Emperor limited his demands to little more than the abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale. In the context of the prevailing balance of power, the emperor's crucial goal was to preserve Ethiopian independence. In addition, Ethiopia had just begun to emerge from a long and brutal famine; Harold Marcus reminds us that the army was restive over its long service in the field, short of rations, and the short rains which would bring all travel to a crawl would soon start to fall. At the time, Menelik claimed a shortage of cavalry horses with which to harry the fleeing soldiers. Chris Prouty observes that "a failure of nerve on the part of Menelik has been alleged by both Italian and Ethiopian sources." Lewis believes that it "was his farsighted certainty that total annihilation of Baratieri and a sweep into Eritrea would force the Italian people to turn a bungled colonial war into a national crusade" that stayed his hand. As a direct result of the battle, Italy signed the Treaty of Addis Ababa, recognizing Ethiopia as an independent state. Almost forty years later, on 3 October 1935, after the League of Nations's weak response to the Abyssinia Crisis, the Italians launched a new military campaign endorsed by Benito Mussolini, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. This time the Italians employed vastly superior military technology such as tanks and aircraft, as well as chemical warfare, and the Ethiopian forces were defeated by May 1936. Following the war, Italy occupied Ethiopia for five years (1936–41), before eventually being driven out during World War II by British Empire forces and Ethiopian Arbegnoch guerillas.Significance "The confrontation between Italy and Ethiopia at Adwa was a fundamental turning point in Ethiopian history," writes Henze. On a similar note, the Ethiopian historian Bahru Zewde observed that "few events in the modern period have brought Ethiopia to the attention of the world as has the victory at Adwa". This defeat of a colonial power and the ensuing recognition of African sovereignty became rallying points for later African nationalists during their struggle for decolonization, as well as activists and leaders of the Pan-African movement. As the Afrocentric scholar Molefe Asante explains, On the other hand, many writers have pointed out how this battle was a humiliation for the Italian military. Italian historian Tripodi argued that some of the roots of the rise of Fascism in Italy went back to this defeat and to the perceived need to "avenge" the defeat that started to be present in the military and nationalistic groups of the Kingdom of Italy. The same Mussolini declared when Italian troops occupied Addis Ababa in May 1936: Adua è vendicata (Adwa has been avenged). Indeed, one student of Ethiopia's History, Donald N. Levine, points out that for the Italians Adwa "became a national trauma which demagogic leaders strove to avenge. It also played no little part in motivating Italy's revanchist adventure in 1935". Levine also noted that the victory "gave encouragement to isolationist and conservative strains that were deeply rooted in Ethiopian culture, strengthening the hand of those who would strive to keep Ethiopia from adopting techniques imported from the modern West – resistances with which both Menelik and Haile Selassie would have to contend". Present-day celebrations of Adwa Public holidayThe Adwa Victory Day is a public holiday in all regional states and charter cities across Ethiopia. All schools, banks, post offices and government offices are closed, with the exceptions of health facilities. Some taxi services and public transports choose not to operate on this day. Shops are normally open but most close earlier than usual. Public celebrations The Victory of Adwa, being a public holiday, is commemorated in public spaces. In Addis Ababa, the Victory of Adwa is celebrated at Menelik Square with the presence of government officials, patriots, foreign diplomats and the general public. The Ethiopian Police Orchestra play various patriotic songs as they walk around Menelik Square. The public dress up in traditional Ethiopian patriotic attire. Men often wear Jodhpurs and various types of vest; they carry the Ethiopian flag and various patriotic banners and placards, as well as traditional Ethiopian shields and swords called Shotel. Women dress up in different patterns of handcrafted traditional Ethiopian clothing, known in Amharic as Habesha kemis. Some wear black gowns over all, while others put royal crowns on their heads. Women's styles of dress, like their male counterparts, imitate the traditional styles of Ethiopian patriotic women. Of particular note is the dominant presence of the Empress Taytu Betul during these celebrations.<ref name"aglobalworld.com"/><ref name"borkena.com"/> The beloved and influential wife of Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu Betul, played a significant role during the Battle of Adwa. Although often overlooked, thousands of women participated in the Battle of Adwa. Some were trained as nurses to attend to the wounded, and others mainly cooked and supplied food and water to the soldiers and comforted the wounded.<ref name="borkena.com"/> In addition to Addis Ababa, other major cities in Ethiopia, including Bahir Dar, Debre Markos and the town of Adwa itself, where the battle took place, celebrate the Victory of Adwa in public ceremonies.<ref name"aglobalworld.com"/>SymbolsSeveral images and symbols are used during the commemoration of the Victory of Adwa, including the tri-coloured green, gold and red Ethiopian flag, images of Emperor Menelik II and Empress Taytu Betul, as well as other prominent kings and war generals of the time including King Tekle Haymanot of Gojjam, King Michael of Wollo, Dejazmach Balcha Safo, Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde, and Fitawrari Gebeyehu, among others. Surviving members of the Ethiopian patriotic battalions wear the various medals that they collected for their participation on different battlefields. Young people often wear T-shirts adorned by Emperor Menelik II, Empress Taytu, Emperor Haile Selassie and other notable members of the Ethiopian monarchy. Popular and patriotic songs are often played on amplifiers. Of particular note are Ejigayehu Shibabaw's ballad dedicated to the Battle of Adwa and Teddy Afro's popular song "Tikur Sew", which literally translates to "black man or black person" – a poetic reference to Emperor Menelik II's decisive African victory over Europeans, as well as the Emperor's darker skin complexion. See also * Scramble for Africa * Colonisation of Africa * Adwa Zero KM Project Notes Footnotes Citations References * Berkeley, G.F.-H. (1902) The Campaign of Adowa and the Rise of Menelik, Westminster: A. Constable, 403 pp., * Brown, P.S. and Yirgu, F. (1996) The Battle of Adwa 1896, Chicago: Nyala Publishing, 160 pp., * Bulatovich, A.K. (nd) With the Armies of Menelik II: Journal of an Expedition from Ethiopia to Lake Rudolf, translated by Richard Seltzer, * Bulatovich, A.K. (2000) Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, Lawrenceville, N.J. : Red Sea Press, * Henze, P.B. (2004) Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, London: Hurst & Co., * Jonas, R.A. (2011) The Battle of Adwa: African Victory in the Age of Empire, Bellknap Press of Harvard University Press, * Lewis, D.L. (1988) The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa, 1st ed., London: Bloomsbury, * Marcus, H.G. (1995) The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913, Lawrenceville, N.J.: Red Sea Press, * Pankhurst, K.P. (1968) Economic History of Ethiopia, 1800–1935, Addis Ababa: Haile Sellassie I University Press, 772 pp., * Pankhurst, K.P. (1998) The Ethiopians: A History, The Peoples of Africa Series, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, * Rosenfeld, C.P. (1986) Empress Taytu and Menelik II: Ethiopia 1883–1910, London: Ravens Educational & Development Services, * Uhlig, S. (ed.) (2003) Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, 1 (A–C), Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, * Worrell, R. (2005) Pan-Africanism in Barbados: An Analysis of the Activities of the Major 20th-Century Pan-African Formations in Barbados, Washington, DC: New Academia Publishing, * Zewde, Bahru (1991) A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1974, Eastern African Studies series, London: Currey, * With the Armies of Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia at www.samizdat.com External links * [http://www.historynet.com/first-italo-abyssinian-war-battle-of-adowa.htm Historynet: Ethiopia's Decisive Victory at Adowa] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110716112407/http://www.300.years.spb.ru/eng/3_spb_3.html?id=64 Who Was Count Abai?] * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/2549 The Colony of Eritrea from its Origins until March 1, 1899] from 1899 which details the Battle of Adwa from the World Digital Library * [http://collections.nmnh.si.edu/search/anth/?irn=8378154 Painting depicting the Battle of Adwa], Catalogue No. E261845, Department of Anthropology, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution Category:Battles of the First Italo-Ethiopian War Battle of Adwa Battle of Adwa Category:Battles involving Eritrea Category:March 1896 Category:Ethiopian nationalism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Adwa
2025-04-05T18:27:02.473185
5014
Bistability
thumb|upright=1.4|A graph of the potential energy of a bistable system; it has two local minima x_1 and x_2. A surface shaped like this with two "low points" can act as a bistable system; a ball resting on the surface can only be stable at those two positions, such as balls marked "1" and "2". Between the two is a local maximum x_3. A ball located at this point, ball 3, is in equilibrium but unstable; the slightest disturbance will cause it to move to one of the stable points. thumb|upright=0.8|Light switch, a bistable mechanism In a dynamical system, bistability means the system has two stable equilibrium states. A bistable structure can be resting in either of two states. An example of a mechanical device which is bistable is a light switch. The switch lever is designed to rest in the "on" or "off" position, but not between the two. Bistable behavior can occur in mechanical linkages, electronic circuits, nonlinear optical systems, chemical reactions, and physiological and biological systems. In a conservative force field, bistability stems from the fact that the potential energy has two local minima, which are the stable equilibrium points. These rest states need not have equal potential energy. By mathematical arguments, a local maximum, an unstable equilibrium point, must lie between the two minima. At rest, a particle will be in one of the minimum equilibrium positions, because that corresponds to the state of lowest energy. The maximum can be visualized as a barrier between them. A system can transition from one state of minimal energy to the other if it is given enough activation energy to penetrate the barrier (compare activation energy and Arrhenius equation for the chemical case). After the barrier has been reached, assuming the system has damping, it will relax into the other minimum state in a time called the relaxation time. Bistability is widely used in digital electronics devices to store binary data. It is the essential characteristic of the flip-flop, a circuit which is a fundamental building block of computers and some types of semiconductor memory. A bistable device can store one bit of binary data, with one state representing a "0" and the other state a "1". It is also used in relaxation oscillators, multivibrators, and the Schmitt trigger. Optical bistability is an attribute of certain optical devices where two resonant transmissions states are possible and stable, dependent on the input. Bistability can also arise in biochemical systems, where it creates digital, switch-like outputs from the constituent chemical concentrations and activities. It is often associated with hysteresis in such systems. Mathematical modelling In the mathematical language of dynamic systems analysis, one of the simplest bistable systems is \frac{dy}{dt} = y (1-y^2). This system describes a ball rolling down a curve with shape \frac{y^4}{4} - \frac{y^2}{2}, and has three equilibrium points: y 1 , y 0 , and y -1. The middle point y0 is marginally stable ( y 0 is stable but y \approx 0 will not converge to y 0 ), while the other two points are stable. The direction of change of y(t) over time depends on the initial condition y(0). If the initial condition is positive (y(0)>0), then the solution y(t) approaches 1 over time, but if the initial condition is negative (y(0)), then y(t) approaches −1 over time. Thus, the dynamics are "bistable". The final state of the system can be either y 1 or y -1 , depending on the initial conditions. The appearance of a bistable region can be understood for the model system \frac{dy}{dt} = y (r-y^2) which undergoes a supercritical pitchfork bifurcation with bifurcation parameter r . In biological and chemical systems thumb|Three-dimensional invariant measure for cellular-differentiation featuring a two-stable mode. The axes denote cell counts for three types of cells: progenitor (z), osteoblast (y), and chondrocyte (x). Pro-osteoblast stimulus promotes P→O transition. Bistability is key for understanding basic phenomena of cellular functioning, such as decision-making processes in cell cycle progression, cellular differentiation, and apoptosis. It is also involved in loss of cellular homeostasis associated with early events in cancer onset and in prion diseases as well as in the origin of new species (speciation). Bistability can be generated by a positive feedback loop with an ultrasensitive regulatory step. Positive feedback loops, such as the simple X activates Y and Y activates X motif, essentially link output signals to their input signals and have been noted to be an important regulatory motif in cellular signal transduction because positive feedback loops can create switches with an all-or-nothing decision. Studies have shown that numerous biological systems, such as Xenopus oocyte maturation, mammalian calcium signal transduction, and polarity in budding yeast, incorporate multiple positive feedback loops with different time scales (slow and fast). Bistability can be modified to be more robust and to tolerate significant changes in concentrations of reactants, while still maintaining its "switch-like" character. Feedback on both the activator of a system and inhibitor make the system able to tolerate a wide range of concentrations. An example of this in cell biology is that activated CDK1 (Cyclin Dependent Kinase 1) activates its activator Cdc25 while at the same time inactivating its inactivator, Wee1, thus allowing for progression of a cell into mitosis. Without this double feedback, the system would still be bistable, but would not be able to tolerate such a wide range of concentrations. Bistability has also been described in the embryonic development of Drosophila melanogaster (the fruit fly). Examples are anterior-posterior and dorso-ventral axis formation and eye development. A prime example of bistability in biological systems is that of Sonic hedgehog (Shh), a secreted signaling molecule, which plays a critical role in development. Shh functions in diverse processes in development, including patterning limb bud tissue differentiation. The Shh signaling network behaves as a bistable switch, allowing the cell to abruptly switch states at precise Shh concentrations. gli1 and gli2 transcription is activated by Shh, and their gene products act as transcriptional activators for their own expression and for targets downstream of Shh signaling. Simultaneously, the Shh signaling network is controlled by a negative feedback loop wherein the Gli transcription factors activate the enhanced transcription of a repressor (Ptc). This signaling network illustrates the simultaneous positive and negative feedback loops whose exquisite sensitivity helps create a bistable switch. Bistability can only arise in biological and chemical systems if three necessary conditions are fulfilled: positive feedback, a mechanism to filter out small stimuli and a mechanism to prevent increase without bound. Bistability is often accompanied by hysteresis. On a population level, if many realisations of a bistable system are considered (e.g. many bistable cells (speciation)), one typically observes bimodal distributions. In an ensemble average over the population, the result may simply look like a smooth transition, thus showing the value of single-cell resolution. A specific type of instability is known as modehopping, which is bi-stability in the frequency space. Here trajectories can shoot between two stable limit cycles, and thus show similar characteristics as normal bi-stability when measured inside a Poincare section. In mechanical systems thumbnail|A ratchet in action. Each tooth in the ratchet together with the regions to either side of it constitutes a simple bistable mechanism. Bistability as applied in the design of mechanical systems is more commonly said to be "over centre"—that is, work is done on the system to move it just past the peak, at which point the mechanism goes "over centre" to its secondary stable position. The result is a toggle-type action- work applied to the system below a threshold sufficient to send it 'over center' results in no change to the mechanism's state. Springs are a common method of achieving an "over centre" action. A spring attached to a simple two position ratchet-type mechanism can create a button or plunger that is clicked or toggled between two mechanical states. Many ballpoint and rollerball retractable pens employ this type of bistable mechanism. An even more common example of an over-center device is an ordinary electric wall switch. These switches are often designed to snap firmly into the "on" or "off" position once the toggle handle has been moved a certain distance past the center-point. A ratchet-and-pawl is an elaboration—a multi-stable "over center" system used to create irreversible motion. The pawl goes over center as it is turned in the forward direction. In this case, "over center" refers to the ratchet being stable and "locked" in a given position until clicked forward again; it has nothing to do with the ratchet being unable to turn in the reverse direction. Gallery File:Żelazo na szczury, kuny, dziki - Piłka - 003408n.jpg|An animal foothold trap File:Slap bracelet wiki loves earth logo.jpg|A slap bracelet File:Mechanischer Schalter (Schwarz).jpg|A toggle switch File:BB clip.jpg|A snapclip File:Two mouse traps.jpg|Mouse traps File:Iver Johnson Safety Hammer grip.jpg|Safety hammer of a revolver File:オレンズ(0.5と0.3).jpg|Retractable pens See also Multistability – the generalized case of more than two stable points In psychology ferroelectric, ferromagnetic, hysteresis, bistable perception Schmitt trigger strong Allee effect Interferometric modulator display, a bistable reflective display technology found in mirasol displays by Qualcomm References External links BiStable Reed Sensor Category:Digital electronics Category:2 (number) es:Biestable
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bistability
2025-04-05T18:27:02.485225
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Bjørn Lomborg
| birth_date | birth_place = Frederiksberg, Denmark | occupation = Author, professor, visiting professor, think tank director | fields = Political science, environmental economics | alma_mater = | workplaces = Aarhus University, Environmental Assessment Institute, Hoover Institution, Copenhagen Consensus Center | thesis_title = Simulating social science: the iterated prisoner's dilemma and computer simulations in political science | thesis_url = https://worldcat.org/title/464641106 | thesis_year = 1994 | website = }} Bjørn Lomborg (; born 6 January 1965) is a Danish political scientist, author, and the president of the think tank Copenhagen Consensus Center. He is the former director of the Danish government's Environmental Assessment Institute (EAI) in Copenhagen. He became internationally known for his best-selling book The Skeptical Environmentalist (2001). In 2002, Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus. In 2004, he was listed as one of ''Time's 100 most influential people. In his subsequent book, Cool It (2007), and its film adaptation, Lomborg outlined his views on global warming, many of which contradict the scientific consensus on climate change. These views include the claim that the negative impacts are overstated and the opinion that too much emphasis is put on climate change mitigation at the expense of climate change adaptation. Lomborg agrees that global warming is real and man-made and will have a serious impact but enumerates other disagreements with the scientific consensus. In 2009, Business Insider'' cited Lomborg as one of "The 10 Most-Respected Global Warming Skeptics". Lomborg's views and work have attracted scrutiny from the scientific community. He was formally accused of scientific misconduct over the book The Skeptical Environmentalist. The Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DSCD) concluded in an evaluation of the book that "one couldn't prove that Lomborg had deliberately been scientifically dishonest, although he had broken the rules of scientific practice in that he interpreted results beyond the conclusions of the authors he cited." The Danish Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation criticised the procedural aspects of the DCSD investigation. His positions on climate change have been challenged by experts and characterized as cherry picking. Career Lomborg lectured in statistics in the Department of Political Science at the Aarhus University as an assistant professor (1994–1996) and associate professor (1997–2005). He left the university in February 2005 and in May of that year became an adjunct professor in Policy-making, Scientific Knowledge and the Role of Experts at the Department of Management, Politics and Philosophy, Copenhagen Business School. Early in his career, his professional areas of interest lay in the simulation of strategies in collective action dilemmas, simulation of party behavior in proportional voting systems, and the use of surveys in public administration. In 1996, Lomborg's paper, "Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma", was published in the academic journal American Sociological Review. Later, Lomborg's interests shifted to the use of statistics in the environmental arena. In 1998, Lomborg published four essays about the state of the environment in the leading Danish newspaper Politiken, which according to him "resulted in a firestorm debate spanning over 400 articles in major metropolitan newspapers." This led to the Skeptical Environmentalist, whose English translation was published as a work in environmental economics by Cambridge University Press in 2001. The book brought him international prominence as an opponent of the scientific consensus on climate change. saying his work at the Institute was done and that he could better serve the public debate from the academic sector. As of 2020, Lomborg is a visiting Fellow at the Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank. In 2023 he was a mainstage speaker at the inaugural Alliance for Responsible Citizenship. Books The Skeptical Environmentalist In 2001, he attained significant attention by publishing The Skeptical Environmentalist, a controversial book whose main thesis is that many of the most-publicized claims and predictions on environmental issues are wrong. The book received negative reviews among the scientific community, including from the Union of Concerned Scientists, Nature and Scientific American, with many scientists criticising its assertions as poorly supported, selectively using data and misrepresenting sources. However, it was well received in popular media and brought Lomborg to international attention. Formal accusations of scientific dishonesty After the publication of The Skeptical Environmentalist, Lomborg was formally accused of scientific dishonesty by a group of environmental scientists, who brought a total of three complaints against him to the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty (DCSD), a body under Denmark's Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MSTI). Lomborg was asked whether he regarded the book as a "debate" publication, and thereby not under the purview of the DCSD, or as a scientific work; he chose the latter, clearing the way for the inquiry that followed. That February, Lomborg filed a complaint against the decision with the MSTI, which had oversight over the DCSD. In December, 2003, the Ministry annulled the DCSD decision, citing procedural errors, including lack of documentation of errors in the book, and asked the DCSD to re-examine the case. In March 2004, the DCSD formally decided not to act further on the complaints, reasoning that renewed scrutiny would, in all likelihood, result in the same conclusion. The original DCSD decision about Lomborg provoked a petition signed by 287 Danish academics, primarily social scientists, who criticized the DCSD for evaluating the book as a work of science, whereas the petitioners considered it clearly an opinion piece by a non-scientist. The Danish Minister of Science, Technology, and Innovation then asked the Danish Research Agency (DRA) to form an independent working group to review DCSD practices. In response to this, another group of Danish scientists collected over 600 signatures, primarily from the medical and natural sciences community, to support the continued existence of the DCSD and presented their petition to the DRA. Lomborg starts with the premise "Global warming is real and man-made. It will have a serious impact on humans and the environment toward the end of this century." Lomborg argues at length that warming will result in reducing total deaths from extreme temperatures, due to warming in cold climates. The Lomborg Deception, a 2010 Yale University Press book by Howard Friel, analyzed the ways in which Lomborg has "selectively used (and sometimes distorted) the available evidence", Lomborg denied those claims in a 27-page argument-by-argument response. Friel wrote a reply to that response, in which he admitted two errors but otherwise rejected Lomborg's arguments. Documentary film Bjørn Lomborg was the subject of documentary feature film Cool It, adapted from his book of the same name. It was released on 12 November 2010 in the US. The film in part explicitly challenged Al Gore's 2006 Oscar-winning environmental awareness documentary, An Inconvenient Truth." The film received a media critic collective rating of 51% from Rotten Tomatoes and 61% from Metacritic. Copenhagen Consensus (center) and Stephen Sackur (left), at WTTC Global Summit 2014]] Lomborg and the Environmental Assessment Institute founded the Copenhagen Consensus in 2002, which seeks to establish priorities for advancing global welfare using methodologies based on the theory of welfare economics. A panel of prominent economists was assembled to evaluate and rank a series of problems every four years. The project was funded largely by the Danish government and was co-sponsored by The Economist. A book summarizing the conclusions of the economists' first assessment, Global Crises, Global Solutions, edited by Lomborg, was published in October 2004 by Cambridge University Press. In 2006, Lomborg became director of the newly established Copenhagen Consensus Center, a Danish government-funded institute intended to build on the mandate of the EAI, and expand on the original Copenhagen Consensus conference. Denmark withdrew its funding in 2012 and the Center faced imminent closure. The Center was based out of a "Neighborhood Parcel Shipping Center" in Lowell, Massachusetts, though Lomborg himself was based in Prague in the Czech Republic. In 2015, Lomborg described the center's funding as "a little more than $1m a year ... from private donations", On 21 October 2015, the offered funding was withdrawn. In April 2015, it was announced that an alliance between the Copenhagen Consensus Center and the University of Western Australia would see the establishment of the Australian Consensus Centre, a new policy research center at the UWA Business School. The University described the Center's goals as a "focus on applying an economic lens to proposals to achieve good for Australia, the region and the world, prioritizing those initiatives which produce the most social value per dollar spent.". This appointment came under intense scrutiny, particularly when leaked documents revealed that the Australian government had approached UWA and offered to fund the Consensus Centre, information subsequently confirmed by a senior UWA lecturer. Reports indicated that Prime Minister Tony Abbott's office was directly responsible for Lomborg's elevation. $4 million of the total funding for the Center was to be provided by the Australian federal government, with UWA not contributing any funding for the centre. On 8 May 2015, UWA cancelled the contract for hosting the Australian Consensus Centre as "the proposed centre was untenable and lacked academic support". and Scott Ludlam. The story appeared the next day in The Australian, but described as "academic conversations" with no mention of Bjorn Lomborg's involvement and portrayed as a grassroots desire for the Centre by the University. The following week, a story appeared in The Guardian quoting two Flinders University academics and an internal document demonstrating staff's withering rejection of the idea. Flinders staff and students vowed to fight against the establishment of any Centre or any partnership with Lomborg, citing his lack of scientific credibility, his lack of academic legitimacy and the political nature of the process of establishing the Centre with the Abbott federal government. The Australian Youth Climate Coalition and 350.org launched a national campaign to support staff and students in their rejection of Lomborg. On 21 October 2015, education minister Simon Birmingham told a senate committee the offered funding had been withdrawn. It was subsequently unclear whether the Australian Government would honour its original commitment and transfer the funds directly to the Centre to cover the costs incurred. Views on climate change , which Lomborg highlighted in the 2010s. Lomborg believes that climate change is occurring and humans are responsible, but disputes that the effects and economic impacts will be negative. He argues that finances should be spent elsewhere, rather than on mitigation. He has opposed the Kyoto Protocol He has been accused of exaggerating the economic costs of climate change mitigation policies. Several of Lomborg's articles, in newspapers such as The Wall Street Journal and The Daily Telegraph, have been checked by Climate Feedback, a worldwide network of scientists who assess the credibility of influential climate change media coverage. The Climate Feedback reviewers assessed that the scientific credibility of the articles ranged between "low" and "very low". The Climate Feedback reviewers came to the conclusion that in one case, Lomborg "practices cherry picking"; in a third case, "[his] article [is in] blatant disagreement with available scientific evidence, while the author does not offer adequate evidence to support his statements"; and in a fourth case, "The author, Bjorn Lomborg, cherry-picks this specific piece of research and uses it in support of a broad argument against the value of climate policy. He also misrepresents the Paris Agreement to downplay its potential to curb future climate change." Personal life Lomborg is gay and a vegetarian. As a public figure he has been a participant in information campaigns in Denmark about homosexuality, and states that "Being a public gay is to my view a civic responsibility. It's important to show that the width of the gay world cannot be described by a tired stereotype, but goes from leather gays on parade-wagons to suit-and-tie yuppies in boardrooms, as well as everything in between". Recognition and awards * The Global Leaders of Tomorrow (Class 2002) – World Economic Forum (2002) * The Stars of Europe (category: Agenda Setters) – BusinessWeek (17 June 2002): "No matter what they think of his views, nobody denies that Bjorn Lomborg has shaken the environmental movement to its core." * The 2004 Time 100 (in Scientists & Thinkers) – Time (26 April 2004): "Our list of the most influential people in the world today: He just might be the Martin Luther of the environmental movement." * Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#14) Foreign Policy and Prospect (2005) * Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll (#41) Foreign Policy and Prospect (2008) * 50 people who could save the planet – The Guardian (5 January 2008) * Glocal Hero Award – Transatlantyk – Poznań International Film and Music Festival (2011) * FP Top 100 Global Thinkers – Foreign Policy (2012): "For taking the black and white out of climate politics" Discussions in the media After the release of The Skeptical Environmentalist in 2001, Lomborg was subjected to intense scrutiny and criticism in the media. As in the scientific community, his scientific qualifications and integrity were criticized, although some popular media outlets supported him. The magazine also printed a response to the rebuttal. * The Economist defended Lomborg, claiming the panel of experts that had criticized Lomborg in Scientific American was both biased and did not actually counter Lomborg's book. The Economist argued that the panel's opinion had come under no scrutiny at all, and that Lomborg's responses had not been reported. * Penn & Teller: Bullshit! — the U.S. Showtime television programme featured an episode entitled "Environmental Hysteria" in which Lomborg criticized what he claimed was environmentalists' refusal to accept a cost–benefit analysis of environmental questions, and stressed the need to prioritise some issues above others. * Rolling Stone stated, "Lomborg pulls off the remarkable feat of welding the techno-optimism of the Internet age with a lefty's concern for the fate of the planet." * The Union of Concerned Scientists criticized The Skeptical Environmentalist, claiming it to be "seriously flawed and failing to meet basic standards of credible scientific analysis", accusing Lomborg of presenting data in a fraudulent way, using flawed logic and selectively citing non-peer-reviewed literature. The review was conducted by Peter Gleick, Jerry D. Mahlman, Edward O. Wilson, Thomas Lovejoy, Norman Myers, Jeff Harvey, and Stuart Pimm. * The New York Times criticized False Alarm, stating "This book proves the aphorism that a little knowledge is dangerous. It's nominally about air pollution. It's really about mind pollution." The review was conducted by Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz. Publications * "Nucleus and Shield: Evolution of Social Structure in the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma", American Sociological Review, 1996. * * Global Crises, Global Solutions, Copenhagen Consensus, Cambridge University Press, 2004. , as editor * How to Spend $50 Billion to Make the World a Better Place, Cambridge University Press, 2006. , as editor * ''Solutions for the World's Biggest Problems – Costs and Benefits, Cambridge University Press, 2007. , as editor * * Smart Solutions to Climate Change, Comparing Costs and Benefits, Cambridge University Press, 2010, . * The Nobel Laureates Guide to the Smartest Targets for the World 2016–2030, Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2015. * Prioritizing Development: A Cost Benefit Analysis of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals Cambridge University Press, 2018, , as editor * * * Best Things First: The 12 Most Efficient Solutions for the World's Poorest and Our Global SDG Promises'', Copenhagen Consensus Center, 2023. See also * Global warming controversy * Environmental skepticism * Project Syndicate * List of people who have been pied References Further reading *Sarvis, Will. Embracing Philanthropic Environmentalism: The Grand Responsibility of Stewardship, (McFarland, 2019). * * External links * [https://lomborg.com/ Lomborg's personal website], with own articles, links to related broadcasts on radio and TV, and Lomborg's opinion on the issues with the Danish Committees on Scientific Dishonesty * [https://www.theguardian.com/profile/bjrnlomborg Column archive] at The Guardian * [https://www.project-syndicate.org/columnist/bjorn-lomborg Column archive] at Project Syndicate * * * * [http://www.lomborg-errors.dk/ "Lomborg Errors"] compilation of claims of errors in Lomborg's work * * ;Interviews * * * ;Articles * * * * * * * * Category:1965 births Category:Living people Category:Aarhus University alumni Category:Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs Category:Academic staff of Copenhagen Business School Category:Danish economics writers Category:Academic staff of Aarhus University Category:Danish political scientists Category:Environmental economists Category:Gay academics Category:Gay scientists Category:Danish gay writers Category:Non-fiction environmental writers Category:Political science educators Category:University of Copenhagen alumni Category:University of Georgia alumni Category:The Australian journalists Category:21st-century Danish LGBTQ people Category:Environmental skepticism Category:Cornucopians Category:Hoover Institution people
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bjørn_Lomborg
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Banda Islands
|archipelago = Maluku Islands |total_islands = 11 (7 inhabited) |major_islands = Banda Besar, Neira, Banda Api, Pulau Hatta, Pulau Ay, Pulau Rhun |area_km2 = 172 |highest_mount = Gunung Api |elevation_m = 641 |elevation_footnotes |country = Indonesia |country_admin_divisions_title = Province |country_admin_divisions = Maluku |country_largest_city |country_largest_city_area |population = 21,902 |population_as_of = mid 2023 |density_km2 = 127.3 |ethnic_groups = }} ]] The Banda Islands () are a volcanic group of ten small volcanic islands in the Banda Sea, about south of Seram Island and about east of Java, and constitute an administrative district (kecamatan) within the Central Maluku Regency in the Indonesian province of Maluku. The islands rise out of deep ocean and have a total land area of approximately ; with associated maritime area this reaches . They had a population of 18,544 at the 2010 Census and 20,924 at the 2020 Census; the official estimate as of mid-2023 was 21,902. Until the mid-19th century the Banda Islands were the world's only source of the spices nutmeg and mace, produced from the nutmeg tree. The islands are also popular destinations for scuba diving and snorkeling. The main town and administrative centre is Banda Neira, located on the island of the same name. Geography There are seven inhabited islands and several that are uninhabited. The inhabited islands are: in the Banda Islands]] (Banda Besar).]] Main group (formed from the drowned caldera of a former volcano, with Bandaneira and still-smoking Guning Api islands at the centre of the crater, and the crescent-shaped Lonthair, Pulau Pisang and Batu Kapal being the surviving above-water parts of the volcanic rim): *Bandaneira, or Naira, the island with the administrative capital and a small airfield (which stretches across the whole island, splitting the southern third from the northern two-thirds) as well as accommodation for visitors. It contains six villages (desa), from south to north being Nusantara (that part not on Gunung Api Island, and containing the district administration), Kampung Baru, Dwiwarna, Rajawali, Tanah Rata and Merdeka. Present on Banda Neira is Fort Belgica, one of the largest remaining Dutch forts that are still intact in Indonesia, and Fort Nassau. *Banda Api, an active volcano (Gunung Api) with a peak of about 650 m. It forms most of the land area of the desa of Nusantara. *Banda Besar, also called Lontar or Lonthoir, is the largest island (Indonesian besar, big), long and wide. It has three main settlements, Lonthoir (in the west of the island), Selamon (which includes Pulau Pisang, and which with Cumbir Kaisastoren, Walling Spanciby and Boiyauw villages faces the islands in the centre of the caldera) and Waer (which with Dender to its north and Lautang and Uring-Tutra to its west face away from the caldera). The residual former Dutch fortifications of Fort Hollandia and Fort Concordia are on this island. Some distance to the west: *Pulau Ay (formerly spelt Pulau Ai), 12 km from Bandaneira, and containing the remains of the former Dutch Fort Revenge. *Pulau Rhun (formerly spelt Run), another 8 km further west again. In the 17th century, this island was involved in an exchange between the British and the Dutch, when it was exchanged for the island of Manhattan in New York. To the north of Banda Besar: *Pulau Pisang (Banana Island), also known as Syahrir. To the southeast: *Pulau Hatta (formerly Rosengain or Rozengain), 19 km from Bandaneira, with its single village (of the same name) at its northern tip. Others, all small and/or uninhabited, are: *Naijalaka, a short distance northeast of Pulau Rhun *Batu Kapal, a small island northwest of Pulau Pisang *Manuk, an active volcano *Pulau Keraka or Pulau Karaka (Crab Island), a short distance north of Banda Api *Manukang or Suanggi, to the northwest of the main group *Skaru Reef, a short distance south of Pulau Hatta The islands are part of the Banda Sea Islands moist deciduous forests ecoregion. Administration The Banda Islands District (kecamatan) is sub-divided into eighteen administrative villages (desa), listed below with their areas and their officially-estimated populations as at mid 2002. All share the postcode of 97586. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Kode <br>Wilayah!! Name of <br> kelurahan!! Area <br>in <br>km<sup>2</sup> !! Population<br>mid 2022<br>estimate |- | 61.01.09.2001 || Nusantara ||align"right"| 13.30 ||align"right"| 1,993 |- | 61.01.09.2002 || Dwiwarna ||align"right"| 1.40 ||align"right"| 947 |- | 61.01.09.2003 || Merdeka ||align"right"| 3.44 ||align"right"| 814 |- | 61.01.09.2004 || Rajawali ||align"right"| 2.95 ||align"right"| 824 |- | 61.01.09.2005 || Kampung Baru ||align"right"| 5.70 ||align"right"| 3,050 |- | 61.01.09.2006 || Pulau Hatta ||align"right"| 15.88 ||align"right"| 683 |- | 61.01.09.2007 || Selamon ||align"right"| 28.97 ||align"right"| 1,991 |- | 61.01.09.2008 || Lonthoir ||align"right"| 16.07 ||align"right"| 2,972 |- | 61.01.09.2009 || Pulau Ay ||align"right"| 15.19 ||align"right"| 1,577 |- | 61.01.09.2010 || Pulau Rhun ||align"right"| 13.16 ||align"right"| 1,572 |- | 61.01.09.2011 || Tanah Rata ||align"right"| 2.20 ||align"right"| 874 |- | 61.01.09.2012 || Waer ||align"right"| 7.99 ||align"right"| 1,407 |- | 61.01.09.2013 || Boiyauw ||align"right"| 7.15 ||align"right"| 625 |- | 61.01.09.2014 || Dender ||align"right"| 3.40 ||align"right"| 164 |- | 61.01.09.2015 || Lautang ||align"right"| 4.70 ||align"right"| 233 |- | 61.01.09.2016 || Uring-Tutra ||align"right"| 7.50 ||align"right"| 313 |- | 61.01.09.2017 || Walling Spanciby ||align"right"| 14.00 ||align"right"| 893 |- | 61.01.09.2018 || Combir Kaisastoren ||align"right"| 9.00 ||align"right"| 493 |- | 61.01.09 || Totals ||align"right"| 736.30 ||align"right"| 21,425 <sup>(a)</sup> |} Notes: (a) comprising 10,723 males and 10,702 females. History Pre-European history The first documented human presence in the Banda Islands comes from a rock shelter site on Pulau Ay that was in use at least 8,000 years ago. The earliest mention of the Banda Islands is found in Chinese records dating as far back as 200 BCE though there is speculation that it is mentioned in earlier Indian sources. The Srivijaya Kingdom had extensive trade contacts with the Banda Islands. Also during this period (from the late 13th century and onwards) Islam arrived in the region. It soon became established in the area. Before the arrival of Europeans, Banda had an oligarchic form of government led by ('rich men') and the Bandanese had an active and independent role in trade throughout the archipelago. Banda was the world's only source of nutmeg and mace, spices used as flavourings, medicines, and preserving agents that were at the time highly valued in European markets. They were sold by Arab traders to the Venetians for exorbitant prices. The traders did not divulge the exact location of their source and no European was able to deduce their location. The first written accounts of Banda are in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires who was based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515 but visited Banda several times. On his first visit, he interviewed the Portuguese and the far more knowledgeable Malay sailors in Malacca. He estimated the early sixteenth century population to be 2500–3000. He reported the Bandanese as being part of an Indonesia-wide trading network and the only native Malukan long-range traders taking cargo to Malacca, although shipments from Banda were also being made by Javanese traders. In addition to the production of nutmeg and mace, Banda maintained significant entrepôt trade; goods that moved through Banda included cloves from Ternate and Tidore in the north, bird-of-paradise feathers from the Aru Islands and Western New Guinea, and massoi bark for traditional medicines and salves. In exchange, Banda predominantly received rice and cloth; namely light cotton batik from Java, calicoes from India and ikat from the Lesser Sundas. In 1603, an average quality sarong-sized cloth traded for eighteen kilograms of nutmeg. Some of these textiles were then sold on, ending up in Halmahera and New Guinea. Coarser ikat from the Lesser Sundas was traded for sago from the Kei Islands, Aru and Seram. Portuguese In August 1511, on behalf of the king of Portugal, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was a major hub of Asian trade. In November of that year, after having secured Malacca and learned of the Banda Islands' location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his good friend António de Abreu to find them. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to Banda, arriving in early 1512. The first Europeans to reach the Banda Islands, the expedition remained in Banda for about one month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda's nutmeg, mace, and cloves, in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade. A number of Banda's were persuaded by the Dutch to sign a treaty granting the Dutch a monopoly on spice purchases. Even though the Bandanese had little understanding of the significance of the treaty known as 'The Eternal Compact', or that not all Bandanese leaders had signed, it would later be used to justify Dutch troops being brought in to defend their monopoly. In April 1609, Admiral Pieter Willemsz. Verhoeff arrived at Banda Neira with a request by Maurice, Prince of Orange to build a fort on the island (the eventual Fort Nassau). The Bandanese were not excited about this idea. On 22 May, before building of the fort had started, the called a meeting with the Dutch admiral, purportedly to negotiate prices. Instead, they led Verhoeff and two high-ranked men into an ambush and decapitated them and subsequently killed 46 of the Dutch visitors. Jan Pietersz Coen, who was a lower-ranked merchant on the expedition, managed to escape, but the traumatic event likely influenced his future attitude towards the Bandanese. English–Dutch rivalry While Portuguese and Spanish activity in the region had weakened, the English had built fortified trading posts on tiny Ai and Run islands, ten to twenty kilometres from the main Banda Islands. With the English paying higher prices, they were significantly undermining Dutch aims for a monopoly. As Anglo-Dutch tensions increased in 1611 the Dutch built the larger and more strategic Fort Belgica above Fort Nassau. In 1615, the Dutch invaded Ai with 900 men, whereupon the English retreated to Run where they regrouped. Japanese mercenaries served in the Dutch forces. That same night, the English launched a surprise counter-attack on Ai, retaking the island and killing 200 Dutchmen. A year later, a much stronger Dutch force attacked Ai. This time the defenders were able to hold off the attack with cannon fire, but after a month of siege they ran out of ammunition. The Dutch killed the defenders, and afterwards strengthened the fort, renaming it 'Fort Revenge'. , representing Dutch dominance on Banda.]] Massacre of the Bandanese Newly appointed VOC governor-general Jan Pieterszoon Coen set about enforcing Dutch monopoly over the Banda's spice trade. In 1621 well-armed soldiers were landed on Bandaneira Island and within a few days they had also occupied neighbouring and larger Lontar. The were forced at gunpoint to sign an unfeasibly arduous treaty, one that was in fact impossible to keep, thus providing Coen an excuse to use superior Dutch force against the Bandanese. forty of whom were beheaded with their heads impaled and displayed on bamboo spears. The butchering and beheadings were carried out by the Japanese for the Dutch. The islanders were tortured and their villages destroyed by the Dutch. The Bandanese chiefs were also tortured by the Dutch and Japanese. The Dutch carved 68 parcels out of the islands after the enslavement and slaughter of the natives. The population of the Banda Islands prior to Dutch conquest is generally estimated to have been around 13,000–15,000 people, some of whom were Malay and Javanese traders, as well as Chinese and Arabs. The actual numbers of Bandanese who were killed, forcibly expelled or fled the islands in 1621 remain uncertain. But readings of historical sources suggest around one thousand Bandanese likely survived in the islands, and were spread throughout the nutmeg groves as forced labourers. The Dutch subsequently re-settled the islands with imported slaves, convicts and indentured labourers (to work the nutmeg plantations), as well as immigrants from elsewhere in Indonesia. Most survivors fled as refugees to the islands of their trading partners, in particular Keffing and Guli Guli in the Seram Laut chain and Kei Besar, Shipments of surviving Bandanese were also sent to Batavia (Jakarta) to work as slaves in developing the city and its fortress. Some 530 of these individuals were later returned to the islands because of their much-needed expertise in nutmeg cultivation (something sorely lacking among newly arrived Dutch settlers). Now enjoying control of the nutmeg production, the VOC paid the nd of the Dutch market price for nutmeg; however, the still profited immensely, building substantial villas with opulent imported European decorations. The outlying island of Run was harder for the VOC to control and they exterminated all nutmeg trees there. The production and export of nutmeg was a VOC monopoly for almost two hundred years. Fort Belgica, one of many forts built by the Dutch East India Company, is one of the largest remaining European forts in Indonesia.English–Dutch rivalry continues Though not physically present at the Banda Islands, the English claimed the small island of Run until 1667 when, under the Treaty of Breda, the Dutch and English agreed to maintain the colonial status quo and relinquish their respective claims. In 1810, the Kingdom of Holland was a vassal of Napoleonic France and hence in conflict with Britain. The French and British were each seeking to control lucrative Indian Ocean trade routes. On 10 May 1810, a squadron consisting of the 36-gun frigate , HMS Piedmontaise (formerly a French frigate), 18-gun sloop , and the 12-gun transport left Madras with money, supplies and troops to support the garrison at Amboyna, recently captured from the Dutch. The frigates and sloop carried a hundred officers and men of the Madras European Regiment, while the Mandarin carried supplies. The squadron was commanded by Captain Christopher Cole, with Captain Charles Foote on the Piedmontaise and Captain Richard Kenah aboard the Barracouta. After departing from Madras, Cole informed Foote and Kenah of Cole's plan to capture the Bandas; Foote and Kenah agreed. In Singapore, Captain Spencer informed Cole that over 700 regular Dutch troops may have been located in the Bandas. The squadron took a circuitous route to avoid alerting the Dutch. On 9 August 1810, the British appeared at Banda Neira. They quickly stormed the island and attacked Belgica Castle at sunrise. The battle was over within hours, with the Dutch surrendering Fort Nassau – after some subterfuge – and within days the remainder of the Banda Islands. After the Dutch surrender, Captain Charles Foote (of the Piedmontaise) was appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Banda Islands. This action was a prelude to Britain's invasion of Java in 1811.Recent historyIn the late 1990s, violence between Christians and Muslims spilled over from intercommunal conflict in Ambon. The disturbance and resulting deaths damaged the previously prosperous tourism industry.DemographicsLanguage Bandanese speak Banda Malay, which has several features distinguishing it from Ambonese Malay, a Malay dialect that is a lingua franca in central and southern Maluku alongside Indonesian. Banda Malay is famous in the region for its unique, lilting accent, but it also has a number of locally identifying words in its lexicon, many of them borrowings or loanwords from Dutch. Examples: * fork: (Dutch ) * ant: (Dutch ) * spoon: (Dutch ) * difficult: (Dutch ) * floor: (Dutch ) * porch: (Dutch ) Banda Malay shares many Portuguese loanwords with Ambonese Malay not appearing in the national language, Indonesian. But it has comparatively fewer, and they differ in pronunciation. Examples: * turtle: (Banda Malay); (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese ) * throat: (Banda Malay); (Ambonese Malay) (from Portuguese ) Finally, and most noticeably, Banda Malay uses some distinct pronouns. The most immediately distinguishing is that of the second person singular familiar form of address: . The descendants of some of the Bandanese who fled Dutch conquest in the seventeenth century live in the Kai Islands (Kepulauan Kei) to the east of the Banda group, where a version of the original Banda language is still spoken in the villages of Banda Eli and Banda Elat on Kai Besar Island. While long integrated into Kei Island society, residents of these settlements continue to value the historical origins of their ancestors. Culture Most of the present-day inhabitants of the Banda Islands are descended from migrants and plantation labourers from various parts of Indonesia, as well as from indigenous Bandanese. They have inherited aspects of pre-colonial ritual practices in the Banda Islands that are highly valued and still performed, giving them a distinct and very local cultural identity. See also *1938 Banda Sea earthquake *Dutch East India Company in Indonesia *History of Indonesia *List of earthquakes in Indonesia * *Maluku Islands Further reading * Ghosh, Amitav (2021). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lK0GEAAAQBAJ&dq The Nutmeg's Curse: Parables for a Planet in Crisis]. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 1529369479. *Giles Milton. Nathaniel's Nutmeg: How One Man's Courage Changed the Course of History (Sceptre books, Hodder and Stoughton, London) Notes General references * * * *Warburg, Otto (1897) Die Muskatnuss: ihre Geschichte, Botanik, Kultur, Handel und Verwerthung sowie ihre Verfälschungen und Surrogate zugleich ein Beitrag zur Kulturgeschichte der Banda-Inseln''. Leipzig: Engelmann.[https://archive.org/details/b28109119/mode/2up] * * * External links * * * *[https://web.archive.org/web/20131020092430/http://www.spiceislandsforts.com/the-bandas/ Forts of the Spice Islands] Category:Portuguese colonialism in Indonesia Category:Dutch East India Company Category:Archipelagoes of Indonesia Category:Landforms of Maluku (province) Category:Volcanic groups Category:Banda Sea Category:Central Maluku Regency Category:Islands of the Indian Ocean Category:Populated places in Indonesia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banda_Islands
2025-04-05T18:27:02.561348
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Brisbane Broncos
| image | fullname Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Club Ltd. | nickname = Broncos, Bronx | short name = BRI | founded = | colours Maroon<br /> Gold | ground = Lang Park | capacity = 52,500 | owner | chairman Karl Morris | coach = Michael Maguire (NRL) <br/> Scott Prince (NRLW) | manager = Joe McDermott | captain = Adam Reynolds (NRL) <br/> Ali Brigginshaw (NRLW) | web = [https://www.broncos.com.au/ broncos.com.au] | league = National Rugby League <br/> NRL Women's Premiership | season = 2024 NRL <br/> 2023 NRLW | position = 12th <br/> 4th | cap = 355 | mostcap = Darren Lockyer | tries = 142 | mosttries = Steve Renouf | points = 1,328 | mostpoints = Corey Parker | premierships = 6 | premiershipyears = 1992, 1993, 1997 (SL), 1998, 2000, 2006 | runnerups = 2 | runnerupyears = 2015, 2023 | minorpremierships = 4 | minorpremiershipyears = 1992, 1997 (SL), 1998, 2000 | spoons = 1 | spoonyears = 2020 | cup2 = World Club Challenge | cup2titles = 2 | cup2years = 1992, 1997 | current = 2024 Brisbane Broncos season | homejersey | awayjersey | pattern_la1 = _goldborder | pattern_b1 = _goldhorizontal | pattern_ra1 = _goldborder | pattern_sh1 | pattern_so1 _goldtop | leftarm1 = 62003D | body1 = 62003D | rightarm1 = 62003D | shorts1 = 62003D | socks1 = 62003D | pattern_la2 = _goldhorizontal | pattern_b2 | pattern_ra2 _goldhorizontal | pattern_sh2 = _goldsides | pattern_so2 = _goldtop | leftarm2 = e8e8e8 | body2 = e8e8e8 | rightarm2 = e8e8e8 | shorts2 = 62003D | socks2 = e8e8e8 | pattern_la3 | pattern_b3 | pattern_ra3 | pattern_sh3 | pattern_so3 | leftarm3 | body3 | rightarm3 | shorts3 | socks3 }} The Brisbane Broncos Rugby League Football Club Ltd., commonly referred to as the Broncos, is an Australian professional rugby league football club based in Red Hill, a suburb of Brisbane, Queensland. Founded in April 1987, the Broncos currently compete in the National Rugby League (NRL) and play their home games at Lang Park in nearby Milton. The club has won six premierships, including two New South Wales Rugby League premierships, a Super League premiership and three NRL premierships. The Broncos have also won two World Club Challenges, and four minor premierships in multiple competitions. In 2024, it reportedly had more members than any other NRL club with 53,672. The club was founded in April 1987 as part of the Winfield Cup's national expansion, becoming, along with the Gold Coast-Tweed Giants, one of Queensland's first two participants in the New South Wales Rugby League premiership. The Broncos later became the dominant force in the competition before playing a significant role in the Super League War of the mid-1990s, then continuing to compete successfully in the newly created National Rugby League competition. Trading as Brisbane Broncos Limited (), it is the only publicly listed sports club on the Australian Securities Exchange. In 2024, the Brisbane Broncos rugby league club had over 1 million fans. History Beginnings (1988–1991) A Brisbane license was the Queensland Rugby League's direct response to the threat posed by the VFL's (now AFL) expansion team the Brisbane Bears which was granted a license in 1986 for entry in the 1987 season. Soon after the granting of the license, QRL officials mobilized, seeking a NSWRL franchise and rich backers. The aim of QRL general manager Ross Livermore was specifically to stifle the VFL's publicity and promotions in the state. playing for the Broncos in 2004. Lockyer made his Broncos debut in 1995 and is a former captain of the Brisbane Broncos.]] The Broncos secured the services of Australia national rugby league team captain Wally Lewis to be the inaugural club captain and former BRL and then Canberra Raiders coach Wayne Bennett, Broncos CEO John Ribot moved to take over the running of the rebel Super League, leading to a perception that the conflict was orchestrated by the club. The 1995 season, the first under the ARL banner, went pretty well for Brisbane- they sat in the Top 4 for most of the year, finished 3rd, and unearthed a pair of future club legends- rugged prop Shane Webcke and future Golden Boot winner Darren Lockyer. Unfortunately, Brisbane couldn't capitalise in the first 8-team finals series, losing to the Raiders 14–8 in the qualifying final before falling 24–10 to the eventual Premiers, the now-Sydney Bulldogs. 1996 went pretty similarly- sit comfortably in the Top 4 and ultimately finish 2nd, only to lose 21–16 to North Sydney and 22–16 to the Cronulla Sharks to end their season. Brisbane's decision to side with the Super League saw a host of players join them from the ARL- most notably St George pair Anthony Mundine and Gorden Tallis, which offset the departure of longtime hooker Kerrod Walters to the Adelaide Rams. Brisbane dominated the Super League season, never leaving 1st position after Round 5 and beating Cronulla 34–2 and then 2 weeks later 26–8 to win the title in convincing fashion. Brisbane also competed in the World Club Challenge, going undefeated in their group (including a 76–0 demolition of Halifax Blue Sox), before beating St Helens 66–12, the Auckland Warriors 22–16 and the Hunter Mariners 36–12 to win the only edition of the costly tournament. Unified competition, sixth premiership (1998–2006) Brisbane entered the 1998 NRL season as one of the favourites to win the unified competition- despite the return of Mundine to the Dragons and the departure of Lazarus to become the inaugural captain of the newly formed Melbourne Storm. Despite a rocky period which saw them drop to 6th after 14 rounds, Brisbane stormed home on a 12-game unbeaten run to seal the minor premiership. They were also able to fill the hole of Lazarus by debuting Petero Civoniceva.Despite this form however, they were stunned 15–10 by the Parramatta Eels in their first finals match, meaning they would need an extra game to qualify for the Grand Final. They responded in typical Brisbane style- routing Melbourne and Sydney City (formerly Eastern Suburbs) 30–6 and 46–18 respectively to qualify for the big dance, where they ended Canterbury's dream finals run with a 38–12 victory. The rampaging Tallis was named Clive Churchill Medallist after a dominant performance in the middle of the park, including a try from dummy half. 1999 was disappointing for the club with a terrible early-season form hindering their attempt at a third consecutive premiership losing 8 of their first 10 matches. Club legend Langer retired mid-season, with Kevin Walters taking over the captaincy. The club went on another 12 game unbeaten run and ultimately qualified for the finals in 8th position, however their season ended in a dominant 42–20 loss against minor premiers Cronulla. The season wasn't all negative, as future Queensland representatives Dane Carlaw, Lote Tuqiri and Chris Walker all made first grade debuts for the club, although club legend Renouf did leave to finish his career with the Wigan Warriors. But Brisbane responded with a dominant 2000 season, buoyed by the signing of Ben Ikin to fill the hole left by Langer. Brisbane dominated the regular season, running away with the minor premiership, before beating the Sharks 34–20 and the Eels 16–10 to book a Grand Final matchup with the Roosters. The Broncos ground out a 14–6 victory for their 5th title in 9 years, with Lockyer receiving the Clive Churchill Medal for his performance. 2000 also saw the debut of even more future representative players- Ashley Harrison, Justin Hodges, Brad Meyers and Carl Webb. After just one full season as captain, Walters retired (although he would have a 5-game comeback in 2001), with Tallis anointed as club captain, and young North Queensland Cowboys half Scott Prince was brought in as his replacement .]] 2001 saw the beginning of the Broncos "Post-Origin Slump", a succession of losing streaks after Origin which sees Brisbane slide down the ladder and disappoint in the finals. In Round 19, Brisbane sat 2nd on the ladder, before losing 6 straight matches and finishing the year in 5th place. They fell 22–6 to Cronulla in the Qualifying Final, before beating the now-merged St George-Illawarra Dragons 44–28 to secure a Preliminary Final berth, where they were defeated 24–16 by minor premiers Parramatta. The year saw the debut of 2 more future stars- the speedy Brent Tate as well as goal kicking forward Corey Parker. A brutal knee injury suffered by Ikin would sideline him for all of 2002, and while a neck injury to Tallis threatened to end his career, he would return at the start of the next season. Sailor would also leave the club, enticed by a massive offer from the Queensland Reds to switch codes. Hodges also left the club, the offer of guaranteed gametime from the Roosters too much for him to ignore. After joining the Warrington Wolves and making a stunning comeback to the Queensland squad, Langer returned to the club for one last season in 2002 to help ease their halves problem. Brisbane finished the year in 3rd position, although they were challenging for the minor premiership until they lost 4 of their last 5 matches. Brisbane eliminated Parramatta with a 24–14 win, but fell in the Preliminary Final for the second year in a row, losing 16–12 to the eventual premiers, the Roosters. 2002 also saw one of the greatest moments in Brisbane's club history- in a Round 12 clash with the Wests Tigers, missing 15 regular first graders as well as head coach Bennett due to injuries and Origin, a Broncos squad captained by Shane Walker and coached by assistant Craig Bellamy pulled off a stunning 28–14 victory. Just a year after Sailor went to Rugby Union, his former wing partner Tuqiri joined him, joining the New South Wales Waratahs. Wing partner Chris Walker also jumped ship, heading to the South Sydney Rabbitohs on a big contract. 2003 saw one of the worst "Post-Origin Slumps" in club history. The club sat 1st as late as Round 17, and were comfortably positioned 3rd after 19 weeks before both Tallis and Lockyer were felled by injuries in the Round 19 win over Melbourne. Brisbane dropped their last 7 matches, even after the return of their 2 superstar for the last 2 weeks of the season, and dropped to 8th place on the ladder- their season ending in the Qualifying Final when minor premiers and eventual premiers Penrith reversed an 18–10 half time deficit to beat Brisbane 28–18. That year did see the debuts of Neville Costigan and Sam Thaiday. Meanwhile, Prince had struggled to find game time after 2001 and left for the Tigers, where he would win the 2005 Clive Churchill medal and captain the side to premiership glory in one of the biggest "Ones that Got Away" for the Broncos. The club again had a bounceback year in 2004, with the shock move of Lockyer from fullback to five-eighth a major catalyst for their success. Of course, it helped that his replacement at fullback, 17 year old sensation Karmichael Hunt, was able to fit straight into the Broncos side. Brisbane spent almost the entire season inside the Top 4 and finished in 3rd position, but were stunned 31–14 by Melbourne, who had Bellamy as their head coach. This set them up with a sudden death semi final against the Cowboys, who they were undefeated against leading into the match. Brisbane volunteered to move the match from Stadium Australia to Willows Sports Complex, and the Cowboys responded by using their raucous home support to stun their "Big Brothers" 10–0. The match would be the last for a host of club icons- captain Tallis and Ikin both retired, their NSW representative goal kicking winger Michael De Vere (Huddersfield Giants) and Queensland prop Meyers (Bradford Bulls) left for the English Super League, while their other Origin prop Webb joined the Cowboys. With Lockyer named club captain and Hodges returning to the club, Brisbane dominated the start of the 2005 season and sat in 1st position after 24 rounds, but 5 straight losses to end the season saw them again slide to 3rd, where they again lost in the opening week to Melbourne, this time 24–18. This sent them into another semi final, this time against Prince and the eventual premiers Tigers, who brushed the Broncos aside 34–6. Leading into 2006, Brisbane were able to retain a similar squad to 2005. Ben Hannant proved to be a key rotational piece after arriving from the Roosters, Darius Boyd made his first grade debut and would be a key part of Brisbane's backline, and longtime Queensland Cup veteran Shane Perry would become the solution for Brisbane's halfback spot. After being inside the Top 2 after Round 17, the Broncos again entered the post-Origin slump, losing 5 consecutive games. This season however, they reversed this run of form, winning 5 straight games to close out the regular season in 3rd. This had come after Bennett had signed a secret deal to become the Roosters coach from 2007, but reneged on the deal after it became public. Despite the reverse in form, it looked like their finals success was going on par with previous seasons after they fell 20–4 against the Dragons in the qualifying final. But Brisbane got a break against an injury hit Knights squad, and Brisbane took a crushing 50–6 victory to qualify for their first Preliminary Final in 4 seasons. Brisbane took on the Bulldogs, and their season was on life support when Canterbury led 20–6 at half time. The lead prompted Bulldogs prop Willie Mason to exclaim “We're going to the grand final!”. That sledge sparked a dramatic Broncos comeback, as they ran in a 31–0 second half to blitz the Bulldogs 37–20 and book a spot in the Grand Final against Melbourne. Despite being massive underdogs, Brisbane looked in control throughout the entire match, and a Darren Lockyer field goal sealed a dramatic 15–8 victory and Brisbane's 6th premiership. Unsung hooker Shaun Berrigan was awarded the Clive Churchill Medal for his aggressive performance in the ruck. Webcke had already announced his intention to retire, and did so as a champion. Bennett's final years (2007–2008) Once again, Brisbane started a premiership defence poorly, losing 7 of their first 10 to sit 15th, but their stay at the bottom of the table was abruptly ended when they produced a club record 71–6 victory over a battered Knights side. Brisbane climbed back up the ladder to sit 5th after Origin, but their season again took a turn in a Round 18 clash with the Cowboys, when Lockyer's season abruptly ended with a torn ACL. Brisbane would lose 5 of their last 7 matches, including a 68–22 thrashing at the hands of the Eels, and would end the season in 8th place and being thrashed 40–0 by the Storm in the Qualifying Final. Civoniceva left the club for Penrith, upset that they had prioritised the signing of Panthers prop Joel Clinton over retaining him. Tate also departed for the Warriors, while Berrigan left for Hull FC. In their place came Clinton, Eels hooker PJ Marsh and another ex-Panther, Peter Wallace, who would replace the ageing Perry as Lockyer's halves partner. Lockyer, however, missed some serious game time in 2008 and wasn't 100% healthy until Round 18, at which point Brisbane sat 7th on the ladder. But the bigger news to come out of the start of that season was Bennett's decision to walk out of the final year of his contract to become the head coach of the Dragons from 2009. Bennett had seen his relationship with the Broncos board deteriorate after his courtship with the Roosters, and decided to leave after 21 seasons with the club. His former assistant Bellamy seemed set for a return to Brisbane as his replacement, only to blindside the club by re-signing with the Storm after a botched interview. Ultimately, it was decided that longtime assistant Ivan Henjak would be promoted to the head coaching role from 2009, and he began taking more of a role in training. With Lockyer returning, Brisbane won 6 of their final 9 games to finish 5th, and upset the Roosters 24–16 in the qualifying final to set up a semi final showdown with Bellamy and the Storm. Brisbane led 14–12 with under 10 minutes to go, and seemed to have won the game when Hannant crossed the line, with Bennett seen displaying a rare show of emotion. But the video referee deemed Hannant was held up, and a few minutes later an Ashton Sims knock on saw Greg Inglis score for the Storm to seal a late 16–14 victory, breaking Brisbane hearts and ending their season. Rebuilding (2009–2014) 2009 saw a wave of change around Red Hill- not only was there a new head coach, but a host of roster changes. Boyd joined Bennett at the Dragons, the representative foursome of Hannant, Greg Eastwood, Michael Ennis and David Stagg all joined the Bulldogs, and boom winger Denan Kemp, who tied the club record with 4 tries in a single game against the Eels, was lured away to the Warriors. In their place was boom teenager Israel Folau, young back rower Ben Te'o and a host of club-developed talent, including Gerard Beale, Alex Glenn, Josh McGuire, Andrew McCullough and Jharal Yow Yeh. Brisbane sat Top 4 until the Origin period, when they collapsed, conceding 40+ points in 3 straight games, an extra 44–12 loss to South Sydney and a then-club record 56–0 thrashing at the hands of the Raiders, leaving them dangling in 10th position. But 5 straight wins to close out the season, including a 22–10 win over Canberra just 36 days later, saw them finish in 6th position. This revival was largely due to the emergence of rampaging forward Dave Taylor. The Broncos stunned the 3rd place Titans 40–32 in the qualifying final, setting up a showdown with Bennett's Dragons in a sudden death semi final. Brisbane took one up on their former mentor with a dominant 24–10 victory, however Wallace fractured his ankle in the win, leaving them without a recognised halfback ahead of their preliminary final matchup with the Storm, one of the bigger reasons they fell 40–10. 2010 saw significant roster changes: the injury-enforced retirement of Marsh, Taylor's decision to move to the Rabbitohs and Karmichael Hunt's decision to switch to the AFL with the Gold Coast Suns. Furthermore, they received a massive blow during pre-season when Hodges ruptured his achilles, causing him to miss the entire season. Brisbane stuttered and lost 6 of their first 8 matches, before reversing form and entering the Top 8. But in their Round 22 clash with the Cowboys, Lockyer took a hit and injured his rib cartilage. Despite his best efforts, Lockyer missed the rest of the regular season, and without him Brisbane slumped to 4 straight defeats, sliding from 7th to 10th and missing the finals for the first time since 1991. An even bigger blow for Brisbane was a contract saga involving Greg Inglis, who was departing the Melbourne Storm in the wake of their salary cap saga. Inglis had agreed in principle to join the Broncos for 2011 onward, but then decided to cancel a flight to Brisbane to sign the contract under the alibi that "It's raining and I don't think the planes are flying". Behind the scenes, former Bronco Anthony Mundine was convincing Inglis to join the Rabbitohs, which he did a week later. Inglis would've replaced Folau, who followed Hunt's lead in switching to the AFL, this time to the Greater Western Sydney Giants. On a positive note, the season saw the debut of future international Matt Gillett. In February 2011, it was announced that Henjak was to be sacked from the club, only three weeks before the beginning of the season. Anthony Griffin, Henjak's assistant, took over as coach for the 2011 season, becoming just the third head coach in the history of Broncos. Ben Hannant also returned to the club, but even more pressing was the decision of Lockyer to retire after the season, ending a 16-year playing career which, in Round 22, saw him overtake Terry Lamb and Steve Menzies for the most first grade games played, finishing at 355, a record which would stand until Cameron Smith overtook him in 2017. Brisbane stagnated for a little while, but finished the season in 3rd position, setting up a qualifying finals matchup with the Warriors which they won 40–10, meaning they would head to take on the Dragons once again in the semi-finals. Bennett, who had looked like he was set to rejoin the Broncos in 2012, had announced that he was joining Newcastle at the end of the season- meaning the match would either be the last of Lockyer's career, or Bennett's last with the Dragons. Brisbane led 12–6 towards the end of the game before Lockyer caught Beale's knee in his face, fracturing his cheekbone. St George Illawarra tied the game, necessitating Golden Point, where an injured Lockyer slotted home a field goal to seal a 13–12 win and keep Brisbane in the finals. Unfortunately, Lockyer was unable to play in the Preliminary Final against Manly, which the Sea Eagles won 26–14. 2012 marked the Broncos' 25th season in the NRL competition. Civoniceva returned for one last season, and Thaiday was appointed club captain. The club also lost winger Jharal Yow Yeh in Round 4 to a brutal leg injury, suffering a compound fracture in his leg and an ankle dislocation. Yow Yeh retired in 2014, as he never fully recovered from the injury. Brisbane spent much of the season inside the Top 4, but another "Post-Origin Slide" saw them finish 8th, and they were eliminated by the Cowboys 33–16 in the Qualifying Final. Beale (Dragons) and Te'o (Rabbitohs) both left the club, along with the retiring Civoniceva, and Prince returned to the club for his swansong. Unfortunately, 2013 was not a good year for Brisbane- they were out of the Top 8 after Round 10 and never returned, finishing 12th, the lowest position in club history at the time. Future Origin winger Corey Oates made his debut during this season, however. Prince retired and Wallace returned to the Panthers, largely because of the emergence of Ben Hunt as the club's halfback. Perhaps one of their biggest signings in quite some time, former Dally M Medallist Ben Barba joined the club in 2014 as their marquee signing. Barba attempted to join the Broncos one year prior, but was refused a release by the Bulldogs. Todd Lowrie, Martin Kennedy and Daniel Vidot also joined the Broncos from the Warriors, Roosters and Dragons respectively. There was also a change in the club captaincy, with Thaiday standing down and being replaced by a co-captain structure of Hodges and Parker. The Broncos failed to find any sort of consistency during the season, their best patch of form being four straight wins against the Titans, Tigers, Sea Eagles and Raiders. They also experienced their worst collapse as a club against the Cronulla Sharks at home in Round 16, where they led the Sharks 22–0 at one stage, ultimately falling 24–22 by full time. Brisbane never really challenged for the title throughout the season and ultimately finished 8th, again being eliminated by the Cowboys in the Qualifying Final, this time by the score of 32–20. That game would be Griffin's last as head coach, as it had been announced mid-season that Wayne Bennett was set to return to the Broncos from 2015. Bennett's second stint (2015–2018) The roster change under Bennett was dramatic from the moment he returned. Ben Barba was released after just one season, eventually joining Cronulla. Ben Hannant left for the Cowboys, and Kiwi international Josh Hoffman departed for the Gold Coast. In return, Darius Boyd returned to the club, and was joined by ex-Tiger enforcer Adam Blair and boom Raider Anthony Milford, as well as a pair of up and coming rookies in Joe Ofahengaue and Kodi Nikorima making their debuts. The captaincy underwent another change as well, with Hodges given sole captaincy of the club. Their campaign started rocky, a 36–6 thrashing at the hands of South Sydney, but they soon found their feet and won 8 straight matches during the Origin period – a drastic change from the previous years – ultimately finishing the season in 2nd place. They took down the Cowboys 16–12 in the Qualifying Final to advance straight to a Preliminary Final showdown with the minor premier Roosters. A Boyd intercept try inside the first minute set the tone for the clash, and Brisbane would dominate 31–12 to advance to a Grand Final showdown with the Cowboys. In what is considered by some commentators to be one of the best Grand Finals in recent history, the Broncos led 16–12 for much of the second half before Cowboys winger Kyle Feldt scored in the corner on the last play of regulation to tie the match. Superstar half Johnathan Thurston missed the subsequent conversion, sending the clash to golden point. The Broncos won the golden point coin toss and elected to receive, putting them in a great position to win the match. However, off the kickoff, Ben Hunt knocked on, giving the Cowboys possession just metres out from the Broncos line. Thurston kicked a field goal 2 minutes into the Golden Point period to win the match for the Cowboys 17–16, ending the season in jubilation for Townsville and heartbreak for Brisbane. Justin Hodges retired after the Grand Final, and the captaincy was again given to Corey Parker. James Roberts, a speedy centre, had been lured away from the Titans at the last minute to join the Broncos, and he was joined by young Raiders forward Tevita Pangai Junior and young back rower Jai Arrow, who had emerged from Brisbane's development program. Brisbane started the season strongly but endured a "Post-Origin Slump" to drop out of the Top 4, finishing in 5th. After eliminating the Titans 44–28 in the Qualifying Final, Brisbane travelled to Townsville for a knockout clash with the Cowboys. In another classic between the two sides, the game went into extra time – a new rule brought in after their grand final thriller 12 months earlier. At 20-all, when a Michael Morgan try sealed a 26–20 win for the Cowboys, ending their season – the third time in 5 years their season had concluded in Townsville. Parker retired after the match, but Brisbane brought in embattled ex-New Zealand halfback Benji Marshall on a lifeline deal, as well as established prop Korbin Sims from Newcastle and experienced winger David Mead from the Gold Coast. Darius Boyd was also named club captain for 2017. Prior to the start of the 2017 season it was announced Hunt had signed a large contract with the Dragons beginning in 2018, and that likely contributed to a season where Hunt was dropped to reserve grade and the bench, before finishing the season at hooker after Andrew McCullough tore his ACL. Brisbane started their 2017 campaign in shaky fashion, winning two of their first five games, the club sitting in ninth position at the end of Round 5. Following this, the Broncos found their form and re-entered the top 8 without exiting it again, finishing the 2017 season in 3rd, but with a 4 win gap between them and the 1st placed Storm. Making matters worse, Boyd was injured in their Round 26 win over the Cowboys, and missed their 24–22 loss in a classic Qualifying Final against the Roosters, before the Boyd-less Broncos advanced to another Preliminary Final with a 13–6 win over the Panthers. Boyd was rushed back into the squad for the showdown with runaway favourites Melbourne, but was clearly not healthy and didn't do much to alter the 30–0 defeat. Along with Ben Hunt, Jai Arrow, Adam Blair and Benji Marshall also left the club, departing for the Titans, Warriors and Tigers respectively. Jack Bird was the club's marquee signing, joining from Cronulla, although his season lasted just 8 games as he dealt with injury. Wayne Bennett blamed Cronulla for Jack Bird's injury problems, as he had claimed that Cronulla had told Bird that he was not injured and did not require surgery before departing for Brisbane. The Broncos also had signed prop Matt Lodge on a one-year deal, a move which attracted controversy, as Lodge had been out of the NRL due to his arrest in New York during the 2015 off-season. While many in the media and the NRL fanbase called for Lodge's contract to be deregistered, Bennett and the Broncos stood by Lodge. 2018 also saw a major success from Brisbane's youth, with debuts handed out to Payne Haas, David Fifita, Kotoni Staggs and Jake Turpin. Brisbane, however, were not the team they had been, and instead of being in the Top 4 race, they were just looking to make the finals. A big 48–16 win over Manly, which saw Corey Oates score 4 tries, saw the club finish in 6th, but just one win separated them from 1st, such was the tightness of the competition. The following week, Brisbane were eliminated from the finals series after being defeated 48–18 by a highly unfancied St George-Illawarra side. The loss was also the final game for the retiring Sam Thaiday. After the 2018 season, a rift emerged between Bennett and CEO Paul White, which ultimately saw Bennett sign with the Rabbitohs to become coach from 2020. Just weeks later, Bennett was sacked as the head coach for making preseason plans with the Rabbitohs for the following year, and in return South Sydney appointed Bennett as head coach with immediate effect, freeing up their coach Anthony Seibold, who had already signed with Brisbane from 2020, to become the Broncos head coach for 2019. Anthony Seibold era (2019–2020) Along with Bennett, a host of key players left Brisbane. Josh McGuire left for North Queensland and Korbin Sims for St. George Illawarra, then halfway through the season, James Roberts, Jaydn Su'A and Kodi Nikorima also departed the club for the Rabbitohs and Warriors. Jack Bird once again dealt with injuries, only playing 9 games, and it quickly became clear that the now 32 year old Darius Boyd had lost a step. The Broncos handed debuts to Patrick Carrigan, Xavier Coates, Tom Dearden, Herbie Farnworth and Keenan Palasia, while also signing Rhys Kennedy and James Segeyaro mid-season. A four match losing streak early in the season set the tone for the club, as they sat 14th after Round 16, only to go on a run of 6 wins and a draw from their last 10 games to ensure they finished in 8th place. They played Parramatta in week one of the finals at the new Bankwest Stadium and lost the match 58–0, marking the club's worst ever defeat. It was also the biggest finals loss in the history of the competition which eclipsed the previous record set by Newtown when they defeated St George 55–7 in the 1944 finals series. It also extended the club's longest ever premiership drought to thirteen seasons. The club signed out of favour half Brodie Croft from the Melbourne Storm on a three-year deal, beginning in 2020. 2020 started well for Brisbane, winning their first two games against North Queensland and South Sydney, before the competition was suspended upon completion of round 2 due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. When the competition returned from its unscheduled hiatus in late May, the optimism at the Broncos fizzled out quickly, as they lost 34–6 to Parramatta in the first game of the season restart. The club then recorded their worst ever loss the following week against the Sydney Roosters, losing 59–0. The losses continued to pile up for Brisbane, the mid-season signing of Issac Luke and the return of Ben Te'o making almost no impact. The Broncos were also impacted by injuries, as many players missed more than half of the shortened season. The club's only post COVID lockdown victory came against fellow bottom of the ladder team, Canterbury-Bankstown in round 9. After a 28–10 loss to South Sydney, Anthony Seibold resigned as coach of the Brisbane Broncos, with assistant Peter Gentle taking over as caretaker coach until the end of the season. While the Brisbane club were more competitive under Gentle, the club would lose their final 11 matches of the season in a row including a 36–8 loss to the Canberra Raiders despite leading 8–6 at half time, another big loss against the Sydney Roosters, this time 58–12 at the Sydney Cricket Ground and a 32–16 loss in the final round to North Queensland which condemned Brisbane to the club's first ever wooden spoon after Canterbury-Bankstown beat Souths in round 19 to leap ahead of the Brisbane club on the ladder on points differential. Darius Boyd and Jordan Kahu both retired at the end of the 2020 season, while David Fifita would be departing as well to join the Titans. Kevin Walters era (2021–2024) After missing out on the signature of Craig Bellamy as head coach, Kevin Walters was signed as coach for the 2021 NRL season for two years. Walters moved on two of Brisbane's players who were on large contracts in Jack Bird and Joe Ofahengaue. Brisbane brought in experienced players, John Asiata, Albert Kelly, David Mead, Dale Copley and Danny Levi in an attempt to take pressure off the young players. Walters named Alex Glenn as the captain for the 2021 season. The problems at Red Hill continued, firstly surrendering a 16–0 lead against Parramatta in their season opener to concede the next 24 points without an answer to end up losing 16–24, followed by losing 16–28 to local rivals, the Gold Coast Titans to record their 13th loss in a row. In round 3, Brisbane recorded their first victory in 259 days after they beat Canterbury-Bankstown 24–0. In round 8 of the 2021 NRL season, Brisbane staged an incredible comeback against the Gold Coast. After being down 22–0, Brisbane would go on to win the match 36–28. An unlikely round 11 win against the Sydney Roosters at the Sydney Cricket Ground saw the Brisbane club end a 13-game losing streak outside of Queensland, however losses to Melbourne, St. George Illawarra, Canberra and South Sydney saw Brisbane once again fall to the bottom of the ladder as of round 15. The club would go on to win four of their last nine games to avoid the Wooden Spoon and finish in 14th place. Alex Glenn retired after this game, marking the end of a twelve-year career. Even though Brisbane struggled, Tyson Gamble emerged as a serviceable half for the club. Gamble was limited to two games in 2020, but managed more game time under Walters, as he chopped and changed halves pairings throughout the season. The club also lured Karmichael Hunt back from the NSW Waratahs, twelve years after he initially departed the Broncos for Australian rules football. During the season, the Brisbane club ran the broom through the front office and the playing group. Paul White resigned as CEO and was replaced with Dave Donaghy from the Storm. Donaghy began his tenure in the middle of 2021, after a lengthy legal process that prevented him from commencing his role earlier in the year. Former Bronco Ben Ikin was hired as the Football and Performance Director. The turnaround for Brisbane's recruitment seemingly began when the club announced the signing of embattled Rabbitohs half Adam Reynolds on a three-year deal from 2022 onwards. In addition to Reynolds, the club also signed Ryan James from the Raiders, Cowboys forward Corey Jensen, Kurt Capewell from the Panthers, as well as Jordan Pereira and Tyrone Roberts as depth signings. In addition to the new signings at the club, many of the young players extended their contracts to keep them at the Broncos, something that was becoming a rarity ever since 2018. Ben Te'o and Karmichael Hunt quietly retired from rugby league, while Danny Levi, Anthony Milford, John Asiata, Brodie Croft, Xavier Coates and Richard Kennar departed for other clubs. Jesse Arthars was also sent to the New Zealand Warriors on a loan deal for the 2022 season, expected to return for the 2023 campaign. Ex-Cowboy Te Maire Martin also made his NRL return with the Broncos, having initially retired three years prior due to a bleed on his brain. Adam Reynolds was named as the captain for the Brisbane in the 2022 season. 2022 began well for Brisbane, despite losing captain Adam Reynolds to COVID-19 in their Round 1 clash against the South Sydney Rabbitohs. They won their opening games against South Sydney and the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs to sit in the top 8 at the end of the round for the first time since 2020. They then went on to lose three games in a row, before going on a seven-game winning streak, including a 38–0 thrashing of Manly and another comeback victory against the Gold Coast Titans. This was the longest winning streak the Broncos had experienced since winning six straight games under Wayne Bennett in 2017. During the club's winning streak, the club was rocked by star forward Payne Haas requesting a release, which was denied. During the Round 12 clash against the Gold Coast, Haas was relentlessly booed by Brisbane fans when he had the ball. The Broncos' seven-game winning streak was broken by the Melbourne Storm, who had beaten the Brisbane side 32–20 after a shaky start. Brisbane were defeated 40–26 by North Queensland the following week, before winning three games in a row. The last placed Wests Tigers defeated Brisbane at home in an upset, winning 32–18. This match saw Patrick Carrigan placed on report for a 'hip drop' tackle on Jackson Hastings, which caused an injury to the Tigers' half and ended his season. Carrigan missed four matches due to suspension. After losing to the Sydney Roosters the following week, Brisbane seemed to be back on track after beating the Newcastle Knights 28–10. The final three rounds were a nightmare for the Broncos, as they recorded a 60–12 loss against the Storm, a 53–6 loss against the Eels, then a 22–12 loss to St. George Illawarra in the final round of the regular season. Brisbane's horrific performances saw them drop out of the top 8 and miss the finals for a third straight season, the longest consecutive finals drought in Brisbane's history to date. The club also made history for the wrong reasons, being the first club to miss the finals with more wins than losses since Canberra in 1999, as well as being the first club to sit in the top four after Round 17 and miss the finals. During the 2022 season, rumours had persisted that Warriors fullback Reece Walsh was seeking a return to Australia after the New Zealand Warriors had announced that they would be returning to New Zealand. However, both the Warriors and Walsh denied the rumours and insisted that he was committed to the move. In July, however, reports began emerging that Walsh was granted a release from the Warriors and that he was looking to return to a Queensland team. On 7 July, the Broncos confirmed the signing of Walsh for 2023 and beyond. To accommodate Walsh in the salary cap, utility back Te Maire Martin was given permission to negotiate with other clubs and signed with the New Zealand Warriors from 2023 onwards. At the start of the final round of the regular 2023 season, Brisbane was positioned on top of the NRL ladder. Brisbane lost their final regular season game against the Melbourne Storm 22–32 and missed out on claiming their first minor premiership win since 2000, due to having a lesser points differential than the Penrith Panthers, who shared the same number of points. Notwithstanding, Brisbane qualified to play Penrith in the 2023 NRL Grand Final at Stadium Australia on 1 October. Brisbane lost the game, having led the game 24–8 with 18 minutes of play remaining to lose 24–26. This was the worst collapse in NRL Grand final history. Under Walters in the 2024 NRL season, Brisbane were unable to back up their feats from 2023 with the club finishing twelfth on the table. Walters' position as Brisbane head coach came under heavy scrutiny by the media. The club conducted an internal review after the end of the regular season, and Walters was terminated from his coaching position on 26 September 2024. Michael Maguire was subsequently appointed immediately as head coach for the next three seasons. Michael Maguire era (2025–2027) In September 2024, the Brisbane Broncos confirmed that Michael Maguire had been signed for three years and would immediately take over as head coach ahead of the 2025 pre-season. Having wanted to continue with the use of alliteration for local sporting teams such as the Brisbane Bullets and Brisbane Bears (later the Brisbane Lions), the club's directors eventually decided on the nickname Broncos. The original club logo was first featured in the Broncos' inaugural season in the premiership in 1988 and was used until 1999. It used a mostly gold colour scheme, in line with the predominant colour on the team jerseys. In 2000, the club adopted a new logo with a more maroon design, which was much closer to the traditional colour associated with Queensland rugby league and Queensland sport in general. This design continues to be used to date. Traditionally, the colours of the Brisbane Broncos have been maroon, white and gold, which have all long been linked to the history of rugby league in Queensland. Initially, the founders of the club favored the official blue and gold colours of Brisbane City Council. However, Sydney advertiser John Singleton advised the board that "Queenslanders had been booing players wearing blue for more than three-quarters of a century." In 2001, following the release of the club's predominantly white with navy-blue and maroon away jersey, the National Rugby League ordered the club to produce a third jersey since the new away jersey clashed with the home jerseys of the Penrith Panthers, Melbourne Storm and New Zealand Warriors. An aqua strip using the same design as the jerseys used from 1999 to 2001 was worn, which was much derided by the local media. Following two years of public pressure the club dropped the jersey in favor of the design worn against Newcastle in 2003. <gallery class"center" perrow"6" align"center" caption"Brisbane Broncos - Jerseys"> File:Brisbane Jersey 1988.png|1988–1990 File:Brisbane Jersey 1991.png|1991–1996 File:Brisbane Jersey 1997.png|1997–1998 File:Brisbane Jersey 1999.png|1999–2001 File:Brisbane Broncos home jersey 2013.png|2013–2014 </gallery> Stadium .]] In their first five seasons, the Broncos played their matches at the 52,500 capacity Lang Park, the ground considered to be the home of rugby league in Queensland. However, following ongoing conflict with the Queensland Rugby League and Lang Park Trust due to a sponsorship conflict with the QRL having a commercial agreement with Castlemaine XXXX brewery with prominent signs around the ground, while the Broncos were sponsored by rival brewery Powers who were not permitted any permanent signs (the Broncos initially got around this by not using the change rooms at half time during games, instead sitting on the ground with a temporary protective banner surrounding them which just happened to have prominent Powers logos), the team relocated to the 60,000 capacity QEII Stadium in 1993 (QEII had been the main stadium of the 1982 Commonwealth Games). the team moved back to the refurbished ground upon its completion in mid-2003. The more centrally-located stadium has begun to attract larger crowds, with the 2006 average attendance of 31,208 being significantly higher than the Newcastle Knights with 21,848 and about double the regular season competition average of 15,601. The club record attendance for a regular season match is 58,593, set against the St. George Dragons in the final round of the 1993 season. The record attendance for a match at Lang Park is 50,859 for Darren Lockyer's final home game. Before kick-off at the Stadium an instrumental version of Led Zeppelin's "Kashmir" is routinely played. Whenever the Broncos score a try, "Chelsea Dagger" by The Fratellis is played. The Broncos all-time home attendance record was set at QEII Stadium during the 1997 Super League Grand Final when 58,912 saw the Broncos defeat the Cronulla Sharks 26–8 to claim the only Super League premiership played in Australia. The Broncos record home attendance at Lang Park set during the 2023 Preliminary Final on 23 September 2023, when 52,273 saw the Broncos defeat the New Zealand Warriors 42–12 to win a place in the 2023 NRL Grand Final. Home venues {| class="wikitable" |+ !Venue !Years |- |Lang Park |1988–present |- |Pioneer Oval |1989–1994 |- |Parramatta Stadium |1989 |- |Townsville Sports Reserve |1989 |- |Carrington Park |1989 |- |Wade Park |1991 |- |Scully Park |1991 |- |Bundaberg Showroom |1991 |- |Eric Weissel Oval |1992 |- |Athletic Park |1992 |- |QEII Stadium |1993–2003 |- |ANZAC Oval |1994 |- |Hyatt Regency |1995 |- |Bega Recreational Ground |1995 |- |Coffs Coast International Stadium |1995 |- |Lavington Sports Ground |1995 |- |Carrara |2001 |- |The Gabba |2023 |} Supporters The Brisbane Broncos have the largest fan base of any NRL club and they have been voted the most popular rugby league team in Australia for several years. A Broncos supporters group called "The Thoroughbreds" which is made up of prominent businessmen, made an unsuccessful bid to purchase News Ltd's controlling share of the club in 2007. Average regular season attendance * 1988: 16,111 (lowest home attendance) * 1989: 18,217 * 1990: 22,709 * 1991: 19,463 * 1992: 21,687 * 1993: 43,200 (largest home attendance) * 1994: 37,705 * 1995: 35,902 * 1996: 23,712 * 1997: 19,298 * 1998: 20,073 * 1999: 22,763 * 2000: 21,239 * 2001: 19,710 * 2002: 20,131 * 2003: 24,326 * 2004: 28,667 * 2005: 30,331 * 2006: 31,208 * 2007: 32,868 * 2008: 33,426 * 2009: 34,587 * 2010: 35,032 * 2011: 33,209 * 2012: 33,337 * 2013: 30,480 * 2014: 34,235 * 2015: 36,096 * 2016: 34,476 * 2017: 31,929 * 2018: 31,394 * 2019: 29,516 * 2020: 8,624 (Attendance numbers impacted by crowd restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic) * 2021: 21,444 (Attendance numbers impacted by crowd restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic) * 2022: 29,594 * 2023: 33,793 * 2024: 39,873 Notable supporters Notable supporters of this club, amongst others, include: * Mackenzie Arnold, Australian footballer and goalkeeper *Pierre Gasly, Formula 1 Driver * Carl Barron, Australian comedian * Allan Border, Australian cricket captain * Tom Brady, 7 time Super Bowl winning quarterback for the New England Patriots and Tampa Bay Buccaneers * Quentin Bryce, 25th Governor General of Australia * Cate Campbell, Malawian-born Australian swimmer and Olympic gold medallist * Jim Chalmers, 41st Treasurer of Australia * Cameron Dick, 36th Deputy Premier of Queensland * Andrew Fraser, 47th Treasurer of Queensland * Bernard Fanning, lead singer of Powderfinger * Katrina Gorry, Australian footballer * Wayne Goss, 34th Premier of Queensland * Ian Healy, former international wicket-keeper * Les Hiddins, former Australian soldier, known as "The Bush Tucker Man" * Mark Hunt, mixed martial artist * Dami Im, singer, winner of The X Factor Australia in 2013 * Steve Irwin, TV personality and environmentalist * Marnus Labuschagne, South African-born Australian cricketer * Denan Kemp, Former NRL Player and owner and creator of Bloke In A Bar, Bloke Beer and Grumpy Coffee * Georgie Tunny, The Project co-host * Yvonne Sampson, Fox Sports Presenter * Lincoln Lewis, Australian actor * Craig Lowndes, V8 Supercars driver * Chris Lynn, Australian cricketer * Steven Miles, 40th Premier of Queensland * Patty Mills, professional basketballer * Susie O' Neill, former Australian Swimmer * Sally Pearson, Olympic athlete * Rick Price, musician * Terry Price, professional golfer * Patrick Rafter, retired tennis player * Kevin Rudd, 26th Prime Minister of Australia * Cam Smith, professional golfer * Karl Stefanovic, television presenter * Samantha Stosur, professional tennis player and 2011 US Open champion * Andrew Symonds, international cricketer * Ken Talbot, mining magnate * Don Walker, musician Corporate The Broncos are the only publicly listed NRL club. The largest shareholder in the Broncos is Nationwide News Pty Ltd, a subsidiary of News Corp Australia, which as of 30 June 2021, owned 68.87%. BGM Projects is another major shareholder. John Ribot, a former first grade rugby league player in Queensland and New South Wales, was the club's original chief executive officer (CEO). Ribot left when he signed to become the CEO of the rebel Australian rugby league competition Super League. (p. 24,112) Shane Edwards, the Broncos Marketing Manager at the time, was promoted to CEO and later resigned. Bruno Cullen, who had been with the Broncos' off-field staff since 1989, became the club's third CEO in 2003. Rugby league player Darren Lockyer is a member of the board of directors. Between 1997 and 2016, the club's apparel was manufactured by Nike. Between 2017 and 2020, International Sports Clothing served as the club's apparel manufacturer. From the 2021 season, Asics will supply the club's on-and-off-field apparel. Sponsors The Brisbane Broncos' first major sponsor was Powers Brewing who sponsored them until 1993. The Broncos currently have a number of sponsorship deals with the following: * Kia Motors * NRMA Insurance * ISC * Firstmac / loans.com.au * Asics * Coca-Cola * Powerade * Star Entertainment Group * Deadly Choices * Arrow Energy * Tyrepower * National Storage * BCF * New Era * Nova 106.9 * Nine News Queensland * McDonald's * The Courier-Mail * Event Cinemas * XXXX Gold * Four'n Twenty * Makita * Gallagher Insurance * World Gym * Hyperice * Australian Venue Co. * Elastoplast {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- style="background:#bdb76b;" ! Year !! Kit Manufacturer !! Major Sponsor !! Back Top Sponsor !! Sleeve Sponsor !! Back Bottom Sponsor !! Front Shorts Sponsor !! Back Shorts Sponsor |- | 1988-89 || rowspan"2"|Peerless || Power || Power || - || rowspan"13"| - || - || rowspan="11"| - |- | 1990 || rowspan"2"|Power's || rowspan"2"|Power's || TR Auscel || Power's Brewery |- | 1991-93 || rowspan"4"| M Sport || rowspan"2"| TDK || - |- | 1994 || rowspan"3"| Traveland || rowspan"3"| Traveland || rowspan="3"| Traveland |- | 1995 || MMI |- | 1996 || rowspan="5"| Ansett Australia |- | 1997 || rowspan"17"| Nike || rowspan"2"|Ansett Australia || rowspan="2"| - || - |- | 1998 || Ansett Australia |- | 1999 || 131 Shop || 131 Shop || - |- | 2000-01 || rowspan"6"| Ergon Energy || rowspan"6"| Ergon Energy || Keno |- | 2002-03 || Keno || - |- | 2004 || Mortgage House || rowspan"6"| NRMA Insurance || rowspan"6"| NRMA Insurance |- | 2005 || rowspan="2"| QLD Group |- | 2006 || Strathfield |- | 2007 || rowspan"5"|WOW Sight & Sound || rowspan"2"|Toyota |- | 2008-09 || rowspan"2"|WOW Sight & Sound || rowspan"2"|The Coffee Club |- | 2010 || Sportingbet |- | 2011 || rowspan"7"|NRMA Insurance || rowspan"4"|Sportingbet || rowspan="3"| Hans || PNG Bid || PNG Bid |- | 2012 || rowspan"8"| Arrow Energy || rowspan"8"| Arrow Energy |- | 2013 || rowspan="9"| FirstMac Loan Savings |- | 2014 || rowspan="2"| Pirtek |- | 2015 || rowspan="2"| William Hill |- | 2016 || rowspan="6"| National Storage |- | 2017-19 || rowspan"2"| ISC || rowspan"4"| Ladbrokes |- | 2020 || rowspan="4"| Kia |- | 2021 || rowspan="3"| Asics |- | 2022 || rowspan"2"| BCF || rowspan"2"| BCF |- | 2023- || The Star |} Players 2025 NRL squad Representative players Notable players Due to the club's premiership success and its being the dominant Queensland team in the competition for the majority of its participation, the Brisbane Broncos' list of representative players is extensive. Consequently, there have been a large number of Queensland Maroons in the team. In 2007, a 20-man legends team was announced to celebrate the club's 20-year anniversary. |date=9 May 2007 |list1a |list1b |list1c |list1d |list1e |list1f |list1g |list1h |list1i |list1j |list1k |list1l |list1m |column2_title=Interchange |list4a |list4b |list4c |list4d |list4e |list4f |list4g |coach|assistant |assistant2}} 1988 first-ever squad * Colin Scott – Fullback * Joe Kilroy – Wing * Chris Johns – Centre * Gene Miles – Centre * Michael Hancock – Wing * Wally Lewis – Five-eighth * Allan Langer – Halfback * Terry Matterson – Lock * Brett Le Man – Second Row * Keith Gee – Second Row * Greg Dowling – Prop * Greg Conescu – Hooker * Bryan Niebling – Prop * Mark Hohn – Interchange * Billy Noke – Interchange * Craig Grauf – Interchange * Wayne Bennett – Coach Personnel Coaches {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ !Name !No. !Coaching Years !Games !Wins !Losses !Draws !Winning % |- |Wayne Bennett |1 |1988–2008, 2015–2018 |671 |671 |0 |0 |100% |- |Craig Bellamy* |2 |2002 |2 |0 |0 |0 |100% |- |Ivan Henjak |3 |2009–2010 |51 |51 |0 |0 |100% |- |Anthony Griffin |4 |2011–2014 |101 |54 |46 |0 |53.5% |- |Anthony Seibold |5 |2019–2020 |38 |14 |23 |1 |36.8% |- |Peter Gentle* |6 |2020 |7 |0 |7 |0 |0% |- |Kevin Walters |7 |2021–2024 |102 |52 |49 |1 |51% |- |Matt Ballin* |8 |2024 |2 |2 |0 |0 |100% |- |Michael Maguire |9 |2025 | | | | | |} Current personnel {| class="wikitable" |+ !Name !Position |- |Dave Donaghy |Chief Executive Officer |- |Michael Maguire |NRL Head Coach |- |Matt Friend |General Manager – Finance |- |Louise Lanigan |Company Secretary & Salary Cap Manager |- |Joe McDermott |General Manager – Football Operations |- |Simon Scanlan |Head of Recruitment & Academy |- |Harry Havers |Football Data & Insights Analyst |- |Christine Halliwell |General Manager – Community & Government Programs |- |Tain Drinkwater |General Manager – HR, Rise and Governance |- |Steele Tallon |General Manager – Communications and Digital Media |- |Dan Glass |Executive Manager – Commercial Partnerships and Sales |- |Belinda Findlay |Manager – Membership and Merchandise |} Statistics and records In their thirty-nine completed seasons, the club has made a total of eight Grand Finals, winning six and losing two; once to the North Queensland Cowboys in 2015, and once to the Penrith Panthers in 2023. They are one of only two clubs to have won the World Club Challenge twice, and were the first club to do so on British soil. They also won the now defunct Panasonic Cup in 1989. Six players have scored four tries in a match for the Brisbane Broncos including Steve Renouf (5 times), Wendell Sailor, Karmichael Hunt, Justin Hodges, Denan Kemp and former Australian Wallabies player, Israel Folau. Wendell Sailor has held the record for the most tries scored in a finals match (four tries against St. George Illawarra Dragons, Semi-final 2001, Brisbane won 44–28). The most field goals in a match however hasn't been past one field goal which has been accomplished several times. The club's biggest winning margin is 65 points, achieved in 2007 in a 71–6 victory over the Newcastle Knights. Their heaviest defeat is a 59–0 loss by the Sydney Roosters on 4 June 2020 . The club's highest winning margin in a Grand Final is by 26 points (38–12, against Canterbury Bulldogs, 1998). In the 2017 NRL season, the Brisbane Broncos' highest try-scorer was former Gold Coast Titans centre James Roberts with 15 tries. The highest points-scorer was Jordan Kahu with 67 goals and 8 tries. The most metres run in the season was by Tautau Moga with 3410 metres. Brisbane Broncos win–loss records Source: Active teams {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:left;" ! Opponent !!style"width:5em"|Played !!style"width:5em"|Won !!style"width:5em"|Drawn !!style"width:5em"|Lost !!style="width:5em"|Win % |- | Dolphins || 4 || 3 || 0 || 1 || 75.00 |- | Wests Tigers || 33 || 23 || 1 || 9 || 71.21 |- | Newcastle Knights || 56 || 38 || 1 || 17 || 68.75 |- | South Sydney Rabbitohs || 50 || 33 || 1 || 16 || 67.00 |- | North Queensland Cowboys || 63 || 41 || 2 || 20 || 65.08 |- | Gold Coast Titans || 37 || 24 || 0 || 13 || 64.86 |- | Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks || 63 || 40 || 0 || 23 || 63.49 |- | Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs || 62 || 36 || 1 || 25 || 58.87 |- | Parramatta Eels || 67 || 38 || 1 || 28 || 57.46 |- | Canberra Raiders || 58 || 33 || 1 || 24 || 56.90 |- | Penrith Panthers || 63 || 35 || 1 || 27 || 56.34 |- | Warriors || 49 || 27 || 1 || 21 || 56.12 |- | Sydney Roosters || 60 || 33 || 0 || 27 || 55.00 |- | St George Illawarra Dragons || 46 || 25 || 0 || 21 || 54.34 |- | Manly Warringah Sea Eagles || 51 || 26 || 1 || 24 || 51.96 |- | Melbourne Storm || 57 || 14 || 1 || 42 || 25.43 |- class="sortbottom" |} Defunct teams {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:left;" ! Opponent !!style"width:5em"|Played !!style"width:5em"|Won !!style"width:5em"|Drawn !!style"width:5em"|Lost !!style="width:5em"|Win % |- | Western Reds || 4 || 4 || 0 || 0 || 100.00 |- | Adelaide Rams || 3 || 3 || 0 || 0 || 100.00 |- | South Queensland Crushers || 2 || 2 || 0 || 0 || 100.00 |- | Gold Coast Chargers || 14 || 12 || 0 || 2 || 85.71 |- | Western Suburbs Magpies || 17 || 14 || 1 || 2 || 85.29 |- | Northern Eagles || 5 || 4 || 0 || 1 || 80.00 |- | St George Dragons || 15 || 10 || 0 || 5 || 66.66 |- | Illawarra Steelers || 14 || 9 || 0 || 5 || 64.28 |- | Balmain Tigers || 17 || 10 || 1 || 6 || 61.76 |- | North Sydney Bears || 18 || 11 || 0 || 7 || 61.11 |- | Hunter Mariners || 2 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 50.00 |- class="sortbottom" |} Season summary {| class"wikitable" style"width:100%; font-size:90%;" |+ PPremiers, RRunners-up, MMinor Premierships, FFinals Appearance, W=Wooden Spoons <br /> (Brackets Represent Finals Games) |- style="background:#bdb76b;" ! Competition !! Games<br />Played !! Games<br />Won !! Games<br />Drawn !! Games<br />Lost !! Ladder<br />Position !! style"width:2%;"|P !! style"width:2%;"|R !! style"width:2%;"|M !! style"width:2%;"|F !! style="width:2%;"|W !! Coach(es)!! Captain(s)!! Details |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1988 NSWRL season</div> || 22 || 14 || 0 || 8 || 7/16 || || || || || || Wayne Bennett || Wally Lewis ||<div style"text-align: center;"><small>1988 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1989 NSWRL season</div> || 22 (1) || 14 (0) || 0 (0) || 8 (1) || 5/16 || || || || || || Wayne Bennett || Wally Lewis || <div style"text-align: center;"><small>1989 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1990 NSWRL season</div> || 22 (3) || 16 (1) || 1 (0)|| 5 (2) || 2/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Gene Miles || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1990 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1991 NSWRL season</div> || 22 || 13 || 0 || 9 || 7 / 16 || || || || || || Wayne Bennett || Gene Miles || <div style"text-align: center;"><small>1991 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1992 NSWRL season</div> || 22 (2) || 18 (2) || 0 (0) || 4 (0)|| 1/16 || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Allan Langer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1992 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1993 NSWRL season</div> || 22 (4) || 16 (4) || 0 (0) || 6 (0)|| 5/16 || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Allan Langer || <div style"text-align: center;"><small>1993 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1994 NSWRL season</div> || 22 (2) || 13 (1) || 1 (0) || 8 (1) || 5/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Allan Langer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1994 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1995 ARL season</div> || 22 (2) || 17 (0) || 0 (0) || 5 (2) || 3/20 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Allan Langer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1995 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1996 ARL season</div> || 21 (2) || 17 (0) || 0 (0) || 4 (2) || 2/20 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Allan Langer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1996 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1997 SL season</div> || 18 (2) || 14 (2) || 1 (0) || 3 (0) || 1/10 || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Allan Langer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1997 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1998 NRL season</div> || 24 (4) || 18 (3) || 1 (0) || 5 (1) || 1/20 || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Allan Langer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1998 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">1999 NRL season</div> || 24 (1) || 13 (0) || 2 (0) || 9 (1) || 8/17 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || | Kevin Walters || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>1999 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2000 NRL season</div> || 26 (3) || 18 (3) || 2 (0) || 6 (0)|| 1/14 || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || | Kevin Walters || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2000 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2001 NRL season</div> || 26 (3) || 14 (1) || 1 (0) || 11 (2) || 5/14 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Gorden Tallis ||<div style="text-align: center;"><small>2001 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2002 NRL season</div> || 24 (2) || 16 (1) || 1 (0) || 7 (1) || 3/15 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett and Craig Bellamy || Gorden Tallis || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2002 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2003 NRL season</div> || 24 (1) || 12 (0) || 0 (0) || 12 (1) || 8/15 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Gorden Tallis || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2003 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2004 NRL season</div> || 24 (2) || 16 (0) || 1 (0) || 7 (2) || 3/15 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Gorden Tallis || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2004 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2005 NRL season</div> || 24 (2) || 15 (0) || 0 (0) || 9 (2) || 3/15 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Darren Lockyer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2005 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2006 NRL season</div> || 24 (4) || 14 (3) || 0 (0) || 10 (1) || 3/15 || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Darren Lockyer || <div style"text-align: center;"><small>2006 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2007 NRL season</div> || 24 (1) || 11 (0) || 0 (0) || 13 (1) || 8/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Darren Lockyer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2007 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2008 NRL season</div> || 24 (2) || 14 (1) || 1 (0) || 9 (1) || 5/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Darren Lockyer || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2008 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2009 NRL season</div> || 24 (3) || 14 (2) || 0 (0)|| 10 (1) || 6/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Ivan Henjak || Darren Lockyer || <div style="text-align: center;"> <small>2009 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2010 NRL season</div> || 24 || 11 || 0 || 13 || 10/16 || || || || || || Ivan Henjak || Darren Lockyer || <div style"text-align: center;"><small>2010 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2011 NRL season</div> || 24 (3) || 18 (2) || 0 (0) || 6 (1) || 3/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Anthony Griffin || Darren Lockyer || <div style="text-align: center;"> <small>2011 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2012 NRL season</div> || 24 (1) || 12 (0) || 0 (0) || 12 (1) || 8/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Anthony Griffin || Sam Thaiday || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2012 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2013 NRL season</div> || 24 || 10 || 1 || 13 || 12 / 16 || || || || || || Anthony Griffin || Sam Thaiday || <div style"text-align: center;"><small>2013 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2014 NRL season</div> ||24 (1)||12 (0)||0 (0)||12 (1)|| 8/16 || || || ||<div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Anthony Griffin || Corey Parker and Justin Hodges || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2014 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2015 NRL season</div> || 24 || 17 || 0 || 7 || 2/16 || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Justin Hodges || <div style"text-align: center;"> <small>2015 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2016 NRL season</div> || 24 (3) || 15 || 0 || 9 || 5/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Corey Parker || <div style="text-align: center;"> <small>2016 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- |<div style"text-align: center;">2017 NRL season</div> || 24 (3) || 16 || 0 || 8 || 3/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Darius Boyd || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2017 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- |<div style"text-align: center;">2018 NRL season</div> || 24 (1) || 15 || 0 || 9 || 6/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Wayne Bennett || Darius Boyd || <div style="text-align: center;"><small>2018 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2019 NRL season</div> || 24 (1) || 11 || 1 || 13 || 8/16 || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Anthony Seibold || Darius Boyd || <div style="text-align: center;"> <small>2019 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2020 NRL season</div> || 20 || 3 || 0 || 17 || 16/16 || || || || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || Anthony Seibold and Peter Gentle || Alex Glenn || <div style="text-align: center;"> <small>2020 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2021 NRL season</div> || 24 || 7 || 0 || 17 || 14/16 || || || || || || Kevin Walters || Alex Glenn || <div style"text-align: center;"> <small>2021 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2022 NRL season</div> || 24 || 13 || 0 || 11 || 9/16 || || || || || || Kevin Walters || Adam Reynolds || <div style"text-align: center;"> <small>2022 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2023 NRL season</div> || 24 (3) || 18 (2) || 0 || 6 (1) || 2/17 || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || <div style"text-align: center;">?</div> || || Kevin Walters || Adam Reynolds || <div style"text-align: center;"> <small>2023 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |- | <div style"text-align: center;">2024 NRL season</div> || 24 || 10 || 0 || 14 || 12/17 || || || || || || Kevin Walters || Adam Reynolds || <div style"text-align: center;"> <small>2024 Brisbane Broncos season</small></div> |} Finals appearances 28 (1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2023) Honours * World Club Challenge: 2 :: 1992, 1997 * Premiership: 6 :: 1992, 1993, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2006 * Minor Premiership: 4 :: 1992, 1997, 1998, 2000 * Panasonic Cup: 1 :: 1989 * Lotto Challenge Cup: 1 :: 1991 * Tooheys Challenge Cup: 1 :: 1995 Club Rivalries North Queensland Cowboys Brisbane's biggest rivals are the North Queensland Cowboys. The two clubs had a long-standing 'sibling rivalry' with North Queensland characterized as the underdog. Brisbane initially were dominant in the fixture with Brisbane going undefeated against North Queensland for the first nine years until North Queensland recorded their first ever victory in the 2004 elimination final defeating Brisbane 10–0. The rivalry reached new heights after North Queensland won their first premiership, beating Brisbane at the 2015 Grand Final at Stadium Australia. Considered one of the greatest grand finals of all time, the win established North Queensland as competitive equals. Between 2015 and 2017 a staggering three of five games played between the two clubs led to a Golden Point finish. In the final round of the 2020 NRL season, North Queensland condemned Brisbane to their first ever Wooden Spoon. Brisbane needed to win the match to overtake Canterbury-Bankstown but lost the match. It is regarded as one of the greatest modern sports rivalries earning the nickname of the "Queensland derby". The Gold Coast are geographically the closest club to Brisbane. Brisbane previously enjoyed derbies with the Gold Coast Chargers, until the Chargers exited the competition at the end of 1998 season, returning as the Gold Coast Titans in 2007 and before that with the Gold Coast Seagulls and Gold Coast-Tweed Giants. In the 2021 NRL season, Brisbane recorded the biggest ever comeback in their history by defeating the Gold Coast 36–28 after being down 22–0. Melbourne Storm Since the 2006 NRL Grand Final where Brisbane edged out Melbourne 15–8, a rivalry still continues today between the two clubs. The two sides have played each other in multiple finals matches. Adding to this, both Brisbane and Melbourne players usually feature heavily in Queensland's annual State of Origin side. Since the 2006 decider, Brisbane have played Melbourne on thirty-four occasions and only won five times. In round 27 of the 2023 NRL season, the two sides met in the final round of the regular campaign. Brisbane and Melbourne both rested regular players as each team had already qualified for the finals. Melbourne won 32–22 and by the end of the round, Brisbane missed out on their first Minor Premiership win since 2000. The two sides would meet the following week in the 2023 qualifying final with Brisbane defeating Melbourne 26–0 to book a place in the preliminary final. It was the first time Brisbane had beaten Melbourne at Lang Park since 2009 and the first time that they had defeated Melbourne in 14 attempts. Dolphins "The Battle for Brisbane" is a new rivalry which began with the Dolphins' admission as the second Brisbane club in 2023. This marked the first time that Brisbane has had two professional rugby league teams since the demise of the South Queensland Crushers in 1997. In round 4 of the 2023 NRL season, the two sides played against each other for the first time. In a match which saw both sides take the lead, Brisbane would go on to win 18–12 in front of 51,047 fans. This was the biggest crowd at Lang Park for a regular season game in its history. Club affiliations The Brisbane Broncos have three split feeder clubs from the Queensland Cup: Northern Suburbs Devils, Souths Logan Magpies and Wynnum-Manly Seagulls. Former feeder clubs of the Broncos are the now-defunct Aspley Broncos and Toowoomba Clydesdales, active clubs Central Queensland Capras, who switched to The Dolphins, Ipswich Jets who switched to Newcastle Knights, Redcliffe Dolphins who switched to the Warriors, and Burleigh Bears who switched to the Gold Coast Titans. Women's team In 2017, the Brisbane Broncos launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership in 2018. On 27 March 2018, the club won a license to participate in the inaugural NRL Women's season, on the back of a strong bid which included the NRL's desire for a geographical spread. Paul Dyer was named as the coach of the women's side, but stepped down after the inaugural season to concentrate on his role as game development manager. Kelvin Wright was named his replacement in May 2019. In June 2018, Ali Brigginshaw, Brittany Breayley, Heather Ballinger, Teuila Fotu-Moala and Caitlyn Moran were unveiled as the club's first five signings. Tain Drinkwater was also appointed the CEO of the team. The club won the inaugural NRL Women's Premiership title by defeating the Sydney Roosters by 34–12 in the 2018 NRL Women's Premiership Grand Final. Current squad |list1b |list1c |list1d |list1e |list1f |list1g |list1h |list2a |list2b |list2c |list2d |list2e |list2f |list2g |list2h |list3a |list3b |list3c |list3d |list3e |list3f |column3_title=Coaching Staff |coach=Kelvin Wright }} See also *Sport in Queensland *Rugby league in Queensland References External links Official sites * [https://www.broncos.com.au/ Official website] * [https://broncosclub.com.au/ Broncos Leagues Club] * [https://www.flashscore.com.au/team/brisbane-broncos/8llKIOZC/results/ Brisbane Broncos results] – Latest scores for Brisbane Broncos Statistics & information sites * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161208231213/http://afltables.com/rl/teams/brisbane/brisbane_idx.html Rugby League Tables] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20020621182544/http://rl1908.com/Clubs/Brisbane-Broncos.htm RL1908 Broncos History] Supporter sites * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190509020541/http://broncoshq.com/ BroncosHQ – Brisbane Broncos Fan Discussion Forum] Category:Companies listed on the Australian Securities Exchange Category:National Rugby League clubs Category:News Corp Australia Category:Rugby clubs established in 1987 Category:Rugby league teams in Brisbane Category:1987 establishments in Australia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_Broncos
2025-04-05T18:27:02.653564
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Brisbane Lions
Maroon Blue Gold | league = AFL: Senior men<br />AFLW: Senior women<br />VFL: Reserves men | chairman Andrew Wellington | ceo = Greg Swann | coach = AFL: Chris Fagan<br />AFLW: Craig Starcevich<br />VFL: Ben Hudson | captain = AFL: Harris Andrews and Lachie Neale<br />AFLW: Breanna Koenen | n1th Dan Anstey<br>Abby Coleman | premierships AFL (4)AFLW (2)Reserves (5) | ground = AFL: The Gabba (1997–present)<br />AFLW: Springfield Central Stadium (8,000)<br />VFL: Springfield Central Stadium | capacity | trainingground Springfield Central Stadium (2022–present) | kit_alt1 | pattern_b1 _brisbane2023h | pattern_sh1 = _goldsides | pattern_so1 = _gold_midband | body1 = 78184A | shorts1 = 78184A | socks1 = 78184A | pattern_name1 = <!--optional, default: Home --> | kit_alt2 | pattern_b2 _brisbane2024a | pattern_sh2 = _sides_on_white | pattern_so2 = _bluetop | body2 = FF0000 | shorts2 = 0039A6 | socks2 = ff0000 | pattern_name2 = <!--optional, default: Away --> | kit_alt3 | pattern_b3 _brisbane2023c | pattern_sh3 = _sides_on_white | pattern_so3 = _gold_midband | body3 = FFFFFF | shorts3 = 0039A6 | socks3 = 78184A | url = [http://www.lions.com.au/ lions.com.au] | jumper | current 2023 Brisbane Lions season |pattern_name3=Clash}} The Brisbane Lions are a professional Australian rules football club based in Brisbane, Queensland, that compete in the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's elite competition. Brisbane are the reigning AFL premiers, having won the 2024 Grand Final by sixty points. The Lions came into existence in 1996 when the AFL expansion club the Brisbane Bears, established in 1987, absorbed the AFL operations of one of the league's foundation clubs, Fitzroy, established in Melbourne, Victoria in 1883. Its colours of maroon, blue, and gold were drawn from both Fitzroy and the Bears. The club plays its home matches at the Gabba in Brisbane, and its headquarters and training facilities are located at Springfield Central Stadium. The Lions are one of the most successful AFL clubs of the 2000s, appearing in four consecutive grand finals from 2001 to 2004, a period in which they won three premierships (2001, 2002, 2003). They also finished runners-up in 2023, and won their fourth premiership in 2024. The Lions were a foundation team in the AFL Women's competition in 2017, and have featured in five grand finals in that time, winning the premiership in 2021 and again in 2023 also finishing runners-up on the other occasions. They also field a reserves men's team in the Victorian Football League, and operate an under-18s academy which contests Division 2 of the men's and women's underage national championships and the Talent League. History of Fitzroy Football Club pre-1996, and Brisbane Bears Fitzroy Football Club The Melbourne-based Fitzroy Football Club was formed on 26 September 1883 at the Brunswick Hotel. The Victorian Football Association (VFA) made changes to their rules, allowing Fitzroy to join as the seventh club in 1884, playing in the maroon and blue colours of the local Normanby Junior Football Club. They quickly became one of the most successful clubs, consistently in the top four, and drawing large crowds to their home at the Brunswick Street Oval in Edinburgh Gardens. This success was capped off by Fitzroy winning the VFA premiership in 1895. Fitzroy then went on to be one of the eight break-away clubs who formed the Victorian Football League in 1897. They continued their VFA form and be a powerhouse in the early days of the new VFL, winning a total of eight premierships, of which seven (1898, 1899, 1904, 1905, 1913, 1916 and 1922) were won while they were nicknamed the Maroons, and one (1944) as the Gorillas. The club also boasted 6 Brownlow Medal winners who were Haydn Bunton Sr., Wilfred Smallhorn, Dinny Ryan, Allan Ruthven, Kevin Murray, and Bernie Quinlan. won three Brownlow Medals and two club best and fairest medals in his time at Fitzroy.]] The club changed its nickname to the Lions in 1957, but when Fitzroy was evicted from its home ground of Brunswick St Oval in 1965, this began a sustained period of poor on-field performance and financial losses. Fitzroy entered one of the least successful periods any VFL/AFL club has had. The club finished in the bottom three 11 times in the 1960s and 1970s, including three wooden spoons in four years between 1963 and 1966. The club won only a single game between 1963 and 1964 – known as the Miracle Match when it defeated eventual premiers Geelong in Round 10, 1963 – but its 1964 season was winless, and as of 2023 stands as the only winless season by any club since 1950. Despite a revival in the '80s, when the Lions made the finals four times under the coaching of Robert Walls and David Parkin, and the playing group of 1981 Brownlow Medallist Bernie Quinlan, Ron Alexander, Garry Wilson, Gary Pert and Paul Roos, the club's financial situation was perilous. The VFL's plans to move or merge struggling Fitzroy to Brisbane pre-dated the Brisbane Bears, and negotiations between the league and the club began in 1986 with the playing group voting for a move to Brisbane. However, Fitzroy resisted the move despite significant incentives and in response, the VFL made the decision to cut any further financial assistance to the club. By the start of the 1996 season, they were almost at the end of their financial tether. With no home ground, back to back wooden spoons, and their future under a cloud, Fitzroy began to consider options for survival. Brisbane Bears (1987–1996) was the original home ground of the Brisbane Bears.]] The Brisbane Bears were born in 1987 and initially played home matches at Carrara Stadium on the Gold Coast. In its early days, the club was uncompetitive on the field and struggled to shake the derisive tags which included "The Carrara Koalas" (in reference to the Gold Coast home and the somewhat tame marsupial) and "The Bad News Bears". After the collapse of the business empire belonging to Bears deputy chairman Christopher Skase and the resignation of chairman Paul Cronin, the club was taken over by the AFL and re-sold to Gold Coast hospitality businessman Reuben Pelerman. Off-field, Pelerman was losing millions of dollars annually on the club and at one point in 1991 told Bears coach Robert Walls that he was closing it down. The Bears finished last in 1990 and 1991. To survive, The Bears experimented with playing matches at the Gabba in Brisbane in 1991, moving all home matches to the venue ahead of the 1993 season. As part of the club's move to the Gabba, Pelerman agreed to release the Bears from private ownership and revert to a traditional club structure in which the club's members were able to elect the board. Membership and attendances instantly tripled now that the club was finally playing in their home city of Brisbane. Brisbane Bears absorb Fitzroy's AFL operations, become Brisbane Lions Fitzroy's directors had agreed in principle to merge with the eventual 1996 premiers, North Melbourne, as the "North-Fitzroy Kangaroos". However, that proposal was rejected 15–1 by the club presidents, reportedly out of concern that an all-Victorian merge would be too powerful. Instead, Fitzroy was placed into administration, and its administrator accepted an offer to merge its AFL operations with Brisbane. The club became the Brisbane Bears-Fitzroy Football Club (trading as Brisbane Lions), remained at the Gabba, and were coached by Bears coach John Northey. However, the club's identity, logo, song, and guernsey were based on those of Fitzroy, three Fitzroy representatives served on the board, and the Lions kept an office in Melbourne. None of the Fitzroy representatives, former Fitzroy champion Laurie Serafini, David Lucas and Ken Levy, chosen to serve on Brisbane's board, were Fitzroy directors at that time. Eight Fitzroy players were allowed to be recruited to the Brisbane Lions outside of the normal draft or trade system. They were Brad Boyd, Chris Johnson, Jarrod Molloy, John Barker, Nick Carter, Simon Hawking, Scott Bamford and Shane Clayton. Fitzroy played its last VFL/AFL game on 1 September 1996 against Fremantle at Subiaco Oval, and the Bears' last match was a preliminary final on Saturday 21 September 1996 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against North Melbourne. The Brisbane Lions were officially launched on 1 November 1996, joining the national competition in 1997. Brisbane Lions history ]] Beginnings: 1997–2000 In 1997, the Lions narrowly made the finals, finishing eighth. They ended up with the same win–loss record as fellow 1997 newcomers Port Adelaide, who missed out due to having an inferior percentage. Their first two games were against the eventual grand finalists of that year, Adelaide and St Kilda. They went down to Adelaide by 36 points before recording an emphatic 97-point thrashing of St Kilda in round 2. The Lions met St Kilda again in a cut-throat away qualifying final, going down by 46 points after leading the Saints at half-time. The Brisbane Lions in 1997 remain the only team in VFL/AFL history to have made the finals in their first season. Despite a talented playing list, the disruption of the merger and injuries to key players Michael Voss and Brad Boyd took their toll. The Lions finished last at the end of the 1998 season. Accordingly, Northey was sacked as coach with eight rounds remaining in the season. During the off-season, the club hired Leigh Matthews, who in 1990 had delivered Collingwood its first premiership since 1958. Matthews, who was voted "Player of the Century" in 2000, played his entire career with Hawthorn and brought many of the Hawthorn disciplines to the Lions. Importantly, he forced the Lions to embrace and acknowledge their Fitzroy heritage with murals and records being erected at the Gabba, and past players names being placed on lockers. Within a year, the Lions rose from the bottom of the ladder to fourth. The 1999 season included a Round 20 Gabba match where the Lions led Fremantle by 113 points at half-time after having kicked 21 goals. Their half-time score of 21.5 (131) still remains the highest half-time score in VFL/AFL history. Brisbane won their first finals as a merged entity against Carlton and the Western Bulldogs before losing to the eventual premiers, the Kangaroos, in a 1999 preliminary final. The Lions played finals again in 2000 but bowed out in the second week after losing an away game to Carlton by 82 points. In this period the club drafted and recruited key players who went on to be pillars of the Lions triple premiership years. Victorian Luke Power, Fitzroy father–son selection Jonathan Brown, and exciting WA product Simon Black came via the draft, and Brad Scott, Mal Michael, and ex-Fitzroy B&F winner Martin Pike were recruited from Hawthorn, Collingwood, and North Melbourne respectively. Triple premiership success: 2001–2004 captained Brisbane to three successive premierships.]] The Lions began 2001 by making the final of the Ansett Australia Cup, their first pre-season grand final. They went down by 85 points away to Port Adelaide, who they had also been scheduled to play in Round 1 at the same venue. After an inconsistent start to their 2001 season, the Lions took on the reigning premiers Essendon in Round 10. Brisbane finished as 28-point victors, and head coach Leigh Matthews famously used a Predator quote, "if it bleeds, we can kill it", to inspire his team for the game. The Lions then won 16 games straight, finishing the year undefeated and booking their place in the 2001 AFL Grand Final to play Essendon. Going in as underdogs, Brisbane started the game well, scoring the first goal of the match from a free kick awarded to Alastair Lynch for holding against Dustin Fletcher. Essendon fought back late in the first quarter and then took control of the game in the second term. The Lions' poor kicking for goal almost put them out of the game in the second quarter as Essendon blew their lead out to 20 points late in the term. {| style="margin-right:4px; margin-left:4px; margin-top:8px; float:right; border:1px #000 solid; border-radius:8px; background:#fff; font-family:Verdana; font-size:8pt; text-align:center;" |- | width="200" | 2001 AFL Grand Final ||G||B||Total |- | style="text-align:left" | Brisbane Lions || 15 || 18 || 108 |- | style="text-align:left" | Essendon || 12 || 10 || 82 |- | Venue: MCG | colspan="3" | Crowd: 91,482 | colspan="3" | |} However, The Lions managed to overrun Essendon in the third term, kicking six goals to one and turning a 14-point deficit into a 16-point lead. Brisbane's pace in the midfield and the tiring legs of most of the Essendon players played a pivotal role in them taking full control of the game in the second half. The Lions won their first premiership comfortably, with a final score of 15.18 (108) to 12.10 (82). The win was topped off with Lions utility player Shaun Hart winning the Norm Smith Medal after being judged best on ground in the Grand Final. {| style="margin-right:4px; margin-left:4px; margin-top:8px; float:right; border:1px #000 solid; border-radius:8px; background:#fff; font-family:Verdana; font-size:8pt; text-align:center;" |- | width="200" | 2002 AFL Grand Final ||G||B||Total |- | style="text-align:left" | Brisbane Lions || 10 || 15 || 75 |- | style="text-align:left" | Collingwood || 9 || 12 || 66 |- | Venue: MCG | colspan="3" | Crowd: 91,817 | colspan="3" | |} In 2002, the Lions won a club-record 17 games, spending most of the season firmly entrenched in the top two with Port Adelaide. They narrowly missed out on the minor premiership following a final round defeat to the Power in Adelaide. In the finals, the Lions claimed easy home victories over the two Adelaide-based teams on their way to a second consecutive Grand Final. They faced Collingwood, who had surprised many that year after having missed the finals the previous seven seasons. Brisbane ended up defeating the Magpies 9.12 (66) to 10.15 (75) in cold and wet conditions at the Melbourne Cricket Ground. Early in the contest, the Lions lost both ruckman Beau McDonald and utility player Martin Pike to injury and had to complete the match with a limited bench. In 2003, the Lions became the first team in the national era to win three consecutive premierships. With a number of players under an injury cloud—and having lost to Collingwood in a qualifying final at the Melbourne Cricket Ground three weeks previously–the Lions went into the game as underdogs. However, they sealed their place in history as an AFL dynasty by thrashing the Magpies in cool but sunny conditions. At one stage in the final quarter, the Lions led by almost 80 points before relaxing when the match was well and truly won, allowing Collingwood to score the last four goals. The final score of 20.14 (134) to 12.12 (84) {| style="margin-right:4px; margin-left:4px; margin-top:8px; float:right; border:1px #000 solid; border-radius:8px; background:#fff; font-family:Verdana; font-size:8pt; text-align:center;" |- | width="200" | 2003 AFL Grand Final ||G||B||Total |- | style="text-align:left" | Brisbane Lions || 20 || 14 || 134 |- | style="text-align:left" | Collingwood || 12 || 12 || 84 |- | Venue: MCG | colspan="3" | Crowd: 79,451 | colspan="3" | |} During their premiership years, the club took the premiership cups to Brunswick Street Oval, Fitzroy, the home of the Fitzroy Football Club, each morning after the grand final. Honouring Fitzroy's history at their traditional home ground was seen as an important way of connecting with the Melbourne-based Fitzroy supporters who'd chosen to support the Brisbane Lions. This tradition was continued for the 2024 premiership triumph, and fan days were also held for the 2004 and 2023 grand final loses. {| style="margin-right:4px; margin-left:4px; margin-top:8px; float:right; border:1px #000 solid; border-radius:8px; background:#fff; font-family:Verdana; font-size:8pt; text-align:center;" |- | width="200" | 2004 AFL Grand Final ||G||B||Total |- | style="text-align:left" | Port Adelaide || 17 || 11 || 113 |- | style="text-align:left" | Brisbane Lions || 10 || 13 || 73 |- | Venue: MCG | colspan="3" | Crowd: 77,671 | colspan="3" | |} The 2004 season saw Brisbane remain in the top portion of the ladder for most of the season. Reaching the finals in second position, Brisbane controversially had to travel to Melbourne to play against Geelong in the preliminary final due to a contract between the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) and the Australian Football League (AFL) that required one preliminary final to be played each year at the MCG. Port Adelaide had finished on top of the ladder and hosted the other preliminary final in Adelaide. Former player Jason Akermanis has since claimed that coach Leigh Matthews was furious over the preliminary final location decision. Despite this setback, Brisbane beat Geelong and reached the grand final for the fourth consecutive year. Their opponents, Port Adelaide, playing in their first grand final, were too good on the day and recorded a 40-point win in what was the first-ever all-non-Victorian grand final. The grand final is partly remembered for a wild punch-up between Port Adelaide's Darryl Wakelin and Alastair Lynch, who was playing in his last ever game and therefore immune from suspension. Rebuild and Michael Voss: 2005–2013 The Lions endured a slow start to the 2005 season before having a form reversal towards the end of the year, which included ten-goal thrashings of top-four contenders Geelong and Melbourne. Going into Round 20, they were half a game clear inside the top eight and had one of the strongest percentages in the league. However, they lost their final three games and miss the finals, with their season culminating in a record-breaking 139-point loss to St Kilda at the Telstra Dome. It remains the club's heaviest defeat, in addition to being the largest victory in the over-100-year history of St Kilda. Some believed that the St Kilda game, rather than the 2004 Grand Final, had signaled the end of Brisbane's triple premiership dynasty. The Lions began the 2006 season optimistically, but injuries plagued the club as they again missed the finals, with Brisbane's players recording an AFL record total of 200 matches lost to injury for the season. The Brisbane Lions' 2007 season started with them finishing runners-up to Carlton in the 2007 NAB Cup Grand Final. The Lions failed to make the finals for a third successive year, again showing promising glimpses at stages, with a shock away win against reigning premiers the West Coast Eagles, and a 93-point hiding of finalists Collingwood at the MCG. They made history in 2007 by becoming the first club in the history of the AFL to have five co-captains. The team struggled during the 2008 season and missed out on the finals with a 10–12 record, losing 3 games despite having at least 5 more scoring shots in each of those games. Following the season, Coach Leigh Matthews resigned after 10 seasons and 3 premierships with the club. The Lions appointed former player and Captain Michael Voss as the coach ahead of 2009. After only winning 2 games from the first 5 played in 2009, the club won 9 of the next 12 to sit in 6th on the ladder, where they finished the season. They also recorded a strong victory over eventual premiers Geelong during this timeframe by 43 points. The club beat Carlton in their Elimination Final, coming from 30 points behind in the final quarter to win by 7 points, before losing to the Western Bulldogs in a Semi Final. The 2009/2010 off-season was dominated by the arrival of Brendan Fevola from Carlton, with a belief in the club that Fevola could help them capitalise and improve upon their strong 2009 season. Indeed, the Lions won their first four matches of the 2010 season to be top of the ladder after four rounds, but they only won three more games after that, to finish 13th by the end of the season. The Lions' 2010/2011 off-season was disrupted by the sacking of Fevola after just one season at the Lions, following repeated off-field indiscretions which included getting drunk in the Brisbane streets during New Year's Eve celebrations. On the field, the Lions won only four games for the year and finished 15th overall. The 2011 season saw the debut of another Queensland-based team, the Gold Coast Suns. The Suns, who were coming off a 139-point loss to Essendon the previous week, upset the Lions by 8 points in their first encounter. Despite their worst season since 1998, coach Michael Voss was granted a contract extension after the board recommended that Voss was the best man to take the club forward into the future. Leading into season 2012, only two players from the triple-premiership-winning team of 2001–2003 remained: Simon Black and Jonathan Brown. The 2013 season started well for Brisbane, defeating Carlton in the final of the NAB Cup, with Daniel Rich winning the Michael Tuck Medal for best on ground. However, the club began its 2013 season with back-to-back losses to the Western Bulldogs and Adelaide. Injuries took a toll on the team, with young players Claye Beams and Jared Polec suffering severe injuries. In Round 13, Brisbane defeated second-placed Geelong, coming from 52 points down late in the third quarter to win by 5 points due to an Ash McGrath goal after the siren in his 200th match, in what became known as the Miracle on Grass. On 13 August 2013, coach Michael Voss was told his contract would not be renewed. On 18 October 2013, Brisbane Lions Hall of Famer Simon Black announced his retirement. Playing under Justin Leppitsch: 2014–2016 On 25 August 2013, a former premiership player for the Lions, Justin Leppitsch, was confirmed as the senior coach of the Lions for the next three seasons. During Round 13, 2014 Lions captain Jonathan Brown was the victim of a facial injury in a clash between the Lions and the Greater Western Sydney Giants. He collided with Tomas Bugg's knee and was taken off the ground. He suffered a concussion and subsequently retired from football. His retirement, alongside the retirement of Ash McGrath, meant there were no players from the triple-premiership era remaining at the club. On 29 August 2016, just one day after the end of the club's season, Leppitsch was sacked as coach of the Lions after multiple disappointing seasons, despite being granted a one-year contract extension at the start of the year which would have seen him remain at the club until the end of the 2017 season. Building under Chris Fagan: 2017–2022 On 4 October 2016, Hawthorn football manager Chris Fagan was announced as Brisbane's senior coach from the 2017 season onwards. The Lions claimed the 2017 wooden spoon, despite winning 5 games for the season, 2 more than the previous season. Their percentage of 74.3 was the worst in the league, behind Fremantle with a percentage of 74.4. The 2018 season was very similar, recording 5 wins to finish in 15th place, but multiple close losses showed signs of a young team about to breakout into finals contention. The Lions had a dramatically improved 2019 season, making the finals for the first time since 2009 and finishing second on the AFL ladder with 16 wins, behind minor premiers Geelong on percentage. However, Brisbane were bundled out of the finals in straight sets at the Gabba, losing to eventual premiers Richmond by 47 points in their qualifying final and then to eventual runners-up Greater Western Sydney by three points in their semi-final due to a late Brent Daniels goal. The Lions became the first team since Geelong in 1997 to finish second on the ladder and not progress to a preliminary final. Brisbane repeated their form displayed in 2019 the following year, once again finishing second on percentage at the conclusion of the home-and-away season, which, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, was mostly played in south-east Queensland. They won 14 games in a shortened 17-game season. During their qualifying final, they defeated Richmond for the first time since 2009 and qualified for a preliminary final berth, but were beaten by a more experienced Geelong side in that match, thus missing out on the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to play for a premiership in their own Gabba backyard. After an inconsistent start to the 2021 season the Lions hit form, winning seven straight games to sit in the top four for most of the year. However, losses to Melbourne, Richmond, Hawthorn and St Kilda meant the Lions sat in fifth as of the final round. With the double chance on the line, the Lions regained fourth spot in the dying seconds of their final home-and-away game against West Coast. A behind kicked by Lincoln McCarthy put them ahead of the fourth-placed Bulldogs by a single point of ladder percentage, and a goal after the siren from Charlie Cameron then sealed the result for the Lions, who finished in the top four for the third year running under Chris Fagan. However, the Lions bowed out in straight sets for the second time in three years after suffering losses to eventual premiers Melbourne and eventual runners-up Western Bulldogs in the finals, with the latter winning by a single point, due to a contentious free kick paid to the Bulldogs in the final seconds of the game. Brisbane reached the finals once again in 2022, but this time missed the top four. With a win-loss record of fifteen wins and seven losses, the Lions finished sixth and hosted seventh-placed Richmond at the Gabba in an Elimination Final. After a close game which had 17 lead changes, the Lions prevailed, defeating the Tigers by a margin of two points in a 106–104 victory thanks to a late Joe Daniher goal. The Lions then played the Melbourne Demons in the Semi-Final, and upset the reigning premiers against all odds, bundling them out in straight sets with a score of 92–79 to progress to their second Preliminary Final under Fagan, taking on Geelong once again in a rematch of the 2020 Preliminary Final. Unfortunately for Brisbane, their impressive finals run came to an end against the Cats, suffering a 71-point defeat in the First Preliminary Final that ended their 2022 season. Back-to-back grand final appearances under Fagan, 2024 premiers: 2023–present Brisbane reinforced their squad with multiple star signings in the off-season, such as gun midfielder Josh Dunkley, tall forward Jack Gunston and father–son draftee Will Ashcroft, to make them one of the competition's flag favourites for the 2023 AFL season. Additionally, Fagan also penned a two-year contract extension to keep him at the club until 2025, with Lachie Neale and Harris Andrews also taking over as co-captains from long-serving Lions veteran Dayne Zorko, who stepped down before the commencement of the 2023 season. Brisbane finished the 2023 Home & Away season in second position, finishing in the Top 2 for the third time under Fagan after previously doing so in 2019 and 2020, and finishing in the Top 4 for the fourth time after also doing so in 2021. They faced Port Adelaide in the Second Qualifying Final on the 9th of September at the Gabba, beating the Power by 48 points and going straight through to a home preliminary final, their third under Fagan, where they faced Carlton on the 23rd of September for a place in the 2023 AFL Grand Final. After conceding the first five goals, The Lions fought back, prevailing by 16 points over the Blues to progress to the AFL Grand Final for the first time since 2004. This meant that they faced Collingwood, exactly 20 years on since they faced the Magpies in the 2003 Grand Final and completed the historic three-peat. The Lions fell short of the premiership in 2023, losing to the Magpies in an extremely close Grand Final with a final score of 12.18.(90) to 13.8.(86). {| style="margin-right:4px; margin-left:4px; margin-top:8px; float:right; border:1px #000 solid; border-radius:8px; background:#fff; font-family:Verdana; font-size:8pt; text-align:center;" |- | width="200" | 2023 AFL Grand Final ||G||B||Total |- | style="text-align:left" | Collingwood || 12 || 18 || 90 |- | style="text-align:left" | Brisbane Lions || 13 || 8 || 86 |- | Venue: MCG | colspan="3" | Crowd: 100,024 | colspan="3" | |} The Lions had a rough start to the 2024 season, starting 2–5 and suffering multiple season-ending injuries to best-23 players, and sitting in 13th by the conclusion of Round 13. However, the Lions would rally post-bye, at one stage stringing together a nine-game win streak and sitting as high as second on the ladder. The Lions would eventually finish fifth on the ladder with a home and away record of 14–8–1, qualifying for finals for the sixth successive season and locking in a home Elimination Final at the Gabba against Carlton, who they defeated 14.15.(99) to 11.5.(71) to progress to the second week of finals, where they met Greater Western Sydney in an away Semi-Final. The Lions made history against the Giants in the Semi-Final, after trailing by as much as 44 points midway through the third quarter and still managing to prevail, defeating the Giants 15.15. (105) to 15.10. (100) to record one of the biggest finals comebacks of all time. Their victory meant that they progressed to their fourth Preliminary Final under Fagan, facing Geelong in a Preliminary Final at the MCG. The Lions came back from a 25 point deficit to defeat the Cats 14.11. (95) to 12.13. (85) to progress to their second straight Grand Final under Fagan. {| style="margin-right:4px; margin-left:4px; margin-top:8px; float:right; border:1px #000 solid; border-radius:8px; background:#fff; font-family:Verdana; font-size:8pt; text-align:center;" |- | width="200" | 2024 AFL Grand Final ||G||B||Total |- | style="text-align:left" | Brisbane Lions || 18 || 12 || 120 |- | style="text-align:left" | Sydney Swans || 9 || 6 || 60 |- | Venue: MCG | colspan="3" | Crowd: 100,013 | colspan="3" | |} The Lions faced off against Sydney in the 2024 AFL Grand Final, thumping the Swans with a score of 18.12. (120) to 9.6. (60), avenging their loss in 2023 and claiming the club's first premiership since 2003. The Lions became the second side under the current finals system to win the premiership from outside the Top Four, after the Western Bulldogs in 2016. Will Ashcroft claimed the Norm Smith Medal as the best afield, winning the award at the age of 20, the second youngest player to do so in VFL/AFL history, after Carlton's Wayne Harmes in the 1979 VFL Grand Final, who was 19 at the time. Membership base and sponsorship ferry with Brisbane Lions wrap in 2015]] Crowds and memberships for the Brisbane Lions grew dramatically during the four seasons in which they made the AFL Grand Final. The club still maintains healthy Victorian support, and The Royal Derby Hotel in Fitzroy is the official social venue for Victorian Lions fans, showing all televised games, and displaying a mural of club greats Kevin Murray, Jonathan Brown, and Chris Johnson on its Alexandra Parade side. To add to this presence in Melbourne, the Lions Historical Society is based at Etihad Stadium, containing exhibits from Fitzroy, the Bears, and the Brisbane Lions. A 2000 Roy Morgan AFL survey of household incomes suggested that Brisbane Lions supporters were among the lowest-earning supporters in the league. {| border"1" cellpadding"4" cellspacing"0" style"text-align:center; font-size:90%; border-collapse:collapse; width:80%;" |- style="background:#C1D8FF;" ! Year !! style"width:7%;"| Members<br /> !! style"width:13%;"| Change from previous season !! Finishing position !! Finals result/Wooden spoon !! Average home crowd<br /> !! style"width:13%;"| Profit (loss) |- |1997||16,769|| || 8th || Qualifying finalists || 19,550 || rowspan="4" |- |1998||16,108|| 661 || 16th || Wooden spoon || 16,675 |- |1999||16,931|| 823 || 3rd || Preliminary finalists || 21,890 |- |2000||20,295|| 3,364 || 6th || Semi-finalists || 27,406 |- |2001||18,330|| 1,965 || 2nd || Premiers || 27,638 || ($845,000) |- |2002||22,288|| 3,958 || 2nd || Premiers || 26,895 || |- |2003||24,365|| 2,077 || 3rd || Premiers || 31,717 || $2,200,000 |- |2004||30,941|| 6,576 || 2nd || Grand finalists || 33,619 ||rowspan="3" |- |2005||28,913|| 1,308 || 11th ||rowspan="4" || 33,267 |- |2006||26,459|| 2,454 || 13th || 28,630 |- |2007||21,976|| 4,483 || 10th || 28,848 || $1,058,000 |- |2008||22,737 || 761 || 10th || 28,128 || ($2,200,030) |- |2009||24,873|| 2,136|| 6th || Semi-finalists || 29,172 || ($603,207) |- |2010||26,779|| 1,906 || 13th ||rowspan"7" || 29,933 || ($2,713,848) |- |2011||22,338|| 4,441 || 15th || 20,462 || ($1,855,926) |- |2012||20,762|| 1,576 ||13th||20,344 || ($2,513,262) |- |2013||24,130|| 3,368 || 12th || 21,083 || ($1,574,762) |- |2014||24,012|| 118 || 15th || 19,743 || ($3,543,138) |- |2015||25,408|| 1,396 || 17th || 18,810 || ($681,053) |- |2016|| 23,286 || 2,122 || 17th || 17,074 || ($1,783,506) |- |2017|| 21,362 || 1,924 || 18th || Wooden spoon || 16,455 || ($2,261,990) |- |2018|| 24,867 || 3,505 || 15th || || 18,405 || ($230,641) |- |2019|| 28,821 || 3,954 || 2nd || Semi-finalists || 24,741 || $648,618 |- |2020 |29,277 | 456 |2nd |Preliminary finalists |10,648 |$3,073,413 |- |2021 |40,289 | 11,012 |4th |Semi-finalists |20,603 | $2,938,037 |- |2022 |43,319 | 3,030 |6th |Preliminary finalists |25,818 | $2,384,997 |- |2023 |52,373 | 9,054 |2nd |Grand finalists |27,455 | $633,056 |- |2024 |63,268 | 10,895 |5th |Premiers |29,045 | |} Statistics highlighted in bold denote the best known season for Brisbane in that category<br /> Statistics highlighted in italic denote the worst known season for Brisbane in that category<br /> Non-playing/coaching staff {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%" ! scope"col" style"width:200px;"|Name ! scope"col" style"width:110px;"|Position |- | Greg Swann | Chief Executive Officer |- | Andrew Wellington | Chairman |- | Sarah Kelly | Deputy chairman |- | Cyril Jinks ! rowspan"5" style"font-weight: normal; background: #F9F9F9; text-align: left;" | Directors |- | Leigh Matthews |- | Peter McGregor |- | Mick Power |- | Ross Thornton |- | Danny Daly | General Manager of Football |- | Dom Ambrogio | List Manager |- | Andrew Crowell | Personal Excellence and Wellbeing Manager |- | Damien Austin | High Performance Manager |- | Stephen Conole | Senior Recruiting Manager |- | Leon Harris | Recruitment Consultant |} Sponsorship AFL {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- style="background:#bdb76b;" ! Year !! Kit Manufacturer !! Major Sponsor !! Shorts Sponsor !! Back Sponsor !! Above number sponsor !! Neckline sponsor |- | 1997–98 ||rowspan3|Puma||rowspan2|Carlton & United Breweries||Spam||rowspan=2|Coca-Cola |- | 1999 ||Devine Homes |- | 2000 ||rowspan=4|AAPT||Spam||Cellular One |- | 2001 ||rowspan3|Russell Athletic|| Bio Organics Vitamins ||rowspan2|AAPT Cellular One |- | 2002 ||rowspan=3|AAMI |- | 2003–06 ||AAPT |- | 2007 ||rowspan4|Puma||rowspan3|Vodafone||rowspan=3|Vodafone |- | 2008 || HBA |- | 2009 ||rowspan=2| MBF |- | 2010 ||rowspan2|Bank of Queensland (Home) Conergy (Away)||rowspan2|Conergy (Home) Bank of Queensland (Away) |- | 2011–12 ||rowspan2|Kooga||rowspan2|Bupa |- | 2013 ||rowspan3|Vero Insurance (Home) National Storage (Away)||rowspan3|National Storage (Home) Vero Insurance (Away) |- | 2014 ||rowspan=3|BLK||TechnologyOne |- | 2015 ||Garuda Indonesia |- | 2016 ||rowspan2|Vero Insurance (Home) Camperdown Dairy International (Away)|| – ||rowspan2|Camperdown Dairy International (Home) Vero Insurance (Away) |- | 2017 ||rowspan3|Majestic Athletic||rowspan2|XXXX |- | 2018 ||Vero Insurance (Home) Oaks Hotels & Resorts (Away)||Oaks Hotels & Resorts (Home) Vero Insurance (Away) |- | 2019 || Neds (Home) Oaks Hotels & Resorts (Away)||rowspan=2|The Coffee Club||Oaks Hotels & Resorts (Home) Neds (Away) |- | 2020 ||rowspan3|Classic Sportswear||rowspan2| XL Express (Home) Neds (Away) ||rowspan=2| Neds (Home) XL Express (Away) |- | 2021 ||rowspan=2|Taubmans |- | 2022 || XL Express (Home) Youi (Away)||Youi (Home) XL Express (Away) || rowspan2| Hyundai|| |- | 2023– || New Balance ||Caltex (Home) Youi (Away)||XXXX || Youi (Home) Caltex (Away) || McDonald's |} AFL Women's {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" |- style="background:#bdb76b;" ! Year !! Kit Manufacturer !! Major Sponsor !! Shorts Sponsor !! Back Sponsor !! Above number sponsor |- | 2017 || rowspan"7"| Cotton On || rowspan"2"| Hyundai || rowspan"6"| Austraffic || Hyundai || rowspan"4"| – |- | 2018 || rowspan="6"| Bond University |- | 2019–20 || Icon Group |- | 2021 || rowspan="2"| Price Attack |- | 2022 S6 || rowspan="3"| Hastings Deering |- | 2022 S7–23 || rowspan="2"| BMD |- | 2024– || Youi |} Relationship with the Fitzroy Football Club The Fitzroy Football Club came out of administration in 1998. For a brief time, it experimented in partnerships with other semi-professional and amateur clubs before incorporating the Fitzroy Reds in 2009 to play in the Victorian Amateur Football Association (VAFA). Fitzroy largely resumed its original VFL/AFL identity playing in the VAFA through its continued use of its 1975–1996 VFL/AFL jumper, its club song, and its 1884–1966 home ground at the Brunswick Street Oval. The goal was to not only maintain a strong presence in Melbourne for Victorian-based Fitzroy/Brisbane Lions supporters, but to also provide for the Fitzroy supporters who chose not to support Brisbane in the AFL. This was all done with the full support of the Brisbane Lions. during the 2021 finals series]] Fitzroy Football Club improved its relationship with the Brisbane Lions in the ten years from 1999 to 2009. In that time Brisbane have used the letters BBFFC printed below the back of the neck of the club's guernseys from 2002 onwards, in line with Brisbane's official name. Fitzroy played the curtain-raiser at the MCG when the Brisbane Lions met in the AFL Heritage Round fixture in 2003. Brisbane also now wears a version of the Fitzroy guernsey, with red instead of maroon, for most AFL matches in Victoria and other states. Relationships between Fitzroy and Brisbane became strained in 2009, when Brisbane announced that it was adopting a new club logo. The Fitzroy Football Club argued this decision contravened Section 7.2 (c) of the Deed of Arrangement between Fitzroy and Brisbane when the two entities merged in 1996. The new logo, featuring a forward-facing lion's head, replaced the former Fitzroy logo of a passant lion with a football. The new logo was placed onto the club's home jumper and was mockingly referred to as 'The Paddlepop Lion', proving to be deeply unpopular among Lions fans who demanded it be changed back to the traditional Fitzroy passant Lion. On 22 December 2009, Fitzroy lodged a Statement of Claim in the Supreme Court of Victoria, seeking an order that the Brisbane Lions be restrained from using as its logo, the new logo or any other logo other than 'the Fitzroy lion logo', in line with Brisbane's legal obligations as specified in the Deed of Arrangement, including their obligation to use the Fitzroy logo in perpetuity. On 15 July 2010, the two clubs reached a settlement, agreeing that the Fitzroy logo symbolically represents the historic deal between Brisbane and Fitzroy, and represents the Brisbane Lions in the AFL. Fitzroy agreed to a compromise whereby Brisbane would use both the old and new logos alongside each other in an official capacity for the next 14 years on all official club stationery and club publications, as well as the Lions' official website for seven years. After immense pressure from both Lions and Fitzroy fans, Brisbane returned to using the old passant lion logo on its playing guernseys from 2015 onwards, but the new lion remained as the club's official logo. The Brisbane Lions have since renewed and maintained strong ties with the Fitzroy Football Club in the VAFA and the Fitzroy junior football club. The Brisbane Lions sponsor a male and female Fitzroy player each year, conduct coaching workshops for Fitzroy, frequently invite the Fitzroy juniors to form a guard of honour for Victorian games, and have had many Fitzroy past players and representatives as elected board members.Club identityEmblemIn 1997, the club unveiled its new emblem, consisting of the golden Fitzroy Lion on a badge of Maroon and Blue. The club used this emblem from 1997 until the end of 2000. In 2001, the club unveiled a new emblem in the shape of a football, emblazoned with the words "Brisbane Lions" and with the Fitzroy Lion located within the "o" of Lions, and the last of the club logos to have the AFL logo on it & this emblem was used until 2009, when the emblem was again changed, this time in favour of a forward-facing Lion head. Guernseys Home Guernsey (worn 1997–2009 and since 2015): Predominantly maroon guernsey with a blue yoke featuring a golden Fitzroy Lion, with a gold collar and cuffs. For shorts, maroon home shorts are worn in home games including the away match against the Swans at the SCG, while the white shorts are worn with the guernsey in the AFL Grand Final, only if the Lions were to played as the away team. Away Guernsey (worn 2008–2009 and since 2015): Predominantly red guernsey with a blue yoke featuring a golden Fitzroy lion, with a blue collar and cuffs, and based on Fitzroy's final colours in the AFL. White away shorts are worn when this guernsey is used and played predominantly in matches except against the Suns, Giants and the Swans. Clash Guernsey (worn since 2023): This predominantly gold guernsey features a maroon Fitzroy lion on a gold background (reminiscent of the Bears' first guernsey), with a maroon yoke and golden cuffs, only to be worn if playing against both the Suns and the Giants. The same shorts as the Away Guernsey are worn. Mascot The Lions' Mascot Manor representative and club mascot was Bernie "Gabba" Vegas until 2015 when Roy the Lion (named Roy after the nickname for Fitzroy fans) replaced him as mascot. In 2021 the club unveiled their Lioness mascot Auroara. Song The club's team song, "The Pride of Brisbane Town", is based on the Fitzroy Football Club song written by ex-Fitzroy player Bill Stephen, and is sung to the music of "La Marseillaise", the French national anthem. Training baseBetween 1997 and 2022, the club trained out of the Gabba during the football season. The club's administrative and indoor training facilities were also located in the stadium. Due to the cricket season in the summer which is during the off-season for the Lions, the club was required to train at alternative locations over the years, this has included the University of Queensland campus, Leyshon Park in Yeronga, Giffin Park in Coorparoo, Moreton Bay Central Sports Complex in Burpengary and elsewhere, meaning the club lacked a dedicated and permanent home year-round. In 2020 the club announced that it would move its training and administrative facilities into Springfield Central Stadium (known for ground-sponsorship purposes as Brighton Homes Arena), an 8,000-capacity high-class facility in Ipswich that enables the club to base itself in the single location and play reserve-grade and AFLW matches at the one location. The Lions moved into the facility in October 2022. Rivalries Collingwood Pre-1996, Fitzroy and Collingwood were fierce local rivals for over 100 years, sharing a suburban boundary down Smith Street, Melbourne, meeting in the 1905 and 1922 grand finals (both won by Fitzroy), and both clubs topping the premiership tally in the early days of the VFL. The bad blood between The Bears and Collingwood began in 1993 after top draft pick Nathan Buckley walked out on them and went to the Magpies after playing only a single season in Brisbane. Buckley was adamant that the move was the right career direction, with the belief he had more chance of winning a premiership elsewhere. However the rivalry between the Lions and the Magpies was properly ignited in late 1999 when Collingwood played their last ever AFL game at their spiritual home ground, Victoria Park. The Lions emerged 42 point victors that day and consigned the Magpies to their second wooden spoon in their VFL/AFL history. The rivalry between the two clubs peaked in the early 2000s, as the clubs played off in two consecutive Grand Finals in 2002 and 2003, with the Lions emerging victors on both occasions. The two clubs clashed once again in the 2023 Grand Final, 20 years on from their 2003 contest, with the Magpies emerging as the victors this time. Gold Coast Suns The Brisbane Lions have a rivalry with fellow Queensland AFL team the Gold Coast Suns. The two teams contest the QClash twice each season. The first QClash was held in 2011, with the game establishing the highest pay TV audience ever for an AFL game, with a total of 354,745 viewers watching the game. The medal for the player adjudged best on ground is known as the Marcus Ashcroft Medal. It is named after former footballer Marcus Ashcroft, who played junior football on the Gold Coast for Southport and 318 VFL/AFL games for the Brisbane Bears/Lions between 1989 and 2003. He later joined Gold Coast's coaching staff and was the first Queenslander to play 300 VFL/AFL games. Sun Touk Miller has won the medal four times, the most by any player. The trophy awarded to the winner of the game is currently known as the "QClash Trophy". The trophy is a "traditional style" looking silver cup with a wooden base and a plaque. The plaque's inscription reads from left to right, "Brisbane Lions AFC", "QCLASH", "Gold Coast Suns FC". Port Adelaide The Port Adelaide Football Club entered the AFL in 1997 after Fitzroy's AFL operations were merged with Brisbane. Supporters of Fitzroy and the Brisbane Bears were aggrieved about Port's entry having taken place under these circumstances. In their early days, the two clubs could not be separated and had multiple close encounters, with a draw in two of their first three meetings. Between 2001 and 2004, the clubs met each other in the 2001 Ansett Australia Cup Grand Final, a 2001 qualifying final, a 2002 preliminary final and the 2004 Grand Final. Other notable encounters from this period include a round 22 match in 2002 to determine the minor premiership that year, {| border"1" cellpadding"4" cellspacing"0" style"text-align:left; font-size:95%; border-collapse:collapse;" width=70% |bgcolor"#C1D8FF" align"center" colspan="13"|Team of the Decade |- |- bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Backs: || Chris Johnson ||Mal Michael ||Darryl White |- bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Half-Backs: || Marcus Ashcroft ||Justin Leppitsch ||Chris Scott |- bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Midfielders: || Nigel Lappin ||Michael Voss (c) ||Brad Scott |- bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Half-Forwards: || Jason Akermanis ||Jonathan Brown ||Craig McRae |- bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Forwards: || Luke Power ||Alastair Lynch ||Daniel Bradshaw |- bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Followers: || Clark Keating ||Simon Black ||Shaun Hart |- bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Interchange: || Martin Pike ||Tim Notting ||Jamie Charman ||Richard Champion |- ! bgcolor"#FFFFFF" align"center" |Coach: ! colspan"4" align"center"|Leigh Matthews |} Hall of Fame Legends {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" style"font-size:95%" |- ! scope"col" style"width:200px;"|Name ! scope"col" style"width:110px;"|Year inducted as inductee ! scope"col" style"width:110px;"|Year inducted as legend ! Reference ! Hall of Fame profile |- | | N/A | 2012 | | [https://www.lions.com.au/news/89717 Profile] |- | | N/A | 2012 | | [https://www.lions.com.au/news/101219 Profile] |- | | 2012 | 2016 | | [https://www.lions.com.au/news/93922 Profile] |- | | N/A | 2023 | | |- | | 2019 | 2023 | | [https://www.lions.com.au/news/105032 Profile] |- | | 2016 | | [https://www.lions.com.au/news/1388169 Profile] |- | | 2019 | Reserves players not on an AFL list cannot be called up to the AFL team, they must first be drafted into the AFL. Between 1998 and 2010, the club's reserves team participated in the QAFL, where it was initially known as the "Lion Cubs". The club won their first reserve-grade premiership in 2001 when they defeated the Southport Sharks in the Grand Final. In 2004, they began to compete as the Suncoast Lions Football Club. The side played home matches at the Gabba (as a curtain raiser game for Brisbane Lions matches) and, formerly, at the Fishermans Road football complex on the Sunshine Coast. In 2011, the team moved to the multi-state North East Australian Football League (NEAFL), where they won four premierships − 2012, 2013, 2017 and 2019. Following the NEAFL disbanding after the 2019 season, the reserves side moved to the Victorian Football League (VFL), with their first season in 2021. Since 2023, the side has played reserves matches at Springfield Central Stadium. Premierships {| class="wikitable" |- !Year !Competition !Opponent !Score !Venue |- | 2001|| QAFL|| Southport Sharks || 13.20 (98) – 13.8 (86) || Giffin Park |- | 2012 || NEAFL|| Queanbeyan Tigers || 22.12 (144) – 11.9 (75) || Manuka Oval |- | 2013 || NEAFL|| Sydney Swans || 12.9 (81) – 10.13 (73) || Graham Road Oval |- | 2017 || NEAFL|| Sydney Swans || 12.13 (85) – 10.22 (82) || Sydney Cricket Ground |- | 2019 || NEAFL|| Southport Sharks || 20.15 (135) – 8.11 (59) || Fankhauser Reserve |} Season summaries {| class="wikitable" |- style="background:#bdb76b;" ! Season !! Competition !! !! Ladder position !! Finals result !! Coach |- | 1998 ||rowspan"13"|QAFL ||rowspan"12"| Unknown ||rowspan"12"| Unknown ||rowspan"3" || Roger Merrett |- | 1999 ||rowspan="2" |- | 2000 |- | 2001 || Premiers ||rowspan="5"| Craig Brittain |- | 2002 ||rowspan"8" |- | 2003 |- | 2004 |- | 2005 |- | 2006 || John Blakey/Daryn Cresswell |- | 2007 || Craig Brittain |- | 2008 || Paul Hudson |- | 2009 || Craig Brittain |- | 2010 || 6–12–0 || 8/10 || rowspan="2" || Craig McRae |- | 2011||rowspan"3"| NEAFL<br />(Northern Conference)|| 4–13–1 || 10/10 ||rowspan2"| Nathan Clarke |- | 2012|| 14–4–0 || 2/10 || Northern Conference Premiers<br />League Premiers |- | 2013|| 16–2–0 || 1/10 || Northern Conference Premiers<br />League Premiers ||rowspan="2"| Leigh Harding |- | 2014 ||rowspan"6"| NEAFL || 6–12–0 || 9/14 ||rowspan"3" |- | 2015 || 2–16–0 || 10/11 ||rowspan"2"| Shane Woewodin |- | 2016 || 3–15–0 || 10/10 |- | 2017 || 15–3–0 || 2/17 || Premiers ||rowspan="6"| Mitch Hahn |- | 2018 || 10–7–1 || 5/10 || Elimination finalists |- | 2019 || 18–0–0 || 1/10 || Premiers |- | 2020 ||colspan="4" |- | 2021 || rowspan="4"| VFL || 3–7–0 || 17/22 || |- | 2022 || 14–4–0 || 2/21 || Preliminary finalists |- | 2023 || 13–4–1 || 4/21 || Preliminary finalists ||rowspan="2"| Ben Hudson |- | 2024 || 13–5–0 || 3/21 || Preliminary finalists |} Statistics highlighted in bold denote the best known season for Brisbane in that category<br /> Statistics highlighted in italic denote the worst known season for Brisbane in that category AFL Women's team .]] In May 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017. The Brisbane Lions were granted a licence on 15 June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season. Tayla Harris and Sabrina Frederick-Traub were the club's first signings, unveiled along with the league's other 14 marquee players on 27 July 2016. A further 23 senior players and two rookie players were added to the club's inaugural list in the league's drafting and signing period. Emma Zielke captained the team for their inaugural season. Former Collingwood and Brisbane Bears player and AFL Queensland coach Craig Starcevich was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in June 2016. The rest of the coaching team was announced on 8 November 2016 as David Lake as the midfield coach, Daniel Merrett as the backline coach and Brent Staker as the forward coach. Car company Hyundai, along with Epic Pharmacy, sponsored the team in 2017. The Lions have been a successful team in the AFLW, reaching the finals in six of the first seven seasons. They narrowly lost grand finals in 2017, 2018, and 2022 (S7), and only missed out on finals in 2019. Due to a shortened 2020 season, the Lions played a Qualifying Final against Carlton before the season was prematurely ended due to COVID border restrictions. No premiership was awarded in 2020. In 2021 the team finally broke through to win their first premiership by defeating arch-rival Adelaide in the grand final. In 2023 the Lions took out their second premiership by defeating North Melbourne at IKON Park by 17 points. Captain Breanna Koenen was adjudged best afield for her performance in the grand final. The team plays their home games at Springfield Central Stadium in Ipswich. Current squad Non-playing/coaching staff {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"font-size:95%" ! scope"col" style"width:200px;"|Name ! scope"col" style"width:110px;"|Position |- | Breeanna Brock | Chief Executive Officer |- | Zachary Zropf | Football Analyst |- | Alex Gorman | Sports Psychologist |- | Michael Swann | Wellbeing Mentor |- | Matt Green | High Performance Manager |- | Alice Walker | Head of Medical |- | Jessica Clarey | Physio |- | Abbey Le Busque | Head Trainer |- | Kieran Miles | Doctor |} Season summaries {| class="wikitable" |- style="background:#bdb76b;font-size: 87%" ! colspan="9" | Brisbane AFLW honour roll |- style="background:#bdb76b;font-size: 87%;" |- style="background:#bdb76b;font-size: 87%;" ! Season !! Ladder !! W–L–D !! Finals !! Coach !! Captain !! Best and fairest !! Leading goalkicker |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2017 |1st |6–0–1 |Runners-up |Craig Starcevich |Emma Zielke |Emily Bates |Kate McCarthy (9) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2018 |2nd |4–3–0 |Runners-up |Craig Starcevich |Emma Zielke |Kate Lutkins |Jess Wuetschner (13) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2019 |4th<sup>c</sup>/9th<sup>o</sup> |2–5–0 |DNQ |Craig Starcevich |Leah Kaslar |Ally Anderson |Jess Wuetschner (8) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2020 |3rd<sup>c</sup>/7th<sup>o</sup> |3–2–1 |Qualifying final |Craig Starcevich |Emma Zielke |Emily Bates |Jesse Wardlaw (9) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2021 |2nd |7–2–0 |bgcolor"gold" div style"text-align: center;"| |Craig Starcevich |Emma Zielke |Ally Anderson |Dakota Davidson (16) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2022 (S6) |3rd |8–2–0 |Preliminary final |Craig Starcevich |Breanna Koenen |Emily Bates |Greta Bodey (13) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2022 (S7) |1st |9–1–0 |Runners-up |Craig Starcevich |Breanna Koenen |Emily Bates |Jesse Wardlaw (22) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2023 |4th |7–3–0 |bgcolor"gold" div style"text-align: center;"| |Craig Starcevich |Breanna Koenen |Ally Anderson |Dakota Davidson (23) |-style="font-size: 87%;" |2024 |3rd |9–2–0 |Runners-up |Craig Starcevich |Breanna Koenen |Ally Anderson |Taylor Smith (22) |} Brisbane Lions Academy The Brisbane Lions Academy consists of the club's junior development signings. It was formed in 2010 as one of four Northern AFL Academies including the Gold Coast Suns Academy, Sydney Swans Academy and GWS Giants Academy. 28 staff (including 3 full time) manage 220 selected underage players from age 12 up. The men's and women's U16 and U18 teams have contested Division 2 of the men's and women's underage championships since 2017. The Under 16 women's was crowned inaugural champions in 2023. The Lions Academy also joined the Talent League in 2019. Notable members Past academy members include the Brisbane Lions senior men's AFL players Harris Andrews, Eric Hipwood, Keidean Coleman, Jack Payne, Jaspa Fletcher and Matthew Hammelmann. It also includes players who went on to other clubs : Mabior Chol, Noah Cumberland, Wylie Buzza, Samson Ryan, Ben Keays, and Will Martyn. Academy members who went on to excel in other sports include Kalyn Ponga and Corey Horsburgh. Notable female academy players include Brisbane Lions senior AFLW players Mikayla Pauga, Sophie Conway, Belle Dawes, Gabby Collingwood, Nat Grider, Tahlia Hickie, Jade Ellenger, Lily Postlethwaite, Luka Yoshida-Martin and Charlotte Mullins. Players who went on to other clubs include: Jesse Wardlaw, Zimmorlei Farquharson and Jacqui Yorston. Activism Same Sex Marriage During the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey, Brisbane Lions supported the Yes vote.See also * Wikipedia listing of Brisbane Lions players * Merrett–Murray Medal * Australian rules football in Queensland * Sport in Queensland * Sport in Australia * Brisbane Broncos References External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120605103241/http://www.lions.com.au/Default.aspx?tabid=17429 The Brisbane Lions – an Overview] – Official AFL website of the Brisbane Lions Football Club * [https://www.flashscore.com.au/team/brisbane-lions/dbrzcXC5/results/ Brisbane Lions results] – Latest scores for Brisbane Lions Football Club }} Category:1996 establishments in Australia Category:Australian Football League clubs Category:Australian rules football clubs in Brisbane Category:Australian rules football clubs in Queensland Category:Australian rules football clubs established in 1996 Category:AFL Women's clubs
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brisbane_Lions
2025-04-05T18:27:02.788603
5030
Bloody Sunday (1972)
}} Northern Ireland | coordinates | date | time = 16:10 | timezone = UTC+00:00 | type = Mass shooting | weapons = L1A1 SLR rifles | fatalities = 14 (13 immediate, 1 died four months later) | injuries = 15+ (12 from gunshots, two from vehicle impact, others from rubber bullets and flying debris) | perps = British Army (Parachute Regiment) | susperps | numparts }} Bloody Sunday, or the Bogside Massacre, All of those shot were Catholics. The march had been organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) to protest against internment without trial. The soldiers were from the 1st Battalion of the Parachute Regiment ("1 Para"), the same battalion implicated in the Ballymurphy massacre several months before. Two investigations were held by the Government of the United Kingdom. The Widgery Tribunal, held in the aftermath, largely cleared the soldiers and British authorities of blame. It described some of the soldiers' shooting as "bordering on the reckless", but accepted their claims that they shot at gunmen and bomb-throwers. The report was widely criticised as a "whitewash". The Saville Inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville of Newdigate, was established in 1998 to reinvestigate the incident much more thoroughly. Following a twelve-year investigation, Saville's report was made public in 2010 and concluded that the killings were "unjustified" and "unjustifiable". It found that all of those shot were unarmed, that none were posing a serious threat, that no bombs were thrown and that soldiers "knowingly put forward false accounts" to justify their firing. The soldiers denied shooting the named victims but also denied shooting anyone by mistake. On publication of the report, British Prime Minister David Cameron formally apologised. Following this, police began a murder investigation into the killings. One former soldier was charged with murder, but the case was dropped two years later when evidence was deemed inadmissible. Following an appeal by the families of the victims, the Public Prosecution Service resumed the prosecution. Bloody Sunday came to be regarded as one of the most significant events of the Troubles because so many civilians were killed by forces of the state, in view of the public and the press. It was the highest number of people killed in a shooting incident during the conflict and is considered the worst mass shooting in Northern Irish history. Bloody Sunday fuelled Catholic and Irish nationalist hostility to the British Army and worsened the conflict. Support for the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) rose, and there was a surge of recruitment into the organisation, especially locally. The Republic of Ireland held a national day of mourning, and huge crowds besieged and burnt down the chancery of the British Embassy in Dublin.Background The City of Derry was perceived by many Catholics and Irish nationalists in Northern Ireland to be the epitome of what was described as "fifty years of Unionist misrule": despite having a nationalist majority, gerrymandering ensured elections to the City Corporation always returned a unionist majority. The city was perceived to be deprived of public investment: motorways were not extended to it, a university was opened in the smaller (Protestant-majority) town of Coleraine rather than Derry (see University for Derry Committee) and, above all, the city's housing stock was in a generally poor state. Derry therefore became a major focus of the civil rights campaign led by organisations such as the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association (NICRA) in the late 1960s. It was the scene of the major riot known as Battle of the Bogside in August 1969, which pushed the Northern Ireland administration to ask for military support. While many Catholics initially welcomed the British Army as a neutral force – in contrast to the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC), which was regarded as a sectarian police force – relations between them soon deteriorated. In response to rising levels of violence across Northern Ireland, internment without trial was introduced on 9 August 1971. There was disorder across the region following the introduction of internment, with 21 people being killed in three days of violence. In Belfast, soldiers of the Parachute Regiment shot dead eleven civilians in what became known as the Ballymurphy massacre. A month after internment was introduced, a British soldier shot dead a 14-year-old Catholic schoolgirl, Annette McGavigan, in Derry. Two months later, Kathleen Thompson, a 47-year-old mother of six, was shot dead in her back garden in Derry by the British Army. IRA activity also increased across Northern Ireland, with thirty British soldiers being killed in the remaining months of 1971, in contrast to the ten soldiers killed during the pre-internment period of the year. At least 1,332 rounds were fired at the British Army, which also faced 211 explosions and 180 nail bombs, By the end of 1971, 29 barricades were in place to prevent access to what was known as Free Derry, sixteen of them impassable even to the British Army's one-ton armoured vehicles. Four days later, in defiance of the ban, an anti-internment march was held at Magilligan strand, near Derry. Protesters marched to an internment camp but were stopped by soldiers of the Parachute Regiment. When some protesters threw stones and tried to go around the barbed wire, paratroopers drove them back by firing rubber bullets at close range and making baton charges. The paratroopers badly beat a number of protesters and had to be physically restrained by their own officers. These allegations of brutality by paratroopers were reported widely on television and in the press. Some in the British Army also thought there had been undue violence by the paratroopers. NICRA intended to hold another anti-internment march in Derry on 30 January. The authorities decided to allow it to proceed in the Bogside, but to stop it from reaching Guildhall Square, as planned by the organisers, to avoid rioting. Major General Robert Ford, then Commander of Land Forces in Northern Ireland, ordered that the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment (1 Para), should travel to Derry to be used to arrest rioters. The arrest operation was codenamed 'Operation Forecast'. The Saville Report criticised Ford for choosing the Parachute Regiment for the operation, as it had "a reputation for using excessive physical violence". March organiser and MP Ivan Cooper had been promised beforehand that no armed IRA members would be near the march, although Tony Geraghty wrote that some of the stewards were probably IRA members. Events of the day The paratroopers arrived in Derry on the morning of the march and took up positions. Brigadier Pat MacLellan was the operational commander and issued orders from Ebrington Barracks. He gave orders to Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford, commander of 1 Para. He in turn gave orders to Major Ted Loden, who commanded the company who would launch the arrest operation. The protesters planned on marching from Bishop's Field, in the Creggan housing estate, to the Guildhall in the city centre, where they would hold a rally. The march set off at about 2:45p.m. There were 10,000–15,000 people on the march, with many joining along its route. Lord Widgery, in his now discredited tribunal, said that there were only 3,000 to 5,000. The march made its way along William Street but, as it neared the city centre, its path was blocked by British Army barriers. The organisers redirected the march down Rossville Street, intending to hold the rally at Free Derry Corner instead. However, some broke off from the march and began throwing stones at soldiers manning the barriers. The soldiers fired rubber bullets, CS gas and water cannons. Such clashes between soldiers and youths were common, and observers reported that the rioting was no more violent than usual. Some of the crowd spotted paratroopers occupying a derelict three-story building overlooking William Street and began throwing stones up at the windows. At about 3:55p.m., these paratroopers opened fire. The civilians Damien Donaghy and John Johnston were shot and wounded while standing on waste ground opposite the building. These were the first shots fired. The soldiers claimed Donaghy was holding a black cylindrical object, but the Saville Inquiry concluded that all of those shot were unarmed. At 4:07p.m., the paratroopers were ordered to go through the barriers and arrest rioters. The paratroopers, on foot and in armoured vehicles, chased people down Rossville Street and into the Bogside. Two people were knocked down by the vehicles. MacLellan had ordered that only one company of paratroopers be sent through the barriers, on foot, and that they should not chase people down Rossville Street. Wilford disobeyed this order, which meant there was no separation between rioters and peaceful marchers. There were many claims of paratroopers beating people, clubbing them with rifle butts, firing rubber bullets at them from close range, making threats to kill, and hurling abuse. The Saville Report agreed that soldiers "used excessive force when arresting people […] as well as seriously assaulting them for no good reason while in their custody". One group of paratroopers took up position at a low wall about in front of a rubble barricade that stretched across Rossville Street. There were people at the barricade and some were throwing stones at the soldiers, but were not near enough to hit them. The soldiers fired on the people at the barricade, killing six and wounding a seventh. A large group fled or were chased into the car park of Rossville Flats. This area was like a courtyard, surrounded on three sides by high-rise flats. The soldiers opened fire, killing one civilian and wounding six others. This fatality, Jackie Duddy, was running alongside a priest, Edward Daly, when he was shot in the back. Another group fled into the car park of Glenfada Park, which was also surrounded by flats. Here, the soldiers shot at people across the car park, about away. Two civilians were killed and at least four others wounded. The Saville Report says it is probable that at least one soldier fired randomly at the crowd from the hip. The paratroopers went through the car park and out the other side. Some soldiers went out the southwest corner, where they shot dead two civilians. The other soldiers went out the southeast corner and shot four more civilians, killing two. About ten minutes had elapsed between the time soldiers drove into the Bogside and the time the last of the civilians was shot. More than 100 rounds were fired by the soldiers. No warnings were given before soldiers opened fire. Casualties ]] In all, 26 people were shot by the paratroopers; Widgery acknowledged that a photograph taken seconds after Gilmour was hit corroborated witness reports that he was unarmed. *John Young, age 17. Shot in the face at the rubble barricade, apparently while crouching and going to the aid of William Nash. The Saville Inquiry concluded that he was shot by 'Soldier F'. testified at the Saville Inquiry that he gave two nail bombs to Donaghy several hours before he was shot. The Inquiry concluded that the bombs were probably in Donaghy's pockets when he was shot; but that he was not about to throw a bomb when he was shot, and was not shot because he had bombs. "He was shot while trying to escape from the soldiers". *Bernard "Barney" McGuigan, age 41. Shot in the back of the head when he walked out from cover to help Patrick Doherty. He had been waving a white handkerchief to indicate his peaceful intentions. Johnston was not on the march, but on his way to visit a friend in Glenfada Park. Apart from the soldiers, all eyewitnesses—including marchers, local residents, and British and Irish journalists present—maintain that soldiers fired into an unarmed crowd, or were aiming at fleeing people and those helping the wounded. No British soldier was wounded by gunfire or bombs, nor were any bullets or nail bombs recovered to back up their claims. Bernadette Devlin, the independent Irish socialist republican Member of Parliament (MP) for Mid Ulster, slapped Maudling for his comments, and was temporarily suspended from Parliament. Having seen the shootings firsthand, she was infuriated that the Speaker of the House of Commons, Selwyn Lloyd, repeatedly denied her the chance to speak about it in Parliament, although convention decreed that any MP witnessing an incident under discussion would be allowed to do so. On Wednesday 2 February 1972, tens of thousands attended the funerals of eleven of the victims. Memorial services were held in Catholic and Protestant churches, as well as synagogues, throughout the Republic, while schools closed and public transport stopped running. Large crowds had besieged the chancery of the British embassy on Merrion Square in Dublin, and embassy staff had been evacuated. That Wednesday, tens of thousands of protesters marched to the chancery and thirteen symbolic coffins were placed outside the entrance. The Union Jack was burnt and the building was attacked with stones and petrol bombs. The outnumbered Gardaí tried to push back the crowd, but the building was burnt down. Anglo-Irish relations hit one of their lowest ebbs with the Irish Minister for Foreign Affairs, Patrick Hillery, going to the United Nations Security Council to demand the involvement of a UN peacekeeping force in the Northern Ireland conflict. Kieran Conway, the head of the IRA's intelligence-gathering department for a period in the 1970s, stated in his memoir that after the massacre, the IRA Southern Command in Dublin received up to 200 applications from Southern Irish citizens to fight the British. Harold Wilson, then the Leader of the Opposition in the House of Commons, reiterated his belief that a united Ireland was the only possible solution to Northern Ireland's Troubles. William Craig, then Stormont Home Affairs Minister, suggested that the west bank of Derry should be ceded to the Republic of Ireland. On 22 February 1972, the Official IRA attempted to retaliate for Bloody Sunday by detonating a car bomb at Aldershot military barracks, headquarters of 16th Parachute Brigade, killing seven ancillary staff. At the end of 1972, Wilford, who was directly in charge of the soldiers involved in Bloody Sunday and Shankill, was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE). Widgery Inquiry Two days after Bloody Sunday, the British Parliament adopted a resolution for a tribunal into the shootings, resulting in Prime Minister Edward Heath commissioning the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Widgery, to undertake it. Many witnesses intended to boycott the tribunal as they lacked faith in Widgery's impartiality, but many were eventually persuaded to take part. Widgery's quickly-produced report—completed within ten weeks (on 10 April) and published within eleven weeks (on 19 April)—supported the British Army's account of the events of the day. It stated that the soldiers returned fire at gunmen and bomb-throwers.}} Widgery held the march organisers responsible, concluding "There would have been no deaths [...] if those who organised the illegal march had not thereby created a highly dangerous situation". The Saville Inquiry also trawled classified documents and found no evidence of such a plan, but said "It is of course possible for plans to be hatched in secret and kept out of documents". Most witnesses to the event disputed the report's conclusions and regarded it as a whitewash, the slogan, "Widgery washes whiter" – a play on the contemporary advertisement for Daz soap powder – emblazoned on walls in Derry, crystallised the views of many nationalists about the report. In 1992, British Prime Minister John Major, replying to John Hume's request for a new public inquiry, stated: "The Government made clear in 1974 that those who were killed on 'Bloody Sunday' should be regarded as innocent of any allegation that they were shot whilst handling firearms or explosives". Major was succeeded by Tony Blair. Blair's chief aide, Jonathan Powell, later described Widgery as a "complete and utter whitewash".Saville Inquiry , home to the Inquiry]] In 1998, during the latter stages of the Northern Ireland peace process, Prime Minister Blair agreed to hold a public inquiry into Bloody Sunday. The inquiry, chaired by Lord Saville, was established in April 1998. The other judges were John Toohey, a former Justice of the High Court of Australia who had worked on Aboriginal issues (he replaced New Zealander Sir Edward Somers, who retired from the Inquiry in 2000 for personal reasons), and William Hoyt, former Chief Justice of New Brunswick and member of the Canadian Judicial Council. The inquiry heard testimony at the Guildhall in Derry from March 2000 until November 2004. Colonel Wilford expressed anger at the decision to hold the inquiry and said he was proud of his actions on Bloody Sunday. Two years later, in 2000, Wilford said: "There might have been things wrong in the sense that some innocent people, people who were not carrying a weapon, were wounded or even killed. But that was not done as a deliberate malicious act. It was done as an act of war." In 2007, General (then Captain) Sir Mike Jackson, adjutant of 1 Para on Bloody Sunday, said: "I have no doubt that innocent people were shot." This was in contrast to his insistence, for more than thirty years, that those killed had not been innocent. One former paratrooper testified that a lieutenant told them the night before Bloody Sunday: "Let's teach these buggers a lesson - we want some kills tomorrow". He did not see anyone with a weapon nor hear any explosions, and said some fellow soldiers were thrilled and were shooting out of bravado or frustration. Many observers allege that the Ministry of Defence (MoD) acted in a way to impede the inquiry. Over 1,000 Army photographs and original Army helicopter video footage were never made available. Furthermore, guns used by the soldiers on Bloody Sunday, which could have been evidence in the inquiry, were lost by the MoD. The MoD claimed all the guns had been destroyed, but some were later recovered in various locations (such as Sierra Leone and Beirut) despite the obstruction. By the time the inquiry had retired to write up its findings, it had interviewed over 900 witnesses over seven years, making it the biggest investigation in British legal history. The inquiry was expected to report in late 2009 but was delayed until after the 2010 general election. Report The report of the inquiry was published on 15 June 2010. It concluded, "The firing by soldiers of 1 PARA on Bloody Sunday caused the deaths of 13 people and injury to a similar number, none of whom was posing a threat of causing death or serious injury." It stated that British paratroopers "lost control", shooting fleeing civilians and those who tried to help the wounded. Contrary to the soldiers' claims, the report concluded that the victims were unarmed, and no nail bombs or petrol bombs were thrown. "None of them fired in response to attacks or threatened attacks by nail or petrol bombers." The report stated that soldiers lied to hide their acts. The inquiry concluded that an Official IRA sniper, positioned in a block of flats, fired one round at British soldiers, who were at the Presbyterian church on the other side of William Street. The bullet missed the soldiers and hit a drainpipe. The inquiry concluded that it was fired shortly after the British soldiers had shot Damien Donaghy and John Johnston in this area. It rejected the sniper's account that he fired in reprisal, concluding that he and another Official IRA member had already been in position and probably fired simply because the opportunity presented itself. The inquiry also concluded an Official IRA member fired a handgun at a British APC from behind a gable wall near Rossville Flats, but there is no evidence the soldiers noticed this. The IRA member said he fired three rounds in anger after seeing civilians shot. He was seen by Father Edward Daly and others, who shouted at him to stop. Martin McGuinness, a senior member of Sinn Féin and later the deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland, stated in his testimony that he was second-in-command of the Provisional IRA Derry Brigade and was at the march. Regarding the soldiers in charge on Bloody Sunday, the inquiry arrived at the following findings: *Lieutenant Colonel Derek Wilford: Commander of 1 Para and directly responsible for the arrest operation. Found to have 'deliberately disobeyed' his superior, Brigadier Patrick MacLellan, by sending Support Company into the Bogside (and without informing MacLellan). Cleared of sinister actions for compiling the "Loden List of Engagements". This was a brief account of what soldiers told Major Loden about why they had fired. This list played a role in the Army's initial explanations. The list did not include soldiers' names. Jackson told the inquiry it was simply a record of shots fired, not an investigative document. While the inquiry found the compiling of the list was 'far from ideal', it accepted Jackson's explanations. *a Lance Corporal referred to as "Soldier F" was found responsible for five of the killings on Bloody Sunday. Reporting on the findings of the Saville Inquiry in the House of Commons, British Prime Minister David Cameron said: Cameron added: "You do not defend the British Army by defending the indefensible." He acknowledged that all those who died were unarmed when they were killed and that a British soldier had fired the first shots at civilians. He also said that this was not premeditated, though "there was no point in trying to soften or equivocate" as "what happened should never, ever have happened". Cameron apologised on behalf of the British Government, saying he was "deeply sorry". A survey by Angus Reid Public Opinion in June 2010 found that 61 per cent of Britons and 70 per cent of Northern Irish agreed with Cameron's apology. Stephen Pollard, a solicitor representing several of the soldiers, said the report had cherry-picked the evidence and did not have justification for its findings. Murder charges Following the publication of the Saville Report, a murder investigation was begun by the Police Service of Northern Ireland's Legacy Investigation Branch. On 10 November 2015, a 66-year-old former member of the Parachute Regiment, referred to as "Soldier J" in the Saville Report, was arrested for questioning over the deaths of William Nash, Michael McDaid and John Young. He was released on bail shortly after. The Public Prosecution Service for Northern Ireland announced in March 2019 that there was enough evidence to prosecute "Soldier F" for the murders of James Wray and William McKinney, both of whom were shot in the back. He was also charged with four attempted murders. The Saville Inquiry concluded, based on the evidence, that "Soldier F" also killed Michael Kelly, Patrick Doherty and Barney McGuigan, but evidence from the inquiry was inadmissible to the prosecution and "the only evidence capable of identifying the soldier who fired the relevant shots came from "Soldier F"'s co-accused, "Soldier G", who is deceased". Relatives of the Bloody Sunday victims expressed dismay that only one soldier would face trial for some of the killings. In September 2020, it was ruled that there would be no charges against any other soldiers. The victims' relatives were supported by Irish nationalist political representatives. "Soldier F" received support from some Ulster loyalists and from the group Justice for Northern Ireland Veterans. The Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) called for former British soldiers to be given immunity from prosecution. Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) leader and former soldier, Doug Beattie, said that if soldiers "went outside the law, then they have to face the law". In July 2021, the Public Prosecution Service decided it would no longer prosecute "Soldier F" because statements from 1972 were deemed inadmissible as evidence. On 17 July Village magazine published the identity of "Soldier F" and some pictures of him at the time of the massacre. In March 2022, the High Court overturned the decision not to press charges against "Soldier F" following an appeal by the family of William McKinney and ordered the Public Prosecution Service to reconsider the case. The PPS subsequently appealed the court's decision to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, but permission to appeal was refused that September and the PPS were forced to continue with the prosecution. On 24 January 2023 the case against "Soldier F" was resumed at Derry Magistrate's Court. Following an adjournment, the case resumed on 26 May 2023. On 25 August 2023 Judge Ted Magill ruled that five statements given to the Widgery Report implicating "Soldier F" could be used as evidence at trial. In December 2023, an evidentiary hearing was held to decide whether or not to proceed to trial. Judge Magill ruled that "Soldier F" should face trial at Belfast Crown Court. The soldier appeared in court for the first time on 14 June 2024. In December 2024, "Soldier F" pleaded not guilty to two charges of murder and five of attempted murder after Judge Mr. Justice Fowler overruled attempts by the soldier's lawyers to have the case dismissed. The trial has been scheduled to begin on 15 September 2025. Impact on Northern Ireland divisions When it was first deployed on duty in Northern Ireland during the 1969 Northern Ireland riots, the British Army was welcomed by many Catholics as a neutral force there to protect them from Protestant loyalist mobs, the RUC and the B-Specials. After Bloody Sunday many Catholics turned on the British Army, seeing it no longer as their protector but as their enemy. Young nationalists became increasingly attracted to armed republican groups. With the Official IRA and Official Sinn Féin having moved away from mainstream Irish republicanism towards Marxism, the Provisional IRA began to win the support of newly radicalised, disaffected youth. In the following twenty years, the Provisional IRA and other smaller republican groups such as the Irish National Liberation Army stepped up their armed campaigns against the state and those seen as being in service to it. With rival paramilitary organisations appearing in both the republican and loyalist communities (such as the UDA, Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), etc. on the loyalist side), the Troubles cost the lives of thousands of people. In 1979, the Provisional IRA killed 18 British soldiers in the Warrenpoint ambush, most of them paratroopers. This happened the same day the IRA assassinated Lord Mountbatten. Republicans portrayed the attack as belated retaliation for Bloody Sunday, with graffiti declaring "13 gone and not forgotten, we got 18 and Mountbatten". ]] In 2012 a serving British soldier from Belfast was charged with inciting hatred, due to their use of online social media to post sectarian slurs about the killings along with banners of the Parachute Regiment. In recent years, Parachute Regiment flags have been erected by some loyalists around the time of the Bloody Sunday anniversaries. In January 2013, shortly before the yearly Bloody Sunday remembrance march, several Parachute Regiment flags were flown in loyalist areas of Derry. The flying of the flags was condemned by nationalist politicians and relatives of the Bloody Sunday dead. The MoD also condemned the flying of the flags. The flags were replaced by Union Jacks. Later that year, the Parachute Regiment flag was flown alongside other loyalist flags in other parts of Northern Ireland. In 2014, loyalists erected the flags near the route of a Saint Patrick's Day parade in Cookstown.Artistic reactionPaul McCartney (who is of Irish descent) recorded the first song in response only two days after the incident. The single, entitled "Give Ireland Back to the Irish", expressed his views on the matter. This song was one of few McCartney released with Wings to be banned by the BBC. In March 1972, Irish traditional group Paddywagon released "Sunday Bloody Sunday", responding to the incident; it reached #1 in the Republic of Ireland. The 1972 John Lennon album Some Time in New York City features a song entitled "Sunday Bloody Sunday", inspired by the incident, as well as the song "The Luck of the Irish", which dealt more with the Irish conflict in general. Lennon, who was of Irish descent, also spoke at a protest in New York in support of the victims and families of Bloody Sunday. Irish poet Thomas Kinsella's 1972 poem ''Butcher's Dozen'' is a satirical and angry response to the Widgery Tribunal and the events of Bloody Sunday. Black Sabbath's Geezer Butler (also of Irish descent) wrote the lyrics to the Black Sabbath song "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath" on the album of the same name in 1973. Butler stated, "…the Sunday Bloody Sunday thing had just happened in Ireland, when the British troops opened fire on the Irish demonstrators… So I came up with the title 'Sabbath Bloody Sabbath', and sort of put it in how the band was feeling at the time, getting away from management, mixed with the state Ireland was in." The Roy Harper song "All Ireland" from the album Lifemask, written in the days following the incident, is critical of the military but takes a long-term view with regard to a solution. In Harper's book (The Passions of Great Fortune), his comment on the song ends "…there must always be some hope that the children of 'Bloody Sunday', on both sides, can grow into some wisdom". Brian Friel's 1973 play The Freedom of the City deals with the incident from the viewpoint of three civilians. The Irish rock band U2 commemorated the incident in their 1983 protest song "Sunday Bloody Sunday". Christy Moore's song "Minds Locked Shut" on the album Graffiti Tongue is all about the events of the day, and names the dead civilians. The events of the day have been dramatised in two 2002 television films, Bloody Sunday (starring James Nesbitt) and Sunday by Jimmy McGovern. Willie Doherty, a Derry-born artist, has amassed a large body of work which addresses the troubles in Northern Ireland. "30 January 1972" deals specifically with the events of Bloody Sunday. The writer, journalist Richard Norton-Taylor, distilled four years of evidence into two hours of stage performance at the Tricycle Theatre. The play received glowing reviews in all the British broadsheets, including The Times: "The Tricycle's latest recreation of a major inquiry is its most devastating"; The Daily Telegraph: "I can't praise this enthralling production too highly… exceptionally gripping courtroom drama"; and The Independent: "A necessary triumph". In October 2010, T with the Maggies released the song "Domhnach na Fola" (Irish for "Bloody Sunday"), written by Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh, Moya Brennan, Tríona Ní Dhomhnaill and Maighread Ní Dhomhnaill on their T with the Maggies album.Notes References Bibliography * * [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/mcclean.htm (extracts available online)] * * * *English, Richard. Armed Struggle;– A History of the IRA, MacMillan, London 2003, External links *[https://madden-finucane.com/bloody-sunday-case-overview/ Madden & Finucane Bloody Sunday index] *[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/bsunday/bs.htm CAIN Web Service Bloody Sunday index] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20100614085947/http://www.u.tv/BloodySunday/ UTV Coverage: Bloody Sunday & The Saville Report] *[https://www.theguardian.com/bloodysunday/ Guardian Coverage] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20100216135921/http://www.oireachtas-debates.gov.ie/D/0258/D.0258.197202030009.html Dáil debate on Bloody Sunday] *[http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/hmso/widgery.htm The Widgery Report (from Cain website)] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/northern_ireland/2010/bloody_sunday/default.stm BBC Special Report] *[http://www.veryderry.com/bloodysunday08/ Programme of events commemorating Bloody Sunday – 2008] *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/northern_ireland/2000/bloody_sunday/map/1610.stm 1610: Soldiers open fire] ;The events of the day *[http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/northern_ireland/2000/bloody_sunday/map/default.stm BBC Interactive Guide] *[https://www.theguardian.com/bloodysunday/flash/0,6189,184944,00.html Guardian Interactive Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090201033456/http://www.museumoffreederry.org/history-bloody-events.html History – Bloody Sunday – Events of the Day] Museum of Free Derry ;Contemporary newspaper coverage *[https://www.theguardian.com/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,184928,00.html "13 killed as paratroops break riot"] from The Guardian, Monday 31 January 1972 *[https://www.theguardian.com/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,184927,00.html "Bogsiders insist that soldiers shot first"] from The Guardian, Tuesday 1 February 1972 ;Importance and impact *[https://www.theguardian.com/bloodysunday/article/0,2763,491660,00.html "Shootings 'triggered decades of violence'"] from The Guardian, Wednesday 16 May 2001 *[http://www.democracynow.org/2010/6/16/bloody_sunday Britain Acknowledges "Bloody Sunday" Killings Were Unjustified and Apologizes to Victims' Families] – video report by Democracy Now! Category:1970s in County Londonderry Category:1972 crimes in Ireland Category:1972 disasters in Ireland Category:1972 in Northern Ireland Category:1972 murders in the United Kingdom Category:20th century in Derry (city) Category:20th-century mass murder in Northern Ireland Category:British Army in Operation Banner Category:British military scandals Category:Crimes adapted into films Category:Deaths by firearm in Northern Ireland Category:Human rights abuses in the United Kingdom Category:January 1972 Category:January 1972 in the United Kingdom Category:Massacres committed by the United Kingdom Category:Massacres in 1972 Category:Massacres in Northern Ireland Category:Massacres of Catholics Category:Massacres of protesters in Europe Category:Military actions and engagements during the Troubles (Northern Ireland) Category:Military history of County Londonderry Category:Parachute Regiment (United Kingdom) Category:Political repression in the United Kingdom Category:Protests in Northern Ireland Category:The Troubles in Derry (city)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1972)
2025-04-05T18:27:02.863725
5031
Bruno of Querfurt
974 |death_date=14 February 1009 |feast_day=15 October |venerated_in=Eastern Orthodox Church<br>Roman Catholic Church (Camaldolese Order) |image=Bruno_of_Querfurt.jpg |imagesize=175px |caption=A medieval fresco depicting St Bruno's death |birth_place=Querfurt, Holy Roman Empire (now in Saxony-Anhalt) |death_place=Kievan Rus |titles=Bishop and Martyr; Second Apostle of the Prussians |beatified_date|beatified_place |beatified_by|canonized_date |canonized_place|canonized_by |attributes|patronage |suppressed_date|issues |prayer|prayer_attrib }} Bruno of Querfurt, O.S.B. Cam., (; 974 – 14 February or 9/14 March 1009), also known as Brun, was a Christian missionary bishop, Camaldolese monk and martyr, who was beheaded near the border of Kievan Rus and Lithuania for trying to spread Christianity. He is also called the second "Apostle of the Prussians". Biography Early life Bruno was from a noble family of Querfurt (now in Saxony-Anhalt). He is rumoured to have been a relative of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto III. At the age of six, he was sent to be educated at the cathedral school in Magdeburg, the seat of Adalbert of Magdeburg, the teacher and namesake of Adalbert of Prague. While still a youth, he was made a canon of the Cathedral of Magdeburg. The fifteen-year-old Otto III made Bruno a part of his royal court. In 995 Otto III appointed Bruno as his court chaplain. While in Rome for Otto's imperial coronation, Bruno met Adalbert of Prague, the first "Apostle of the Prussians", killed a year later, which inspired Bruno to write a biography of Adalbert when he reached the recently Christianized and consolidated Kingdom of Hungary himself. Bruno spent much time at the monastery where Adalbert had become a monk and where abbot John Canaparius may have written a life of Adalbert. In 998, Bruno entered a Benedictine monastery near Ravenna that Otto had founded, and later underwent strict ascetic training under the guidance of Romuald. Missionary life along the coast, or the future Margraviate of Brandenburg to its south]] Otto III hoped to establish a monastery between the Elbe and the Oder (somewhere in the pagan lands that became Brandenburg or Western <!-- don't join as Western Pomerania... the generic name is the only one with a map applicable to the era-->Pomerania) to help convert the local population to Christianity and colonize the area. In 1001, two monks from his monastery travelled to Poland, while Bruno was with Otto in Italy, studying the language and awaiting the Apostolic appointment by Pope Sylvester II. Owing to a regional conflict between the Holy Roman Emperor Henry II and Duke Boleslaus I of Poland, Bruno could not go directly to Poland so he set out for Hungary. There he went to the places that Adalbert of Prague had attended. Bruno tried to persuade Ahtum, the Duke of Banat, who was under the jurisdiction of Patriarchate of Constantinople to accept the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, but this precipitated a large controversy leading to organized opposition from local monks. Bruno elected to gracefully exit the region after he first finished his book, the famous "Life of Adalbert of Prague," a literary memorial giving a history of the (relatively recent) conversion of the Hungarians. whose mother had come from Poland. Bruno found out that his friend Benedict and four companions had been killed by robbers in 1003. Mission to Prussia and death and Prussia during the reign of Bolesław the Brave]] In the autumn or at the end of 1008 Bruno and eighteen companions set out to found a mission among the Old Prussians; they succeeded in converting Netimer and then travelled to the east, heading very likely towards Yotvingia. Bruno met opposition in his efforts to evangelize the borderland and when he persisted in disregarding their warnings he was beheaded on 14 February (or 9 or 14 March) 1009, and most of his eighteen companions were hanged by Zebeden, brother of Netimer.<ref name=Butler/> Duke Boleslaus the Brave bought the bodies and brought them to Poland. (It was supposed that they were laid to rest in Przemyśl, where some historians place Bruno's diocese; such localization of Bruno's burial place is hardly probable because Przemyśl then belonged to Orthodox Kievan Rus through 1018.) The Annals of Magdeburg, Thietmar of Merseburg's Chronicle, the Annals of Quedlinburg, various works of Magdeburg Bishops, and many other written sources of 11th–15th centuries record this story. Soon after his death, Bruno and his companions were venerated as martyrs and Bruno was soon after canonized. It was said that Braunsberg was named after Bruno.<ref nameMeier/> See also *Name of Lithuania *Christianization of Lithuania References <references /> Further reading *[https://web.archive.org/web/20110927084800/http://www.if.vu.lt/files/LIS%20serveris/LietuvosIstorijosStudijosNo23.pdf A. Bumblauskas. Lithuania’s Millennium –Millennium Lithuaniae Or What Lithuania Can Tell the World on this Occasion]. Lietuvos istorijos studijos, 2009, t. 23, p. 127–158. *[http://etalpykla.lituanistikadb.lt/fedora/get/LT-LDB-0001:J.04~2010~1367176447688/DS.002.1.01.ARTIC D. Baronas. ST BRUNO OF QUERFURT: THE MISSIONARY VOCATION]. LITHUANIAN HISTORICAL STUDIES, 2009, t. 14. p. 41–52. * OS LG 2023-08-18. External links * [http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/91305 Saint Bruno Querfurt] Category:970s births Category:1009 deaths Category:People from Querfurt Category:Medieval German saints Category:German Roman Catholic missionaries Category:11th-century Christian saints Category:Camaldolese saints Category:Benedictine martyrs Category:Benedictine saints Category:Executed German people Category:11th-century writers in Latin Category:11th-century German writers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_of_Querfurt
2025-04-05T18:27:02.869110
5033
Bo Diddley
| birth_date = | birth_place = McComb, Mississippi, U.S. | death_date = | death_place = Archer, Florida, U.S. | instrument = | genre as Ellas Otha Bates (also stated as Otha Ellas Bates or Elias Otha Bates). He was the only child of Ethel Wilson, a sharecropper's teenaged daughter, and Eugene Bates, whom he never knew. Wilson was only sixteen, and being unable to support a family, she gave her cousin, Gussie McDaniel, permission to raise her son. Diddley denied ever having the name "Otha" in a 2001 interview, saying "I don't know where they got that 'Otha' from", but his website, maintained by his estate, confirms it as his middle name. After his adoptive father Robert died in 1934, when Diddley was five years old, Gussie McDaniel moved with him and her three children to the South Side of Chicago; He was an active member of Chicago's Ebenezer Missionary Baptist Church, where he studied the trombone and the violin, becoming so proficient on the violin that the musical director invited him to join the orchestra, in which he played until he was 18. However, he was more interested in the joyful, rhythmic music he heard at a local Pentecostal Church and took up the guitar; his first recordings were based on that frenetic church music. Diddley said he thought that the trance-like rhythm he used in his rhythm and blues music came from the Sanctified churches he had attended as a youth in his Chicago neighborhood.CareerInspired by a John Lee Hooker performance, including Jerome Green, in the Hipsters band, later renamed the Langley Avenue Jive Cats. In the summers of 1943 and 1944, he played at the Maxwell Street market in a band with Earl Hooker. By 1951 he was playing on the street with backing from Roosevelt Jackson on washtub bass and Jody Williams, who had played harmonica as a boy but took up guitar in his teens after he met Diddley at a talent show, with Diddley teaching him some aspects of playing the instrument, including how to play the bass line. Williams later played lead guitar on "Who Do You Love?" (1956). with a repertoire influenced by Louis Jordan, John Lee Hooker, and Muddy Waters.Origins of stage nameThe origin of the stage name Bo Diddley is unclear. McDaniel said his peers gave him the name, which he suspected was an insult. Diddly is a truncation of diddly squat, which means "absolutely nothing". Diddley also said that the name first belonged to a singer his adoptive mother knew. Harmonicist Billy Boy Arnold said that it was a local comedian's name, which Leonard Chess adopted as McDaniel's stage name and the title of his first single. McDaniel also stated that his school classmates in Chicago gave him the nickname, which he started using when sparring and boxing in the neighborhood with The Little Neighborhood Golden Gloves Bunch. In the 1921 story "Black Death", by Zora Neale Hurston, Beau Diddely was a womanizer who impregnates a young woman, disavows responsibility, and meets his undoing by the powers of the local hoodoo man. Hurston submitted it in a contest run by the academic journal Opportunity in 1925, where it won an honorable mention, but it was never published during her lifetime. A diddley bow is a homemade single-string instrument that survived in the American Deep South, especially in Mississippi. Played mainly by children, the diddley bow in its simplest form was made by nailing a length of broom wire to the side of a house, using a rock placed under the string as a movable bridge, and played in the style of a bottleneck guitar, with various objects used as a slider. The apparent consensus among scholars is that the diddley bow is derived from the monochord zithers of central Africa. Success in the 1950s and 1960s On November 20, 1955, Diddley appeared on the popular television program The Ed Sullivan Show. According to legend, when someone on the show's staff overheard him casually singing "Sixteen Tons" in the dressing room, he was asked to perform the song on the show. One of Diddley's later versions of the story was that upon seeing "Bo Diddley" on the cue card, he thought he was to perform both his self-titled hit single and "Sixteen Tons". Sullivan was furious and banned Diddley from his show, reputedly saying that he would not last six months. Chess Records included Diddley's cover of "Sixteen Tons" on the 1963 album Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger. Diddley's hit singles continued in the 1950s and 1960s: "Pretty Thing" (1956), "Say Man" (1959), and "You Can't Judge a Book by the Cover" (1962). He also released numerous albums, including Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger and Have Guitar, Will Travel. These bolstered his self-invented legend. In 1963, Diddley starred in a UK concert tour with the Everly Brothers and Little Richard along with the Rolling Stones (a little-known band at that time). Diddley wrote many songs for himself and also for others. In 1956, he and guitarist Jody Williams co-wrote the pop song "Love Is Strange", a hit for Mickey & Sylvia in 1957, reaching number 11 on the chart. Mickey Baker claimed that he (Baker) and Bo Diddley's wife, Ethel Smith, wrote the song. Diddley also wrote "Mama (Can I Go Out)", which was a minor hit for the pioneering rockabilly singer Jo Ann Campbell, who performed the song in the 1959 rock and roll film Go Johnny Go. After moving from Chicago to Washington, D.C., Diddley built his first home recording studio in the basement of his home at 2614 Rhode Island Avenue NE. Frequented by several of Washington, D.C.'s musical luminaries, the studio was the site where he recorded the Checker LP (Checker LP-2977) Bo Diddley Is a Gunslinger. Diddley also produced and recorded several up-and-coming groups from the Washington, D.C. area. One of the first groups he recorded was local doo-wop group the Marquees, featuring Marvin Gaye and baritone-bass Chester Simmons, who moonlighted as Diddley's chauffeur. The Marquees appeared in talent shows at the Lincoln Theatre, and Diddley, impressed by their smooth vocal delivery, let them rehearse in his studio. Diddley got the Marquees signed to Columbia subsidiary label OKeh Records after unsuccessfully attempting to get them a contract with his own label, Chess. but it failed to become a hit. Diddley persuaded Moonglows founder and backing vocalist Harvey Fuqua to hire Gaye. Gaye joined the Moonglows as first tenor; the group then moved to Detroit with the hope of signing with Motown RecordsLater years In early 1971, writer-musician Michael Lydon, a founding editor of Rolling Stone, conducted a lengthy, rambling interview of Diddley, at his then home in the San Fernando Valley, California. Lydon described him as a "protean genius" whose songs were "hymns to himself", and led the published piece with a Diddley quote: "Everything I know I taught myself." Over the decades, Diddley's performing venues ranged from intimate clubs to stadiums. On March 25, 1972, he played with the Grateful Dead at the Academy of Music in New York City. The Grateful Dead released part of this concert as Volume 30 of the band's concert album series, ''Dick's Picks. Also in the early 1970s, the soundtrack of the ground-breaking animated film Fritz the Cat'' contained his song "Bo Diddley", in which a crow dances and finger-pops to the track. Diddley spent some years in New Mexico, living in Los Lunas from 1971 to 1978, while continuing his musical career. He served for two and a half years as a deputy sheriff in the Valencia County Citizens' Patrol; during that time he purchased and donated three highway-patrol pursuit cars. In the late 1970s, he left Los Lunas and moved to Hawthorne, Florida, where he lived on a large estate in a custom-made log cabin, which he helped to build. For the remainder of his life he divided his time between Albuquerque and Florida, living the last 13 years of his life in Archer, Florida, a small farming town near Gainesville. In 1979, he appeared as an opening act for the Clash on their US tour. In 1983, he made a cameo appearance as a Philadelphia pawn shop owner in the comedy film Trading Places. He also appeared in George Thorogood's music video for the song "Bad to the Bone," portraying a guitar-slinging pool shark. In 1985, he appeared on George Thorogood's set, alongside fellow blues legend Albert Collins, on the Live Aid American stage to perform Thorogood's popular cover of Diddley's song Who Do You Love?". In 1989, Diddley and his management company, Talent Source, entered into a licensing with the sportswear brand. The Wieden & Kennedy-produced commercial in the "Bo Knows" campaign teamed Diddley with dual sportsman Bo Jackson. The agreement ended in 1991, but in 1999, a T-shirt of Diddley's image and "You don't know diddley" slogan was purchased in a Gainesville, Florida, sports apparel store. Diddley felt that Nike should not continue to use the slogan or his likeness and fought Nike over the copyright infringement. Despite the fact that lawyers for both parties could not come to a renewed legal arrangement, Nike allegedly continued marketing the apparel and ignored cease-and-desist orders, and a lawsuit was filed on Diddley's behalf, in Manhattan Federal Court. Diddley played a blues and rock musician named Axman in the 1990 comedy film Rockula, directed by Luca Bercovici and starring Dean Cameron. In Legends of Guitar (filmed live in Spain in 1991), Diddley performed with Steve Cropper, B.B. King, Les Paul, Albert Collins, and George Benson, among others. He joined the Rolling Stones on their 1994 concert broadcast of Voodoo Lounge, performing "Who Do You Love?" at Joe Robbie Stadium, in Miami. In 1996, he released A Man Amongst Men, his first major-label album (and his final studio album) with guest artists like Keith Richards, Ron Wood and The Shirelles. The album earned a Grammy Award nomination in 1997 for the Best Contemporary Blues Album category. In an interview with Holger Petersen, on Saturday Night Blues on CBC Radio in the fall of 2006, he commented on racism in the music industry establishment during his early career. Diddley sold the rights to his songs early on, and until 1989 he received no royalties from the most successful part of his career. His final guitar performance on a studio album was with the New York Dolls on their 2006 album One Day It Will Please Us to Remember Even This. He contributed guitar work to the song "Seventeen", which was included as a bonus track on the limited-edition version of the disc. In May 2007, Diddley suffered a stroke after a concert the previous day in Council Bluffs, Iowa. Nonetheless, he delivered an energetic performance to an enthusiastic crowd. A few months later he had a heart attack. While recovering, Diddley came back to his hometown of McComb, Mississippi, in early November 2007, for the unveiling of a plaque devoted to him on the Mississippi Blues Trail. This marked his achievements and noted that he was "acclaimed as a founder of rock-and-roll." He was not supposed to perform, but as he listened to the music of local musician Jesse Robinson, who sang a song written for this occasion, Robinson sensed that Diddley wanted to perform and handed him a microphone, the only time that he performed publicly after his stroke. Personal life Marriages and children Bo Diddley was married four times. His first marriage, at 18, to Louise Willingham, lasted a year. He met his third wife, Kay Reynolds, when she was 15, while performing in Birmingham, Alabama. Diddley had a history of hypertension and diabetes, and the stroke affected the left side of his brain, causing receptive and expressive aphasia (speech impairment). The stroke was followed by a heart attack, which he suffered in Gainesville on August 28, 2007. Many family members were with him when he died at 1:45 am. EDT at his home. His death was not unexpected. "There was a Gospel song that was sung, at his bedside, and when it was done, he opened his eyes, gave a thumbs up, and said, 'Wow! I'm goin' to Heaven!' The song was 'Walk Around Heaven', and those were his last words." He was survived by his children, Evelyn Kelly, Ellas A. McDaniel, Pamela Jacobs, Steven Jones, Terri Lynn McDaniel-Hines, and Tammi D. McDaniel; a brother, the Rev. Kenneth Haynes; and eighteen grandchildren, fifteen great-grandchildren and three great-great-grandchildren. A number of notable musicians sent flowers, including Little Richard, George Thorogood, Tom Petty and Jerry Lee Lewis. Little Richard, who had been asking his audiences to pray for Bo Diddley, throughout his illness, had to fulfill concert commitments in Westbury and New York City, the weekend of the funeral. He remembered Diddley at the concerts, performing his namesake tune. Eric Burdon of the Animals flew to Gainesville to attend the service. After the funeral service, a tribute concert was held at the Martin Luther King Center in Gainesville, featuring guest performances by his son and daughter, Ellas A. McDaniel and Evelyn "Tan" Cooper; long-time background vocalist (and original Boette), Gloria Jolivet, and long-time bassist and bandleader, Debby Hastings, Eric Burdon, and former Bo Diddley & Offspring guitarist, Scott Free. In the days following his death, tributes were paid by then-President George W. Bush, the United States House of Representatives, and musicians and performers including B. B. King, Ronnie Hawkins, Mick Jagger, Ronnie Wood, George Thorogood, Eric Clapton, Tom Petty, Robert Plant, Elvis Costello, Bonnie Raitt, Robert Randolph and the Family Band and Eric Burdon. Burdon used video footage of the McDaniel family, and friends in mourning, for a video promoting his ABKCO Records release "Bo Diddley Special". Hastings is quoted as having said, "He was the rock that the roll was built on." In November 2009, the guitar used by Bo Diddley in his final stage performance sold for $60,000 at auction. In 2019, members of Bo Diddley's family sued to regain control of the music catalog held in trust by attorney Charles Littell. The family was successful in appointing a new trustee, music industry veteran Kendall Minter. The family was represented by Charles David of Florida Probate Law Group in the 2019 lawsuit.AccoladesBo Diddley was posthumously awarded a Doctor of Fine Arts degree by the University of Florida for his influence on American popular music. In its People in America radio series, about influential people in American history, the Voice of America radio service paid tribute to him, describing how "his influence was so widespread that it is hard to imagine what rock and roll would have sounded like without him." Mick Jagger stated that "he was a wonderful, original musician who was an enormous force in music and was a big influence on the Rolling Stones. He was very generous to us in our early years and we learned a lot from him". Jagger also praised the late star as a one-of-a-kind musician, adding, "We will never see his like again". The documentary film Cheat You Fair: The Story of Maxwell Street by director Phil Ranstrom features Bo Diddley's last on-camera interview. He achieved numerous accolades in recognition of his significant role as one of the founding fathers of rock and roll. * 1986: Inducted into the Washington Area Music Association's Hall of Fame. * 1987: Inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame * 2000: Inducted into the Mississippi Musicians Hall of Fame * 2000: Inducted into the North Florida Music Association's Hall of Fame * 2002: Pioneer in Entertainment Award from the National Association of Black Owned Broadcasters * 2002: Honored as one of the first BMI Icons at the 50th annual BMI Pop Awards, along with BMI affiliates Chuck Berry and Little Richard. * 2003: Inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame * 2017: Inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Music Hall of Fame. * 2021: Inducted into the [https://nmmhof.org New Mexico Music Hall of Fame]. In 2003, U.S. Representative John Conyers paid tribute to Bo Diddley in the United States House of Representatives, describing him as "one of the true pioneers of rock and roll, who has influenced generations". In 2004, Mickey and Sylvia's 1956 recording of "Love Is Strange" (a song first recorded by Bo Diddley but not released until a year before his death) was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame as a recording of qualitative or historical significance. Also in 2004, Bo Diddley was inducted into the Blues Foundation's Blues Hall of Fame and was ranked number 20 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time. In 2005, Bo Diddley celebrated his 50th anniversary in music with successful tours of Australia and Europe and with coast-to-coast shows across North America. He performed his song "Bo Diddley" with Eric Clapton and Robbie Robertson at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 20th annual induction ceremony. In the UK, Uncut magazine included his 1957 debut album, Bo Diddley, in its listing of the '100 Music, Movie & TV Moments That Have Changed the World'. Bo Diddley was honored by the Mississippi Blues Commission with a Mississippi Blues Trail historic marker placed in McComb, his birthplace, in recognition of his enormous contribution to the development of the blues in Mississippi. On June 5, 2009, the city of Gainesville, Florida, officially renamed and dedicated its downtown plaza the Bo Diddley Community Plaza. The plaza was the site of a benefit concert at which Bo Diddley performed to raise awareness about the plight of the homeless in Alachua County and to raise money for local charities, including the Red Cross. Beat The "Bo Diddley beat" is essentially the clave rhythm, one of the most common bell patterns found in sub-Saharan African music traditions. One scholar found this rhythm in 13 rhythm and blues recordings made in the years 1944–55, including two by Johnny Otis from 1948. Bo Diddley gave different accounts of how he began to use this rhythm. Ned Sublette says, "In the context of the time, and especially those maracas [heard on the record], 'Bo Diddley' has to be understood as a Latin-tinged record. A rejected cut recorded at the same session was titled only 'Rhumba' on the track sheets." The Bo Diddley beat is similar to "hambone", a style used by street performers who play out the beat by slapping and patting their arms, legs, chest, and cheeks while chanting rhymes. Somewhat resembling the "shave and a haircut, two bits" rhythm, Diddley came across it while trying to play Gene Autry's "(I've Got Spurs That) Jingle, Jangle, Jingle". Three years before his "Bo Diddley", a song with similar syncopation titled "Hambone" was cut by the Red Saunders Orchestra with the Hambone Kids. In 1944, "Rum and Coca Cola", containing the Bo Diddley beat, was recorded by the Andrews Sisters. Buddy Holly's "Not Fade Away" (1957) and Them's "Mystic Eyes" (1965) used the beat. .]] In its simplest form, the Bo Diddley beat can be counted out as either a one-bar or a two-bar phrase. Here is the count as a one-bar phrase: One e and ah, two e and ah, three e and ah, four e and ah (the boldface counts are the clave rhythm). Many songs (for example, "Hey Bo Diddley" and "Who Do You Love?") often have no chord changes; that is, the musicians play the same chord throughout the piece, so that the rhythms create the excitement, rather than having the excitement generated by harmonic tension and release. In his other recordings, Bo Diddley used various rhythms, from straight back beat to pop ballad style to doo-wop, frequently with maracas by Jerome Green. His 1955 rhythm and blues hit, "Bo Diddley", had a "driving African rhythm and ham-bone beat". Beginning that same year, Diddley collaborated with various doo-wop vocal groups, using the Moonglows as a backing group on his first album, Bo Diddley, released in 1958. In one of the most well-known of his 1958 doo-wop sessions, Diddley added harmonies by the Carnations recording as the Teardrops, who sang smooth, polished doo-wop in the backgrounds on the songs "I'm Sorry", "Crackin' Up", and "Don't Let it Go". and amp reverb. His trademark instrument was his self-designed, one-of-a-kind, rectangular-bodied "Twang Machine" (referred to as "cigar-box shaped" by music promoter Dick Clark), built by Gretsch. He had other uniquely shaped guitars custom-made for him by other manufacturers throughout the years, most notably the "Cadillac" and the rectangular "Turbo 5-speed" (with built-in envelope filter, flanger and delay) designs, made by Tom Holmes (who also made guitars for ZZ Top's Billy Gibbons, among others). In a 2005 interview on JJJ radio in Australia, he implied that the rectangular design sprang from an embarrassing moment. During an early gig, while jumping around on stage with a Gibson L5 guitar, he landed awkwardly, hurting his groin. He then went about designing a smaller, less-restrictive guitar that allowed him to keep jumping around on stage while still playing his guitar. He also played the violin, which is featured on his mournful instrumental "The Clock Strikes Twelve", a twelve-bar blues. Diddley often created lyrics as witty and humorous adaptations of folk music themes. His first hit, "Bo Diddley", was based on hambone rhymes. The first line of his song "Hey Bo Diddley" is derived from the nursery rhyme "Old MacDonald". The song "Who Do You Love?" with its rap-style boasting, and his use of the African-American game known as "the dozens" on the songs "Say Man" and "Say Man, Back Again," are cited as progenitors of hip-hop music; for example, in the dialogue of the song, "Say Man", percussionist Jerome Green says the lines: "You've got the nerve to call somebody ugly. Why, you so ugly till the stork that brought you in the world oughta be arrested." |width25%|bgcolor #E0E6F8 |alignright|stylepadding:8px;}} Studio albums Collaborations * Berry Is on Top, with Chuck Berry (Chess, 1959) * Two Great Guitars, with Chuck Berry (Checker, 1964) * Super Blues, with Muddy Waters and Little Walter (Checker, 1967) * The Super Super Blues Band'', with Muddy Waters and Howlin' Wolf (Checker, 1968) Chart singles {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;" |- ! rowspan="2"| Year ! rowspan="2"| Single ! colspan="3"| Chart Positions |- style="font-size:smaller;" ! width"40"| US Pop ! width"40"| US<br>R&B ! width"40"| UK |- | rowspan="2"| 1955 | align="left"| "Bo Diddley" /<br>"I'm a Man" | - | 1 | - |- | align="left"| "Diddley Daddy" | - | 11 | - |- | rowspan="1"| 1956 | align="left"| "Pretty Thing" | – | 4 | 34<br><small>(in 1963)</small> |- | rowspan="4"| 1959 | align="left"| "I'm Sorry" | – | 17 | – |- | align="left"| "Crackin Up" | 62 | 14 | – |- | align="left"| "Say Man" | 20 | 3 | – |- | align="left"| "Say Man, Back Again" | – | 23 | – |- | rowspan="1"| 1960 | align="left"| "Road Runner" | 75 | 20 | – |- | rowspan="1"| 1962 | align="left"| "You Can't Judge a Book by the Cover" | 48 | 21 | – |- | rowspan="1"| 1965 | align="left"| "Hey Good Lookin'" | – | – | 39 |- | rowspan="1"| 1967 | align="left"| "Ooh Baby" | 88 | 17 | – |- |} Notes References Books * Arsicaud, Laurent (2012). Bo Diddley, Je suis un homme. Camion Blanc editions. * External links * * * * * "[https://www.namm.org/library/oral-history/bo-diddley Bo Diddley Talks About His Early Days, Including His Twelve Years of Classical Music Training]" Category:1928 births Category:2008 deaths Category:20th-century American guitarists Category:20th-century African-American male singers Category:20th-century American male singers Category:20th-century American singers Category:African-American Christians Category:African-American guitarists Category:African-American rock musicians Category:African-American male singer-songwriters Category:American male singer-songwriters Category:American adoptees Category:American blues guitarists Category:American blues singers Category:American evangelicals Category:American male guitarists Category:American rock guitarists Category:American rock singers Category:American rock songwriters Category:Atlantic Records artists Category:Black Lion Records artists Category:Blues musicians from Mississippi Category:Checker Records artists Category:Chess Records artists Category:Deaths from diabetes in Florida Category:Electric blues musicians Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners Category:Guitarists from Florida Category:Guitarists from Mississippi Category:Mississippi Blues Trail Category:People from Hawthorne, Florida Category:People from Los Lunas, New Mexico Category:People from McComb, Mississippi Category:Psychedelic funk musicians Category:RCA Records artists Category:Rock and roll musicians Category:Singer-songwriters from Mississippi Category:Singer-songwriters from Florida Category:Triple X Records artists Category:African American adoptees Category:20th-century African-American musicians
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bo_Diddley
2025-04-05T18:27:02.912223
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Bela Lugosi
| birth_name = Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó | birth_date = | birth_place = Lugos, Kingdom of Hungary, Austria-Hungary | death_date = | death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S. | resting place = Holy Cross Cemetery | occupation = Actor | years_active = 1902–1956 | other_names = Arisztid Olt | website = | spouse ||||}} | children = Bela George Lugosi | signature = Bela Lugosi signature.svg }} Blaskó Béla Ferenc Dezső (; October 20, 1882 – August 16, 1956), better known by the stage name Bela Lugosi ( ; ), was a Hungarian–American actor. He was best remembered for portraying Count Dracula in the horror film classic Dracula (1931), Ygor in Son of Frankenstein (1939) and his roles in many other horror films from 1931 through 1956. He later starred in the 1931 film version of Dracula directed by Tod Browning and produced by Universal Pictures. Through the 1930s, he occupied an important niche in horror films, but his notoriety as Dracula and thick Hungarian accent greatly limited the roles offered to him, and he unsuccessfully tried for years to avoid typecasting. He co-starred in a number of films with Boris Karloff, who was able to demand top billing for his status a horror icon and had portrayed characters such as Frankenstein's monster in the horror film Frankenstein (1931). Lugosi, a charter member of the American Screen Actors Guild, was frustrated over increasingly being restricted to mad scientist roles because of his inability to speak English more clearly. He was kept employed by the studios principally so that they could put his name on the posters and prevent others from doing so. Among his teamings with Karloff, he performed major roles only in The Black Cat (1934), The Raven (1935), and Son of Frankenstein (1939); even in The Raven, Karloff received top billing despite Lugosi performing the lead role. By this time, Lugosi had been receiving regular medication for sciatic neuritis, and he became addicted to doctor-prescribed morphine and methadone. This drug dependence (and his gradually worsening alcoholism) was becoming apparent to producers, and after 1948's Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein, the offers dwindled to parts in low-budget films; some of these were directed by Ed Wood, including a brief appearance in Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space (released posthumously in 1957). Lugosi married five times and had one son, Bela G. Lugosi (with his fourth wife, Lillian). was born Béla Ferenc Dezső Blaskó in 1882 in Lugos, Kingdom of Hungary (now Lugoj, Romania) to Hungarian father István Blaskó, a baker who later became a banker, and Serbian-born mother Paula de Vojnich. He was raised in a Catholic family. At the age of 12, Lugosi dropped out of school and left home to work at a succession of manual labor jobs. His earliest known performances are from provincial theatres in the 1903–04 season, playing small roles in several plays and operettas. and went on to perform in Shakespearean plays. After moving to Budapest in 1911, he played dozens of roles with the National Theatre of Hungary between 1913 and 1919. Although Lugosi would later claim that he "became the leading actor of Hungary's Royal National Theatre", many of his roles there were small or supporting parts, which led him to enter the Hungarian film industry. (circa 1914)]] During World War I, he served as an infantry officer in the Austro-Hungarian Army Imperial and Royal 43rd Infantry Regiment from 1914 to 1916, with the rank of lieutenant. He was awarded the Wound Medal for wounds he sustained while serving on the Russian front. he was forced to flee his homeland when the government changed hands, initially accompanied by his first wife Ilona Szmik. after which she left Lugosi and returned home to her parents where she filed for divorce, and soon after remarried. He later moved to California in 1928 to tour in the Dracula stage play, and his Hollywood film career took off. Lugosi claimed he performed the Dracula play around 1,000 times during his lifetime. He eventually became a U.S. citizen in 1931, soon after the release of his film version of Dracula. Lugosi made at least 10 films in Hungary between 1917 and 1918 before leaving for Germany. Following the collapse of Béla Kun's Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, leftists and trade unionists became vulnerable, some being imprisoned or executed in public. Lugosi was proscribed from acting due to his participation in the formation of an actors' union. Exiled in Weimar-era Germany, he co-starred in at least 14 German silent films in 1920, among them Hypnose: Sklaven fremden Willens (1920), Der Januskopf (1920) and an adaptation of the Karl May novel Caravan of Death (1920). In October 1920, Lugosi left Germany for the United States and entered the country at New Orleans in December. He made his way to New York and was inspected by immigration officers at Ellis Island in March 1921. He only declared his intention to become a US citizen in 1928; on June 26, 1931, he was naturalized. On his arrival in America, the , Three more parts came in 1925–26, including a five-month run in the comedy-fantasy The Devil in the Cheese. In 1925, he played an Arab Sheik in Arabesque which premiered in Buffalo, New York at the Teck Theatre before moving to Broadway. His first American film role was in the silent melodrama The Silent Command (1923) which was filmed in New York. Four other silent roles followed, villains and continental types, all in productions made in the New York area. A rumor has circulated for decades among film historians that Lugosi played an uncredited bit part as a clown in the first film produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, He Who Gets Slapped (1924) starring Lon Chaney, but this has been heavily disputed. The rumor originated from the discovery of a publicity still from this film found posthumously in Lugosi's scrapbook, which showed an unidentified clown in heavy makeup standing near Lon Chaney in one scene. It was thought to be evidence that Lugosi appeared in the film, but historians all agree that is very unlikely, since Lugosi was in both Chicago (appearing in a play called The Werewolf) and New York at the time that film was in production in Hollywood. Dracula in 1931]] Lugosi was approached in the summer of 1927 to star in a Broadway theatre production of Dracula, which had been adapted by Hamilton Deane and John L. Balderston from Bram Stoker's 1897 novel. The Horace Liveright production was successful, running in New York City for 261 performances before touring the United States to much fanfare and critical acclaim throughout 1928 and 1929. In 1928, Lugosi decided to stay in California when the play ended its first West Coast run. His performance had piqued the interest of Fox Film, and he was cast in the Hollywood studio's silent film The Veiled Woman (1929). He also appeared in the film Prisoners (also 1929), believed lost, which was released in both a silent and partial talkie version. , in The Black Camel (1931)]] In 1929, with no other film roles in sight, he returned to the stage as Dracula for a short West Coast tour of the play. Lugosi remained in California where he resumed his film work under contract with Fox, appearing in early talkies often as a heavy or an "exotic sheik". He also continued to lobby for his prized role in the film version of Dracula. Despite his critically acclaimed performance on stage, Lugosi was not Universal Pictures' first choice for the role of Dracula when the company optioned the rights to the Deane play and began production in 1930. Chaney and Browning had worked together on several projects (including four of Chaney's final five releases), but Browning was only a last-minute choice to direct the movie version of Dracula after the death of director Paul Leni, who had originally been slated to direct.}} Different prominent actors, such as Paul Muni, Chester Morris, Ian Keith, John Wray, Joseph Schildkraut, Arthur Edmund Carewe, William Courtenay, John Carradine, and Conrad Veidt were considered. Lew Ayres was eventually hired to play Jonathan Harker, only to be replaced by Robert Ames after being cast in a different role in a different Universal Pictures film. Ames was in turn replaced with David Manners. Lugosi had played the role on Broadway, and was considered before director Tod Browning cast him in the role. The film was a major hit, but Lugosi was paid a salary of only $3,500, since he had too eagerly accepted the role. Typecasting and Bela Lugosi in The Raven (1935)]] Through his association with Dracula (in which he appeared with minimal makeup, using his natural, heavily accented voice), Lugosi found himself typecast as a horror villain in films such as Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932), The Black Cat (1934) and The Raven (1935) for Universal, and the independent White Zombie (1932). His accent, while a part of his image, limited the type of role he could play. Lugosi did attempt to break type by auditioning for other roles. He lost out to Lionel Barrymore for the role of Grigori Rasputin in Rasputin and the Empress (also 1932); C. Henry Gordon for the role of Surat Khan in Charge of the Light Brigade (1936), and Basil Rathbone for the role of Commissar Dimitri Gorotchenko in Tovarich (1937), a role Lugosi had played on stage. He played the elegant, somewhat hot-tempered General Nicholas Strenovsky-Petronovich in International House (1933). Regardless of controversy, five films at Universal – The Black Cat (1934), The Raven (1935), The Invisible Ray (1936), Son of Frankenstein (1939), Black Friday (1940), plus minor cameo performances in Gift of Gab (1934) and two at RKO Pictures, ''You'll Find Out (1940) and The Body Snatcher'' (1945) – paired Lugosi with Boris Karloff. Despite the relative size of their roles, Lugosi inevitably received second billing, below Karloff. There are contradictory reports of Lugosi's attitude toward Karloff, some claiming that he was openly resentful of Karloff's long-term success and ability to gain good roles beyond the horror arena, while others suggested the two actors were – for a time, at least – amicable. Karloff himself in interviews suggested that Lugosi was initially mistrustful of him when they acted together, believing that the Englishman would attempt to upstage him. When this proved not to be the case, according to Karloff, Lugosi settled down and they worked together amicably (though some have further commented that the English Karloff's on-set demand to break from filming for mid-afternoon tea annoyed Lugosi). Lugosi did get a few heroic leads, as in Universal's The Black Cat after Karloff had been accorded the more colorful role of the villain, The Invisible Ray, and a romantic role in producer Sol Lesser's adventure serial The Return of Chandu (1934), but his typecasting problem appears to have been too entrenched to be alleviated by those films. Lugosi addressed his plea to be cast in non-horror roles directly to casting directors through his listing in the 1937 Players Directory, published by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, in which he (or his agent) calls the idea that he is only fit for horror films "an error." Career decline Lugosi developed severe, chronic sciatica, ostensibly aggravated by injuries received during his military service. Though at first he was treated with benign pain remedies such as asparagus juice, doctors increased the medication to opiates. The growth of his dependence on opiates, particularly morphine and (after 1947, when it became available in America) methadone, was directly proportional to the dwindling of Lugosi's screen offers. The problem first manifested itself in 1937, when Lugosi was forced to withdraw from a leading role in a serial production, The Secret of Treasure Island, due to constant back pain. Historian John McElwee reports, in his 2013 book Showmen, Sell It Hot!, that Bela Lugosi's popularity received a much-needed boost in August 1938, when California theater owner Emil Umann revived Dracula and Frankenstein as a special double feature. The combination was so successful that Umann scheduled extra shows to accommodate the capacity crowds, and invited Lugosi to appear in person, which thrilled new audiences that had never seen Lugosi's classic performance. "I owe it all to that little man at the Regina Theatre," said Lugosi of exhibitor Umann. "I was dead, and he brought me back to life." Universal took notice of the tremendous business and launched its own national re-release of the same two horror favorites. The studio then rehired Lugosi to star in new films, fortunately just as Lugosi's fourth wife had given birth to a son. as Frankenstein's monster, Basil Rathbone as Dr. Frankenstein's son, and Lugosi as Ygor in Son of Frankenstein (1939)]] Universal cast Lugosi in Son of Frankenstein (1939), appearing in the character role of Ygor, a mad blacksmith with a broken neck, in heavy makeup and beard. Lugosi was third-billed with his name above the title alongside Basil Rathbone as Dr. Frankenstein's son and Boris Karloff reprising his role as Frankenstein's monster. Regarding Son of Frankenstein, the film's director Rowland V. Lee said his crew let Lugosi "work on the characterization; the interpretation he gave us was imaginative and totally unexpected ... when we finished shooting, there was no doubt in anyone's mind that he stole the show. Karloff's monster was weak by comparison." Also in 1939, Lugosi made a rare appearance in an A-list motion picture as a stern Soviet commissar in the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer romantic comedy Ninotchka, starring Greta Garbo and directed by Ernst Lubitsch. Lugosi was quite effective in this small but prestigious character part and he even received top billing among the film's supporting cast, all of whom had significantly larger roles. It might have been a turning point for the actor, but within the year he was back on Hollywood's Poverty Row, playing leads for Sam Katzman at Monogram Pictures. At Universal, Bela Lugosi was usually cast for his name value; he often received star billing for what amounted to a supporting part. Lugosi went to 20th Century-Fox for The Gorilla (1939), which had him playing straight man (a butler) to Patsy Kelly and the Ritz Brothers. When Lugosi's Black Friday premiered in 1940 on a double bill with the Vincent Price film The House of the Seven Gables, Lugosi and Price both appeared in person at the Chicago Theatre where it opened on Feb. 29, 1940 and remained for four performances. He was finally cast in the role of Frankenstein's monster for Universal's Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man (1943). (At the end of the previous film in the series, The Ghost of Frankenstein (1942), Lugosi's voice had been dubbed over that of Lon Chaney Jr. since Ygor's brain was now in the Monster's skull.) But at the last minute, Lugosi's heavily accented dialogue was edited out after the film was completed, along with the idea of the Monster being blind, leaving his performance featuring groping, outstretched arms and moving lips seeming enigmatic (and funny) to audiences. Lugosi kept busy during the 1940s as a screen menace. In addition to his nine Monogram features, he worked in three features for RKO and one for Columbia (The Return of the Vampire, 1943). He also accepted the lead in an experimental, economical feature, shot in the semi-professional 16mm film format and blown up to 35mm for theatrical release, Scared to Death (completed April 1946, released June 1947). The feature is noteworthy as being Bela Lugosi's only color film. Lugosi played Dracula for a second and final time on film in Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein (1948), which was his last "A" movie. For the remainder of his life, he appeared – less and less frequently – in obscure, forgettable, low-budget B features. From 1947 to 1950, he performed in summer stock, often in productions of Dracula or Arsenic and Old Lace, and during the rest of the year, made personal appearances in a touring "spook show", and on early commercial television. (1940)]] In September 1949, Milton Berle invited Lugosi to appear in a sketch on Texaco Star Theatre. Lugosi memorized the script for the skit, but became confused on the air when Berle began to ad lib. He also appeared on the anthology series Suspense'' on October 11, 1949, in a live adaptation of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Cask of Amontillado". In 1951, while in England to play a six-month tour of Dracula, Lugosi co-starred in a lowbrow film comedy, Mother Riley Meets the Vampire (also known as Vampire Over London and My Son, the Vampire), released the following year. Following his return to the United States, he was interviewed for television, and reflected wistfully on his typecasting in horror parts: "Now I am the boogie man". In the same interview, he expressed a desire to play more comedy, as he had in the Mother Riley farce. Independent producer Jack Broder took Lugosi at his word, casting him in a jungle-themed comedy, Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla'' (1952), starring nightclub comedians Duke Mitchell and Jerry Lewis look-alike Sammy Petrillo, whose act closely resembled that of Dean Martin and Jerry Lewis (Martin and Lewis). Hal B. Wallis, Martin and Lewis's producer, unsuccessfully sued Broder. Stage and personal appearances Lugosi enjoyed a lively career on stage, with plenty of personal appearances. As film offers declined, he became more and more dependent on live venues to support his family. Lugosi took over the role of Jonathan Brewster from Boris Karloff for Arsenic and Old Lace. Lugosi had also expressed interest in playing Elwood P. Dowd in Harvey to help himself professionally. He also made plenty of personal live appearances to promote his horror image or an accompanying film. The Vincent Price film, House of Wax premiered in Los Angeles at the Paramount Theatre on April 16, 1953. The film played at midnight with a number of celebrities in the audience that night (Judy Garland, Ginger Rogers, Rock Hudson, Broderick Crawford, Gracie Allen, Eddie Cantor, Shelley Winters and others). Producer Alex Gordon, knowing Lugosi was in dire need of cash, arranged for the actor to stand outside the theater wearing a cape and dark glasses, holding a man costumed as a gorilla on a leash. He later allowed himself to be photographed drinking a glass of milk at a Red Cross booth there. When Lugosi playfully attempted to bite the "nurse" in attendance, she overreacted and spilled a glass of milk all over his shirt and cape. Afterward, Lugosi was interviewed by a reporter who botched the interview by asking the prearranged questions out of order, thoroughly confusing the aging star. Embarrassed, Lugosi left abruptly, without attending the screening. Ed Wood and final projects (1959)]] and Lugosi in Bride of the Monster (1956)]] Late in his life, Bela Lugosi again received star billing in films when the ambitious but financially limited filmmaker Ed Wood, a fan of Lugosi, found him living in obscurity and near-poverty and offered him roles in his films, such as an anonymous narrator in Glen or Glenda (1953) and a mad scientist in Bride of the Monster (1955). During post-production of the latter, Lugosi decided to seek treatment for his drug addiction, and the film's premiere was arranged to raise money for Lugosi's hospital expenses (resulting in a paltry amount of money). According to Kitty Kelley's biography of Frank Sinatra, when the entertainer heard of Lugosi's problems, he visited Lugosi at the hospital and gave him a $1,000 check. Sinatra would recall Lugosi's amazement at his visit, since the two men had never met before. During an impromptu interview upon his release from the treatment center in 1955, Lugosi stated that he was about to begin work on a new Ed Wood film called The Ghoul Goes West. This was one of several projects proposed by Wood, including The Phantom Ghoul and Dr. Acula. With Lugosi in his Dracula cape, Wood shot impromptu test footage, with no particular storyline in mind, in front of Tor Johnson's home, at a suburban graveyard, and in front of Lugosi's apartment building on Carlton Way. This footage ended up posthumously in Wood's Plan 9 from Outer Space (1957), which was filmed in 1956 soon after Lugosi died. Wood hired Tom Mason, his wife's chiropractor, to double for Lugosi in additional shots. Mason was noticeably taller and thinner than Lugosi, and had the lower half of his face covered with his cape in every shot, as Lugosi sometimes did in Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein. Following his treatment, Lugosi made one final film, in late 1955, The Black Sleep, for Bel-Air Pictures, which was released in the summer of 1956 through United Artists with a promotional campaign that included several personal appearances by Lugosi and his co-stars, as well as Maila Nurmi (TV's horror host "Vampira"). To Lugosi's disappointment, however, his role in this film was that of a mute butler with no dialogue. Lugosi was intoxicated and very ill during the film's promotional campaign and had to return to L.A. earlier than planned. He never got to see the finished film. Tor Johnson said in interviews that Lugosi kept screaming that he wanted to die the night they shared a hotel room together. In 1959, a British film called Lock Up Your Daughters was theatrically released (in the U.K.), composed of clips from Bela Lugosi's Monogram pictures from the 1940s. The film is lost today, but a March 16, 1959, critical review in the Kinematograph Weekly mentioned that the movie contained new Lugosi footage (intriguing since Lugosi had died in 1956). Back in 1950 however, Lugosi had appeared on a one-hour TV program called Murder and Bela Lugosi (which WPIX-TV broadcast on Sept. 18, 1950) in which Lugosi was interviewed and provided commentary about a number of his old horror films while clips from the films were being shown; historian Gary Rhodes thinks some of this Lugosi TV production found its way into the 1959 British film, which would finally explain the mystery. Personal life Lugosi was married five times. In June 1917, Lugosi married 19-year-old Ilona Szmik (1898–1991) in Hungary. The couple divorced after Lugosi was forced to flee his homeland for political reasons (risking execution if he stayed) and Ilona did not wish to leave her parents. The divorce became final on July 17, 1920, and was uncontested as Lugosi could not show up for the proceedings. After living briefly in Germany, Lugosi left Europe by ship and arrived in New Orleans on October 27, 1920, and, after making his way north, underwent his primary alien inspection at Ellis Island, N.Y. on March 23, 1921. In September 1921, he married Hungarian actress Ilona von Montagh in New York City, and she filed for divorce on November 11, 1924, charging him with adultery and complaining that he wanted her to abandon her acting career to keep house for him. The divorce became final in October, 1925. (Lugosi learned in 1935 that von Montagh and a female friend were both arrested for shoplifting in New York City, which was the last he heard of her.). Lugosi took his place in Hollywood society and scandal when he married wealthy San Francisco resident Beatrice Woodruff Weeks (1897–1931), widow of architect Charles Peter Weeks, on July 27, 1929. Weeks subsequently filed for divorce on November 4, 1929, accusing Lugosi of infidelity, citing actress Clara Bow as the "other woman", and claimed Lugosi tried to take her checkbook and the key to her safe deposit box away from her. Lugosi complained of her excessive drinking and dancing with other men at social gatherings. The divorce became official on December 9, 1929. (Weeks died 17 months later (at age 34) from alcoholism in Panama, Lugosi never receiving a penny from her fortune.) On June 26, 1931, Lugosi became a naturalized United States citizen. They remained married for 20 years and they had a child, Bela G. Lugosi, in 1938. (Lugosi eventually had four grandchildren (Greg, Jeff, Tim, and Lynne) and seven great-grandchildren, although he did not live long enough to meet any of them.) Lillian and Bela vacationed on their lakeshore property in Lake Elsinore, California (then called Elsinore), on several lots between 1944 and 1953. Lillian's parents lived on one of their properties, and Lugosi frequented the health spa there. Bela Lugosi Jr. was boarded at the Elsinore Naval and Military School in Lake Elsinore, and also lived with Lillian's parents while she and Bela were touring. After almost breaking up their marriage in 1944, Lillian and Bela finally divorced on July 17, 1953, at least partially because of Bela's excessive drinking Lugosi called the police one night after Lillian left him and threatened to commit suicide, but when the police showed up at his apartment, he denied making the call.(Lillian eventually did marry Brian Donlevy in 1966, by which time he had also become an alcoholic, and she died in 1981.) Lugosi married Hope Lininger, his fifth wife, in 1955; she was 37 years his junior. She had been a fan, writing letters to him when he was in the hospital recovering from his drug addiction. She would sign her letters "A dash of Hope". They remained married until his death in 1956. However Bela and Hope were actually discussing getting divorced before he died. Death , California]] Lugosi died of a heart attack on August 16, 1956, in the bedroom of his Los Angeles apartment while taking a nap. His wife, Hope, discovered him when she came home from work that evening, apparently having died peacefully in his sleep around 6:45 p.m. according to the medical examiner The rumor that Lugosi was clutching the script for The Final Curtain, a planned Ed Wood project, at the time of his death is not true. Lugosi was buried wearing one of the "Dracula" capes and his full costume as well as his Dracula ring in the Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City, California. Contrary to popular belief, Lugosi never requested to be buried in his cloak; Bela G. Lugosi confirmed on numerous occasions that he and his mother, Lillian, made the decision but believed that it is what his father would have wanted. The funeral was held on Saturday, August 18 at the Utter-McKinley funeral home in Hollywood. Attendees in addition to immediate family included former wife of 20 years Lillian, Forrest J. Ackerman, Ed Wood (pall bearer), Tor Johnson, Conrad Brooks, Richard Sheffield, Norma McCarty, Loretta King, Paul Marco and actor George Becwar. Bela's fourth wife Lillian paid for the cemetery plot and stone (which was inscribed "Beloved Father"), while Hope Lugosi paid for the coffin and the funeral service. Lugosi's will left several inexpensive pieces of real estate in Elsinore and only $1,000 cash to his son, but since the will had been written on Jan. 12, 1954 (before Lugosi's fifth marriage), Bela Jr. had to share the thousand dollars evenly with Hope Lugosi. Hope later gave most of Lugosi's personal belongings and memorabilia to Bela's young neighborhood friend Richard Sheffield, who gave Lugosi's duplicate Dracula cape to Bela Jr. and sold some of the other items to Forrest J. Ackerman. Hope told Sheffield she had searched the apartment for several days looking for $3,000 she suspected Lugosi had hidden there, but she never found it. Sheffield said years later "Lugosi had probably spent it all on alcohol." Hope later moved to Hawaii, where she worked for many years as a caregiver in a leper colony. Hope died in Hawaii in 1997, at age 78, having never remarried. Before her death, she gave several interviews to the fan press. California Supreme Court decision on personality rights In 1979, the Lugosi v. Universal Pictures decision by the California Supreme Court held that Lugosi's personality rights could not pass to his heirs, as a copyright would have. The court ruled that under California law, any rights of publicity, including the right to his image, terminated with Lugosi's death. Six years later the law was changed by the California Celebrities Rights Act. Legacy The cape Lugosi wore in Dracula (1931) was in the possession of his son until it was put up for auction in 2011. It was expected to sell for up to $2 million, but has since been listed again by Bonhams in 2018. In 2019, the Academy Museum of Motion Pictures announced acquisition of the cape via partial donation from the Lugosi family. In 2019 it was announced that the cape would be on display the following year. Andy Warhol's 1963 silkscreen The Kiss depicts Lugosi from Dracula about to bite into the neck of co-star Helen Chandler, who played Mina Harker. A copy sold for $798,000 at Christie's in May 2000. Lugosi was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960. His star is mentioned in "Celluloid Heroes", a song performed by The Kinks and written by their lead vocalist and principal songwriter, Ray Davies. It appeared on their 1972 album ''Everybody's in Show-Biz''. In 1979, a song called "Bela Lugosi's Dead" was released by UK post-punk band Bauhaus and is a pioneering song in the gothic rock genre. On choosing the topic of the song, the band's bassist David J remarked "There was a season of old horror films on TV and I was telling Daniel about how much I loved them. The one that had been on the night before was Dracula [1931]. I was saying how Bela Lugosi was the quintessential Dracula, the elegant depiction of the character." An episode of Sledge Hammer! titled "Last of the Red Hot Vampires" was an homage to Bela Lugosi; at the end of the episode, it was dedicated to "Mr. Blasko". Bela Lugosi and Boris Karloff are referenced in the Curtis Stigers' song "Sleeping with the Lights On", from the 1991 album Curtis Stigers. In Tim Burton's Ed Wood, Bela Lugosi is portrayed by Martin Landau, who received the 1994 Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for the performance. According to Bela G. Lugosi (his son), Forrest Ackerman, Dolores Fuller and Richard Sheffield, the film's portrayal of Lugosi is inaccurate: In real life, he never used profanity, did not hate Karloff, owned no small dogs, nor did he sleep in a coffin. Also Ed Wood did not meet Lugosi in a funeral parlor, but rather through his roommate Alex Gordon. Péter Müller's 1998 theatrical play Lugosi – the Shadow of the Vampire () is based on Lugosi's life, telling the story of his life as he became typecast as Dracula and as his drug addiction worsened. In the Hungarian production, directed by István Szabó, Lugosi was played by Ivan Darvas. In 2001, BBC Radio 4 broadcast There Are Such Things by Steven McNicoll and Mark McDonnell. Focusing on Lugosi and his well-documented struggle to escape from the role that had typecast him, the play went on to receive the Hamilton Deane Award for best dramatic presentation from the Dracula Society in 2002. in Budapest, Hungary.]] On July 19, 2003, German artist Hartmut Zech erected a bust of Lugosi on one of the corners of Vajdahunyad Castle in Budapest. The Ellis Island Immigration Museum in New York City features a live 30-minute play that focuses on Lugosi's illegal entry into the country via New Orleans and his arrival at Ellis Island months later to enter the country legally. In 2013 the Hungarian electronic music band Žagar recorded a song entitled "Mr. Lugosi", which contains a recording of the voice of Bela Lugosi. The song was a part of the Light Leaks record. According to Paru Itagaki, the creator of the Japanese manga/anime Beastars, the main character Legoshi was inspired by Bela Lugosi (regarding the similar-sounding names). In 2020, Legendary Comics published an adaptation of Bram Stoker's 1897 Dracula novel, which used the likeness of Lugosi. A 2021 hardcover graphic novel depicting the life of Bela Lugosi was written and drawn by Koren Shadmi, entitled ''Lugosi: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Dracula. Notes References Further reading * Ed Wood's Bride of the Monster by Gary D. Rhodes and Tom Weaver (2015) BearManor Media, * Tod Browning's Dracula by Gary D. Rhodes (2015) Tomahawk Press, * Bela Lugosi In Person by Bill Kaffenberger and Gary D. Rhodes (2015) BearManor Media, * No Traveler Returns: The Lost Years of Bela Lugosi by Bill Kaffenberger and Gary D. Rhodes (2012) BearManor Media, * Bela Lugosi: Dreams and Nightmares by Gary D. Rhodes, with Richard Sheffield, (2007) Collectables/Alpha Video Publishers, (hardcover) * Lugosi: His Life on Film, Stage, and in the Hearts of Horror Lovers by Gary D. Rhodes (2006) McFarland & Company, * The Immortal Count: The Life and Films of Bela Lugosi by Arthur Lennig (2003), (hardcover) * Bela Lugosi (Midnight Marquee Actors Series) by Gary Svehla and Susan Svehla (1995) (paperback) * Bela Lugosi: Master of the Macabre by Larry Edwards (1997), (paperback) * Films of Bela Lugosi by Richard Bojarski (1980) (hardcover) * Sinister Serials of Boris Karloff, Bela Lugosi and Lon Chaney, Jr. by Leonard J. Kohl (2000) (paperback) * Vampire over London: Bela Lugosi in Britain by Frank J. Dello Stritto and Andi Brooks (2000) (hardcover) * Lugosi: The Man Behind the Cape by Robert Cremer (1976) (hardcover) * Bela Lugosi: Biografia di una metamorfosi by Edgardo Franzosini (1998) * Lugosi: The Rise and Fall of Hollywood's Dracula'' by Koren Shadmi (Life Drawn graphic novel)(2021) External links * * https://www.retroagogo.com/categories/collections/bela-lugosi/ * * * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061735/http://www.cinemascream.com/bela-lugosi-biography-10-facts/ Video Biography] at CinemaScream.com * * * * * Category:1882 births Category:1956 deaths Category:People from Lugoj Category:19th-century Hungarian people Category:20th-century Hungarian male actors Category:20th-century American male actors Category:19th-century Roman Catholics Category:20th-century Roman Catholics Category:20th-century American sailors Category:American male film actors Category:American Roman Catholics Category:American people of Serbian descent Category:American socialists Category:American trade unionists Category:Austro-Hungarian Army officers Category:Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I Category:Burials at Holy Cross Cemetery, Culver City Category:Hungarian emigrants to the United States Category:Hungarian expatriates in Austria Category:Hungarian expatriates in Germany Category:Hungarian male film actors Category:Hungarian male silent film actors Category:Hungarian male stage actors Category:Hungarian Roman Catholics Category:Hungarian people of Serbian descent Category:Hungarian sailors Category:Hungarian trade unionists Category:Hungarian socialists Category:Male Shakespearean actors Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Universal Pictures contract players
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bela_Lugosi
2025-04-05T18:27:02.940863
5035
Bride of the Monster
Lyman C. Abbott<br>Don Nagel | writer = | starring = | music = Frank Worth | cinematography = | editing = Warren Adams | studio = Rolling M. Productions | distributor = Banner Pictures | released = | runtime = 68 minutes | country = United States | language = English | budget = $70,000 }} and Bela Lugosi in Bride of the Monster (1955)]] Bride of the Monster is a 1955 American independent science fiction horror film, co-written, produced and directed by Edward D. Wood Jr., and starring Bela Lugosi and Tor Johnson with a supporting cast featuring Tony McCoy and Loretta King. The film is considered to have Wood's biggest budget ($70,000). Production commenced in 1954 but, due to further financial problems, was not completed until 1955. It was released in May 1955, initially on a double bill with Macumba. Plot In a stretch of woods, two hunters are caught in a thunderstorm. They decide to seek refuge in Willows House, supposedly abandoned and haunted. They find Willows House occupied, and the current owner, scientist Dr. Eric Vornoff, denies them hospitality. They attempt to force their entry into the house, but a giant octopus is released from its tank and sent after them. The octopus kills one of the hunters while Vornoff's mute assistant Lobo captures the other. Vornoff experiments on the unwilling hunter, who dies on the operating table. There are now twelve missing victims. Reporter Janet Lawton vows to go to Lake Marsh to investigate. Officer Tom Robbins and Lieutenant Dick Craig, Janet's fiancé, talk to Professor Vladimir Strowski, an intellectual from Europe who agrees to assist in investigating the Marsh but not at night. That night, another storm begins. Janet drives alone to Lake Marsh, but visibility is poor, and she drives off the road and into a ravine. Lobo rescues her. Production resumed in 1955 at Centaur Studios. Actor George Becwar, who played the bearded Russian agent Strowski, after getting paid for his one day of work on the film, complained that he had been underpaid to the Screen Actors Guild and caused the production to be temporarily shut down for an investigation. Wood as a result had to raise more money from backers and lost another piece of the ownership of the film as a result. An actor friend of Wood's, John Andrews, said in an interview: "Eddie hated, loathed, despised, wanted murdered, George Becwar ....I'm not overdoin' it man, I'm telling you straight. He hated George Becwar to the day he deceased, and I mean with a passion!" The film premiered at Hollywood's Paramount theater on May 11, 1955, under the title Bride of the Atom. Wood related the story of how, after the film played, he asked the theater's manager what he thought of the picture, to which the manager replied "Stinks". Wood took scissors and physically cut the man out of an 8 X 10 group shot that was taken that night after the premiere as a publicity photo. When asked "Who was that you cut out?", Wood replied "Well, he's not there any more, so it doesn't matter". The film was reportedly completed and released through a deal with attorney Samuel Z. Arkoff. Arkoff profited from the film more than Wood, and his earnings contributed to the funding of his American International Pictures. Wood had oversold shares in the picture and wound up owning none of it himself. The ending credits identify the copyright holder of the film as "Filmakers Releasing Organization". Distribution rights were held by Banner Films in the United States, and by Exclusive in the United Kingdom. Lock Up Your Daughters (1959) recycled footage from Lugosi's earlier films, possibly mixed with some new material. In both movies, each bride at her wedding was given an orchid, which she sniffed before passing out. In The Corpse Vanishes, Lugosi played a doctor who captured the brides and took some kind of liquid from each bride's body and injected it into his wife to make her temporarily young again. Characters included his wife, an old woman, the old woman's grown son, and a dwarf. In Bride of the Monster, Lugosi again plays a doctor doing experiments, but his only housemate/assistant is Lobo, and when his experiment fails to turn someone into an "atomic-powered superman", he throws the dead subject to an octopus or an alligator, similar to Lugosi throwing a body into a river in Murders in the Rue Morgue (1932). The hunters of the opening scenes, Jake Long and Blake "Mac" McCreigh, were played by John Warren and Bud Osborne. The phrases could well apply to the fates of avant-garde artists and thinkers. The character of Lobo appeared again in Wood's Night of the Ghouls, horribly burned but still alive. This film serves as a sequel of sorts to Bride. Vornoff is absent from the later film, but there are references to the activities of "the mad doctor". This film is part of what Wood aficionados refer to as "The Kelton Trilogy", a trio of films featuring Paul Marco as Officer Kelton, a whining, reluctant policeman. The other two films are Plan 9 from Outer Space and Night of the Ghouls. Kelton is the only character to appear in all three films. Critical reception Writing for Famous Monsters in 1962, Joe Dante, Jr. included Bride of the Monster on his list of the worst horror films of all time. Dante declared it as "definitely one of the most inexpensive thrillers ever. The sets were cardboard, and the direction card-boring." Film critic Glenn Erickson wrote in DVD Talk that "nearly every dialogue exchange is an embarrassment and every camera setup somehow wrong," but noted that Lugosi's performance "is better than okay, rising to the demands of the awful script," and that the film is "too endearing to hate." A review by Bruce Eder in AllMovie noted that the film "is ineptly made and it has seams - including mismatched interior and exterior sets and scenery that shakes during the fight scenes," that it has "some of the strangest incidental dialogue that anyone had ever heard," and that "there is a lot to laugh at in the movie, most of it unintentional." A review of the film in TV Guide described it as a "masterpiece of involuntary farce," that the "marvelously idiotic dialog keeps things moving along without stopping for breath [or] logic," and that the "final images of poor old decrepit Lugosi struggling in the arms of a motionless rubber octopus are incomparably bathetic."Legacy In 1986, the film was featured in the syndicated series the Canned Film Festival, and was later featured on the comedy series, Mystery Science Theater 3000. The episode also features a musical parody of the Jam Handy short film "Hired!", with Joel Robinson, Crow T. Robot, Tom Servo and Gypsy performing "Hired! The Musical". The late 1990s dream trance track "Alright", by DJ Taucher, sampled a monologue from Bela Lugosi during the interlude of the song. In 2005, ''The Devil's Rejects footage of the film was played in the movie. In 2008, a colorized version was released by Legend Films. This version was also released on Amazon Video on Demand. In 2010, a retrospective on the movie entitled Citizen Wood: Making 'The Bride', Unmaking the Legend was included in the Mystery Science Theater 3000 Volume 19 DVD set as a bonus feature for said episode featuring the movie. Horror host Mr. Lobo is among the interviewees of the 27 minute documentary. However, a viewing of the film itself reveals that Lugosi said this line correctly, the exact words being, "Don't be afraid of Lobo; he's as gentle as a kitten." The easier explanation would be that authors Michael Medved and Harry Medved saw the film in a theater setting with inferior sound quality, or viewed a damaged print. A single viewing in such conditions could result in mishearing some lines of dialogue. The inaccurate claim managed to achieve urban legend status, and continues circulating. To remedy the lack of movement from the octopus prop, whenever someone was killed by the monster in the film, they simply flailed around in the shallow water while holding the tentacles around themselves to imitate its movements. Rudolph Grey's book Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood Jr. contains anecdotes regarding the making of this film. Grey notes that participants in the original events sometimes contradict one another, but he relates each person's information for posterity. He also includes Ed Wood's claim that only one of his films made a profit and surmises that it was most likely Bride of the Monster, but that Wood had oversold the film and could not reimburse all of the backers afterward. Most biographies mention The Violent Years as being Wood's most profitable film. See also * List of American films of 1955 * List of killer octopus films * Ed Wood filmography Further reading * ''Ed Wood's Bride of the Monster by Gary D. Rhodes and Tom Weaver (2015) BearManor Media, * Bela Lugosi: Dreams and Nightmares by Gary D. Rhodes, with Richard Sheffield, (2007) Collectables/Alpha Video Publishers, (hardcover) * * * * Rudolph Grey, Nightmare of Ecstasy: The Life and Art of Edward D. Wood, Jr. (1992) * * * * * The Haunted World of Edward D. Wood, Jr.'' (1996), documentary film directed by Brett Thompson References Sources * External links * * Category:1955 films Category:1950s monster movies Category:1950s science fiction horror films Category:American black-and-white films Category:American science fiction horror films Category:American monster movies Category:American natural horror films Category:Films about journalists Category:Films about hypnosis Category:Films directed by Ed Wood Category:Films produced by Ed Wood Category:Films set in the United States Category:Films shot in Los Angeles Category:American mad scientist films Category:Films with screenplays by Ed Wood Category:Articles containing video clips Category:1955 horror films Category:American exploitation films Category:American independent films Category:1950s English-language films Category:1950s American films Category:Films about mutants Category:Fictional octopuses Category:Films about human experimentation Category:1955 independent films Category:English-language science fiction horror films Category:Mystery Science Theater 3000
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bride_of_the_Monster
2025-04-05T18:27:02.955312
5036
Berry paradox
The Berry paradox is a self-referential paradox arising from an expression like "The smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters" (a phrase with fifty-seven letters). Bertrand Russell, the first to discuss the paradox in print, attributed it to G. G. Berry (1867–1928), a junior librarian at Oxford's Bodleian Library. Russell called Berry "the only person in Oxford who understood mathematical logic". The paradox was called "Richard's paradox" by Jean-Yves Girard. Overview Consider the expression: Since there are only twenty-six letters in the English alphabet, there are finitely many phrases of under sixty letters, and hence finitely many positive integers that are defined by phrases of under sixty letters. Since there are infinitely many positive integers, this means that there are positive integers that cannot be defined by phrases of under sixty letters. If there are positive integers that satisfy a given property, then there is a smallest positive integer that satisfies that property; therefore, there is a smallest positive integer satisfying the property "not definable in under sixty letters". This is the integer to which the above expression refers. But the above expression is only fifty-seven letters long, therefore it is definable in under sixty letters, and is not the smallest positive integer not definable in under sixty letters, and is not defined by this expression. This is a paradox: there must be an integer defined by this expression, but since the expression is self-contradictory (any integer it defines is definable in under sixty letters), there cannot be any integer defined by it. Mathematician and computer scientist Gregory Chaitin in The Unknowable (1999) adds this comment: "Well, the Mexican mathematical historian Alejandro Garcidiego has taken the trouble to find that letter [of Berry's from which Russell penned his remarks], and it is rather a different paradox. Berry’s letter actually talks about the first ordinal that can’t be named in a finite number of words. According to Cantor’s theory such an ordinal must exist, but we’ve just named it in a finite number of words, which is a contradiction." Resolution The Berry paradox as formulated above arises because of systematic ambiguity in the word "definable". In other formulations of the Berry paradox, such as one that instead reads: "...not nameable in less..." the term "nameable" is also one that has this systematic ambiguity. Terms of this kind give rise to vicious circle fallacies. Other terms with this type of ambiguity are: satisfiable, true, false, function, property, class, relation, cardinal, and ordinal. To resolve one of these paradoxes means to pinpoint exactly where our use of language went wrong and to provide restrictions on the use of language which may avoid them. This family of paradoxes can be resolved by incorporating stratifications of meaning in language. Terms with systematic ambiguity may be written with subscripts denoting that one level of meaning is considered a higher priority than another in their interpretation. "The number not nameable0 in less than eleven words" may be nameable1 in less than eleven words under this scheme. However, one can read Alfred Tarski's contributions to the Liar Paradox to find how this resolution in languages falls short. Alfred Tarski diagnosed the paradox as arising only in languages that are "semantically closed", by which he meant a language in which it is possible for one sentence to predicate truth (or falsehood) of another sentence in the same language (or even of itself). To avoid self-contradiction, it is necessary when discussing truth values to envision levels of languages, each of which can predicate truth (or falsehood) only of languages at a lower level. So, when one sentence refers to the truth-value of another, it is semantically higher. The sentence referred to is part of the "object language", while the referring sentence is considered to be a part of a "meta-language" with respect to the object language. It is legitimate for sentences in "languages" higher on the semantic hierarchy to refer to sentences lower in the "language" hierarchy, but not the other way around. This prevents a system from becoming self-referential. However, this system is incomplete. One would like to be able to make statements such as "For every statement in level α of the hierarchy, there is a statement at level α+1 which asserts that the first statement is false." This is a true, meaningful statement about the hierarchy that Tarski defines, but it refers to statements at every level of the hierarchy, so it must be above every level of the hierarchy, and is therefore not possible within the hierarchy (although bounded versions of the sentence are possible). Saul Kripke is credited with identifying this incompleteness in Tarski's hierarchy in his highly cited paper "Outline of a theory of truth," and it is recognized as a general problem in hierarchical languages. Formal analogues Using programs or proofs of bounded lengths, it is possible to construct an analogue of the Berry expression in a formal mathematical language, as has been done by Gregory Chaitin. Though the formal analogue does not lead to a logical contradiction, it does prove certain impossibility results. built on a formalized version of Berry's paradox to prove Gödel's incompleteness theorem in a new and much simpler way. The basic idea of his proof is that a proposition that holds of x if and only if x = n for some natural number n can be called a definition for n, and that the set {(n, k): n has a definition that is k symbols long} can be shown to be representable (using Gödel numbers). Then the proposition "m is the first number not definable in less than k symbols" can be formalized and shown to be a definition in the sense just stated. Relationship with Kolmogorov complexity It is not possible in general to unambiguously define what is the minimal number of symbols required to describe a given string (given a specific description mechanism). In this context, the terms string and number may be used interchangeably, since a number is actually a string of symbols, e.g. an English word (like the word "eleven" used in the paradox) while, on the other hand, it is possible to refer to any word with a number, e.g. by the number of its position in a given dictionary or by suitable encoding. Some long strings can be described exactly using fewer symbols than those required by their full representation, as is often achieved using data compression. The complexity of a given string is then defined as the minimal length that a description requires in order to (unambiguously) refer to the full representation of that string. The Kolmogorov complexity is defined using formal languages, or Turing machines which avoids ambiguities about which string results from a given description. It can be proven that the Kolmogorov complexity is not computable. The proof by contradiction shows that if it were possible to compute the Kolmogorov complexity, then it would also be possible to systematically generate paradoxes similar to this one, i.e. descriptions shorter than what the complexity of the described string implies. That is to say, the definition of the Berry number is paradoxical because it is not actually possible to compute how many words are required to define a number, and we know that such computation is not possible because of the paradox. See also Self-reference List of self–referential paradoxes Notes References Reprinted in Further reading French, James D. (1988) "The False Assumption Underlying Berry's Paradox," Journal of Symbolic Logic 53: 1220–1223. Russell, Bertrand (1906) "Les paradoxes de la logique", Revue de métaphysique et de morale 14: 627–650 External links Roosen-Runge, Peter H. (1997) "Berry's Paradox." Category:Eponymous paradoxes Category:Mathematical paradoxes Category:Self-referential paradoxes Category:Algorithmic information theory Category:Logical paradoxes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry_paradox
2025-04-05T18:27:02.984020
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List of Olympic medalists in biathlon
This is the complete list of Olympic medalists in biathlon. Medalists in military patrol, a precursor to biathlon, are listed separately. Men The numbers in brackets denotes biathletes who won gold medal in corresponding disciplines more than one time. Bold numbers denotes record number of victories in certain disciplines. Individual (20 km) {| |- |1960 Squaw Valley<br> | | | |- |1964 Innsbruck<br> | | | |- |1968 Grenoble<br> | | | |- |1972 Sapporo<br> | | | |- |1976 Innsbruck<br> | | | |- |1980 Lake Placid<br> | | | |- |1984 Sarajevo<br> | | | |- |1988 Calgary<br> | | | |- |1992 Albertville<br> | | | |- |1994 Lillehammer<br> | | | |- |1998 Nagano<br> | | | |- |2002 Salt Lake City<br> | | | |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |-valign="top" |2010 Vancouver<br> | |<br> | align="center"| None awarded |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze ! Total |- |1||align=left|||6||2||4||12 |- |2||align=left|||3||3||3||9 |- |3||align=left|||2||0||0||2 |- |4||align=left|||1||4||1||6 |- |5||align=left|||1||3||1||5 |- |rowspan2|6||alignleft|||1||0||2||3 |- |align=left|||1||0||2||3 |- |rowspan2|8||alignleft|||1||0||0||1 |- |align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |10||align=left|||0||2||1||3 |- |11||align=left|||0||2||0||2 |- |12||align=left|||0||1||1||2 |- |13||align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |14||align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- |Total|| 14 nations||17||18||16|| 51 |} Sprint (10 km) {| |- |1980 Lake Placid<br> | | | |- |1984 Sarajevo<br> | | | |- |1988 Calgary<br> | | | |- |1992 Albertville<br> | | | |- |1994 Lillehammer<br> | | | |- |1998 Nagano<br> | | | |- |2002 Salt Lake City<br> | | | |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |- |2010 Vancouver<br> | | | |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||5||3||2||10 |- |2||align=left|||3||3||0||6 |- |3||align=left|||2||0||1||3 |- |4||align=left|||1||1||0||2 |- |5||align=left|||1||0||1||2 |- |6||align=left|||0||2||2||4 |- |rowspan"2"|7||alignleft|||0||1||1||2 |- |align=left|||0||1||1||2 |- |9||align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |10||align=left|||0||0||2||2 |- |rowspan"2"|11||alignleft|||0||0||1||1 |- |align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- |Total|| 12 nations||12||12||12|| 36 |} Pursuit (12.5 km) {| |- |2002 Salt Lake City<br> | | | |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |- |2010 Vancouver<br> | | | |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||4||1||2||7 |- |2||align=left|||1||2||0||3 |- |3||align=left|||1||1||0||2 |- |rowspan2|4||alignleft|||0||1||0||1 |- |align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |6||align=left|||0||0||3||3 |- |7||align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- !colspan=2| Total || 6|| 6|| 6|| 18 |} Mass start (15 km) {| |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |- |2010 Vancouver<br> | | | |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||2||0||3||5 |- |2||align=left|||1||2||0||3 |- |3||align=left|||1||1||0||2 |- |4||align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |rowspan2|5||alignleft|||0||1||0||1 |- |align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |rowspan2|7||alignleft|||0||0||1||1 |- |align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- !colspan=2| Total || 5|| 5|| 5|| 15 |} Relay (4×7.5 km) {| |-valign="top" |1968 Grenoble<br /> ||Alexander Tikhonov|Nikolay Puzanov|Viktor Mamatov|Vladimir Gundartsev}} ||Ola Wærhaug|Olav Jordet|Magnar Solberg|Jon Istad}} ||Lars-Göran Arwidson|Tore Eriksson|Olle Petrusson|Holmfrid Olsson}} |-valign="top" |1972 Sapporo<br /> ||Alexander Tikhonov (2)|Rinnat Safin|Ivan Biakov|Viktor Mamatov (2)}} ||Esko Saira|Juhani Suutarinen|Heikki Ikola|Mauri Röppänen}} ||Hansjörg Knauthe|Joachim Meischner|Dieter Speer|Horst Koschka}} |-valign="top" |1976 Innsbruck<br /> ||Alexander Tikhonov (3)|Aleksandr Elizarov|Ivan Biakov (2)|Nikolay Kruglov}} ||Henrik Flöjt|Esko Saira|Juhani Suutarinen|Heikki Ikola}} ||Karl-Heinz Menz|Frank Ullrich|Manfred Beer|Manfred Geyer}} |-valign="top" |1980 Lake Placid<br /> ||Alexander Tikhonov (4)|Vladimir Alikin|Vladimir Barnashov|Anatoly Alyabyev}} ||Mathias Jung|Klaus Siebert|Frank Ullrich|Eberhard Rösch}} ||Franz Bernreiter|Hans Estner|Peter Angerer|Gerhard Winkler}} |-valign="top" |1984 Sarajevo<br /> ||Dmitry Vasilyev|Juri Kashkarov|Algimantas Šalna|Sergei Bulygin}} ||Odd Lirhus|Eirik Kvalfoss|Rolf Storsveen|Kjell Søbak}} ||Ernst Reiter|Walter Pichler|Peter Angerer|Fritz Fischer}} |-valign="top" |1988 Calgary<br /> ||Dmitry Vasilyev (2)|Sergei Tchepikov|Alexandr Popov|Valeriy Medvedtsev}} ||Ernst Reiter|Stefan Höck|Peter Angerer|Fritz Fischer}} ||Werner Kiem|Gottlieb Taschler|Johann Passler|Andreas Zingerle}} |-valign="top" |1992 Albertville<br /> ||Ricco Groß|Jens Steinigen|Mark Kirchner|Fritz Fischer}} ||Valeriy Medvedtsev|Alexandr Popov|Valeri Kiriyenko|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Ulf Johansson|Leif Andersson|Tord Wiksten|Mikael Löfgren}} |-valign="top" |1994 Lillehammer<br /> ||Ricco Groß (2)|Frank Luck|Mark Kirchner (2)|Sven Fischer}} ||Valeri Kiriyenko|Vladimir Drachev|Sergei Tarasov|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Thierry Dusserre|Patrice Bailly-Salins|Lionel Laurent|Hervé Flandin}} |-valign="top" |1998 Nagano<br /> ||Ricco Groß (3)|Peter Sendel|Sven Fischer (2)|Frank Luck (2)}} ||Egil Gjelland|Halvard Hanevold|Dag Bjørndalen|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Pavel Muslimov|Vladimir Drachev|Sergei Tarasov|Viktor Maigourov}} |-valign="top" |2002 Salt Lake City<br /> ||Halvard Hanevold|Frode Andresen|Egil Gjelland|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Ricco Groß|Peter Sendel|Sven Fischer|Frank Luck}} ||Gilles Marguet|Vincent Defrasne|Julien Robert|Raphaël Poirée}} |-valign="top" |2006 Turin<br /> ||Ricco Groß (4)|Michael Rösch|Sven Fischer (3)|Michael Greis}} ||Ivan Tcherezov|Sergei Tchepikov|Pavel Rostovtsev|Nikolay Kruglov, Jr.}} ||Julien Robert|Vincent Defrasne|Ferréol Cannard|Raphaël Poirée}} |-valign="top" |2010 Vancouver<br /> ||Halvard Hanevold (2)|Tarjei Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen|Ole Einar Bjørndalen (2)}} ||Simon Eder|Daniel Mesotitsch|Dominik Landertinger|Christoph Sumann}} ||Ivan Tcherezov|Anton Shipulin|Maxim Chudov|Evgeny Ustyugov}} |-valign="top" |2014 Sochi<br /> ||Alexey Volkov|Evgeny Ustyugov|Dmitry Malyshko|Anton Shipulin}} ||Erik Lesser|Daniel Böhm|Arnd Peiffer|Simon Schempp }} ||Christoph Sumann|Daniel Mesotitsch|Simon Eder|Dominik Landertinger }} |-valign="top" |2018 Pyeongchang<br /> ||Peppe Femling|Jesper Nelin|Sebastian Samuelsson|Fredrik Lindström}} ||Lars Helge Birkeland|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen}} ||Erik Lesser|Benedikt Doll|Arnd Peiffer|Simon Schempp}} |-valign="top" |2022 Beijing<br /> ||Sturla Holm Lægreid|Tarjei Bø (2)|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen}} ||Fabien Claude|Émilien Jacquelin|Simon Desthieux|Quentin Fillon Maillet}} ||Said Karimulla Khalili|Alexander Loginov|Maxim Tsvetkov|Eduard Latypov }} |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||6||0||0||6 |- |2||align=left|||4||2||1||7 |- |3||align=left|||3||4||0||7 |- |4||align=left|||1||2||2||5 |- |5||align=left|||1||0||2||3 |- |6||align=left|||0||2||0||2 |- |7||align=left|||0||1||3||4 |- |rowspan2|8||alignleft|||0||1||2||3 |- |align=left|||0||1||2||3 |- |10||align=left|||0||1||1||2 |- |11||align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |rowspan2|12||alignleft|||0||0||1||1 |- |align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- !colspan=2| Total || 15|| 15|| 15|| 45 |} Women The numbers in brackets denotes biathletes who won gold medal in corresponding disciplines more than one time. Bold numbers denotes record number of victories in certain disciplines. Individual (15 km) {| |- |1992 Albertville<br> | | | |- |1994 Lillehammer<br> | | | |- |1998 Nagano<br> | | | |- |2002 Salt Lake City<br> | | | |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |- |2010 Vancouver<br> | | | |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||3||1||3||7 |- |2||align=left|||1||1||1||3 |- |3||align=left|||1||0||2||3 |- |rowspan3|4||alignleft|||1||0||1||2 |- |align=left|||1||0||1||2 |- |align=left|||1||0||1||2 |- |7||align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |8||align=left|||0||2||0||2 |- |rowspan5|9||alignleft|||0||1||0||1 |- |align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |Total|| 13 nations||9||9||9|| 27 |} Sprint (7.5 km) {| |- |1992 Albertville<br> | | | |- |1994 Lillehammer<br> | | | |- |1998 Nagano<br> | | | |- |2002 Salt Lake City<br> | | | |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |- |2010 Vancouver<br> | | | |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||2||4||1||7 |- |2||align=left|||2||0||0||2 |- |rowspan2|3||alignleft|||1||1||0||2 |- |align=left|||1||1||0||2 |- |rowspan2|5||alignleft|||1||0||1||2 |- |align=left|||1||0||1||2 |- |7||align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |8||align=left|||0||2||1||3 |- |9||align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |10||align=left|||0||0||3||3 |- |rowspan2|11||alignleft|||0||0||1||1 |- |align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- |Total|| 12 nations||9||9||9|| 27 |} Pursuit (10 km) {| |- |2002 Salt Lake City<br> | | | |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |- |2010 Vancouver<br> | | | |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||3||2||0||5 |- |2||align=left|||1||1||1||3 |- |3||align=left|||1||0||1||2 |- |4||align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |5||align=left|||0||2||0||2 |- |6||align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |7||align=left|||0||0||2||2 |- |rowspan2|8||alignleft|||0||0||1||1 |- |align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- !colspan=2| Total || 6|| 6|| 6|| 18 |} Mass start (12.5 km) {| |- |2006 Turin<br> | | | |- |2010 Vancouver<br> | | | |- |2014 Sochi<br> | | | |- |2018 Pyeongchang<br> | | | |- |2022 Beijing<br> | | | |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||1||1||2||4 |- |2||align=left|||1||1||0||2 |- |rowspan3|3||alignleft|||1||0||0||1 |- |align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |6||align=left|||0||1||3||4 |- |rowspan2|7||alignleft|||0||1||0||1 |- |align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- !colspan=2| Total || 5|| 5|| 5|| 15 |} Relay (4×6 km) The women's relay event has been competed over three different distances: * 3×7.5 km — 1992 * 4×7.5 km — 1994–2002 * 4×6 km — 2006–2018 {| |-valign="top" |1992 Albertville<br /> ||Corinne Niogret|Véronique Claudel|Anne Briand}} ||Uschi Disl|Antje Misersky|Petra Schaaf}} ||Yelena Belova|Anfisa Reztsova|Yelena Melnikova}} |-valign="top" |1994 Lillehammer<br /> ||Nadezhda Talanova|Natalya Snytina|Luiza Noskova|Anfisa Reztsova}} ||Uschi Disl|Antje Misersky|Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Petra Schaaf}} ||Corinne Niogret|Véronique Claudel|Delphyne Heymann|Anne Briand}} |-valign="top" |1998 Nagano<br /> ||Katrin Apel|Uschi Disl|Martina Zellner|Petra Behle}} ||Albina Akhatova|Olga Melnik|Galina Kukleva|Olga Romasko}} ||Ann-Elen Skjelbreid|Annette Sikveland|Gunn Margit Andreassen|Liv Grete Skjelbreid}} |-valign="top" |2002 Salt Lake City<br /> ||Katrin Apel (2)|Uschi Disl (2)|Andrea Henkel|Kati Wilhelm}} ||Ann-Elen Skjelbreid|Linda Tjørhom|Gunn Margit Andreassen|Liv Grete Skjelbreid Poirée}} ||Albina Akhatova|Olga Pyleva|Galina Kukleva|Svetlana Ishmouratova}} |-valign="top" |2006 Turin<br /> ||Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Svetlana Ishmouratova|Olga Zaitseva|Albina Akhatova}} ||Martina Glagow|Andrea Henkel|Katrin Apel|Kati Wilhelm}} ||Delphyne Peretto|Florence Baverel-Robert|Sylvie Becaert|Sandrine Bailly}} |-valign="top" |2010 Vancouver<br /> ||Anna Bogaliy-Titovets (2)|Svetlana Sleptsova|Olga Medvedtseva|Olga Zaitseva (2)}} ||Marie-Laure Brunet|Marie Dorin|Sylvie Becaert|Sandrine Bailly}} ||Kati Wilhelm|Simone Hauswald|Martina Beck|Andrea Henkel}} |-valign="top" |2014 Sochi<br /> ||Vita Semerenko|Yuliia Dzhima|Valentyna Semerenko|Olena Pidhrushna}} ||Fanny Welle-Strand Horn|Tiril Eckhoff|Ann Kristin Flatland|Tora Berger}} | |Eva Puskarčíková|Gabriela Soukalová|Jitka Landová|Veronika Vítková}} |-valign="top" |2018 Pyeongchang<br /> ||Nadezhda Skardino|Iryna Kryuko|Dzinara Alimbekava|Darya Domracheva}} ||Linn Persson|Mona Brorsson|Anna Magnusson|Hanna Öberg}} ||Anaïs Chevalier|Marie Dorin Habert|Justine Braisaz|Anaïs Bescond}} |-valign="top" |2022 Beijing<br /> ||Linn Persson|Mona Brorsson|Hanna Öberg|Elvira Öberg}} ||Irina Kazakevich|Kristina Reztsova|Svetlana Mironova|Uliana Nigmatullina}} ||Vanessa Voigt|Vanessa Hinz|Franziska Preuß|Denise Herrmann}} |- |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||3||1||1||5 |- |2||align=left|||2||3||2||7 |- |3||align=left|||1||1||3||5 |- |4||align=left|||1||1||0||2 |- |rowspan2|5||alignleft|||1||0||0||1 |- |align=left|||1||0||0||1 |- |7||align=left|||0||2||1||3 |- |8||align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |rowspan2|9||alignleft|||0||0||1||1 |- |align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- !colspan=2| Total || 9|| 9|| 9|| 27 |} Mixed Relay {| |-valign="top" |2014 Sochi<br /> ||Tora Berger|Tiril Eckhoff|Ole Einar Bjørndalen|Emil Hegle Svendsen}} ||Veronika Vítková|Gabriela Soukalová|Jaroslav Soukup|Ondřej Moravec }} ||Dorothea Wierer|Karin Oberhofer|Dominik Windisch|Lukas Hofer }} |-valign="top" |2018 Pyeongchang<br /> ||Marie Dorin Habert|Anaïs Bescond|Simon Desthieux|Martin Fourcade }} ||Marte Olsbu|Tiril Eckhoff|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen }} ||Lisa Vittozzi|Dorothea Wierer|Lukas Hofer|Dominik Windisch }} |-valign="top" |2022 Beijing<br /> ||Marte Olsbu Røiseland|Tiril Eckhoff (2)|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø }} ||Anaïs Chevalier-Bouchet|Julia Simon|Émilien Jacquelin|Quentin Fillon Maillet }} ||Uliana Nigmatullina|Kristina Reztsova|Alexander Loginov|Eduard Latypov }} |} Medals {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Nation ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze !Total |- |1||align=left|||2||1||0||3 |- |2||align=left|||1||1||0||2 |- |3||align=left|||0||1||0||1 |- |4||align=left|||0||0||2||2 |- |5||align=left|||0||0||1||1 |- ! colspan="2" | Total || 3|| 3|| 3|| 9 |} Statistics Medal table | gold_SWE 6 | silver_SWE 6 | bronze_SWE = 6 | gold_BLR 4 | silver_BLR 4 | bronze_BLR = 3 | gold_GDR 3 | silver_GDR 4 | bronze_GDR 4 | name_GDR | gold_SVK 3 | silver_SVK 3 | bronze_SVK = 1 | gold_EUN 2 | silver_EUN 2 | bronze_EUN 2 | name_EUN | gold_CAN 2 | silver_CAN 0 | bronze_CAN = 1 | gold_FRG 1 | silver_FRG 2 | bronze_FRG 2 | name_FRG | gold_UKR 1 | silver_UKR 1 | bronze_UKR = 3 | gold_BUL 1 | silver_BUL 0 | bronze_BUL = 1 | gold_CZE 0 | silver_CZE 4 | bronze_CZE 4 | name_CZE | gold_FIN 0 | silver_FIN 4 | bronze_FIN = 2 | gold_AUT 0 | silver_AUT 3 | bronze_AUT = 3 | gold_ITA 0 | silver_ITA 1 | bronze_ITA = 6 | gold_SVN 0 | silver_SVN 1 | bronze_SVN = 1 | gold_KAZ 0 | silver_KAZ 1 | bronze_KAZ = 0 | gold_POL 0 | silver_POL 1 | bronze_POL = 0 | gold_SUI 0 | silver_SUI 1 | bronze_SUI = 0 | gold_ROC 0 | silver_ROC 1 | bronze_ROC 3 | name_ROC ROC | gold_CRO 0 | silver_CRO 0 | bronze_CRO = 1 }} Note * This table includes 1924 military patrol medals. Biathlete medal leaders is the most successful male athlete at Winter Olympics. He is one of three Winter Olympians (and only biathlete) to win eight gold medals and earned more overall medals (13) than any male athlete in Winter Olympic history.]] ;Men {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Biathlete ! Nation ! Olympics * ! style="background-color: gold;" |Gold ! style="background-color: silver;"|Silver ! style="background-color: #cc9966;"|Bronze !Total |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1994–2014 | 8 | 4 | 1 | 13 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2014–2022 | 5 | 2 | 1 | 8 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1992–2006 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 8 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2006–2018 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 8 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1994–2006 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 8 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2010–2018 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 7 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1994–2010 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 6 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2010–2022 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 6 |- | align=left | | align=left | <BR><BR> | 1988–1994,<BR> 2002–2006 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 6 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1968–1980 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 5 |- | align=left | | align=left | <BR> | 1988, 1994–2002 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 5 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2018–2022 | 2 | 3 | 0 | 5 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1980–1988 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 5 |} ;Women , Ole Einar Bjørndalen's wife, is the only woman to win four gold medals in biathlon.]] {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Biathlete ! Nation ! Olympics * ! style="background-color: gold;" |Gold ! style="background-color: silver;"|Silver ! style="background-color: #cc9966;"|Bronze !Total |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1992–2006 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 9 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2014–2022 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 8 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2002–2010 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 7 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2018–2022 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 7 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2010–2018 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 6 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2010–2018 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 6 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1998–2006 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 5 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1998–2006 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2006–2014 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2002–2014 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 4 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 1992–1994 | 1 | 3 | 0 | 4 |- | align=left | | align=left | | 2010–2018 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 4 |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> denotes all Olympics in which mentioned biathletes took part. Boldface denotes latest Olympics. <BR> Biathletes with most victories Top 10 biathletes who won more gold medals at the Winter Olympics are listed below. Boldface denotes active biathletes and highest medal count among all biathletes (including those not in the tables) per type. Men {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Biathlete ! Country ! From * ! To * ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze ! Total |- | 1 || align"left" | Ole Einar Bjørndalen || align"left" | || 1998 || 2014 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 8 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 13 |-align="center" | 2 || align"left" align"left" | Johannes Thingnes Bø || align"left" | || 2014 || 2022 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 5 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor="#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" | 3 || align"left" | Martin Fourcade || align"left" | || 2010 || 2018 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 5 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | - || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 7 |-align="center" |rowspan"2"| 4 || align"left" | Ricco Groß || align"left" | || 1992 || 2006 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor="#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" | align"left" | Emil Hegle Svendsen || align"left" | || 2010 || 2018 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" | 6 || align"left" | Sven Fischer || align"left" | || 1994 || 2006 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" | 7 || align"left" | Alexander Tikhonov || align"left" | || 1968 || 1980 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | - || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 5 |-align="center" |rowspan"2"| 8 || align"left" align"left" | Tarjei Bø || align"left" | || 2010 || 2022 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 3 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 6 |-align="center" | align"left" | Halvard Hanevold || align"left" | || 1998 || 2010 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 3 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 6 |-align="center" | 10 || align"left" | Mark Kirchner || align"left" | || 1992 || 1994 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 3 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | - || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 4 |} Women {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center;" |- ! Rank ! Biathlete ! Country ! From * ! To * ! style="background: gold;" | Gold ! style="background: silver;" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966;" | Bronze ! Total |- | 1 || align"left" | Darya Domracheva || align"left" | || 2010 || 2018 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 6 |-align="center" | 2 || align"left" | Kati Wilhelm || align"left" | || 2002 || 2010 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 3 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 7 |-align="center" | 3 || align"left" | Anastasiya Kuzmina || align"left" | || 2010 || 2018 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 3 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | - || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 6 |-align="center" | 4 || align"left" | Marte Olsbu Røiseland || align"left" | || 2018 || 2022 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 3 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 7 |-align="center" | 5 || align"left" | Uschi Disl || align"left" | || 1992 || 2006 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 9 |-align="center" | 6 || align"left" | Tiril Eckhoff || align"left" | || 2014 || 2022 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 4 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" |rowspan"3"| 7 || align"left" | Katrin Apel || align"left" | || 1998 || 2006 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor="#E7FAEC" | 4 |-align="center" | align"left" | Tora Berger || align"left" | || 2010 || 2014 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 4 |-align="center" | align"left" | Andrea Henkel || align"left" | || 2002 || 2010 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 4 |-align="center" |rowspan"3"| 10 || align"left" | Magdalena Neuner || align"left" | || 2010 || 2010 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | - || bgcolor="#E7FAEC" | 3 |-align="center" | align"left" | Hanna Öberg || align"left" | || 2018 || 2022 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | - || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 3 |-align="center" | align"left" | Olga Zaitseva || align"left" | || 2006 || 2010 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 2 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | - || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 3 |-align="center" |} <nowiki>*</nowiki> denotes only those Olympics at which mentioned biathletes won at least one medal <BR> Medals per year {| style="font-size:90%" | style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#ddd; width:1.5em; text-align:center;" | × | style="padding-right:1em;" | NOC did not exist or did not participate in biathlon events | style="border:1px solid #aaa; width:1.5em; text-align:center;" |# | style="padding-right:1em;" | Number of medals won by the NOC | style="border:1px solid #aaa; width:1.5em; text-align:center;" |– | style="padding-right:1em;" | NOC did not win any medals |} * bolded numbers indicate the highest medal count at that year's Olympic Games. {|class=wikitable collapsible autocollapse plainrowheaders ! NOC !24 ! class"unsortable" |<span style"color:#A0A0A0;">1928–56</span> !60 !64 !68 !72 !76 !80 !84 !88 !92 !94 !98 !02 !06 !10 !14 !18 !22 !Total |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || || || style="background:#ddd"|× || || || || || || || || 1 || || 2 || 2 || 1 || || 6 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 1 || 1 || || || 2 || 4 || 2 || 1 || 11 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"|× || || || || || || || 1 || 1 || || || || || || 2 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"|× || || 1 || 2 || || || || || || || || 3 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || ||1 || || || || 1 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || || || || || 5 || 2 || || 7 |- |alignleft| || 1 || style"background:#ddd"| || 1 || || || 1 || 2 || || || || 1 || || 1 || || || || || || || 7 |- |alignleft| || 1 || style"background:#ddd"| || || || || || || || || || 1 || 3 || || 2 || 4 || 6 || 4 || 5 || 7 || 33 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || 2 || 1 || 4 || 2 || 2 || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 11 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || || || 1 || 3 || 1 || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 5 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"|× || 7 || 6 || 5 || 9 || 11 || 5 || 2 || 7 || 2 || 54 |- |alignleft| || || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"|× || || || || || 2 || || || 1 || || || || 1 || 2 || 1 || 7 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || || || || 1 || || || || 1 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"| || || 1 || 2 || 1 || || || 3 || || || || 5 || 6 || 6 || 5 || 6 || 6 || 14 || 55 |- |alignleft| || || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || || || || || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || || || || 1 || || || || || 1 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || 1 || 2 || 3 || 1 || 3 || 4 || 1 || 4 || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 19 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 6 || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"|× || 6 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 5 || 3 || 3 || 5 || 4 || 3 || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 23 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"|× || 4 || 4 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || || || || || 3 || 1 || 3 || || 7 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"|× || || || || || || || 1 || 1 || || 2 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style="background:#ddd"| || 1 || || 1 || 1 || || || || || 2 || || || 2 || 2 || 1 || || 4 || 4 || 18 |- |alignleft| || 1 || style"background:#ddd"| || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || 1 || || || 2 |- |alignleft| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"| || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || style"background:#ddd"|× || 1 || 1 || || 1 || || 2 || || || 5 |} See also *Biathlon World Championships *Biathlon World Cup *List of IOC country codes *Military patrol at the 1924 Winter Olympics References *[http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/results/search_r_uk.asp International Olympic Committee results database] }} Biathlon medalists Olympic
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Olympic_medalists_in_biathlon
2025-04-05T18:27:03.248415
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Biathlon World Championships
| founder_name | prev | next | participants | attendance | area | budget | activity | patron | organised IBU | filing | people | member | sponsor | website | current Biathlon World Championships 2025 | footnotes = }} The first Biathlon World Championships (BWCH) was held in 1958, with individual and team contests for men. The original team event, Team (time), was held for the last time in 1965, to be replaced in 1966 by the team event, Relay (4 × 7.5 km), which we know today. The number of events has grown significantly over the years. Beginning in 1984, women biathletes had their own World Championships, and finally, from 1989, both genders have been participating in joint Biathlon World Championships. In 1978 the development was enhanced by the change from the large army rifle calibre to a small bore rifle, while the range to the target was reduced from 150 to 50 meters.Venues The Biathlon World Championships of the season takes place during February or March. Some years it has been necessary to schedule parts of the Championships at other than the main venue because of weather and/or snow conditions. Full, joint Biathlon World Championships have never been held in Olympic Winter Games seasons. Biathlon World Championships in non-IOC events, however, have been held in Olympic seasons. In 2005, the then new event of Mixed Relay (two legs done by women, two legs by men) was arranged separately from the ordinary Championships. Past Championships: *1958 Saalfelden, Austria *1959 Courmayeur, Italy *1961 Umeå, Sweden *1962 Hämeenlinna, Finland *1963 Seefeld, Austria *1965 Elverum, Norway *1966 Garmisch-Partenkirchen, West Germany *1967 Altenberg, East Germany (first event in East Europe) *1969 Zakopane, Poland *1970 Östersund, Sweden *1971 Hämeenlinna, Finland *1973 Lake Placid, New York, United States (first event outside Europe and in the Americas) *1974 Minsk, USSR *1975 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy *1976 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy (Sprint) *1977 Vingrom, Norway *1978 Hochfilzen, Austria *1979 Ruhpolding, West Germany *1981 Lahti, Finland *1982 Minsk, USSR *1983 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy *1984 Chamonix, France (Women) *1985 Ruhpolding, West Germany (Men) and Egg am Etzel (near Einsiedeln), Switzerland (Women) *1986 Oslo, Norway (Men) and Falun, Sweden (Women) *1987 Lake Placid, New York, United States (Men) and Lahti, Finland (Women) *1988 Chamonix, France (Women) *1989 Feistritz an der Drau, Austria (first joint Biathlon World Championships) *1990 Minsk, USSR; Oslo, Norway and Kontiolahti, Finland *1991 Lahti, Finland *1992 Novosibirsk, Russia (Team) *1993 Borovets, Bulgaria *1994 Canmore, Canada (Team) *1995 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy *1996 Ruhpolding, Germany *1997 Brezno-Osrblie, Slovakia *1998 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Pursuit) and Hochfilzen, Austria (Team) *1999 Kontiolahti, Finland and Oslo, Norway *2000 Oslo, Norway and Lahti, Finland *2001 Pokljuka, Slovenia *2002 Oslo, Norway (Mass start) *2003 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia *2004 Oberhof, Germany *2005 Hochfilzen, Austria and Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (Mixed relay) *2006 Pokljuka, Slovenia (Mixed relay) *2007 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy *2008 Östersund, Sweden *2009 Pyeongchang, South Korea (first event in Asia) *2010 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia (Mixed relay) *2011 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia *2012 Ruhpolding, Germany *2013 Nové Město na Moravě, Czech Republic *2015 Kontiolahti, Finland *2016 Oslo, Norway *2017 Hochfilzen, Austria *2019 Östersund, Sweden *2020 Antholz-Anterselva, Italy *2021 Pokljuka, Slovenia *2023 Oberhof, Germany *2024 Nové Město na Moravě, Czech Republic *2025 Lenzerheide, Switzerland Upcoming: *2027 Otepää, Estonia *2028 Hochfilzen, Austria *2029 Oslo, Norway Men Numbers in brackets denotes number of victories in corresponding disciplines. Boldface denotes record number of victories. Individual (20 km) This event was first held in 1958. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1958 | | | |- |1959 | | | |- |1961 | | | |- |1962 | | | |- |1963 | (3) | | |- |1965 | | | |- |1966 | |}} | |- |1967 | | | |- |1969 | | | |- |1970 | | | |- |1971 | | | |- |1973 | (3) | | |- |1974 | | | |- |1975 | | | |- |1977 | | | |- |1978 | | | |- |1979 | | | |- |1981 | (3) | | |- |1982 | | | |- |1983 | (2) | | |- |1985 | | | |- |1986 | | | |- |1987 | | | |- |1989 | | | |- |1990 | (2) | | |- |1991 | | | |- |1993 | | | |- |1995 | | | |- |1996 | | | |- |1997 | | | |- |1999 | | | |- |2000 | | | |- |2001 | | | |- |2003 | | | |- |2004 | | | |- |2005 | | | |- |2007 | (2) | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | | | |- |2011 | | | |- |2012 | | | |- |2013 | | | |- |2015 | | | |- |2016 | | | |- |2017 | | | |- |2019 | | | |- |2020 | (4) | | |- |2021 | | | |- |2023 | | | |- |2024 | (2)}} | | |- |2025 | | | |} Medal table | gold_FRA 7 | silver_FRA 1 | bronze_FRA = 2 | gold_FIN 6 | silver_FIN 3 | bronze_FIN = 6 | gold_GDR 5 | silver_GDR 5 | bronze_GDR 1 | name_GDR | gold_GER 4 | silver_GER 5 | bronze_GER = 4 | gold_RUS 1 | silver_RUS 3 | bronze_RUS = 2 | gold_POL 1 | silver_POL 3 | bronze_POL = 0 | gold_AUT 1 | silver_AUT 2 | bronze_AUT = 5 | gold_USA 1 | silver_USA 2 | bronze_USA = 0 | gold_CZE 1 | silver_CZE 1 | bronze_CZE = 3 | gold_SWE 1 | silver_SWE 1 | bronze_SWE = 3 | gold_ITA 1 | silver_ITA 1 | bronze_ITA = 0 | gold_SLO 1 | silver_SLO 0 | bronze_SLO = 0 | gold_BLR 0 | silver_BLR 2 | bronze_BLR = 3 | gold_BUL 0 | silver_BUL 1 | bronze_BUL = 0 | gold_ROU 0 | silver_ROU 1 | bronze_ROU = 0 | gold_FRG 0 | silver_FRG 0 | bronze_FRG 2 | name_FRG | gold_CRO 0 | silver_CRO 0 | bronze_CRO = 1 | gold_TCH 0 | silver_TCH 0 | bronze_TCH 1 | name_TCH | gold_LAT 0 | silver_LAT 0 | bronze_LAT = 1 }} Sprint (10 km) This event was first held in 1974. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1974 | | | |- |1975 | | | |- |1976 | | | |- |1977 | (2) | | |- |1978 | | | |- |1979 | | | |- |1981 | (3) | | |- |1982 | | | |- |1983 | (2) | | |- |1985 | | | |- |1986 | | | |- |1987 | (2) | | |- |1989 | | | |- |1990 | | | |- |1991 | | | |- |1993 | (3) | | |- |1995 | | | |- |1996 | | | |- |1997 | | | |- |1999 | (2) | | |- |2000 | | | |- |2001 | | | |- |2003 | | | |- |2004 | | | |- |2005 | | | |- |2007 | | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | (4) | | |- |2011 | | | |- |2012 | | | |- |2013 | | | |- |2015 | | | |- |2016 | (2) | | |- |2017 | | | |- |2019 | | | |- |2020 | | | |- |2021 | | | |- |2023 | | | |- |2024 | | |}} |- |2025 | (4)}} | | |} Medal table | gold_GER 5 | silver_GER 4 | bronze_GER = 1 | gold_FRA 4 | silver_FRA 4 | bronze_FRA = 6 | gold_RUS 4 | silver_RUS 4 | bronze_RUS = 1 | gold_URS 4 | silver_URS 3 | bronze_URS 5 | name_URS | gold_ITA 1 | silver_ITA 3 | bronze_ITA = 4 | gold_FIN 1 | silver_FIN 1 | bronze_FIN = 0 | gold_AUT 0 | silver_AUT 1 | bronze_AUT = 1 | gold_CZE 0 | silver_CZE 1 | bronze_CZE = 1 | gold_CAN 0 | silver_CAN 1 | bronze_CAN = 0 | gold_USA 0 | silver_USA 1 | bronze_USA = 0 | gold_FRG 0 | silver_FRG 1 | bronze_FRG 0 | name_FRG | gold_SWE 1 | silver_SWE 0 | bronze_SWE = 2 | gold_UKR 0 | silver_UKR 0 | bronze_UKR = 2 | gold_BLR 0 | silver_BLR 0 | bronze_BLR = 1 | gold_LAT 0 | silver_LAT 0 | bronze_LAT = 1 | gold_SLO 0 | silver_SLO 0 | bronze_SLO = 1 }} Pursuit (12.5 km) This event was first held in 1997. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1997 | | | |- |1998 | | | |- |1999 | | | |- |2000 | | | |- |2001 | | | |- |2003 | | | |- |2004 | (3) | | |- |2005 | | | |- |2007 | | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | (4) | | |- |2011 | | | |- |2012 | | | |- |2013 | | | |- |2015 | | | |- |2016 | | | |- |2017 | (4) | | |- |2019 | | | |- |2020 | | | |- |2021 | (2) | | |- |2023 | | | |- |2024 | | |}} |- |2025 | (3)}} | | |} Medal table Mass start (15 km) This event was first held in 1999. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1999 | | | |- |2000 | | | |- |2001 | | | |- |2002 | | | |- |2003 | | | |- |2004 | (4) | | |- |2005 | (2) | | |- |2007 | | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | | | |- |2011 | (2) | | |- |2012 | | | |- |2013 | | | |- |2015 | | | |- |2016 | | | |- |2017 | | | |- |2019 | | | |- |2020 | | | |- |2021 | | | |- |2023 | | | |- |2024 | (3)}} | | |- |2025 | | | |} Medal table Relay (4 × 7.5 km) This event was first held unofficially in 1965. It was a success, and replaced the team competition as an official event in 1966. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1966 ||Jon Istad|Ragnar Tveiten|Ivar Nordkild|Olav Jordet}} ||Józef Gąsienica Sobczak|Stanisław Szczepaniak|Stanisław Łukaszczyk|Józef Rubiś}} ||Olle Petrusson|Tore Eriksson|Holmfrid Olsson|Sture Ohlin}} |- |1967 ||Jon Istad (2)|Ragnar Tveiten (2)|Ola Wærhaug|Olav Jordet (2)}} ||Alexander Tikhonov|Viktor Mamatov|Rinnat Safin|Nikolay Puzanov}} ||Olle Petrusson|Tore Eriksson|Holmfrid Olsson|Sture Ohlin}} |- |1969 ||Alexander Tikhonov|Viktor Mamatov|Rinnat Safin|Vladimir Gundartsev}} ||Jon Istad|Ragnar Tveiten|Magnar Solberg|Esten Gjelten}} ||Kalevi Vähäkylä|Mauri Röppänen|Mauno Peltonen|Esko Marttinen}} |- |1970 ||Alexander Tikhonov|Viktor Mamatov|Rinnat Safin|Alexander Ushakov}} ||Tor Svendsberget|Ragnar Tveiten|Magnar Solberg|Esten Gjelten}} ||Hans-Günther Jahn|Hansjörg Knauthe|Dieter Speer|Horst Koschka}} |- |1971 ||Alexander Tikhonov|Viktor Mamatov (3)|Rinnat Safin|Nazim Mukhitov}} ||Tor Svendsberget|Ragnar Tveiten|Magnar Solberg|Ivar Nordkild}} ||Józef Roczak|Andrzej Rapacz|Aleksander Klima|Józef Stopka}} |- |1973 ||Alexander Tikhonov|Rinnat Safin (4)|Juri Kolmakov|Gennady Kovalev}} ||Tor Svendsberget|Esten Gjelten|Ragnar Tveiten|Kjell Hovda}} ||Dieter Speer|Manfred Geyer|Herbert Wiegand|Günther Bartnick}} |- |1974 ||Alexander Tikhonov|Alexander Ushakov|Nikolay Kruglov|Juri Kolmakov (2)}} ||Simo Halonen|Carl-Henrik Flöjt|Juhani Suutarinen|Heikki Ikola}} ||Kjell Hovda|Kåre Hovda|Terje Hanssen|Tor Svendsberget}} |- |1975 ||Carl-Henrik Flöjt|Simo Halonen|Juhani Suutarinen|Heikki Ikola}} ||Alexander Tikhonov|Aleksandr Elizarov|Alexander Ushakov|Nikolay Kruglov}} ||Jan Szpunar|Andrzej Rapacz|Ludwig Zięba|Wojciech Truchan}} |- |1977 ||Alexander Tikhonov (6)|Aleksandr Elizarov|Alexander Ushakov (3)|Nikolay Kruglov (2)}} ||Erkki Antila|Raimo Seppänen|Simo Halonen|Heikki Ikola}} ||Manfred Beer|Klaus Siebert|Frank Ullrich|Manfred Geyer}} |- |1978 ||Manfred Beer|Frank Ullrich|Klaus Siebert|Eberhard Rösch}} ||Odd Lirhus|Sigleif Johansen|Roar Nilsen|Tor Svendsberget}} ||Gerhard Winkler|Andreas Schweiger|Hansi Estner|Heinrich Mehringer}} |- |1979 ||Manfred Beer (2)|Klaus Siebert (2)|Frank Ullrich|Eberhard Rösch}} ||Simo Halonen|Heikki Ikola|Erkki Antila|Raimo Seppänen}} ||Vladimir Alikin|Vladimir Barnashov|Nikolay Kruglov|Alexander Tikhonov}} |- |1981 ||Mathias Jung|Matthias Jacob|Frank Ullrich|Eberhard Rösch (3)}} ||Peter Angerer|Peter Schweiger|Fritz Fischer|Franz Bernreiter}} ||Vladimir Alikin|Anatoly Alyabyev|Vladimir Barnashov|Vladimir Gavrikov}} |- |1982 ||Frank Ullrich (4)|Mathias Jung (2)|Matthias Jacob|Bernd Helmich}} ||Eirik Kvalfoss|Kjell Søbak|Odd Lirhus|Rolf Storsveen}} ||Vladimir Alikin|Anatoly Alyabyev|Vladimir Barnashov|Viktor Semyonov}} |- |1983 ||Algimantas Šalna|Juri Kashkarov|Petr Miloradov|Sergei Bulygin}} ||Frank Ullrich|Mathias Jung|Matthias Jacob|Frank-Peter Roetsch}} ||Kjell Søbak|Eirik Kvalfoss|Odd Lirhus|Øivind Nerhagen}} |- |1985 ||Juri Kashkarov|Algimantas Šalna (2)|Sergei Bulygin|Andrei Senkov}} ||Frank-Peter Roetsch|Matthias Jacob|Ralf Göthel|André Sehmisch}} ||Peter Angerer|Walter Pichler|Fritz Fischer|Herbert Fritzenwenger}} |- |1986 ||Juri Kashkarov (3)|Dmitry Vasilyev|Valeriy Medvedtsev|Sergei Bulygin (3)}} ||Jürgen Wirth|Frank-Peter Roetsch|Matthias Jacob|André Sehmisch}} ||Werner Kiem|Gottlieb Taschler|Johann Passler|Andreas Zingerle}} |- |1987 ||Frank-Peter Roetsch|Matthias Jacob (3)|André Sehmisch|Jürgen Wirth}} ||Dmitry Vasilyev|Juri Kashkarov|Aleksandr Popov|Valeriy Medvedtsev}} ||Ernst Reiter|Herbert Fritzenwenger|Peter Angerer| Fritz Fischer}} |- |1989 ||Frank Luck|André Sehmisch (2)|Birk Anders|Frank-Peter Roetsch (2)}} ||Juri Kashkarov|Sergei Tchepikov|Aleksandr Popov|Sergei Bulygin}} ||Geir Einang|Sylfest Glimsdal|Gisle Fenne|Eirik Kvalfoss}} |- |1990 ||Pieralberto Carrara|Wilfried Pallhuber|Johann Passler|Andreas Zingerle}} ||Christian Dumont|Xavier Blond|Hervé Flandin|Thierry Gerbier}} ||Frank Luck|André Sehmisch|Mark Kirchner|Birk Anders}} |- |1991 ||Ricco Groß|Frank Luck|Mark Kirchner|Fritz Fischer}} ||Juri Kashkarov|Aleksandr Popov|Sergei Tarasov|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Geir Einang|Eirik Kvalfoss|Jon Åge Tyldum|Gisle Fenne}} |- |1993 ||Wilfried Pallhuber (2)|Johann Passler (2)|Pieralberto Carrara (2)|Andreas Zingerle (2)}} ||Valeriy Medvedtsev|Valeri Kiriyenko|Sergei Tarasov|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Sven Fischer|Frank Luck|Mark Kirchner|Jens Steinigen}} |- |1995 ||Ricco Groß|Mark Kirchner (2)|Frank Luck|Sven Fischer}} ||Lionel Laurent|Patrice Bailly-Salins|Thierry Dusserre|Hervé Flandin}} ||Igor Khokhriakov|Aleksandr Popov|Oleg Ryzhenkov|Vadim Sashurin}} |- |1996 ||Viktor Maigourov|Vladimir Drachev|Sergei Tarasov|Aleksey Kobelev}} ||Ricco Groß|Peter Sendel|Frank Luck|Sven Fischer}} ||Alexei Aidarov|Oleg Ryzhenkov|Vadim Sashurin|Aleksandr Popov}} |- |1997 ||Ricco Groß|Peter Sendel|Sven Fischer|Frank Luck}} ||Egil Gjelland|Jon Åge Tyldum|Dag Bjørndalen|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||René Cattarinussi|Wilfried Pallhuber|Patrick Favre|Pieralberto Carrara}} |- |1999 ||Alexei Aidarov|Petr Ivashko|Vadim Sashurin|Oleg Ryzhenkov}} ||Viktor Maigourov|Vladimir Drachev|Sergei Rozhkov|Pavel Rostovtsev}} ||Halvard Hanevold|Dag Bjørndalen|Frode Andresen|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} |- |2000 ||Viktor Maigourov (2)|Sergei Rozhkov|Vladimir Drachev (2)|Pavel Rostovtsev}} ||Egil Gjelland|Frode Andresen|Halvard Hanevold|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Frank Luck|Peter Sendel|Sven Fischer|Ricco Groß}} |- |2001 ||Gilles Marguet|Vincent Defrasne|Julien Robert|Raphaël Poirée}} ||Alexei Aidarov|Alexander Syman|Oleg Ryzhenkov|Vadim Sashurin}} ||Egil Gjelland|Frode Andresen|Halvard Hanevold|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} |- |2003 ||Peter Sendel (2)|Sven Fischer|Ricco Groß|Frank Luck}} ||Viktor Maigourov|Pavel Rostovtsev|Sergei Rozhkov|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Alexei Aidarov|Vladimir Drachev|Rustam Valliulin|Oleg Ryzhenkov}} |- |2004 ||Frank Luck (6)|Ricco Groß (5)|Sven Fischer (4)|Michael Greis}} ||Halvard Hanevold|Lars Berger|Egil Gjelland|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Ferreol Cannard|Vincent Defrasne|Julien Robert|Raphaël Poirée}} |- |2005 ||Halvard Hanevold|Stian Eckhoff|Egil Gjelland|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Sergei Rozhkov|Nikolay Kruglov Jr.|Pavel Rostovtsev|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Daniel Mesotitsch|Friedrich Pinter|Wolfgang Rottmann|Christoph Sumann}} |- |2007 ||Ivan Tcherezov|Maxim Chudov|Dmitri Yaroshenko|Nikolay Kruglov Jr.}} ||Halvard Hanevold|Lars Berger|Frode Andresen|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Ricco Groß|Michael Rösch|Sven Fischer|Michael Greis}} |- |2008 ||Ivan Tcherezov (2)|Nikolay Kruglov Jr. (2)|Dmitri Yaroshenko (2)|Maxim Chudov (2)}} ||Emil Hegle Svendsen|Rune Brattsveen|Halvard Hanevold|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Michael Rösch|Alexander Wolf|Andreas Birnbacher|Michael Greis}} |- |2009 ||Emil Hegle Svendsen|Lars Berger|Halvard Hanevold (2)|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Daniel Mesotitsch|Simon Eder|Dominik Landertinger|Christoph Sumann}} ||Michael Rösch|Christoph Stephan|Arnd Peiffer|Michael Greis}} |- |2011 ||Ole Einar Bjørndalen|Alexander Os|Emil Hegle Svendsen|Tarjei Bø}} ||Anton Shipulin|Evgeny Ustyugov|Maxim Maksimov|Ivan Tcherezov}} ||Olexander Bilanenko|Andriy Deryzemlya|Serhiy Semenov|Serhiy Sednev}} |- |2012 ||Ole Einar Bjørndalen|Rune Brattsveen|Tarjei Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen}} ||Jean-Guillaume Béatrix|Simon Fourcade|Alexis Bœuf|Martin Fourcade}} ||Simon Schempp|Andreas Birnbacher|Michael Greis|Arnd Peiffer}} |- |2013 ||Ole Einar Bjørndalen|Henrik L'Abée-Lund|Tarjei Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen}} ||Simon Fourcade|Jean-Guillaume Béatrix|Alexis Bœuf|Martin Fourcade}} ||Simon Schempp|Andreas Birnbacher|Arnd Peiffer|Erik Lesser}} |- |2015 ||Erik Lesser|Daniel Böhm|Arnd Peiffer|Simon Schempp}} ||Ole Einar Bjørndalen|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen}} ||Simon Fourcade|Jean-Guillaume Béatrix|Quentin Fillon Maillet|Martin Fourcade}} |- |2016 ||Ole Einar Bjørndalen (6)|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen (5)}} ||Erik Lesser|Benedikt Doll|Arnd Peiffer|Simon Schempp}} ||Christian Gow|Nathan Smith|Scott Gow|Brendan Green}} |- |2017 ||Alexey Volkov|Maxim Tsvetkov|Anton Babikov|Anton Shipulin}} ||Jean-Guillaume Béatrix|Quentin Fillon Maillet|Simon Desthieux|Martin Fourcade}} ||Daniel Mesotitsch|Julian Eberhard|Simon Eder|Dominik Landertinger}} |- |2019 ||Lars Helge Birkeland|Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø}} ||Erik Lesser|Roman Rees|Arnd Peiffer|Benedikt Doll}} ||Matvey Eliseev|Nikita Porshnev|Dmitry Malyshko|Alexander Loginov}} |- |2020 ||Émilien Jacquelin|Martin Fourcade|Simon Desthieux|Quentin Fillon Maillet}} ||Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen|Johannes Dale|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø}} ||Erik Lesser|Philipp Horn|Arnd Peiffer|Benedikt Doll}} |- |2021 ||Sturla Holm Lægreid|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø (3)|Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen (2)}} ||Peppe Femling|Jesper Nelin|Martin Ponsiluoma|Sebastian Samuelsson}} | |- |2023 ||Antonin Guigonnat|Fabien Claude|Émilien Jacquelin (2)|Quentin Fillon Maillet (2)}} ||Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen|Tarjei Bø|Sturla Holm Lægreid|Johannes Thingnes Bø}} ||Peppe Femling|Martin Ponsiluoma|Jesper Nelin|Sebastian Samuelsson}} |- |2024 ||Viktor Brandt|Jesper Nelin|Martin Ponsiluoma|Sebastian Samuelsson}} ||Sturla Holm Lægreid|Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen}} ||Éric Perrot|Fabien Claude|Émilien Jacquelin|Quentin Fillon Maillet}} |- |2025 ||Endre Strømsheim|Tarjei Bø (7)|Sturla Holm Lægreid (2)|Johannes Thingnes Bø (4)}} ||Émilien Claude|Fabien Claude|Éric Perrot|Quentin Fillon Maillet}} ||Philipp Nawrath|Danilo Riethmüller|Johannes Kühn|Philipp Horn}} |} Medal table | gold_GER 6 | silver_GER 3 | bronze_GER = 9 | gold_GDR 6 | silver_GDR 3 | bronze_GDR 4 | name_GDR | gold_RUS 5 | silver_RUS 5 | bronze_RUS = 1 | gold_FRA 3 | silver_FRA 6 | bronze_FRA = 3 | gold_ITA 2 | silver_ITA 0 | bronze_ITA = 2 | gold_FIN 1 | silver_FIN 3 | bronze_FIN = 1 | gold_BLR 1 | silver_BLR 1 | bronze_BLR = 3 | gold_SWE 1 | silver_SWE 1 | bronze_SWE = 3 | gold_FRG 0 | silver_FRG 1 | bronze_FRG 3 | name_FRG | gold_AUT 0 | silver_AUT 1 | bronze_AUT = 2 | gold_POL 0 | silver_POL 1 | bronze_POL = 2 | gold_CAN 0 | silver_CAN 0 | bronze_CAN = 1 | gold_RBU 0 | silver_RBU 0 | bronze_RBU 1 | name_RBURussian Biathlon Union | gold_UKR 0 | silver_UKR 0 | bronze_UKR = 1 }} Team (time) This event was held from 1958 to 1965. The times of the top 3 athletes from each country in the 20 km individual were added together (in 1958 the top 4). {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1958 ||Adolf Wiklund|Olle Gunneriusson|Sture Ohlin|Sven Nilsson}} ||Viktor Butakov|Valentin Pshenitsyn|Dmitri Sokolov|Alexander Gubin}} ||Arvid Nyberg|Asbjørn Bakken |Knut Wold|Rolf Gråtrud}} |- |1959 ||Vladimir Melanin|Dmitri Sokolov|Valentin Pshenitsyn}} ||Sven Agge|Adolf Wiklund|Sture Ohlin}} ||Knut Wold|Henry Hermansen|Ivar Skogsrud}} |- |1961 ||Kalevi Huuskonen|Paavo Repo|Antti Tyrväinen}} ||Aleksandr Privalov|Valentin Pshenitsyn|Dmitri Sokolov}} ||Klas Lestander|Tage Lundin|Stig Andersson}} |- |1962 ||Vladimir Melanin|Valentin Pshenitsyn|Nikolay Puzanov}} ||Antti Tyrväinen|Hannu Posti|Kalevi Huuskonen}} ||Jon Istad|Olav Jordet|Henry Hermansen}} |- |1963 ||Vladimir Melanin (3)|Nikolay Meshcheryakov|Valentin Pshenitsyn (3)}} ||Antti Tyrväinen|Hannu Posti|Veikko Hakulinen}} ||Jon Istad|Olav Jordet|Egil Nygård}} |- |1965 ||Olav Jordet|Ola Wærhaug|Ivar Nordkild}} ||Nikolay Puzanov|Vladimir Melanin|Vassiliy Makarov}} ||Stanisław Szczepaniak|Józef Rubiś|Józef Gąsienica Sobczak}} |} Medal table | gold_FIN 1 | silver_FIN 2 | bronze_FIN = 0 | gold_SWE 1 | silver_SWE 1 | bronze_SWE = 1 | gold_NOR 1 | silver_NOR 0 | bronze_NOR = 4 | gold_POL 0 | silver_POL 0 | bronze_POL = 1 }} Team This event, a patrol race, was held from 1989 to 1998. 1989–93: 20 km. 1994–98: 10 km. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1989 ||Juri Kashkarov|Sergei Bulygin|Aleksandr Popov|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Franz Wudy|Herbert Fritzenwenger|Georg Fischer|Fritz Fischer}} ||Andreas Heymann|André Sehmisch|Raik Dittrich|Steffen Hoos}} |- |1990 ||Raik Dittrich|Mark Kirchner|Birk Anders|Frank Luck}} ||Tomáš Kos|Ivan Masařík|Jiří Holubec|Jan Matouš}} ||Christian Dumont|Stéphane Bouthiaux|Hervé Flandin|Thierry Gerbier}} |- |1991 ||Hubert Leitgeb|Gottlieb Taschler|Simon Demetz|Wilfried Pallhuber}} ||Sverre Istad|Jon Åge Tyldum|Ivar Michal Ulekleiv|Frode Løberg}} ||Anatoly Zhdanovich|Sergei Tarasov|Sergei Tchepikov|Valeriy Medvedtsev}} |- |1992 ||Evgeny Redkin|Alexander Tropnikov|Anatoly Zhdanovich|Aleksandr Popov}} ||Frode Løberg|Jon Åge Tyldum|Sylfest Glimsdal|Gisle Fenne}} ||Aivo Udras|Hillar Zahkna|Urmas Kaldvee|Kalju Ojaste}} |- |1993 ||Fritz Fischer|Frank Luck (2)|Steffen Hoos|Sven Fischer}} ||Aleksey Kobelev|Valeri Kiriyenko|Sergei Loschkin|Sergei Tchepikov}} ||Gilles Marguet|Thierry Dusserre|Xavier Blond|Lionel Laurent}} |- |1994 ||Pieralberto Carrara|Hubert Leitgeb (2)|Andreas Zingerle|Wilfried Pallhuber (2)}} ||Vladimir Drachev|Aleksey Kobelev|Valeri Kiriyenko|Sergei Tarasov}} ||Jens Steinigen|Marco Morgenstern|Peter Sendel|Steffen Hoos}} |- |1995 ||Frode Andresen|Dag Bjørndalen|Halvard Hanevold|Jon Åge Tyldum}} ||Petr Garabík|Roman Dostál|Jiří Holubec|Ivan Masařík}} ||Thierry Dusserre|Franck Perrot|Lionel Laurent|Stéphane Bouthiaux}} |- |1996 ||Petr Ivashko|Oleg Ryzhenkov|Aleksandr Popov|Vadim Sashurin}} ||Vladimir Drachev|Pavel Mouslimov|Viktor Maigourov|Sergei Rozhkov}} ||René Cattarinussi|Hubert Leitgeb|Pieralberto Carrara|Patrick Favre}} |- |1997 ||Oleg Ryzhenkov (2)|Petr Ivashko (2)|Aleksandr Popov (4)|Vadim Sashurin (2)}} ||Carsten Heymann|Mark Kirchner|Frank Luck|Peter Sendel}} ||Wiesław Ziemianin|Jan Ziemianin|Wojciech Kozub|Tomasz Sikora}} |- |1998 ||Egil Gjelland|Halvard Hanevold (2)|Sylfest Glimsdal|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Ricco Groß|Carsten Heymann|Sven Fischer|Frank Luck}} ||Vladimir Drachev|Aleksey Kobelev|Sergei Rozhkov|Viktor Maigourov}} |} Medal table | gold_URS 1 | silver_URS 0 | bronze_URS 1 | name_URS | gold_CIS 1 | silver_CIS 0 | bronze_CIS 0 | name_CIS | gold_RUS 0 | silver_RUS 3 | bronze_RUS = 1 | gold_CZE 0 | silver_CZE 1 | bronze_CZE = 0 | gold_TCH 0 | silver_TCH 1 | bronze_TCH 0 | name_TCH | gold_FRG 0 | silver_FRG 1 | bronze_FRG 0 | name_FRG | gold_FRA 0 | silver_FRA 0 | bronze_FRA = 3 | gold_EST 0 | silver_EST 0 | bronze_EST = 1 | gold_POL 0 | silver_POL 0 | bronze_POL = 1 }} Women Numbers in brackets denotes number of victories in corresponding disciplines. Boldface denotes record number of victories. Individual (15 km) This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988 the distance was 10 km. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1984 |}} | | |- |1985 | | | |- |1986 | | | |- |1987 | | | |- |1988 | | | |- |1989 | | | |- |1990 | | | |- |1991 | |}} | |- |1993 | (3) | | |- |1995 | | | |- |1996 | | | |- |1997 | | | |- |1999 | | | |- |2000 | (2) | | |- |2001 | (2)}} | | |- |2003 | | | |- |2004 | | | |- |2005 | | | |- |2007 | | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | | | |- |2011 | | | |- |2012 | | | |- |2013 | (2) | | |- |2015 | | | |- |2016 | | | |- |2017 | | | |- |2019 | | | |- |2020 | | | |- |2021 | | |}} |- |2023 | (2) | | |- |2024 | | | |- |2025 | | | |} Medal table | gold_RUS 3 | silver_RUS 2 | bronze_RUS = 1 | gold_CZE 2 | silver_CZE 2 | bronze_CZE = 0 | gold_ITA 2 | silver_ITA 1 | bronze_ITA = 2 | gold_UKR 1 | silver_UKR 1 | bronze_UKR = 6 | gold_FRG 1 | silver_FRG 0 | bronze_FRG 1 | name_FRG | gold_CHN 0 | silver_CHN 2 | bronze_CHN = 0 | gold_BLR 0 | silver_BLR 1 | bronze_BLR = 1 | gold_CAN 0 | silver_CAN 1 | bronze_CAN = 0 | gold_SLO 0 | silver_SLO 1 | bronze_SLO = 0 | gold_BUL 0 | silver_BUL 0 | bronze_BUL = 3 | gold_FIN 0 | silver_FIN 0 | bronze_FIN = 2 }} Sprint (7.5 km) This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988 the distance was 5 km. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1984 | | | |- |1985 | | |}} |- |1986 | | | |- |1987 | | | |- |1988 | | | |- |1989 | | |}} |- |1990 | (2) | | |- |1991 |}} | | |- |1993 | | | |- |1995 | | | |- |1996 | | | |- |1997 | (2) | |}} |- |1999 | | | |- |2000 | | | |- |2001 | | | |- |2003 | | | |- |rowspan=2|2004 |rowspan=2| (2) |rowspan=2| | |- | |- |2005 | | | |- |2007 | | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | (2) | | |- |2011 | | | |- |2012 | (3) | | |- |2013 | | | |- |2015 | |}} | |- |2016 | | | |- |2017 | | | |- |2019 | |}} | |- |2020 | | | |- |2021 | (2) | | |- |2023 | | | |- |2024 | | | |- |2025 | | | |} Medal table | gold_RUS 2 | silver_RUS 4 | bronze_RUS = 3 | gold_UKR 1 | silver_UKR 2 | bronze_UKR = 5 | gold_CZE 1 | silver_CZE 0 | bronze_CZE = 2 | gold_SVK 1 | silver_SVK 0 | bronze_SVK = 1 | gold_CAN 1 | silver_CAN 0 | bronze_CAN = 0 | gold_FRG 1 | silver_FRG 0 | bronze_FRG 0 | name_FRG | gold_SWE 0 | silver_SWE 4 | bronze_SWE = 4 | gold_BLR 0 | silver_BLR 1 | bronze_BLR = 3 | gold_FIN 0 | silver_FIN 1 | bronze_FIN = 1 | gold_BUL 0 | silver_BUL 1 | bronze_BUL = 0 | gold_POL 0 | silver_POL 1 | bronze_POL = 0 | gold_USA 0 | silver_USA 1 | bronze_USA = 0 | gold_AUT 0 | silver_AUT 0 | bronze_AUT = 1 }} Pursuit (10 km) This event was first held in 1997. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1997 | | | |- |1998 | | | |- |1999 | |}} | |- |2000 | (3)}} | |}} |- |2001 | | | |- |rowspan=2|2003 | |rowspan=2|None awarded |rowspan=2| |- | |- |- |2004 | (2) | | |- |2005 | | | |- |2007 | | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | | | |- |2011 | | | |- |2012 | | | |- |2013 | | | |- |2015 | | |}} |- |2016 | | | |- |2017 | (2) | | |- |2019 | | | |- |2020 | | | |- |2021 | | | |- |2023 | | |}} |- |2024 | (2) | | |- |2025 | | | |} Medal table Mass start (12.5 km) This event was first held in 1999. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1999 | | |}} |- |2000 | | | |- |2001 | | | |- |2002 | (2) | | |- |2003 | | | |- |2004 | (2) | | |- |2005 |}} | | |- |2007 | | | |- |2008 | | | |- |2009 | | | |- |2011 | (2) | | |- |2012 | | | |- |2013 | | | |- |2015 | | | |- |2016 | | | |- |2017 | | | |- |2019 | | | |- |2020 | | | |- |2021 | | | |- |2023 | |}} | |- |2024 | | | |- |2025 | | | |} Medal table Relay (4 × 6 km) This event was first held in 1984. Through 1988, the event was 3 × 5 km. 1989–91: 3 × 7.5 km. 1993–2001: 4 × 7.5 km. In 2003, the leg distance was set to 6 km. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1984 ||Venera Chernyshova|Liudmila Zabolotnaya|Kaija Parve}} ||Sanna Grønlid|Gry Østvik|Siv Bråten}} ||Holly Beatie|Julie Newman|Kari Swenson}} |- |1985 ||Venera Chernyshova|Elena Golovina|Kaija Parve}} ||Sanna Grønlid|Gry Østvik|Siv Bråten}} ||Pirjo Mattila|Tuija Vuoksiala|Teija Nieminen}} |- |1986 ||Kaija Parve|Nadiya Billova|Venera Chernyshova}} ||Eva Korpela|Inger Björkbom|Sabine Karlsson}} ||Sanna Grønlid|Siv Bråten|Anne Elvebakk}} |- |1987 ||Elena Golovina|Venera Chernyshova|Kaija Parve}} ||Inger Björkbom|Mia Stadig|Eva Korpela}} ||Anne Elvebakk|Sanna Grønlid|Siv Bråten Lunde}} |- |1988 ||Venera Chernyshova (5)|Elena Golovina|Kaija Parve (5)}} ||Elin Kristiansen|Anne Elvebakk|Mona Bollerud}} ||Eva Korpela|Inger Björkbom|Sabine Karlsson}} |- |1989 ||Natalia Prikazchikova|Svetlana Davidova|Elena Golovina}} ||Zvetana Krasteva|Maria Manolova|Nadezhda Aleksieva}} ||Eva Burešová|Renata Novotná|Jiřína Adamičková}} |- |1990 ||Elena Batsevich|Elena Golovina|Svetlana Davidova}} ||Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo|Anne Elvebakk|Elin Kristiansen}} ||Tuija Vuoksiala|Seija Hyytiäinen|Pirjo Mattila}} |- |1991 ||Elena Belova|Elena Golovina (6)|Svetlana Davidova (3)}} ||Grete Ingeborg Nykkelmo|Anne Elvebakk|Elin Kristiansen}} ||Uschi Disl|Kerstin Moring|Antje Misersky}} |- |1993 ||Jana Kulhavá|Jiřína Adamičková|Iveta Knížková|Eva Háková}} ||Corinne Niogret|Véronique Claudel|Delphyne Heymann|Anne Briand}} ||Svetlana Paniutina|Nadezhda Talanova|Olga Simushina|Elena Belova}} |- |1995 ||Uschi Disl|Antje Harvey|Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Petra Schaaf}} ||Corinne Niogret|Véronique Claudel|Florence Baverel|Anne Briand}} ||Ann-Elen Skjelbreid|Hildegunn Fossen|Annette Sikveland|Gunn Margit Andreassen}} |- |1996 ||Uschi Disl|Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Katrin Apel|Petra Behle}} ||Corinne Niogret|Florence Baverel|Emmanuelle Claret|Anne Briand}} ||Tetyana Vodopyanova|Valentina Tserbe-Nessina|Olena Petrova|Olena Zubrilova}} |- |1997 ||Uschi Disl|Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Katrin Apel|Petra Behle (3)}} ||Ann-Elen Skjelbreid|Annette Sikveland|Liv Grete Skjelbreid|Gunn Margit Andreassen}} ||Olga Melnik|Galina Kukleva|Nadezhda Talanova|Olga Romasko}} |- |1999 ||Uschi Disl (4)||Katrin Apel (3)|Martina Zellner}} ||Nadezhda Talanova|Galina Kukleva|Olga Romasko|Albina Akhatova}} ||Delphyne Heymann-Burlet|Florence Baverel|Christelle Gros|Corinne Niogret}} |- |2000 ||Olga Pyleva|Svetlana Tchernousova|Galina Kukleva|Albina Akhatova}} ||Uschi Disl|Katrin Apel|Andrea Henkel|Martina Zellner}} ||Olena Zubrilova|Olena Petrova|Nina Lemesh|Tetyana Vodopyanova}} |- |2001 ||Olga Pyleva|Anna Bogaliy|Galina Kukleva|Svetlana Ishmouratova}} ||Uschi Disl|Katrin Apel|Andrea Henkel|Kati Wilhelm}} ||Olena Zubrilova|Olena Petrova|Nina Lemesh|Tetyana Vodopyanova}} |- |2003 ||Albina Akhatova (2)|Svetlana Ishmouratova|Galina Kukleva (3)|Svetlana Tchernousova (2)}} ||Oksana Khvostenko|Iryna Merkushina|Oksana Yakovleva|Olena Petrova}} ||Simone Denkinger|Uschi Disl|Kati Wilhelm|Martina Glagow}} |- |2004 ||Linda Tjørhom|Gro Marit Istad Kristiansen|Gunn Margit Andreassen|Liv Grete Poirée}} ||Olga Pyleva|Svetlana Ishmouratova|Anna Bogaliy|Albina Akhatova}} ||Martina Glagow|Katrin Apel|Simone Denkinger|Kati Wilhelm}} |- |2005 ||Olga Pyleva|Svetlana Ishmouratova (3)|Anna Bogaliy-Titovets (2)|Olga Zaitseva}} ||Uschi Disl|Katrin Apel|Andrea Henkel|Kati Wilhelm}} ||Ekaterina Ivanova|Olga Nazarova|Liudmilla Ananko|Olena Zubrilova}} |- |2007 ||Martina Glagow|Andrea Henkel|Magdalena Neuner|Kati Wilhelm}} ||Florence Baverel-Robert|Delphyne Peretto|Sylvie Becaert|Sandrine Bailly}} ||Tora Berger|Ann Kristin Aafedt Flatland|Jori Mørkve|Linda Grubben}} |- |2008 ||Martina Glagow (2)|Andrea Henkel|Magdalena Neuner|Kati Wilhelm (2)}} ||Oksana Yakovleva|Vita Semerenko|Valentyna Semerenko|Oksana Khvostenko}} ||Delphine Peretto|Marie-Laure Brunet|Sylvie Becaert|Sandrine Bailly}} |- |2009 ||Svetlana Sleptsova|Anna Boulygina|Olga Medvedtseva (4)|Olga Zaitseva (2)}} ||Martina Beck|Magdalena Neuner|Andrea Henkel|Kati Wilhelm}} ||Marie-Laure Brunet|Sylvie Becaert|Marie Dorin|Sandrine Bailly}} |- |2011 ||Andrea Henkel|Miriam Gössner|Tina Bachmann|Magdalena Neuner}} ||Anaïs Bescond|Marie-Laure Brunet|Sophie Boilley|Marie Dorin}} ||Nadezhda Skardino|Darya Domracheva|Nadzeya Pisareva|Liudmila Kalinchik}} |- |2012 ||Tina Bachmann (2)|Magdalena Neuner (4)|Miriam Gössner (2)|Andrea Henkel (4)}} ||Marie-Laure Brunet|Sophie Boilley|Anaïs Bescond|Marie Dorin}} ||Fanny Welle-Strand Horn|Elise Ringen|Synnøve Solemdal|Tora Berger}} |- |2013 ||Hilde Fenne|Ann Kristin Aafedt Flatland|Synnøve Solemdal|Tora Berger}} ||Yuliia Dzhima|Vita Semerenko|Valentyna Semerenko|Olena Pidhrushna}} ||Dorothea Wierer|Nicole Gontier|Michela Ponza|Karin Oberhofer}} |- |2015 ||Franziska Hildebrand|Franziska Preuß|Vanessa Hinz|Laura Dahlmeier}} ||Anaïs Bescond|Enora Latuillière|Justine Braisaz|Marie Dorin Habert}} ||Lisa Vittozzi|Karin Oberhofer|Nicole Gontier|Dorothea Wierer}} |- |2016 ||Synnøve Solemdal|Fanny Horn Birkeland|Tiril Eckhoff|Marte Olsbu}} ||Justine Braisaz|Anaïs Bescond|Anaïs Chevalier|Marie Dorin Habert}} ||Franziska Preuß|Franziska Hildebrand|Maren Hammerschmidt|Laura Dahlmeier}} |- |2017 ||Vanessa Hinz (2)|Maren Hammerschmidt|Franziska Hildebrand (2)|Laura Dahlmeier (2)}} ||Iryna Varvynets|Yuliia Dzhima|Anastasiya Merkushyna|Olena Pidhrushna}} ||Anaïs Chevalier|Célia Aymonier|Justine Braisaz|Marie Dorin Habert}} |- |2019 ||Synnøve Solemdal|Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold|Tiril Eckhoff|Marte Olsbu Røiseland}} ||Linn Persson|Mona Brorsson|Anna Magnusson|Hanna Öberg}} ||Anastasiya Merkushyna|Vita Semerenko|Yuliia Dzhima|Valentyna Semerenko}} |- |2020 ||Synnøve Solemdal (4)|Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold|Tiril Eckhoff|Marte Olsbu Røiseland}} ||Karolin Horchler|Vanessa Hinz|Franziska Preuß|Denise Herrmann}} ||Anastasiya Merkushyna|Yuliia Dzhima|Vita Semerenko|Olena Pidhrushna}} |- |2021 ||Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold (3)|Tiril Eckhoff (4)|Ida Lien|Marte Olsbu Røiseland (4)}} ||Vanessa Hinz|Janina Hettich|Denise Herrmann|Franziska Preuß}} ||Anastasiya Merkushyna|Yuliia Dzhima|Darya Blashko|Olena Pidhrushna}} |- |2023 ||Samuela Comola|Dorothea Wierer|Hannah Auchentaller|Lisa Vittozzi}} ||Vanessa Voigt|Hanna Kebinger|Sophia Schneider|Denise Herrmann-Wick}} ||Linn Persson|Anna Magnusson|Elvira Öberg|Hanna Öberg}} |- |2024 ||Lou Jeanmonnot|Sophie Chauveau|Justine Braisaz-Bouchet|Julia Simon}} ||Anna Magnusson|Linn Persson|Hanna Öberg|Elvira Öberg}} ||Janina Hettich-Walz|Selina Grotian|Vanessa Voigt|Sophia Schneider}} |- |2025 ||Lou Jeanmonnot (2)|Océane Michelon|Justine Braisaz-Bouchet (2)|Julia Simon (2)}} ||Karoline Offigstad Knotten|Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold|Ragnhild Femsteinevik|Maren Kirkeeide}} ||Anna Magnusson|Ella Halvarsson|Hanna Öberg|Elvira Öberg}} |} Medal table | gold_NOR 6 | silver_NOR 7 | bronze_NOR = 5 | gold_RUS 5 | silver_RUS 2 | bronze_RUS = 2 | gold_FRA 2 | silver_FRA 8 | bronze_FRA = 4 | gold_ITA 1 | silver_ITA 0 | bronze_ITA = 2 | gold_CZE 1 | silver_CZE 0 | bronze_CZE = 0 | gold_UKR 0 | silver_UKR 4 | bronze_UKR = 6 | gold_SWE 0 | silver_SWE 4 | bronze_SWE = 3 | gold_BUL 0 | silver_BUL 1 | bronze_BUL = 0 | gold_BLR 0 | silver_BLR 0 | bronze_BLR = 2 | gold_FIN 0 | silver_FIN 0 | bronze_FIN = 2 | gold_TCH 0 | silver_TCH 0 | bronze_TCH 1 | name_TCH | gold_USA 0 | silver_USA 0 | bronze_USA = 1 }} Team This event, a patrol race, was held from 1989 to 1998. 1989–93: 15 km. 1994–98: 7.5 km. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |1989 ||Natalia Prikazchikova|Svetlana Davidova|Luiza Cherepanova|Elena Golovina}} ||Synnøve Thoresen|Elin Kristiansen|Anne Elvebakk|Mona Bollerud}} ||Inga Kesper|Daniela Hörburger|Dorina Pieper|Petra Schaaf}} |- |1990 ||Elena Batsevich|Elena Golovina|Svetlana Paramygina|Svetlana Davidova}} ||Irene Schroll|Daniela Hörburger|Inga Kesper|Petra Schaaf}} ||Nadezda Aleksieva|Iva Schkodreva|Maria Manolova|Zvetana Krasteva}} |- |1991 ||Elena Belova|Elena Golovina (3)|Svetlana Paramygina|Svetlana Davidova (3)}} ||Maria Manolova|Silvana Blogoeva|Nadezda Aleksieva|Iva Schkodreva}} ||Synnøve Thoresen|Signe Trosten|Hildegunn Fossen|Unni Kristiansen}} |- |1992 ||Petra Bauer|Uschi Disl|Inga Kesper|Petra Schaaf}} ||Elena Belova|Inna Sheshkil|Anfisa Reztsova|Svetlana Petcherskaia}} ||Gabriela Suvová|Eva Háková|Jana Kulhavá|Jiřína Adamičková}} |- |1993 ||Nathalie Beausire|Delphyne Heymann|Anne Briand|Corinne Niogret}} ||Natalia Permiakova|Natalia Sulzheva|Natalia Ryzhenkova|Svetlana Paramygina}} ||Zofia Kiełpińska|Krystyna Liberda|Anna Stera|Helena Mikołajczyk}} |- |1994 ||Natalia Permiakova|Natalia Ryzhenkova|Irina Kokoueva|Svetlana Paramygina (3)}} ||Ann-Elen Skjelbreid|Åse Idland|Annette Sikveland|Hildegunn Fossen}} ||Emmanuelle Claret|Nathalie Beausire|Corinne Niogret|Véronique Claudel}} |- |1995 ||Elin Kristiansen|Annette Sikveland|Gunn Margit Andreassen|Ann-Elen Skjelbreid}} ||Kathy Schwaab|Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Uschi Disl|Petra Behle}} ||Emmanuelle Claret|Véronique Claudel|Anne Briand|Corinne Niogret}} |- |1996 ||Katrin Apel|Simone Greiner-Petter-Memm|Petra Behle (2)|Uschi Disl (2)}} ||Nina Lemesh|Olena Petrova|Tetyana Vodopyanova|Olena Zubrilova}} ||Emmanuelle Claret|Anne Briand|Florence Baverel|Corinne Niogret}} |- |1997 ||Annette Sikveland (2)|Ann-Elen Skjelbreid (2)|Liv Grete Skjelbreid|Gunn Margit Andreassen (2)}} ||Olga Romasko|Anna Volkova|Nadezhda Talanova|Olga Melnik}} ||Olena Petrova|Olena Zubrilova|Valentina Tserbe-Nessina|Tetyana Vodopyanova}} |- |1998 ||Anna Volkova|Olga Romasko|Svetlana Ishmouratova|Albina Akhatova}} ||Hildegunn Mikkelsplass|Annette Sikveland|Ann-Elen Skjelbreid|Liv Grete Skjelbreid}} ||Katja Holanti|Tiina Mikkola|Mari Lampinen|Sanna-Leena Perunka}} |} Medal table | gold_NOR 2 | silver_NOR 3 | bronze_NOR = 1 | gold_GER 2 | silver_GER 1 | bronze_GER = 0 | gold_BLR 1 | silver_BLR 1 | bronze_BLR = 0 | gold_RUS 1 | silver_RUS 1 | bronze_RUS = 0 | gold_FRA 1 | silver_FRA 0 | bronze_FRA = 3 | gold_BUL 0 | silver_BUL 1 | bronze_BUL = 1 | gold_UKR 0 | silver_UKR 1 | bronze_UKR = 1 | gold_FRG 0 | silver_FRG 1 | bronze_FRG 1 | name_FRG | gold_CIS 0 | silver_CIS 1 | bronze_CIS 0 | name_CIS | gold_TCH 0 | silver_TCH 0 | bronze_TCH 1 | name_TCH | gold_FIN 0 | silver_FIN 0 | bronze_FIN = 1 | gold_POL 0 | silver_POL 0 | bronze_POL = 1 }} Mixed Numbers in brackets denotes number of victories in corresponding disciplines. Boldface denotes record number of victories. Mixed relay This event was first held in 2005, at the Biathlon World Cup finals in Khanty-Mansiysk. In 2005–20, the women biathletes did the first two legs and the men did the following two (except 2006 when sequence was woman–man–woman–man), the women's ski legs were 6 km each while men ski legs were 7.5 km each (except 2005, 2006 and 2020 when ski legs were 6 km each for all relay members). In 2021, the starting gender became the result of an alternation: for the first time, men opened the relay and women closed it. Since then, this sequence alternates for each following edition. The distance skied became the same for all genders and depending on the one running the first leg (7.5 km if men run first, 6 km if women do), but in 2024 it became 6 km for every relay member no matter who runs first leg. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |2005 ||Olga Pyleva|Svetlana Ishmouratova|Ivan Tcherezov|Nikolay Kruglov Jr.}} ||Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Olga Zaitseva|Sergei Tchepikov|Sergei Rozhkov}} ||Uschi Disl|Kati Wilhelm|Michael Greis|Ricco Groß}} |- |2006 ||Anna Bogaliy-Titovets|Sergei Tchepikov|Irina Malgina|Nikolay Kruglov Jr. (2)}} ||Linda Tjørhom|Halvard Hanevold|Tora Berger|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Florence Baverel-Robert|Vincent Defrasne|Sandrine Bailly|Raphaël Poirée}} |- |2007 ||Helena Jonsson|Anna Carin Olofsson|Björn Ferry|Carl Johan Bergman}} ||Florence Baverel-Robert|Sandrine Bailly|Vincent Defrasne|Raphaël Poirée}} ||Tora Berger|Jori Mørkve|Emil Hegle Svendsen|Frode Andresen}} |- |2008 ||Sabrina Buchholz|Magdalena Neuner|Andreas Birnbacher|Michael Greis}} ||Liudmila Kalinchik|Darya Domracheva|Rustam Valiullin|Sergey Novikov}} ||Svetlana Sleptsova|Oksana Neupokoeva|Nikolay Kruglov Jr.|Dmitri Yaroshenko}} |- |2009 ||Marie-Laure Brunet|Sylvie Becaert|Vincent Defrasne|Simon Fourcade}} ||Helena Jonsson|Anna Carin Olofsson-Zidek|David Ekholm|Carl Johan Bergman}} ||Andrea Henkel|Simone Hauswald|Arnd Peiffer|Michael Greis}} |- |2010 ||Simone Hauswald|Magdalena Neuner (2)|Simon Schempp|Arnd Peiffer}} ||Ann Kristin Aafedt Flatland|Tora Berger|Emil Hegle Svendsen|Ole Einar Bjørndalen}} ||Helena Jonsson|Anna Carin Olofsson-Zidek|Björn Ferry|Carl Johan Bergman}} |- |2011 ||Tora Berger|Ann Kristin Aafedt Flatland|Ole Einar Bjørndalen|Tarjei Bø}} ||Andrea Henkel|Magdalena Neuner|Arnd Peiffer|Michael Greis}} ||Marie-Laure Brunet|Marie Dorin|Alexis Bœuf|Martin Fourcade}} |- |2012 ||Tora Berger|Synnøve Solemdal|Ole Einar Bjørndalen (2)|Emil Hegle Svendsen}} ||Andreja Mali|Teja Gregorin|Klemen Bauer|Jakov Fak}} ||Andrea Henkel|Magdalena Neuner|Andreas Birnbacher|Arnd Peiffer}} |- |2013 ||Tora Berger (3)|Synnøve Solemdal (2)|Tarjei Bø|Emil Hegle Svendsen (2)}} ||Marie-Laure Brunet|Marie Dorin Habert|Alexis Bœuf|Martin Fourcade}} ||Veronika Vítková|Gabriela Soukalová|Jaroslav Soukup|Ondřej Moravec}} |- |2015 ||Veronika Vítková|Gabriela Soukalová|Michal Šlesingr|Ondřej Moravec}} ||Anaïs Bescond|Marie Dorin Habert|Jean-Guillaume Béatrix|Martin Fourcade}} ||Fanny Welle-Strand Horn|Tiril Eckhoff|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Tarjei Bø}} |- |2016 ||Anaïs Bescond|Marie Dorin Habert|Quentin Fillon Maillet|Martin Fourcade}} ||Franziska Preuß|Franziska Hildebrand|Arnd Peiffer|Simon Schempp}} ||Marte Olsbu|Tiril Eckhoff|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Tarjei Bø}} |- |2017 ||Vanessa Hinz|Laura Dahlmeier|Arnd Peiffer (2)|Simon Schempp (2)}} ||Anaïs Chevalier|Marie Dorin Habert|Quentin Fillon Maillet|Martin Fourcade}} ||Olga Podchufarova|Tatiana Akimova|Alexander Loginov|Anton Shipulin}} |- |2019 ||Marte Olsbu Røiseland|Tiril Eckhoff|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Vetle Sjåstad Christiansen}} ||Vanessa Hinz|Denise Herrmann|Arnd Peiffer|Benedikt Doll}} ||Lisa Vittozzi|Dorothea Wierer|Lukas Hofer|Dominik Windisch}} |- |2020 ||Marte Olsbu Røiseland|Tiril Eckhoff|Tarjei Bø (3)|Johannes Thingnes Bø}} ||Lisa Vittozzi|Dorothea Wierer|Lukas Hofer|Dominik Windisch}} ||Eva Kristejn Puskarčíková|Markéta Davidová|Ondřej Moravec|Michal Krčmář}} |- |2021 ||Sturla Holm Lægreid|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Tiril Eckhoff (3)|Marte Olsbu Røiseland}} ||David Komatz|Simon Eder|Dunja Zdouc|Lisa Theresa Hauser}} ||Sebastian Samuelsson|Martin Ponsiluoma|Linn Persson|Hanna Öberg}} |- |2023 ||Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold|Marte Olsbu Røiseland (4)|Sturla Holm Lægreid (2)|Johannes Thingnes Bø (4)}} ||Lisa Vittozzi|Dorothea Wierer|Didier Bionaz|Tommaso Giacomel}} ||Julia Simon|Anaïs Chevalier-Bouchet|Émilien Jacquelin|Quentin Fillon Maillet}} |- |2024 ||Éric Perrot|Quentin Fillon Maillet (2)|Justine Braisaz-Bouchet|Julia Simon}} ||Tarjei Bø|Johannes Thingnes Bø|Karoline Offigstad Knotten|Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold}} ||Sebastian Samuelsson|Martin Ponsiluoma|Hanna Öberg|Elvira Öberg}} |- |2025 ||Julia Simon (2)|Lou Jeanmonnot|Éric Perrot (2)|Émilien Jacquelin}} ||Jessica Jislová|Tereza Voborníková|Vítězslav Hornig|Michal Krčmář}} ||Selina Grotian|Franziska Preuß|Philipp Nawrath|Justus Strelow}} |} Medal table Single mixed relay This event was first held in 2019. Each team consists of two members - man and woman. The first of the team members runs the first and third legs (3 km each), the other team member – the second and fourth legs (3 km and 4.5 km respectively). In 2019 and 2020 the women biathletes started single mixed relay and the men biathletes finished it, in 2021 this order was reversed. Since then, this order alternates for each following edition. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:800px;" |- ! style="width:10%; background:#efefef;" | Season ! style="width:30%; background:gold" |Winner ! style="width:30%; background:silver" |Runner-up ! style="width:30%; background:#CC9966"|Third |- |2019 ||Marte Olsbu Røiseland|Johannes Thingnes Bø}} ||Dorothea Wierer|Lukas Hofer}} ||Hanna Öberg|Sebastian Samuelsson}} |- |2020 ||Marte Olsbu Røiseland |Johannes Thingnes Bø}} ||Franziska Preuß|Erik Lesser}} ||Anaïs Bescond|Émilien Jacquelin}} |- |2021 ||Antonin Guigonnat|Julia Simon}} ||Johannes Thingnes Bø|Tiril Eckhoff}} ||Sebastian Samuelsson|Hanna Öberg}} |- |2023 ||Marte Olsbu Røiseland (3)|Johannes Thingnes Bø (3)}} ||Lisa Theresa Hauser|David Komatz}} ||Lisa Vittozzi|Tommaso Giacomel}} |- |2024 ||Quentin Fillon Maillet|Lou Jeanmonnot}} ||Tommaso Giacomel|Lisa Vittozzi}} ||Johannes Thingnes Bø|Ingrid Landmark Tandrevold}} |- |2025 ||Julia Simon|Quentin Fillon Maillet (2)}} ||Ragnhild Femsteinevik|Johannes Thingnes Bø}} ||Franziska Preuß|Justus Strelow}} |} Medal table Total medals by country Updated after the 2025 Championships. | gold_RUS 28 | silver_RUS 41 | bronze_RUS = 28 | gold_SWE 19 | silver_SWE 21 | bronze_SWE = 32 | gold_GDR 19 | silver_GDR 12 | bronze_GDR 10 | name_GDR | gold_ITA 12 | silver_ITA 13 | bronze_ITA = 15 | gold_FIN 10 | silver_FIN 10 | bronze_FIN = 17 | gold_UKR 7 | silver_UKR 10 | bronze_UKR = 22 | gold_BLR 6 | silver_BLR 9 | bronze_BLR = 14 | gold_CZE 6 | silver_CZE 7 | bronze_CZE = 9 | gold_AUT 3 | silver_AUT 8 | bronze_AUT = 11 | gold_FRG 2 | silver_FRG 4 | bronze_FRG 7 | name_FRG | gold_SLO 2 | silver_SLO 2 | bronze_SLO = 1 | gold_POL 1 | silver_POL 6 | bronze_POL = 7 | gold_USA 1 | silver_USA 6 | bronze_USA = 1 | gold_CAN 1 | silver_CAN 2 | bronze_CAN = 1 | gold_SVK 1 | silver_SVK 2 | bronze_SVK = 1 | gold_CIS 1 | silver_CIS 1 | bronze_CIS 0 | name_CIS | gold_BUL 0 | silver_BUL 4 | bronze_BUL = 4 | gold_CHN 0 | silver_CHN 3 | bronze_CHN = 0 | gold_TCH 0 | silver_TCH 1 | bronze_TCH 3 | name_TCH | gold_LAT 0 | silver_LAT 1 | bronze_LAT = 2 | gold_ROU 0 | silver_ROU 1 | bronze_ROU = 0 | gold_CRO 0 | silver_CRO 0 | bronze_CRO = 1 | gold_EST 0 | silver_EST 0 | bronze_EST = 1 | gold_RBU 0 | silver_RBU 0 | bronze_RBU 1 | name_RBURussian Biathlon Union }} Multiple medalists Boldface denotes active biathletes and highest medal count among all biathletes (including these who not included in these tables) per type. Men All events {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" width80% style="text-align:center;" |- style="background-color:#EDEDED;" ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:1em" | Rank ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Biathlete ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Country ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | From ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | To ! style="background: gold; width:8%" | Gold ! style="background: silver; width:8%" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966; width:8%" | Bronze ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:8%" |Total |- | 1 || align"left" | Johannes Thingnes Bø || align"left" | || 2015 || 2025 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 23 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 14 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 6 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 43 |-align="center" | 2 || align"left" | Ole Einar Bjørndalen || align"left" | || 1997 || 2017 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 20 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 14 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 11 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 45 |-align="center" | 3 || align"left" | Martin Fourcade || align"left" | || 2011 || 2020 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 13 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 10 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 5 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 28 |-align="center" | 4 || align"left" | Tarjei Bø || align"left" | || 2011 || 2025 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 12 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 7 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 9 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 28 |-align="center" | 5 || align"left" | Emil Hegle Svendsen || align"left" | || 2007 || 2016 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 12 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 6 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 21 |-align="center" | 6 || align"left" | Frank Luck || align"left" | <br> || 1989 || 2004 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 11 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 5 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 4 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 20 |-align="center" | 7 || align"left" | Alexander Tikhonov || align"left" | || 1967 || 1979 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 11 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 17 |-align="center" | 8 || align"left" | Ricco Groß || align"left" | || 1991 || 2007 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 9 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 5 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 6 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 20 |-align="center" | 9 || align"left" | Frank Ullrich || align"left" | || 1977 || 1983 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 9 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 14 |-align="center" | 10 || align"left" | Raphaël Poirée || align"left" | || 1998 || 2007 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 8 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 7 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 18 |} Individual events {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" width80% style="text-align:center;" |- style="background-color:#EDEDED;" ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:1em" | Rank ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Biathlete ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Country ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | From ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | To ! style="background: gold; width:8%" | Gold ! style="background: silver; width:8%" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966; width:8%" | Bronze ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:8%" |Total |- | 1 || align"left" | Johannes Thingnes Bø || align"left" | || 2015 || 2025 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 12 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 7 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 22 |-align="center" | 2 || align"left" | Ole Einar Bjørndalen || align"left" | || 1997 || 2017 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 11 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 6 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 9 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 26 |-align="center" | 3 || align"left" | Martin Fourcade || align"left" | || 2011 || 2020 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 11 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 18 |-align="center" | 4 || align"left" | Raphaël Poirée || align"left" | || 1998 || 2007 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 7 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 5 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 14 |-align="center" | 5 || align"left" | Emil Hegle Svendsen || align"left" | || 2008 || 2016 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 5 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 10 |-align="center" | 6 || align"left" | Frank Ullrich || align"left" | || 1978 || 1983 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 5 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | – || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" | 7 || align"left" | Alexander Tikhonov || align"left" | || 1969 || 1979 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 5 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" | 8 || align"left" | Ricco Groß || align"left" | || 1995 || 2005 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 10 |-align="center" | 9 || align"left" | Mark Kirchner || align"left" | <br> || 1990 || 1993 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | – || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | – || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 4 |-align="center" | 10 || align"left" | Eirik Kvalfoss || align"left" | || 1982 || 1991 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 3 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 9 |} Women All events {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" width80% style="text-align:center;" |- style="background-color:#EDEDED;" ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:1em" | Rank ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Biathlete ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Country ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | From ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | To ! style="background: gold; width:8%" | Gold ! style="background: silver; width:8%" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966; width:8%" | Bronze ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:8%" |Total |- | 1 || align"left" | Marte Olsbu Røiseland || align"left" | || 2016 || 2023 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 13 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | – || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 4 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 17 |-align="center" | 2 || align"left" | Magdalena Neuner || align"left" | || 2007 || 2012 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 12 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 17 |-align="center" | 3 || align"left" | Tiril Eckhoff || align"left" | || 2015 || 2021 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 10 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 15 |-align="center" | 4 || align"left" | Elena Golovina || align"left" | || 1985 || 1991 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 10 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 12 |-align="center" | 5 || align"left" | Julia Simon || align"left" | || 2021 || 2025 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 10 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | – || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 13 |-align="center" | 6 || align"left" | Petra Behle (Schaaf) || align"left" | <BR> || 1988 || 1997 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 9 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 13 |-align="center" | 7 || align"left" | Uschi Disl || align"left" | || 1991 || 2005 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 8 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 8 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 19 |-align="center" | 8 || align"left" | Andrea Henkel || align"left" | || 2000 || 2013 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 8 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 6 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 16 |-align="center" | 9 || align"left" | Tora Berger || align"left" | || 2006 || 2013 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 8 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 5 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 5 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 18 |-align="center" | 10 || align"left" | Liv Grete Poirée (Skjelbreid) || align"left" | || 1997 || 2004 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 8 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 13 |} Individual events {| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" width80% style="text-align:center;" |- style="background-color:#EDEDED;" ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:1em" | Rank ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Biathlete ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | Country ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | From ! class="hintergrundfarbe5" | To ! style="background: gold; width:8%" | Gold ! style="background: silver; width:8%" | Silver ! style="background: #CC9966; width:8%" | Bronze ! class"hintergrundfarbe5" style"width:8%" |Total |- | 1 || align"left" | Magdalena Neuner || align"left" | || 2007 || 2012 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 6 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 2 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | – || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 8 |-align="center" | 2 || align"left" | Magdalena Forsberg (Wallin) || align"left" | || 1996 || 2001 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 6 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 5 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 12 |-align="center" | 3 || align"left" | Liv Grete Poirée (Skjelbreid) || align"left" | || 2000 || 2004 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 6 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 9 |-align="center" | 4 || align"left" | Olena Zubrilova || align"left" | <BR> || 1997 || 2005 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 4 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 3 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 11 |-align="center" | 5 || align"left" | Laura Dahlmeier || align"left" | || 2015 || 2019 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 4 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 11 |-align="center" | 6 || align"left" | Tora Berger || align"left" | || 2008 || 2013 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 3 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 9 |-align="center" | 7 || align"left" | Marie Dorin Habert || align"left" | || 2015 || 2016 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 6 |-align="center" | 8 || align"left" | Andrea Henkel || align"left" | || 2005 || 2013 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | 1 || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | – || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 5 |-align="center" | 9 || align"left" | Julia Simon || align"left" | || 2023 || 2025 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | – || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 2 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 6 |-align="center" | 10 || align"left" | Petra Schaaf || align"left" | <BR> || 1988 || 1993 || bgcolor"#F7F6A8" | 4 || bgcolor"#DCE5E5" | – || bgcolor"#FFDAB9" | 1 || bgcolor"#E7FAEC" | 5 |} See also * Biathlon World Cup * Summer Biathlon World Championships * Biathlon Junior World Championships * List of Olympic medalists in biathlon References External links *[http://sports123.com/bia/index.html Sports 123 biathlon results] * Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1958
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biathlon_World_Championships
2025-04-05T18:27:03.494460
5040
Inedia
right|thumb|250px|1669 report that claims a woman fasted for 12 months Inedia (Latin for 'fasting') or breatharianism ( ) is the claimed ability for a person to live without consuming food, and in some cases water. It is a pseudoscientific practice, and several adherents of these practices have died from starvation or dehydration. Scientific assessment Documented studies on the physiological effects of food restriction clearly show that fasting for extended periods leads to starvation, dehydration, and eventual death. In the absence of food intake, the body normally burns its own reserves of glycogen, body fat, and muscle. Breatharians claim that their bodies do not consume these reserves while fasting. Some breatharians have submitted themselves to medical testing, including a hospital's observation of Indian mystic Prahlad Jani appearing to survive without food or water for 15 days. However, the hospital Jani attended has not published official documentation about the event. In other cases, people have attempted to survive on sunlight alone, only to abandon the effort after losing a large percentage of their body weight. In a handful of documented cases, individuals attempting breatharian fasting have died. Alleged practitioners Rosicrucianism The 1670 Rosicrucian text Comte de Gabalis attributed the practice to the physician and occultist Paracelsus (1493–1541) who was described as having lived "several years by taking only one-half scrupule of Solar Quintessence". In this book, it is also stated that "Paracelsus affirms that He has seen many of the Sages fast twenty years without eating anything whatsoever." Ram Bahadur Bomjon ("Bakji") Ram Bahadur Bomjon is a Nepalese Buddhist monk who lives as an ascetic in a remote area of Nepal. Bomjon appears to go for long periods of time without ingesting either food or water. One such period was chronicled in a 2006 Discovery Channel documentary titled The Boy With Divine Powers, which reported that Bomjon neither moved, ate, nor drank anything during 96 hours of filming. The documentary makers were, however, prevented from filming Bomjon continuously for that period of time. His claims have never been objectively verified. Prahlad Jani ("Mataji") Prahlad Jani was an Indian sadhu who claimed to have lived without food and water for more than 70 years. Doctors at Sterling Hospital investigated his claims in Ahmedabad, Gujarat, in 2003 and 2010. The study concluded that Prahlad Jani was able to survive under observation for ten days without food and water, and had passed no urine or stool, with no need for dialysis. Interviews with the researchers speak of strict observation and relate that round-the-clock observation was ensured by multiple CCTV cameras. Jani was subjected to multiple medical tests. The research team could not comment on his claim of having been able to survive in this way for decades. The case has attracted criticism, both after the 2003 tests and the 2010 tests. Sanal Edamaruku, president of the Indian Rationalist Association, criticized the 2010 experiment for allowing Jani to move out of a certain CCTV camera's field of view, meet devotees, and leave the sealed test room to sunbathe. Edamaruku stated that the regular gargling and bathing activities were not sufficiently monitored and accused Jani of having had some "influential protectors" who denied Edamaruku permission to inspect the project during its operation. Jasmuheen Jasmuheen (born Ellen Greve) was a prominent advocate of breatharianism in the 1990s. She said, "I can go for months and months without having anything at all other than a cup of tea. My body runs on a different kind of nourishment." Interviewers found her house stocked with food; Jasmuheen claimed the food was for her husband and daughter. In 1999, she volunteered to be monitored closely by the Australian television program 60 Minutes for one week without eating to demonstrate her methods. Jasmuheen stated that she found it difficult on the third day of the test because the hotel room in which she was confined was located near a busy road, causing stress and pollution that prevented absorption of required nutrients from the air. "I asked for fresh air. Seventy per cent of my nutrients come from fresh air. I couldn’t even breathe," she said. On the third day, the test was moved to a mountainside retreat, where her condition continued to deteriorate. After Jasmuheen had fasted for four days, Berris Wink, president of the Queensland branch of the Australian Medical Association, urged her to stop the test. According to Wink, Jasmuheen's pupils were dilated, her speech was slow, and she was "quite dehydrated, probably over 10%, getting up to 11%". Towards the end of the test, she said, "Her pulse is about double what it was when she started. The risks if she goes any further are kidney failure. 60 Minutes would be culpable if they encouraged her to continue. She should stop now." The test was stopped. Wink said, "Unfortunately there are a few people who may believe what she says, and I'm sure it's only a few, but I think it's quite irresponsible for somebody to be trying to encourage others to do something that is so detrimental to their health." Jasmuheen was awarded the Bent Spoon Award by Australian Skeptics in 2000 ("presented to the perpetrator of the most preposterous piece of paranormal or pseudoscientific piffle"). She also won the 2000 Ig Nobel Prize for Literature for Living on Light. Jasmuheen claims that their beliefs are based on the writings and "more recent channelled material" from St. Germain. She stated that some people's DNA has expanded from 2 to 12 strands, to "absorb more hydrogen". When offered $30,000 to prove her claim with a blood test, she said that she did not understand the relevance as she was not referring to herself. , five deaths had been directly linked to breatharianism as a result of Jasmuheen's publications. Jasmuheen has denied any responsibility for three of the deaths. Wiley Brooks Wiley Brooks (1936–2016) was the founder of the Breatharian Institute of America. He was first introduced to the public in 1980 when he appeared on the TV show That's Incredible! Brooks stopped teaching shortly before his death in 2016 to "devote 100% of his time on solving the problem as to why he needed to eat some type of food to keep his physical body alive and allow his light body to manifest completely". Brooks claims to have found "four major deterrents" which prevented him from living without food: "people pollution", "food pollution", "air pollution", and "electro pollution". He told Colors magazine in 2003 that he periodically breaks his fasting with a cheeseburger and a cola, explaining that when he's surrounded by junk culture and junk food, consuming them adds balance. Brooks later claimed that "All McDonalds are constructed on properties that are protected by 5th Dimensional high energy/spiritual portals", encouraging the consumption of Diet Coke and McDonald's Double-Quarter-Pounder/with cheese meal ("It is also acceptable to combine 2 quarter-pounder with cheese burgers to make one double-quarter pounder if you can't get the double-quarter-pounder with cheese where you live"), and discouraging the consumption of "water of any kind". The idea of separate but interconnected 5D and 3D worlds was a major part of Brooks' ideology, and Brooks encouraged his followers to only eat these special 5D foods, as well as to meditate on a set of magical 5D words. Brooks's institute has set various prices for prospective clients wishing to learn how to live without food, ranging from US$100,000 with an initial deposit of $10,000, to fifty billion dollars, to be paid via bank wire transfer with a preliminary deposit of $100,000, for a session called an "Immortality workshop". A payment plan was also offered. These charges were typically presented as limited time offers exclusively for billionaires. Hira Ratan Manek Hira Ratan Manek (1937–2022) claimed that since 18 June 1995, he lived on water and occasionally tea, coffee, and buttermilk. Manek stated that sungazing was the key to his health, citing yogis, ancient Egyptians, Aztecs, Mayas, and Native Americans as practitioners of the art. While he and his proponents stated that medical experts confirmed his ability to draw sustenance by gazing at the Sun, a method which came to be known as "HRM phenomenon" (by his initials), he was caught on camera eating a big meal in a San Francisco restaurant in the 2011 documentary Eat the Sun. Ray Maor In a television documentary produced by the Israeli television investigative show The Real Face (פנים אמיתיות), hosted by Amnon Levy, Israeli practitioner of inedia Ray Maor (ריי מאור) appeared to survive without food or water for eight days and eight nights. According to the documentary, he was restricted to a small villa and placed under constant video surveillance, with medical supervision that included daily blood testing. The documentary claimed Maor was in good spirits throughout the experiment; that he lost after eight days; that blood tests showed no change before, during or after the experiment; and that cardiologist Ilan Kitsis from Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center was "baffled". Mythology and religion Hinduism Some Hindu religious texts contain accounts of saints and hermits practising what would be called inedia, breatharianism or Sustenance through Light in modern terms. In Valmiki's Ramayana, Book III, Canto VI, an account of anchorites and holy men is given, who flocked around Rama when he came to Śarabhanga's hermitage. These included, among others, the "...saints who live on rays which moon and daystar give" and "those ... whose food the wave of air supplies". In Canto XI of the same book, a hermit named Māṇḍakarṇi is mentioned: "For he, great votarist, intent – On strictest rule his stern life spent – ... – Ten thousand years on air he fed..." (English quotations are from Ralph T. H. Griffith's translation). Paramahansa Yogananda's 1946 book Autobiography of a Yogi details two alleged historical examples of breatharianism, Hari Giri Bala and Therese Neumann. There are claims that Devraha Baba lived without food. Some breatharians claim that humans can be sustained solely by prana, the vital life force in Hinduism. According to Ayurveda, sunlight is one of the main sources of prana, and some practitioners believe that it is possible for a person to survive on sunlight alone. Taoism Bigu (grain avoidance) is a fasting technique with various different interpretations, from simply avoiding eating specific grains, to avoiding all grains, to eating no food at all, and drawing sustenance from gulps of air. Jainism There are varying types of fasts practised by followers of Jainism. Some Jain monks and laities continuously fast for months. These fasts last six months or even longer. A Jain monk, Sahaj Muni Maharaj, is said to have completed his 365-day fast on 1 May 1998. Another Jain monk Hansaratna Vijayji was said to have completed 423-day fast in 494 days in 2015. He had previously claimed to have fasted for 108 days in 2013 and for 180 days in 2014. Several others have claimed to have fasted for six months. Works In the Beginning There Was Light, a 2010 Austrian documentary on breatharianism Inedia, a 2024 drama film directed by Liz Cairns See also Anorexia mirabilis, Middle Ages Fasting girls, Victorian Era Kumbhaka, Yoga List of diets Scientific skepticism Sungazing Starvation diet References External links A list of historical and contemporary breatharians Living on Light at Google Videos – episode of 60 Minutes (Jasmuheen's aborted experiment) Past Breatharian hoaxes in India Skeptic's Dictionary article on Breatharianism
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inedia
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Bihar (disambiguation)
Bihar is a state in India. Bihar may also refer to: Places India Bihar Province, former colonial province in British India Bihar Subah, a Bihar-based Mughal imperial province Bihar Sharif, headquarters of Nalanda district, Bihar, India Bihar Circuit, a Hindi film distribution circuit comprising Bihar, Jharkhand and Nepal Bihar River, a border river of Palamu district, Jharkhand, India Bihar, Unnao, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India Elsewhere Bihar County, a historic county of the Kingdom of Hungary Bihor County (Bihar County in Hungarian), a county of current-day Romania Bihar, the Hungarian name for Biharia Commune, Bihor County, Romania People Bihar (king), a khagan of the Khazars See also Behar (disambiguation), a portion in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading Bihar al-Anwar, a hadith compilation by Allamah Majlisi Bihari (disambiguation) Bihor (disambiguation) Hajdú-Bihar, a county in Hungary Cooch Behar (disambiguation), a district in West Bengal Cooch Behar State, a former princely state in India
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bihar_(disambiguation)
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Belfast
|Ulster Scots: }} | settlement_type = Capital city, district, and borough | image_skyline = | imagesize | image_alt | image_caption | image_flag | flag_alt | image_shield Coat of Arms of Belfast.png | shield_alt | shield_link Coat of arms of Belfast | image_blank_emblem | blank_emblem_size | blank_emblem_type | blank_emblem_link | etymology | nickname | motto | image_map | map_alt | map_caption | pushpin_map Northern Ireland#United Kingdom | pushpin_relief = yes | coordinates | subdivision_type = Sovereign state | subdivision_name = United Kingdom | subdivision_type1 = Country | subdivision_name1 = Northern Ireland | subdivision_type2 | subdivision_name2 | subdivision_type3 | subdivision_name3 | subdivision_type4 | subdivision_name4 | established_title = Incorporated | established_date = 1 April 2015 | established_title1 | established_date1 | named_for | seat_type AdministrativeHQ | seat = City Hall | government_footnotes | government_type = District council | governing_body = Belfast City Council | leader_title = Executive | leader_name = Committee system | leader_title1 = Control | leader_name1 | leader_title2 | leader_name2 | leader_title3 = MPs | leader_name3 | leader_title4 = MLAs | leader_name4 | area_footnotes | area_total_km2 | area_land_km2 | area_water_km2 | area_rank | population_footnotes First chartered as an English settlement in 1613, the town's early growth was driven by an influx of Scottish Presbyterians. Their descendants' disaffection with Ireland's Anglican establishment contributed to the rebellion of 1798, and to the union with Great Britain in 1800—later regarded as a key to the town's industrial transformation. When granted city status in 1888, Belfast was the world's largest centre of linen manufacture, and by the 1900s her shipyards were building up to a quarter of total United Kingdom tonnage. Sectarian tensions existed with the Irish Catholic population that was drawn by mill and factory employment from western districts. Heightened by division over Ireland's future in the United Kingdom, these twice erupted in periods of sustained violence: in 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six northeast counties retaining the British connection, and over three decades from the late 1960s during which the British Army was continually deployed on the streets. A legacy of conflict is the barrier-reinforced separation of Protestant and Catholic working-class districts. Since the Good Friday Agreement, the electoral balance in the once unionist-controlled city has shifted, albeit with no overall majority, in favour of Irish nationalists. At the same time, new immigrants are adding to the growing number of residents unwilling to identify with either of the two communal traditions. Belfast has seen significant services sector growth, with important contributions from financial technology (fintech), from tourism and, with facilities in the redeveloped Harbour Estate, from film. It retains a port with commercial and industrial docks, including a reduced Harland & Wolff shipyard and aerospace and defence contractors. Post Brexit, Belfast and Northern Ireland remain, uniquely, within both the British domestic and European Single trading areas for goods. The city is served by two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport on the Lough shore and Belfast International Airport west of the city. It supports two universities: on the north-side of the city centre, Ulster University, and on the southside the longer established Queens University. Since 2021, Belfast has been a UNESCO designated City of Music. History Name , showing the town's ramparts and Lord Chichester's castle, which was destroyed in a fire in 1708|left|200x200px]]The name Belfast derives from the Irish (), "Mouth of the Farset" a river whose name in the Irish, Feirste, refers to a sandbar or tidal ford. This was formed where the river ran—until culverted late in the 18th century, down High Street— into the Lagan. It was at this crossing, located under or close to the current Queen's Bridge, that the early settlement developed. The compilers of Ulster-Scots use various transcriptions of local pronunciations of "Belfast" (with which they sometimes are also content) including Bilfawst, Bilfaust or Baelfawst. Early settlements The site of Belfast has been occupied since the Bronze Age. The Giant's Ring, a 5,000-year-old henge, is located near the city, and the remains of Iron Age hill forts can still be seen in the surrounding hills. At the beginning of the 14th century, Papal tax rolls record two churches: the "Chapel of Dundela" at Knock (Irish: , meaning "hill") in the east, connected by some accounts to the 7th-century evangelist St. Colmcille,and, the "Chapel of the Ford", which may have been a successor to a much older parish church on the present Shankill (Seanchill, "Old Church") Road, and possibly to St. Patrick in the mid 5th, century. A Norman settlement at the ford, comprising the parish church (now St. George's), a watermill, and a small fort, was an outpost of Carrickfergus Castle. Established in the late 12th century, out along the north shore of the Lough, Carrickfergus was to remain the principal English foothold in the north-east until the scorched- earth Nine Years' War at the end of the 16th century broke the remaining Irish power, the O'Neills. Developing port, radical politics With a commission from James I, in 1613 Sir Arthur Chichester undertook the Plantation of Belfast and the surrounding area, attracting mainly English and Manx settlers. The subsequent arrival of Scottish Presbyterians embroiled Belfast in its only recorded siege: denounced from London by John Milton as "ungrateful and treacherous guests", in 1649 the newcomers were temporarily expelled by an English Parliamentarian army. In 1689, Catholic Jacobite forces, briefly in command of the town, abandoned it in advance of the landing at Carrickfergus of William, Prince of Orange, who proceeded through the Belfast to his celebrated victory on 12 July 1690 at the Boyne. Together with French Huguenots, the Scots introduced the production of linen, a flax-spinning industry that in the 18th century carried Belfast trade to the Americas. Fortunes were made carrying rough linen clothing and salted provisions to the slave plantations of the West Indies; sugar and rum to Baltimore and New York City; and for the return to Belfast flaxseed and tobacco from the colonies. From the 1760s, profits from the trade financed improvements in the town's commercial infrastructure, including the Lagan Canal, new docks and quays, and the construction of the White Linen Hall which together attracted to Belfast the linen trade that had formerly gone through Dublin. Abolitionist sentiment, however, defeated the proposal of the greatest of the merchant houses, Cunningham and Greg, in 1786 to commission ships for the Middle Passage., 1792|200x200px]]As "Dissenters" from the established Anglican church (with its episcopacy and ritual), Presbyterians were conscious of sharing, if only in part, the disabilities of Ireland's dispossessed Roman Catholic majority; and of being denied representation in the Irish Parliament. Belfast's two MPs remained nominees of the Chichesters (Marquesses of Donegall). With their emigrant kinsmen in America, the region's Presbyterians were to share a growing disaffection from the Crown. When early in the American War of Independence, Belfast Lough was raided by the privateer John Paul Jones, the townspeople assembled their own Volunteer militia. Formed ostensibly for defence of the Kingdom, Volunteer corps were soon pressing their own protest against "taxation without representation". Further emboldened by the French Revolution, a more radical element in the town, the Society of United Irishmen, called for Catholic emancipation and a representative national government. In hopes of French assistance, in 1798 the Society organised a republican insurrection. The rebel tradesmen and tenant farmers were defeated north of the town at the Battle of Antrim and to the south at the Battle of Ballynahinch. Britain seized on the rebellion to abolish the Irish Parliament, unlamented in Belfast, and to incorporate Ireland in a United Kingdom. In 1832, British parliamentary reform permitted the town its first electoral contest – an occasion for an early and lethal sectarian riot. Industrial expansion, sectarian division While other Irish towns experienced a loss of manufacturing, from the 1820s Belfast underwent rapid industrial expansion. After a cotton boom and bust, the town emerged as the global leader in the production of linen goods (mill, and finishing, work largely employing women and children), winning the moniker "Linenopolis". Shipbuilding led the development of heavier industry. By the 1900s, her shipyards were building up to a quarter of the total United Kingdom tonnage, and on the eve of the Great War, in 1914, close one eighth of world production. Other major export industries included textile machinery, rope, tobacco and mineral waters. The plentiful supply of cheap labour helped attract English and Scottish capital to Belfast, but it was also a cause of insecurity. Protestant workers organised and dominated the apprenticed trades and gave a new lease of life to the once largely rural Orange Order. Sectarian tensions, which frequently broke out in riots and workplace expulsions, were also driven by the "constitutional question": the prospect of a restored Irish parliament in which Protestants (and northern industry) feared being a minority interest. This was followed by the drilling and eventual arming of a 100,000-strong Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF). The immediate crisis was averted by the onset of the Great War. The UVF formed the 36th (Ulster) Division whose sacrifices in the Battle of the Somme continue to be commemorated in the city by unionist and loyalist organisations. In 1920–22, as Belfast emerged as the capital of the six counties remaining as Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom, there was widespread violence. 8,000 "disloyal" workers were driven from their jobs in the shipyards: in addition to Catholics, "rotten Prods" – Protestants whose labour politics disregarded sectarian distinctions. Gun battles, grenade attacks and house burnings contributed to as many as 500 deaths. A curfew remained in force until 1924. Until "troubles" returned at the end of the 1960s, it was not uncommon in Belfast for the Ulster Unionist Party to have its council and parliamentary candidates returned unopposed. In 1932, the opening of the new buildings for Northern Ireland's devolved Parliament at Stormont was overshadowed by the protests of the unemployed and ten days of running street battles with the police. The government conceded increases in Outdoor Relief, but labour unity was short lived. (Today, the cause of the republic in the Spanish Civil War is commemorated by a "No Pasaran" stained glass window in City Hall). In 1938, nearly a third of industrial workers were unemployed, malnutrition was a major issue, and at 9.6% the city's infant mortality rate (compared with 5.9% in Sheffield, England) was among the highest in United Kingdom. The Blitz and post-war development In the spring of 1941, the German Luftwaffe appeared twice over Belfast. In addition to the shipyards and the Short & Harland aircraft factory, the Belfast Blitz severely damaged or destroyed more than half the city's housing stock, and devastated the old town centre around High Street. In the greatest loss of life in any air raid outside of London, more than a thousand people were killed. At the end of World War II, the Unionist government undertook programmes of "slum clearance" (the Blitz had exposed the "uninhabitable" condition of much of the city's housing) which involved decanting populations out of mill and factory built red-brick terraces and into new peripheral housing estates. At the same time, a British-funded welfare state "revolutionised access" to education and health care. The resulting rise in expectations; together with the uncertainty caused by the decline of the city's Victorian-era industries, contributed to growing protest, and counter protest, in the 1960s over the Unionist government's record on civil and political rights. The Troubles For reasons that nationalists and unionists dispute, the public protests of the late 1960s soon gave way to communal violence (in which as many as 60,000 people were intimidated from their homes) and to loyalist and republican paramilitarism. Introduced onto the streets in August 1969, the British Army committed to the longest continuous deployment in its history, Operation Banner. Beginning in 1970 with the Falls curfew, and followed in 1971 by internment, this included counterinsurgency measures directed chiefly at the Provisional Irish Republican Army. The PIRA characterised their operations, including the bombing of Belfast's commercial centre, as a struggle against British occupation. Preceded by loyalist and republican ceasefires, the 1998 "Good Friday" Belfast Agreement returned a new power-sharing legislative assembly and executive to Stormont. In the intervening years in Belfast, some 20,000 people had been injured, and 1,500 killed. Eighty-five percent of the conflict-related deaths had occurred within 1,000 metres of the communal interfaces, largely in the north and west of the city. The 14 neighbourhoods they separate are among the 20 most deprived wards in Northern Ireland. In May 2013, the Northern Ireland Executive committed to the removal of all peace lines by mutual consent. The target date of 2023 was passed with only a small number dismantled. The more affluent districts escaped the worst of the violence, but the city centre was a major target. This was especially so during the first phase of the PIRA campaign in the early 1970s, when the organisation hoped to secure quick political results through maximum destruction. 21st century Since the turn of the century, the loss of employment and population in the city centre has been reversed. This reflects the growth of the service economy, for which a new district has been developed on former dockland, the Titanic Quarter. The growing tourism sector paradoxically lists as attractions the murals and peace walls that echo the violence of the past. The demographic balance of some areas has been changed by immigration (according to the 2021 census just under 10% of the city's population was born outside the British Isles), by local differences in births and deaths between Catholics and Protestants, and by a growing number of, particularly younger, people no longer willing to self-identify on traditional lines. In the 2016 Brexit referendum, Belfast's four parliamentary constituencies returned a substantial majority (60 percent) for remaining within the European Union, as did Northern Ireland as a whole (55.8), the only UK region outside London and Scotland to do so. In February 2022, the Democratic Unionist Party, which had actively campaigned for Brexit, withdrew from the power-sharing executive and collapsed the Stormont institutions to protest the 2020 UK-EU Northern Ireland Protocol. With the promise of equal access to the British and European markets, this designates Belfast as a point of entry to the European Single Market within whose regulatory framework local producers will continue to operate. After two years, the standoff was resolved with an agreement to eliminate routine checks on UK-destined goods. Cityscape Location and topography Belfast is at the mouth of the River Lagan at the head of Belfast Lough open through the North Channel to the Irish Sea and to the North Atlantic. In the course of the 19th century, the location's estuarine features were re-engineered. With dredging and reclamation, the lough was made to accommodate a deep sea port, and extensive shipyards. The Lagan was banked (in 1994 a weir raised its water level to cover what remained of the tidal mud flats) and its various tributaries were culverted On the model pioneered in 2008 by the Connswater Community Greenway some, including the course of the Farset, are now being considered for "daylighting". It remains the case that much of the city centre is built on an estuarine bed of "sleech": silt, peat, mud and—a source the city's ubiquitous red brick— soft clay, that presents a challenge for high-rise construction. (In 2007 this unstable foundation persuaded St Anne's Cathedral to abandon plans for a bell tower and substitute a lightweight steel spire). The city centre is also subject to tidal flood risk. Rising sea levels could mean, that without significant investment, flooding in the coming decades will be persistent. The city is overlooked on the County Antrim side (to the north and northwest) by a precipitous basalt escarpment—the near continuous line of Divis Mountain (478 m), Black Mountain (389 m) and Cavehill (368 m)—whose "heathery slopes and hanging fields are visible from almost any part of the city". Together with areas of more substantial housing in the Oldpark district, these are wedged between Protestant working-class housing stretching from Tiger's Bay out the Shore Road on one side, and up the Shankill (the original Antrim Road) on the other. The Greater Shankill area, including Crumlin and Woodvale, is over the line from the Belfast North parliamentary/assembly constituency, but is physically separated from the rest of Belfast West by an extensive series of separation barriers—peace walls—owned (together with five daytime gates into the Falls area) by the Department of Justice. These include Cupar Way where tourists are informed that, at 45 feet, the barrier is "three times higher than the Berlin Wall and has been in place for twice as long". With other working-class districts, Shankill suffered from the "collapse of old industrial Belfast". But it was also greatly affected from the 1960s by the city's most ambitious programme of "slum clearance". Red-brick, "two up, two down" terraced streets, typical of 19th century working-class housing, were replaced with flats, maisonettes, and car parks but few facilities. In a period of twenty years, due largely to redevelopment, 50,000 residents left the area leaving an aging population of 26,000 Meanwhile, road schemes, including the terminus of the M1 motorway and the Westlink, demolished a mixed dockland community, Sailortown, and severed the streets linking the Shankill area and the rest of both north and west Belfast to the city centre. New "green field" housing estates were built on the outer edges of the city. The onset of the Troubles overwhelmed attempts to promote these as "mixed" neighbourhoods so that the largest of these developments on the city's northern edge, Rathcoole, rapidly solidified as a loyalist community. In 2004, it was estimated that 98% of public housing in Belfast was divided along religious lines. Among the principal landmarks of north Belfast are the Crumlin Road Gaol (1845) now a major visitor attraction, Belfast Royal Academy (1785) - the oldest school in the city, St Malachy's College (1833), Holy Cross Church, Ardoyne (1902), [https://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/things-to-do/parks-and-open-spaces/a-z-parks/waterworks Waterworks Park] (1889), and Belfast Zoo (1934). West Belfast In the mid-19th century rural poverty and famine drove large numbers of Catholic tenant farmers, landless labourers and their families toward Belfast. Their route brought them down the Falls Road and into what are now remnants of an older Catholic enclave around St Mary's Church, the town's first Catholic chapel (opened in 1784 with Presbyterian subscriptions), and Smithfield Market. Extensively redeveloped and expanded, the hospital has a staff of more than 8,500. Landmarks in the area include the Gothic-revival St Peter's Cathedral (1866, signature twin spires added in 1886); Clonard Monastery (1911), the Conway Mill (1853/1901, re-developed as a community enterprise, arts and education centre in 1983); Belfast City Cemetery (1869) and, best known for its republican graves, Milltown Cemetery (1869). The area's greatest visitor attractions are its wall and gable-end murals. In contrast to those in loyalist areas, where Israel is typically the only outside reference, these range more freely beyond the local conflict frequently expressing solidarity with Palestinians, with Cuba, and with Basque and Catalan separatists. South Belfast West Belfast is separated from South Belfast, and from the otherwise abutting loyalist districts of Sandy Row and the Donegall Road, by rail lines, the M1 Motorway (to Dublin and the west); industrial and retail parks, and the remnants of the Blackstaff (Owenvarra) bog meadows. Belfast began stretching up-river in the 1840s and 50s: out the Ormeau and Lisburn roads and, between them, running along a ridge of higher ground, the Malone Road. From "leafy" avenues of increasingly substantial (and in the course of time "mixed") housing, the Upper Malone broadened out into areas of parkland and villas. Further out still, where they did not survive as public parks, from the 1960s the great-house demesnes of the city's former mill-owners and industrialists were developed for public housing: loyalist estates such as Seymour Hill and Belvoir. Meanwhile, in Malone and along the river embankments, new houses and apartment blocks have been squeezed in, increasing the general housing density. Beyond the Queen's University area the area's principal landmarks are the 15-storey tower block of Belfast City Hospital (1986) on the Lisburn Road, and the Lagan Valley Regional Park through which a towpath extends from the City-centre quayside to Lisburn. Northern Ireland's three permanent diplomatic missions are situated on the Malone Road, the consulates of China, Poland and the United States. East Belfast The first district on the right bank of the Lagan (the County Down side) to be incorporated in Belfast was Ballymacarrett in 1853. Harland & Wolff, whose gantry cranes, Samson & Goliath, tower over the area, was long the mainstay of employment — although less securely so for the townland's Catholics (In 1970, when the yard still had a workforce of 10,000, only 400 Catholics were employed). Home to around 2,500 people, it is the only distinctly nationalist area in the east of the river. East Belfast developed from the Queens Bridge (1843), through Ballymacarrett, east along the Newtownards Road and north (along the east shore of the Lough) up the Holywood Road; and from the Albert Bridge (1890) south east out the Cregagh and Castlereagh roads. The further out, the more substantial, and less religiously segregated, the housing until again encountering the city's outer ring of public housing estates: loyalist Knocknagoney, Lisnasharragh, and Tullycarnet. This century, efforts have been made to add to East Belfast's two obvious visitor attractions: Samson & Goliath (the "banana yellow" Harland & Wolff cranes date only from the early 1970s) Next to the former the Harland & Wolff Drawing Offices (now an hotel), stands the "cultural nucleus to Titanic Quarter", Titanic Belfast (2012) whose interactive galleries tell the liner's ill-fated story. In 2015, the Orange Order opened the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road with the aim of educating the wider public about "the origins, traditions and continued relevance" of the parading institution. now a food and craft market popular with visitors to the city. Architectural heritage , 1774.]] Among surviving elements of the pre-Victorian town are the Belfast Entries, 17th-century alleyways off High Street, including, in Winecellar Entry, White's Tavern (rebuilt 1790); the elliptical First Presbyterian (Non-Subscribing) Church (1781–83) in Rosemary Street (whose members led the abolitionist charge against Greg and Cunningham); the Assembly Rooms (1769, 1776, 1845) on Bridge Street; St George's Church of Ireland (1816) on the High Street site of the old Corporation Church; St Mary's Church (1782) in Chapel Lane, which is the oldest Catholic church in the city. The oldest public building in Belfast, Clifton House (1771–74), the Belfast Charitable Society poorhouse, is on North Queen Street. It is now partly cut off from the city centre by arterial roads. In addition there are small sets of city-centre Georgian terraces. Of the much larger Victorian city a substantial legacy has survived the Blitz, The Troubles and planning and development. Among the more notable examples are St Malachy's Roman Catholic Church (1844) and the original college building of Queen's University Belfast (1849), both in a Tudor style; the Palm House in the Botanic Gardens (1852); the Renaissance revival Union Theological College (1853) and Ulster Bank (now Merchant Hotel) (1860); the Italianate Ulster Hall (1862), and the National Trust restored ornate Crown Liquor Saloon (1885, 1898) (a setting for the classic film, Odd Man Out, starring James Mason); the oriental-themed Grand Opera House (1895) (bombed several times during the Troubles), and the Romanesque revival St. Patrick's Catholic Church in Donegall Street (1877). The dome is high and figures above the door state "Hibernia encouraging and promoting the Commerce and Arts of the City". Nearby is the Renaissance and Baroque revival Scottish Provident Institution (1902). Opposite is a branch of the Ulster Bank which is built behind the classical facade of a former Methodist church dating from 1846. Built in the Romanesque-style on the site of an earlier neo-classical church, St Anne's Church of Ireland Cathedral was consecrated in 1904. The north transept, featuring on its exterior "the largest Celtic cross in Ireland", was completed in 1981, and a final addition, a 40-metre stainless steel "Spire of Hope" was installed in 2007. The neoclassical Royal Courts of Justice were opened on Oxford Street in 1933. Redevelopment The opening Victoria Square Shopping Centre in 2008 was to symbolise the rebound of the city centre since its days as a restricted security zone during the Troubles. But retail footfall in the centre is limited by competition with out-of-town shopping centres and with internet retailing. As of November 2023, footfall had not recovered pre-COVID pandemic levels. There are compensating trends: the growth in tourism and hospitality which has included a sustained boom in hotel construction. The City Council also talks of a "residential-led regeneration". New townhouse and apartments schemes are being developed for the city's quays, and for Titanic Quarter. The completion in 2023 of Ulster University's enhanced Belfast campus (in "one of the largest higher education capital builds in Europe") and the determination of Queen's University to compete with the private sector in the provision of student housing, has fostered the construction downtown of multiple new student residences. Rough sleeping and homelessness People can be found sleeping rough on the streets of the city centre. Numbers, while growing, may be comparatively small for a city of its size in the British Isles. In 2022, counts and estimates by the Northern Ireland Housing Executive identified a total of 26 rough sleepers in Belfast. This is against a background (in 2023) of 2,317 people (0.67% of residents) presenting as homeless, many of whom are in temporary accommodation and shelters. Such figures, however, do not include all those living in severely overcrowded conditions, involuntarily sharing with other households on a long-term basis, or sleeping rough in hidden locations. The "Quarters" Since 2001, buoyed by increasing numbers of tourists, the city council has promoted a number of cultural quarters. The Cathedral Quarter comprises much of Belfast's old trade and warehousing district in the narrow streets and entries around St Anne's Cathedral, with a concentration of bars, beer gardens, clubs and restaurants (including two establishments claiming descent from the early town, White's and The Duke of York) and performance spaces (most notably the Black Box and Oh Yeah). It hosts a yearly visual and performing arts festival. The adjoining Custom House Square is one of the city's main outdoor venues for free concerts and street entertainment. Without defined geographical boundaries, the Gaeltacht Quarter encompasses Irish-speaking Belfast. (According to the 2021 census, 15.5% of people in the city have some knowledge of Irish, 4% speak it daily). It can be said to include, at the Skainos Centre in unionist east Belfast, Turas, a project that promotes Irish through night classes and cultural events in the belief that "the language belongs to all". The Linen Quarter', an area south of City Hall once dominated by linen warehouses, now includes, in addition to cafés, bars and restaurants, a dozen hotels (including the 23-storey Grand Central Hotel), and the city's two principal Victorian-era cultural venues, the Grand Opera House and the Ulster Hall. Moving further south along the so-called "Golden Mile" of bars and clubs through Shaftesbury Square, there is the [[Queen's Quarter, Belfast|Queen's [University] Quarter]]. In addition to the university (spread over 250 buildings, of which 120 are listed as being of architectural merit), it is home to Botanic Gardens and the Ulster Museum. Finally, the Titanic Quarter covers of reclaimed land adjacent to Belfast Harbour, formerly known as ''Queen's Island. Named after RMS Titanic, launched here in 1911, work began in 2003 to transform some former shipyard land into "one of the largest waterfront developments in Europe". The current area houses Titanic'' Belfast, the Public Records Office of Northern Ireland (PRONI), two hotels, and multiple condo towers and shops, and the Titanic [film] Studios. Culture Arts venues and festivals From Georgian Belfast, the city retains a civic legacy. In addition to Clifton House (Belfast Charitable Society, 1774), this includes the Linen Hall Library (Belfast Society for Promoting Knowledge, 1788), the Ulster Museum (founded by the Belfast Natural History Society as the Belfast Municipal Museum and Art Gallery in 1833), and the Botanic Gardens (established in 1828 by the Belfast Botanic and Horticultural Society). Of the many stage venues built in the nineteenth century, and film theatres built in the twentieth, there remains the Ulster Hall (1862), which hosts concerts (including those of the Ulster Orchestra), classical recitals and party-political meetings; the Grand Opera House (1895) badly damaged in bomb blasts in the early 1990s, restored and enlarged 2020; the Strand Cinema (1935) now being developed as an arts centre; and the Queens Film Theatre (QFT) (1968) focussed on art house and world cinema. The two independent cinemas offer their screens for the Belfast Film Festival and the Belfast International Arts Festival. The principal stage for drama remains the Lyric Theatre (1951, 2011), the largest employer of actors and other theatre professionals in the region. At Queens University, drama students stage their productions at the Brian Friel Theatre, a 120-seat studio space (named after the renowned playwright). In November 2011, Belfast became the smallest city to host the MTV Europe Music Awards. The event was made possible by the 11,000-seat Odyssey Arena (today the SSE Arena) which opened in 2000 at the entrance to the Titanic Quarter A further large-scale venue is the Waterfront Hall, a multi-purpose conference and entertainment centre that first opened in 1997. The main circular Auditorium seats 2,241 and is modelled on the Berlin Philharmonic Hall. In 2012, the Metropolitan Arts Centre, the "MAC", was opened in the Cathedral Quarter, offering a performance mix of music, theatre, dance and visual art. The city has a number of community arts, and arts education, centres, among them the Crescent Arts Centre in south Belfast, the Irish-language Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich in west Belfast, The Duncairn in north Belfast and, in the east of the city, EastSide Arts. Féile an Phobail, a community arts organisation born out of the Internment Commemorations in the west of the city, stages one of the largest community festivals in Europe. It has grown from its original August Féile on the Falls Road, to a year-round programme with a broad range of arts events, talks and discussions. UNESCO City of Music In November 2021, Belfast became the third city in the British Isles to be designated by UNESCO as City of Music (after Glasgow in 2008 and Liverpool in 2016) and is one of 59 cities worldwide participating in the UNESCO Creative Cities Network. The greater part of Belfast's music scene is accommodated in the city's pubs and clubs. Irish traditional music ("trad") is a staple, and is supported, along with Ulster-Scots snare drum and pipe music, by the city's TradFest summer school. Music offerings also draw on the legacy of the punk and the underground club scene that developed during The Troubles (associated with the groups Stiff Little Fingers and The Undertones, and celebrated in the award-winning 2013 film, Good Vibrations). Snow Patrol's frontman Gary Lightbody led a line up of private donors that together with public funders established the Oh Yeah music centre in 2008. The Cathedral Quarter non-profit supports young musicians and these have engaged with a range of genres including Alternative rock, Indie rock, Electronica, Post rock, Post punk, Crossover, and Experimental rock. Queens University hosts the Sonic Arts Research Centre (SARC), an institute for music-based practice and research. Its purpose designed building, Sonic Laboratory and multichannel studios were opened by Karlheinz Stockhausen, the German composer and "father of electronic music", in 2004. Media , headquarters of the BBC in Northern Ireland]] Belfast is the home of the Belfast Telegraph, Irish News and, first printed in 1737,The News Letter, the oldest English-language daily newspaper in the world still in publication. The city is the headquarters of BBC Northern Ireland, and ITV station UTV. The Irish public service broadcaster, RTÉ has a studio in the city. The national radio station is BBC Radio Ulster with commercial radio stations such as Q Radio, U105, Blast 106 and Irish-language station Raidió Fáilte. Queen's Radio, a student-run radio station broadcasts from Queen's University Students' Union. One of Northern Ireland's two community TV stations, NvTv, is based in the Cathedral Quarter of the city. Broadcasting only over the Internet is Homely Planet, the Cultural Radio Station for Northern Ireland, supporting community relations. Parades Since the lifting in 1872 of a twenty-year party processions ban, Orange parades in celebration of "the Twelfth" [of July] and the bonfires of the previous evening, the eleventh, have been a fixed fixture of the Belfast calendar. On what became a public holiday in 1926, Belfast and guest Orange lodges (from both across Ulster and Scotland) with their pipe, flute, drum and accordion bands muster at Carlisle Circus, and parade through the city centre past the City Hall and out the Lisburn Road to a gathering in "the field" at Barnett Demesne. While some local feeder and return marches have a history of sectarian disturbance, in recent years, events have generally passed off without serious incident. The tradition is documented and celebrated in the Museum of Orange Heritage on the Cregagh Road in East Belfast. What is sometimes referred to as the Catholic equivalent of the Orangemen, the much smaller Ancient Order of Hibernians, confines its parades to nationalist areas in west and north Belfast, as do republicans commemorating the Easter Rising. In August 1993, in a break with a history of nationalist exclusion from the city centre, a parade marking the introduction of internment in the 1971 proceeded up Royal Avenue toward the City Hall, where it was addressed by Sinn Féin president, Gerry Adams, in front of the statue of Queen Victoria. Since 1998, the Belfast City Council has funded a city-centre St. Patrick's Day (17 March) celebration. It is organised by Féile an Phobail as a "carnival" complete with a parade featuring dancers, circus entertainers, floats, and giant puppets. Critical of what they perceive as an evolving nationalist festival, unionists on the City Council observe that "a lot of the Protestant Unionist Loyalist (PUL) community will stay away from the city centre on St Patrick's Day, the same as some stay away on the Twelfth of July". In 1991, Belfast hosted its first gay pride event. Belfast Pride, culminating in a city-centre parade at the end of July, is now one of the biggest annual festivals in the city and, according to its organisers, the largest LGBT+ festival in Ireland. The Irish Congress of Trade Unions organises an annual city-centre May Day march and rally. The International Workers Day has been a public holiday since 1978. Demography In 2021, there were 345,418 residents within the expanded 2015 Belfast local government boundary and 634,600 in the Belfast Metropolitan Area, approximately one third of Northern Ireland's 1.9 million population. As with many cities, Belfast's inner city is currently characterised by the elderly, students and single young people, while families tend to live on the periphery. Socio-economic areas radiate out from the Central Business District, with a pronounced wedge of affluence extending out the Malone Road and Upper Malone Road to the south. Deprivation levels are notable in the inner parts of the north and the west of the city. The areas around the Falls Road, Ardoyne and New Lodge (Catholic nationalist) and the Shankill Road (Protestant loyalist) experience some of the highest levels of social deprivation including higher levels of ill health and poor access to services. These areas remain firmly segregated, with 80 to 90 percent of residents being of the one religious designation. }} Consistent with the trend across all of Northern Ireland, the Protestant population within the city has been in decline, while the non-religious, other religious and Catholic population has risen. The 2021 census recorded the following: 43% of residents as Catholic, 12% as Presbyterian, 8% as Church of Ireland, 3% as Methodist, 6% as belonging to other Christian denominations, 3% to other religions and 24% as having either no religion or no declared religion. In terms of community background, 47.93% were deemed to belong to, or to have been brought up in, the Catholic faith and 36.45% in a Protestant or other Christian-related denomination. The comparable figures in 2011 were 48.60% Catholic and 42.28% Protestant or other Christian-related denomination. With respondents free to indicate more than one national identity, in 2021 the largest national identity group was "Irish only" with 35% of the population, followed by "British only" 27%, "Northern Irish only" 17%, "British and Northern Irish only" 7%, "Irish and Northern Irish only" 2%, "British, Irish and Northern Irish only" 2%, British and Irish less than 1% and Other identities with 10%. 3.74% (10,963) of residents claimed to use Irish daily and 0.75% (2,192) claimed Irish is their main language. 7.17% (21,025) of people in the city claimed to have some knowledge of Ulster Scots, whilst 0.75% (2,207) claimed to be able to speak, read, write and understand spoken Ulster Scots. 0.83% (2,430) claimed to use Ulster Scots daily. From the mid to late 19th century, there was a community of central European Jews (among its distinguished members, Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff of Harland & Wolff) and of Italians in Belfast. Today, the largest immigrant groups are Poles, Chinese and Indians. The 2011 census figures recorded a total non-white population of 10,219 or 3.3%, while 18,420 or 6.6% of the population were born outside the UK and Ireland. Almost half of those born outside the British Isles lived in south Belfast, where they comprised 9.5% of the population. The majority of the estimated 5,000 Muslims and 200 Hindu families living in Northern Ireland resided in the Greater Belfast area. In the 2021 census the percentage of the city's residents born outside the United Kingdom had risen to 9.8. In recent years, unemployment has been comparatively low (under 3% in the summer of 2023) for the UK. On the other hand, Belfast has a high rate of people economically inactive (close to 30%). It is a group, encompassing homemakers, full-time carers, students and retirees, that in Belfast has been swollen by the exceptionally large proportion of the population (27%) with long-term health problems or disabilities (and who, in Northern Ireland generally, are less likely to be employed than in other UK regions). An early report on the post-Belfast Agreement prospects for the city economy underscored another distinctive feature of its working-age population. While it appeared well qualified, with 24 per cent educated to degree level, at "the other end of the educational spectrum", 26 per cent had no qualifications at all, a much higher share than in English cities. In recent years Harland & Wolff, which at peak production in the Second World War had employed around 35,000 people, has had a workforce of no more than two or three hundred refurbishing oil rigs and fabricating off-shore wind turbines. A £1.6 billion Royal Navy contract has offered the yard a new lease, returning it to shipbuilding in 2025, a prospect secured by the purchase of insolvent yard by Spain's state-owned shipbuilder, Navantia. In 1936, Short & Harland Ltd, a joint venture of Short Brothers and Harland & Wolff, began the manufacture of aircraft in the docks area. In 1989, the British government, which had nationalised the company during the Second World War, sold it to the Canadian aerospace company Bombardier. In 2020, it was sold on to the American aerostructure company Spirit AeroSystems. Producing aircraft components, it remains the largest manufacturing concern in Northern Ireland. Originating in the Short Brothers' missile division, since 2001 the Thales Group (owned by the French defense contractor Thales Air Defence Limited) has been producing short range air defence and anti-tank missiles including the NLAW shoulder-launched system and, from 2025, lightweight multirole missiles (LMMs), deployed against the Russian invasion by Ukraine.. Fintech and cybersecurity From the 1990s, Belfast established itself as a significant location for call centres and for other back-office services. Attracting U.S. operators such as Citi, Allstate, Liberty Mutual, Aflac and FD Technologies (Kx Systems), it as since been identified by the UK Treasury as "key fintech [financial technology] hub". Fintech's key areas (its "ABCD") are artificial intelligence, blockchain, cloud computing, and big data. The sector's principal constraint, cyber security, has been addressed since 2004 by the Queens University Institute of Electronics, Communications and Information Technology (IECIT), and its Centre for Secure Information Technologies (CSIT). The IECIT is the anchor tenant at Catalyst (science park) in the Titanic Quarter, which hosts a cluster of companies seeking to offer innovative cyber-security solutions. Film Between 2018 and 2023, film and television production based largely in Belfast, and occupying significant new studio capacity in the ports area, contributed £330m to Northern Ireland's economy. There are two 8-acre media complexes (serviced by the adjacent City Airport): the Titanic Studios on Queen's Island (the Titanic Quarter) and across the Victoria Channel in Giant's Park on the Lough's north foreshore, the Belfast Harbour Studios. Together they offer 226,000 ft<sup>2</sup> of studio space, plus offices and workshops, and have attracted U.S. production companies such as Amazon, HBO (including all eight series of its fantasy drama Game of Thrones), Paramount, Playtone, Universal, and Warner Bros. Additional studio space is available at Loop Studios (formerly Britvic) on the Castlereagh Road in East Belfast. Tourism and hospitality Northern Ireland's peace dividend since the 1990s, which includes a marked increase in inward investment, has contributed to a large-scale redevelopment of the city centre. Significant projects included Victoria Square, the Cathedral Quarter, Laganside with the Odyssey complex and the landmark Waterfront Hall, the new Titanic Quarter with its Titanic Belfast visitor attraction, and the development of the original Short's harbour airfield as George Best Belfast City Airport. These developments reflect a boom in tourism (32 million visitors between 2011 and 2018), In 2023, Belfast welcomed 153 calls, 8% up from the pre-pandemic record set in 2019. Ship from 32 different countries landed 320,000 passengers. Belfast has also seen growth of "conflict tourism". Tourist bosses and guides, however, are satisfied that the greater draw is city's other "must-see attractions", and its "convivial food and nightlife scene". EU/GB Trade Invest NI, Northern Ireland's economic development agency is pitching Belfast and its hinterland to foreign investors as "only region in the world able to trade goods freely with both GB and EU markets". This follows the 2020 Northern Ireland Protocol and the 2023 Windsor Framework, agreements between the British government and European Union, whereby, post-Brexit, Northern Ireland would effectively remain within the European Single Market for goods while, in principle, retaining unfettered access to the British domestic market. Despite the DUP's derailment of devolved government in protest, local business leaders largely welcomed the new trade regime, hailing the promise of dual EU-GB access as a critical opportunity. In February 2024, the DUP consented to a return of the devolved Assembly and Executive on the understanding that neither the EU nor the British government would defend the integrity of their respective internal markets by conducting routine checks on the bulk of goods passing through Belfast, or other Northern Ireland, ports. Education Primary and secondary education Children from Catholic and Protestant homes in Belfast are taught, for the most part, separately on a pattern that, by the mid-nineteenth century, had been established throughout Ireland. Primary and secondary education is divided between (Catholic) Maintained Schools and (non-Catholic/ "Protestant") Controlled Schools. They are bound by the same curriculum, but their teaching staff are trained separately (in the university colleges of St Mary's and Stranmillis). Since the 1980s, two smaller school sectors have emerged: grant-maintained Integrated schools, which by design bring together children and staff from both communities, and Irish language medium schools The principle was not embraced by the town's middle-classes: in practice "Inst" provided a grammar education to the town's Presbyterian families while Anglicans favoured the older Royal Belfast Academy (1785); Catholics, St Malachy's diocesan college (1833) and Wesleyans, Methodist College Belfast (1865). Denominational lines have since blurred, with Catholics in particular moving into the controlled grammars. But the presence of 18 selective grammar schools in Belfast is a further feature of post-primary education in Belfast that distinguishes it from that of comparable cities in Great Britain where academic selection was abandoned in the 1960s and 70s. Partly prompted by the COVID disruption of external testing in 2021/22, some the city's grammars have begun to review and amend the practice. It is not clear that this will be on terms that reduce the degree of social segregation they have represented within the system. In 2006, the Belfast Education and Library Board became part of the consolidated Education Authority for Northern Ireland. In Belfast, the Authority has responsibility for 156 primary, and 48 secondary schools (including the 18 grammars). The system is marked by stark inequalities in outcome. Around 30% of school leavers in the city do not attain 5 GCSEs, A* - C (including Maths and English). For those in receipt of free school meals, the figure rises to over 50%. Further and Higher education Belfast Metropolitan College ("Belfast Met") is a further education college with three main campuses around the city, including several smaller buildings. Formerly known as Belfast Institute of Further and Higher Education, it specialises in vocational education. The college has over 53,000 students enrolled on full-time and part-time courses, making it one of the largest further education colleges in the UK and the largest in the island of Ireland. Belfast has two universities. Queen's University Belfast was founded as a college in 1845. In 1908, the Catholic bishops lifted their ban on attendance and Queen's was granted university status. and is one of the largest universities in the UK with over 25,000 students – among them over 4,000 international students. Ulster University, created in its current form in 1984, is a multi-centre university with a campus on the edge of the Cathedral Quarter of Belfast. Since 2021, this original "Arts College" campus has undergone a £1.4bn expansion to accommodate offerings across all departments. The project promises to bring 15,500 staff and students into the city, and to generate 5,000 new jobs. Governance Belfast was granted borough status by James VI and I in 1613 and official city status by Queen Victoria in 1888. Since 1973 it has been a local government district under local administration by Belfast City Council. Belfast has been represented in the British House of Commons since 1801, and in Northern Ireland Assembly, as presently constituted, since 1998. Local government Belfast City Council is responsible for a range of powers and services, including land-use and community planning, parks and recreation, building control, arts and cultural heritage. The city's principal offices are those of the Lord Mayor of Belfast, Deputy Lord Mayor and High Sheriff. Like other elected positions within the Council such as Committee chairs, these are filled since 1998 using the D'Hondt system so that in recent years the position has rotated between councillors from the three largest factions, Sinn Féin, the DUP and the Alliance Party. The first Lord Mayor of Belfast in 1892, Daniel Dixon, like every mayor but one until 1997 (Alliance in 1979), was a unionist. The first nationalist Lord Mayor of Belfast was Alban Maginness of the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) in 1997. The current Lord Mayor is Micky Murray of the Alliance Party of Northern Ireland, who has been in the position of Lord Mayor since 3 June 2024. His duties include presiding over meetings of the council, receiving distinguished visitors to the city, representing and promoting the city on the national and international stage. In addition to the 11 Alliance members there are four other councillors, 3 Green and 1 People Before Profit, who refuse a nationalist/unionist designation. Northern Ireland Assembly and Westminster elections As Northern Ireland's capital city, Belfast is host to the Northern Ireland Assembly at Stormont, the site of the devolved legislature for Northern Ireland. Belfast is divided into four Northern Ireland Assembly and UK parliamentary constituencies: Belfast North, Belfast West, Belfast South and Mid Down and Belfast East. All four extend beyond the city boundaries to include parts of Antrim and Newtownabbey and Lisburn and Castlereagh districts. In United Kingdom elections, each constituency returns one MP, on a "first past the post" basis to Westminster. In NI Assembly elections each returns, on the basis of proportional representation, five MLAs to Stormont. In the Northern Ireland Assembly Elections in 2022, Belfast elected 7 Sinn Féin, 5 DUP, 5 Alliance Party, 1 SDLP, 1 UUP and 1 PBPA MLAs. In the 2017 UK general election, the DUP won all but the Sinn Féin stronghold of Belfast West. In the 2019 and 2024 UK general elections, they retained only Belfast East, losing Belfast North to Sinn Féin and Belfast South to the SDLP. Infrastructure Hospitals The Belfast Health & Social Care Trust is one of five trusts that were created on 1 April 2007 by the Department of Health. Belfast contains most of Northern Ireland's regional specialist centres. The Royal Hospitals site in west Belfast (junction of Grosvenor and Falls roads) contains two hospitals. The Royal Victoria Hospital (its origins in a number of successive institutions, beginning in 1797 with The Belfast Fever Hospital) provides both local and regional services. Specialist services include cardiac surgery, critical care and the Regional Trauma Centre. The Children's Hospital (Royal Belfast Hospital for Sick Children) provides general hospital care for children in Belfast and provides most of the paediatric regional specialities. The Belfast City Hospital (evolved from the 1841 Belfast Union Workhouse and infirmary) on the Lisburn Road is the regional specialist centre for haematology and is home to a major cancer centre. The Mary G McGeown Regional Nephrology Unit at the City Hospital is the kidney transplant centre and provides regional renal services for Northern Ireland. Musgrave Park Hospital (1920) in south Belfast specialises in orthopaedics, rheumatology, sports medicine and rehabilitation. It is home to Northern Ireland's first Acquired Brain Injury Unit. The Mater Hospital (founded in 1883 by the Sisters of Mercy) on the Crumlin Road provides a wide range of services, including acute inpatient, emergency and maternity services, to north Belfast and the surrounding areas. The Ulster Hospital, Upper Newtownards Road, Dundonald, on the eastern edge of the city, first founded as the Ulster Hospital for Women and Sick Children in 1872, is the major acute hospital for the South Eastern Health and Social Care Trust. It delivers a full range of outpatient, inpatient and daycare medical and surgical services. Transport on Northern Ireland Railways]] Belfast is a relatively car-dependent city by European standards, with an extensive road network including the M2 and M22 motorway route. Black taxis are common in the city, operating on a share basis in some areas. These are outnumbered by private hire taxis. Bus and rail public transport in Northern Ireland is operated by subsidiaries of Translink. Bus services in the city proper and the nearer suburbs are operated by Translink Metro, with services focusing on linking residential districts with the city centre on 12 quality bus corridors running along main radial roads, More distant suburbs are served by Ulsterbus. Northern Ireland Railways provides suburban services along three lines running through Belfast's northern suburbs to Carrickfergus, Larne and Larne Harbour, eastwards towards Bangor and south-westwards towards Lisburn and Portadown. This service is known as the Belfast Suburban Rail system. Belfast is linked directly to Coleraine, Portrush and Derry. Belfast has a direct rail connection with Dublin called Enterprise operated jointly by NIR and the Irish rail company Iarnród Éireann. In 2024, the city's Europa Bus Centre and Great Victoria Street rail station, was replaced by a new Belfast Central Station. It is "the largest integrated transport facility on the island of Ireland" with bus stands, railway platforms, and facilities for taxis and bicycles. ]] The city has two airports: George Best Belfast City Airport, close to the city centre on the eastern shore of Belfast Lough and Belfast International Airport 30–40 minutes to the west on the shore of Lough Neagh. Both operate UK domestic and European flights. The city is also served by Dublin Airport, two hours to the south, with direct inter-continental connections. In addition to its extensive freight business, the Belfast Port offers car-ferry sailings, operated by Stena Line, to Cairnryan in Scotland (5 Sailings Daily. 2 hours 22 minutes) and to Liverpool-Birkenhead (14 sailings weekly. 8 hours). The Isle of Man Steam Packet Company provides a seasonal connection to Douglas, Isle of Man. The Glider bus service is a new form of transport in Belfast. Introduced in 2018, it is a bus rapid transit system linking East Belfast, West Belfast and the Titanic Quarter from the City Centre. Using articulated buses, the £90 million service saw a 17% increase in its first month in Belfast, with 30,000 more people using the Gliders every week. The service is being recognised as helping to modernise the city's public transport. National Cycle Route 9 to Newry, which will eventually connect with Dublin, starts in Belfast. Utilities Half of Belfast's water is supplied via the Aquarius pipeline from the Silent Valley Reservoir in County Down, created to collect water from the Mourne Mountains. The other half is now supplied from Lough Neagh via Dunore Water Treatment Works in County Antrim. The citizens of Belfast pay for their water in their rates bill. Plans to bring in additional water tariffs were deferred by devolution in May 2007. Power is provided from a number of power stations via NIE Networks Limited transmission lines. (Just under a half of electricity consumption in Northern Ireland is generated from renewable sources). Phoenix Natural Gas Ltd. started supplying customers in Larne and Greater Belfast with natural gas in 1996 via the newly constructed Scotland-Northern Ireland pipeline. Recreation and sports Leisure centres Belfast City Council owns and maintains 17 leisure centres across the city, run on its behalf by the non-profit social enterprise GLL under the 'Better' brand. These include eight large multipurposed centres complete with swimming pools: Ballysillan Leisure Centre and Grove Wellbeing Centre in North Belfast; the Andersonstown, Falls, Shankill and Whiterock leisure centres in West Belfast; Templemore Baths and Lisnasharragh Leisure Centre in East Belfast, and close to the city centre in South Belfast, the Olympia Leisure Centre and Spa, Parks and gardens Belfast has over forty parks. The oldest (1828) and one of the most popular parks Botanic Gardens in the Queen's Quarter. Built in the 1830s and designed by Sir Charles Lanyon, its Palm House is one of the earliest examples of a curvilinear and cast iron glasshouse. Other attractions in the park include the recently restored Tropical Ravine, a humid jungle glen built in 1889, rose gardens and public events ranging from live opera broadcasts to pop concerts. The largest municipal park in the city, and closest to the city centre, lies on the right bank of Lagan. The 100-acres of Ormeau Park were opened to the public in 1871 on what was the last demesne of the town's former proprietors, the Chichesters, Marquesses of Donegall. In north Belfast, the Waterworks, two reservoirs to which the public have had access since 1897, are features of a park supporting angling and waterfowl. In 1906, a further water park, Victoria, opened behind industrial dockland on what had been the eastern shore of the Lough. It is now connected through east Belfast by the Connswater Community Greenway which offers 16 km of continuous cycle and walkway through east Belfast. The largest green conservation area within the city's boundaries is a 2,116 hectares patchwork of "parks, demesnes, woodland and meadows" stretching upriver along the banks of the Lagan river and canal; and Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, whose International Rose Garden attracts thousands of visitors each July. Colin Glenn Forest Park, the National Trust Divis and the Black Mountain Ridge Trail, and Cave Hill Country Park. offer panoramic views over Belfast and beyond from the west. Below Cave Hill, the council maintains one of the few local government-funded zoos in the British Isles. The Belfast Zoo houses more than 1,200 animals of 140 species including Asian elephants, Barbary lions, Malayan sun bears (one of the few in the United Kingdom), two species of penguin, a family of western lowland gorillas, a troop of common chimpanzees, a pair of red pandas, a pair of Goodfellow's tree-kangaroos and Francois' langurs. It carries out important conservation work and takes part in European and international breeding programmes which help to ensure the survival of many species under threat. Sports stadium Windsor Park|left]] Belfast has several notable sports teams playing a diverse variety of sports such as football, Gaelic games, rugby, cricket, and ice hockey. The Belfast Marathon is run annually on May Day, The 41st Marathon in 2023, with related events (Wheelchair Race, Team Relay and 8 Mile Walk) attracted 15,000 participants. The Northern Ireland national football team plays its home matches at Windsor Park. Football clubs with stadia and training grounds in the city include: Linfield, Glentoran, Crusaders, Cliftonville, Donegal Celtic, Harland & Wolff Welders, Dundela, Knockbreda, PSNI, Newington, Sport & Leisure and Brantwood. Belfast is home to over twenty Gaelic football and hurling clubs. Casement Park in west Belfast, home to the Antrim county teams, had a capacity of 31,500 making it the second largest Gaelic Athletic Association ground in Ulster. Listed as one of the venues for the UK and Ireland's successful UEFA Euro 2028 bid, with co-funding from the Irish government there are plans for a complete rebuild. In May 2020, the foundation of East Belfast GAA returned Gaelic Games to East Belfast after decades of its absence in the area. The current club president is Irish-language enthusiast Linda Ervine who comes from a unionist background in the area. The team currently plays in the Down Senior County League. The 1999 Heineken Cup champions Ulster Rugby play at Ravenhill Stadium in the south of the city. Belfast has four teams in rugby's All-Ireland League: Belfast Harlequins in Division 1B; and Instonians, Queen's University and Malone in Division 2A. Belfast is home to the Stormont cricket ground since 1949 and was the venue for the Irish cricket team's first ever One Day International against England in 2006. The 9,500 capacity SSE Arena accommodates the Belfast Giants, one of the biggest ice hockey clubs in the UK. Featuring Canadian, ex-NHL players, the club competes the British Elite Ice Hockey League. Belfast was the home town of former Manchester United player George Best, the 1968 European Footballer of the Year, who died in November 2005. On the day he was buried in the city, 100,000 people lined the route from his home on the Cregagh Road to Roselawn cemetery. Since his death the City Airport was named after him and a trust has been set up to fund a memorial to him in the city centre. Other sportspeople celebrated in the city include double world snooker champion Alex "Hurricane" Higgins and world champion boxers Wayne McCullough, Rinty Monaghan and Carl Frampton. Climate At , its northern latitude is characterised by short winter days and long summer evenings. During the winter solstice, the shortest day of the year, local sunset is before 16:00 while sunrise is around 08:45. At the summer solstice in June, the sun sets after 22:00 and rises before 05:00. For this northern latitude, thanks to the influence of the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift, Belfast has a comparatively mild climate. In summer the temperatures rarely range above or dip in winter below . The maritime influence, also ensures that the city gets significant precipitation. On 157 days in an average year, rainfall is greater than 1 mm. Average annual rainfall is , less than areas of northern England or most of Scotland, but higher than Dublin or the south-east coast of Ireland. With its moderate temperatures and abundant rainfall, Belfast's climate is defined as a temperate oceanic climate (Cfb in the Köppen climate classification system), a classification it shares with most of northwest Europe. from the Belfast city centre.}} elevation: , 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1982–present |collapsed = y |metric first = y |single line = y |Jan record high C = 15.0 |Feb record high C = 16.4 |Mar record high C = 19.7 |Apr record high C = 22.1 |May record high C = 25.4 |Jun record high C = 28.6 |Jul record high C = 30.2 |Aug record high C = 28.1 |Sep record high C = 23.7 |Oct record high C = 20.5 |Nov record high C = 17.1 |Dec record high C = 15.2 |Jan high C = 8.2 |Feb high C = 8.8 |Mar high C = 10.5 |Apr high C = 12.8 |May high C = 15.7 |Jun high C = 17.2 |Jul high C = 19.7 |Aug high C = 19.4 |Sep high C = 17.3 |Oct high C = 13.8 |Nov high C = 10.7 |Dec high C = 8.4 |year high C = 13.7 |Jan mean C = 5.2 |Feb mean C = 5.5 |Mar mean C = 6.8 |Apr mean C = 8.8 |May mean C = 11.4 |Jun mean C = 14.0 |Jul mean C = 15.6 |Aug mean C = 15.4 |Sep mean C = 13.5 |Oct mean C = 10.4 |Nov mean C = 7.4 |Dec mean C = 5.4 |year mean C = 9.9 |Jan low C = 2.2 |Feb low C = 2.1 |Mar low C = 3.1 |Apr low C = 4.7 |May low C = 7.0 |Jun low C = 9.7 |Jul low C = 11.6 |Aug low C = 11.5 |Sep low C = 9.6 |Oct low C = 6.9 |Nov low C = 4.2 |Dec low C = 2.3 |year low C = 6.3 |Jan record low C = -10.1 |Feb record low C = -7.1 |Mar record low C = -6.5 |Apr record low C = -3.8 |May record low C = -2.6 |Jun record low C = 1.3 |Jul record low C = 4.2 |Aug record low C = 2.5 |Sep record low C = 0.8 |Oct record low C = -3.0 |Nov record low C = -7.6 |Dec record low C = -13.5 |precipitation colour = green |Jan precipitation mm = 88.5 |Feb precipitation mm = 70.3 |Mar precipitation mm = 71.4 |Apr precipitation mm = 60.4 |May precipitation mm = 59.6 |Jun precipitation mm = 69.0 |Jul precipitation mm = 73.6 |Aug precipitation mm = 85.0 |Sep precipitation mm = 69.6 |Oct precipitation mm = 95.8 |Nov precipitation mm = 102.3 |Dec precipitation mm = 93.3 |year precipitation mm = 938.7 |unit precipitation days = 1.0 mm |Jan precipitation days = 14.4 |Feb precipitation days = 12.7 |Mar precipitation days = 12.6 |Apr precipitation days = 11.3 |May precipitation days = 11.5 |Jun precipitation days = 11.4 |Jul precipitation days = 13.0 |Aug precipitation days = 13.5 |Sep precipitation days = 11.6 |Oct precipitation days = 13.8 |Nov precipitation days = 15.5 |Dec precipitation days = 14.8 |year precipitation days = 156.2 |Jan sun = 40.1 |Feb sun = 65.2 |Mar sun = 97.7 |Apr sun = 157.1 |May sun = 185.1 |Jun sun = 151.1 |Jul sun = 146.3 |Aug sun = 141.9 |Sep sun = 112.0 |Oct sun = 92.4 |Nov sun = 52.9 |Dec sun = 35.3 |year sun = 1277.0 |source 1 Met Office | source 2 Starlings Roost Weather }} In fiction * John Greer Ervine, The Wayward Man (1927) * F. L. Green, Odd Man Out (1945), basis of Odd Man Out, a 1947 British film noir directed by Carol Reed, and starring James Mason, Robert Newton. * Brian Moore, The Emperor of Ice Cream (1965). * Maurice Leitch, ''Silver's City (1981) * Bernard MacLaverty, Cal (1983) * Robert McLiam Wilson, Eureka Street (1996) * Lucy Caldwell, Where They Were Missed (2005) * Anna Burns, Milkman (2018) * Louise Kennedy, Trespasses (2022) * Michael Magee, [https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/apr/21/close-to-home-by-michael-magee-review-belfast-struggles Close to Home]'' (2023) Notable people Georgian Belfast * Edward Bunting (1773–1843), Irish folklorist, organiser of the 1792 Belfast Harp Festival * Henry Cooke (1788–1868), Presbyterian Moderator, evangelist, proponent of "Protestant unity", commemorated in Cooke Memorial Church, May Street, and by the "Black Man" statue in College Square East * Waddell Cunningham (1729–1797), Trans-Atlantic trader, West-Indian slaveholder, Irish Volunteer, liberal patron * William Drennan (1754–1820), United Irishman, founder of the Royal Belfast Academical Institution (RBAI) * Mary Ann McCracken (1766–1866), United Irishwoman, social activist, abolitionist, sister of Henry Joy McCracken hanged 1798, statue at City Hall * James MacDonnell (1763–1845), physician, polymath patron of institutions since developed as the Royal Victoria Hospital, RBAI and the Linen Hall Library * Martha McTier (1742–1837), United Irishwoman, advocate for women's health and education * David Manson, (1726–1792), schoolmaster, pioneer of play and peer tutoring. Freedom of the Borough 1779 * Samuel Neilson (1761–1803), woollen merchant, publisher of the Northern Star, United Irishman * John Templeton (1766–1825), "Father of Irish Botany", patron of the town's scientific and literary societies Victorian Belfast * Thomas Andrews (1873–1912), chief naval architect at Harland & Wolff, went down with RMS Titanic * Joseph Biggar (1828–1890),"obstructionist" Irish nationalist MP, women's suffragist * Margaret Byers (1832–1912), educator, activist, social reformer, missionary, founder of Victoria College * Hugh "Roaring" Hanna (1821–1892), Protestant evangelist associated with sectarian riot, commemorated, until targeted and destroyed in the Troubles, by his statue and church at Carlisle Circus * Edward Harland (1831–1895) and Gustave Wolff (1834–1913), partners in the world's largest shipyard. Statue at City Hall * Bernard "Barney" Hughes (1808–1878), Ireland's largest miller and baker (producer of the Belfast bap), first elected Catholic town councillor * Otto Jaffe (1846–1929), business, and Jewish community, leader, twice Mayor of Belfast * William Johnston (1829–1902), Orangeman celebrated for breaking the Party Processions Act, Belfast MP, women's suffragist * Richard Rutledge Kane (1841–1898), Orange Order Grand Master, patron of the first Belfast branch of the Gaelic League * Charles Lanyon (1813–1889), architect of main ("Lanyon") building of Queens University, the Palm House, Botanic Gardens, Linenhall Library, Belfast Castle and Crumlin Road Goal and Courthouse * Robert Shipboy MacAdam (1808–1895), Irish folklorist and linguist, honoured with Cardinal Ó Fiaich in Cultúrlann McAdam Ó Fiaich * John Mulholland (1819–1895), established the world's largest flax-spinning operation, York Street Mill; MP * William Pirrie (1847–1924), Chairman of Harland & Wolff, Mayor of Belfast; Freedom of the city, 1898. Statue at City Hall. * William Thomson, Lord Kelvin (1824–1907), physicist renowned for his work on mechanical energy and heat; memorial statue stands before the Ulster Museum * Isabella Tod (1836–1896), suffragist, with William Johnston secured the municipal vote for women, 1888 Early 20th century * Winifred Carney (1887–1943), suffragist, rebel 1916, labour activist, statue at City Hall * Thomas Carnduff (1886–1956), shipyard poet, playwright, trade unionist, Independent Orangeman. * Edward Carson (1854–1935), leader of Ulster Unionism in the Home Rule Crisis; memorial statue stands before Parliament Buildings at Stormont * William Conor (1881–1968), painter renowned for his sympathetic portrayals of working-class life * William Conway (1913–1977), Cardinal and All--Ireland Primate, co-founder of Trócaire * James Craig (1871–1940), Ulster Unionist, first Prime Minister of Northern Ireland * Joseph Devlin (1871–1934), journalist, Irish nationalist Westminster and Stormont MP, President of the Ancient Order of Hibernians * Harry Ferguson (1884–1960), developer of the modern agricultural tractor, first person in Ireland to build and fly an aeroplane * John Hewitt (1907–1987), poet ("The Bloody Brae"). Freedom of the City 1983 * C. S. Lewis (1898–1963), writer and Anglican lay theologian; honoured as author of The Chronicles of Narnia in C. S. Lewis Square, East Belfast * Margaret McCoubrey (1880–1955), militant WPSU suffragette, peace campaigner, Labour City Councillor * Harry Midgley (1893–1957), labour union and party organiser, post-war Unionist Minister for Education * Alexander "Buck Alec" Robinson (1901–1995), docklands streetfighter and loyalist gunman. Kept lions in his Sailortown home * Betty Sinclair (1910–1981), Communist party activist, 1932 Outdoor Relief protest, Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association chair * Joseph Tomelty (1911–1995), stage and screen (Odd Man Out) actor, writer and broadcaster * William Walker (1871–1918), unionist labour organiser and vice-chair of the British Labour Party * Ernest Walton (1903–95), with John Cockcroft Nobel Prize for splitting the atom Late 20th century * Gerry Adams (born 1948), reputed republican paramilitary (PIRA) leader, president of Sinn Féin; MP Belfast West. rtd. * Derek Bell (1935–2002), harpist, musicologist and composer, The Chieftains * George Best (1946–2005), football international, iconic sports figure, City Airport named in his honour * Wayne McCullough (born 1970), Olympic Games Silver Medalist and World Boxing Council Champion * May Blood (1938–2022), shop steward in one of the city's last linen mills, community worker, co-founder Northern Ireland Women's Coalition * Ciaran Carson (1948–2019), writer, poet (Belfast Confetti) * George Cassidy (1936–2023), jazz musician and music teacher * Mairéad Corrigan (born 1944), with Betty Williams awarded the 1976 Nobel Peace Prize, as co-founder of Women for Peace / the Peace People, critic of US and UK foreign policy * David Ervine (1953–2007), loyalist paramilitary (UVF) veteran, leader of the pro-Agreement Progressive Unionist Party; MLA * Gerry Fitt (1926–2005), Republican Labour/SDLP MP. Deputy Chief of the first NI power-sharing executive, 1974 * David Hammond (1928–2008), teacher, singer, broadcaster, and film-maker who documented the culture of the city's shipyards and streets * Terri Hooley (born 1948), key figure in the Belfast punk scene, celebrated in the 2013 biopic Good Vibrations * Brian Keenan (1942–2008), directed PIRA bombing in the city, interlocutor for arms decommissioning * Helen Lewis (née Katz; 1916–2009), Holocaust survivor, teacher and choreographer, pioneer in Northern Ireland of modern dance * Brian Moore (1921–1999), novelist (The Lonely Passion of Judith Hearne, The Emperor of Ice Cream) * Van Morrison (born 1945), singer-songwriter and musician * Ian Paisley (1926–2014), Protestant evangelist (Martyrs Memorial Church, Belfast), founder of the DUP, NI First Minister * Saidie Patterson (1906–1985), feminist, trade unionist, peace activist. * Fr Alec Reid (1931–2013), Catholic priest, mediator in the Hume–Adams talks, Northern Ireland peace process * David Trimble (1944–2022), Ulster Unionist leader, Nobel Peace Prize laureate, NI First Minister * Andy Tyrie (born 1940), loyalist paramilitary (UDA) leader (rtd), Ulster Workers' Council strike, NI peace process advocate * Fr. Des Wilson (1925–2019), dissident Catholic priest, west Belfast community activist, republican-loyalist mediator Twin towns – sister cities Belfast City Council takes part in the twinning scheme, and is twinned with the following sister cities: * Nashville, Tennessee, United States (since 1994) * Hefei, Anhui, China (since 2005) * Boston, Massachusetts, United States (since 2014) * Shenyang, Liaoning, China (since 2016) * Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Freedom of the City Those who have received the Freedom of the City * Sir Kenneth Branagh: 30 January 2018. * Andrew Carnegie: 28 September 1910. * Sir Winston Churchill: 16 December 1955. * Bill Clinton, 9 April 2018 * Sir Robert Hart, 1 July 1908 * John Hewitt: 26 May 1983 * Sir John Jordan: 28 September 1910. * Michael Longley: 23 March 2015 * George J. Mitchell, 9 April 2018 * Nurses of Belfast, 1 December 2015 * Royal Ulster Constabulary and Reserve: 30 May 1980 * William Pirrie, 1st Viscount Pirrie: 1898, the first person to be awarded Freedom Of The City of Belfast. Notes References Bibliography * Jonathan Bardon (1982), Belfast An illustrated History. Belfast: Blackstaff Press, * J. C. Beckett et al. (1983), Belfast, The Making of a City. Belfast: Appletree Press, * Ian Budge & Cornelius O'Leary (1973, 2016), Belfast: Approach to Crisis. A Study of Belfast Politics, 1613-1970. London: Palgrave Macmillan, * Ciaran Carson (1997), The Star Factory. London: Granta Books, ISBN 9781862071179 * Feargal Cochrane (2023), Belfast: The Story of a City and its People. Yale University Press. * S. J. Connolly ed. (2012), Belfast 400: People, Place and History, Liverpool University Press. * Maurice Goldring (1991), Belfast, From Loyalty to Rebellion. London: Lawrence & Wishart, ISBN 978-0-85315-722-81 * Robert Johnstone (1990), Belfast, Portraits of a City, London: Barrie & Jenkins. * William Maguire (2009), Belfast, A History, Lancaster: Carnegie. * Bill Meulemans (2013), Belfast, Both Sides Now. Create Space. * Raymond O'Regan (2010), Hidden Belfast: Benevolence, Blackguards and Balloon Heads. Dublin: Mercier Press. * Raymond O'Regan, Arthur Magee (2014), The Little Book of Belfast. The History Press. * Marcus Patton (1993), Central Belfast, An Historical Gazetteer. Belfast: Ulster Architectural Heritage Society. External links * [https://www.belfastcity.gov.uk/ Belfast City Council] * [https://visitbelfast.com/ Visit Belfast] Category:Capital cities in the United Kingdom Category:Cities in Northern Ireland Category:Districts of Northern Ireland, 1972–2015 Category:Districts of Northern Ireland, 2015-present Category:Populated coastal places in the United Kingdom Category:Port cities and towns in Northern Ireland Category:Port cities and towns of the Irish Sea
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast
2025-04-05T18:27:03.696817
5047
Biotite
| IMAsymbolBt | system = Monoclinic | class = Prismatic (2/m) <br/><small>(same H-M symbol)</small> | symmetry = C2/m | color = Dark brown, greenish-brown, blackish-brown, yellow | habit = Massive to platy | twinning = Common on the [310], <br/>less common on the {001} | cleavage = Perfect on the {001} | fracture = Micaceous | tenacity = Brittle to flexible, elastic | mohs = 2.5–3.0 | luster = Vitreous to pearly | polish | refractive n<sub>α</sub> 1.565–1.625 <br/>n<sub>β</sub> 1.605–1.675 <br/>n<sub>γ</sub> = 1.605–1.675 | opticalprop = Biaxial (-) | birefringence δ 0.03–0.07 | dispersion = r < v (Fe rich); <br/>r > v weak (Mg rich) | pleochroism = Strong | fluorescence= None | absorption | streak White | gravity 2.7–3.3 |var1Manganophyllite|var1textK(Fe,Mg,Mn)<sub>3</sub>AlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>10</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub>}} Biotite is a common group of phyllosilicate minerals within the mica group, with the approximate chemical formula . It is primarily a solid-solution series between the iron-endmember annite, and the magnesium-endmember phlogopite; more aluminous end-members include siderophyllite and eastonite. Biotite was regarded as a mineral species by the International Mineralogical Association until 1998, when its status was changed to a mineral group. The term biotite is still used to describe unanalysed dark micas in the field. Biotite was named by J.F.L. Hausmann in 1847 in honor of the French physicist Jean-Baptiste Biot, who performed early research into the many optical properties of mica. Members of the biotite group are sheet silicates. Iron, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, oxygen, and hydrogen form sheets that are weakly bound together by potassium ions. The term "iron mica" is sometimes used for iron-rich biotite, but the term also refers to a flaky micaceous form of haematite, and the field term Lepidomelane for unanalysed iron-rich Biotite avoids this ambiguity. Biotite is also sometimes called "black mica" as opposed to "white mica" (muscovite) – both may form in the same rocks, and in some instances side by side. Properties Like other mica minerals, biotite has a highly perfect basal cleavage, and consists of flexible sheets, or lamellae, which easily flake off. It has a monoclinic crystal system, with tabular to prismatic crystals with an obvious pinacoid termination. It has four prism faces and two pinacoid faces to form a pseudohexagonal crystal. Although not easily seen because of the cleavage and sheets, fracture is uneven. It appears greenish to brown or black, and even yellow when weathered. It can be transparent to opaque, has a vitreous to pearly luster, and a grey-white streak. When biotite crystals are found in large chunks, they are called "books" because they resemble books with pages of many sheets. The color of biotite is usually black and the mineral has a hardness of 2.5–3 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Biotite dissolves in both acid and alkaline aqueous solutions, with the highest dissolution rates at low pH. However, biotite dissolution is highly anisotropic with crystal edge surfaces (h k0) reacting 45 to 132 times faster than basal surfaces (001). <gallery widths"180px" heights"120px" > File:Biotite mica 2 (31739438210).jpg|Flaky biotite sheets. File:BiotitaEZ.jpg|Thick biotite sample featuring many sheets. File:Biotite1.jpg|Biotite crystal exhibiting pseudohexagonal shape. </gallery> Optical properties In thin section, biotite exhibits moderate relief and a pale to deep greenish brown or brown color, with moderate to strong pleochroism. Biotite has a high birefringence which can be partially masked by its deep intrinsic color. Under cross-polarized light, biotite exhibits extinction approximately parallel to cleavage lines, and can have characteristic bird's eye maple extinction, a mottled appearance caused by the distortion of the mineral's flexible lamellae during grinding of the thin section. Basal sections of biotite in thin section are typically approximately hexagonal in shape and usually appear isotropic under cross-polarized light. <gallery widths"180px" heights"120px" > File:Muscovite and Biotite2a.jpg|Biotite (in brown) and muscovite in an orthogneiss thin section under plane-polarized light. File:Thin Section of Biotite (test) (cropped to Biotite).jpg|Biotite in thin section under cross-polarized light. File:Sagenitic biotite.JPG|Basal section of biotite, with needle-like rutile inclusions, in thin section under plane-polarized light. </gallery> Structure Like other micas, biotite has a crystal structure described as TOT-c, meaning that it is composed of parallel TOT layers weakly bonded to each other by cations (c). The TOT layers in turn consist of two tetrahedral sheets (T) strongly bonded to the two faces of a single octahedral sheet (O). It is the relatively weak ionic bonding between TOT layers that gives biotite its perfect basal cleavage. The tetrahedral sheets consist of silica tetrahedra, which are silicon ions surrounded by four oxygen ions. In biotite, one in four silicon ions is replaced by an aluminium ion. The tetrahedra each share three of their four oxygen ions with neighboring tetrahedra to produce a hexagonal sheet. The remaining oxygen ion (the apical oxygen ion) is available to bond with the octahedral sheet. The octahedral sheet in biotite is a trioctahedral sheet having the structure of a sheet of the mineral brucite, with magnesium or ferrous iron being the usual cations. Apical oxygens take the place of some of the hydroxyl ions that would be present in a brucite sheet, bonding the tetrahedral sheets tightly to the octahedral sheet. Tetrahedral sheets have a strong negative charge, since their bulk composition is AlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>10</sub><sup>5-</sup>. The trioctahedral sheet has a positive charge, since its bulk composition is M<sub>3</sub>(OH)<sub>2</sub><sup>4+</sup> (M represents a divalent ion such as ferrous iron or magnesium) The combined TOT layer has a residual negative charge, since its bulk composition is M<sub>3</sub>(AlSi<sub>3</sub>O<sub>10</sub>)(OH)<sub>2</sub><sup>−</sup>. The remaining negative charge of the TOT layer is neutralized by the interlayer potassium ions. Because the hexagons in the T and O sheets are slightly different in size, the sheets are slightly distorted when they bond into a TOT layer. This breaks the hexagonal symmetry and reduces it to monoclinic symmetry. However, the original hexahedral symmetry is discernible in the pseudohexagonal character of biotite crystals. <gallery> File:Mica T.png|View of tetrahedral sheet structure of biotite. The apical oxygen ions are tinted pink. File:Mica tO.png|View of trioctahedral sheet structure of biotite. The binding sites for apical oxygen are shown as white spheres. Red spheres are hydroxide ions. File:Mica tOs.png|View of trioctahedral sheet structure of mica emphasizing magnesium or iron sites File:Mica tri.png|View of biotite structure looking at surface of a single layer File:Mica tri side.png|View of biotite structure looking along sheets </gallery> Occurrence Members of the biotite group are found in a wide variety of igneous and metamorphic rocks. For instance, biotite occurs in the lava of Mount Vesuvius and in the Monzoni intrusive complex of the western Dolomites. Biotite in granite tends to be poorer in magnesium than the biotite found in its volcanic equivalent, rhyolite. Biotite is an essential phenocryst in some varieties of lamprophyre. Biotite is occasionally found in large cleavable crystals, especially in pegmatite veins, as in New England, Virginia and North Carolina USA. Other notable occurrences include Bancroft and Sudbury, Ontario Canada. It is an essential constituent of many metamorphic schists, and it forms in suitable compositions over a wide range of pressure and temperature. It has been estimated that biotite comprises up to 7% of the exposed continental crust. An igneous rock composed almost entirely of dark mica (biotite or phlogopite) is known as a glimmerite or biotitite. Biotite may be found in association with its common alteration product chlorite. <gallery widths"180px" heights"120px" > File:Biotite Granite student sample.jpg|Biotite-bearing granite samples (small black minerals). File:Biotite Gneiss.JPG|Biotite-bearing gneiss sample. File:Biotite and chlorite gneiss mg 7971.jpg|Gneiss sample bearing biotite and chlorite (green), a common alteration product of biotite. File:Sheet mica, Namibia.jpg|Glimmerite from Namibia. </gallery> Uses Biotite is used extensively to constrain ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or argon–argon dating. Because argon escapes readily from the biotite crystal structure at high temperatures, these methods may provide only minimum ages for many rocks. Biotite is also useful in assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks, because the partitioning of iron and magnesium between biotite and garnet is sensitive to temperature. References Bibliography * External links Category:Magnesium minerals Category:Iron(II) minerals Category:Potassium minerals Category:Aluminium minerals Category:Phyllosilicates Category:Monoclinic minerals Category:Minerals in space group 12 Category:Mica group
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotite
2025-04-05T18:27:03.707121
5048
Brigham Young
1870 | alt = Black-and-white head shot of Young facing left | birth_date = | birth_place = Whitingham, Vermont, U.S. | death_date = | death_place = Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, U.S. | death_cause = Ruptured appendix | resting_place = Brigham Young Cemetery | resting_place_coordinates | boards | spouse 56 (See List of Brigham Young's wives) and 57 children.}} His teachings are contained in the 19 volumes of transcribed and edited sermons in the Journal of Discourses. His legacy and impact are seen throughout the American West, including numerous memorials, temples, and schools named in his honor. In 2016, Young was estimated to have around 30,000 descendants. Early life , Joseph, and John.]] Young was born on June 1, 1801, in Whitingham, Vermont. He was the ninth child of John Young and Abigail "Nabby" Howe. Young's father was a farmer, and when Young was three years old his family moved to upstate New York, settling in Chenango County. Young received little formal education, but his mother taught him how to read and write. At age twelve, he moved with his parents to the township of Genoa, close to Cayuga Lake. His mother died of tuberculosis in June 1815. Following her death, he moved with his father to Tyrone, New York. While there, Young's father remarried to a widow named Hannah Brown and sent Young off to learn a trade. Young moved to Auburn, New York, where he was an apprentice to John C. Jeffries. He worked as a carpenter, glazier, and painter. One of the homes that Young helped paint in Auburn belonged to Elijah Miller and later to William Seward, and is now a local museum. With the onset of the Panic of 1819, Jeffries dismissed Young from his apprenticeship, and Young moved to Port Byron, which was then called Bucksville. Young reported having a strict Puritan-style Christian upbringing. He used tobacco but did not drink alcohol. He refused to sign a temperance pledge, however, stating that "if I sign the temperance pledge I feel that I am bound, and I wish to do just right, without being bound to do it; I want my liberty." Young married Miriam Angeline Works, whom he had met in Port Byron in October 1824. They first resided in a small house adjacent to a pail factory, which was Young's main place of employment at the time. Their daughter, Elizabeth, was born on September 26, 1825. According to William Hayden, Young participated in the Bucksville Forensic and Oratorical Society. Young converted to the Reformed Methodist Church in 1824 after studying the Bible. Upon joining the Methodists, he insisted on being baptized by immersion rather than by their normal practice of sprinkling. In 1828, the family moved briefly to Oswego, New York, on the shore of Lake Ontario, and in 1828 to Mendon, New York. Young's father, two brothers, and sister had already moved to Mendon. In Mendon, Young first became acquainted with Heber C. Kimball, an early member of the LDS Church. Young worked as a carpenter and joiner, and built and operated a saw mill. Latter Day Saint conversion celestial room. Young titled the painting, Delivering the Law of the Lord. On the table are a Book of Mormon and Bible, and a third book titled, [https://www.josephsmithpapers.org/paper-summary/the-book-of-the-law-of-the-lord/1 "Law of the Lord,"] ]] By the time Young moved to Mendon in 1828, he had effectively left the Reformed Methodist Church and become a Christian seeker, unconvinced that he had found a church possessing the true authority of Jesus Christ. Sometime in 1830, Young was introduced to the Book of Mormon by way of a copy that his brother, Phineas Howe, had obtained from Samuel H. Smith. Young did not immediately accept the divine claims of the Book of Mormon. In 1831, five missionaries of the Latter Day Saint movement—Eleazer Miller, Elial Strong, Alpheus Gifford, Enos Curtis, and Daniel Bowen—came from the branch of the church in Columbia, Pennsylvania, to preach in Mendon. A key element of the teachings of this group in Young's eyes was their practicing of spiritual gifts like speaking in tongues and prophecy. This was partly experienced when Young traveled with his wife, Miriam, and Heber C. Kimball to visit the branch of the church in Columbia. After meeting Joseph Smith, Young joined the Church of Christ in April 9, 1832. He was baptized by Eleazer Miller. Young's siblings and their spouses were baptized that year or the year afterwards. In April 1832, a branch of the church was organized in Mendon; eight of the fifteen families were Youngs. There, Young saw Alpheus Gifford speak in tongues, and in response, Young also spoke in tongues. Young and Kimball spent the summer following their baptism conducting missionary work in western New York, while Vilate Kimball cared for Young's family. After Miriam died of consumption, Vilate continued to care for Brigham's children while he, Heber, and Joseph Young traveled to visit Joseph Smith in Kirtland, Ohio. During the visit, Brigham spoke in a tongue that Smith identified as the "Adamic language". After visiting Joseph Smith in Kirtland, Brigham set out to preach with his brother Joseph in the winter of 1832–1833. Joseph had been a Reformed Methodist preacher and the two made a similar "preaching circuit" in eastern Canada. They described the Book of Mormon as the "stick of Joseph", mentioned in Ezekiel 37. Young continued to preach in eastern Canada in the spring and accompanied two Canadian converts to Kirtland in July 1833. Young and his two daughters moved to Kirtland along with the Kimball family later that summer. Here he became acquainted with Mary Ann Angell, a convert to the faith from Rhode Island, and the two were married in February 1834 and obtained a marriage certificate on March 31, 1834. while another lists it as February 10. Young also served a year-long mission to the United Kingdom. There, he showed a talent for organizing the church's work and maintaining good relationships with Joseph Smith and the other apostles. Under his leadership, members in the United Kingdom began publishing Millennial Star, a hymnal, and a new edition of the Book of Mormon. Young also served in various leadership and community organization roles among church members in Nauvoo. He joined the Nauvoo city council in 1841 and oversaw the first baptisms for the dead in the unfinished Nauvoo temple. He joined the Masons in Nauvoo on April 7, 1842, and participated in an early endowment ritual led by Joseph Smith that May and became part of the Anointed Quorum. Young and the other apostles directed the church's missionary work and the immigration of new converts from this point forward. Young served another mission to the Eastern seaboard. During his time in Nauvoo, Joseph Smith introduced the doctrine of plural marriage among church leaders. Young performed the sealing ordinances for two of Joseph Smith's plural wives in early 1842. Young proposed marriage to Martha Brotherton, who was seventeen years old at the time and had recently immigrated from Manchester, England. Brotherton signed an affidavit saying that she had been pressured by Young and then Smith to accept polygamy. The affidavit was created at John C. Bennett's request, after his excommunication and in conjunction with his distribution of false information combined with true information about the church's practice of polygamy. Brigham Young and William Smith discredited Brotherton's character, and Brotherton herself did not associate with the church afterwards. Young campaigned against Bennett's allegations that Joseph Smith practiced "spiritual wifery"; Young knew of Smith's hidden practice of polygamy. He also helped to convince Hyrum to accept polygamy. Young married Lucy Ann Decker in June 1842, making her his first plural wife. Young knew her father, Isaac Decker, in New York. Lucy was still married to William Seeley when Young married her. Young supported her and her two children while they lived in their own home in Nauvoo. Lucy and Young had seven children together. Young was one of the first men in Nauvoo to practice polygamy, and he married more women than any other polygamist while in Nauvoo. While in Nauvoo, he married Clarissa Decker, Clarissa Ross, Emily Dow Partidge, Louisa Beaman, Margaret Maria Alley, Emmeline Free, Margaret Piece, and Zina Diantha Huntington. These wives bore him children after they moved to Utah. He also married in Nauvoo, but did not have children with Augusta Adams Cobb, Susannah Snively, Eliza Bowker, Ellen A. Rockwood, and Namah K. J. Carter. Eight of Young's plural marriages in Nauvoo were to Joseph Smith's widows. Young traveled east with Wilford Woodruff and George A. Smith from July to October 1843 on a mission to raise funds for the Nauvoo temple and its guesthouse. Young's six-year-old daughter Mary Ann died while he was on this mission. On November 22, 1843, Young and his wife Mary Ann received the second anointing, a ritual that assured them that their salvation and exaltation would occur. In March 1844, Brigham Young was an inaugural member of the Council of Fifty, which later organized the Mormon exodus from Nauvoo. In 1844, Young traveled east again to solicit votes for Joseph Smith in his presidential campaign. In June 1844, while Young was away, Joseph Smith was killed by an armed mob who stormed the jail where he was awaiting trial for the charge of treason. Young did not learn of the assassination until early July. Several claimants to fill the leadership vacuum emerged during the succession crisis that ensued. Church members gathered at a meeting on August 8, 1844, with the intent to choose between two claimants, Young and Sidney Rigdon, the senior surviving member of the church's First Presidency. At the meeting, Rigdon argued no one could succeed Smith and that he (Rigdon) should become Smith's "spokesman" and guardian of the church. Young argued that the church needed more than a spokesman and that the twelve apostles, not Rigdon, had "the fullness of the priesthood" necessary to succeed Smith's leadership. Young claimed access to revelation to know God's choice of successor because of his position as an apostle. The majority of attendants voted that the Quorum of the Twelve was to lead the church. Many of Young's followers stated in reminiscent accounts (the earliest in 1850 and the latest in 1920) that when Young spoke to the congregation, he miraculously looked or sounded exactly like Smith, which they attributed to the power of God. On August 7, Young suggested that the members of the camp be re-baptized to signify a re-dedication to their beliefs and covenants. Young spent just over a month in the Valley recovering from mountain fever before returning to Winter Quarters on August 31. Young's expedition was one of the largest and one of the best organized westward treks, and he made various trips back and forth between the Salt Lake Valley and Winter Quarters to assist other companies in their journeys. After three years of leading the church as the President of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, Young reorganized a new First Presidency and was sustained as the second president of the church on December 27, 1847, at Winter Quarters. Young named Heber C. Kimball as his first counselor and Willard Richards as his second. Young and his counselors were again sustained unanimously by church members at a church conference in Salt Lake City in September 1850. Governor of Utah Territory The Utah Territory was created by Congress as part of the Compromise of 1850, and as colonizer and founder of Salt Lake City, Young was appointed the territory's first governor and superintendent of American Indian affairs by President Millard Fillmore on February 3, 1851. He was sworn in by Justice Daniel H. Wells for a salary of $1,500 a year and named as superintendent of Indian Affairs for an additional $1,000. During his time as governor, Young directed the establishment of settlements throughout present-day Utah, Idaho, Arizona, Nevada, California, and parts of southern Colorado and northern Mexico. Under his direction, the Mormons built roads, bridges, forts, and irrigation projects; established public welfare; organized a militia; issued a "selective extermination" order against male Timpanogos; and after a series of wars, eventually made peace with the Native Americans. Young was also one of the first to subscribe to Union Pacific stock, for the construction of the First transcontinental railroad. He also authorized the construction of the Utah Central railroad line, which connected Salt Lake City to the Union Pacific transcontinental railroad. Young organized the first Utah Territorial Legislature and established Fillmore as the territory's first capital. Young established a gold mint in 1849 and called for the minting of coins using gold dust that had been accumulated from travelers during the Gold Rush. The mint was closed in 1861 by Alfred Cumming, gubernatorial successor to Young. Young also organized a board of regents to establish a university in the Salt Lake Valley. It was established on February 28, 1850, as the University of Deseret; its name was eventually changed to the University of Utah. In 1849, Young arranged for a printing press to be brought to the Salt Lake Valley, which was later used to print the Deseret News periodical. In 1851, Young and several federal officials—including territorial Secretary Broughton Harris—became unable to work cooperatively. Within months, Harris and the others departed their Utah appointments without replacements being named, and their posts remained unfilled for the next two years. These individuals later became known as the Runaway Officials of 1851. Young supported slavery and its expansion into Utah and led the efforts to legalize and regulate slavery in the 1852 Act in Relation to Service, based on his beliefs on slavery. Young said in an 1852 speech, "In as much as we believe in the Bible... we must believe in slavery. This colored race have been subjected to severe curses... which they have brought upon themselves." Seven years later in 1859, Young stated in an interview with the New York Tribune that he considered slavery a "divine institution... not to be abolished". In 1856, Young organized an efficient mail service known as the Brigham Young Express and Carrying Company, which transported mail and passengers between Missouri and California. In 1858, following the events of the Utah War and Mountain Meadows Massacre, he stepped down to his gubernatorial successor, Alfred Cumming. LDS Church president Young served for 29 years as the LDS Church president and is the longest-serving in that role. Educational endeavors , 1855]] During time as prophet and governor, Young encouraged bishops to establish grade schools for their congregations, which would be supported by volunteer work and tithing payments. Young viewed education as a process of learning how to make the Kingdom of God a reality on earth, and at the core of his "philosophy of education" was the belief that the church had within itself all that was necessary to save mankind materially, spiritually, and intellectually. On October 16, 1875, Young deeded buildings and land in Provo, Utah, to a board of trustees for establishing an institution of learning, ostensibly as part of the University of Deseret. Young said, "I hope to see an Academy established in Provo ... at which the children of the Latter-day Saints can receive a good education unmixed with the pernicious atheistic influences that are found in so many of the higher schools of the country." and was the precursor to Brigham Young University. Within the church, Young reorganized the Relief Society for women in 1867 and created organizations for young women in 1869 and young men in 1875. The Young Women organization was first called the Retrenchment Association and was intended to promote the turning of young girls away from the costly and extravagant ways of the world. It later became known as the Young Ladies Mutual Improvement Association and was a charter member of the National Council of Women and International Council of Women. Young also organized a committee to refine the Deseret alphabet—a phonetic alphabet that had been developed sometime between 1847 and 1854. At its prime, the alphabet was used in two Deseret News articles, two elementary readers, and in a translation of the Book of Mormon. By 1870, it had all but disappeared from use.Temple buildingYoung was involved in temple building throughout his membership in the LDS Church, making it a priority during his time as church president. Under Smith's leadership, Young participated in the building of the Kirtland and Nauvoo temples. Just four days after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, Young designated the location for the Salt Lake Temple; he presided over its groundbreaking years later on April 6, 1853. During his tenure, Young oversaw construction of the Salt Lake Tabernacle and announced plans to build the St. George (1871), Manti (1875), and Logan (1877) temples. He also provisioned the building of the Endowment House, a "temporary temple", which began to be used in 1855 to provide temple ordinances to church members while the Salt Lake Temple was under construction. Teachings The majority of Young's teachings are contained in the 19 volumes of transcribed and edited sermons in the Journal of Discourses. The LDS Church's Doctrine and Covenants contains one section from Young that has been canonized as scripture, added in 1876. Polygamy Though polygamy was practiced by Young's predecessor, Joseph Smith, the practice is often associated with Young. Some Latter Day Saint denominations, such as the Community of Christ, consider Young the "Father of Mormon Polygamy". In 1853, Young made the church's first official statement on the subject since the church had arrived in Utah. Young acknowledged that the doctrine was challenging for many women, but stated its necessity for creating large families, proclaiming: "But the first wife will say, 'It is hard, for I have lived with my husband twenty years, or thirty, and have raised a family of children for him, and it is a great trial to me for him to have more women;' then I say it is time that you gave him up to other women who will bear children." Young believed that sexual desire was given by God to ensure the perpetuation of humankind and believed sex should be confined to marriage. Adam-God doctrine and blood atonement One of the more controversial teachings of Young during the Mormon Reformation was the Adam–God doctrine. According to Young, he was taught by Smith that Adam is "our Father and our God, and the only God with whom we have to do". According to the doctrine, Adam was once a mortal man who became resurrected and exalted. From another planet, Adam brought Eve, one of his wives, with him to the earth, where they became mortal by eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. After bearing mortal children and establishing the human race, Adam and Eve returned to their heavenly thrones where Adam acts as the god of this world. Later, as Young is generally understood to have taught, Adam returned to the earth to become the biological father of Jesus. The LDS Church has since repudiated the Adam–God doctrine. Young also taught the doctrine of blood atonement, in which the atonement of Jesus cannot redeem an eternal sin, which included apostasy, theft, fornication (but not sodomy), or adultery. Instead, those who committed such sins could partially atone for their sin by sacrificing their life in a way that sheds blood. The LDS Church has formally repudiated the doctrine as early as 1889 and multiple times since the days of Young. Race restrictions on temples, priesthood, and interracial marriage Young is generally considered to have instituted a church ban against conferring the priesthood on men of black African descent, who had generally been treated equally to white men in this respect under Smith's presidency. After settling in Utah in 1848, Young announced the ban, In 1863, Young stated: "Shall I tell you the law of God in regard to the African race? If the white man who belongs to the chosen seed mixes his blood with the seed of Cain, the penalty, under the law of God, is death on the spot. This will always be so." Young was also a vocal opponent of theories of human polygenesis, being a firm voice for stating that all humans were the product of one creation. Throughout his time as prophet, Young went to great lengths to deny the assumption that he was the author of the practice of priesthood denial to black men, asserting instead that the Lord was. According to Young, the matter was beyond his personal control and was divinely determined rather than historically or personally as many assumed. Young taught that the day would come when black men would again have the priesthood, saying that after "all the other children of Adam have the privilege of receiving the Priesthood, and of coming into the kingdom of God, and of being redeemed from the four-quarters of the earth, and have received their resurrection from the dead, then it will be time enough to remove the curse from Cain and his posterity." These racial restrictions remained in place until 1978, when the policy was rescinded by church president Spencer W. Kimball, and the church subsequently "disavow[ed] theories advanced in the past" to explain this ban, essentially attributing the origins of the ban solely to Young. Mormon Reformation During 1856 and 1857, a period of renewed emphasis on spirituality within the church known as the Mormon Reformation took place under Young's direction. The Mormon Reformation called for a spiritual reawakening among members of the church and took place largely in the Utah Territory. Jedediah M. Grant, one of the key figures of the Reformation and one of Young's counselors, traveled throughout the Territory, preaching to Latter-day Saint communities and settlements with the goal of inspiring them to reject sin and turn towards spiritual things. As part of the Reformation, almost all "active" or involved LDS Church members were rebaptized as a symbol of their commitment. At a church meeting on September 21, 1856, Brigham Young stated: "We need a reformation in the midst of this people; we need a thorough reform." Large gatherings and meetings during this period were conducted by Young and Grant, and Young played a key role in the circulation of the Mormon Reformation with his emphasis on plural marriage, rebaptism, and passionate preaching and oration. It was during this period that the controversial doctrine of blood atonement was occasionally preached by Young, though it was repudiated in 1889 and never practiced by members of the church. Conflicts Shortly after the arrival of Young's pioneers, the new Latter-day Saint colonies were incorporated into the United States through the Mexican Cession. Young petitioned the U.S. Congress to create the State of Deseret. The Compromise of 1850 instead carved out Utah Territory, and Young was appointed governor. As governor and church president, Young directed both religious and economic matters. He encouraged independence and self-sufficiency. Many cities and towns in Utah, and some in neighboring states, were founded under Young's direction. Young's leadership style has been viewed as autocratic. Utah War When federal officials received reports of widespread and systematic obstruction of federal officials in Utah (most notably judges), U.S. President James Buchanan decided in early 1857 to install a non-Mormon governor. Buchanan accepted the reports of the Runaway Officials without any further investigation, and the new non-sectarian governor was appointed and sent to the new territory accompanied by 2,500 soldiers. When Young received word in July that federal troops were headed to Utah with his replacement, he called out his militia to ambush the federal force using delaying tactics. During the defense of Utah, now called the Utah War, Young held the U.S. Army at bay for a winter by taking their cattle and burning supply wagons. Young eventually reached a settlement with the aid of a peace commission and agreed to step down as governor. Buchanan later pardoned Young. Mountain Meadows Massacre ) and an exploring party camped at the Colorado River in 1870]] The degree of Young's involvement in the Mountain Meadows Massacre, which took place in Washington County in 1857, is disputed. Leonard J. Arrington reports that Young received a rider at his office on the day of the massacre, and that when he learned of the contemplated attack by members of the church in Parowan and Cedar City, he sent back a letter directing that the Fancher party be allowed to pass through the territory unmolested. Young's letter reportedly arrived on September 13, 1857, two days after the massacre. As governor, Young had promised the federal government he would protect migrants passing through Utah Territory, but over 120 men, women, and children were killed in this incident. There is no debate concerning the involvement of individual Mormons from the surrounding communities by scholars. Only children under the age of seven, who were cared for by local Mormon families, survived, and the murdered members of the wagon train were left unburied. The remains of about 40 people were later found and buried, and U.S. Army officer James Henry Carleton had a large cross made from local trees, the transverse beam bearing the engraving, "Vengeance Is Mine, Saith The Lord: I Will Repay" and erected a cairn of rocks at the site. A large slab of granite was put up on which he had the following words engraved: "Here 120 men, women and children were massacred in cold blood early in September, 1857. They were from Arkansas." For two years, the monument stood as a memorial to those traveling the Spanish Trail through Mountain Meadow. According to Wilford Woodruff, Young brought an entourage to Mountain Meadows in 1861 and suggested that the monument instead read "Vengeance is mine and I have taken a little". Death in Salt Lake City.]] Before his death in Salt Lake City on August 29, 1877, Young suffered from cholera morbus and inflammation of the bowels. It is believed that he died of peritonitis from a ruptured appendix. His last words were "Joseph! Joseph! Joseph!", invoking the name of the late Joseph Smith Jr., founder of the Latter Day Saint movement. On September 2, 1877, Young's funeral was held in the Tabernacle with an estimated 12,000 to 15,000 people in attendance. He is buried on the grounds of the Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monument in the heart of Salt Lake City. A bronze marker was placed at the grave site June 10, 1938, by members of the Young Men and Young Women organizations, which he founded.Business ventures and wealthYoung engaged in a vast assortment of commercial ventures by himself and in partnership with others. These included a wagon express company, a ferryboat company, a railroad, and the manufacturing of processed lumber, wool, sugar beets, iron, and liquor. Young achieved greatest success in real estate. He also tried to promote Mormon self-sufficiency by establishing collectivist communities, known as the United Order of Enoch. Young was also involved in the organization of the Salt Lake Gas Works, the Salt Lake Water Works, an insurance company, a bank, and the ZCMI store in downtown Salt Lake City. In 1873, he announced that he would step down as president of the Deseret National Bank and of ZCMI, as well as from his role as trustee-in-trust for the church. He cited as his reason for this that he was ready to relieve himself from the burden of "secular affairs". At the time of his death, Young was the wealthiest man in Utah, with an estimated personal fortune of $600,000 (alternatively, "Modern Moses" or "Mormon Moses"), because, like the biblical figure, Young led his followers, the Mormon pioneers, in an exodus through a desert, to what they saw as a promised land. Young was dubbed by his followers the "Lion of the Lord" for his bold personality and commonly was called "Brother Brigham" by Latter-day Saints. A century after Young's death, historian Rodman W. Paul wrote, He credited Young's leadership with helping to settle much of the American West: Memorials to Young include a bronze statue in front of the Abraham O. Smoot Administration Building, Brigham Young University; a marble statue in the National Statuary Hall Collection at the United States Capitol, donated by the State of Utah in 1950; and a statue atop the This is the Place Monument in Salt Lake City. Views of race and slavery Young believed in the racial superiority of white men. His manuscript history from January 5, 1852, which was published in the Deseret News, reads:<blockquote>The negro … should serve the seed of Abraham; he should not be a ruler, nor vote for men to rule over me nor my brethren. The Constitution of Deseret is silent upon this, we meant it should be so. The seed of Canaan cannot hold any office, civil or ecclesiastical. … The decree of God that Canaan should be a servant of servants unto his brethren (i.e., Shem and Japhet [sic]) is in full force. The day will come when the seed of Canaan will be redeemed and have all the blessings their brethren enjoy. Any person that mingles his seed with the seed of Canaan forfeits the right to rule and all the blessings of the Priesthood of God; and unless his blood were spilled and that of his offspring he nor they could not be saved until the posterity of Canaan are redeemed.</blockquote> Young adopted the idea of the Curse of Ham—a racist interpretation of Genesis 9 which white proponents of slavery in antebellum America used to justify enslaving black people of African descent—and applied it liberally and literally. Young also predicted a future in which Chinese and Japanese people would immigrate to America. He averred that Chinese and Japanese immigrants would need to be governed by white men as they would have no understanding of government. Young had a somewhat mixed view of slavery which historian John G. Turner called a "bundle of contradictions". In the 1840s, Young strove to keep aloof from nationwide political debates over slavery, avoiding committing to either antislavery or proslavery positions. In the early 1850s, he expressed some support for the antislavery "free soil" position in American politics, and in January 1852, he declared in a speech that "no property can or should be recognized as existing in slaves", suggesting opposition to the existence of slavery. However, two weeks later Young declared himself a "firm believer in slavery". By the time of his death, Young had fifty-seven children by sixteen of his wives; forty-six of his children reached adulthood. There were fifty-six women who Young was sealed to during his lifetime. While the majority of the sealings were "for eternity", some were "for time only", meaning that Young was sealed to these women as a proxy for their previous husbands who had died. Researchers state that not all of the fifty-six marriages were conjugal. Of Young's fifty-six wives, twenty-one had never been married before; seventeen were widows; six were divorced; six had living husbands; and the marital status of six others is unknown. At the time of Young's death, nineteen of his wives had predeceased him; he was divorced from ten, and twenty-three survived him. The status of four was unknown. Some of Young's descendants have become leaders in the LDS Church, as well as prominent political and cultural figures.In culture In comics Florence Claxton's The Adventures of a Woman in Search of Her Rights (1872), satirizes a would-be emancipated woman whose failure to establish an independent career results in her marriage to Young before she wakes to discover she's been dreaming. Brigham Young appears at the end of the bande dessinée Le Fil qui chante, the last in the Lucky Luke series by René Goscinny. In literature The Scottish poet John Lyon, who was an intimate friend of Young, wrote Brigham the Bold in tribute to him after his death. Arthur Conan Doyle gave Brigham Young a minor but pivotal in-person role in the Sherlock Holmes short novel A Study in Scarlet. Young appears here in a scene set in 1860, some time before the novel's publication in 1887. Doyle had based this work, the first Holmes story, in part on Mormon history and portrays the Mormons and Young unsympathetically. When asked to comment, Doyle responded that he "provoked the animosity of the Mormon faithful" and that "all I said about the Danite Band and the murders is historical so I cannot withdraw that though it is likely that in a work of fiction it is stated more luridly than in a work of history." Doyle's daughter stated that, "You know father would be the first to admit that his first Sherlock Holmes novel was full of errors about the Mormons." Mark Twain devoted a chapter and much of two appendices to Young in Roughing It. In the appendix, Twain describes Young as a theocratic "absolute monarch" defying the will of the U.S. government, and alleges using a dubious source that Young had ordered the Mountain Meadows massacre. Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr., talking about his fondness of trees, joked in his The Autocrat of the Breakfast-Table: "I call all trees mine that I have put my wedding-ring on, and I have as many tree-wives as Brigham Young has human ones." In Fitz-James O'Brien's 1857 short story, "My Wife's Tempter", Brigham Young is depicted as an "apostle of hell", whose villainous disciple compels the hero's wife to annul her marriage and marry a Mormon. In film and television Young has appeared in a number of films. Dean Jagger played him of the eponymous 1940 film Brigham Young. In The Avenging Angel (1995), he is played by Charlton Heston. Terence Stamp plays him in the 2007 film September Dawn. In Hell on Wheels (2011–2016), he is portayed by Gregg Henry. He is played by Kim Coates in the Netflix miniseries American Primeval (2025). In theater In the 2011 satirical musical The Book of Mormon, Young is portrayed as a tyrannical American regional warlord, cursed by God to have a clitoris for a nose—a parable cautioning against female genital mutilation. Literary works Since Young's death, a number of works have published collections of his discourses and sayings. * * * * * * * * * LDS Church [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/item/manual/teachings-brigham-young publication number 35554] * See also * Brigham Young (1940 film) * Brigham Young Forest Farmhouse * Brigham Young Winter Home and Office * This Is The Place Heritage Park * Ann Eliza Young<!-- alphabetized by surname--> *List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States Notes References Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * , republished online at . * * * * * * * . See also: The Mormon Prophet and His Harem. * * External links * * [http://archives.lib.byu.edu/repositories/14/resources/3665 Brigham Young Letters, MSS SC 890] at [https://sites.lib.byu.edu/sc/ L. Tom Perry Special Collections], Brigham Young University * [https://collections.lib.utah.edu/search?q=uum_ttb/ Tanner Trust Books] at [https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ University of Utah Digital Library], [https://lib.utah.edu/collections/special-collections/ Marriott Library Special Collections] August 29, 1877}} December 27, 1847}} December 27, 1847}} Category:1801 births Category:1877 deaths Category:People from Whitingham, Vermont Category:People from Mendon, New York Category:American Freemasons Category:American general authorities (LDS Church) Category:American carpenters Category:American Mormon missionaries in the United Kingdom Category:American people of English descent Category:American proslavery activists Category:Converts to Mormonism from Methodism Category:Governors of Utah Territory Category:American Mormon missionaries in Canada Category:Mormon pioneers Category:Mountain Meadows Massacre Category:Politicians from Salt Lake City Category:People pardoned by James Buchanan Category:Richards–Young family Category:American city founders Category:19th-century Mormon missionaries Category:Presidents of the Church (LDS Church) Category:Apostles (LDS Church) Category:Presidents of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles (LDS Church) Category:Apostles of the Church of Christ (Latter Day Saints) Category:People of the Utah War Category:Doctrine and Covenants people Category:Deaths from peritonitis Category:Burials at the Mormon Pioneer Memorial Monument Category:Religious leaders from Vermont Category:Latter Day Saints from Utah Category:Latter Day Saints from Vermont Category:Latter Day Saints from Ohio Category:Latter Day Saints from Illinois Category:Latter Day Saints from New York (state) Category:University and college founders Category:Child marriage in the United States Category:Miracle workers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigham_Young
2025-04-05T18:27:03.756711
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Burns supper
A Burns supper is a celebration of the life and poetry of the poet Robert Burns (25 January 175921 July 1796), the author of many Scots poems. The suppers are usually held on or near the poet's birthday, 25 January, known as Burns Night (; ) also called Robert Burns Day or Rabbie Burns Day (or Robbie Burns Day in Canada). Sometimes, celebrations are also held at other times of the year. Burns suppers are held all around the world. alt=Burns Supper with haggis, neeps and tatties and a glass of whisky|thumb|Burns supper with haggis, neeps and tatties and a glass of whisky. History thumb|upright|Programme for an 1859 'Birth of Burns' event, held at Newcastle upon Tyne, England (transcription) The first supper was held in memoriam at Burns Cottage in Ayrshire by Burns's friends, on 21 July 1801, the fifth anniversary of his death. The first still extant Burns Club was founded in Greenock in 1801 by merchants who were born in Ayrshire, some of whom had known Burns. They held the first Burns supper on what they thought was his birthday, 29 January 1802, but in 1803, they discovered the Ayr parish records that noted his date of birth was actually 25 January 1759. Since then, suppers have been held on or about 25 January. The Scottish Parliament considers the celebration of Burns Night each year to be a key cultural heritage event.The Parliament welcomes the annual celebration of Scotland’s national poet, Robert Burns, which is held on 25 January each year to mark the Bard’s birthday; considers that Burns was one of the greatest poets and that his work has influenced thinkers across the world; notes that Burns' first published collection, Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect, also known as the "Kilmarnock Edition", published in 1786, did much to popularise and champion the Scots language, and considers that this is one of his most important legacies; believes that the celebration of Burns Night is an opportunity to raise awareness of the cultural significance of Scots and its status as one of the indigenous languages of Scotland, and further believes in the importance of the writing down of the Scots language to ensure its continuation through written documentation, as well as oral tradition.thumb|Poetry to accompany haggis eating Burns suppers can be formal or informal. Both typically include haggis (a traditional Scottish dish celebrated by Burns in Address to a Haggis), Scotch whisky and the recitation of Burns's poetry. Formal dinners are hosted by organisations such as universities, sporting clubs, Burns Clubs, the Freemasons or St. Andrew's Societies; they occasionally end with dancing or a cèilidh. During the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, Burns Night celebrations moved online and were popular amongst families eating at home. Formal suppers follow a standard order. Standard order Piping in guests A bagpiper sometimes greets the guests, who gather and mix as at any informal party. Host's welcoming speech The host welcomes the guests to the supper and states the occasion. Sometimes, the song "O Flower of Scotland" is sung at the beginning. All the guests are then seated and grace is said, usually using the "", a thanksgiving said before meals that uses the Scots language. Although attributed to Burns, the Selkirk Grace was already known in the 17th century as the "Galloway Grace" or the "Covenanters' Grace". It came to be called the Selkirk Grace because Burns was said to have delivered it at a dinner given by the 4th Earl of Selkirk. Selkirk Grace but in recent decades, a vegetarian alternative is often available. It is usually brought in by the cook on a large dish, generally while a bagpiper leads the way to the host's table, where the haggis is laid down. "A Man's A Man for A' That", "Robbie Burns Medley" or "The Star O' Robbie Burns" can be played. The host or a guest then recites the Address to a Haggis. "Address to a Haggis" thumb|right|upright|Addressing the haggis Original textIdiomatic translationNice seeing your honest, chubby face,Great chieftain of the sausage race!Above them all you take your place,Belly, tripe, or links:Well are you worthy of a graceAs long as my arm.The groaning platter there you fill,Your buttocks like a distant hill,Your pin would help to mend a millIn time of need,While through your pores the dews distillLike amber bead.His knife see rustic Labour sharpen,And cut you up with practiced skill,Trenching your gushing entrails bright,Like any ditch;And then, Oh what a glorious sight,Warm-steaming, rich!Then, spoon for spoon, they stretch and strive:Devil take the hindmost, on they drive,'Til all their well-swollen bellies soonAre tight as drums;Then old Master, most likely to burst,"Thanks be" hums.Is there one, that over his French ragout,Or olio that would give pause to a sow,Or fricassee that would make her spewWith perfect loathing,Looks down with sneering, scornful viewOn such a dinner?Poor devil! See him over his trash,As feeble as a withered rush,His spindly leg a good whip-lash,His fist a nit:Through bloody flood or field to dash,Oh how unfit!But mark the Rustic, haggis-fed,The trembling earth resounds his tread,Clap in his sturdy fist a blade,He'll make it whistle;And legs and arms, and heads will cut,Like tops of thistle.You Pow'rs, that make mankind your care,And dish them out their bill of fare,Old Scotland wants no watery wareThat slops in bowls:But, if You wish her grateful prayer,Give her a Haggis! At the line , the speaker normally draws and sharpens a knife. At the line , he plunges it into the haggis and cuts it open from end to end. When done properly, the "ceremony" is a highlight of the evening. Main course thumb|A cooked haggis thumb|Haggis, neeps and tatties on a plate. At the end of the poem, a whisky toast will be proposed to the haggis, and the company will sit down to the meal. The haggis is traditionally served with mashed potatoes (tatties) and mashed swede turnip (neeps). Other courses A dessert course, cheese courses, and coffee may also be part of the meal. The courses normally use traditional Scottish recipes. For instance, dessert may be cranachan or tipsy laird (whisky trifle), followed by oatcakes and cheese, all washed down with the "water of life" (), Scotch whisky. Toasts When the meal reaches the coffee stage, speeches and toasts are given. Immortal memory The main speaker gives a speech remembering some aspect of Burns's life or poetry. It may be either light-hearted or serious, and may include the recitation of a poem or a song by Burns. A toast to the Immortal Memory of Robert Burns then follows. Address to the Lassies This was originally a short speech given by a male guest in thanks to the women who had prepared the meal. However, it is now much more wide-ranging and generally covers the male speaker's view on women. The men drink a toast to the women's health. Reply to the Laddies This is occasionally (and humorously) called the "Toast to the Laddies". Like the previous toast, it is generally now quite wide-ranging. A female guest will give her views on men and reply to any specific points raised by the previous speaker. Quite often, the speakers giving this toast and the previous one will collaborate so that the two toasts complement each other. Works by Burns After the speeches there may be singing of songs by Burns (such as "Ae Fond Kiss", "Such a Parcel of Rogues in a Nation", and "A Man's A Man for A' That") and more poetry (such as "To a Mouse", "To a Louse", "Tam o' Shanter", "The Twa Dogs", and "Holy Willie's Prayer"). That may be done by the individual guests or by invited experts. It may include other works by poets influenced by Burns, particularly poets writing in Scots. Closing Finally, the host will call on one of the guests to give the vote of thanks. Then, everyone is asked to stand, join hands, and sing "". See also Burns' Day storm List of dining events Scottish cuisine References External links A 2007 Supper for Mauchline Burns Club, presented with explanations of each stage A recital of Address to a Haggis Address to the Unco Guid or the rigidly righteous A film recording of the 145th Burns Supper from 1971 at the Irvine Burns Club. Largest Burns supper BBC – Robert Burns – Readers Category:Canadian traditions Category:Dining events Category:Events in Scotland Category:Haggis Category:January observances Category:Language observances Category:Cultural depictions of Robert Burns Category:Scottish cuisine Category:Culture of Scotland Category:Scottish traditions Category:Winter events in Scotland
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burns_supper
2025-04-05T18:27:03.774300
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Bill Bryson
| image = Neil MacGregor, Bill Bryson, Claire Walker, Huw Edwards (28449155987) (Bryson cropped).jpg | caption = Bryson in 2018 | office = Chancellor of Durham University | 1blankname = | 1namedata = | term_start = 5 November 2005 | term_end = 31 December 2011 | predecessor = Peter Ustinov | successor = Thomas Allen | birth_name = William McGuire Bryson | birth_date | birth_place = Des Moines, Iowa, U.S. | party | spouse | children = 4 | education | alma_mater Drake University (BA) | awards | signature | citizenship = United States<br>United Kingdom }} William McGuire Bryson ( ; born 8 December 1951) is an American-British journalist and author. Bryson has written a number of nonfiction books on topics including travel, the English language, and science. Born in the United States, he has been a resident of Britain for most of his adult life, returning to the U.S. between 1995 and 2003, and holds dual American and British citizenship. He served as the chancellor of Durham University from 2005 to 2011. In 1995, while in the United Kingdom, Bryson authored Notes from a Small Island, an exploration of Britain. In 2003, he authored A Short History of Nearly Everything. In October 2020, he announced that he had retired from writing books. In 2022, he recorded an audiobook for Audible, The Secret History of Christmas. He has sold over 16 million books worldwide.Early life and educationBryson was born and raised in Des Moines, Iowa, the son of Bill Bryson Sr., a sports journalist who worked for 50 years at The Des Moines Register, and Agnes Mary (née McGuire), the home furnishings editor at the same newspaper. His mother was of Irish descent. He had an older brother, Michael (1942–2012), and a sister, Mary Jane Elizabeth. In 2006, Bryson published The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid, a humorous account of his childhood years in Des Moines. Bryson attended Drake University for two years before dropping out in 1972, deciding instead to backpack around Europe for four months. He returned to Europe the following year with a high school friend, Matt Angerer (the pseudonymous Stephen Katz). Bryson wrote about some of his experiences from the trip in his book Neither Here nor There: Travels in Europe. Career in 2005]] Bryson first visited Great Britain in 1973 and decided to stay after securing a job working in a psychiatric hospital, the now-defunct Holloway Sanatorium in Virginia Water, Surrey. He met a nurse there, Cynthia Billen, whom he married in 1975. He worked as a journalist, first for the Bournemouth Evening Echo, eventually becoming chief copy editor of the business section of The Times and deputy national news editor of the business section of The Independent. The Brysons moved around the United Kingdom, living in Virginia Water (Surrey), Purewell (Dorset), Burton (Dorset), Kirkby Malham, and the Old Rectory in Wramplingham, Norfolk (2003–2013). They currently live in rural Hampshire and maintain a small flat in South Kensington, London. Although able to apply for British citizenship, Bryson said in 2010 that he had declined a citizenship test, declaring himself "too cowardly" to take it. In 2014, he said that he was preparing to take it and in the prologue to his 2015 book The Road to Little Dribbling: More Notes From a Small Island he describes doing so, in Eastleigh. His citizenship ceremony took place in Winchester and he now holds dual citizenship. In 2003, in conjunction with World Book Day, British voters chose Bryson's book Notes from a Small Island as that which best summed up British identity and the state of the nation. Also in 2003, he was appointed a Commissioner for English Heritage. His popular science book, the 500-page A Short History of Nearly Everything, explores not only the histories and current statuses of the sciences, but also their humble and often humorous beginnings. Although one "top scientist" is alleged to have jokingly described the book as "annoyingly free of mistakes", Bryson makes no such claim, and a list of some of its reported errors is available online. In November 2006, Bryson interviewed the prime minister, Tony Blair, on the state of science and education. Bryson also wrote two popular works on the history of the English language, The Mother Tongue and Made in America—and, more recently, an update of his guide to usage, ''Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words (first published as The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words in 1983). He also released a podcast, Bill Bryson's Appliance of Science'', in 2017. Litigation In 2012, Bryson sued his agent, Jed Mattes Inc., (which had been taken over by a man named Fred Morris upon Mattes death in 2003) in New York County Supreme Court, claiming it had "failed to perform some of the most fundamental duties of an agent". The case was settled out of court with confidential terms. In 2013, Bryson claimed copyright on an interview he had given nearly 20 years previously, after the interviewer republished it as an 8,000-word e-book. Amazon removed the e-book from publication. Awards, positions and honours In 2004, he won the Aventis Prize for best general science book that year, with A Short History of Nearly Everything. In 2005, the book won the European Union's Descartes Prize for science communication. He had praised Durham as "a perfect little city" in Notes from a Small Island. With the Royal Society of Chemistry, the Bill Bryson Prize for Science Communication was established in 2005. The competition engages students from around the world in explaining science to non-experts. As part of its 350th anniversary celebrations in 2010 the Royal Society commissioned Bryson to edit a collection of essays by scientists and science writers about the history of science and the Royal Society over the previous three and a half centuries entitled Seeing Further. He was made an honorary Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for his contribution to literature on 13 December 2006. In 2007, he was awarded the James Joyce Award by the Literary and Historical Society of University College Dublin. After he received British citizenship, his OBE was made substantive. In May 2007, he became the president of the Campaign to Protect Rural England. His first focus in this role was the establishment of an anti-littering campaign across England. He discussed the future of the countryside with Richard Mabey, Sue Clifford, Nicholas Crane, and Richard Girling at CPRE's Volunteer Conference in November 2007. In October 2010, it was announced that Bryson would step down as chancellor of Durham University at the end of 2011. In 2012, he received the Kenneth B. Myer Award, from the Florey Institute of Neuroscience, in Melbourne, Australia. On 22 November 2012, Durham University officially renamed the Main Library the Bill Bryson Library for his contributions as the university's 11th chancellor (2005–2011). The library also has a cafe named after Bryson's book Notes from a Small Island. Bryson was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2013, becoming the first non-Briton to receive this honour. His biography at the Society reads, <blockquote>Bill Bryson is a popular author who is driven by a deep curiosity for the world we live in. Bill's books and lectures demonstrate an abiding love for science and an appreciation for its social importance. His international bestseller, A Short History of Nearly Everything (2003), is widely acclaimed for its accessible communication of science and has since been adapted for children.</blockquote> He is a Vice President of the National Churches Trust. In January 2007, Bryson was the Schwartz Visiting Fellow at the Pomfret School in Connecticut.Honorary doctorates* Honorary Doctorate, The Open University, 2002 * Honorary Doctor of Civil Law, Durham University, 2004 * Honorary Doctorate, Bournemouth University, 2005 * Honorary Doctorate, University of St Andrews, 2005 * DLitt, University of Leeds, 2005 * Honorary Doctorate, University of Leicester, 2009 * Doctor of Humane Letters, Drake University, 2009 * Honorary Doctorate, King's College London, 13 November 2012 * Honorary Doctorate, University of Westminster, 2015 * Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters, University of Iowa, May 2016 * Honorary Doctorate for services to literature, University of Winchester, October 2016 Bibliography Bryson has written the following books: {| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:90%; text-align:left" |- ! Title !! style=white-space:nowrap|Publication date !! Genre !! Notes |- |The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words|| || Language || Republished, in 2002, as ''Bryson's Dictionary of Troublesome Words |- |The Palace under the Alps and Over 200 Other Unusual, Unspoiled and Infrequently Visited Spots in 16 European Countries|| || Travel || |- |The Lost Continent: Travels in Small-Town America|| || Travel || |- |The Mother Tongue: English and How It Got That Way (US) / Mother Tongue: The English Language (UK) || || Language || Adapted for Journeys in English in 2004 for BBC Radio 4. |- |The Penguin Dictionary for Writers and Editors || || Language || Republished, in 2009, as Bryson's Dictionary: for Writers and Editors |- |Neither Here nor There: Travels in Europe || || Travel ||Featuring Stephen Katz |- |Made in America (UK) / Made in America: An Informal History of the English Language in the United States (U.S.) || || Language || |- |Notes from a Small Island || || Travel || Adapted for television by Carlton Television in 1998 |- |A Walk in the Woods: Rediscovering America on the Appalachian Trail || || Travel || Featuring Stephen Katz and adapted into a feature film in 2015 |- |Notes from a Big Country (UK) / I'm a Stranger Here Myself (U.S.) || || Travel || |- |Down Under (UK) / In a Sunburned Country (U.S.) || || Travel || Republished, in 2002, as an omnibus with A Walk in the Woods titled Walkabout |- |Bill Bryson's African Diary || || Travel || Travels in Africa for CARE International |- |A Short History of Nearly Everything'' || || Science || Adapted, in 2009, as an illustrated children's edition titled A Really Short History of Nearly Everything |- |The Life and Times of the Thunderbolt Kid: Travels Through My Childhood || || Memoir || |- |Shakespeare: The World as Stage || || Biography || |- |At Home: A Short History of Private Life || || History || |- |One Summer: America, 1927 || || History || |- |The Road to Little Dribbling: More Notes from a Small Island || || Travel || |- |The Body: A Guide for Occupants || <ref name="thebody" />|| Science || Illustrated edition published in 2022; children's edition A Really Short Journey Through the Body published in 2023 |- |The Secret History of Christmas<ref name"theguardian.com"/>|| || History || Released as an audiobook |} References External links * [https://openlibrary.org/search?qbill+bryson&author_keyOL21718A Works] at Open Library * Category:1951 births Category:20th-century American essayists Category:20th-century American historians Category:20th-century American male writers Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers Category:20th-century American travel writers Category:20th-century British essayists Category:20th-century British historians Category:20th-century British male writers Category:20th-century British non-fiction writers Category:20th-century British travel writers Category:20th-century educational theorists Category:21st-century American biographers Category:21st-century American essayists Category:21st-century American historians Category:21st-century American male writers Category:21st-century American memoirists Category:21st-century American non-fiction writers Category:21st-century American travel writers Category:21st-century British biographers Category:21st-century British essayists Category:21st-century British historians Category:21st-century British male writers Category:21st-century British memoirists Category:21st-century British non-fiction writers Category:21st-century British travel writers Category:21st-century educational theorists Category:American agnostics Category:American educational theorists Category:American emigrants to England Category:American historians of science Category:American humorists Category:American lexicographers Category:American male biographers Category:American male essayists Category:American male non-fiction writers Category:American non-fiction outdoors writers Category:American people of Irish descent Category:American science communicators Category:American science writers Category:American social historians Category:American travel writers Category:Audiobook narrators Category:British agnostics Category:British Book Award winners Category:British educational theorists Category:British historians of science Category:British humorists Category:British lexicographers Category:British male biographers Category:British male essayists Category:British male non-fiction writers Category:British non-fiction outdoors writers Category:British people of Irish descent Category:British science communicators Category:British science writers Category:British social historians Category:British travel writers Category:Chancellors of Durham University Category:Drake University alumni Category:Hikers Category:Historians from Iowa Category:Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Lexicographers of English Category:Literacy and society theorists Category:Living people Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire Category:Writers from Hanover, New Hampshire Category:People with multiple citizenship Category:The Times people Category:Walkers of the United Kingdom Category:Writers about activism and social change Category:Writers from Des Moines, Iowa
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Bryson
2025-04-05T18:27:03.796528
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Big Audio Dynamite
| years_active = | label = | website | past_members * Mick Jones * Don Letts * Dan Donovan * Leo Williams * Greg Roberts * Nick Hawkins * Gary Stonadge * Chris Kavanagh * Andre Shapps * Michael 'Zonka' Custance * Daryl Fulstow * Bob Wond * Ranking Roger }} Big Audio Dynamite (later known as Big Audio Dynamite II and Big Audio, and often abbreviated BAD) were an English band, formed in London in 1984 by Mick Jones, former lead guitarist and co-lead vocalist of the Clash. The band mixed various musical styles, incorporating elements of punk rock, dance music, hip hop, reggae, and funk. After releasing a number of well-received studio albums and touring extensively throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Big Audio Dynamite broke up in 1997. In 2011, the band embarked on a reunion tour. History T.R.A.C. (1984) After being fired from the Clash in 1983 and following a brief stint with new wave band General Public, Mick Jones formed a new band called Top Risk Action Company (T.R.A.C.). He recruited bassist Leo "E-Zee Kill" Williams, saxophonist John "Boy" Lennard (from post-punk band Theatre of Hate), and former Clash drummer Topper Headon. Headon was quickly fired for his heroin addiction and Lennard either left or was fired and the band folded. Although the band released no material (only demos were recorded, which have yet to be officially released), T.R.A.C. can be seen as a forerunner to Big Audio Dynamite in much the same way that London SS can be seen as an early incarnation of the Clash. Big Audio Dynamite (1984–1990) Jones then formed Big Audio Dynamite with film director Don Letts (maker of 1978 film The Punk Rock Movie, various Clash music videos, and later the Clash documentary Westway to the World in 2000), bassist Leo Williams (from T.R.A.C.), drummer Greg Roberts, and keyboardist Dan Donovan. In November 1985 the band's debut studio album, This Is Big Audio Dynamite, was released. The album's cover shows the band as a four-piece, minus Donovan who took and designed the photograph. 1986's No. 10, Upping St. reunited Jones for one last album with former Clash lyricist and lead vocalist Joe Strummer, who was credited with co-producing the album and co-writing five of its nine tracks. BAD supported Irish rock band U2 on their Joshua Tree Tour on certain dates, then released 1988's Tighten Up Vol. 88 and 1989's Megatop Phoenix. Tighten Up, Vol. 88 contained "Just Play Music!", which was the second No. 1 single on Billboards Modern Rock Tracks chart. In 1990, the original line-up wrote and recorded the song "Free" for the soundtrack to the adventure comedy film Flashback, starring Dennis Hopper and Kiefer Sutherland. This would be the final song written with the original line-up, as the band would break-up shortly after. "The Bottom Line" from the band's first album was remixed and used as the title track for Flashback (1990). However, this track was not included on the film's official soundtrack. It can be found on the 12" or by download. Later in 1990, Jones debuted Big Audio Dynamite II and released the UK only studio album Kool-Aid. Keyboardist Dan Donovan remained in BAD II for one song, a re-working of the final BAD track "Free" renamed "Kickin' In". Big Audio Dynamite II (1991–1993) For 1991's The Globe, only Jones remained from the original incarnation of Big Audio Dynamite, and the band was now called "Big Audio Dynamite II". This new line-up featured two guitarists. The album sleeve was designed by Shawn Stussy. The Globe (1991) featured the band's most commercially successful single, "Rush", which hit No. 1 on both the US Modern Rock Tracks chart and the Australian National ARIA Chart. "Rush" was also released in the United Kingdom with the 1991 re-release of the Clash's "Should I Stay or Should I Go". The sleeve art for the 7-inch and CD singles displayed the Clash on the front, and BAD II on the rear with the record label displaying "Should I Stay or Should I Go" as side "A" and "Rush" as side "AA". Even though it was effectively a double A-side release, the Chart Information Network/Gallup decided that only the Clash would be credited with a number one hit. "Innocent Child" and "The Globe" were also released as singles. BAD supported U2 on their Zoo TV Tour, headlined the MTV 120 Minutes tour which also featured Public Image Ltd, Live, and Blind Melon, and released the live EP "On the Road Live '92". In 1991, while Jones formed Big Audio Dynamite II, the rest of the original line-up briefly formed a band called Screaming Target. They released one studio album Hometown Hi-Fi and two singles "Who Killed King Tubby?" and "Knowledge N Numbers" before disbanding. The title and album cover art were purposely meant as a tribute to Jamaican reggae deejay Big Youth's debut studio album Screaming Target (1972). In 1993, Greg Roberts formed the electronic band Dreadzone with Tim Bran, with the name suggested to them by Don Letts. Bassist Leo Williams and keyboardist Dan Donovan joined the band before their second studio album Second Light and the single "Little Britain" in 1995. Dreadzone is still active, with Roberts and Williams remaining members. Big Audio (1994) The band later recruited keyboardist Andre Shapps (co-producer of The Globe, brother of MP Grant Shapps and Mick Jones's cousin) and DJ Michael "Lord Zonka" Custance as DJ and vocalist. Both appeared on the band's seventh studio album Higher Power (1994), which was released under the shortened name "Big Audio". Final years and subsequent activities (1995–2010) After signing a recording contract with Gary Kurfirst's Radioactive Records in 1995, the band reverted to the original "Big Audio Dynamite" moniker and released their least successful studio album to date, F-Punk (1995). Radioactive Records refused to release the next proposed BAD studio album, Entering a New Ride. The line-up contained MC vocals by Joe Attard of Punks Jump Up, Ranking Roger of the Beat and General Public and drummer Bob Wond of Under Two Flags. In 1998, the band launched a new website, primarily intended as a means to distribute songs from the Entering a New Ride album. In 2001, after having only released 6 songs from the album, the website went down and Big Audio Dynamite disbanded. Their final studio album was never properly released in its entirety, but it has been heavily leaked online for fans who wished to hear it. Since 2005, Jones has been working on a project with Tony James (formerly of Generation X and Sigue Sigue Sputnik) called Carbon/Silicon. In early 2007, a live, eight-song DVD from BAD II was released; it is entitled Big Audio Dynamite Live: EMC².2011 reunionIn 2010, Don Letts revealed to Billboard.com that he and Mick Jones broached the idea of a Big Audio Dynamite reunion in 2011. He explained, "I could lie to you and say 'Not in a million years', but... if Mick wasn't tied up with Gorillaz it might happen this year. (Jones) has looked at me and said, 'Maybe next year', but who knows. I've got to admit that in the past I'm not a great one for reformations; I always think if you're lucky in life, you get a window of opportunity, use it to the best of your ability and then fuck off and let someone else have their turn. But here I am 25 years down the line considering the thing". Besides a Big Audio Dynamite reunion, Letts said he was also hopeful for more Legacy Editions of the band's studio albums after finding more unreleased material—including live recordings—in the vaults. "There's definitely more stuff; whether Sony thinks it's worthwhile, that's another matter. But there seems to be a lot of respect for Big Audio Dynamite. Time has shown that a lot of the things we were dabbling in back then have come to manifest themselves today...so hopefully we'll get to do some more". The reformation of the original line-up of BAD was confirmed on 25 January 2011 with the announcement of a UK tour. The 9-date tour was a commercial and critical success. The first of their two sold out Shepherd's Bush Empire shows received a 4-star review in The Times ('Not just a reformation - this is their time'), The Observer welcomed BAD's return with a glowing review declaring, 'they remain a joy'. Their headline slot at Beautiful Days festival was favourably reviewed on the Louder Than War music website. Big Audio Dynamite played sets at the 2011 Outside Lands Music and Arts Festival, Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, Glastonbury Festival 2011, Rock en Seine and Lollapalooza.MembersTimeline Big Audio Dynamite (1984–1990, 2011) *Mick Jones – vocals, guitar *Don Letts – vocals, samples *Dan Donovan – keyboards, backing vocals *Leo Williams – bass, backing vocals *Greg Roberts – drums, backing vocals Big Audio Dynamite II (1990–1993) *Mick Jones – vocals, guitar *Nick Hawkins – guitar, backing vocals *Gary Stonadge – bass, backing vocals *Chris Kavanagh – drums, backing vocals Big Audio (1994–1995) *Mick Jones – vocals, guitar *Nick Hawkins – guitar, backing vocals *Gary Stonadge – bass, backing vocals *Chris Kavanagh – drums, backing vocals *Andre Shapps – keyboards, programming, samples, percussion *Michael 'Zonka' Custance – DJ, keyboards, samples, percussion, backing vocals Big Audio Dynamite (1996–1998) *Mick Jones – vocals, guitar *Nick Hawkins – guitar *Andre Shapps – keyboards, programming, samples, percussion *Michael 'Zonka' Custance – DJ, keyboards, samples, percussion, gang vocals *Daryl Fulstow – bass *Bob Wond – drums *Joe Attard – MC *Ranking Roger – vocals {| class="wikitable" |+ ! !Big Audio Dynamite (1984–1990) !Big Audio Dynamite II (1990–1993) !Big Audio (1994–1995) !Big Audio Dynamite (1996–1998) !Big Audio Dynamite (2011) |- |Mick Jones |vocals, guitar |vocals, guitar |vocals, guitar |vocals, guitar |vocals, guitar |- |Don Letts |vocals, samples | | | |vocals, samples |- |Dan Donovan |keyboards, backing vocals | | | |keyboards |- |Leo Williams |bass, backing vocals | | | |bass |- |Greg Roberts |drums, backing vocals | | | |drums, backing vocals |- |Nick Hawkins | |guitar, backing vocals |guitar, backing vocals |guitar | |- |Gary Stonadge | |bass, backing vocals |bass, backing vocals | | |- |Chris Kavanagh | |drums, backing vocals |drums, backing vocals | | |- |Andre Shapps | | |keyboards, samples |keyboards, programming | |- |Michael 'Zonka' Custance | | |DJ, percussion, backing vocals |DJ, keyboards, samples | |- |Daryl Fulstow | | | |bass | |- |Bob Wond | | | |drums | |- |Joe Attard | | | |MC | |- |Ranking Roger | | | |vocals | |} Discography * This Is Big Audio Dynamite (1985) * No. 10, Upping St. (1986) * Tighten Up Vol. 88 (1988) * Megatop Phoenix (1989) * Kool-Aid (1990) * The Globe (1991) * Higher Power (1994) * F-Punk (1995) * Entering a New Ride (1997) References Further reading * External links * * * * Category:The Clash Category:English dance music groups Category:Musical groups established in 1984 Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1997 Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2011 Category:1984 establishments in England Category:Punk rock groups from London Category:Alternative dance musical groups Category:English post-punk music groups Category:British dance-rock musical groups Category:English funk rock musical groups
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Audio_Dynamite
2025-04-05T18:27:03.809002
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Bentley
| industry = Automotive | production 9,107 vehicles (2012) | 7,593 vehicles (2011)}} | products | services = Automobile customisation | revenue €1,453 million (2012) | €1,119 million (2011)}} | operating_income | net_income €8 million (2011) | −€245 million (2010) }} | assets | equity | num_employees 3,600 (2013) | owner | parent Audi | divisions | subsid | homepage = | footnotes }} Bentley Motors Limited is a British designer, manufacturer and marketer of luxury cars and SUVs. Headquartered in Crewe, England, the company was founded by W. O. Bentley (1888–1971) in 1919 in Cricklewood, North London, and became widely known for winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1924, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930 and 2003. Bentley has been a subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group since 1998 and consolidated under VW's premium brand arm Audi since 2022. Prominent models extend from the historic sports-racing Bentley 4½ Litre and Bentley Speed Six; the more recent Bentley R Type Continental, Bentley Turbo R, and Bentley Arnage; to its current model line, including the Flying Spur, Continental GT and Bentayga which are marketed worldwide, with China as its largest market as of November 2012. Today most Bentley models are assembled at the company's Crewe factory, with a small number assembled at Volkswagen's Dresden factory, Germany, and with bodies for the Continental manufactured in Zwickau and for the Bentayga manufactured at the Volkswagen Bratislava Plant. The joining and eventual separation of Bentley and Rolls-Royce followed a series of mergers and acquisitions, beginning with the 1931 purchase by Rolls-Royce of Bentley, then in receivership. In 1971, Rolls-Royce itself was forced into receivership and the UK government nationalised the company—splitting it into an aerospace company (Rolls-Royce Plc) and an automotive company (Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, including Bentley). Rolls-Royce Motors was subsequently sold to engineering conglomerate Vickers, and in 1998 Vickers sold Rolls-Royce to Volkswagen AG, including Bentley with its name and logos (but not the name "Rolls Royce"). History Cricklewood (1919–1931) Before World War I, Walter Owen Bentley and his brother, Horace Millner Bentley, sold French DFP cars in Cricklewood, North London, but W.O, as Walter was known, always wanted to design and build his own cars. At the DFP factory, in 1913, he noticed an aluminium paperweight and thought that aluminium might be a suitable replacement for cast iron to fabricate lighter pistons. The first Bentley aluminium pistons were fitted to Sopwith Camel aero engines during the First World War. The same day that the Paris Peace Conference to end World War I started, Walter Owen ("W.O.") Bentley founded Bentley Motors Limited, on 18 January 1919 and registered Bentley Motors Ltd. in August 1919. In October he exhibited a car chassis (with a dummy engine) at the London Motor Show. Ex–Royal Flying Corps officer Clive Gallop designed an innovative four-valves-per-cylinder engine for the chassis. By December the engine was built and running. Delivery of the first cars was scheduled for June 1920, but development took longer than estimated so the date was extended to September 1921. Bentley's first major event was the 1922 Indianapolis 500, a race dominated by specialized cars with Duesenberg racing chassis. They entered a modified road car driven by works driver Douglas Hawkes, accompanied by riding mechanic H. S. "Bertie" Browning. Hawkes completed the full and finished 13th with an average speed of after starting in 19th position. The team was then rushed back to England to compete in the 1922 RAC Tourist Trophy. Captain Woolf Barnato In an ironic reference to his heavyweight boxer's stature, Captain Woolf Barnato was nicknamed "Babe". In 1925, he acquired his first Bentley, a 3-litre. With this car, he won numerous Brooklands races. Just a year later, he acquired the Bentley business itself. The Bentley enterprise was always underfunded, but inspired by the 1924 Le Mans win by John Duff and Frank Clement, Barnato agreed to finance Bentley's business. Barnato had incorporated Baromans Ltd in 1922, which existed as his finance and investment vehicle. Via Baromans, Barnato initially invested in excess of £100,000, saving the business and its workforce. A financial reorganisation of the original Bentley company was carried out and all existing creditors paid off for £75,000. Existing shares were devalued from £1 each to just 1 shilling, or 5% of their original value. Barnato held 149,500 of the new shares giving him control of the company and he became chairman. Barnato injected further cash into the business: £35,000 secured by debenture in July 1927; £40,000 in 1928; £25,000 in 1929. With renewed financial input, W. O. Bentley was able to design another generation of cars. The Bentley Boys The Bentley Boys were a group of British motoring enthusiasts that included Barnato, Sir Henry "Tim" Birkin, steeple chaser George Duller, aviator Glen Kidston, automotive journalist S.C.H. "Sammy" Davis, and Dudley Benjafield. The Bentley Boys favoured Bentley cars. Many were independently wealthy and many had a military background. They kept the marque's reputation for high performance alive; Bentley was noted for its four consecutive victories at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, from 1927 to 1930. Birkin developed the 4½-litre, lightweight Blower Bentley at Welwyn Garden City in 1929 and produced five racing specials, starting with Bentley Blower No.1 which was optimised for the Brooklands racing circuit. Birkin overruled Bentley and put the model on the market before it was fully developed. As a result, it was unreliable. During the March 1930 Blue Train Races, Barnato raised the stakes on Rover and its Rover Light Six, having raced and beaten Le Train Bleu for the first time, to better that record with his 6½-litre Bentley Speed Six on a bet of £100. He drove against the train from Cannes to Calais, then by ferry to Dover, and finally London, travelling on public highways, and won. Barnato drove his H.J. Mulliner–bodied formal saloon in the race against the Blue Train. Two months later, on 21 May 1930, he took delivery of a Speed Six with streamlined fastback "sportsman coupé" by Gurney Nutting. Both cars became known as the "Blue Train Bentleys"; the latter is regularly mistaken for, or erroneously referred to as being, the car that raced the Blue Train, while in fact Barnato named it in memory of his race. A painting by Terence Cuneo depicts the Gurney Nutting coupé racing along a road parallel to the Blue Train, which scenario never occurred as the road and railway did not follow the same route.Cricklewood Bentleys 4-door sports saloon]] * 1921–1929 3-litre * 1926–1930 4½-litre & "Blower Bentley" * 1926–1930 6½-litre * 1928–1930 6½-litre Speed Six * 1930–1931 8-litre * 1931 4-litre The original model was the three-litre, but as customers put heavier bodies on the chassis, a larger 4½-litre model followed. Perhaps the most iconic model of the period is the 4½-litre "Blower Bentley", with its distinctive supercharger projecting forward from the bottom of the grille. Uncharacteristically fragile for a Bentley it was not the racing workhorse the 6½-litre was, though in 1930 Birkin remarkably finished second in the French Grand Prix at Pau in a stripped-down racing version of the Blower Bentley, behind Philippe Etancelin in a Bugatti Type 35. The 4½-litre model later became famous in popular media as the vehicle of choice of James Bond in the original novels, but this has been seen only briefly in the films. John Steed in the television series The Avengers also drove a Bentley. The new eight-litre was such a success that when Barnato's money seemed to run out in 1931 and Napier was planning to buy Bentley's business, Rolls-Royce purchased Bentley Motors to prevent it from competing with their most expensive model, the Phantom II. Performance at Le Mans 24 hours of Le Mans Grand Prix d'Endurance ]] * 1923 4th (private entry) (3-Litre) * 1924 1st (3-Litre) * 1925 did not finish * 1926 did not finish * 1927 1st 15th 17th (3-Litre) * 1928 1st 5th (4½-litre) * 1929 1st (Speed Six); 2nd 3rd 4th: (4½-litre) * 1930 1st 2nd (Speed Six) Bentley withdrew from motor racing just after winning at Le Mans in 1930, claiming that they had learned enough about speed and reliability.Liquidation The Wall Street crash of 1929 and the resulting Great Depression throttled the demand for Bentley's expensive motor cars. In July 1931 two mortgage payments were due which neither the company nor Barnato, the guarantor, were able to meet. On 10 July 1931 a receiver was appointed. Napier offered to buy Bentley with the purchase to be final in November 1931. Instead, British Central Equitable Trust made a winning sealed bid of £125,000. British Central Equitable Trust later proved to be a front for Rolls-Royce Limited. Not even Bentley himself knew the identity of the purchaser until the deal was completed. before resuming at the Rolls-Royce works in Derby. Unhappy with his role at Rolls-Royce, when his contract expired at the end of April 1935 W. O. Bentley left to join Lagonda. When the new Bentley 3½ litre appeared in 1933, it was a sporting variant of the Rolls-Royce 20/25, which disappointed some traditional customers yet was well received by many others. W. O. Bentley was reported as saying, "Taking all things into consideration, I would rather own this Bentley than any other car produced under that name". a slogan Rolls-Royce continued to use for Bentley cars until the 1950s. All Bentleys produced from 1931 to 2004 used inherited or shared Rolls-Royce chassis, and adapted Rolls-Royce engines, and are described by critics as badge-engineered Rolls-Royces.Derby Bentleys * 1933–1937 3½-litre ** 1936–1939 4¼-litre * 1939–1941 Mark V ** 1939 Mark V Crewe In preparation for war, Rolls-Royce and the British Government searched for a location for a shadow factory to ensure production of aero-engines. Crewe, with its excellent road and rail links, as well as being located in the northwest away from the aerial bombing starting in mainland Europe, was a logical choice. Crewe also had extensive open farming land. Construction of the factory started on a 60-acre area on the potato fields of Merrill's Farm in July 1938, with the first Rolls-Royce Merlin aero-engine rolling off the production line five months later. 25,000 Merlin engines With the war in Europe over and the general move towards the then new jet engines, Rolls-Royce concentrated its aero-engine operations at Derby and moved motor car operations to Crewe. Some years later, initially only for export, the Rolls-Royce Silver Dawn was introduced, a standard steel Bentley but with a Rolls-Royce radiator grille for a small extra charge, and this convention continued. Chassis remained available to coachbuilders until the end of production of the Bentley S3, which was replaced for October 1965 by the chassis-less monocoque construction T series. Bentley Continental The Continental fastback coupé was aimed at the UK market, most cars, 164 plus a prototype, being right-hand drive. The chassis was produced at the Crewe factory and shared many components with the standard R type. Other than the R-Type standard steel saloon, R-Type Continentals were delivered as rolling chassis to the coachbuilder of choice. Coachwork for most of these cars was completed by H. J. Mulliner & Co. who mainly built them in fastback coupe form. Other coachwork came from Park Ward (London) who built six, later including a drophead coupe version. Franay (Paris) built five, Graber (Wichtrach, Switzerland) built three, one of them later altered by Köng (Basel, Switzerland), and Pininfarina made one. James Young (London) built in 1954 a Sports Saloon for the owner of James Young's, James Barclay. The early R Type Continental has essentially the same engine as the standard R Type, but with modified carburation, induction and exhaust manifolds along with higher gear ratios. After July 1954 the car was fitted with an engine, having now a larger bore of with a total displacement of . The compression ratio was raised to 7.25:1. Crewe Rolls-Royce Bentleys <gallery style"float:right; clear:right;" caption"Bentleys made by Rolls-Royce Ltd. in Crewe" widths="185"> File:1951 Bentley MK VI HJM 2-door saloon 8160965887.jpg |"The silent sports car"<br />1952 4¼-litre 2-door by H J Mulliner File:Bentley S2.JPG |Bentley S-series Standard Saloon File:Bentley T2 reg 1977 6750 cc.JPG|Bentley T-series Standard Saloon (l.w.b.) </gallery> * Standard-steel saloon ** 1946–1952 Mark VI ** 1952–1955 R Type * Continental ** 1952–1955 R Type Continental * S-series ** 1955–1959 S1 and Continental ** 1959–1962 S2 and Continental ** 1962–1965 S3 and Continental * T-series ** 1965–1977 T1 ** 1977–1980 T2 * 1971–1984 Corniche * 1975–1986 Camargue Vickers (1970–1998) The problems of Bentley's owner with Rolls-Royce aero engine development, the RB211, brought about the financial collapse of its business in 1970. The motorcar division was made a separate business, Rolls-Royce Motors Limited, which remained independent until bought by Vickers plc in August 1980. By the 1970s and early 1980s Bentley sales had fallen badly; at one point less than 5% of combined production carried the Bentley badge. As of early 2010, there are about 3,500 working at Crewe, compared with about 1,500 in 1998 before being taken over by Volkswagen. It was reported that Volkswagen invested a total of nearly US$2 billion in Bentley and its revival. As a result of upgrading facilities at Crewe the bodywork now arrives fully painted at the Crewe facility for final assembly, with the parts coming from Germany—similarly Rolls-Royce body shells are painted and shipped to the UK for assembly only. Demand had been so great that the factory at Crewe was unable to meet orders despite an installed capacity of approximately 9,500 vehicles per year; there was a waiting list of over a year for new cars to be delivered. Consequently, part of the production of the new Flying Spur, a four-door version of the Continental GT, was assigned to the Transparent Factory (Germany), where the Volkswagen Phaeton luxury car was also assembled. This arrangement ceased at the end of 2006 after around 1,000 cars, with all car production reverting to the Crewe plant. Bentley presented Queen Elizabeth II with an official State Limousine in 2002 to celebrate her Golden Jubilee. Production of the two-door convertible Bentley Azure finished in 2003. It was replaced by a large luxury coupé powered by a W12 engine built in Crewe and named Bentley Continental GT. It was confirmed in April 2005 a four-seat convertible Azure derived from the Arnage Drophead Coupé prototype would begin at Crewe in 2006. By the autumn of 2005, a convertible version of the successful Continental GT, the Continental GTC, was also presented in the autumn of 2005. These two models were launched in late 2006. presents the Bentayga Hybrid at Geneva International Motor Show 2018.]] A limited run of a Zagato modified GT was also announced in March 2008, dubbed "GTZ". A new version of the Bentley Continental was introduced at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show: The Continental Supersports. This new Bentley is a supercar combining extreme power with environmentally friendly FlexFuel technology, capable of using petrol (gasoline) and biofuel (E85 ethanol). Bentley sales continued to increase, and in 2005 8,627 were sold worldwide, 3,654 in the United States. In 2007, the 10,000 cars-per-year threshold was broken for the first time with sales of 10,014. For 2007, a record profit of €155 million was also announced. Bentley reported a sale of about 7,600 units in 2008. However, its global sales plunged 50 percent to 4,616 vehicles in 2009 (with the U.S. deliveries dropped 49% to 1,433 vehicles) and it suffered an operating loss of €194 million, compared with an operating profit of €10 million in 2008. As a result of the slump in sales, production at Crewe was shut down during March and April 2009. Though vehicle sales increased by 11% to 5,117 in 2010, operating loss grew by 26% to €245 million. In Autumn 2010, workers at Crewe staged a series of protests over proposal of compulsory work on Fridays and mandatory overtime during the week. Vehicle sales in 2011 rose 37% to 7,003 vehicles, with the new Continental GT accounting for over one-third of total sales. The current workforce is about 4,000 people. The business earned a profit in 2011 after two years of losses as a result of the following sales results: On 23 March 2020, Bentley announced to halt production due to COVID-19 pandemic. In June 2020, Bentley announced that it will cut around 1,000 (one quarter of 4,200) job places in the UK as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic. On 3 November 2020, Bentley announced that all new cars sold will be electric by 2030. This announcement also follows after the United Kingdom Prime Minister Boris Johnson announced in February 2020 that he approved legislation that will ban and phase out non-electric vehicles (including Hybrid and Plug-in Hybrid vehicles) from the UK by 2030 with hybrids being banned by 2035. Deliveries, profits and staff {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:88%" |- !Year !Profit or loss<br />€ million !Staff !Total<br />deliveries !Americas !China !Europe<br />exc UK !UK !Middle<br />East !Asia<br />Pacific !Japan !Other |- | 1998 || || 1500 || 414 || || || || || || || || |- | 1999|| || || 1001 || || || || || || || || |- | 2000|| || || 1469 || || || || || || || || |- | 2001|| || || 1429 || || || || || || || || |- | 2002|| || || 1157 || || 36 || || || || || || |- | 2003|| || || 1017 || || || || || || || || |- | 2004|| || || 7411 || || || || || || || || |- | 2005|| || || 8627 || 3654 || 500 || || || || || || 4473 |- | 2006|| +137 || || 9387 || 4035 || 175 || 2024 || || || || || 3153 |- | 2007|| +155 || || 10014 || 4196 || 338 || 2166 || 2079 || || || || 1235 |- | 2008|| +10 || || 7605 || || || || || || || || |- | 2009|| −194 || 3500 || 4616 || 1433 || 489 || || 897 || || || || 1797 |- | 2010|| −245 || || 5117 || 1525 || 910 || 776 || 982 || || || || 924 |- | 2011|| 8 || 4000 || 7003 || 2021 || 1839 || 1187 || 1031 || 566 || 249 || || 110 |- | 2012|| 100 || || 8510 || 2457 || 2253 || 1333 || 1104 || 815 || 358 || 190|| |- | 2013|| 176 || || 10120 || 3140 || 2191 || 1480 || 1381 || 1185 || 452 || 291|| |} Sources <small>Volkswagen AG Annual Reports and press releases</small> Bentley recorded a 31% rise in global sales in FY21 despite shutdowns caused by the global coronavirus pandemic. Production {| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center; font-size:88%" |- !Year !Bentayga !CGT Coupé !CGT Cabrio !Flying Spur !Mulsanne !Arnage !Brooklands !Azure !Continental !Other Bentley !Rolls-Royce !Total |- | 2000|| || || || || || 1243 || || 131 || 93 || 2 || 469 || 1938 |- | 2001|| || || || || || 1049 || || 205 || 114 || 61 || 352 || 1781 |- | 2002|| || || || || || 883 || || 69 || 50 || 61 || 147 || 1210 |- | 2003|| || 107 || || || || 607 || || 62 || 16 || || || 792 |- | 2004|| || 6896 || || || || 790 || || || || || || 7686 |- | 2005|| || 4733 || || 4271 || || 556 || || || || || || 9560 |- | 2006|| || 3611 || 1742 || 4042 || || 464 || || 177 || || || || 10036 |- | 2007|| || 2140 || 4847 || 2270 || || 357 || 8 || 350 || || || || 9972 |- | 2008|| || 2699 || 2408 || 1813 || || 277 || 312 || 165 || || || || 7674 |- | 2009|| || 1211 || 722 || 1358 || || 147 || 106 || 93 || || || || 3637 |- | 2010|| || 1735 || 843 || 1914 || 354 || || 6 || 2 || || || || 4854 |- | 2011|| || 3416 || 677 || 2354 || 1146 || || || || || || || 7593 |- | 2012|| || 3536 || 2638 || 1764 || 1169 || || || || || || || 9107 |- | 2013|| || 3602 || 2197 || 3960 || 1117 || || || || || || || 10876 |- | 2014|| || 3442 || 2151 || 4556 || 884 || || || || || || || 11033 |- | 2015|| 96 || 3997 || 2216 || 3660 || 919 || || || || || || || 10888 |- | 2016|| 5586 || 2272 || 1600 || 1731 || 628 || || || || || || || 11817 |- | 2017|| 4849 || 1345 || 1468 || 2295 || 595 || || || || || || || 10552 |- | 2018|| 4072 || 2841 || 28 || 1627 || 547 || || || || || || || 9115 |- | 2019|| 5232 || 3903 || 2760 || 102 || 443 || || || || || || || 12440 |- | 2020|| 3946 || 1905 || 1244 || 3381 || 127 || || || || || || || 10603 |} Sources <small>[https://annualreport2020.volkswagenag.com/divisions/bentley.html Volkswagen AG Annual Reports]</small> List of Bentley vehicles {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" !Model Name !Introduced !Discontinued !Class |- |3 Litre |1921 |1929 |Sports car |- |3.5 Litre |1933 |1939 |Luxury car |- |4 Litre |1931 |1931 |Luxury car |- |4 1/2 Litre |1927 |1931 |Sports car |- |Speed Six |1926 |1930 |"Rolling chassis" |- |8 Litre |1930 |1932 |Luxury car |- |Arnage |1998 |2009 |Luxury car |- |Azure |1995 |2009 |Grand tourer |- |Bentayga |2015 | |Luxury SUV |- |Brooklands |1992 |2011 |Luxury car Grand tourer |- |Continental |1952 | | |- |Continental GT |2003 | |Grand tourer |- |Eight |1984 |1992 |Luxury car |- |Flying Spur |2005 | |Luxury car Ultra-luxury car |- |Mark V |1939 |1941 |Luxury car |- |Mark VI |1946 |1952 |Luxury car |- |Mulsanne |1980 |1992 |Luxury car |- |Mulsanne |2010 |2020 |Luxury car |- |R Type |1952 |1955 |Luxury car |- |S1 |1955 |1959 |Luxury car |- |S2 |1959 |1962 | |- |S3 |1962 |1965 |Luxury car |- |State Limousine |2002 |2002 |Luxury car Limousine Official state car |- |T-Series |1965 |1980 |Luxury car |- |Turbo R |1985 |1999 | |} Crewe Volkswagen Bentleys Car models in current production * 2016–present: Bentayga * 2024–present: Continental GT (Gen 4) * 2019–present: Flying Spur (Gen 3) Car models formerly in production * 1998–2009: Arnage * 2003–2011: Continental GT * 2005–2013: Continental Flying Spur (Gen 1) * 2006–2009: Azure (Gen 2) * 2008–2011: Bentley Brooklands (Gen 2) * 2010–2020: Mulsanne * 2011–2018: Continental GT (Gen 2) * 2013–2019: Flying Spur (Gen 2) * 2018–2024: Continental GT (Gen 3) Special edition car models * 1999: Hunaudières Concept * 2002: State Limousine Motorsport <!--I'll add this bit later: Bentley re-entered prototype racing in 2001 with the EXP Speed 8... --> A Bentley Continental GT3 entered by the M-Sport factory team won the Silverstone round of the 2014 Blancpain Endurance Series. This was Bentley's first official entry in a British race since the 1930 RAC Tourist Trophy. See also * List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom References Bibliography * * * * <small>- Total pages: 406</small> External links * * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2570109.stm "Inside the Bentley factory"]—Jorn Madslien, BBC News }} Category:1919 establishments in England Category:1931 mergers and acquisitions Category:1980 mergers and acquisitions Category:1998 mergers and acquisitions Category:Audi Category:British brands Category:British royal warrant holders Category:Companies based in Cheshire Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers Category:Sports car manufacturers Category:Vehicle manufacture in London Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1919 Category:Volkswagen Group Category:Car brands
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bentley
2025-04-05T18:27:03.870917
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Chordate
(Possible Ediacaran record, 555 Ma) | image = <imagemap> File:Chordata.png|220px rect 0 0 650 500 Lancelet rect 0 500 650 1000 Chondrichthyes rect 650 0 1300 500 Tunicate rect 650 500 1200 1000 Tetrapod </imagemap> | display_parents = 5 | taxon = Chordata | authority Haeckel, 1874 * †Vetulicolia? * †Yunnanozoon? * †Cathaymyrus * †Pikaia * Cephalochordata * Olfactores ** Tunicata **Total group Vertebrata/Craniata *** †Emmonsaspis *** †Metaspriggina *** †Nuucichthys In addition to the morphological characteristics used to define chordates, analysis of genome sequences has identified two conserved signature indels (CSIs) in their proteins: cyclophilin-like protein and inner mitochondrial membrane protease ATP23, which are exclusively shared by all vertebrates, tunicates and cephalochordates. These CSIs provide molecular means to reliably distinguish chordates from all other animals. Chordates are divided into three subphyla: Vertebrata (fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals), whose notochords are replaced by a cartilaginous/bony axial endoskeleton (spine) and are cladistically and phylogenetically a subgroup of the clade Craniata (i.e. chordates with a skull); Tunicata or Urochordata (sea squirts, salps, and larvaceans), which only retain the synapomorphies during their larval stage; and Cephalochordata (lancelets), which resemble jawless fish but have no gills or a distinct head. The vertebrates and tunicates compose the clade Olfactores, which is sister to Cephalochordata (see diagram under Phylogeny). Extinct taxa such as the conodonts are chordates, but their internal placement is less certain. Hemichordata (which includes the acorn worms) was previously considered a fourth chordate subphylum, but now is treated as a separate phylum which are now thought to be closer to the echinoderms, and together they form the clade Ambulacraria, the sister phylum of the chordates. Chordata, Ambulacraria, and possibly Xenacoelomorpha are believed to form the superphylum Deuterostomia, although this has recently been called into doubt. Chordata is the third-largest phylum of the animal kingdom (behind only the protostomal phyla Arthropoda and Mollusca) and is also one of the most ancient animal taxons. Chordate fossils have been found from as early as the Cambrian explosion over 539 million years ago. Of the more than 81,000 living species of chordates, about half are ray-finned fishes (class Actinopterygii) and the vast majority of the rest are tetrapods, a terrestrial clade of lobe-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii) who evolved air-breathing using lungs. Etymology The name "chordate" comes from the first of these synapomorphies, the notochord, which plays a significant role in chordate body plan structuring and movements. Chordates are also bilaterally symmetric, have a coelom, possess a closed circulatory system, and exhibit metameric segmentation. Although the name Chordata is attributed to William Bateson (1885), it was already in prevalent use by 1880. Ernst Haeckel described a taxon comprising tunicates, cephalochordates, and vertebrates in 1866. Though he used the German vernacular form, it is allowed under the ICZN code because of its subsequent latinization. Anatomy ) is one of the few chordates with a visible backbone. The spinal cord is housed within its backbone.]] Chordates form a phylum of animals that are defined by having at some stage in their lives all of the following anatomical features: *A notochord, a stiff but elastic rod of glycoprotein wrapped in two collagen helices, which extends along the central axis of the body. Among members of the subphylum Vertebrata (vertebrates), the notochord gets replaced by hyaline cartilage or osseous tissue of the spine, and notochord remnants develop into the intervertebral discs, which allow adjacent spinal vertebrae to bend and twist relative to each other. In wholly aquatic species, this helps the animal swim efficiently by flexing its tail side-to-side. *A hollow dorsal nerve cord, also known as the neural tube, which develops into the spinal cord, the main communications trunk of the nervous system. In vertebrates, the rostral end of the neural tube enlarges into several vesicles during embryonic development, which give rise to the brain. *Pharyngeal slits. The pharynx is the part of the throat immediately behind the mouth. In fish, the slits are modified to form gills, but in some other chordates they are part of a filter-feeding system that extracts food particles from ingested water. In tetrapods, they are only present during embryonic stages of the development. *A post-anal tail. A muscular tail that extends backwards beyond the location of the anus. In some chordates such as hominids, this is only present in the embryonic stage. *An endostyle. This is a groove in the ventral wall of the pharynx. In filter-feeding species it produces mucus to gather food particles, which helps in transporting food to the esophagus. It also stores iodine, and may be a precursor of the vertebrate thyroid gland. * All chordates are coelomates, and have a fluid-filled body cavity (coelom) with a complete serosal lining derived from mesoderm called mesothelium (see Brusca and Brusca). bulge in spinal cord ("brain")}} notochord }} dorsal nerve cord }} post-anal tail }} anus }} digestive canal }} circulatory system }} atriopore }} space above pharynx }} pharyngeal slit (gill)}} pharynx }} vestibule }} oral cirri }} mouth opening }} gonads (ovary / testicle) }} light sensor }} nerves }} metapleural fold }} hepatic caecum (liver-like sack) }} }} Classification The following schema is from the 2015 edition of Vertebrate Palaeontology. The invertebrate chordate classes are from Fishes of the World''. While it is structured so as to reflect evolutionary relationships (similar to a cladogram), it also retains the traditional ranks used in Linnaean taxonomy. * Phylum Chordata ** Subphylum Cephalochordata (Acraniata) – (lancelets; 30 species) *** Class Leptocardii (lancelets) ** Subphylum Tunicata (Urochordata) – (tunicates; 3,000 species) *** Class Ascidiacea (sea squirts) *** Class Thaliacea (salps, doliolids and pyrosomes) *** Class Appendicularia (larvaceans) ** Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata) (vertebrates – animals with backbones; 66,100+ species) *** Superclass 'Agnatha' paraphyletic (jawless vertebrates; 100+ species) **** Class Cyclostomata ***** Infraclass Myxinoidea or Myxini (hagfish; 65 species) ***** Infraclass Petromyzontida or Hyperoartia (lampreys) **** Class †Conodonta **** Class †Myllokunmingiida **** Class †Pteraspidomorphi **** Class †Thelodonti **** Class †Anaspida **** Class †Cephalaspidomorphi *** Infraphylum Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates) **** Class †Placodermi (Paleozoic armoured forms; paraphyletic in relation to all other gnathostomes) **** Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish; 900+ species) **** Class †Acanthodii (Paleozoic "spiny sharks"; paraphyletic in relation to Chondrichthyes) **** Class Osteichthyes (bony fish; 30,000+ species) ***** Subclass Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish; about 30,000 species) ***** Subclass Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish: 8 species; paraphyletic when tetrapods are excluded) *** Superclass Tetrapoda (four-limbed vertebrates; 35,100+ species) **** Class Amphibia (amphibians; 8,100+ species) **** Class Sauropsida (reptiles (including birds); 21,300+ species – 10,000+ species of birds and 11,300+ species of reptiles) **** Class Synapsida (mammals; 5,700+ species) Subphyla ]] Cephalochordata: Lancelets Cephalochordates, one of the three subdivisions of chordates, are small, "vaguely fish-shaped" animals that lack brains, clearly defined heads and specialized sense organs. These burrowing filter-feeders compose the earliest-branching chordate subphylum. Tunicata (Urochordata) The tunicates have three distinct adult shapes. Each is a member of one of three monophylitic clades. All tunicate larvae have the standard chordate features, including long, tadpole-like tails. Their larva also have rudimentary brains, light sensors and tilt sensors. The other two groups, the sea squirts and the salps, metamorphize into adult forms which lose the notochord, nerve cord, and post anal tail. Both are soft-bodied filter feeders with multiple gill slits. They feed on plankton which they collect in their mucus. Sea squirts are sessile and consist mainly of water pumps and filter-feeding apparatus. The etymology of the term Urochordata (Balfour 1881) is from the ancient Greek οὐρά (oura, "tail") + Latin chorda ("cord"), because the notochord is only found in the tail. The term Tunicata (Lamarck 1816) is recognised as having precedence and is now more commonly used. Craniata (Vertebrata) ]] Craniates all have distinct skulls. They include the hagfish, which have no vertebrae. Michael J. Benton commented that "craniates are characterized by their heads, just as chordates, or possibly all deuterostomes, are by their tails". Most craniates are vertebrates, in which the notochord is replaced by the vertebral column. It consists of a series of bony or cartilaginous cylindrical vertebrae, generally with neural arches that protect the spinal cord, and with projections that link the vertebrae. Hagfishes have incomplete braincases and no vertebrae, and are therefore not regarded as vertebrates, but they are members of the craniates, the group within which vertebrates are thought to have evolved. However the cladistic exclusion of hagfish from the vertebrates is controversial, as they may instead be degenerate vertebrates who have secondarily lost their vertebral columns. Before molecular phylogenetics, the position of lampreys was ambiguous. They have complete braincases and rudimentary vertebrae, and therefore may be regarded as vertebrates and true fish. However, molecular phylogenetics, which uses DNA to classify organisms, has produced both results that group them with vertebrates and others that group them with hagfish. If lampreys are more closely related to the hagfish than the other vertebrates, this would suggest that they form a clade, which has been named the Cyclostomata. Phylogeny Overview , from about in China, may be the earliest known fish. Attempts to work out the evolutionary relationships of the chordates have produced several hypotheses. The current consensus is that chordates are monophyletic, meaning that the Chordata include all and only the descendants of a single common ancestor, which is itself a chordate, and that the vertebrates' nearest relatives are tunicates. Recent identification of two conserved signature indels (CSIs) in the proteins cyclophilin-like protein and mitochondrial inner membrane protease ATP23, which are exclusively shared by all vertebrates, tunicates and cephalochordates also provide strong evidence of the monophyly of Chordata. The majority of animals more complex than jellyfish and other cnidarians are split into two groups, the protostomes and deuterostomes, the latter of which contains chordates. It seems very likely the Kimberella was a member of the protostomes. If so, this means the protostome and deuterostome lineages must have split some time before Kimberella appeared—at least , and hence well before the start of the Cambrian . Ausia and Burykhia lived in shallow coastal waters slightly more than 555 to 548 million years ago, and are believed to be the oldest evidence of the chordate lineage of metazoans. The Mid Cambrian fossil Rhabdotubus johanssoni has been interpreted as a pterobranch hemichordate. Opinions differ about whether the Chengjiang fauna fossil Yunnanozoon, from the earlier Cambrian, was a hemichordate or chordate. Another fossil, Haikouella lanceolata, also from the Chengjiang fauna, is interpreted as a chordate and possibly a craniate, as it shows signs of a heart, arteries, gill filaments, a tail, a neural chord with a brain at the front end, and possibly eyes—although it also had short tentacles round its mouth. Pikaia, discovered much earlier (1911) but from the Mid Cambrian Burgess Shale (505 Ma), is also regarded as a primitive chordate. On the other hand, fossils of early chordates are very rare, since invertebrate chordates have no bones or teeth, and only one has been reported for the rest of the Cambrian. The best known and earliest unequivocally identified Tunicate is Shankouclava shankouense from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale at Shankou village, Anning, near Kunming (South China). The evolutionary relationships between the chordate groups and between chordates as a whole and their closest deuterostome relatives have been debated since 1890. Studies based on anatomical, embryological, and paleontological data have produced different "family trees". Some closely linked chordates and hemichordates, but that idea is now rejected. Some researchers believe that, within the chordates, craniates are most closely related to cephalochordates, but there are also reasons for regarding tunicates (urochordates) as craniates' closest relatives. Since early chordates have left a poor fossil record, attempts have been made to calculate the key dates in their evolution by molecular phylogenetics techniques—by analyzing biochemical differences, mainly in RNA. One such study suggested that deuterostomes arose before and the earliest chordates around . Traditionally, Cephalochordata and Craniata were grouped into the proposed clade "Euchordata", which would have been the sister group to Tunicata/Urochordata. More recently, Cephalochordata has been thought of as a sister group to the "Olfactores", which includes the craniates and tunicates. The matter is not yet settled. A specific relationship between vertebrates and tunicates is also strongly supported by two CSIs found in the proteins predicted exosome complex RRP44 and serine palmitoyltransferase, that are exclusively shared by species from these two subphyla but not cephalochordates, indicating vertebrates are more closely related to tunicates than cephalochordates. }} |2Stolidobranchia |barend2red }} }} |label2=Vertebrata |2="></span> |2="></span> |label2=Cyclostomi |2= }} }} |2="></span> |2="></span> |barbegin1=blue |2="></span> |bar1=blue |2="></span>|barend1=blue |label2=Gnathostomata |2="></span> |2=Batoidea (rays) }} }} }} |label2=Osteichthyes |2="></span> |label2=Neopterygii |2= }} }} |label2=Sarcopterygii |2="></span> |label2=Tetrapoda |2="></span> |2=Synapsida }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} }} Closest nonchordate relatives The closest relatives of the chordates are believed to be the hemichordates and Echinodermata, which together form the Ambulacraria. The Chordata and Ambulacraria together form the superphylum Deuterostomia. Hemichordates Hemichordates ("half chordates") have some features similar to those of chordates: branchial openings that open into the pharynx and look rather like gill slits; stomochords, similar in composition to notochords, but running in a circle round the "collar", which is ahead of the mouth; and a dorsal nerve cord—but also a smaller ventral nerve cord. There are two living groups of hemichordates. The solitary enteropneusts, commonly known as "acorn worms", have long proboscises and worm-like bodies with up to 200 branchial slits, are up to long, and burrow though seafloor sediments. Pterobranchs are colonial animals, often less than long individually, whose dwellings are interconnected. Each filter feeds by means of a pair of branched tentacles, and has a short, shield-shaped proboscis. The extinct graptolites, colonial animals whose fossils look like tiny hacksaw blades, lived in tubes similar to those of pterobranchs. Echinoderms '' is an example of an asterozoan echinoderm.|right]] Echinoderms differ from chordates and their other relatives in three conspicuous ways: they possess bilateral symmetry only as larvae – in adulthood they have radial symmetry, meaning that their body pattern is shaped like a wheel; they have tube feet; and their bodies are supported by dermal skeletons made of calcite, a material not used by chordates. Their hard, calcified shells keep their bodies well protected from the environment, and these skeletons enclose their bodies, but are also covered by thin skins. The feet are powered by another unique feature of echinoderms, a water vascular system of canals that also functions as a "lung" and surrounded by muscles that act as pumps. Crinoids are typically sessile and look rather like flowers (hence the common name "sea lilies"), and use their feather-like arms to filter food particles out of the water; most live anchored to rocks, but a few species can move very slowly. Other echinoderms are mobile and take a variety of body shapes, for example starfish and brittle stars, sea urchins and sea cucumbers. See also * * Notes References External links * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110425151037/http://www.globaltwitcher.com/taxa_class.asp?phylaid=1 Chordate on GlobalTwitcher.com] * [http://tolweb.org/Chordata/2499 Chordate node at Tree Of Life] * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?id=7711 Chordate node at NCBI Taxonomy] <!-- Category:Deuterostomes included in the above category --> <!-- Category:Animal phyla moved to "Chordata" redirect --> Category:Terreneuvian first appearances Category:Extant Cambrian first appearances Category:Taxa named by Ernst Haeckel
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chordate
2025-04-05T18:27:03.925611
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Charlize Theron
<!--This article is written in South African English, which differs from American English and British English in some ways. According to the relevant style guide, this should not be changed without broad consensus.--> | birth_place = Benoni, South Africa | citizenship = | occupation = | years_active = 1995–present | partner = Stuart Townsend (2001–2009) | children = 2 | works = Filmography | awards = Full list | website = }} Charlize Theron ( ; ; born 7 August 1975) is a <!--The descriptor "South African and American" has been the subject of significant conversation. Please refer to the talk page before altering. -->South African and American actress and producer. One of the world's highest-paid actresses, she is the recipient of various accolades, including an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award. She is the only child of road constructionists She grew up on her parents' farm in Benoni, near Johannesburg. On 21 June 1991, Theron's father, an alcoholic, Theron's mother retrieved her own handgun, shot back and killed him. Theron attended Putfontein Primary School (Laerskool Putfontein), a period during which she has said she was not "fitting in". She was frequently unwell with jaundice throughout childhood and the antibiotics she was administered made her upper incisor milk teeth rot; they had to be surgically removed. Theron's permanent teeth did not grow until she was roughly ten years old. At 13, Theron was sent to boarding school and began her studies at the National School of the Arts in Johannesburg. About her early life in her home country, Theron has said: “I grew up as an only child in South Africa, and there was turmoil in my family, but the surroundings were so great. I was usually barefoot in the dirt: no Game Boys, no computers, and we had sanctions, so there were no concerts. This meant you had to entertain yourself.”Career1991–2002: Early work and breakthroughAlthough she saw herself as a dancer, and moved with her mother to Milan, Italy. After Theron spent a year modelling throughout Europe, she and her mother moved to the United States; they resided in New York City and Miami. Theron flew to Los Angeles on a one-way ticket her mother bought for her; she intended to work in the film industry. Theron stole bread from a basket in a restaurant to survive. One day, she went to a Hollywood Boulevard bank to cash a few cheques, including one her mother had sent to help with the rent; however; the check from her mother was rejected because it was out-of-state and she was not an American citizen. In 1995, she played her first non-speaking film role in the horror film Children of the Corn III: Urban Harvest. Theron feared being typecast as characters similar to Helga and recalled being asked to repeat her performance in the film during auditions: When auditioning for Showgirls, Theron was introduced to talent agent J. J. Harris by co-casting director Johanna Ray. She recalled being surprised at how much faith Harris had in her potential. Theron has referred to Harris as her mentor. Harris found scripts and films for Theron in a variety of genres and encouraged her to become a producer. She served as Theron's agent for over 15 years. Theron's career expanded by the end of the 1990s. In the horror drama ''The Devil's Advocate (1997), which is credited as her break-out film, Theron starred alongside Keanu Reeves and Al Pacino as the haunted wife of an unusually successful lawyer. She subsequently starred in the adventure film Mighty Joe Young (1998) as the friend and protector of a giant mountain gorilla, and in the drama The Cider House Rules (1999), as a woman who seeks an abortion in World War II-era Maine. The Devil's Advocate and The Cider House Rules'' were commercially successful. She appeared on the cover of the January 1999 issue of Vanity Fair as the "White Hot Venus". The May 1999 issue of Playboy magazine also featured Theron on its cover; the photos of Theron used by Playboy had been taken several years earlier when she was an unknown model, and Theron unsuccessfully sued the magazine for publishing them without her consent. By the early 2000s, Theron continued to steadily take on roles in films such as Reindeer Games (2000), The Yards (2000), The Legend of Bagger Vance (2000), Men of Honor (2000), Sweet November (2001), The Curse of the Jade Scorpion (2001), and Trapped (2002), all of which, despite achieving only limited commercial success, helped to establish her as an actress. On this period in her career, Theron remarked: "I kept finding myself in a place where directors would back me but studios didn't. [I began] a love affair with directors, the ones I really, truly admired. I found myself making really bad movies, too. Reindeer Games was not a good movie, but I did it because I loved [director] John Frankenheimer". 2003–2010: Rise to prominence magazine in 2005]] Theron starred as a safe and vault technician in the 2003 heist film The Italian Job, an American homage/remake of the 1969 British film of the same name, directed by F. Gary Gray and opposite Mark Wahlberg, Edward Norton, Jason Statham, Seth Green, and Donald Sutherland. The film was a box office success, grossing US$176 million worldwide. In Monster (2003), Theron portrayed serial killer Aileen Wuornos, a former prostitute who was executed in Florida in 2002 for killing six men (she was not tried for a seventh murder) in the late 1980s and early 1990s; For her portrayal, she was awarded the Academy Award for Best Actress at the 76th Academy Awards in February 2004, as well as the Screen Actors Guild Award and the Golden Globe Award. She is the first South African to win an Oscar for Best Actress. AskMen named her the number one most desirable woman of 2003. For her role as Swedish actress and singer Britt Ekland in the 2004 HBO film The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, Theron garnered Golden Globe Award and Primetime Emmy Award nominations. In 2005, she portrayed Rita, the mentally challenged love interest of Michael Bluth (Jason Bateman), on the third season of Fox's television series Arrested Development, and starred in the financially unsuccessful science fiction thriller Æon Flux; for her voice-over work in the Aeon Flux video game, she received a Spike Video Game Award for Best Performance by a Human Female. at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival]] In the critically acclaimed drama North Country (2005), Theron played a single mother and an iron mine worker experiencing sexual harassment. David Rooney of Variety wrote: "The film represents a confident next step for lead Charlize Theron. Though the challenges of following a career-redefining Oscar role have stymied actresses, Theron segues from Monster to a performance in many ways more accomplished [...] The strength of both the performance and character anchor the film firmly in the tradition of other dramas about working-class women leading the fight over industrial workplace issues, such as Norma Rae or Silkwood." Roger Ebert echoed the same sentiment, calling her "an actress who has the beauty of a fashion model but has found resources within herself for these powerful roles about unglamorous women in the world of men." For her performance, she received Academy Award and Golden Globe Award nominations for Best Actress. Ms. magazine honoured her for this performance with a feature article in its Fall 2005 issue. On 30 September 2005, Theron received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. In 2007, Theron played a police detective in the critically acclaimed crime film In the Valley of Elah, and produced and starred as a reckless, slatternly mother in the drama film Sleepwalking, alongside Nick Stahl and AnnaSophia Robb. The Christian Science Monitor'' praised the latter film, commenting that "Despite its deficiencies, and the inadequate screen time allotted to Theron (who's quite good), Sleepwalking has a core of feeling". In 2008, Theron starred as a woman who faced a traumatic childhood in the drama The Burning Plain, directed by Guillermo Arriaga and opposite Jennifer Lawrence and Kim Basinger, and played the ex-wife of an alcoholic superhero alongside Will Smith in the superhero film Hancock. The Burning Plain found a limited release in US theatres, but grossed $5,267,917 outside the US. Hancock made US$624.3 million worldwide. Also in 2008, Theron was named the Hasty Pudding Theatricals Woman of the Year, and was asked to be a UN Messenger of Peace by the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. Her film releases in 2009 were the post-apocalyptic drama The Road, in which she briefly appears in flashbacks, and the animated film Astro Boy, providing her voice for a character. On 4 December 2009, Theron co-presented the draw for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Cape Town, South Africa, accompanied by several other celebrities of South African nationality or ancestry. During rehearsals she drew an Ireland ball instead of France as a joke at the expense of FIFA, referring to Thierry Henry's handball controversy in the play-off match between France and Ireland. The stunt alarmed FIFA enough for it to fear she might do it again in front of a live global audience. 2011–2019: Established actress Following a two-year hiatus from films, Theron returned to the spotlight in 2011 with the black comedy Young Adult. Directed by Jason Reitman, the film earned critical acclaim, particularly for her performance as a depressed, divorced, alcoholic 37-year-old ghostwriter. Richard Roeper awarded the film an A grade, stating "Charlize Theron delivers one of the most impressive performances of the year". She was nominated for a Golden Globe Award and several other awards. Roger Ebert called her one of the best actors working today. '' at the 2012 WonderCon]] In 2012, Theron took on the role of villain in two big-budgeted films. She played Evil Queen Ravenna, Snow White's evil stepmother, in Snow White and the Huntsman, opposite Kristen Stewart and Chris Hemsworth, and appeared as a crew member with a hidden agenda in Ridley Scott's Prometheus. Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle found Snow White and the Huntsman to be "[a] slow, boring film that has no charm and is highlighted only by a handful of special effects and Charlize Theron's truly evil queen", while The Hollywood Reporter writer Todd McCarthy, describing her role in Prometheus, asserted: "Theron is in ice goddess mode here, with the emphasis on ice [...] but perfect for the role all the same". Both films were major box office hits, grossing around US$400 million internationally each. The following year, Vulture/NYMag named her the 68th Most Valuable Star in Hollywood saying: "We're just happy that Theron can stay on the list in a year when she didn't come out with anything [...] any actress who's got that kind of skill, beauty, and ferocity ought to have a permanent place in Hollywood". On 10 May 2014, Theron hosted Saturday Night Live on NBC. In 2014, Theron took on the role of the wife of an infamous outlaw in the western comedy film A Million Ways to Die in the West, directed by Seth MacFarlane, which was met with mediocre reviews and moderate box office returns. In 2015, Theron played the sole survivor of the massacre of her family in the film adaptation of the Gillian Flynn novel Dark Places, directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner, in which she had a producer credit, and starred as Imperator Furiosa in Mad Max: Fury Road (2015), opposite Tom Hardy. Mad Max received widespread critical acclaim, with praise going towards Theron for the dominant nature taken by her character. The film made US$378.4 million worldwide. She next reprised her role as Queen Ravenna in the 2016 film ''The Huntsman: Winter's War, a sequel to Snow White and the Huntsman'', which was a critical and commercial failure. In 2016, Theron starred as a physician and activist working in West Africa in the little-seen romantic drama The Last Face, with Sean Penn, provided her voice for the 3D stop-motion fantasy film Kubo and the Two Strings, and produced the independent drama Brain on Fire. That year, Time named her in the Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world. ]] In 2017, Theron starred in The Fate of the Furious as the cyberterrorist Cipher, the main antagonist of the entire franchise, and played a spy on the eve of the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 in Atomic Blonde, an adaptation of the graphic novel The Coldest City, directed by David Leitch. The Fate of The Furious had a worldwide gross of US$1.2 billion. and Atomic Blonde was described by Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun-Times as "a slick vehicle for the magnetic, badass charms of Charlize Theron, who is now officially an A-list action star on the strength of this film and Mad Max: Fury Road". In the black comedy Tully (2018), directed by Jason Reitman and written by Diablo Cody, Theron played an overwhelmed mother of three. The film was acclaimed by critics, who concluded it "delves into the modern parenthood experience with an admirably deft blend of humor and raw honesty, brought to life by an outstanding performance by Charlize Theron". She played the president of a pharmaceutical corporation in the crime film Gringo and produced the biographical war drama film A Private War, both released in 2018. In 2019, Theron produced and starred in the romantic comedy film Long Shot, opposite Seth Rogen and directed by Jonathan Levine, portraying a U.S. Secretary of State who reconnects with a journalist she used to babysit. The film had its world premiere at South by Southwest in March, and was released on 3 May to positive reviews from film critics. Theron next starred as Megyn Kelly in the drama Bombshell, which she co-produced. Directed by Jay Roach, the film revolves around the sexual harassment allegations made against Fox News CEO Roger Ailes by former female employees. For her work in the film, Theron was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actress, Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress, Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role, and BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role. That year, Forbes ranked her as the ninth highest-paid actress in the world, with an annual income of $23 million. 2020–present: Continued success In 2020, she produced and starred opposite KiKi Layne in the superhero film The Old Guard, directed by Gina Prince-Bythewood. The following year, she reprised her role as Cipher in F9, originally set for release on 22 May 2020, before its delay to June 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2022, Theron appeared in several projects. Upon the film's release in May, it was revealed that Theron would portray the character Clea in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), beginning with her debut in the mid-credits scene of the superhero film Doctor Strange in the Multiverse of Madness. She played Lady Lesso in the fantasy Netflix film The School for Good and Evil and filmed a cameo in the third season opener of The Boys as an actress playing Stormfront. In 2023, Theron reprised her role as Cipher in Fast X and executive produced the HBO documentary series Last Call: When a Serial Killer Stalked Queer New York about a serial killer preying on gay men. In 2024, she was cast in Christopher Nolan upcoming epic film The Odyssey (2026). Other ventures Activism in 2013]] The Charlize Theron Africa Outreach Project (CTAOP) was created in 2007 by Theron, in an effort to support African youth in the fight against HIV/AIDS. By November 2017, CTAOP had raised more than $6.3 million to support African organizations working on the ground. In 2008, Theron was named a United Nations Messenger of Peace. In his citation, Ban Ki-moon said of Theron: "You have consistently dedicated yourself to improving the lives of women and children in South Africa, and to preventing and stopping violence against women and girls." She recorded a public service announcement in 2014 as part of the UN's "Stop Rape Now" program. In December 2009, CTAOP and Toms Shoes partnered to create a limited edition unisex shoe. The shoe was made from vegan materials and inspired by the African baobab tree, the silhouette of which was embroidered on blue and orange canvas. Ten thousand pairs were given to destitute children, and a portion of the proceeds went to CTAOP. In 2020, CTAOP partnered with Parfums Christian Dior to create Dior Stands With Women, an initiative that includes Cara Delevingne, Yalitza Aparicio, Paloma Elsesser, and others, to encourage women to be assertive by documenting their journey, challenges and accomplishments. Theron is involved in women's rights organizations and has marched in pro-choice rallies. Theron is a supporter of same-sex marriage and attended a march and rally to support that in Fresno, California, on 30 May 2009. She publicly stated that she refused to get married until same sex marriage became legal in the United States, saying: "I don't want to get married because right now the institution of marriage feels very one-sided, and I want to live in a country where we all have equal rights. I think it would be exactly the same if we were married, but for me to go through that kind of ceremony, because I have so many friends who are gays and lesbians who would so badly want to get married, that I wouldn't be able to sleep with myself". Theron further elaborated on her stance in a June 2011 interview on Piers Morgan Tonight. She stated: "I do have a problem with the fact that our government hasn't stepped up enough to make this federal, to make [gay marriage] legal. I think everybody has that right". In March 2014, CTAOP was among the charities that benefited from the annual Fame and Philanthropy fundraising event on the night of the 86th Academy Awards. Theron was an honoured guest along with Halle Berry and keynote speaker James Cameron. In 2015, Theron signed an open letter which One Campaign had been collecting signatures for; the letter was addressed to Angela Merkel and Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma, urging them to focus on women as they serve as the head of the G7 in Germany and the AU in South Africa respectively, which will start to set the priorities in development funding before a main UN summit in September 2015 that will establish new development goals for the generation. In August 2017, she visited South Africa with Trevor Noah and made a donation to the South African charity Life Choices. In 2018, she gave a speech about AIDS prevention at the 22nd International AIDS Conference in Amsterdam, organized by the International AIDS Society. On 22 June 2022, it was announced that Theron and Sheryl Lee Ralph would receive the Elizabeth Taylor Commitment to End AIDS Award for their commitment to raising awareness of HIV at the Elizabeth Taylor Ball to End AIDS fundraising gala. Endorsements Having signed a deal with John Galliano in 2004, Theron replaced Estonian model Tiiu Kuik as the spokeswoman in the J'Adore advertisements by Christian Dior. In June 2024, Dior announced Theron will no longer be the face of J'Adore and be replaced by Barbadian singer and businesswoman Rihanna. In 2018, she appeared in a new advertisement for Dior J'adore. From October 2005 to December 2006, Theron earned US$3 million for the use of her image in a worldwide print media advertising campaign for Raymond Weil watches. In February 2006, she and her production company were sued by Weil for breach of contract. The lawsuit was settled on 4 November 2008. In 2018, Theron joined Brad Pitt, Daniel Wu and Adam Driver as brand ambassadors for Breitling, dubbed the Breitling Cinema Squad. Personal life In 2007, Theron became a naturalised citizen of the United States, while retaining her South African citizenship. Theron has adopted two children: a daughter in March 2012 and another daughter in July 2015. She has been interested in adoption since childhood, when she became aware of orphanages and the overflowing numbers of children in them. She is inspired by actresses Susan Sarandon and Sigourney Weaver. After filming for That Thing You Do! finished, Theron got Hanks' autograph on her script. She later presented him his Cecil B. DeMille Award in 2020, in which Hanks revealed that he had a mutual admiration for Theron's career since the day he met her. Theron said in 2018 that she went to therapy in her thirties because of anger, discovering that it was due to her frustration growing up during South Africa's apartheid, which ended when she was 15. Theron is a longtime fan of the English band Depeche Mode and was the presenter for their Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction in 2020. Relationships Theron's first public relationship was with actor Craig Bierko, whom she dated from 1995 to 1997. Theron was in a three-year relationship with singer Stephan Jenkins until October 2001. Some of Third Eye Blind's third album, Out of the Vein, explores the emotions Jenkins experienced as a result of their breakup. Theron began a relationship with Irish actor Stuart Townsend in 2001 after meeting him on the set of Trapped. The couple lived together in Los Angeles and Ireland. The couple split up in late 2009. In December 2013, Theron began dating American actor Sean Penn. The relationship ended in June 2015. There were reports they were engaged, which Theron strongly denied, adding that the relationship had ended before it ever became serious. Theron starred in Penn's film The Last Face (2016), which they filmed while still a couple.Health concernsTheron often quips that she has more injuries on sets that are not action films; however, while filming Æon Flux in Berlin, Theron suffered a herniated disc in her neck, caused by a fall while filming a series of back handsprings. It required her to wear a neck brace for a month. Her thumb ligament tore during filming of The Old Guard when her thumb caught in another actor's jacket during a fight scene, which required three operations and six months in a thumb brace. During the filming of Atomic Blonde she broke teeth from clenching her jaw, and had dental surgery to remove them: "I had the removal and I had to put a donor bone in there to heal until I came back, and then I had another surgery to put a metal screw in there." In July 2009, she was diagnosed with a serious stomach virus, thought to be contracted while overseas. While filming The Road, Theron injured her vocal cords while screaming during the labour scenes. When promoting Long Shot, she revealed that she laughed so hard at Borat that her neck locked for five days. }} External links * * (Verified Twitter account) * * * * * * from * at Emmys.com }} Category:1975 births Category:20th-century American actresses Category:20th-century South African actresses Category:21st-century American actresses Category:21st-century South African actresses Category:Afrikaner people Category:American female models Category:American film actresses Category:American film producers Category:American people of Afrikaner descent Category:American people of Dutch descent Category:American people of French descent Category:American people of German descent Category:American television actresses Category:American voice actresses Category:American women film producers Category:American women's rights activists Category:Best Actress Academy Award winners Category:Best Drama Actress Golden Globe (film) winners Category:Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead winners Category:Living people Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States Category:Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Leading Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners Category:People from Benoni, South Africa Category:Silver Bear for Best Actress winners Category:South African emigrants to the United States Category:South African female models Category:South African film actresses Category:South African film producers Category:South African people of Dutch descent Category:South African people of French descent Category:South African people of German descent Category:South African television actresses Category:South African voice actresses Category:United Nations Messengers of Peace Category:People with multiple citizenship
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlize_Theron
2025-04-05T18:27:03.978322
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Chess
white king, black rook, black queen, white pawn, black knight, white bishop | image_alt = A selection of white and black chess pieces on a checkered surface. | years = 1475 to present (predecessors 900 years earlier) | genre = | players = 2 | random_chance = None | skills = Strategy, tactics | AKA = }} Chess is an abstract strategy board game for two players which involves no hidden information and no elements of chance. It is played on a square game board called a chessboard containing 64 squares arranged in an 8×8 grid. The players, referred to as "White" and "Black", each control sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns; each type of piece has a different pattern of movement. An enemy piece may be "captured" (removed from the board) by moving one's own piece onto the square it occupies; the object of the game is to "checkmate" (threaten with inescapable capture) the enemy king. There are also several ways a game can end in a draw. The recorded history of chess goes back at least to the emergence of chaturanga—also thought to be an ancestor to similar games like and —in seventh-century India. After its introduction in Persia, it spread to the Arab world and then to Europe. The modern rules of chess emerged in Europe at the end of the 15th century, with standardization and universal acceptance by the end of the 19th century. Today, chess is one of the world's most popular games, with millions of players worldwide. Organized chess arose in the 19th century. Chess competition today is governed internationally by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; the International Chess Federation). The first universally recognized World Chess Champion, Wilhelm Steinitz, claimed his title in 1886; Gukesh Dommaraju is the current World Champion, having won the title in 2024. A huge body of chess theory has developed since the game's inception. Aspects of art are found in chess composition, and chess in its turn influenced Western culture and the arts, and has connections with other fields such as mathematics, computer science, and psychology. One of the goals of early computer scientists was to create a chess-playing machine. In 1997, Deep Blue became the first computer to beat a reigning World Champion in a match when it defeated Garry Kasparov. Today's chess engines are significantly stronger than the best human players and have deeply influenced the development of chess theory; however, chess is not a solved game. Rules The rules of chess are published by FIDE (Fédération Internationale des Échecs; "International Chess Federation"), chess's world governing body, in its Handbook. Rules published by national governing bodies, or by unaffiliated chess organizations, commercial publishers, etc., may differ in some details. FIDE's rules were most recently revised in 2023.SetupChess sets come in a wide variety of styles. The Staunton pattern is the most common, and is usually required for competition. Chess sets come with pieces in two colors, referred to as white and black, regardless of their actual color; the players controlling the color sets are referred to as White and Black, respectively. Each set comes with at least the following 16 pieces in both colors: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights, and eight pawns. In formal competition, the piece colors for every matchup are allocated to players by the organizers. In informal games, colors may be decided either by mutual agreement, or randomly, for example by a coin toss, or by one player concealing a white pawn in one hand and a black pawn in the other and having the opponent choose.Movement White moves first, after which players alternate turns. One piece is moved per turn (except when castling, during which two pieces are moved). In the diagrams, dots mark the squares to which each type of piece can move if unoccupied by friendly pieces and there are no intervening piece(s) of either color (except the knight, which leaps over any intervening pieces). With the sole exception of en passant, a piece captures an enemy piece by moving to the square it occupies, removing it from play and taking its place. The pawn is the only piece that does not capture the way it moves, and it is the only piece that moves and captures in only one direction (forwards from the player's perspective). A piece is said to control empty squares on which it could capture, attack squares with enemy pieces it could capture, and defend squares with pieces of the same color on which it could recapture. Moving is compulsory; a player may not skip a turn, even when having to move is detrimental. * The king moves one square in any direction. There is also a special move called castling which moves the king and a rook. The king is the most valuable piece—it is illegal to play any move that puts one's king under attack by an opponent piece. A move that attacks the king must be parried immediately; if this cannot be done, the game is lost. (See .) * A rook can move any number of squares along a rank or file. A rook is involved in the king's castling move. * A bishop can move any number of squares diagonally. * A queen combines the power of a rook and bishop and can move any number of squares along a rank, file, or diagonal. * A knight moves to any of the closest squares that are not on the same rank, file, or diagonal. (Thus the move forms an "L"-shape: two squares vertically and one square horizontally, or two squares horizontally and one square vertically.) The knight is the only piece that can leap over other pieces. * A pawn can move forward to the unoccupied square immediately in front of it on the same file, or on its first move it can optionally advance two squares along the same file, provided both squares are unoccupied (diagram dots). A pawn can capture an opponent's piece on a square diagonally in front of it by moving to that square (diagram crosses). It capture a piece while advancing along the same file, nor can it move to either square diagonally in front without capturing. Pawns have two special moves: the en passant capture and promotion. Check and checkmate When a king is under immediate attack, it is in check. A move in response to a check is legal only if it results in a position in which the king is no longer in check. There are three ways to counter a check: * Capture the checking piece. * Interpose a piece between the checking piece and the king (possible only if the attacking piece is a queen, rook, or bishop and there is a square between it and the king). * Move the king to a square where it is not under attack. The object of the game is to checkmate the opponent; this occurs when the opponent's king is in check, and there is no legal way to get it out of check. In casual games, it is common to announce "check" when putting the opponent's king in check, but this is not required by the rules of chess and is usually not done in tournaments.Castling ([https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/ChessCastlingMovie_en.svg view animation])]] Kings can castle once per game. Castling consists of moving the king two squares toward either rook of the same color, and then placing the rook on the square that the king crossed. Castling is possible only if the following conditions are met: If, however, the opponent has no way of checkmating the resigned player, this is a draw under FIDE Laws. * Win on time: In games with a time control, a player wins if the opponent runs out of time, even if the opponent has a superior position, as long as the player has a theoretical possibility to checkmate the opponent were the game to continue. * Forfeit: A player who cheats, violates the rules, or violates the rules of conduct specified for the particular tournament can be forfeited. Occasionally, both players are forfeited.|groupnote}} * Draw on time: In games with a time control, the game is drawn if a player is out of time and no sequence of legal moves would allow the opponent to checkmate the player. "]] Moves are written as white/black pairs, preceded by the move number and a period. Individual white moves are also recorded this way, while black moves are rendered with an ellipsis after the move number. For example, one variation of a simple trap known as the Scholar's mate (see animated diagram) can be recorded: :1. e4 e5 2. Qh5 Nc6 3. Bc4 Nf6 4. Qxf7 The move 3... Nf6?? is recorded as a blunder, as it allows 4. Qxf7# checkmate. Games or sequences may be recorded in Portable Game Notation (PGN), a text-based file format with support for annotative symbols, commentary, and background information, such as player names. It is based on short form English algebraic notation incorporating markup language. PGN transcripts, stored digitally as PGN (.pgn) files can be processed by most chess software and are easily readable by humans. Variants of algebraic notation include long algebraic, in which both the departure and destination square are indicated; abbreviated algebraic, in which capture signs, check signs, and ranks of pawn captures may be omitted; and figurine algebraic notation, used in chess books and magazines, which uses graphic symbols instead of initials to indicate pieces for readability regardless of language. Until about 1980, the majority of English language chess publications used descriptive notation, in which files are identified by the initial letter of the piece that occupies the first rank at the beginning of the game. In descriptive notation, the common opening move 1.e4 is rendered as "1.P-K4" ("pawn to king four"). Another system is ICCF numeric notation, recognized by the International Correspondence Chess Federation though its use is in decline. In tournament games, players are normally required to keep a (written record of the game). This is a requirement in all FIDE-sanctioned games played at classical time controls. B.H. Wood estimated the number, as of 1949, to be about 20,000. David Hooper and Kenneth Whyld write that, "Since then there has been a steady increase year by year of the number of new chess publications. No one knows how many have been printed." Significant public chess libraries include the John G. White Chess and Checkers Collection at Cleveland Public Library, with over 32,000 chess books and over 6,000 bound volumes of chess periodicals; and the Chess & Draughts collection at the National Library of the Netherlands, with about 30,000 books.Strategy {| style="float:right;" |- valign="top" |+ Example of underlying pawn structure | |} Chess strategy is concerned with the evaluation of chess positions and with setting up goals and long-term plans for future play. During the evaluation, players must take into account numerous factors such as the value of the pieces on the board, control of the center and centralization, the pawn structure, king safety, and the control of key squares or groups of squares (for example, diagonals, open files, and dark or light squares). The most basic step in evaluating a position is to count the total value of pieces of both sides. The point values used for this purpose are based on experience; usually, pawns are considered worth one point, knights and bishops about three points each, rooks about five points (the value difference between a rook and a bishop or knight being known as the exchange), and queens about nine points. The king is more valuable than all of the other pieces combined, since its checkmate loses the game, but is still capable as a fighting piece; in the endgame, the king is generally more powerful than a bishop or knight but less powerful than a rook. These basic values are then modified by other factors like position of the piece (e.g. advanced pawns are usually more valuable than those on their initial squares), coordination between pieces (e.g. a pair of bishops usually coordinate better than a bishop and a knight), or the type of position (e.g. knights are generally better in with many pawns while bishops are more powerful in ). Another important factor in the evaluation of chess positions is pawn structure (sometimes known as the pawn skeleton): the configuration of pawns on the chessboard. Since pawns are the least mobile of the pieces, pawn structure is relatively static and largely determines the strategic nature of the position. Weaknesses in pawn structure include isolated, doubled, or backward pawns and ; once created, they are often permanent. Care must therefore be taken to avoid these weaknesses unless they are compensated by another valuable asset (for example, by the possibility of developing an attack). Tactics In chess, tactics generally refer to short-term maneuvers – so short-term that they can be calculated in advance by a human player. The possible depth of calculation depends on the player's ability. In positions with many possibilities on both sides, a deep calculation is more difficult and may not be practical, while in positions with a limited number of variations, strong players can calculate long sequences of moves. Theoreticians describe many elementary tactical methods and typical maneuvers, for example: pins, forks, skewers, batteries, discovered attacks (especially discovered checks), zwischenzugs, deflections, decoys, sacrifices, underminings, overloadings, and interferences. Simple one-move or two-move tactical actions – threats, exchanges of , and double attacks – can be combined into longer sequences of tactical maneuvers that are often forced from the point of view of one or both players. A forced variation that involves a sacrifice and usually results in a tangible gain is called a combination. Brilliant combinations – such as those in the Immortal Game – are considered beautiful and are admired by chess lovers. A common type of chess exercise, aimed at developing players' tactical skills, is a position where a combination is available and the challenge is to find it. Such positions are usually taken from actual games or from analysis of actual games. Solutions usually result in checkmate, decisive advantage, or successful defense. Tactical exercises are commonly found in instructional books, chess magazines, newspaper chess columns, and internet chess sites.PhasesChess theory divides chess games into three phases with different sets of strategies: the opening, the middlegame, and lastly the endgame. There is no universally accepted way to delineate the three phases of the game; the middlegame is typically considered to have begun after 10–20 moves, and the endgame when only a few pieces remain.Opening Competitive players typically learn, memorize, and play well-documented sequences of opening moves. The most common starting moves for White are 1.e4 and 1.d4, which usually lead to substantially different types of positions, and Black has multiple viable responses to both. Sequences of opening moves are referred to as openings and are catalogued in reference works, such as the Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings. There are thousands of openings, though only a small fraction of them are commonly played; variations of openings may also be given names. Openings vary widely in character from quiet (for example, the Réti Opening) to aggressive play (like the Latvian Gambit). In some opening lines, the exact sequence considered best for both sides has been worked out to more than 30 moves. Amateur players generally have little knowledge of opening theory, and may use heuristic strategies, such as playing conservatively to minimize the possibility of losing early to a prepared trap, though not all do so. Rigorous study is necessary for professional players, who often employ assistants called seconds to aid them in preparation. While top players typically play reputed variations of openings, they may also study dubious variations in the hopes that their opponent will overlook them in their own studies. The role of memorization in openings is sometimes controversial for delaying the onset of deliberation and creativity in chess games. The fundamental strategic aims of most openings are similar: * Development: moving pieces (particularly bishops and knights) forward to squares on which they are useful (defending, attacking, and controlling important squares) and/or have the potential to take part in future plans and ideas. * Control of the : control of the central squares allows pieces to be moved to any part of the board relatively easily, and can inhibit the mobility of the opponent's pieces. * King safety: typically secured by castling; incorrectly timed castling can be wasteful or even harmful, however. * Pawn structure: players strive to avoid the creation of pawn weaknesses such as isolated, doubled, or backward pawns – and to force such weaknesses in the opponent's position. Most players and theoreticians consider that White, by virtue of the initiative granted from moving first, begins the game with a small advantage. Black usually strives to neutralize White's advantage and achieve , or to develop in an unbalanced position.Middlegame The middlegame is the part of the game that starts after the opening. Because the opening theory has ended, players have to form plans based on the features of the position, and at the same time take into account the tactical possibilities of the position. The middlegame is the phase in which most combinations occur. Combinations are a series of tactical moves executed to achieve some gain. Middlegame combinations are often connected with an attack against the opponent's king. Some typical patterns have their own names; for example, the Boden's Mate or the Lasker–Bauer combination. Specific plans or strategic themes will often arise from particular groups of openings that result in a specific type of pawn structure. An example is the , which is the attack of queenside pawns against an opponent who has more pawns on the queenside. The study of openings is therefore connected to the preparation of plans that are typical of the resulting middlegames. Another important strategic question in the middlegame is whether and how to reduce material and transition into an endgame (i.e. ). Minor material advantages can generally be transformed into victory only in an endgame, and therefore the stronger side must choose an appropriate way to achieve an ending. Not every reduction of material is good for this purpose; for example, if one side keeps a light-squared bishop and the opponent has a dark-squared one, the transformation into a bishops and pawns ending is usually advantageous for the weaker side only, because an endgame with bishops on opposite colors is likely to be a draw, even with an advantage of a pawn, or sometimes even with a two-pawn advantage.Endgame The endgame (also end game or ending) is the stage of the game when there are few pieces left on the board. There are three main strategic differences between earlier stages of the game and the endgame: * Pawns become more important. Endgames often revolve around endeavors to promote a pawn by advancing it to the furthest . * The king, which requires safeguarding from attack during the middlegame, emerges as a strong piece in the endgame. It is often used to protect its own pawns, attack enemy pawns, and hinder moves of the opponent's king. * Zugzwang, a situation in which the player who is to move is forced to incur a disadvantage, is often a factor in endgames but rarely in other stages of the game. In the example diagram, either side having the move is in zugzwang: Black to move must play 1...Kb7 allowing White to promote the pawn after 2.Kd7; White to move must permit a draw, either by 1.Kc6 stalemate or by losing the pawn after any other legal move. Endgames can be classified according to the type of pieces remaining on the board. Basic checkmates are positions in which one side has only a king and the other side has one or two pieces and can checkmate the opposing king, with the pieces working together with their king. For example, king and pawn endgames involve only kings and pawns on one or both sides, and the task of the stronger side is to promote one of the pawns. Other more complicated endings are classified according to pieces on the board other than kings, such as "rook and pawn versus rook" endgames. Problems and studies This endgame study is solved by advancing the white king diagonally, simultaneously stopping the black pawn and supporting the white pawn on its way to . }} Chess problems (also called chess compositions) are composed positions, usually created for artistic effect rather than practical application. The creator is known as a chess composer. There are many types of chess problems, the most common being , in which White is required to move and checkmate Black within a specified number of moves, usually two or three, against any defense. These are commonly referred to as "two-movers", "three-movers", or "more-movers". "Many-movers" (also known as "long-range problems") of over 100 moves have been composed, the current record standing at over 200; these usually require repetitions of the same manoeuvre in order to produce a repeated zugzwang and force detrimental pawn advances. Directmates usually consist of positions unlikely to occur in an actual game, and are intended to illustrate a particular , usually requiring a surprising or counterintuitive move. Themes associated with chess problems occasionally appear in actual games, when they are referred to as "problem-like" moves. Other common types of problems include: *Helpmates, in which Black moves first and cooperates with White to get Black's king checkmated *Selfmates, in which White moves first and forces Black to checkmate White *Retrograde analysis problems, in which the solver is required to work out what has previously occurred in the game, for example to prove that castling is illegal in the current position The above type of problems are usually considered orthodox, in the sense that the standard rules of chess are observed. Fairy chess problems, also called heterodox problems, involve altered rules, such as the use of unconventional pieces or boards, or stipulations that contradict the standard rules of chess such as reflexmates or seriesmovers. Studies are usually considered distinct from problems, although there is some overlap. In a study, the stipulation is that White to play must win or draw, without specifying any particular number of moves. The majority of studies are endgame positions, with varying degrees of realism or practical application. Tournaments for composition and solving of chess problems and studies are organized by the World Federation for Chess Composition (WFCC), which works cooperatively with but independent of FIDE. The WFCC awards titles for composing and solving chess problems. Chess in public spaces Chess is often played in public spaces such as parks and town squares. Although the nature of these games is often , the chess hustling scene has seen growth in urban areas such as New York City. Organized competition Tournaments and matches 2019, Wijk aan Zee (the Netherlands)]] Contemporary chess is an organized sport with structured international and national leagues, tournaments, and congresses. Thousands of chess tournaments, matches, and festivals are held around the world every year catering to players of all levels. Tournaments with a small number of players may use the round-robin format, in which every player plays one game against every other player. For a large number of players, the Swiss system may be used, in which each player is paired against an opponent who has the same (or as similar as possible) score in each round. In either case, a player's score is usually calculated as 1 point for each game won and one-half point for each game drawn. Variations such as "football scoring" (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw) may be used by tournament organizers, but ratings are always calculated on the basis of standard scoring. A player's score may be reported as total score out of games played (e.g. 5½/8), points for versus points against (e.g. 5½–2½), or by number of wins, losses and draws (e.g. +4−1=3). The term "match" refers not to an individual game, but to either a series of games between two players, or a team competition in which each player of one team plays one game against a player of the other team. Governance Chess's international governing body is usually known by its French acronym FIDE (pronounced FEE-day) (French: Fédération Internationale des Échecs), or International Chess Federation. FIDE's membership consists of the national chess organizations of over 180 countries; there are also several associate members, including various supra-national organizations, the International Braille Chess Association (IBCA), International Chess Committee of the Deaf (ICCD), and the International Physically Disabled Chess Association (IPCA). FIDE is recognized as a sports governing body by the International Olympic Committee, but chess has never been part of the Olympic Games. , former World Chess Champion]] FIDE's most visible activity is organizing the World Chess Championship, a role it assumed in 1948. The current World Champion is Gukesh Dommaraju of India. The reigning Women's World Champion is Ju Wenjun from China. Other competitions for individuals include the World Junior Chess Championship, the European Individual Chess Championship, the tournaments for the World Championship qualification cycle, and the various national championships. Invitation-only tournaments regularly attract the world's strongest players. Examples include Spain's Linares event, Monte Carlo's Melody Amber tournament, the Dortmund Sparkassen meeting, Sofia's M-tel Masters, and Wijk aan Zee's Tata Steel tournament. Regular team chess events include the Chess Olympiad and the European Team Chess Championship. The World Chess Solving Championship and World Correspondence Chess Championship include both team and individual events. These are held independently of FIDE by, respectively, the World Federation for Chess Composition (WFCC), and the International Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF). Titles and rankings In order to rank players, FIDE, ICCF, and most national chess organizations use the Elo rating system developed by Arpad Elo. An average club player has a rating of about 1500; the highest FIDE rating of all time, 2882, was achieved by Magnus Carlsen on the March 2014 FIDE rating list. Players may be awarded lifetime titles by FIDE: * Grandmaster (GM) is the highest title a chess player can attain. For the GM title, a player must have had an Elo rating of 2500 or more at least once and must achieve three results of a prescribed standard (called norms) in tournaments involving other grandmasters, including some from countries other than the applicant's. There are other milestones that can substitute for norms, such as winning the World Junior Championship. * International Master (IM). The conditions are similar to GM, but less demanding. The minimum rating for the IM title is 2400. * FIDE Master (FM). The usual way for a player to qualify for the FIDE Master title is by achieving a FIDE rating of 2300 or more. * Candidate Master (CM). Similar to FM, but with a FIDE rating of at least 2200. The above titles are known as "open" titles, obtainable by both men and women. There are also separate women-only titles; Woman Grandmaster (WGM), Woman International Master (WIM), Woman FIDE Master (WFM) and Woman Candidate Master (WCM). These require a performance level approximately 200 rating points below their respective open titles, and their continued existence has sometimes been controversial. Beginning with Nona Gaprindashvili in 1978, a number of women have earned the open GM title: 40 . FIDE also awards titles for arbiters and trainers.}} The oldest known chess manual was in Arabic and dates to about 840, written by al-Adli ar-Rumi (800–870), a renowned Arab chess player, titled Kitab ash-shatranj (The Book of Chess). This is a lost manuscript, but is referenced in later works. Here also, al-Adli attributes the origins of Persian chess to India, along with the eighth-century collection of fables Kalīla wa-Dimna. By the 20th century, a substantial consensus developed regarding chess's origins in northwest India in the early seventh century. More recently, this consensus has been the subject of further scrutiny. The early forms of chess in India were known as chaturaṅga (), literally "four divisions" [of the military] – infantry, cavalry, elephants, and chariotry – represented by pieces that would later evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Chaturanga was played on an 8×8 uncheckered board, called ashtāpada. Thence it spread eastward and westward along the Silk Road. The earliest evidence of chess is found in nearby Sasanian Persia around 600 A.D., where the game came to be known by the name chatrang (). Chatrang was taken up by the Muslim world after the Islamic conquest of Persia (633–51), where it was then named shatranj (; ), with the pieces largely retaining their Persian names. In Spanish, "shatranj" was rendered as ajedrez ("al-shatranj"), in Portuguese as xadrez, and in Greek as ζατρίκιον (zatrikion, which comes directly from the Persian chatrang), but in the rest of Europe it was replaced by versions of the Persian shāh ("king"), from which the English words "check" and "chess" descend. The word "checkmate" is derived from the Persian shāh māt ("the king is dead"). playing chess, , 1283]] Xiangqi is the form of chess best known in China. The eastern migration of chess, into China and Southeast Asia, has even less documentation than its migration west, making it largely conjectured. The word xiàngqí () was used in China to refer to a game from 569 A.D. at the latest, but it has not been proven that this game was directly related to chess. The first reference to Chinese chess appears in a book entitled Xuánguaì Lù (; "Record of the Mysterious and Strange"), dating to about 800. A minority view holds that Western chess arose from xiàngqí or one of its predecessors. Chess historians Jean-Louis Cazaux and Rick Knowlton contend that xiangqi's intrinsic characteristics make it easier to construct an evolutionary path from China to India/Persia than the opposite direction. The oldest archaeological chess artifacts – ivory pieces – were excavated in ancient Afrasiab, today's Samarkand, in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, and date to about 760, with some of them possibly being older. Remarkably, almost all findings of the oldest pieces come from along the Silk Road, from the former regions of the Tarim Basin (today's Xinjiang in China), Transoxiana, Sogdiana, Bactria, Gandhara, to Iran on one end and to India through Kashmir on the other. in 1977. They date to the 700s and are among the oldest in the world. The ivory came from India.]] The game reached Western Europe and Russia via at least three routes, the earliest being in the ninth century. By the year 1000, it had spread throughout both the Muslim Iberia and Latin Europe. A Latin poem called Versus de scachis ("Verses on Chess") dated to the late 10th century, has been preserved at Einsiedeln Abbey in Switzerland.1200–1700: Origins of the modern gameThe game of chess was then played and known in all European countries. A famous 13th-century Spanish manuscript covering chess, backgammon, and dice is known as the , which is the earliest European treatise on chess as well as being the oldest document on European tables games. The rules were fundamentally similar to those of the Arabic shatranj. The differences were mostly in the use of a checkered board instead of a plain monochrome board used by Arabs and the habit of allowing some or all pawns to make an initial double step. In some regions, the queen, which had replaced the wazir, or the king could also make an initial two-square leap under some conditions. 1497 book]] Around 1200, the rules of shatranj started to be modified in Europe, culminating, several major changes later, in the emergence of modern chess practically as it is known today. A major change was the modern piece movement rules, which began to appear in intellectual circles in Valencia, Spain, around 1475, which established the foundations and brought it very close to current chess. These new rules then were quickly adopted in Italy and Southern France before diffusing into the rest of Europe. Pawns gained the ability to advance two squares on their first move, while bishops and queens acquired their modern movement powers. The queen replaced the earlier vizier chess piece toward the end of the 10th century and by the 15th century had become the most powerful piece; in light of that, modern chess was often referred to at the time as "Queen's Chess" or "Mad Queen Chess". Castling, derived from the "king's leap", usually in combination with a pawn or rook move to bring the king to safety, was introduced. These new rules quickly spread throughout Western Europe. Writings about chess theory began to appear in the late 15th century. An anonymous treatise on chess of 1490 with the first part containing some openings and the second 30 endgames is deposited in the library of the University of Göttingen. The book El Libro dels jochs partitis dels schachs en nombre de 100 was written by Francesc Vicent in Segorbe in 1495, but no copy of this work has survived. Centers of chess activity in this period were coffee houses in major European cities like Café de la Régence in Paris and ''Simpson's Divan'' in London. At the same time, the Romantic intellectual movement had had a far-reaching impact on chess, with aesthetics and tactical beauty being held in higher regard than objective soundness and strategic planning. As a result, virtually all games began with the Open Game, and it was considered unsportsmanlike to decline gambits that invited tactical play such as the King's Gambit and the Evans Gambit. This chess philosophy is known as Romantic chess, and its sharp, tactical style of play was predominant until the late 19th century. The rules concerning stalemate were finalized in the early 19th century. Also in the 19th century, the convention that White moves first was established (formerly either White or Black could move first). Finally, the rules around castling and en passant captures were standardized – variations in these rules persisted in Italy until the late 19th century. The resulting standard game is sometimes referred to as Western chess or international chess, particularly in Asia where other games of the chess family such as xiangqi are prevalent. Since the 19th century, the only rule changes, such as the establishment of the correct procedure for claiming a draw by repetition, have been technical in nature. and Pierre Saint-Amant, on 16 December 1843]] As the 19th century progressed, chess organization developed quickly. Many chess clubs, chess books, and chess journals appeared. There were correspondence matches between cities; for example, the London Chess Club played against the Edinburgh Chess Club in 1824. Chess problems became a regular part of 19th-century newspapers; Bernhard Horwitz, Josef Kling, and Samuel Loyd composed some of the most influential problems. In 1843, von der Lasa published his and Bilguer's Handbuch des Schachspiels (Handbook of Chess), the first comprehensive manual of chess theory. The first modern chess tournament was organized by Howard Staunton, a leading English chess player, and was held in London in 1851. It was won by the German Adolf Anderssen, who was hailed as the leading chess master. His brilliant, energetic attacking style was typical for the time. Sparkling games like Anderssen's Immortal Game and Evergreen Game or Morphy's "Opera Game" were regarded as the highest possible summit of the art of chess. Deeper insight into the nature of chess came with the American Paul Morphy, an extraordinary chess prodigy. Morphy won against all important competitors (except Staunton, who refused to play), including Anderssen, during his short chess career between 1857 and 1863. Morphy's success stemmed from a combination of brilliant attacks and sound strategy; he intuitively knew how to prepare attacks. 1873–1945: Birth of a sport , the first official World Chess Champion, from 1886 to 1894]] Prague-born Wilhelm Steinitz laid the foundations for a scientific approach to the game, the art of breaking a position down into components and preparing correct plans. In addition to his theoretical achievements, Steinitz founded an important tradition: his triumph over the leading German master Johannes Zukertort in 1886 is regarded as the first official World Chess Championship. This win marked a stylistic transition at the highest levels of chess from an attacking, tactical style predominant in the Romantic era to a more positional, strategic style introduced to the chess world by Steinitz. Steinitz lost his crown in 1894 to a much younger player, the German mathematician Emanuel Lasker, who maintained this title for 27 years, the longest tenure of any world champion. After the end of the 19th century, the number of master tournaments and matches held annually quickly grew. The first Olympiad was held in Paris in 1924, and FIDE was founded initially for the purpose of organizing that event. In 1927, the Women's World Chess Championship was established; the first to hold the title was Czech-English master Vera Menchik. A prodigy from Cuba, José Raúl Capablanca, known for his skill in endgames, won the World Championship from Lasker in 1921. Capablanca was undefeated in tournament play for eight years, from 1916 to 1924. His successor (1927) was the Russian-French Alexander Alekhine, a strong attacking player who died as the world champion in 1946. Alekhine briefly lost the title to Dutch player Max Euwe in 1935 and regained it two years later. In the interwar period, chess was revolutionized by the new theoretical school of so-called hypermodernists like Aron Nimzowitsch and Richard Réti. They advocated controlling the of the board with distant pieces rather than with pawns, thus inviting opponents to occupy the center with pawns, which become objects of attack. Among the innovations popularized by hypermodernists was the fianchetto: the development of bishops away from, rather than towards, the center, onto the b- and g-files.1945–1990: Post-World War II era , the first post-war World Champion]] After the death of Alekhine, a new World Champion was sought. FIDE, which has controlled the title since then, ran a tournament of elite players. The winner of the 1948 tournament was Russian Mikhail Botvinnik. In 1950, FIDE established a system of titles, conferring the title of Grandmaster on 27 players. (Some sources state that, in 1914, the title of chess Grandmaster was first formally conferred by Tsar Nicholas II of Russia to Lasker, Capablanca, Alekhine, Tarrasch, and Marshall, but this is a disputed claim.) Botvinnik started an era of Soviet dominance in the chess world, which mainly through the Soviet government's politically inspired efforts to demonstrate intellectual superiority over the West stood almost uninterrupted for more than a half-century. Until the dissolution of the Soviet Union, there was only one non-Soviet champion, American Bobby Fischer (champion 1972–1975). Botvinnik also revolutionized opening theory. Previously, Black strove for equality, attempting to neutralize White's first-move advantage. As Black, Botvinnik strove for the initiative from the beginning. In the previous informal system of World Championships, the current champion decided which challenger he would play for the title and the challenger was forced to seek sponsors for the match. FIDE set up a new system of qualifying tournaments and matches. The world's strongest players were seeded into Interzonal tournaments, where they were joined by players who had qualified from Zonal tournaments. The leading finishers in these Interzonals would go through the "Candidates" stage, which was initially a tournament, and later a series of knockout matches. The winner of the Candidates would then play the reigning champion for the title. A champion defeated in a match had a right to play a rematch a year later. This system operated on a three-year cycle. Botvinnik participated in championship matches over a period of fifteen years. He won the world championship tournament in 1948 and retained the title in tied matches in 1951 and 1954. In 1957, he lost to Vasily Smyslov, but regained the title in a rematch in 1958. In 1960, he lost the title to the 23-year-old Latvian prodigy Mikhail Tal, an accomplished tactician and attacking player who is widely regarded as one of the most creative players ever, hence his nickname "the magician from Riga". Botvinnik again regained the title in a rematch in 1961. , World Champion from 1972 to 1975]] Following the 1961 event, FIDE abolished the automatic right of a deposed champion to a rematch, and the next champion, Armenian Tigran Petrosian, a player renowned for his defensive and positional skills, held the title for two cycles, 1963–1969. His successor, Boris Spassky from Russia (champion 1969–1972), won games in both positional and sharp tactical style. The next championship, the so-called Match of the Century, saw the first non-Soviet challenger since World War II, American Bobby Fischer. Fischer defeated his opponents in the Candidates matches by unheard-of margins, and convincingly defeated Spassky for the world championship. The match was followed closely by news media of the day, leading to a surge in popularity for chess; it also held significant political importance at the height of the Cold War, with the match being seen by both sides as a microcosm of the conflict between East and West. In 1975, however, Fischer refused to defend his title against Soviet Anatoly Karpov when he was unable to reach agreement on conditions with FIDE, and Karpov obtained the title by default. Fischer modernized many aspects of chess, especially by extensively preparing openings. Karpov defended his title twice against Viktor Korchnoi and dominated the 1970s and early 1980s with a string of tournament successes. In the 1984 World Chess Championship, Karpov faced his toughest challenge to date, the young Garry Kasparov from Baku, Soviet Azerbaijan. The match was aborted in controversial circumstances after 5 months and 48 games with Karpov leading by 5 wins to 3, but evidently exhausted; many commentators believed Kasparov, who had won the last two games, would have won the match had it continued. Kasparov won the 1985 rematch. Kasparov and Karpov contested three further closely fought matches in 1986, 1987 and 1990, Kasparov winning them all. Kasparov became the dominant figure of world chess from the mid-1980s until his retirement from competition in 2005.Beginnings of chess technology Chess-playing computer programs (later known as chess engines) began to appear in the 1960s. In 1970, the first major computer chess tournament, the North American Computer Chess Championship, was held, followed in 1974 by the first World Computer Chess Championship. In the late 1970s, dedicated home chess computers such as Fidelity Electronics' Chess Challenger became commercially available, as well as software to run on home computers. The overall standard of computer chess was low, however, until the 1990s. The first endgame tablebases, which provided perfect play for relatively simple endgames such as king and rook versus king and bishop, appeared in the late 1970s. This set a precedent to the complete six- and seven-piece tablebases that became available in the 2000s and 2010s respectively. The first commercial chess database, a collection of chess games searchable by move and position, was introduced by the German company ChessBase in 1987. Databases containing millions of chess games have since had a profound effect on opening theory and other areas of chess research. Digital chess clocks were invented in 1973, though they did not become commonplace until the 1990s. Digital clocks allow for time controls involving increments and delays. 1990–present: Rise of computers and online chess Technology The Internet enabled online chess as a new medium of playing, with chess servers allowing users to play other people from different parts of the world in real time. The first such server, known as Internet Chess Server (ICS), was developed at the University of Utah in 1992. ICS formed the basis for the first commercial chess server, the Internet Chess Club, which was launched in 1995, and for other early chess servers such as Free Internet Chess Server (FICS). Since then, many other platforms have appeared, and online chess began to rival over-the-board chess in popularity. During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the isolation ensuing from quarantines imposed in many places around the world, combined with the success of the popular Netflix show ''The Queen's Gambit'' and other factors such as the popularity of online tournaments (notably PogChamps) and chess Twitch streamers, resulted in a surge of popularity not only for online chess, but for the game of chess in general; this phenomenon has been referred to in the media as the 2020 online chess boom. Computer chess has also seen major advances. By the 1990s, chess engines could consistently defeat most amateurs, and in 1997 Deep Blue defeated World Champion Garry Kasparov in a six-game match, starting an era of computer dominance at the highest level of chess. In the 2010s, engines significantly stronger than even the best human players became accessible for free on a number of PC and mobile platforms, and free engine analysis became a commonplace feature on internet chess servers. An adverse effect of the easy availability of engine analysis on hand-held devices and personal computers has been the rise of computer cheating, which has grown to be a major concern in both over-the-board and online chess. In 2017, AlphaZero – a neural network also capable of playing shogi and Go – was introduced. Since then, many chess engines based on neural network evaluation have been written, the best of which have surpassed the traditional "brute-force" engines. AlphaZero also introduced many novel ideas and ways of playing the game, which affected the style of play at the top level. As endgame tablebases developed, they began to provide perfect play in endgame positions in which the game-theoretical outcome was previously unknown, such as positions with king, queen and pawn against king and queen. In 1991, Lewis Stiller published a tablebase for select six-piece endgames, and by 2005, following the publication of Nalimov tablebases, all six-piece endgame positions were solved. In 2012, Lomonosov tablebases were published which solved all seven-piece endgame positions. Use of tablebases enhances the performance of chess engines by providing definitive results in some branches of analysis. Technological progress made in the 1990s and the 21st century has influenced the way that chess is studied at all levels, as well as the state of chess as a spectator sport. Previously, preparation at the professional level required an extensive chess library and several subscriptions to publications such as Chess Informant to keep up with opening developments and study opponents' games. Today, preparation at the professional level involves the use of databases containing millions of games, and engines to analyze different opening variations and prepare novelties. A number of online learning resources are also available for players of all levels, such as online courses, tactics trainers, and video lessons. Since the late 1990s, it has been possible to follow major international chess events online, the players' moves being relayed in real time. Sensory boards have been developed to enable automatic transmission of moves. Chess players will frequently run engines while watching these games, allowing them to quickly identify mistakes by the players and spot tactical opportunities. While in the past the moves have been relayed live, today chess organizers will often impose a half-hour delay as an anti-cheating measure. In the mid-to-late 2010s – and especially following the 2020 online boom – it became commonplace for supergrandmasters, such as Hikaru Nakamura and Magnus Carlsen, to livestream chess content on platforms such as Twitch. Also following the boom, online chess started being viewed as an esport, with esport teams signing chess players for the first time in 2020. The number of esport teams signing chess players rose considerably in 2025, after chess was added to Saudi Arabia's Esports World Cup. Growth Organized chess even for young children has become common. FIDE holds world championships for age levels down to 8 years old. The largest tournaments, in number of players, are those held for children. The number of grandmasters and other chess professionals has also grown in the modern era. Kenneth Regan and Guy Haworth conducted research involving comparison of move choices by players of different levels and from different periods with the analysis of strong chess engines. They concluded that the increase in the number of grandmasters and higher Elo ratings of the top players reflect an actual increase in the average standard of play, rather than "rating inflation" or "title inflation". Professional chess of India, current World Champion]] In 1993, Garry Kasparov and Nigel Short broke ties with FIDE to organize their own match for the World Championship and formed a competing Professional Chess Association (PCA). From then until 2006, there were two simultaneous World Championships and respective World Champions: the PCA or "classical" champions extending the Steinitzian tradition in which the current champion plays a challenger in a series of games, and the other following FIDE's new format of many players competing in a large knockout tournament to determine the champion. Kasparov lost his PCA title in 2000 to Vladimir Kramnik of Russia. Due to the complicated state of world chess politics and difficulties obtaining commercial sponsorships, Kasparov was never able to challenge for the title again. Despite this, he continued to dominate in top level tournaments and remained the world's highest rated player until his retirement from competitive chess in 2005. The World Chess Championship 2006, in which Kramnik beat the FIDE World Champion Veselin Topalov, reunified the titles and made Kramnik the undisputed World Chess Champion. In September 2007, he lost the title to Viswanathan Anand of India. Anand defended his title in the revenge match of 2008, 2010 and 2012. Magnus Carlsen defeated Anand in 2013, defending his title in 2014, 2016, 2018, and 2021, whereafter he announced that he would not defend his title a fifth time. The 2023 championship was played between the winner and runner-up of the Candidates Tournament 2022: Ian Nepomniachtchi of Russia and Ding Liren of China. Ding beat Nepomniachtchi, making him the world champion. Gentlemen are "to be meanly seene in the play at Chestes", says the overview at the beginning of Baldassare Castiglione's The Book of the Courtier (1528, English 1561 by Sir Thomas Hoby), but chess should not be a gentleman's main passion. Castiglione explains it further: <blockquote>And what say you to the game at chestes? It is an honest kynde of enterteynmente and wittie, quoth Syr Friderick. But me think it hath a fault, whiche is, that a man may be to couning at it, for who ever will be excellent in the playe of chestes, I beleave he must beestowe much tyme about it, and applie it with so much study, that a man may assoone learne some noble scyence, or compase any other matter of importaunce, and yet in the ende in beestowing all that laboure, he knoweth no more but a game. Therfore in this I beleave there happeneth a very rare thing, namely, that the meane is more commendable, then the excellency.</blockquote> Some of the elaborate chess sets used by the aristocracy at least partially survive, such as the Lewis chessmen. Chess was often used as a basis of sermons on morality. An example is Liber de moribus hominum et officiis nobilium sive super ludo scacchorum ('Book of the customs of men and the duties of nobles or the Book of Chess'), written by an Italian Dominican friar Jacobus de Cessolis . This book was one of the most popular of the Middle Ages. The work was translated into many other languages (the first printed edition was published at Utrecht in 1473) and was the basis for William Caxton's The Game and Playe of the Chesse (1474), one of the first books printed in English. Different chess pieces were used as metaphors for different classes of people, and human duties were derived from the rules of the game or from visual properties of the chess pieces: <blockquote>The knyght ought to be made alle armed upon an hors in suche wyse that he haue an helme on his heed and a spere in his ryght hande/ and coueryd wyth his sheld/ a swerde and a mace on his lyft syde/ Cladd wyth an hawberk and plates to fore his breste/ legge harnoys on his legges/ Spores on his heelis on his handes his gauntelettes/ his hors well broken and taught and apte to bataylle and couerid with his armes/ whan the knyghtes ben maad they ben bayned or bathed/ that is the signe that they shold lede a newe lyf and newe maners/ also they wake alle the nyght in prayers and orysons vnto god that he wylle gyue hem grace that they may gete that thynge that they may not gete by nature/ The kynge or prynce gyrdeth a boute them a swerde in signe/ that they shold abyde and kepe hym of whom they take theyr dispenses and dignyte.</blockquote> Known in the circles of clerics, students, and merchants, chess entered into the popular culture of the Middle Ages. An example is the 209th song of Carmina Burana from the 13th century, which starts with the names of chess pieces, Roch, pedites, regina... The game of chess, at times, has been discouraged by various religious authorities in Middle Ages: Jewish, Catholic and Orthodox. Some Muslim authorities prohibited it even recently, for example Ruhollah Khomeini in 1979 and Abdul-Aziz ash-Sheikh even later. During the Age of Enlightenment, chess was viewed as a means of self-improvement. Benjamin Franklin, in his article "The Morals of Chess" (1786), wrote: <blockquote> The Game of Chess is not merely an idle amusement; several very valuable qualities of the mind, useful in the course of human life, are to be acquired and strengthened by it, so as to become habits ready on all occasions; for life is a kind of Chess, in which we have often points to gain, and competitors or adversaries to contend with, and in which there is a vast variety of good and ill events, that are, in some degree, the effect of prudence, or the want of it. By playing at Chess then, we may learn: I. Foresight, which looks a little into futurity, and considers the consequences that may attend an action ... II. Circumspection, which surveys the whole Chess-board, or scene of action: – the relation of the several Pieces, and their situations ... III. Caution, not to make our moves too hastily ... </blockquote> '': the Red King is snoring. Illustration by Sir John Tenniel.]] Chess was occasionally criticized in the 19th century as a waste of time. Chess is taught to children in schools around the world today. Many schools host chess clubs, and there are many scholastic tournaments specifically for children. Tournaments are held regularly in many countries, hosted by organizations such as the United States Chess Federation and the National Scholastic Chess Foundation. Chess is many times depicted in the arts; significant works where chess plays a key role range from Thomas Middleton's A Game at Chess to Through the Looking-Glass by Lewis Carroll, to Vladimir Nabokov's The Defense, to The Royal Game by Stefan Zweig. Chess has also featured in film classics such as Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal, Satyajit Ray's The Chess Players, and Powell and Pressburger's A Matter of Life and Death. Chess is also present in contemporary popular culture. For example, the characters in Star Trek play a futuristic version of the game called "Federation Tri-Dimensional Chess", and "Wizard's Chess" is played in J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter. Mathematics The game structure and nature of chess are related to several branches of mathematics. Many combinatorical and topological problems connected to chess, such as the knight's tour and the eight queens puzzle, have been known for hundreds of years. , Legendre, de Moivre, and Vandermonde studied the knight's tour.]] The number of legal positions in chess is estimated to be with a 95% confidence level, with a game-tree complexity of approximately 10<sup>123</sup>. The game-tree complexity of chess was first calculated by Claude Shannon as 10<sup>120</sup>, a number known as the Shannon number. An average position typically has thirty to forty possible moves, but there may be as few as zero (in the case of checkmate or stalemate) or (in a constructed position) as many as 218. In 1913, Ernst Zermelo used chess as a basis for his theory of game strategies, which is considered one of the predecessors of game theory. Zermelo's theorem states that it is possible to solve chess, i.e. to determine with certainty the outcome of a perfectly played game (either White can force a win, or Black can force a win, or both sides can force at least a draw). With 10<sup>43</sup> legal positions in chess, however, it will take an impossibly long time to compute a perfect strategy with any feasible technology. Applied mathematics A novel methodology in steganography explores the use of chess-based covers (such as puzzles, chess problems, game reports, training documents, news articles, etc.) for concealing data within a selection of , each hiding some bits. Several proof-of-concept projects have been developed that convert text or files into binary code, which is then converted into a series of legal chess moves, that can then be decrypted and downloaded. Correspondence chess has been historically suspected of being a potential steganographic medium. Melville Davisson Post documented a chess problem that was used to create a pictorial cipher during World War I. During World War II, extensive postal censorship was imposed on military personnel from the United States and Canada that made playing correspondence chess impossible, arising from suspicion that chess could be used to send secret messages to the enemies. Psychology There is an extensive scientific literature on chess psychology. Alfred Binet and others showed that knowledge and verbal, rather than visuospatial, ability lies at the core of expertise. In his doctoral thesis, Adriaan de Groot showed that chess masters can rapidly perceive the key features of a position. According to de Groot, this perception, made possible by years of practice and study, is more important than the sheer ability to anticipate moves. De Groot showed that chess masters can memorize positions shown for a few seconds almost perfectly. The ability to memorize does not alone account for chess-playing skill, since masters and novices, when faced with random arrangements of chess pieces, had equivalent recall (about six positions in each case). Rather, it is the ability to recognize patterns, which are then memorized, which distinguished the skilled players from the novices. When the positions of the pieces were taken from an actual game, the masters had almost total positional recall. More recent research has focused on chess as mental training; the respective roles of knowledge and look-ahead search; brain imaging studies of chess masters and novices; blindfold chess; the role of personality and intelligence in chess skill; gender differences; and computational models of chess expertise. The role of practice and talent in the development of chess and other domains of expertise has led to much empirical investigation. Ericsson and colleagues have argued that deliberate practice is sufficient for reaching high levels of expertise in chess. Recent research, however, fails to replicate their results and indicates that factors other than practice are also important. For example, Fernand Gobet and colleagues have shown that stronger players started playing chess at a young age and that experts born in the Northern Hemisphere are more likely to have been born in late winter and early spring. Compared to the general population, chess players are more likely to be non-right-handed, though they found no correlation between handedness and skill. Although one meta-analysis and most children studies find a positive correlation between general cognitive ability and chess skill, adult studies show mixed results.Online chess Online chess is chess played over the internet. This is done through the use of internet chess platforms, which use Elo ratings or similar systems to pair up individual players. Online chess saw a spike in growth during the quarantines of the COVID-19 pandemic. This can be attributed to both isolation and the popularity of Netflix miniseries ''The Queen's Gambit'', which was released in October 2020. Chess.com saw more than twice as many account registrations in November as it had in previous months, and the number of games played monthly on Lichess doubled as well. There was also a demographic shift in players, with female registration on Chess.com shifting from 22% to 27% of new players. GM Maurice Ashley said "A boom is taking place in chess like we have never seen maybe since the Bobby Fischer days", attributing the growth to an increased desire to do something constructive during the pandemic. USCF Women's Program Director Jennifer Shahade stated that chess works well on the internet, since pieces do not need to be reset and matchmaking is virtually instant.Computer chess The idea of creating a chess-playing machine dates to the 18th century; around 1769, the chess-playing automaton called The Turk became famous before being exposed as a hoax. Serious trials based on automata, such as El Ajedrecista, were too complex and limited to be useful. Since the advent of the digital computer in the 1950s, chess enthusiasts, computer engineers, and computer scientists have built, with increasing degrees of seriousness and success, chess-playing machines and computer programs. The groundbreaking paper on computer chess, "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess", was published in 1950 by Claude Shannon. He wrote: <blockquote> The chess machine is an ideal one to start with, since: (1) the problem is sharply defined both in allowed operations (the moves) and in the ultimate goal (checkmate); (2) it is neither so simple as to be trivial nor too difficult for satisfactory solution; (3) chess is generally considered to require "thinking" for skillful play; a solution of this problem will force us either to admit the possibility of a mechanized thinking or to further restrict our concept of "thinking"; (4) the discrete structure of chess fits well into the digital nature of modern computers. </blockquote> The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) held the first major chess tournament for computers, the North American Computer Chess Championship, in September 1970. CHESS 3.0, a chess program from Northwestern University, won the championship. The first World Computer Chess Championship, held in 1974, was won by the Soviet program Kaissa. At first considered only a curiosity, the best chess playing programs have become extremely strong. In 1997, a computer won a chess match using classical time controls against a reigning World Champion for the first time: IBM's Deep Blue beat Garry Kasparov 3½–2½ (it scored two wins, one loss, and three draws). There was some controversy over the match, and human–computer matches were relatively close over the next few years, until convincing computer victories in 2005 and in 2006. In 2009, a mobile phone won a category 6 tournament with a performance rating of 2898: chess engine Hiarcs 13 running on the mobile phone HTC Touch HD won the Copa Mercosur tournament with nine wins and one draw. The best chess programs are now able to consistently beat the strongest human players, to the extent that human–computer matches no longer attract interest from chess players or the media. While the World Computer Chess Championship still exists, the Top Chess Engine Championship (TCEC) is widely regarded as the unofficial world championship for chess engines. The current champion is Stockfish. With huge databases of past games and high analytical ability, computers can help players to learn chess and prepare for matches. Internet Chess Servers allow people to find and play opponents worldwide. The presence of computers and modern communication tools have raised concerns regarding cheating during games. Related games , after setup phase. Players elect their own starting setups behind the pawns.]] Related games include: * direct predecessors of chess, such as chaturanga and shatranj; * traditional national or regional games that share common ancestors with Western chess such as xiangqi (Chinese chess), shogi (Japanese chess), janggi (Korean chess), ouk chatrang (Cambodian chess), makruk (Thai chess), sittuyin (Burmese chess), and shatar (Mongolian chess); In the comparison of chess with games often referred to as national forms of chess, chess may be referred to as Western chess or international chess. Chess variants There are more than two thousand published chess variants, games with similar but different rules. Most of them are of relatively recent origin. They include modern variations employing different rules (e.g. losing chess and Chess960), different forces (e.g. Dunsany's chess), non-standard pieces (e.g. Grand Chess), and different board geometries (e.g. hexagonal chess and infinite chess); In the context of chess variants, chess is commonly referred to as orthodox chess, orthochess, and classic chess.<ref name"Parlett p276" /><ref name"Schmittberger p186" /> See also * Glossary of chess * Glossary of chess problems * List of abstract strategy games * List of chess players * List of World Chess Championships * Outline of chess * Women in chess Notes ReferencesBibliography * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * * * * * * * * * (see the included supplement, "How Do You Play Chess") * * * * * * External links <!--PLEASE DISCUSS ALL ADDITIONAL LINKS ON TALK PAGES BEFORE YOU ADD THEM HERE. OTHERWISE THEY WILL BE REMOVED INSTANTLY.--> ; International organizations * [http://www.fide.com/ FIDE] – World Chess Federation * [http://www.iccf.com/ ICCF] – International Correspondence Chess Federation ; News * [http://www.chessbase.com/ Chessbase news] * [http://www.theweekinchess.com/ The Week in Chess] ; History * [http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/factfinder.html Chesshistory.com] Category:Abstract strategy games Category:Individual sports Category:Traditional board games Category:Partially solved games Category:Games related to chaturanga
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chess
2025-04-05T18:27:04.091448
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Charlie Chaplin
| image = Charlie Chaplin portrait.jpg | caption = Chaplin in 1921 | birth_name = Charles Spencer Chaplin | birth_date | birth_place = London, England | death_date | death_place = Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland | burial_place = Cimetière de Corsier-sur-Vevey, Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland | resting_place_coordinates <!----> | monuments | other_names | citizenship | education | alma_mater | occupation | years_active = 1899–1975 | era | employer | organization | works Full list | spouse = | | | }} | children = 11, including Charles, Sydney, Geraldine, Michael, Josephine, Victoria, Eugene and Christopher | parents = Charles Chaplin Sr.<br>Hannah Hill | relatives = Chaplin family | awards | signature Firma de Charles Chaplin.svg | website = }} Sir Charles Spencer Chaplin (16 April 188925 December 1977) was an English comic actor, filmmaker, and composer<!--see talk page before adding or removing occupations--> who rose to fame in the era of silent film. He became a worldwide icon through his screen persona, the Tramp, and is considered one of the film industry's most important figures. His career spanned more than 75 years, from his childhood in the Victorian era until a year before his death in 1977, and encompassed both accolade and controversy. Chaplin's childhood in London was one of poverty and hardship. His father was absent and his mother struggled financiallyhe was sent to a workhouse twice before age nine. When he was 14, his mother was committed to a mental asylum. Chaplin began performing at an early age, touring music halls and later working as a stage actor and comedian. At 19, he was signed to the Fred Karno company, which took him to the United States. He was scouted for the film industry and began appearing in 1914 for Keystone Studios. He soon introduced and adopted the Tramp as his screen persona. He directed his own films and continued to hone his craft as he moved to Essanay Studios, where the Tramp persona was developed emotionally in The Tramp (1915). He then attracted a large fanbase and demanded more money as he moved to Mutual and First National corporations. By 1918, he was one of the world's best-paid and best-known figures. In 1919, Chaplin co-founded the distribution company United Artists, which gave him complete control over his films. His first feature-length film was The Kid (1921), followed by A Woman of Paris (1923), The Gold Rush (1925), and The Circus (1928). He initially refused to move to sound films in the 1930s, instead producing City Lights (1931) and Modern Times (1936) without dialogue. His first sound film was The Great Dictator (1940), which satirised Adolf Hitler. The 1940s were marked with controversy for Chaplin, and his popularity declined rapidly. He was accused of communist sympathies, and some members of the press and public were scandalised by his involvement in a paternity suit and marriages to much younger women. An FBI investigation was opened, and Chaplin was forced to leave the U.S. in 1952 and settle in Switzerland. He abandoned the Tramp in his later films, which include Monsieur Verdoux (1947), Limelight (1952), A King in New York (1957), and A Countess from Hong Kong (1967). Chaplin wrote, directed, produced, edited, starred in, and composed the music for most of his films. He was a perfectionist, and his financial independence enabled him to spend years on the development and production of a picture. His films are characterised by slapstick combined with pathos, typified in the Tramp's struggles against adversity. Many contain social and political themes, as well as autobiographical elements. He received an Honorary Academy Award for "the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century" in 1972, as part of a renewed appreciation for his work. He continues to be held in high regard, with The Gold Rush, City Lights, Modern Times, and The Great Dictator often ranked on lists of the greatest films. Biography 1889–1913: early years Background and childhood hardship for paupers, 1897]] Charles Spencer Chaplin Jr. was born on 16 April 1889 to Hannah Chaplin (née Hill) and Charles Chaplin Sr. His paternal grandmother came from the Smith family, who belonged to Romani people. There is no official record of his birth, although Chaplin believed he was born at East Street, Walworth, in South London. In 2011 a letter sent to Chaplin in the 1970s came to light which claimed that he had been born in a Gypsy caravan at Black Patch Park in Smethwick, Staffordshire (now in the borough of Sandwell in the West Midlands). Chaplin's son Michael has suggested that the information must have been significant to his father for him to retain the letter. Regarding the date of his birth, Chaplin believed it to be 16 April, but an announcement in the edition of 11 May 1889 of The Magnet stated it as the 15th.}} His parents had married four years previously, at which time Charles Sr. became the legal guardian of Hannah's first son, Sydney John Hill.}} At the time of his birth, Chaplin's parents were both music hall entertainers. Hannah, the daughter of a shoemaker, had a brief and unsuccessful career under the stage name Lily Harley, while Charles Sr., a butcher's son, was a popular singer. Although they never divorced, Chaplin's parents were estranged by around 1891. The following year, Hannah gave birth to a third son, George Wheeler Dryden, fathered by the music hall entertainer Leo Dryden. The child was taken by Dryden at six months old, and did not re-enter Chaplin's life for thirty years. }} Chaplin's childhood was fraught with poverty and hardship, making his eventual trajectory "the most dramatic of all the rags to riches stories ever told" according to his authorised biographer David Robinson. Chaplin's early years were spent with his mother and brother Sydney in the London district of Kennington. Hannah had no means of income, other than occasional nursing and dressmaking, and Chaplin Sr. provided no financial support. As the situation deteriorated, Chaplin was sent to Lambeth Workhouse when he was seven years old.}} The council housed him at the Central London District School for paupers, which Chaplin remembered as "a forlorn existence". He was briefly reunited with his mother 18 months later, but Hannah was forced to readmit her family to the workhouse in July 1898. The boys were promptly sent to Norwood Schools, another institution for destitute children. In September 1898, Hannah was committed to Cane Hill mental asylum; she had developed psychosis seemingly brought on by an infection of syphilis and malnutrition. For the two months she was there, Chaplin and his brother Sydney were sent to live with their father, whom the young boys scarcely knew. Charles Sr. was by then severely alcoholic, and life there was bad enough to provoke a visit from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Chaplin's father died two years later, at 38 years old, from cirrhosis of the liver. Hannah entered a period of remission but, in May 1903, became ill again. Chaplin, then 14, had the task of taking his mother to the infirmary, from where she was sent back to Cane Hill. He lived alone for several days, searching for food and occasionally sleeping rough, until Sydneywho had joined the Navy two years earlierreturned. Hannah was released from the asylum eight months later, but in March 1905, her illness returned, this time permanently. "There was nothing we could do but accept poor mother's fate", Chaplin later wrote, and she remained in care until her death in 1928. Young performer '']] Between his time in the poor schools and his mother succumbing to mental illness, Chaplin began to perform on stage. He later recalled making his first amateur appearance at the age of five years, when he took over from Hannah one night in Aldershot.as he was standing in the wingsto go on as her replacement. He remembered confidently entertaining the crowd, and receiving laughter and applause.}} This was an isolated occurrence, but by the time he was nine Chaplin had, with his mother's encouragement, grown interested in performing. He later wrote: "[she] imbued me with the feeling that I had some sort of talent". Through his father's connections, Chaplin became a member of the Eight Lancashire Lads clog-dancing troupe, with whom he toured English music halls throughout 1899 and 1900.}} Chaplin worked hard, and the act was popular with audiences, but he was not satisfied with dancing and wished to form a comedy act. In the years Chaplin was touring with the Eight Lancashire Lads, his mother ensured that he still attended school but, by the age of 13, he had abandoned education.<!--mother--><!--abandoned--> He supported himself with a range of jobs, while nursing his ambition to become an actor. At 14, shortly after his mother's relapse, he registered with a theatrical agency in London's West End. The manager sensed potential in Chaplin, who was promptly given his first role as a newsboy in Harry Arthur Saintsbury's Jim, a Romance of Cockayne. It opened in July 1903, but the show was unsuccessful and closed after two weeks. Chaplin's comic performance, however, was singled out for praise in many of the reviews. Saintsbury secured a role for Chaplin in Charles Frohman's production of Sherlock Holmes, where he played Billy the pageboy in three nationwide tours. His performance was so well received that he was called to London to play the role alongside William Gillette, the original Holmes.}} "It was like tidings from heaven", Chaplin recalled. At 16 years old, Chaplin starred in the play's West End production at the Duke of York's Theatre from October to December 1905. He completed one final tour of Sherlock Holmes in early 1906, before leaving the play after more than two-and-a-half years.Stage comedy and vaudevilleChaplin soon found work with a new company and went on tour with his brother, who was also pursuing an acting career, in a comedy sketch called Repairs. In May 1906, Chaplin joined the juvenile act Casey's Circus, where he developed popular burlesque pieces and was soon the star of the show. By the time the act finished touring in July 1907, the 18-year-old had become an accomplished comedic performer. He struggled to find more work, however, and a brief attempt at a solo act was a failure.}} comedy company, 1913]] Meanwhile, Sydney Chaplin had joined Fred Karno's prestigious comedy company in 1906 and, by 1908, he was one of their key performers. In February, he managed to secure a two-week trial for his younger brother. Karno was initially wary, and considered Chaplin a "pale, puny, sullen-looking youngster" who "looked much too shy to do any good in the theatre". However, the teenager made an impact on his first night at the London Coliseum and he was quickly signed to a contract. Chaplin began by playing a series of minor parts, eventually progressing to starring roles in 1909. In April 1910, he was given the lead in a new sketch, Jimmy the Fearless. It was a big success, and Chaplin received considerable press attention. Karno selected his new star to join the section of the company that toured North America's vaudeville circuit, a section which also included Stan Laurel. The young comedian headed the show and impressed reviewers, being described as "one of the best pantomime artists ever seen here". His most successful role was a drunk called the "Inebriate Swell", which drew him significant recognition. The role was in the play titled Mumming Birds, known as A Night in an English Music Hall when Chaplin performed it on tour, which was the longest-running sketch the music halls produced, and included throwing pies at the players among other innovations. The tour lasted 21 months, and the troupe returned to England in June 1912. Chaplin recalled that he "had a disquieting feeling of sinking back into a depressing commonplaceness" and was, therefore, delighted when a new tour began in October.1914–1917: entering filmsKeystoneSix months into the second American tour, Chaplin was invited to join the New York Motion Picture Company. A representative who had seen his performances thought he could replace Fred Mace, a star of their Keystone Studios who intended to leave. Chaplin thought the Keystone comedies "a crude mélange of rough and rumble", but liked the idea of working in films and rationalised: "Besides, it would mean a new life." He met with the company and signed a $150-per-week in dollars}} contract in September 1913. Chaplin arrived in Los Angeles in early December, and began working for the Keystone studio on 5January 1914. Chaplin's boss was Mack Sennett, who initially expressed concern that the 24-year-old looked too young. He was not used in a picture until late January, during which time Chaplin attempted to learn the processes of filmmaking. The one-reeler Making a Living marked his film acting debut and was released on 2February 1914. Chaplin strongly disliked the picture, but one review picked him out as "a comedian of the first water". For his second appearance in front of the camera, Chaplin selected the costume with which he became identified. He described the process in his autobiography: ... I added a small moustache, which, I reasoned, would add age without hiding my expression. I had no idea of the character. But the moment I was dressed, the clothes and the makeup made me feel the person he was. I began to know him, and by the time I walked on stage he was fully born.which was its particular strengthit would evolve during the whole rest of his career."}}}} The film was ''Mabel's Strange Predicament, but "the Tramp" character, as it became known, debuted to audiences in Kid Auto Races at Veniceshot later than Mabel's Strange Predicament but released two days earlier on 7February 1914. Chaplin adopted the character as his screen persona and attempted to make suggestions for the films he appeared in. These ideas were dismissed by his directors. During the filming of his 11th picture, Mabel at the Wheel, he clashed with director Mabel Normand and was almost released from his contract. Sennett kept him on, however, when he received orders from exhibitors for more Chaplin films. Sennett also allowed Chaplin to direct his next film himself after Chaplin promised to pay $1,500 ($ in dollars) if the film was unsuccessful. Caught in the Rain'', issued 4May 1914, was Chaplin's directorial debut and was highly successful. Thereafter, he directed almost every short film in which he appeared for Keystone, at the rate of approximately one per week, a period which he later remembered as the most exciting time of his career. Chaplin's films introduced a slower form of comedy than the typical Keystone farce, and he developed a large fan base. In November 1914, he had a supporting role in the first feature length comedy film, ''Tillie's Punctured Romance'', directed by Sennett and starring Marie Dressler, which was a commercial success and increased his popularity. When Chaplin's contract came up for renewal at the end of the year, he asked for $1,000 a week,}} an amount Sennett refused, as he thought it was too large. Essanay , his regular leading lady, in Work (1915)]] The Essanay Film Manufacturing Company of Chicago sent Chaplin an offer of $1,250}} a week, with a signing bonus of $10,000.}} He joined the studio in late December 1914, where he began forming a stock company of regular players, actors he worked with again and again, including Ben Turpin, Leo White, Bud Jamison, Paddy McGuire, Fred Goodwins and Billy Armstrong. He soon recruited a leading lady, Edna Purviance, whom Chaplin met in a café and hired on account of her beauty. She went on to appear in 35 films with Chaplin over eight years; the pair also formed a romantic relationship that lasted until 1917. .]] , filmed on location in Niles Canyon, California.]] Chaplin asserted a high level of control over his pictures and started to put more time and care into each film. There was a month-long interval between the release of his second production, A Night Out, and his third, The Champion. The final seven of Chaplin's 14 Essanay films were all produced at this slower pace. Chaplin also began to alter his screen persona, which had attracted some criticism at Keystone for its "mean, crude, and brutish" nature. The character became more gentle and romantic; The Tramp (April 1915) was considered a particular turning point in his development. The use of pathos was developed further with The Bank, in which Chaplin created a sad ending. Robinson notes that this was an innovation in comedy films, and marked the time when serious critics began to appreciate Chaplin's work. At Essanay, writes film scholar Simon Louvish, Chaplin "found the themes and the settings that would define the Tramp's world". During 1915, Chaplin became a cultural phenomenon. Shops were stocked with Chaplin merchandise, he was featured in cartoons and comic strips, and several songs were written about him. In July, a journalist for Motion Picture wrote that "Chaplinitis" had spread across America. As his fame grew worldwide, he became the film industry's first international star. In September 1915, Chaplin topped a poll held by Pictures and the Picturegoer of the greatest British film actors, receiving 142,920 votes from readers. The classic music hall sketch, A Night in an English Music Hall, would be the basis for his 12th Essanay film, A Night in the Show, released in November 1915. which Robinson says made Chaplinat 26 years oldone of the highest-paid people in the world. The high salary shocked the public and was widely reported in the press. John R. Freuler, the studio president, explained: "We can afford to pay Mr. Chaplin this large sum annually because the public wants Chaplin and will pay for him." Mutual gave Chaplin his own Los Angeles studio to work in, which opened in March 1916. He added two key members to his stock company, Albert Austin and Eric Campbell, and produced a series of elaborate two-reelers: The Floorwalker, The Fireman, The Vagabond, One A.M. and The Count. For The Pawnshop, he recruited the actor Henry Bergman, who was to work with Chaplin for 30 years. Behind the Screen and The Rink completed Chaplin's releases for 1916. The Mutual contract stipulated that he release a two-reel film every four weeks, which he had managed to achieve. With the new year, however, Chaplin began to demand more time. He made only four more films for Mutual over the first ten months of 1917: Easy Street, The Cure, The Immigrant and The Adventurer. With their careful construction, these films are considered by Chaplin scholars to be among his finest work. Later in life, Chaplin referred to his Mutual years as the happiest period of his career. However, Chaplin also felt that those films became increasingly formulaic over the period of the contract, and he was increasingly dissatisfied with the working conditions encouraging that. Chaplin was attacked in the British media for not fighting in the First World War. He defended himself, claiming that he would fight for Britain if called and had registered for the American draft, but he was not summoned by either country.}} Despite this criticism, Chaplin was a favourite with the troops, and his popularity continued to grow worldwide. ''Harper's Weekly reported that the name of Charlie Chaplin was "a part of the common language of almost every country", and that the Tramp image was "universally familiar". In 1917, professional Chaplin imitators were so widespread that he took legal action, and it was reported that nine out of ten men who attended costume parties, did so dressed as the Tramp. The same year, a study by the Boston Society for Psychical Research concluded that Chaplin was "an American obsession". The actress Minnie Maddern Fiske wrote that "a constantly increasing body of cultured, artistic people are beginning to regard the young English buffoon, Charles Chaplin, as an extraordinary artist, as well as a comic genius". 1918–1922: First National (1918). It was around this time that Chaplin began to conceive the Tramp as a sad clown.]] In January 1918, Chaplin was visited by leading British singer and comedian Harry Lauder, and the two acted in a short film together. Mutual was patient with Chaplin's decreased rate of output, and the contract ended amicably. With his aforementioned concern about the declining quality of his films because of contract scheduling stipulations, Chaplin's primary concern in finding a new distributor was independence; Sydney Chaplin, then his business manager, told the press: "Charlie [must] be allowed all the time he needs and all the money for producing [films] the way he wants... It is quality, not quantity, we are after." In June 1917, Chaplin signed to complete eight films for First National Exhibitors' Circuit in return for $1million.}} He chose to build his own studio, situated on five acres of land off Sunset Boulevard, with production facilities of the highest order. Charlie Chaplin Studios was completed in January 1918, and Chaplin was given freedom over the making of his pictures. ''A Dog's Life'', released April 1918, was the first film under the new contract. In it, Chaplin demonstrated his increasing concern with story construction and his treatment of the Tramp as "a sort of Pierrot". The film was described by Louis Delluc as "cinema's first total work of art". Chaplin then embarked on the Third Liberty Bond campaign, touring the United States for one month to raise money for the Allies of the First World War. He also produced a short propaganda film at his own expense, donated to the government for fund-raising, called The Bond. Chaplin's next release was war-based, placing the Tramp in the trenches for Shoulder Arms. Associates warned him against making a comedy about the war but, as he later recalled: "Dangerous or not, the idea excited me." He spent four months filming the picture, which was released in October 1918 with great success. United Artists, Mildred Harris, and The Kid After the release of Shoulder Arms, Chaplin requested more money from First National, which was refused. Frustrated with their lack of concern for quality, and worried about rumours of a possible merger between the company and Famous Players–Lasky, Chaplin joined forces with Douglas Fairbanks, Mary Pickford and D. W. Griffith to form a new distribution company, United Artists, in January 1919. The arrangement was revolutionary in the film industry, as it enabled the four partnersall creative artiststo personally fund their pictures and have complete control. Chaplin was eager to start with the new company and offered to buy out his contract with First National. They refused and insisted that he complete the final six films owed. '' (1921), with Jackie Coogan, combined comedy with drama and was Chaplin's first film to exceed an hour.]] Before the creation of United Artists, Chaplin married for the first time. The 16-year-old actress Mildred Harris had revealed that she was pregnant with his child, and in September 1918, he married her quietly in Los Angeles to avoid controversy. Soon after, the pregnancy was found to be false. Chaplin was unhappy with the union and, feeling that marriage stunted his creativity, struggled over the production of his film Sunnyside. Harris was by then legitimately pregnant, and on 7July 1919, gave birth to a son. Norman Spencer Chaplin was born malformed and died three days later. The marriage ended in April 1920, with Chaplin explaining in his autobiography that they were "irreconcilably mismated". Losing the child, plus his own childhood experiences, are thought to have influenced Chaplin's next film, which turned the Tramp into the caretaker of a young boy. Ultimately work on the film resumed, and following its September 1921 release, Chaplin chose to return to England for the first time in almost a decade. He wrote a book about his journey, titled My Wonderful Visit. He then worked to fulfil his First National contract, releasing Pay Day in February 1922. The Pilgrim, his final short film, was delayed by distribution disagreements with the studio and released a year later. 1923–1938: silent features A Woman of Paris and The Gold Rush Having fulfilled his First National contract, Chaplin was free to make his first picture as an independent producer. In November 1922, he began filming A Woman of Paris, a romantic drama about ill-fated lovers. Chaplin intended it to be a star-making vehicle for Edna Purviance, and did not appear in the picture himself other than in a brief, uncredited cameo. He wished the film to have a realistic feel and directed his cast to give restrained performances. In real life, he explained, "men and women try to hide their emotions rather than seek to express them". A Woman of Paris premiered in September 1923 and was acclaimed for its innovative, subtle approach. The public, however, seemed to have little interest in a Chaplin film without Chaplin, and it was a box office disappointment. The filmmaker was hurt by this failurehe had long wanted to produce a dramatic film and was proud of the resultand soon withdrew A Woman of Paris from circulation. (1925).]] Chaplin returned to comedy for his next project. Setting his standards high, he told himself "This next film must be an epic! The Greatest!" Inspired by a photograph of the 1898 Klondike Gold Rush, and later the story of the Donner Party of 1846–1847, he made what Geoffrey Macnab calls "an epic comedy out of grim subject matter". In The Gold Rush, the Tramp is a lonely prospector fighting adversity and looking for love. With Georgia Hale as his leading lady, Chaplin began filming the picture in February 1924. Its elaborate production, costing almost $1million, included location shooting in the Truckee mountains in Nevada with 600 extras, extravagant sets, and special effects. The last scene was shot in May 1925 after 15 months of filming. Chaplin felt The Gold Rush'' was the best film he had made. It opened in August 1925 and became one of the highest-grossing films of the silent era, with a U.S. box-office of $5million.}} The comedy contains some of Chaplin's most famous sequences, such as the Tramp eating his shoe and the "Dance of the Rolls". Macnab has called it "the quintessential Chaplin film". Chaplin stated at its release: "This is the picture that I want to be remembered by".Lita Grey and The Circus , whose bitter divorce from Chaplin caused a scandal]] While making The Gold Rush, Chaplin married for the second time. Mirroring the circumstances of his first union, Lita Grey was a teenage actress, originally set to star in the film, whose surprise announcement of pregnancy forced Chaplin into marriage. She was 16 and he was 35, meaning Chaplin could have been charged with statutory rape under California law. He therefore arranged a discreet marriage in Mexico on 25 November 1924. They originally met during her childhood and she had previously appeared in his works The Kid and The Idle Class. Their first son, Charles Spencer Chaplin III, was born on 5May 1925, followed by Sydney Earl Chaplin on 30 March 1926. On 6 July 1925, Chaplin became the first movie star to be featured on a Time cover. It was an unhappy marriage, and Chaplin spent long hours at the studio to avoid seeing his wife. In November 1926, Grey took the children and left the family home. A bitter divorce followed, in which Grey's applicationaccusing Chaplin of infidelity, abuse and of harbouring "perverted sexual desires"was leaked to the press.}} Chaplin was reported to be in a state of nervous breakdown, as the story became headline news and groups formed across America calling for his films to be banned. Eager to end the case without further scandal, Chaplin's lawyers agreed to a cash settlement of $600,000}}the largest awarded by American courts at that time. His fan base was strong enough to survive the incident, and it was soon forgotten, but Chaplin was deeply affected by it. Less than five months after the divorce, Grey's former butler Don Solovich was murdered in Utah, and articles speculated about connections between Chaplin and the murder. Before the divorce suit was filed, Chaplin had begun work on a new film, The Circus. He built a story around the idea of walking a tightrope while besieged by monkeys, and turned the Tramp into the accidental star of a circus. Filming was suspended for ten months while he dealt with the divorce scandal, and it was generally a trouble-ridden production. Finally completed in October 1927, The Circus was released in January 1928 to a positive reception. At the 1st Academy Awards, Chaplin was given a special trophy "For versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing and producing The Circus". Despite its success, he permanently associated the film with the stress of its production; Chaplin omitted The Circus from his autobiography, and struggled to work on it when he recorded the score in his later years.City Lights... I was a pantomimist and in that medium I was unique and, without false modesty, a master.|authorCharlie Chaplin, explaining his defiance against sound in the 1930s}} By the time The Circus was released, Hollywood had witnessed the introduction of sound films. Chaplin was cynical about this new medium and the technical shortcomings it presented, believing that "talkies" lacked the artistry of silent films. He was also hesitant to change the formula that had brought him such success, and feared that giving the Tramp a voice would limit his international appeal. He, therefore, rejected the new Hollywood craze and began work on a new silent film. Chaplin was nonetheless anxious about this decision and remained so throughout the film's production. '' (1931) is regarded as one of Chaplin's finest works.]] When filming began at the end of 1928, Chaplin had been working on the story for almost a year. City Lights followed the Tramp's love for a blind flower girl (played by Virginia Cherrill) and his efforts to raise money for her sight-saving operation. It was a challenging production that lasted 21 months, with Chaplin later confessing that he "had worked himself into a neurotic state of wanting perfection". One advantage Chaplin found in sound technology was the opportunity to record a musical score for the film, which he composed himself. Chaplin finished editing City Lights in December 1930, by which time silent films were an anachronism. A preview before an unsuspecting public audience was not a success, but a showing for the press produced positive reviews. One journalist wrote: "Nobody in the world but Charlie Chaplin could have done it. He is the only person that has that peculiar something called 'audience appeal' in sufficient quality to defy the popular penchant for movies that talk." Given its general release in January 1931, City Lights proved to be a popular and financial success, eventually grossing over $3million.}} The British Film Institute called it Chaplin's finest accomplishment, and the critic James Agee hails the closing scene as "the greatest piece of acting and the highest moment in movies". City Lights became Chaplin's personal favourite of his films and remained so throughout his life. Travels, Paulette Goddard and Modern Times City Lights had been a success, but Chaplin was unsure if he could make another picture without dialogue. He remained convinced that sound would not work in his films, but was also "obsessed by a depressing fear of being old-fashioned". In this state of uncertainty, early in 1931, the comedian decided to take a holiday and ended up travelling for 16 months.}} He spent months travelling Western Europe, including extended stays in France and Switzerland, and spontaneously decided to visit Japan. The day after he arrived in Japan, Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi was assassinated by ultra-nationalists in the May 15 Incident. The group's original plan had been to provoke a war with the United States by assassinating Chaplin at a welcome reception organised by the prime minister, but the plan had been foiled due to delayed public announcement of the event's date. '' (1936), described by Jérôme Larcher as a "grim contemplation on the automatisation of the individual"]] In his autobiography, Chaplin recalled that on his return to Los Angeles, "I was confused and without plan, restless and conscious of an extreme loneliness". He briefly considered retiring and moving to China. Chaplin's loneliness was relieved when he met 21-year-old actress Paulette Goddard in July 1932, and the pair began a relationship. He was not ready to commit to a film, however, and focused on writing a serial about his travels (published in ''Woman's Home Companion). The trip had been a stimulating experience for Chaplin, including meetings with several prominent thinkers, and he became increasingly interested in world affairs. The state of labour in America troubled him, and he feared that capitalism and machinery in the workplace would increase unemployment levels. It was these concerns that stimulated Chaplin to develop his new film. Modern Times was announced by Chaplin as "a satire on certain phases of our industrial life". Featuring the Tramp and Goddard as they endure the Great Depression, it took ten and a half months to film. Chaplin intended to use spoken dialogue but changed his mind during rehearsals. Like its predecessor, Modern Times'' employed sound effects but almost no speaking. Chaplin's performance of a gibberish song did, however, give the Tramp a voice for the only time on film. After recording the music, Chaplin released Modern Times in February 1936. It was his first feature in 15 years to adopt political references and social realism, a factor that attracted considerable press coverage despite Chaplin's attempts to downplay the issue. The film earned less at the box-office than his previous features and received mixed reviews, as some viewers disliked the politicising. Today, Modern Times is seen by the British Film Institute as one of Chaplin's "great features", They then visited Phnom Penh to view Angkor Wat, and Da Lat, followed by Huế, arriving in Đà Nẵng where he visited the Marble Mountains and the Henri Parmentier Museum.}} In a dual performance, he also played the dictator "Adenoid Hynkel", a parody of Hitler. The Great Dictator spent a year in production and was released in October 1940. The film generated a vast amount of publicity, with a critic for The New York Times calling it "the most eagerly awaited picture of the year", and it was one of the biggest money-makers of the era. The ending was unpopular, however, and generated controversy. Chaplin concluded the film with a five-minute speech in which he abandoned his barber character, looked directly into the camera, and pleaded against war and fascism. Charles J. Maland has identified this overt preaching as triggering a decline in Chaplin's popularity, and writes: "Henceforth, no movie fan would ever be able to separate the dimension of politics from [his] star image". Nevertheless, both Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt liked the film, which they saw at private screenings before its release. Roosevelt subsequently invited Chaplin to read the film's final speech over the radio during his January 1941 inauguration, with the speech becoming a "hit" of the celebration. Chaplin was often invited to other patriotic functions to read the speech to audiences during the years of the war. The Great Dictator received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture, Best Original Screenplay and Best Actor.Legal troubles and Oona O'NeillIn the mid-1940s, Chaplin was involved in a series of trials that occupied most of his time and significantly affected his public image. The troubles stemmed from his affair with an aspiring actress named Joan Barry, with whom he was involved intermittently between June 1941 and the autumn of 1942. Barry, who displayed obsessive behaviour and was twice arrested after they separated,Barry had been unable to pay her hotel bills, and was found wandering the streets of Beverly Hills after taking an overdose of barbiturates.}} reappeared the following year and announced that she was pregnant with Chaplin's child. As Chaplin denied the claim, Barry filed a paternity suit against him. The director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), J. Edgar Hoover, who had long been suspicious of Chaplin's political leanings, used the opportunity to generate negative publicity about him. As part of a smear campaign to damage Chaplin's image, the FBI named him in four indictments related to the Barry case. Most serious of these was an alleged violation of the Mann Act, which prohibits the transportation of women across state boundaries for sexual purposes. Chaplin claimed that the last time he was intimate with Barry was May 1942.}} Historian Otto Friedrich called this an "absurd prosecution" of an "ancient statute", yet if Chaplin was found guilty, he faced 23 years in prison. Three charges lacked sufficient evidence to proceed to court, but the Mann Act trial began on 21 March 1944. Chaplin was acquitted two weeks later, on4 April. The case was frequently headline news, with Newsweek calling it the "biggest public relations scandal since the Fatty Arbuckle murder trial in 1921". ]] Barry's child, Carol Ann, was born in October 1943, and the paternity suit went to court in December 1944. After two arduous trials, in which the prosecuting lawyer accused him of "moral turpitude", Chaplin was declared to be the father. Evidence from blood tests that indicated otherwise were not admissible,}} and the judge ordered Chaplin to pay child support until Carol Ann turned 21. Media coverage of the suit was influenced by the FBI, which fed information to gossip columnist Hedda Hopper, and Chaplin was portrayed in an overwhelmingly critical light. The controversy surrounding Chaplin increased whentwo weeks after the paternity suit was filedit was announced that he had married his newest protégée, 18-year-old Oona O'Neill, the daughter of American playwright Eugene O'Neill. Chaplin, then 54, had been introduced to her by a film agent seven months earlier. Eugene O'Neill disowned his daughter as a result.}} In his autobiography, Chaplin described meeting O'Neill as "the happiest event of my life", and claimed to have found "perfect love". Chaplin's son, Charles III, reported that Oona "worshipped" his father. The couple remained married until Chaplin's death, and had eight children over 18 years: Geraldine Leigh (b. July 1944), Michael John (b. March 1946), Josephine Hannah (b. March 1949), Victoria Agnes (b. May 1951), Eugene Anthony (b. August 1953), Jane Cecil (b. May 1957), Annette Emily (b. December 1959), and Christopher James (b. July 1962).Monsieur Verdoux and communist accusations (1947), a dark comedy about a serial killer, marked a significant departure for Chaplin.]] Chaplin claimed that the Barry trials had "crippled [his] creativeness", and it was some time before he began working again. In April 1946, he finally began filming a project that had been in development since 1942. Monsieur Verdoux'' was a black comedy, the story of a French bank clerk, Verdoux (Chaplin), who loses his job and begins marrying and murdering wealthy widows to support his family. Chaplin's inspiration for the project came from Orson Welles, who wanted him to star in a film about the French serial killer Henri Désiré Landru. Chaplin decided that the concept would "make a wonderful comedy", and paid Welles $5,000}} for the idea. Chaplin again vocalised his political views in Monsieur Verdoux, criticising capitalism and arguing that the world encourages mass killing through wars and weapons of mass destruction. Because of this, the film met with controversy when it was released in April 1947; Chaplin was booed at the premiere, and there were calls for a boycott. Monsieur Verdoux was the first Chaplin release that failed both critically and commercially in the United States. It was more successful abroad, and Chaplin's screenplay was nominated at the Academy Awards. He was proud of the film, writing in his autobiography, "Monsieur Verdoux is the cleverest and most brilliant film I have yet made." The negative reaction to Monsieur Verdoux was largely the result of changes in Chaplin's public image. Along with the damage of the Joan Barry scandal, he was publicly accused of being a communist. His political activity had heightened during World War II, when he campaigned for the opening of a Second Front to help the Soviet Union and supported various Soviet–American friendship groups. He was also friendly with several suspected communists, and attended functions given by Soviet diplomats in Los Angeles. In the political climate of 1940s America, such activities meant Chaplin was considered, as Larcher writes, "dangerously progressive and amoral". The FBI wanted him out of the country, and launched an official investigation in early 1947. The FBI also requested and received help from MI5, particularly on investigating the false claims that Chaplin had not been born in England but in France or Eastern Europe, and that his real name was Israel Thornstein. MI5 found no evidence of Chaplin being involved in the Communist Party.}} Chaplin denied being a communist, instead calling himself a "peacemonger", but felt the government's effort to suppress the ideology was an unacceptable infringement of civil liberties. Unwilling to be quiet about the issue, he openly protested against the trials of Communist Party members and the activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Chaplin received a subpoena to appear before HUAC but was not called to testify. As his activities were widely reported in the press, and Cold War fears grew, questions were raised over his failure to take American citizenship. Calls were made for him to be deported; in one extreme and widely published example, Representative John E. Rankin, who helped establish HUAC, told Congress in June 1947: "[Chaplin's] very life in Hollywood is detrimental to the moral fabric of America. [If he is deported]... his loathsome pictures can be kept from before the eyes of the American youth. He should be deported and gotten rid of at once." In 2003, declassified British archives belonging to the British Foreign Office revealed that author and social critic George Orwell secretly accused Chaplin of being a secret communist and a friend of the USSR in the 1949 Orwell's list document. Chaplin's name was one of 35 that Orwell gave to the Information Research Department (IRD), a secret British Cold War propaganda department which worked closely with the CIA. overlooking Lake Geneva in Corsier-sur-Vevey.}} Chaplin put his Beverly Hills house and studio up for sale in March, and surrendered his re-entry permit in April. The next year, his wife renounced her US citizenship and became a British citizen. Chaplin severed the last of his professional ties with the United States in 1955, when he sold the remainder of his stock in United Artists, which had been in financial difficulty since the early 1940s. Chaplin remained a controversial figure throughout the 1950s, especially after he was awarded the International Peace Prize by the communist-led World Peace Council, and after his meetings with Zhou Enlai and Nikita Khrushchev. He began developing his first European film, A King in New York, in 1954. Casting himself as an exiled king who seeks asylum in the United States, Chaplin included several of his recent experiences in the screenplay. His son, Michael, was cast as a boy whose parents are targeted by the FBI, while Chaplin's character faces accusations of communism. The political satire parodied HUAC and attacked elements of 1950s cultureincluding consumerism, plastic surgery, and wide-screen cinema. In a review, the playwright John Osborne called it Chaplin's "most bitter" and "most openly personal" film. In a 1957 interview, when asked to clarify his political views, Chaplin stated "As for politics, I am an anarchist. I hate government and rulesand fetters... People must be free." Chaplin founded a new production company, Attica, and used Shepperton Studios for the shooting. Filming in England proved a difficult experience, as he was used to his own Hollywood studio and familiar crew, and no longer had limitless production time. According to Robinson, this had an effect on the quality of the film. A King in New York was released in September 1957, and received mixed reviews. Chaplin banned American journalists from its Paris première and decided not to release the film in the United States. This severely limited its revenue, although it achieved moderate commercial success in Europe. A King in New York was not shown in America until 1973.Final works and renewed appreciation are absent) in 1961]] In the last two decades of his career, Chaplin concentrated on re-editing and scoring his old films for re-release, along with securing their ownership and distribution rights. In an interview he gave in 1959, the year of his 70th birthday, Chaplin stated that there was still "room for the Little Man in the atomic age". The first of these re-releases was The Chaplin Revue (1959), which included new versions of ''A Dog's Life, Shoulder Arms, and The Pilgrim''. In America, the political atmosphere began to change and attention was once again directed to Chaplin's films instead of his views. In July 1962, the New York Times published an editorial stating, "We do not believe the Republic would be in danger if yesterday's unforgotten little tramp were allowed to amble down the gangplank of a steamer or plane in an American port". The same month, Chaplin was invested with the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the universities of Oxford and Durham. In November 1963, the Plaza Theater in New York started a year-long series of Chaplin's films, including Monsieur Verdoux and Limelight, which gained excellent reviews from American critics. September 1964 saw the release of Chaplin's memoir, My Autobiography, which he had been working on since 1957. The 500-page book became a worldwide best-seller. It focused on his early years and personal life, and was criticised for lacking information on his film career. Shortly after the publication of his memoirs, Chaplin began work on A Countess from Hong Kong (1967), a romantic comedy based on a script he had written for Paulette Goddard in the 1930s. Set on an ocean liner, it starred Marlon Brando as an American ambassador and Sophia Loren as a stowaway found in his cabin. The film differed from Chaplin's earlier productions in several aspects. It was his first to use Technicolor and the widescreen format, while he concentrated on directing and appeared on-screen only in a cameo role as a seasick steward. He also signed a deal with Universal Pictures and appointed his assistant, Jerome Epstein, as the producer. Chaplin was paid $600,000 director's fee as well as a percentage of the gross receipts. A Countess from Hong Kong premiered in January 1967, to unfavourable reviews, and was a box-office failure. Chaplin was deeply hurt by the negative reaction to the film, which turned out to be his last. Chaplin had a series of minor strokes in the late 1960s, which marked the beginning of a slow decline in his health. Despite the setbacks, he was soon writing a new film script, The Freak, a story of a winged girl found in South America, which he intended as a starring vehicle for his daughter, Victoria. His fragile health prevented the project from being realised. In the early 1970s, Chaplin concentrated on re-releasing his old films, including The Kid and The Circus. In 1971, he was made a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour at the Cannes Film Festival. The following year, he was honoured with a special award by the Venice Film Festival. from Jack Lemmon in 1972. It was the first time he had been to the United States in twenty years.]] In 1972, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offered Chaplin an Honorary Award, which Robinson sees as a sign that America "wanted to make amends". Chaplin was initially hesitant about accepting but decided to return to the US for the first time in 20 years. The visit attracted a large amount of press coverage and, at the Academy Awards gala, he was given a 12-minute standing ovation, the longest in the academy's history. Visibly emotional, Chaplin accepted his award for "the incalculable effect he has had in making motion pictures the art form of this century". Although Chaplin still had plans for future film projects, by the mid-1970s he was very frail. He experienced several further strokes, which made it difficult for him to communicate, and he had to use a wheelchair. His final projects were compiling a pictorial autobiography, My Life in Pictures (1974) and scoring A Woman of Paris for re-release in 1976. He also appeared in a documentary about his life, The Gentleman Tramp (1975), directed by Richard Patterson. In the 1975 New Year Honours, Chaplin was awarded a knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II, though he was too weak to kneel and received the honour in his wheelchair.DeathBy October 1977, Chaplin's health had declined to the point that he needed constant care. In the early morning of Christmas Day 1977, Chaplin died at home after having a stroke in his sleep. On 1 March 1978, Chaplin's coffin was dug up and stolen from its grave by Roman Wardas and Gantcho Ganev. The body was held for ransom in an attempt to extort money from his widow, Oona Chaplin. The pair were caught in a large police operation in May, and Chaplin's coffin was found buried in a field in the nearby village of Noville. It was re-interred in the Corsier cemetery in a reinforced concrete vault.FilmmakingInfluencesChaplin believed his first influence to be his mother, who entertained him as a child by sitting at the window and mimicking passers-by: "it was through watching her that I learned not only how to express emotions with my hands and face, but also how to observe and study people." Chaplin's early years in music hall allowed him to see stage comedians at work; he also attended the Christmas pantomimes at Drury Lane, where he studied the art of clowning through performers like Dan Leno. Chaplin's years with the Fred Karno company had a formative effect on him as an actor and filmmaker. Simon Louvish writes that the company was his "training ground", and it was here that Chaplin learned to vary the pace of his comedy. The concept of mixing pathos with slapstick was learnt from Karno,}} who also used elements of absurdity that became familiar in Chaplin's gags. From the film industry, Chaplin drew upon the work of the French comedian Max Linder, whose films he greatly admired. In developing the Tramp costume and persona, he was likely inspired by the American vaudeville scene, where tramp characters were common. Method , where all of Chaplin's films between 1918 and 1952 were produced]] Chaplin never spoke more than cursorily about his filmmaking methods, claiming such a thing would be tantamount to a magician spoiling his own illusion. Little was known about his working process throughout his lifetime, but research from film historiansparticularly the findings of Kevin Brownlow and David Gill that were presented in the three-part documentary Unknown Chaplin (1983)has since revealed his unique working method. Until he began making spoken dialogue films with The Great Dictator (1940), Chaplin never shot from a completed script. Many of his early films began with only a vague premise, for example "Charlie enters a health spa" or "Charlie works in a pawn shop". He then had sets constructed and worked with his stock company to improvise gags and "business" using them, almost always working the ideas out on film. As ideas were accepted and discarded, a narrative structure would emerge, frequently requiring Chaplin to reshoot an already-completed scene that might have otherwise contradicted the story. From A Woman of Paris (1923) onward Chaplin began the filming process with a prepared plot, but Robinson writes that every film up to Modern Times (1936) "went through many metamorphoses and permutations before the story took its final form". Producing films in this manner meant Chaplin took longer to complete his pictures than almost any other filmmaker at the time. If he was out of ideas, he often took a break from the shoot, which could last for days, while keeping the studio ready for when inspiration returned. Delaying the process further was Chaplin's rigorous perfectionism. According to his friend Ivor Montagu, "nothing but perfection would be right" for the filmmaker. Because he personally funded his films, Chaplin was at liberty to strive for this goal and shoot as many takes as he wished. The number was often excessive, for instance 53 takes for every finished take in The Kid (1921). For The Immigrant (1917), a 20-minute short, Chaplin shot 40,000 feet of filmenough for a feature-length. }} Describing his working method as "sheer perseverance to the point of madness", Chaplin would be completely consumed by the production of a picture. Robinson writes that even in Chaplin's later years, his work continued "to take precedence over everything and everyone else". The combination of story improvisation and relentless perfectionismwhich resulted in days of effort and thousands of feet of film being wasted, all at enormous expenseoften proved taxing for Chaplin who, in frustration, would lash out at his actors and crew. Chaplin exercised complete control over his pictures, to the extent that he would act out the other roles for his cast, expecting them to imitate him exactly. He personally edited all of his films, trawling through the large amounts of footage to create the exact picture he wanted. As a result of his complete independence, he was identified by the film historian Andrew Sarris as one of the first auteur filmmakers. Chaplin did receive help from his long-time cinematographer Roland Totheroh, brother Sydney Chaplin, and various assistant directors such as Harry Crocker and Charles Reisner. Style and themes '' (1921) that demonstrate Chaplin's use of slapstick, pathos, and social commentary]] While Chaplin's comedic style is broadly defined as slapstick, it is considered restrained and intelligent, with the film historian Philip Kemp describing his work as a mix of "deft, balletic physical comedy and thoughtful, situation-based gags". Chaplin diverged from conventional slapstick by slowing the pace and exhausting each scene of its comic potential, with more focus on developing the viewer's relationship to the characters. Unlike conventional slapstick comedies, Robinson states that the comic moments in Chaplin's films centre on the Tramp's attitude to the things happening to him: the humour does not come from the Tramp bumping into a tree, but from his lifting his hat to the tree in apology. Dan Kamin writes that Chaplin's "quirky mannerisms" and "serious demeanour in the midst of slapstick action" are other key aspects of his comedy, while the surreal transformation of objects and the employment of in-camera trickery are also common features. His signature style consisted of gestural idiosyncrasies like askew derby hat, drooping shoulders, deflated chest and dangling arms and tilted back pelvis to enrich the comic persona of his 'tramp' character. His shabby but neat clothing and incessant grooming behaviour along with his geometrical walk and movement gave his onscreen characters a puppet-like quality. Chaplin's silent films typically follow the Tramp's efforts to survive in a hostile world. The character lives in poverty and is frequently treated badly, but remains kind and upbeat; defying his social position, he strives to be seen as a gentleman. As Chaplin said in 1925, "The whole point of the Little Fellow is that no matter how down on his ass he is, no matter how well the jackals succeed in tearing him apart, he's still a man of dignity." The Tramp defies authority figures and "gives as good as he gets", leading Robinson and Louvish to see him as a representative for the underprivilegedan "everyman turned heroic saviour". Hansmeyer notes that several of Chaplin's films end with "the homeless and lonely Tramp [walking] optimistically... into the sunset... to continue his journey." ... ridicule, I suppose, is an attitude of defiance; we must laugh in the face of our helplessness against the forces of natureor go insane.|authorCharlie Chaplin, explaining why his comedies often make fun of tragic circumstances}} The infusion of pathos is a well-known aspect of Chaplin's work, and Larcher notes his reputation for "[inducing] laughter and tears". Sentimentality in his films comes from a variety of sources, with Louvish pinpointing "personal failure, society's strictures, economic disaster, and the elements". Chaplin sometimes drew on tragic events when creating his films, as in the case of The Gold Rush (1925), which was inspired by the fate of the Donner Party. Constance B. Kuriyama has identified serious underlying themes in the early comedies, such as greed (The Gold Rush) and loss (The Kid). Chaplin also touched on controversial issues: immigration (The Immigrant, 1917); illegitimacy (The Kid, 1921); and drug use (Easy Street, 1917). He often explored these topics ironically, making comedy out of suffering. Social commentary was a feature of Chaplin's films from early in his career, as he portrayed the underdog in a sympathetic light and highlighted the difficulties of the poor. Later, as he developed a keen interest in economics and felt obliged to publicise his views, Chaplin began incorporating overtly political messages into his films. Modern Times (1936) depicted factory workers in dismal conditions, The Great Dictator (1940) parodied Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini and ended in a speech against nationalism, Monsieur Verdoux (1947) criticised war and capitalism, and A King in New York (1957) attacked McCarthyism. Several of Chaplin's films incorporate autobiographical elements, and the psychologist Sigmund Freud believed that Chaplin "always plays only himself as he was in his dismal youth". The Kid is thought to reflect Chaplin's childhood trauma of being sent into an orphanage, the main characters in Limelight (1952) contain elements from the lives of his parents, and A King in New York references Chaplin's experiences of being shunned by the United States. Many of his sets, especially in street scenes, bear a strong similarity to Kennington, where he grew up. Stephen M. Weissman has argued that Chaplin's problematic relationship with his mentally ill mother was often reflected in his female characters and the Tramp's desire to save them. Regarding the structure of Chaplin's films, the scholar Gerald Mast sees them as consisting of sketches tied together by the same theme and setting, rather than having a tightly unified storyline. Visually, his films are simple and economic, with scenes portrayed as if set on a stage. His approach to filming was described by the art director Eugène Lourié: "Chaplin did not think in 'artistic' images when he was shooting. He believed that action is the main thing. The camera is there to photograph the actors". In his autobiography, Chaplin wrote, "Simplicity is best... pompous effects slow up action, are boring and unpleasant... The camera should not intrude." This approach has prompted criticism, since the 1940s, for being "old fashioned", while the film scholar Donald McCaffrey sees it as an indication that Chaplin never completely understood film as a medium. Kamin, however, comments that Chaplin's comedic talent would not be enough to remain funny on screen if he did not have an "ability to conceive and direct scenes specifically for the film medium".ComposingChaplin developed a passion for music as a child and taught himself to play the piano, violin, and cello. He considered the musical accompaniment of a film to be important, and from A Woman of Paris onwards he took an increasing interest in this area. With the advent of sound technology, Chaplin began using a synchronised orchestral soundtrackcomposed by himselffor City Lights (1931). He thereafter composed the scores for all of his films, and from the late 1950s to his death, he scored all of his silent features and some of his short films. As Chaplin was not a trained musician, he could not read sheet music and needed the help of professional composers, such as David Raksin, Raymond Rasch and Eric James, when creating his scores. Musical directors were employed to oversee the recording process, such as Alfred Newman for City Lights. Although some critics have claimed that credit for his film music should be given to the composers who worked with him, Raksinwho worked with Chaplin on Modern Timesstressed Chaplin's creative position and active participation in the composing process. This process, which could take months, would start with Chaplin describing to the composer(s) exactly what he wanted and singing or playing tunes he had improvised on the piano. These tunes were then developed further in a close collaboration among the composer(s) and Chaplin. According to film historian Jeffrey Vance, "although he relied upon associates to arrange varied and complex instrumentation, the musical imperative is his, and not a note in a Chaplin musical score was placed there without his assent." Chaplin's compositions produced three popular songs. "Smile", composed originally for Modern Times (1936) and later set to lyrics by John Turner and Geoffrey Parsons, was a hit for Nat King Cole in 1954. Chaplin also received his only competitive Oscar for his composition work, as the Limelight theme won an Academy Award for Best Original Score in 1973 following the film's re-release.}} Filmography Directed features: * The Kid (1921) * A Woman of Paris (1923) * The Gold Rush (1925) * The Circus (1928) * City Lights (1931) * Modern Times (1936) * The Great Dictator (1940) * Monsieur Verdoux (1947) * Limelight (1952) * A King in New York (1957) * A Countess from Hong Kong (1967) Awards and nominations at 6755 Hollywood Boulevard]] Chaplin received many awards and honours, especially later in life. In the 1975 New Year Honours, he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE). He was also awarded honorary Doctor of Letters degrees by the University of Oxford and the University of Durham in 1962. In 1965, he and Ingmar Bergman were joint winners of the Erasmus Prize and, in 1971, he was appointed a Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government. From the film industry, Chaplin received a special Golden Lion at the Venice Film Festival in 1972, and a Lifetime Achievement Award from the Lincoln Center Film Society the same year. The latter has since been presented annually to filmmakers as The Chaplin Award. Chaplin was given a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1972, having been previously excluded because of his political beliefs. Chaplin received three Academy Awards: an Honorary Award for "versatility and genius in acting, writing, directing, and producing The Circus" in 1929, In 1976, Chaplin was made a Fellow of the British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA). Six of Chaplin's films have been selected for preservation in the National Film Registry by the United States Library of Congress: The Immigrant (1917), The Kid (1921), The Gold Rush (1925), City Lights (1931), Modern Times (1936), and The Great Dictator (1940). {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Year ! Association ! Category ! Nominated work ! Result ! class=unsortable| |- |1928 | rowspan="7" |Academy Award |Honorary Academy Award |The Circus|| | |- |rowspan3|1940 || Outstanding Production || rowspan3|The Great Dictator || || rowspan=3| |- |Best Actor || |- |rowspan=2|Best Original Screenplay || |- |1947 || Monsieur Verdoux || || |- |1971 || colspan=2|Academy Honorary Award || || |- |1972 || Best Original Score || Limelight || |- |1940 || National Board of Review || Best Actor || rowspan=2|The Great Dictator || || |- |1940 || rowspan=3|New York Film Critics Circle Award || Best Actor || || |- | rowspan2|1952 || Best Director || rowspan2|Limelight || || rowspan=2| |- | Best Actor || |- |1976 || BAFTA Awards || colspan=2|BAFTA Fellowship || || |- |1974 || Directors Guild of America Award || colspan=2|Life Achievement Award || || |- |1972 || Film Society of Lincoln Center || colspan=2|Gala Tribute || || |- |1972 || Venice International Film Festival || colspan=2|Career Golden Lion || || |- |1972 || Walk of Fame || colspan=2|Motion Picture - Star || || |- |} Legacy Recognition In 1998, the film critic Andrew Sarris called Chaplin "arguably the single most important artist produced by the cinema, certainly its most extraordinary performer and probably still its most universal icon". He is described by the British Film Institute as "a towering figure in world culture", and was included in Time magazine's list of the "100 Most Important People of the 20th Century" for the "laughter [he brought] to millions" and because he "more or less invented global recognizability and helped turn an industry into an art". In 1999, the American Film Institute ranked Chaplin as the 10th greatest male star of Classic Hollywood Cinema. The image of the Tramp has become a part of cultural history; according to Simon Louvish, the character is recognisable to people who have never seen a Chaplin film, and in places where his films are never shown. The critic Leonard Maltin has written of the "unique" and "indelible" nature of the Tramp, and argued that no other comedian matched his "worldwide impact". Praising the character, Richard Schickel suggests that Chaplin's films with the Tramp contain the most "eloquent, richly comedic expressions of the human spirit" in movie history. Memorabilia connected to the character still fetches large sums in auctions: in 2006 a bowler hat and a bamboo cane that were part of the Tramp's costume were bought for $140,000 in a Los Angeles auction. As a filmmaker, Chaplin is considered a pioneer and one of the most influential figures of the early twentieth century. He is often credited as one of the medium's first artists. Film historian Mark Cousins has written that Chaplin "changed not only the imagery of cinema, but also its sociology and grammar" and claims that Chaplin was as important to the development of comedy as a genre as D.W. Griffith was to drama. He was the first to popularise feature-length comedy and to slow down the pace of action, adding pathos and subtlety to it. Although his work is mostly classified as slapstick, Chaplin's drama A Woman of Paris (1923) was a major influence on Ernst Lubitsch's film The Marriage Circle (1924) and thus played a part in the development of "sophisticated comedy". According to David Robinson, Chaplin's innovations were "rapidly assimilated to become part of the common practice of film craft". Filmmakers who cited Chaplin as an influence include Federico Fellini (who called Chaplin "a sort of Adam, from whom we are all descended"), Jacques Tati ("Without him I would never have made a film"), René Clair ("He inspired practically every filmmaker"), François Truffaut ("My religion is cinema. I believe in Charlie Chaplin…"), Michael Powell, Billy Wilder, Vittorio De Sica, and Richard Attenborough. Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky praised Chaplin as "the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt. The films he left behind can never grow old." Indian filmmaker Satyajit Ray said about Chaplin "If there is any name which can be said to symbolise cinemait is Charlie Chaplin… I am sure Chaplin's name will survive even if the cinema ceases to exist as a medium of artistic expression. Chaplin is truly immortal." French auteur Jean Renoir's favourite filmmaker was Chaplin. , Spain, in 1919]] Chaplin also strongly influenced the work of later comedians. Marcel Marceau said he was inspired to become a mime artist after watching Chaplin, In the 21st century, several of Chaplin's films are still regarded as classics and among the greatest ever made. The 2012 Sight & Sound poll, which compiles "top ten" ballots from film critics and directors to determine each group's most acclaimed films, saw City Lights rank among the critics' top 50, Modern Times inside the top 100, and The Great Dictator and The Gold Rush placed in the top 250. The top 100 films as voted on by directors included Modern Times at number 22, City Lights at number 30, and The Gold Rush at number 91. Every one of Chaplin's features received a vote. Chaplin was ranked at No. 35 on Empire magazine's "Top 40 Greatest Directors of All-Time" list in 2005. In 2007, the American Film Institute named City Lights the 11th greatest American film of all time, while The Gold Rush and Modern Times again ranked in the top 100. Books about Chaplin continue to be published regularly, and he is a popular subject for media scholars and film archivists. Many of Chaplin's films have had a DVD and Blu-ray release. Chaplin's legacy is managed on behalf of his children by the Chaplin office, located in Paris. The office represents Association Chaplin, founded by some of his children "to protect the name, image and moral rights" to his body of work, Roy Export SAS, which owns the copyright to most of his films made after 1918, and Bubbles Incorporated S.A., which owns the copyrights to his image and name. Their central archive is held at the archives of Montreux, Switzerland and scanned versions of its contents, including 83,630 images, 118 scripts, 976 manuscripts, 7,756 letters, and thousands of other documents, are available for research purposes at the Chaplin Research Centre at the Cineteca di Bologna. The photographic archive, which includes approximately 10,000 photographs from Chaplin's life and career, is kept at the Musée de l'Elysée in Lausanne, Switzerland. The British Film Institute has also established the Charles Chaplin Research Foundation, and the first international Charles Chaplin Conference was held in London in July 2005. Elements for many of Chaplin's films are held by the Academy Film Archive as part of the Roy Export Chaplin Collection. Commemoration and tributes Chaplin's final home, Manoir de Ban in Corsier-sur-Vevey, Switzerland, has been converted into a museum named "Chaplin's World". It opened on 17 April 2016 after fifteen years of development, and is described by Reuters as "an interactive museum showcasing the life and works of Charlie Chaplin". On the 128th anniversary of his birth, a record-setting 662 people dressed as the Tramp in an event organised by the museum. Previously, the Museum of the Moving Image in London held a permanent display on Chaplin, and hosted a dedicated exhibition to his life and career in 1988. The London Film Museum hosted an exhibition called Charlie ChaplinThe Great Londoner, from 2010 until 2013. , London]] In London, a statue of Chaplin as the Tramp, sculpted by John Doubleday and unveiled in 1981, is located in Leicester Square. The city also includes a road named after him in central London, "Charlie Chaplin Walk", which is the location of the BFI IMAX. There are nine blue plaques memorialising Chaplin in London, Hampshire, and Yorkshire. In Canning Town, East London, the Gandhi Chaplin Memorial Garden, opened by Chaplin's granddaughter Oona Chaplin in 2015, commemorates the meeting between Chaplin and Mahatma Gandhi at a local house in 1931. The Swiss town of Vevey named a park in his honour in 1980 and erected a statue there in 1982. In 2011, two large murals depicting Chaplin on two 14-storey buildings were also unveiled in Vevey. Chaplin has also been honoured by the Irish town of Waterville, where he spent several summers with his family in the 1960s. A statue was erected in 1998; since 2011, the town has been host to the annual Charlie Chaplin Comedy Film Festival, which was founded to celebrate Chaplin's legacy and to showcase new comic talent. In other tributes, a minor planet, 3623 Chaplin (discovered by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina in 1981) is named after him. Throughout the 1980s, the Tramp image was used by IBM to advertise their personal computers. Chaplin's 100th birthday anniversary in 1989 was marked with several events around the world, and on 15 April 2011, a day before his 122nd birthday, Google celebrated him with a special Google Doodle video on its global and other country-wide homepages. Trenčianske Teplice, Slovakia; 2.Chełmża, Poland; 3.Waterville, Ireland; 4.London, England; 5.Hyderabad, India; 6.Alassio, Italy; 7.Barcelona, Spain; 8.Vevey, Switzerland|center}} Characterisations Chaplin is the subject of a biographical film, Chaplin (1992) directed by Richard Attenborough and starring Robert Downey Jr. in the title role, with Geraldine Chaplin playing Hannah Chaplin. He is also a character in the historical drama film ''The Cat's Meow (2001), played by Eddie Izzard, and in the made-for-television movie The Scarlett O'Hara War'' (1980), played by Clive Revill. A television series about Chaplin's childhood, Young Charlie Chaplin, ran on PBS in 1989, and was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Program. The French film The Price of Fame (2014) is a fictionalised account of the robbery of Chaplin's grave. Tommy Steele in Search of Charlie Chaplin investigated Chaplin's roots in south-east London. Chaplin's life has also been the subject of several stage productions. Two musicals, Little Tramp and Chaplin, were produced in the early 1990s. In 2006, Thomas Meehan and Christopher Curtis created another musical, Limelight: The Story of Charlie Chaplin, which was first performed at the La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego in 2010. It was adapted for Broadway two years later, re-titled ChaplinA Musical. Chaplin was portrayed by Robert McClure in both productions. In 2013, two plays about Chaplin premiered in Finland: Chaplin at the Svenska Teatern, and Kulkuri (The Tramp) at the Tampere Workers' Theatre. Chaplin has also been characterised in literary fiction. He is the protagonist of Robert Coover's short story "Charlie in the House of Rue" (1980; reprinted in Coover's 1987 collection A Night at the Movies), and of Glen David Gold's Sunnyside (2009), a historical novel set in the First World War period. A day in Chaplin's life in 1909 is dramatised in the chapter titled "Modern Times" in Alan Moore's Jerusalem (2016), a novel set in the author's home town of Northampton, England. In Gorman Bechard's debut novel The Second Greatest Story Ever Told, Chaplin is named as the second coming of Jesus Christ. Matthew Finlan portrays Chaplin in episode 1 of season 14 "Murdoch and the Tramp" (4 January 2021) of the Canadian television period detective series Murdoch Mysteries. Legal precedent A lawsuit brought by Chaplin, Chaplin v. Amador, 93 Cal. App. 358 (1928), set an important legal precedentthat a performer's persona and style, in this case Chaplin's "particular kind or type of mustache, old and threadbare hat, clothes and shoes, a decrepit derby, ill-fitting vest, tight-fitting coat, and trousers and shoes much too large for him, and with this attire, a flexible cane usually carried, swung and bent as he performs his part", is entitled to legal protection from those unfairly mimicking those traits in order to deceive the public. The case was an important milestone in U.S. courts' ultimate recognition of a common-law right of publicity.Written works* * * * * * Notes References Citations Works cited * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * |title-linkMy Autobiography (Chaplin)}} * }} * }} * }} * }} * |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cityofnetsportra00frie}} * }} * }} * * |issn0015-1386}} * }} * * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * }} * |urlhttps://archive.org/details/charliechaplinhi00lynn}} * * * }} * }} * }} * }} * |url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryofw00geof}} * }} * |title-link=Chaplin: His Life and Art}} * |urlhttps://archive.org/details/youaintheardnoth00sarr}} * }} * }} * }} * }} * |title-link1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die}} * * }} * |url=https://archive.org/details/oneillsonartist00shea}} * }} * |editionSecond}} * }} * }} * * * * * * }} Further reading * * Karzan Kardozi. 100 Years of Cinema, 100 Directors, Vol 2: Charlie Chaplin. (Sulaymaniyah: Xazalnus Publication, 2019) * Lynn, Kenneth S. Charlie Chaplin and His Times. (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1997) * Menand, Louis, "The War on Chaplin" (review of Scott Eyman, Charlie Chaplin vs. America, Simon & Schuster, 2023), The New Yorker, 20 November 2023, pp. 60–64. * Robinson, David. Chaplin: His Life and Art. (London: Penguin Books, 2014) External links * by [https://www.charliechaplin.com/en/biography/articles/148-Association-Chaplin Association Chaplin] * [http://www.chaplinsworld.com/ Chaplin's World Museum] at the Manoir de Ban, Switzerland ;Works * * * ;Papers * [http://www.charliechaplinarchive.org/ The Charlie Chaplin professional and personal Archive] at Cineteca di Bologna, Italy * [http://vault.fbi.gov/charlie-chaplin/ Chaplin's file] at the Federal Bureau of Investigation website * ;Data * * * * [https://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/736/charles-chaplin Charlie Chaplin] at Virtual History: Film history of the 20th century }} Category:1889 births Category:1977 deaths Category:20th-century English male musicians Category:20th-century English screenwriters Category:20th-century English businesspeople Category:20th-century English comedians Category:20th-century English male actors Category:Academy Honorary Award recipients Category:Actors awarded knighthoods Category:Actors from the London Borough of Lambeth Category:Actors from the London Borough of Southwark Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Artists awarded knighthoods Category:BAFTA fellows Category:Best Original Music Score Academy Award winners Category:British anti-capitalists Category:British anti-fascists Category:British film production company founders<!--United Artists--> Category:British mimes Category:British cinema pioneers Category:Comedians from the London Borough of Lambeth Category:Comedians from the London Borough of Southwark Category:British comedy film directors Category:Composers awarded knighthoods Category:British people of Romani descent Category:Child marriage Category:English agnostics Category:English autobiographers Category:English expatriates in Switzerland Category:English expatriate male actors in the United States Category:English film editors Category:English film score composers Category:English male child actors Category:English male comedians Category:English male film actors Category:English male film score composers Category:English male screenwriters Category:English male silent film actors Category:English people of Irish descent Category:English satirists Category:British satirical film directors Category:English vaudeville performers Category:Film directors from London Category:Film producers from London Category:Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement recipients Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Category:Male actors from London Category:British music hall performers Category:People from Kennington Category:People from Lambeth Category:People from Southwark Category:Romani male actors Category:Silent film comedians Category:British silent film directors Category:Silent film producers Category:Slapstick comedians Category:United Artists people Category:Victims of body snatching Category:Victims of McCarthyism Category:Writers from the London Borough of Lambeth Category:Writers from the London Borough of Southwark Category:Writers of Irish descent
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin
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The World Factbook
}} The World Factbook, also known as the CIA World Factbook, is a reference resource produced by the United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available from the Government Publishing Office. The Factbook is available in website and downloadable formats. It provides a two- to three-page summary of the demographics, geography, communications, government, economy, and military of 266 international entities, including U.S.-recognized countries, dependencies, and other areas in the world. The World Factbook is prepared by the CIA for the use of U.S. government officials, and its style, format, coverage, and content are primarily designed to meet their requirements. It is also frequently used as a resource for academic research papers and news articles. As a work of the U.S. government, it is in the public domain in the United States. Sources In researching the Factbook, the CIA uses the sources listed below, among other public and private sources. * Antarctic Information Program (National Science Foundation) * Armed Forces Medical Intelligence Center (Department of Defense) * Bureau of the Census (Department of Commerce) * Bureau of Labor Statistics (Department of Labor) * Council of Managers of National Antarctic Programs * Defense Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense) * Department of Energy * Department of State * Fish and Wildlife Service (Department of the Interior) * Maritime Administration (Department of Transportation) * National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (Department of Defense) * Naval Facilities Engineering Command (Department of Defense) * Office of Insular Affairs (Department of the Interior) * Office of Naval Intelligence (Department of Defense) * Oil & Gas Journal * United States Board on Geographic Names (Department of the Interior) * United States Transportation Command (Department of Defense) Copyright The Factbook is in the public domain and may be redistributed in part or in whole without need for permission, from 2004 to 2010 it was updated every two weeks; Generally, information currently available as of January 1 of the current year is used in preparing the Factbook. Government edition The first classified edition of Factbook was published in August 1962, and the first unclassified version in June 1971. The World Factbook was first available to the public in print in 1975. following a CIA decision to "focus Factbook resources" on the online edition. In 2017, the printed book was officially discontinued. The Factbook has been available via the World Wide Web (The internet) since October 1994, receiving about six million visits per month in 2006; The official printed version is sold by the Government Printing Office and National Technical Information Service. In past years, the Factbook was available on CD-ROM, microfiche, magnetic tape, Several publishers, including Grand River Books, Potomac Books (formerly known as Brassey's Inc.), and Skyhorse Publishing have published the Factbook in recent years. Older editions since 2000 may be downloaded (but not browsed) from the Factbook Web site. ; Independent countries: The CIA defines these as people "politically organized into a sovereign state with a definite territory." but other areas of the world whose status is disputed, such as the Spratly Islands, have entries. Subnational areas of countries (such as U.S. states or the Canadian provinces and territories) are not included in the Factbook. Instead, users looking for information about subnational areas are referred to "a comprehensive encyclopedia" for their reference needs. This criterion was invoked in the 2007 and 2011 editions with the decision to drop the entries for French Guiana, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Mayotte, and Reunion. They were dropped because besides being overseas departments, they were now overseas regions, and an integral part of France. Chagos Archipelago Some entries on the World Factbook are known to be in line with the political views and agenda of the United States. The United States is said to have been behind both the excision of the Chagos Archipelago from Mauritian territory and the forcible expulsion of the Chagossians from their lands to establish a military base on one of the island of the archipelago, namely Diego Garcia. The US does not recognise the sovereignty of Mauritius over the Chagos Archipelago and the archipelago is listed as the British Indian Ocean Territory on the CIA Website. The website further erroneously mentioned that the Chagos Archipelago is also claimed by the Seychelles, Kashmir Maps depicting Kashmir have the Indo-Pakistani border drawn at the Line of Control, but the region of Kashmir administered by China drawn in hash marks. Northern Cyprus Northern Cyprus, which the U.S. considers part of the Republic of Cyprus, is not given a separate entry because "territorial occupations/annexations not recognized by the United States Government are not shown on U.S. Government maps." Taiwan/Republic of China The name "Republic of China" is not listed as Taiwan's official name under the "Government" section, due to U.S. acknowledgement of Beijing's One-China policy according to which there is one China and Taiwan is a part of it. The name "Republic of China" was briefly added on January 27, 2005, but has since been changed back to "none". Disputed South China Sea Islands The Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands, subjects of territorial disputes, have entries in the Factbook where they are not listed as the territory of any one nation. The disputed claims to the islands are discussed in the entries. Burma/Myanmar The U.S. does not recognize the renaming of Burma by its ruling military junta to Myanmar and thus keeps its entry for the country under the Burma name. North Macedonia The country was first entered as Macedonia in the Factbook upon independence in 1992. In the 1994 edition, the name of the entry was changed to the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, as it is recognised by the United Nations (pending resolution of the Macedonia naming dispute). For the next decade, this was the name the nation was listed under. In the 2004 edition of the Factbook, the name of the entry was changed back to Macedonia, following a November 2004 U.S. decision to refer to the country using this name. On February 19, 2019, the entry was renamed to North Macedonia following the country's name change to the Republic of North Macedonia. European Union On December 16, 2004, the CIA added an entry for the European Union (EU) for the first time. The "What's New" section of the 2005 Factbook states: "The European Union continues to accrue more nation-like characteristics for itself and so a separate listing was deemed appropriate." The old entries for each individual insular area remain as redirects on the Factbook website. On September 7, 2006, the CIA also merged the entries for Bassas da India, Europa Island, the Glorioso Islands, Juan de Nova Island, and Tromelin Island into a new Iles Eparses entry. As with the new United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refuges entry, the old entries for these five islands remained as redirects on the website. On July 19, 2007, the Iles Eparses entry and redirects for each island were dropped due to the group becoming a district of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands in February. Serbia and Montenegro/Yugoslavia The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) broke apart in 1991. The following year, it was replaced in the Factbook with entries for each of its former constituent republics. This was done in accordance with a May 21, 1992, decision by the U.S. not to recognize any of the former Yugoslav republics as successor states to the recently dissolved SFRY. from the 2000 edition of The World Factbook. Notice how the disclaimer is printed in the upper right hand corner. One can see how the capital cities of both republics are individually labeled on the map.]] These views were made clear in a disclaimer printed in the Factbook: "Serbia and Montenegro have asserted the formation of a joint independent state, but this entity has not been recognized as a state by the United States." Montenegro and Serbia were treated separately in the Factbook data, as can be seen on the map. In October 2000, Slobodan Milošević was forced out of office after a disputed election. This event led to democratic elections and U.S. diplomatic recognition. The 2001 edition of the Factbook thus referred to the state as Yugoslavia. On March 14, 2002, an agreement was signed to transform the FRY into a loose state union called Serbia and Montenegro; it took effect on February 4, 2003. The name of the Yugoslavia entity was altered in the Factbook the month after the change. Kosovo On February 28, 2008, the CIA added an entry for Kosovo, which declared independence on February 17 of the same year. Before this, Kosovo was excluded in the Factbook as it is the subject of a territorial dispute. Factual In June 2009, US National Public Radio (NPR), relying on information obtained from The World Factbook, put the number of Israeli Jews living in settlements in the West Bank and Israeli-annexed East Jerusalem at 250,000. However, a better estimate, based on the State Department and Israeli sources put the figure at about 500,000. NPR then issued a correction. Chuck Holmes, foreign editor for NPR Digital, said, "I'm surprised and displeased, and it makes me wonder what other information is out-of-date or incorrect in the CIA World Factbook." The Factbook currently states that only four percent of Botswana are practitioners of the indigenous Badimo religion, in reality a great majority of Botswana follow at least some of the traditions deemed Badimo. Scholars have acknowledged that some entries in the Factbook are out of date. The inclusion of the metric countries. The government's own National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) contradicts the CIA's Factbook website, stating that three countries have "not adopted" the metric system is incorrect. At the time a better term would have been "not committed", however this is not the case anymore as of 2023 all countries listed are committed to adopting the metric system including the US. See also * World Leaders, another regular publication of the CIA * National Security Agency ; Alternative publications * Europa World Year Book * The New York Times Almanac * The TIME Almanac * ''Whitaker's Almanack * The World Almanac References Citations General and cited sources * External links * * [http://ian.macky.net/pat/wdb3/index.html CIA World Factbook as XML] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080723185153/http://stephansmap.org/cia_world_factbook On stephansmap.org] – The CIA World Factbook accessible by location and date range; covers the years 2001–2007. All Factbook entries are tagged with "cia". Requires graphical browser with JavaScript. * [http://www.theodora.com/wfb The current CIA World Factbook in Excel spreadsheet format] Mobile versions of the Factbook * [http://www.theodora.com/wfb/mobile.html Mobile menu of 36 years of CIA World Factbooks], last updated February 2019 * [http://www.urbian.biz/apps/worldstats/index.html World Factbook for Android] – Optimized CIA World Factbook version for Android Devices The Factbook by year *https://web.archive.org/web/20070612212614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html * [http://www.theodora.com/wfb Countries of the World – 36 years of the CIA World Factbook]: (1982–2019) * Previous editions of The World Factbook from the University of Missouri–St. Louis archive: :[http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact92/index.html 1992] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact93/index.html 1993] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact94/index.html 1994] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact95/index.html 1995] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact96/index.html 1996] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact97/index.html 1997] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact98/index.html 1998] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact99/index.html 1999] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2000/index.html 2000], [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2001/index.html 2001] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2002/index.html 2002] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2003/index.html 2003] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2004/index.html 2004] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2005/index.html 2005] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2006/index.html 2006] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2007/index.html 2007] , [http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact2008/index.html 2008] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110511092520/http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/1991/world91b.txt 1991 CIA World Factbook] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110511092539/http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/1990/world12.txt 1990 CIA World Factbook] * [http://www.theodora.com/wfb1989/ 1989 CIA World Factbook] * [http://www.geographic.org/wfb1987/ 1987 CIA World Factbook] * [http://www.allcountries.org/wfb1986/ 1986 CIA World Factbook] * [http://www.geographic.org/wfb1985/ 1985 CIA World Factbook] * [http://www.workmall.com/wfb1984/ 1984 CIA World Factbook] * [http://www.geographic.org/wfb1982/ 1982 CIA World Factbook''] Category:1962 establishments in the United States Category:Academic works about intelligence analysis Category:Almanacs Factbook Category:Publications established in 1962 Category:Reference works in the public domain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_World_Factbook
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Country
}} s with full international recognition (brackets denote the country of a marked territory that is not a sovereign state). Some territories are countries in their own right but are not recognized as such (e.g. Taiwan), and some few marked territories are disputed about which country they belong to (e.g. Kashmir) or if they are countries in their own right (e.g. Western Sahara (territory) or the state known by the same name).]] A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, states with limited recognition, constituent country, or a dependent territory. Most sovereign states, but not all countries, are members of the United Nations. There is no universal agreement on the number of "countries" in the world since several states have disputed sovereignty status, limited recognition and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly considered countries. Areas much smaller than a political entity may be referred to as a "country", such as the West Country in England, "big sky country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used to describe coal-mining regions), or simply "the country" (used to describe a rural area). The term "country" is also used as a qualifier descriptively, such as country music or country living.EtymologyThe word country comes from Old French , which derives from Vulgar Latin () ("(land) lying opposite"; "(land) spread before"), derived from ("against, opposite"). It most likely entered the English language after the Franco-Norman invasion during the 11th century. Definition of a country In English, the word has increasingly become associated with political divisions, so that one sense, associated with the indefinite article – "a country" – is now frequently applied as a synonym for a state or a former sovereign state. It may also be used as a synonym for "nation". Taking as examples Canada, Sri Lanka, and Yugoslavia, cultural anthropologist Clifford Geertz wrote in 1997 that "it is clear that the relationships between 'country' and 'nation' are so different from one [place] to the next as to be impossible to fold into a dichotomous opposition as they are into a promiscuous fusion." Areas much smaller than a political state may be referred to as countries, such as the West Country in England, "big sky country" (used in various contexts of the American West), "coal country" (used to describe coal-mining regions in several sovereign states) and many other terms. The word "country" is also used for the sense of native sovereign territory, such as the widespread use of Indian country in the United States. The term "country" in English may also be wielded to describe rural areas, or used in the form "countryside." Raymond Williams, a Welsh scholar, wrote in 1975: The unclear definition of "country" in modern English was further commented upon by philosopher Simon Keller: Melissa Lucashenko, an Aboriginal Australian writer, expressed the difficulty of defining "country" in a 2005 essay, "Unsettlement": a kind of portable Country... I tried to tease out some ways in which non-Indigenous people have understood country. I made categories: Country as Economy. Country as Geography. Country as Society. Country as Myth. Country as History. For all that I walked, slept, breathed and dreamed Country, the language still would not come.}} Statehood When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, states with limited recognition, constituent country, or a dependent territory. A sovereign state is a political entity that has supreme legitimate authority over a part of the world. There is no universal agreement on the number of "countries" in the world since several states have disputed sovereignty status, and a number of non-sovereign entities are commonly called countries. No definition is binding on all the members of the community of nations on the criteria for statehood. International law defines sovereign states as having a permanent population, defined territory, a government not under another, and the capacity to interact with other states. thumb|upright=1.3| The declarative theory outlined in the 1933 Montevideo Convention describes a state in Article 1 as: #Having a permanent population #Having a defined territory #Having a government #Having the ability to enter into relations with other states The Montevideo Convention in Article 3 implies that a sovereign state can still be a sovereign state even if no other countries recognise that it exists. As a restatement of customary international law, the Montevideo Convention merely codified existing legal norms and its principles, and therefore does not apply merely to the signatories of international organizations (such as the United Nations), A similar opinion has been expressed by the European Economic Community, reiterated by the European Union, in the principal statement of its Badinter Committee, and by Judge Challis Professor, James Crawford. According to the constitutive theory a state is a legal entity of international law if, and only if, it is recognised as sovereign by at least one other country. Because of this, new states could not immediately become part of the international community or be bound by international law, and recognised nations did not have to respect international law in their dealings with them. In 1912, L. F. L. Oppenheim said the following, regarding constitutive theory: In 1976 the Organisation of African Unity define state recognition as: or with numbers. Colored areas without labels are integral parts of their respective countries. Antarctica is shown as a condominium instead of individual claims.]] Some countries, such as Taiwan, Sahrawi Republic and Kosovo have disputed sovereignty and/or limited recognition among some countries. Some sovereign states are unions of separate polities, each of which may also be considered a country in its own right, called constituent countries. The Danish Realm consists of Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands, and Greenland. The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of the Netherlands proper, Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten. The United Kingdom consists of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Dependent territories are the territories of a sovereign state that are outside of its proper territory. These include the overseas territories of New Zealand, the dependencies of Norway, the British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies, the territories of the United States, the external territories of Australia, the special administrative regions of China, the autonomous regions of the Danish Realm, Åland, Overseas France, and the Caribbean Netherlands. Some dependent territories are treated as a separate "country of origin" in international trade, such as Hong Kong, Greenland, and Macau. Identification Symbols of a country may incorporate cultural, religious or political symbols of any nation that the country includes. Many categories of symbols can be seen in flags, coats of arms, or seals. Name ) and TK (Tokelau)]] Most countries have a long name and a short name. The long name is typically used in formal contexts and often describes the country's form of government. The short name is the country's common name by which it is typically identified. The International Organization for Standardization maintains a list of country codes as part of ISO 3166 to designate each country with a two-letter country code. The name of a country can hold cultural and diplomatic significance. Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso to reflect the end of French colonization, and the name of North Macedonia was disputed for years due to a conflict with the similarly named Macedonia region in Greece. The ISO 3166-1 standard currently comprises 249 countries, 193 of which are sovereign states that are members of the United Nations. Flags (flown 1867–1890), upper left; the Royal Standard of the United Kingdom, upper, right; the Russian Imperial Standard, lower left; and the French tricolore with inset Imperial Eagle, lower right. Various other flags flown by ships are shown. The Flag of Cuba is labelled "Cuban (so called)". The Chinese dragon on the Flag of China was drawn mistakenly as a western dragon.]] Originally, flags representing a country would generally be the personal flag of its rulers; however, over time, the practice of using personal banners as flags of places was abandoned in favor of flags that had some significance to the nation, often its patron saint. Early examples of these were the maritime republics such as Genoa which could be said to have a national flag as early as the 12th century. However, these were still mostly used in the context of marine identification. Although some flags date back earlier, widespread use of flags outside of military or naval context begins only with the rise of the idea of the nation state at the end of the 18th century and particularly are a product of the Age of Revolution. Revolutions such as those in France and America called for people to begin thinking of themselves as citizens as opposed to subjects under a king, and thus necessitated flags that represented the collective citizenry, not just the power and right of a ruling family. With nationalism becoming common across Europe in the 19th century, national flags came to represent most of the states of Europe. Flags also began fostering a sense of unity between different peoples, such as the Union Jack representing a union between England and Scotland, or began to represent unity between nations in a perceived shared struggle, for example, the Pan-Slavic colors or later Pan-Arab colors. As Europeans colonized significant portions of the world, they exported ideas of nationhood and national symbols, including flags, with the adoption of a flag becoming seen as integral to the nation-building process. Political change, social reform, and revolutions combined with a growing sense of nationhood among ordinary people in the 19th and 20th centuries led to the birth of new nations and flags around the globe. With so many flags being created, interest in these designs began to develop and the study of flags, vexillology, at both professional and amateur levels, emerged. After World War II, Western vexillology went through a phase of rapid development, with many research facilities and publications being established. National anthems , MS 15662, fol. 37v-38r)]] A national anthem is a patriotic musical composition symbolizing and evoking eulogies of the history and traditions of a country or nation. Though the custom of an officially adopted national anthem became popular only in the 19th century, some national anthems predate this period, often existing as patriotic songs long before designation as national anthem. Several countries remain without an official national anthem. In these cases, there are established de facto anthems played at sporting events or diplomatic receptions. These include the United Kingdom ("God Save the King") and Sweden (). Some sovereign states that are made up of multiple countries or constituencies have associated musical compositions for each of them (such as with the United Kingdom, Russia, and the Soviet Union). These are sometimes referred to as national anthems even though they are not sovereign states (for example, "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" is used for Wales, part of the United Kingdom). Other symbols * Coats of arms or national emblems * Seals or stamps * National mottos * National colors Patriotism A positive emotional connection to a country a person belongs to is called patriotism. Patriotism is a sense of love for, devotion to, and sense of attachment to one's country. This attachment can be a combination of many different feelings, and language relating to one's homeland, including ethnic, cultural, political, or historical aspects. It encompasses a set of concepts closely related to nationalism, mostly civic nationalism and sometimes cultural nationalism. Economy per capita of 213 "countries" (2020) (Purchasing power parity – international dollars) <br />|||||||}}]] Several organizations seek to identify trends to produce economy country classifications. Countries are often distinguished as developing countries or developed countries. The United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs annually produces the World Economic Situation and Prospects Report classifies states as developed countries, economies in transition, or developing countries. The report classifies country development based on per capita gross national income (GNI). The UN identifies subgroups within broad categories based on geographical location or ad hoc criteria. The UN outlines the geographical regions for developing economies like Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The 2019 report recognizes only developed countries in North America, Europe, Asia, and the Pacific. The majority of economies in transition and developing countries are found in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The World Bank also classifies countries based on GNI per capita. The World Bank Atlas method classifies countries as low-income economies, lower-middle-income economies, upper-middle-income economies, or high-income economies. For the 2020 fiscal year, the World Bank defines low-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $1,025 or less in 2018; lower-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $1,026 and $3,995; upper-middle-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita between $3,996 and $12,375; high-income economies as countries with a GNI per capita of $12,376 or more..See also * Country (identity) * Lists by country * List of former sovereign states * Lists of sovereign states and dependent territories * List of sovereign states and dependent territories by continent * List of transcontinental countries * Micronation * Quasi-state Notes References <!-- * Anderson, Benedict; 'Imagined Communities: Reflections On the origin and Spread of Nationalism'; London, Verso; 1991 * Viotti, Paul R. and Kauppi, Mark V.; 'International Relations and World Politics – Security, Economy, Identity; Second Edition; New Jersey, Prentice-Hall; 2001 --> Works cited * * * * * * Further reading * [http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id15868439 Defining what makes a country] The EconomistExternal links * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/ The CIA World Factbook] * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/ Country Studies] from the United States Library of Congress * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090108200417/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/foreigngovt.htm Foreign Information by Country] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20080625035909/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/foreignalpha.htm Country & Territory Guides] from GovPubs at UCB Libraries * [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/ United Nations statistics division] Category:Human geography
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country
2025-04-05T18:27:04.288728
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Copenhagen
København (ship)}} | native_name = | settlement_type = Capital city | image_skyline = | imagesize = 310px | image_blank_emblem = Greater coat of arms of Copenhagen.png | blank_emblem_type = Greater coat of arms | blank_emblem_size = 100px | blank_emblem_link = Coat of arms of Copenhagen | pushpin_map = Denmark#Europe | pushpin_relief = 1 | pushpin_map_caption = Location within Denmark##Location within Europe | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = | subdivision_type1 = Region | subdivision_name1 = Capital | subdivision_type2 = Municipalities | subdivision_name2 = Copenhagen<br /> Dragør<br /> Frederiksberg<br /> Tårnby | total_type = Municipality | area_total_km2 = 90.01 | area_urban_km2 = 525.50 | area_metro_km2 = 3,371.80 | area_footnotes | population_total = 660,842 | population_footnotes | population_urban = 1,378,649 | population_density_urban_km2 = 2,560.54 | population_as_of = 1 January 2024 | population_density_km2 = 7,298 | population_metro_footnotes | population_metro 2,135,634 | population_density_metro_km2 = 633.38 | population_demonym Copenhagener <br/> (Danish) | blank_name = GDP (nominal) Capital Region of Denmark | timezone = CET | utc_offset = +01:00 | timezone_DST = CEST | utc_offset_DST = +02:00 | elevation_min_m = 1 | elevation_max_m = 91 | area_code = (+45) 3 | postal_code_type = Postal code | postal_code = 1050–1799, 2100, 2150, 2200, 2300, 2400, 2450, 2500, 2700, 2720 | coordinates | website = | established_title = Established | established_date = }} Copenhagen ( <!-- Please maintain the naming conventions WP:PLACE#General_guidelines#2.The lead and WP:ALTNAME#Separate_section_usage and don't add alternative English or unofficial foreign names here-->) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the Øresund strait. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road. Originally a Viking fishing village established in the 10th century in the vicinity of what is now Gammel Strand, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. During the 16th century, the city served as the de facto capital of the Kalmar Union and the seat of the Union's monarchy, which governed most of the modern-day Nordic region as part of a Danish confederation with Sweden and Norway. The city flourished as the cultural and economic centre of Scandinavia during the Renaissance. By the 17th century, it had become a regional centre of power, serving as the heart of the Danish government and military. During the 18th century, Copenhagen suffered from a devastating plague outbreak and urban conflagrations. Major redevelopment efforts included the construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and the establishment of cultural institutions such as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. The city also became the centre of the Danish slave trade during this period. In 1807, the city was bombarded by a British fleet during the Napoleonic Wars, before the Danish Golden Age brought a Neoclassical look to Copenhagen's architecture. After World War II, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing and businesses along the five urban railway routes emanating from the city centre. Since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark; it is one of the major financial centres of Northern Europe with the Copenhagen Stock Exchange. Copenhagen's economy has developed rapidly in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has increasingly integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö, forming the Øresund Region. With several bridges connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterised by parks, promenades, and waterfronts. Copenhagen's landmarks such as Tivoli Gardens, The Little Mermaid statue, the Amalienborg and Christiansborg palaces, Rosenborg Castle, Frederik's Church, Børsen and many museums, restaurants and nightclubs are significant tourist attractions. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen Business School, and the IT University of Copenhagen. The University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the football clubs F.C. Copenhagen and Brøndby IF. The annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world. Movia is the public mass transit company serving all of eastern Denmark, except Bornholm. The Copenhagen Metro, launched in 2002, serves central Copenhagen. Additionally, the Copenhagen S-train, the Lokaltog (private railway), and the Coast Line network serve and connect central Copenhagen to outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2.5 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the busiest airport in the Nordic countries. Etymology Copenhagen's name ( in Danish), reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation in Old Norse, from which Danish descends, was (cf. modern Icelandic: , ), meaning 'merchants' harbour'. By the time Old Danish was spoken, the capital was called <!-- Old Danish -->, with the current name deriving from centuries of subsequent regular sound change. The English cognates of the original name would be "chapman's haven". The English chapman, German , Dutch , Swedish , Danish , and Icelandic share a derivation from Latin , meaning 'tradesman'. However, the English term for the city was adapted from its Low German name, . Copenhagen's Swedish name is , a direct translation of the mutually intelligible Danish name. The city's Latin name, , is the namesake of the element hafnium. History Early history Although the earliest historical records of Copenhagen are from the end of the 12th century, recent archaeological finds in connection with work on the city's metropolitan rail system revealed the remains of a large merchant's mansion near today's Kongens Nytorv from . Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century. The remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen. These finds indicate that Copenhagen's origins as a city go back at least to the 11th century. Substantial discoveries of flint tools in the area provide evidence of human settlements dating to the Stone Age. Many historians believe the town dates to the late Viking Age, and was possibly founded by Sweyn I Forkbeard. The natural harbour and good herring stocks seem to have attracted fishermen and merchants to the area on a seasonal basis from the 11th century and more permanently in the 13th century. The first habitations were probably centred on Gammel Strand (literally 'old shore') in the 11th century or even earlier. The earliest written mention of the town was in the 12th century when Saxo Grammaticus in Gesta Danorum referred to it as , meaning 'Merchants' Harbour' or, in the Danish of the time, <!-- Old Danish -->. Traditionally, Copenhagen's founding has been dated to Bishop Absalon's construction of a modest fortress on the little island of Slotsholmen in 1167 where Christiansborg Palace stands today. The construction of the fortress was in response to attacks by Wendish pirates who plagued the coastline during the 12th century. Defensive ramparts and moats were completed, and by 1177 St. Clemens Church had been built. Attacks by the Wends continued, and after the original fortress was eventually destroyed by the marauders, islanders replaced it with Copenhagen Castle. Middle Ages In 1186, a letter from Pope Urban III states that the castle of Hafn (Copenhagen) and its surrounding lands, including the town of Hafn, were given to Absalon, Bishop of Roskilde (1158–1191) and Archbishop of Lund (1177–1201), by King Valdemar I. Upon Absalon's death, the property was to come into the ownership of the Bishopric of Roskilde. who garnered support from the local fishing merchants against the king by granting them special privileges. In the mid 1330s, the first land assessment of the city was published. With the establishment of the Kalmar Union (1397–1523) between Denmark, Norway and Sweden, by about 1416 Copenhagen had emerged as the capital of Denmark when Eric of Pomerania moved his seat to Copenhagen Castle. The University of Copenhagen was inaugurated on 1 June 1479 by King Christian I, following approval from Pope Sixtus IV. This makes it the oldest university in Denmark and one of the oldest in Europe. Originally controlled by the Catholic Church, the university's role in society was forced to change during the Reformation in Denmark in the late 1530s. Christian IV also sponsored an array of ambitious building projects including Rosenborg Slot and the Rundetårn. In 1658–1659, the city withstood a siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault.18th century , part of the Amalienborg Palace]] Copenhagen lost around 22,000 of its population of 65,000 to the plague in 1711. The city was also struck by two major fires that destroyed much of its infrastructure. The Copenhagen Fire of 1728 was the largest in the history of Copenhagen. It began on the evening of 20 October, and continued to burn until the morning of 23 October, destroying approximately 28% of the city, leaving some 20% of the population homeless. No less than 47% of the medieval section of the city was completely lost. Along with the 1795 fire, it is the main reason that few traces of the old town can be found in the modern city. A substantial amount of rebuilding followed. In 1733, work began on the royal residence of Christiansborg Palace, which was completed in 1745. In 1749, development of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden was initiated. Designed by Nicolai Eigtved in the Rococo style, its centre contained the mansions which now form Amalienborg Palace. Major extensions to the naval base of Holmen were undertaken while the city's cultural importance was enhanced with the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. During the 18th century, the Danish slave trade, which began during the 17th century, underwent a rapid expansion. Between 1660 and 1806, Danish merchants, many of them based out of Copenhagen, transported approximately 120,000 enslaved Africans to the Danish West Indies. These merchants were mostly affiliated with the slave-trading Danish West India Company and Danish Asiatic Company, both of which were headquartered in Copenhagen. Many buildings in Copenhagen, such as the Moltke Mansion, Yellow Palace and the Vestindisk Pakhus were funded with profits made from the Danish slave trade. In the second half of the 18th century, Copenhagen benefited from Denmark's neutrality during the wars between Europe's main powers, allowing it to play an important role in trade between the states around the Baltic Sea. After Christiansborg was destroyed by fire in 1794 and another fire caused serious damage to the city in 1795, work began on the classical Copenhagen landmark of Højbro Plads while Nytorv and Gammel Torv were converged. ]] – painting by Otto Bache (1894)]] In 1807, as a result of continued British fears that Denmark would ally with France, another British fleet led by Admiral James Gambier was dispatched to Copenhagen with orders to seize or destroy the Dano-Norwegian navy. The British published a proclamation demanding the surrender of the Dano-Norwegian fleet, and the Danish responded with "what amounted to a declaration of war". Gambier's forces responded by carrying out a naval bombardment of Copenhagen from 2 to 5 September. The bombardment, which saw the deployment of Congreve rockets, killed 195 civilians and wounded 768, along with burning approximately 1,000 structures, including the Church of Our Lady. Copenhagen's defenders were unable to respond to the bombardment effectively due to relying on an old defence-line whose limited range could not reach the British ships and their longer-range artillery. A British landing force of 30,000 men entered and occupied Copenhagen; during the battle, the British suffered almost 200 casualties, while the Danish suffered 3,000. Virtually the entire Dano-Norwegian fleet was surrendered to the British, who either burnt them or brought them back to Britain. Denmark declared war on Britain, leading to the outbreak of the Gunboat War, which lasted until the 1814 Treaty of Kiel. canal, as seen from the Børsen building (). In the background from left to right: Church of the Holy Ghost, Trinitatis Complex, St. Nicholas Church, and Holmen Church.]] Despite the turmoil the Napoleonic Wars brought to the city, Copenhagen soon experienced a period of intense cultural creativity known as the Danish Golden Age. Painting prospered under C.W. Eckersberg and his students while C.F. Hansen and Gottlieb Bindesbøll brought a Neoclassical look to the city's architecture. In the early 1850s, the ramparts of the city were opened to allow new housing to be built around The Lakes () that bordered the old defences to the west. By the 1880s, the districts of Nørrebro and Vesterbro developed to accommodate those who came from the provinces to participate in the city's industrialization. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, as not only were the old ramparts out of date as a defence system but bad sanitation in the old city had to be overcome. From 1886, the west rampart (Vestvolden) was flattened, allowing major extensions to the harbour leading to the establishment of the Freeport of Copenhagen 1892–94. Electricity came in 1892 with electric trams in 1897. The spread of housing to areas outside the old ramparts brought about a huge increase in the population. In 1840, Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 120,000 people. By 1901, it had some 400,000 inhabitants. The northern part of Amager and Valby were also incorporated into the City of Copenhagen in 1901–02. As a result of Denmark's neutrality in the First World War, Copenhagen prospered from trade with both Britain and Germany while the city's defences were kept fully manned by some 40,000 soldiers for the duration of the war. In the 1920s there were serious shortages of goods and housing. Plans were drawn up to demolish the old part of Christianshavn and to get rid of the worst of the city's slum areas. However, it was not until the 1930s that substantial housing developments ensued, with the demolition of one side of Christianhavn's Torvegade to build five large blocks of flats.World War II headquarters in March 1945 was coordinated with the Danish resistance movement.]] at Strøget in Copenhagen, 5 May 1945. Germany surrendered three days later.]] In Denmark during World War II, Copenhagen was occupied by German troops along with the rest of the country from 9 April 1940 until 4 May 1945. German leader Adolf Hitler hoped that Denmark would be "a model protectorate" and initially the Nazi authorities sought to arrive at an understanding with the Danish government. The 1943 Danish parliamentary election was also allowed to take place, with only the Communist Party excluded. But in August 1943, after the government's collaboration with the occupation forces collapsed, several ships were sunk in Copenhagen Harbor by the Royal Danish Navy to prevent their use by the Germans. Around that time the Nazis started to arrest Jews, although most managed to escape to Sweden. In 1945 Ole Lippman, leader of the Danish section of the Special Operations Executive, invited the British Royal Air Force to assist their operations by attacking Nazi headquarters in Copenhagen. Accordingly, air vice-marshal Sir Basil Embry drew up plans for a spectacular precision attack on the Sicherheitsdienst and Gestapo building, the former offices of the Shell Oil Company. Political prisoners were kept in the attic to prevent an air raid, so the RAF had to bomb the lower levels of the building. The attack, known as "Operation Carthage", came on 22 March 1945, in three small waves. In the first wave, all six planes (carrying one bomb each) hit their target, but one of the aircraft crashed near Frederiksberg Girls School. Because of this crash, four of the planes in the two following waves assumed the school was the military target and aimed their bombs at the school, leading to the death of 123 civilians (of which 87 were schoolchildren). Post-war decades Shortly after the end of the war, an innovative urban development project known as the Finger Plan was introduced in 1947, encouraging the creation of new housing and businesses interspersed with large green areas along five "fingers" stretching out from the city centre along the S-train routes. With the expansion of the welfare state and women entering the work force, schools, nurseries, sports facilities and hospitals were established across the city. As a result of student unrest in the late 1960s, the former Bådsmandsstræde Barracks in Christianshavn was occupied, leading to the establishment of Freetown Christiania in September 1971. Motor traffic in the city grew significantly and in 1972 the trams were replaced by buses. From the 1960s, on the initiative of the young architect Jan Gehl, pedestrian streets and cycle tracks were created in the city centre. Activity in the port of Copenhagen declined with the closure of the Holmen Naval Base. Copenhagen Airport underwent considerable expansion, becoming a hub for the Nordic countries. In the 1990s, large-scale housing developments were realised in the harbour area and in the west of Amager. Gallery <gallery widths"200" heights"200" mode"packed"> File:The Black Diamond, Copenhagen 2017-08-16.jpg|The Black Diamond File:Christiania in.jpg|Freetown Christiania – entrance File:Øresund Bridge from the air in September 2015.jpg|Øresund Bridge </gallery> 21st century Since the summer of 2000, Copenhagen and the Swedish city of Malmö have been connected by the Øresund Bridge, which carries rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a larger metropolitan area spanning both nations. The bridge has brought about considerable changes in the public transport system and has led to the extensive redevelopment of Amager. An important development for the city has been the opening of the Copenhagen Metro railway system in 2002. The Copenhagen Metro was extended until 2007, transporting some 54 million passengers by 2011. The Copenhagen Opera House, a gift to the city from the shipping magnate Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller on behalf of the A.P. Møller foundation, was completed in 2004. ]] In December 2009 Copenhagen gained international prominence when it hosted the worldwide climate meeting COP15. In 2019 Copenhagen was crowned the best swimming city by CNN and Copenhagen harbour now has 13 official swimming zones and three harbour baths. Illegal bathers are fined by the police. On 3 July 2022, three people were killed in a shooting at Field's mall in Copenhagen. Police chief inspector Søren Thomassen announced the arrest of a 22-year-old man and said that the police cannot rule out an act of terrorism. Geography Copenhagen is part of the Øresund Region, which consists of Zealand, Lolland-Falster and Bornholm in Denmark and Scania in Sweden. It is located on the eastern shore of the island of Zealand, partly on the island of Amager and on a number of natural and artificial islets between the two. Copenhagen faces the Øresund to the east, the strait of water that separates Denmark from Sweden, and which connects the North Sea with the Baltic Sea. The Swedish city of Malmö and the town of Landskrona lie on the Swedish side of the sound directly across from Copenhagen. By road, Copenhagen is northwest of Malmö, Sweden, northeast of Næstved, northeast of Odense, east of Esbjerg and southeast of Aarhus by sea and road via Sjællands Odde. The city centre lies in the area originally defined by the old ramparts, which are still referred to as the Fortification Ring (Fæstningsringen) and kept as a partial green band around it. Then come the late-19th- and early-20th-century residential neighbourhoods of Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro and Amagerbro. The outlying areas of Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vigerslev, Vanløse, Brønshøj, Utterslev and Sundby followed from 1920 to 1960. They consist mainly of residential housing and apartments often enhanced with parks and greenery. Copenhagen rests on a subsoil of flint-layered limestone deposited in the Danian period some 60 to 66 million years ago. Some greensand from the Selandian is also present. There are a few faults in the area, the most important of which is the Carlsberg fault which runs northwest to southeast through the centre of the city. During the last ice age, glaciers eroded the surface leaving a layer of moraines up to thick. Geologically, Copenhagen lies in the northern part of Denmark where the land is rising because of post-glacial rebound. Beaches Amager Strandpark, which opened in 2005, is a long artificial island, with a total of of beaches. It is located just 15 minutes by bicycle or a few minutes by metro from the city centre. In Klampenborg, about from downtown Copenhagen, is Bellevue Beach. It is long and has both lifeguards and freshwater showers on the beach. The beaches are supplemented by a system of Harbour Baths along the Copenhagen waterfront. The first and most popular of these is located at Islands Brygge, literally meaning Iceland's Quay, and has won international acclaim for its design. Climate in winter]] Copenhagen is in the oceanic climate zone (Köppen: Cfb). Its weather is subject to low-pressure systems from the Atlantic which result in unstable conditions throughout the year. Apart from slightly higher rainfall from July to September, precipitation is moderate. While snowfall occurs mainly from late December to early March, there can also be rain, with average temperatures around the freezing point. June is the sunniest month of the year with an average of about eight hours of sunshine a day. July is the warmest month with an average daytime high of 21 °C. By contrast, the average hours of sunshine are less than two per day in November and only one and a half per day from December to February. In the spring, it gets warmer again with four to six hours of sunshine per day from March to May. February is the driest month of the year. Exceptional weather conditions can bring as much as 50 cm of snow to Copenhagen in a 24-hour period during the winter months while summer temperatures have been known to rise to heights of . Because of Copenhagen's northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 1 minute of daylight. There is therefore a difference of 10 hours and 31 minutes in the length of days and nights between the summer and winter solstices. Administration According to Statistics Denmark, the urban area of Copenhagen () consists of the municipalities of Copenhagen, Frederiksberg, Albertslund, Brøndby, Gentofte, Gladsaxe, Glostrup, Herlev, Hvidovre, Lyngby-Taarbæk, Rødovre, Tårnby and Vallensbæk as well as parts of Ballerup, Rudersdal and Furesø municipalities, along with the cities of Ishøj and Greve Strand. They are located in the Capital Region (). Municipalities are responsible for a wide variety of public services, which include land-use planning, environmental planning, public housing, management and maintenance of local roads, and social security. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive. Copenhagen Municipality is by far the largest municipality, with the historic city at its core. The seat of Copenhagen's municipal council is the Copenhagen City Hall (), which is situated on City Hall Square. The second largest municipality is Frederiksberg, an enclave within Copenhagen Municipality. Copenhagen Municipality is divided into ten districts (bydele): Indre By, Østerbro, Nørrebro, Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave, Valby, Vanløse, Brønshøj-Husum, Bispebjerg, Amager Øst, and Amager Vest. Neighbourhoods of Copenhagen include Slotsholmen, Frederiksstaden, Islands Brygge, Holmen, Christiania, Carlsberg, Sluseholmen, Sydhavn, Amagerbro, Ørestad, Nordhavnen, Bellahøj, Brønshøj, Ryparken, and Vigerslev.Law and orderMost of Denmark's top legal courts and institutions are based in Copenhagen. A modern-style court of justice, Hof- og Stadsretten, was introduced in Denmark, specifically for Copenhagen, by Johann Friedrich Struensee in 1771. Now known as the City Court of Copenhagen (), it is the largest of the 24 city courts in Denmark with jurisdiction over the municipalities of Copenhagen, Dragør and Tårnby. With its 42 judges, it has a Probate Division, an Enforcement Division and a Registration and Notorial Acts Division while bankruptcy is handled by the Maritime and Commercial Court of Copenhagen. Established in 1862, the Maritime and Commercial Court () also hears commercial cases including those relating to trade marks, marketing practices and competition for the whole of Denmark. Denmark's Supreme Court (), located in Christiansborg Palace on Prins Jørgens Gård in the centre of Copenhagen, is the country's final court of appeal. Handling civil and criminal cases from the subordinate courts, it has two chambers which each hear all types of cases. The Danish National Police and Copenhagen Police headquarters is situated in the Neoclassical-inspired Politigården building built in 1918–1924 under architects Hack Kampmann and Holger Alfred Jacobsen. The building also contains administration, management, emergency department and radio service offices. The Copenhagen Fire Department forms the largest municipal fire brigade in Denmark with some 500 fire and ambulance personnel, 150 administration and service workers, and 35 workers in prevention. The brigade began as the Copenhagen Royal Fire Brigade on 9 July 1687 under King Christian V. After the passing of the Copenhagen Fire Act on 18 May 1868, on 1 August 1870 the Copenhagen Fire Brigade became a municipal institution in its own right. The fire department has its headquarters in the Copenhagen Central Fire Station which was designed by Ludvig Fenger in the Historicist style and inaugurated in 1892. Environmental planning on Kongens Nytorv]] Copenhagen is recognised as one of the most environmentally friendly cities in the world. As a result of its commitment to high environmental standards, Copenhagen has been praised for its green economy, ranked as the top green city for the second time in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI). In 2001 a large offshore wind farm was built just off the coast of Copenhagen at Middelgrunden. It produces about 4% of the city's energy. Years of substantial investment in sewage treatment have improved water quality in the harbour to an extent that the Inner Harbour can be used for swimming with facilities at a number of locations. Copenhagen aims to be carbon-neutral by 2025. Commercial and residential buildings are to reduce electricity consumption by 20 per cent and 10 per cent respectively, and total heat consumption is to fall by 20 per cent by 2025. Renewable energy features such as solar panels are becoming increasingly common in the newest buildings in Copenhagen. District heating will be carbon-neutral by 2025, by waste incineration and biomass. New buildings must now be constructed according to Low Energy Class ratings and in 2020 near net-zero energy buildings. By 2025, 75% of trips should be made on foot, by bike, or by using public transit. The city plans that 20–30% of cars will run on electricity or biofuel by 2025. The investment is estimated at $472 million public funds and $4.78 billion private funds. The city's urban planning authorities continue to take full account of these priorities. Special attention is given both to climate issues and efforts to ensure maximum application of low-energy standards. Priorities include sustainable drainage systems, recycling rainwater, green roofs and efficient waste management solutions. In city planning, streets and squares are to be designed to encourage cycling and walking rather than driving. Demographics {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ Nationals by sub-national origin (Q1 2006) |- ! Nationality || Population |- | Greenland || style="text-align:right;"|5,333 |} {| class="wikitable floatright" |+ Immigrants by country of origin (Top 20) (Q3 2024) |- ! Nationality || Population |- | || style="text-align:right;"|8,139 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |7,614 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |7,378 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |6,793 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |6,689 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |5,739 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |5,622 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |5,576 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |5,491 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |5,247 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|4,936 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |4,844 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |4,818 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |4,665 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |4,547 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |4,513 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |4,379 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |4,076 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |3,967 |- | || style="text-align:right;" |3,798 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|3,709 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|3,375 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,719 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,581 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,509 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,460 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,317 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,278 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,283 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,240 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,215 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|2,078 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,994 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,978 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,937 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,867 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,808 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,734 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,662 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,608 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,515 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,414 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,235 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,188 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|1,082 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|991 |- | || style="text-align:right;"|958 |- |} Copenhagen is the most populous city in Denmark and one of the most populous in the Nordic countries. For statistical purposes, Statistics Denmark considers the City of Copenhagen () to consist of the Municipality of Copenhagen plus three adjacent municipalities: Dragør, Frederiksberg, and Tårnby. Their combined population stands at 763,908 (). Since the opening of the Øresund Bridge in 2000, commuting between Zealand and Scania in Sweden has increased rapidly, leading to a wider, integrated area. Known as the Øresund Region, it has 4.1 million inhabitants—of whom 2.7 million (August 2021) live in the Danish part of the region. Religion , situated on Frue Plads]] A majority (56.9%) of those living in Copenhagen are members of the Lutheran Church of Denmark which is 0.6% lower than one year earlier according to 2019 figures. The National Cathedral, the Church of Our Lady, is one of the dozens of churches in Copenhagen. There are also several other Christian communities in the city, of which the largest is Roman Catholic. Foreign migration to Copenhagen, rising over the last three decades, has contributed to increasing religious diversity; the Grand Mosque of Copenhagen, the first in Denmark, opened in 2014. Islam is the second largest religion in Copenhagen, accounting for approximately 10% of the population. While there are no official statistics, a significant portion of the estimated 175,000–200,000 Muslims in the country live in the Copenhagen urban area, with the highest concentration in Nørrebro and the Vestegnen. There are also some 7,000 Jews in Denmark, most of them in the Copenhagen area where there are several synagogues. It has a membership of 1,800 members. There is a long history of Jews in the city, and the first synagogue in Copenhagen was built in 1684. Today, the history of the Jews of Denmark can be explored at the Danish Jewish Museum in Copenhagen. Quality of living For a number of years, Copenhagen has ranked high in international surveys for its quality of life. Its stable economy together with its education services and level of social safety make it attractive for locals and visitors alike. Although it is one of the world's most expensive cities, it is also one of the most liveable with its public transport, facilities for cyclists and its environmental policies. In elevating Copenhagen to "most liveable city" in 2013, Monocle pointed to its open spaces, increasing activity on the streets, city planning in favour of cyclists and pedestrians, and features to encourage inhabitants to enjoy city life with an emphasis on community, culture and cuisine. The city is voted 2024 second most liveable city by Economist Intelligence Unit. Other sources have ranked Copenhagen high for its business environment, accessibility, restaurants and environmental planning. However, Copenhagen ranks only 39th for student friendliness in 2012. Despite a top score for quality of living, its scores were low for employer activity and affordability. Economy Copenhagen is the major economic and financial centre of Denmark. The city's economy is based largely on services and commerce. Statistics for 2010 show that the vast majority of the 350,000 workers in Copenhagen are employed in the service sector, especially transport and communications, trade, and finance, while less than 10,000 work in the manufacturing industries. The public sector workforce is around 110,000, including education and healthcare. From 2006 to 2011, the economy grew by 2.5% in Copenhagen, while it fell by some 4% in the rest of Denmark. In 2017, the wider Capital Region of Denmark had a gross domestic product (GDP) of €120 billion, and the 15th largest GDP per capita of regions in the European Union. As of Copenhagen Green Economy Leader Report made by London School of Economics and Political Science – Copenhagen is widely recognised as a leader in the global green economy. The Copenhagen region accounts for almost 40% of Denmark's output and has enjoyed long-term stable growth. At a national level, Danish GDP per capita is ranked among the top 10 countries in the world. At the same time, the city's growth has been delivered while improving environmental performance and transitioning to a low-carbon economy. , headquarters of Nykredit bank]] Several financial institutions and banks have headquarters in Copenhagen, including Alm. Brand, Danske Bank, Nykredit and Nordea Bank Danmark. The Copenhagen Stock Exchange (CSE) was founded in 1620 and is now owned by Nasdaq, Inc. Copenhagen is also home to a number of international companies including A.P. Møller-Mærsk, Novo Nordisk, Carlsberg and Novozymes. City authorities have encouraged the development of business clusters in several innovative sectors, which include information technology, biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, clean technology and smart city solutions. pharmaceutical company Ferring Pharmaceuticals]] Life science is a key sector with extensive research and development activities. Medicon Valley is a leading bi-national life sciences cluster in Europe, spanning the Øresund Region. Copenhagen is rich in companies and institutions with a focus on research and development within the field of biotechnology, and the Medicon Valley initiative aims to strengthen this position and to promote cooperation between companies and academia. Many major Danish companies like Novo Nordisk and Lundbeck, both of which are among the 50 largest pharmaceutical and biotech companies in the world, are located in this business cluster. Shipping is another important sector with Maersk, the world's largest shipping company, having their world headquarters in Copenhagen. The city has an industrial harbour, Copenhagen Port. Following decades of stagnation, it has experienced a resurgence since 1990 following a merger with Malmö harbour. Both ports are operated by Copenhagen Malmö Port (CMP). The central location in the Øresund Region allows the ports to act as a hub for freight that is transported onward to the Baltic countries. CMP annually receives about 8,000 ships and handled some 148,000 TEU in 2012. Copenhagen has some of the highest gross wages in the world. High taxes mean that wages are reduced after mandatory deduction. A beneficial researcher scheme with low taxation of foreign specialists has made Denmark an attractive location for foreign labour. It is, however, also among the most expensive cities in Europe. Denmark's Flexicurity model features some of the most flexible hiring and firing legislation in Europe, providing attractive conditions for foreign investment and international companies looking to locate in Copenhagen. In Dansk Industri's 2013 survey of employment factors in the ninety-six municipalities of Denmark, Copenhagen came in first place for educational qualifications and for the development of private companies in recent years, but fell to 86th place in local companies' assessment of the employment climate. The survey revealed considerable dissatisfaction in the level of dialogue companies enjoyed with the municipal authorities.Tourism Tourism is a major contributor to Copenhagen's economy, attracting visitors due to the city's harbour, cultural attractions and award-winning restaurants. Since 2009, Copenhagen has been one of the fastest growing metropolitan destinations in Europe. Hotel capacity in the city is growing significantly. From 2009 to 2013, it experienced a 42% growth in international bed nights (total number of nights spent by tourists), tallying a rise of nearly 70% for Chinese visitors. 680,000 cruise passengers visited the port in 2015. In 2019 Copenhagen was ranked first among Lonely Planet's top ten cities to visit. In October 2021, Copenhagen was shortlisted for the European Commission's 2022 European Capital of Smart Tourism award along with Bordeaux, Dublin, Florence, Ljubljana, Palma de Mallorca and Valencia. Cityscape The city's appearance today is shaped by the key role it has played as a regional centre for centuries. Copenhagen has a multitude of districts, each with its distinctive character and representing its own period. Other distinctive features of Copenhagen include the abundance of water, its many parks, and the bicycle paths that line most streets.Architecture The oldest section of Copenhagen's inner city is often referred to as (the medieval city). However, the city's most distinctive district is Frederiksstaden, developed during the reign of Frederick V. It has the Amalienborg Palace at its centre and is dominated by the dome of Frederik's Church (or the Marble Church) and several elegant 18th-century Rococo mansions. The inner city includes Slotsholmen, a little island on which Christiansborg Palace stands and Christianshavn with its canals. Børsen on Slotsholmen and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød are prominent examples of the Dutch Renaissance style in Copenhagen. Around the historical city centre lies a band of congenial residential boroughs (Vesterbro, Inner Nørrebro, Inner Østerbro) dating mainly from late 19th century. They were built outside the old ramparts when the city was finally allowed to expand beyond its fortifications. Sometimes referred to as "the City of Spires", Copenhagen is known for its horizontal skyline, broken only by the spires and towers of its churches and castles. Most characteristic of all is the Baroque spire of the Church of Our Saviour with its narrowing external spiral stairway that visitors can climb to the top. Other important spires are those of Christiansborg Palace, the City Hall and the former Church of St. Nikolaj that now houses a modern art venue. Not quite so high are the Renaissance spires of Rosenborg Castle and the "dragon spire" of Christian IV's former stock exchange, so named because it resembles the intertwined tails of four dragons. Copenhagen is recognised globally as an exemplar of best practice urban planning. Its thriving mixed use city centre is defined by striking contemporary architecture, engaging public spaces and an abundance of human activity. These design outcomes have been deliberately achieved through careful replanning in the second half of the 20th century. Recent years have seen a boom in modern architecture in Copenhagen both for Danish architecture and for works by international architects. For a few hundred years, virtually no foreign architects had worked in Copenhagen, but since the turn of the millennium the city and its immediate surroundings have seen buildings and projects designed by top international architects. British design magazine Monocle named Copenhagen the ''World's best design city 2008''. Copenhagen's urban development in the first half of the 20th century was heavily influenced by industrialisation. After World War II, Copenhagen Municipality adopted Fordism and repurposed its medieval centre to facilitate private automobile infrastructure in response to innovations in transport, trade and communication. Copenhagen's spatial planning in this time frame was characterised by the separation of land uses: an approach which requires residents to travel by car to access facilities of different uses. The boom in urban development and modern architecture has brought some changes to the city's skyline. A political majority has decided to keep the historical centre free of high-rise buildings, but several areas will see or have already seen massive urban development. Ørestad now has seen most of the recent development. Located near Copenhagen Airport, it currently boasts one of the largest malls in Scandinavia and a variety of office and residential buildings as well as the IT University and a high school.Parks, gardens and zoo Copenhagen is a green city with many parks, both large and small. King's Garden (), the garden of Rosenborg Castle, is the oldest and most frequented of them all. It was Christian IV who first developed its landscaping in 1606. Every year it sees more than 2.5 million visitors and in the summer months it is packed with sunbathers, picnickers and ballplayers. It serves as a sculpture garden with both a permanent display and temporary exhibits during the summer months. Fælledparken at is the largest park in Copenhagen. It is popular for sports fixtures and hosts several annual events including a free opera concert at the opening of the opera season, other open-air concerts, carnival and Labour Day celebrations, and the Copenhagen Historic Grand Prix, a race for antique cars. A historical green space in the northeastern part of the city is Kastellet, a well-preserved Renaissance citadel that now serves mainly as a park. Another popular park is the Frederiksberg Gardens, a 32-hectare romantic landscape park. It houses a colony of tame grey herons and other waterfowl. The park offers views of the elephants and the elephant house designed by world-famous British architect Norman Foster of the adjacent Copenhagen Zoo. Langelinie, a park and promenade along the inner Øresund coast, is home to one of Copenhagen's most-visited tourist attractions, the Little Mermaid statue. In Copenhagen, many cemeteries double as parks, though only for the more quiet activities such as sunbathing, reading and meditation. Assistens Cemetery, the burial place of Hans Christian Andersen, is an important green space for the district of Inner Nørrebro and a Copenhagen institution. The lesser known Vestre Kirkegaard is the largest cemetery in Denmark () and offers a maze of dense groves, open lawns, winding paths, hedges, overgrown tombs, monuments, tree-lined avenues, lakes and other garden features. It is official municipal policy in Copenhagen that by 2015 all citizens must be able to reach a park or beach on foot in less than 15 minutes. In line with this policy, several new parks, including the innovative Superkilen in the Nørrebro district, have been completed or are under development in areas lacking green spaces.Landmarks by districtIndre ByThe historic centre of the city, Indre By or the Inner City, features many of Copenhagen's most popular monuments and attractions. The area known as Frederiksstaden, developed by Frederik V in the second half of the 18th century in the Rococo style, has the four mansions of Amalienborg, the royal residence, and the wide-domed Marble Church at its centre. Directly across the water from Amalienborg, the 21st-century Copenhagen Opera House stands on the island of Holmen. To the south of Frederiksstaden, the Nyhavn canal is lined with colourful houses from the 17th and 18th centuries, many now with lively restaurants and bars. The canal runs from the harbour front to the spacious square of Kongens Nytorv which was laid out by Christian V in 1670. Important buildings include Charlottenborg Palace, famous for its art exhibitions, the Thott Palace (now the French embassy), the Royal Danish Theatre and the Hotel D'Angleterre, dated to 1755. Other landmarks in Indre By include the parliament building of Christiansborg, the City Hall and Rundetårn, originally an observatory. There are also several museums in the area including Thorvaldsen Museum dedicated to the 18th-century sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. Closed to traffic since 1964, Strøget, one of the world's oldest and longest pedestrian streets, runs the from Rådhuspladsen to Kongens Nytorv. With its speciality shops, cafés, restaurants, and buskers, it is always full of life and includes the old squares of Gammel Torv and Amagertorv, each with a fountain. Rosenborg Castle on Øster Voldgade was built by Christian IV in 1606 as a summer residence in the Renaissance style. It houses the Danish crown jewels and crown regalia, the coronation throne and tapestries illustrating Christian V's victories in the Scanian War.ChristianshavnChristianshavn lies to the southeast of Indre By on the other side of the harbour. The area was developed by Christian IV in the early 17th century. Impressed by the city of Amsterdam, he employed Dutch architects to create canals within its ramparts which are still well preserved today. Another interesting feature is Freetown Christiania, a fairly large area which was initially occupied by squatters during student unrest in 1971. Today it still maintains a measure of autonomy. The inhabitants openly sell drugs on "Pusher Street" as well as their arts and crafts. Other buildings of interest in Christianshavn include the Church of Our Saviour with its spiralling steeple and the magnificent Rococo Christian's Church. Once a warehouse, the North Atlantic House now displays culture from Iceland and Greenland and houses the Noma restaurant, known for its Nordic cuisine. Vesterbro Vesterbro, to the southwest of Indre By, begins with the Tivoli Gardens, the city's top tourist attraction with its fairground atmosphere, its Pantomime Theatre, its Concert Hall and its many rides and restaurants. The Carlsberg neighbourhood has some interesting vestiges of the old brewery of the same name including the Elephant Gate and the Ny Carlsberg Brewhouse. The Tycho Brahe Planetarium is located on the edge of Skt. Jørgens Sø, one of the Copenhagen lakes. Halmtorvet, the old hay market behind the Central Station, is an increasingly popular area with its cafés and restaurants. The former cattle market Øksnehallen has been converted into a modern exhibition centre for art and photography. Radisson Blu Royal Hotel, built by Danish architect and designer Arne Jacobsen for the airline Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) between 1956 and 1960 was once the tallest hotel in Denmark with a height of and the city's only skyscraper until 1969. Completed in 1908, Det Ny Teater (the New Theatre) located in a passage between Vesterbrogade and Gammel Kongevej has become a popular venue for musicals since its reopening in 1994, attracting the largest audiences in the country. Nørrebro leading into Nørrebrogade]] Nørrebro to the northwest of the city centre has recently developed from a working-class district into a colourful cosmopolitan area with antique shops, non-Danish food stores and restaurants. Much of the activity is centred on Sankt Hans Torv and around Rantzausgade. Copenhagen's historic cemetery, Assistens Kirkegård halfway up Nørrebrogade, is the resting place of many famous figures including Søren Kierkegaard, Niels Bohr, and Hans Christian Andersen but is also used by locals as a park and recreation area. Østerbro Just north of the city centre, Østerbro is an upper middle-class district with a number of fine mansions, some now serving as embassies. The district stretches from Nørrebro to the waterfront where The Little Mermaid statue can be seen from the promenade known as Langelinie. Inspired by Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale, it was created by Edvard Eriksen and unveiled in 1913. Not far from the Little Mermaid, the old Citadel (Kastellet) can be seen. Built by Christian IV, it is one of northern Europe's best preserved fortifications. There is also a windmill in the area. The large Gefion Fountain () designed by Anders Bundgaard and completed in 1908 stands close to the southeast corner of Kastellet. Its figures illustrate a Nordic legend. Frederiksberg Frederiksberg, a separate municipality within the urban area of Copenhagen, lies to the west of Nørrebro and Indre By and north of Vesterbro. Its landmarks include Copenhagen Zoo founded in 1869 with over 250 species from all over the world and Frederiksberg Palace built as a summer residence by Frederick IV who was inspired by Italian architecture. Now a military academy, it overlooks the extensive landscaped Frederiksberg Gardens with its follies, waterfalls, lakes and decorative buildings. The wide tree-lined avenue of Frederiksberg Allé connecting Vesterbrogade with the Frederiksberg Gardens has long been associated with theatres and entertainment. While a number of the earlier theatres are now closed, the Betty Nansen Theatre and Aveny-T are still active. Amagerbro Amagerbro (also known as Sønderbro) is the district located immediately south-east of Christianshavn at northernmost Amager. The old city moats and their surrounding parks constitute a clear border between these districts. The main street is Amagerbrogade which after the harbour bridge Langebro, is an extension of H. C. Andersens Boulevard and has a number of various stores and shops as well as restaurants and pubs. Amagerbro was built up during the two first decades of the twentieth century and is the city's southernmost block built area with typically 4–7 floors. Further south follows the Sundbyøster and Sundbyvester districts. Other districts Not far from Copenhagen Airport on the Kastrup coast, The Blue Planet completed in March 2013 now houses the national aquarium. With its 53 aquariums, it is the largest facility of its kind in Scandinavia. Grundtvig's Church, located in the northern suburb of Bispebjerg, was designed by P.V. Jensen Klint and completed in 1940. A rare example of Expressionist church architecture, its striking west façade is reminiscent of a church organ. Culture '' statue, an icon of the city and a popular tourist attraction]] Apart from being the national capital, Copenhagen also serves as the cultural hub of Denmark and one of the major hubs in wider Scandinavia. Since the late 1990s, it has undergone a transformation from a modest Scandinavian capital into a metropolitan city of international appeal, in the same league as cities such as Barcelona and Amsterdam. This is a result of huge investments in infrastructure and culture as well as the work of successful new Danish architects, designers and chefs. Copenhagen Fashion Week takes place every year in February and August.Museums Copenhagen has a wide array of museums of international standing. The National Museum, , is Denmark's largest museum of archaeology and cultural history, comprising the histories of Danish and foreign cultures alike. Denmark's National Gallery () is the national art museum with collections dating from the 12th century to the present. In addition to Danish painters, artists represented in the collections include Rubens, Rembrandt, Picasso, Braque, Léger, Matisse, Emil Nolde, Olafur Eliasson, Elmgreen & Dragset, Superflex, and Jens Haaning. Another important Copenhagen art museum is the Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek founded by second generation Carlsberg philanthropist Carl Jacobsen and built around his personal collections. Its main focus is classical Egyptian, Roman and Greek sculptures and antiquities and a collection of Rodin sculptures, the largest outside France. Besides its sculpture collections, the museum also holds a comprehensive collection of paintings of Impressionist and Post-Impressionist painters such as Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, van Gogh and Toulouse-Lautrec as well as works by the Danish Golden Age painters. Louisiana is a Museum of Modern Art situated on the coast just north of Copenhagen. It is located in the middle of a sculpture garden on a cliff overlooking Øresund. Its collection of over 3,000 items includes works by Picasso, Giacometti and Dubuffet. The Danish Design Museum is housed in the 18th-century former Frederiks Hospital and displays Danish design as well as international design and crafts. Other museums include: the Thorvaldsens Museum, dedicated to the oeuvre of romantic Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen who lived and worked in Rome; the Cisternerne museum, an exhibition space for contemporary art, located in former cisterns that come complete with stalactites formed by the changing water levels; and the Ordrupgaard Museum, located just north of Copenhagen, which features 19th-century French and Danish art and is noted for its works by Paul Gauguin.Entertainment and performing arts (left) and Opera House (background, right)]] The new Copenhagen Concert Hall opened in January 2009. Designed by Jean Nouvel, it has four halls with the main auditorium seating 1,800 people. It serves as the home of the Danish National Symphony Orchestra and along with the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is the most expensive concert hall ever built. Another important venue for classical music is the Tivoli Concert Hall located in the Tivoli Gardens. Designed by Henning Larsen, the Copenhagen Opera House () opened in 2005. It is among the most modern opera houses in the world. The Royal Danish Theatre also stages opera in addition to its drama productions. It is also home to the Royal Danish Ballet. Founded in 1748 along with the theatre, it is one of the oldest ballet troupes in Europe, and is noted for its Bournonville style of ballet. Copenhagen has a significant jazz scene that has existed for many years. It developed when a number of American jazz musicians such as Ben Webster, Thad Jones, Richard Boone, Ernie Wilkins, Kenny Drew, Ed Thigpen, Bob Rockwell, Dexter Gordon, and others such as rock guitarist Link Wray came to live in Copenhagen during the 1960s. Every year in early July, Copenhagen's streets, squares, parks as well as cafés and concert halls fill up with big and small jazz concerts during the Copenhagen Jazz Festival. One of Europe's top jazz festivals, the annual event features around 900 concerts at 100 venues with over 200,000 guests from Denmark and around the world. The largest venue for popular music in Copenhagen is Vega in the Vesterbro district. It was chosen as "best concert venue in Europe" by international music magazine Live. The venue has three concert halls: the great hall, Store Vega, accommodates audiences of 1,550, the middle hall, Lille Vega, has space for 500 and Ideal Bar Live has a capacity of 250. Every September since 2006, the Festival of Endless Gratitude (FOEG) has taken place in Copenhagen. This festival focuses on indie counterculture, experimental pop music and left field music combined with visual arts exhibitions. For free entertainment one can stroll along Strøget, especially between Nytorv and Højbro Plads, which in the late afternoon and evening is a bit like an impromptu three-ring circus with musicians, magicians, jugglers and other street performers.LiteratureMost of Denmarks's major publishing houses are based in Copenhagen. These include the book publishers Gyldendal and Akademisk Forlag and newspaper publishers Berlingske and Politiken (the latter also publishing books). Many of the most important contributors to Danish literature such as Hans Christian Andersen (1805–1875) with his fairy tales, the philosopher Søren Kierkegaard (1813–1855) and playwright Ludvig Holberg (1684–1754) spent much of their lives in Copenhagen. Novels set in Copenhagen include Baby (1973) by Kirsten Thorup, The Copenhagen Connection (1982) by Barbara Mertz, Number the Stars (1989) by Lois Lowry, ''Miss Smilla's Feeling for Snow (1992) and Borderliners (1993) by Peter Høeg, Music and Silence (1999) by Rose Tremain, The Danish Girl (2000) by David Ebershoff, and Sharpe's Prey'' (2001) by Bernard Cornwell. Michael Frayn's 1998 play Copenhagen about the meeting between the physicists Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg in 1941 is also set in the city. On 15–18 August 1973, an oral literature conference took place in Copenhagen as part of the 9th International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. The Royal Library, belonging to the University of Copenhagen, is the largest library in the Nordic countries with an almost complete collection of all printed Danish books since 1482. Founded in 1648, the Royal Library is located at four sites in the city, the main one being on the Slotsholmen waterfront. Copenhagen's public library network has over 20 outlets, the largest being the Central Library () on Krystalgade in the inner city. Art Copenhagen has a wide selection of art museums and galleries displaying both historic works and more modern contributions. They include , i.e. the Danish national art gallery, in the Østre Anlæg park, and the adjacent Hirschsprung Collection specialising in the 19th and early 20th century. Kunsthal Charlottenborg in the city centre exhibits national and international contemporary art. Den Frie Udstilling near the Østerport Station exhibits paintings created and selected by contemporary artists themselves rather than by the official authorities. The Arken Museum of Modern Art is located in southwestern Ishøj. Among artists who have painted scenes of Copenhagen are Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848), Christen Købke (1810–1848) and the prolific Paul Gustav Fischer (1860–1934). A number of notable sculptures can be seen in the city. In addition to The Little Mermaid on the waterfront, there are two historic equestrian statues in the city centre: Jacques Saly's Frederik V on Horseback (1771) in Amalienborg Square and the statue of Christian V on Kongens Nytorv created by Abraham-César Lamoureux in 1688 who was inspired by the statue of Louis XIII in Paris. Rosenborg Castle Gardens contains several sculptures and monuments including August Saabye's Hans Christian Andersen, Aksel Hansen's Echo, and Vilhelm Bissen's Dowager Queen Caroline Amalie. Copenhagen is believed to have invented the photomarathon photography competition, which has been held in the City each year since 1989. Cuisine .]] , Copenhagen has 15 Michelin-starred restaurants, the most of any Scandinavian city. The city is increasingly recognized internationally as a gourmet destination. These include Den Røde Cottage, Formel B Restaurant, Grønbech & Churchill, Søllerød Kro, Kadeau, Kiin Kiin (Denmark's first Michelin-starred Asian gourmet restaurant), the French restaurant Kong Hans Kælder, Relæ, Restaurant AOC with two Stars, and Noma (short for mad, English: Nordic food) as well as Geranium with three. Noma was ranked as the Best Restaurant in the World by Restaurant in 2010, 2011, 2012, and again in 2014, sparking interest in the New Nordic Cuisine. Apart from the selection of upmarket restaurants, Copenhagen offers a great variety of Danish, ethnic and experimental restaurants. It is possible to find modest eateries serving open sandwiches, known as smørrebrød – a traditional, Danish lunch dish; however, most restaurants serve international dishes. Danish pastry can be sampled from any of numerous bakeries found in all parts of the city. The Copenhagen Bakers' Association (Danish: ) dates back to the 1290s and Denmark's oldest confectioner's shop still operating, Conditori La Glace, was founded in 1870 in Skoubogade by Nicolaus Henningsen, a trained master baker from Flensburg. Copenhagen has long been associated with beer. Carlsberg beer has been brewed at the brewery's premises on the border between the Vesterbro and Valby districts since 1847 and has long been almost synonymous with Danish beer production. However, recent years have seen an explosive growth in the number of microbreweries so that Denmark today has more than 100 breweries, many of which are located in Copenhagen. Some like Nørrebro Bryghus also act as brewpubs where it is also possible to eat on the premises. Nightlife and festivals , 2008]] Copenhagen has one of the highest number of restaurants and bars per capita in the world. The nightclubs and bars stay open until 5 or 6 in the morning, some even longer. Denmark has a very liberal alcohol culture and a strong tradition for beer breweries, although binge drinking is frowned upon and the Danish Police take driving under the influence very seriously. Inner city areas such as Istedgade and Enghave Plads in Vesterbro, Sankt Hans Torv in Nørrebro and certain places in Frederiksberg are especially noted for their nightlife. Notable nightclubs include Bakken Kbh, ARCH (previously ZEN), Jolene, The Jane, Chateau Motel, KB3, At Dolores (previously Sunday Club), Rust, Vega Nightclub and Culture Box. Copenhagen has several recurring community festivals, mainly in the summer. Copenhagen Carnival has taken place every year since 1982 during the Whitsun Holiday in Fælledparken and around the city with the participation of 120 bands, 2,000 dancers and 100,000 spectators. Since 2010, the old B&W Shipyard at Refshaleøen in the harbour has been the location for Copenhell, a heavy metal rock music festival. Copenhagen Pride is a LGBT pride festival taking place every year in August. The Pride has a series of different activities all over Copenhagen, but it is at the City Hall Square that most of the celebration takes place. During the Pride the square is renamed Pride Square. Copenhagen Distortion has emerged to be one of the biggest street festivals in Europe with 100,000 people joining to parties in the beginning of June every year. Amusement parks , opened in 1874, is the oldest building in the Tivoli Gardens.]] Copenhagen has the oldest and third-oldest amusement parks in the world. Dyrehavsbakken, a fair-ground and pleasure-park established in 1583, is located in Klampenborg just north of Copenhagen in a forested area known as Dyrehaven. Created as an amusement park complete with rides, games and restaurants by Christian IV, it is the oldest surviving amusement park in the world. The Tivoli Gardens is an amusement park and pleasure garden located in central Copenhagen between the City Hall Square and the Central Station. It opened in 1843, making it the third-oldest amusement park in the world, the second being Wurstelprater in Vienna. Among its rides are the oldest still operating rollercoaster from 1915 and the oldest ferris wheel still in use, opened in 1943. Tivoli Gardens also serves as a venue for various performing arts and as an active part of the cultural scene in Copenhagen.EducationCopenhagen has over 94,000 students enrolled in its largest universities and institutions: University of Copenhagen (38,867 students), Copenhagen Business School (20,000 students), Metropolitan University College and University College Capital (10,000 students each), Technical University of Denmark (7,000 students), KEA (c. 4,500 students), IT University of Copenhagen (2,000 students) and the Copenhagen campus of Aalborg University (2,300 students). The University of Copenhagen is Denmark's oldest university founded in 1479. It attracts some 1,500 international and exchange students every year. The Academic Ranking of World Universities placed it 30th in the world in 2016. The Technical University of Denmark is located in Lyngby in the northern outskirts of Copenhagen. In 2013, it was ranked as one of the leading technical universities in Northern Europe. The IT University is Denmark's youngest university, a mono-faculty institution focusing on technical, societal and business aspects of information technology. The Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years. It includes the historic School of Visual Arts, and has in later years come to include a School of Architecture, a School of Design and a School of Conservation. Copenhagen Business School (CBS) is an EQUIS-accredited business school located in Frederiksberg. There are also branches of both University College Capital and Metropolitan University College inside and outside Copenhagen.SportThe city has a variety of sporting teams. The major football teams are the historically successful FC København and Brøndby. FC København plays at Parken in Østerbro. Formed in 1992, it is a merger of two older Copenhagen clubs, B 1903 (from the inner suburb Gentofte) and KB (from Frederiksberg). Brøndby plays at Brøndby Stadion in the inner suburb of Brøndbyvester. BK Frem is based in the southern part of Copenhagen (Sydhavnen, Valby). Other teams of more significant stature are FC Nordsjælland (from suburban Farum), Fremad Amager, B93, AB, Lyngby and Hvidovre IF. Copenhagen has several handball teams—a sport which is particularly popular in Denmark. Of clubs playing in the "highest" leagues, there are Ajax, Ydun, and HIK (Hellerup). Copenhagen also has ice hockey teams, of which three play in the top league, Rødovre Mighty Bulls, Herlev Eagles and Hvidovre Ligahockey all inner suburban clubs. Copenhagen Ice Skating Club founded in 1869 is the oldest ice hockey team in Denmark but is no longer in the top league. Rugby union is also played in the Danish capital with teams such as CSR-Nanok, Copenhagen Business School Sport Rugby, Frederiksberg RK, Exiles RUFC and Rugbyklubben Speed. Rugby league is now played in Copenhagen, with the national team playing out of Gentofte Stadion. The Danish Australian Football League, based in Copenhagen is the largest Australian rules football competition outside of the English-speaking world. Copenhagen Marathon, Copenhagen's annual marathon event, was established in 1980. Round Christiansborg Open Water Swim Race is a open water swimming competition taking place each year in late August. This amateur event is combined with a Danish championship. In 2009 the event included a FINA World Cup competition in the morning. Copenhagen hosted the 2011 UCI Road World Championships in September 2011, taking advantage of its bicycle-friendly infrastructure. It was the first time that Denmark had hosted the event since 1956, when it was also held in Copenhagen.TransportAirportThe greater Copenhagen area has a very well established transportation infrastructure making it a hub in Northern Europe. Copenhagen Airport, opened in 1925, is Scandinavia's largest airport, located in Kastrup on the island of Amager. It is connected to the city centre by metro and main line railway services. October 2013 was a record month with 2.2 million passengers, and November 2013 figures reveal that the number of passengers is increasing by some 3% annually, about 50% more than the European average. Road, rail and ferry Copenhagen has an extensive road network including motorways connecting the city to other parts of Denmark and to Sweden over the Øresund Bridge. The car is still the most popular form of transport within the city itself, representing two-thirds of all distances travelled. This can however lead to serious congestion in rush hour traffic. The Øresund train links Copenhagen with Malmö 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Copenhagen is also served by a daily ferry connection to Oslo in Norway. In 2012, Copenhagen Harbour handled 372 cruise ships and 840,000 passengers. The Copenhagen Metro expanded radically with the opening of the City Circle Line (M3) on 29 September 2019. The new line connects all inner boroughs of the city by metro, including the Central Station, and opens up 17 new stations for Copenhageners. On 28 March 2020, the Nordhavn extension of the Harbour Line (M4) opened. Running from Copenhagen Central Station, the new extension is a branch line of M3 Cityring to Østerport. The new metro lines are part of the city's strategy to transform mobility towards sustainable modes of transport such as public transport and cycling as opposed to automobility. Copenhagen is cited by urban planners for its exemplary integration of public transport and urban development. In implementing its Finger Plan, Copenhagen is considered the world's first example of a transit metropolis, and areas around S-Train stations like Ballerup and Brøndby Strand are among the earliest examples of transit-oriented development. Cycling ]] Copenhagen has been rated as one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world since 2015, with bicycles outnumbering its inhabitants. In 2012 some 36% of all working or studying city-dwellers cycled to work, school, or university. With 1.27 million km covered every working day by Copenhagen's cyclists (including both residents and commuters), and 75% of Copenhageners cycling throughout the year. The city's bicycle paths are extensive and well used, boasting of cycle lanes not shared with cars or pedestrians, and sometimes have their own signal systems – giving the cyclists a lead of a couple of seconds to accelerate. Healthcare Promoting health is an important issue for Copenhagen's municipal authorities. Central to its sustainability mission is its "Long Live Copenhagen" () scheme in which it has the goal of increasing the life expectancy of citizens, improving quality of life through better standards of health, and encouraging more productive lives and equal opportunities. The city has targets to encourage people to exercise regularly and to reduce the number who smoke and consume alcohol. In addition to its 8,000 personnel, the hospital has training and hosting functions. It benefits from the presence of in-service students of medicine and other healthcare sciences, as well as scientists working under a variety of research grants. The hospital became internationally famous as the location of Lars von Trier's television horror mini-series The Kingdom. Bispebjerg Hospital was built in 1913, and serves about 400,000 people in the Greater Copenhagen area, with some 3,000 employees. Other large hospitals in the city include Amager Hospital (1997), Herlev Hospital (1976), Hvidovre Hospital (1970), and Gentofte Hospital (1927).MediaMany Danish media corporations are located in Copenhagen. DR, the major Danish public service broadcasting corporation consolidated its activities in a new headquarters, DR Byen, in 2006 and 2007. Similarly TV2, which is based in Odense, has concentrated its Copenhagen activities in a modern media house in Teglholmen. The two national daily newspapers Politiken and Berlingske and the two tabloids and BT are based in Copenhagen. Kristeligt Dagblad is based in Copenhagen and is published six days a week. Other important media corporations include Aller Media which is the largest publisher of weekly and monthly magazines in Scandinavia, the Egmont media group and Gyldendal, the largest Danish publisher of books. Copenhagen has a large film and television industry. Nordisk Film, established in Valby, Copenhagen in 1906 is the oldest continuously operating film production company in the world. CPH:PIX is Copenhagen's international feature film festival, established in 2009 as a fusion of the 20-year-old NatFilm Festival and the four-year-old CIFF. The CPH:PIX festival takes place in mid-April. CPH:DOX is Copenhagen's international documentary film festival, every year in November. In addition to a documentary film programme of over 100 films, CPH:DOX includes a wide event programme with dozens of events, concerts, exhibitions and parties all over town. Twin towns – sister cities Copenhagen is twinned with: * Beijing, China * Marseille, France * Kyiv, Ukraine Honorary citizens People awarded the honorary citizenship of Copenhagen are: {| class"wikitable" style"width:75%; font-size:85%; border:gray solid 1px; text-align:middle;" ! style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Date ! style="width:240px; text-align:left; background:#b0c4de;"|Name ! style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Notes |- ||21 November 1838||Bertel Thorvaldsen (1770–1844)|| Danish sculptor |} While honorary citizenship is no longer granted in Copenhagen, three people have been awarded the title of honorary Copenhageners (æreskøbenhavnere). {| class"wikitable" style"width:75%; font-size:85%; border:gray solid 1px; text-align:middle;" ! style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Date ! style="width:240px; text-align:left; background:#b0c4de;"|Name ! style="text-align: left;background:#B0C4DE"|Notes |- ||16 June 1967||Poul Reumert (1883–1968)|| Danish actor |- ||16 June 1967||Victor Borge (1909–2000)|| Danish comedian |- ||16 June 1967||Steen Eiler Rasmussen (1898–1990)|| Danish architect |} See also *:Category: People from Copenhagen *2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen *Architecture in Copenhagen *Carlsberg Fault zone, a concealed tectonic formation that runs across the city *Copenhagen Climate Council *List of urban areas in Denmark by population *Outline of Denmark *Ports of the Baltic Sea Footnotes Citations References * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading External links * [http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/ VisitCopenhagen.dk] – Official VisitCopenhagen tourism website }} <!--leave the empty space as standard--> Category:Capitals in Europe Category:Cities and towns in the Capital Region of Denmark Category:Municipal seats in the Capital Region of Denmark Category:Municipal seats of Denmark Category:Populated places established in the 11th century Category:Port cities and towns in Denmark Category:Port cities and towns of the Baltic Sea Category:Port cities and towns of the Øresund
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen
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Combinatorics
Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and as an end to obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many applications ranging from logic to statistical physics and from evolutionary biology to computer science. Combinatorics is well known for the breadth of the problems it tackles. Combinatorial problems arise in many areas of pure mathematics, notably in algebra, probability theory, topology, and geometry, as well as in its many application areas. Many combinatorial questions have historically been considered in isolation, giving an ad hoc solution to a problem arising in some mathematical context. In the later twentieth century, however, powerful and general theoretical methods were developed, making combinatorics into an independent branch of mathematics in its own right. One of the oldest and most accessible parts of combinatorics is graph theory, which by itself has numerous natural connections to other areas. Combinatorics is used frequently in computer science to obtain formulas and estimates in the analysis of algorithms. Definition The full scope of combinatorics is not universally agreed upon. According to H.J. Ryser, a definition of the subject is difficult because it crosses so many mathematical subdivisions. Insofar as an area can be described by the types of problems it addresses, combinatorics is involved with: the enumeration (counting) of specified structures, sometimes referred to as arrangements or configurations in a very general sense, associated with finite systems, the existence of such structures that satisfy certain given criteria, the construction of these structures, perhaps in many ways, and optimization: finding the "best" structure or solution among several possibilities, be it the "largest", "smallest" or satisfying some other optimality criterion. Leon Mirsky has said: "combinatorics is a range of linked studies which have something in common and yet diverge widely in their objectives, their methods, and the degree of coherence they have attained." One way to define combinatorics is, perhaps, to describe its subdivisions with their problems and techniques. This is the approach that is used below. However, there are also purely historical reasons for including or not including some topics under the combinatorics umbrella. Although primarily concerned with finite systems, some combinatorial questions and techniques can be extended to an infinite (specifically, countable) but discrete setting. History 150px|right|thumb|An example of change ringing (with six bells), one of the earliest nontrivial results in graph theory. Basic combinatorial concepts and enumerative results appeared throughout the ancient world.The earliest recorded use of combinatorial techniques comes from problem 79 of the Rhind papyrus, which dates to the 16th century BC. The problem concerns a certain geometric series, and has similarities to Fibonacci's problem of counting the number of compositions of 1s and 2s that sum to a given total. Indian physician Sushruta asserts in Sushruta Samhita that 63 combinations can be made out of 6 different tastes, taken one at a time, two at a time, etc., thus computing all 26 − 1 possibilities. Greek historian Plutarch discusses an argument between Chrysippus (3rd century BCE) and Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) of a rather delicate enumerative problem, which was later shown to be related to Schröder–Hipparchus numbers. Earlier, in the Ostomachion, Archimedes (3rd century BCE) may have considered the number of configurations of a tiling puzzle, while combinatorial interests possibly were present in lost works by Apollonius. In the Middle Ages, combinatorics continued to be studied, largely outside of the European civilization. The Indian mathematician Mahāvīra () provided formulae for the number of permutations and combinations, and these formulas may have been familiar to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century CE. The philosopher and astronomer Rabbi Abraham ibn Ezra () established the symmetry of binomial coefficients, while a closed formula was obtained later by the talmudist and mathematician Levi ben Gerson (better known as Gersonides), in 1321. The arithmetical triangle—a graphical diagram showing relationships among the binomial coefficients—was presented by mathematicians in treatises dating as far back as the 10th century, and would eventually become known as Pascal's triangle. Later, in Medieval England, campanology provided examples of what is now known as Hamiltonian cycles in certain Cayley graphs on permutations. During the Renaissance, together with the rest of mathematics and the sciences, combinatorics enjoyed a rebirth. Works of Pascal, Newton, Jacob Bernoulli and Euler became foundational in the emerging field. In modern times, the works of J.J. Sylvester (late 19th century) and Percy MacMahon (early 20th century) helped lay the foundation for enumerative and algebraic combinatorics. Graph theory also enjoyed an increase of interest at the same time, especially in connection with the four color problem. In the second half of the 20th century, combinatorics enjoyed a rapid growth, which led to establishment of dozens of new journals and conferences in the subject. In part, the growth was spurred by new connections and applications to other fields, ranging from algebra to probability, from functional analysis to number theory, etc. These connections shed the boundaries between combinatorics and parts of mathematics and theoretical computer science, but at the same time led to a partial fragmentation of the field. Approaches and subfields of combinatorics Enumerative combinatorics 320px|right|thumb|Five binary trees on three vertices, an example of Catalan numbers. Enumerative combinatorics is the most classical area of combinatorics and concentrates on counting the number of certain combinatorial objects. Although counting the number of elements in a set is a rather broad mathematical problem, many of the problems that arise in applications have a relatively simple combinatorial description. Fibonacci numbers is the basic example of a problem in enumerative combinatorics. The twelvefold way provides a unified framework for counting permutations, combinations and partitions. Analytic combinatorics Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration of combinatorial structures using tools from complex analysis and probability theory. In contrast with enumerative combinatorics, which uses explicit combinatorial formulae and generating functions to describe the results, analytic combinatorics aims at obtaining asymptotic formulae. Partition theory 150px|right|thumb|A plane partition. Partition theory studies various enumeration and asymptotic problems related to integer partitions, and is closely related to q-series, special functions and orthogonal polynomials. Originally a part of number theory and analysis, it is now considered a part of combinatorics or an independent field. It incorporates the bijective approach and various tools in analysis and analytic number theory and has connections with statistical mechanics. Partitions can be graphically visualized with Young diagrams or Ferrers diagrams. They occur in a number of branches of mathematics and physics, including the study of symmetric polynomials and of the symmetric group and in group representation theory in general. Graph theory thumb|150px|Petersen graph. Graphs are fundamental objects in combinatorics. Considerations of graph theory range from enumeration (e.g., the number of graphs on n vertices with k edges) to existing structures (e.g., Hamiltonian cycles) to algebraic representations (e.g., given a graph G and two numbers x and y, does the Tutte polynomial TG(x,y) have a combinatorial interpretation?). Although there are very strong connections between graph theory and combinatorics, they are sometimes thought of as separate subjects. While combinatorial methods apply to many graph theory problems, the two disciplines are generally used to seek solutions to different types of problems. Design theory Design theory is a study of combinatorial designs, which are collections of subsets with certain intersection properties. Block designs are combinatorial designs of a special type. This area is one of the oldest parts of combinatorics, such as in Kirkman's schoolgirl problem proposed in 1850. The solution of the problem is a special case of a Steiner system, which play an important role in the classification of finite simple groups. The area has further connections to coding theory and geometric combinatorics. Combinatorial design theory can be applied to the area of design of experiments. Some of the basic theory of combinatorial designs originated in the statistician Ronald Fisher's work on the design of biological experiments. Modern applications are also found in a wide gamut of areas including finite geometry, tournament scheduling, lotteries, mathematical chemistry, mathematical biology, algorithm design and analysis, networking, group testing and cryptography. Finite geometry Finite geometry is the study of geometric systems having only a finite number of points. Structures analogous to those found in continuous geometries (Euclidean plane, real projective space, etc.) but defined combinatorially are the main items studied. This area provides a rich source of examples for design theory. It should not be confused with discrete geometry (combinatorial geometry). Order theory thumb|right|150px|Hasse diagram of the powerset of {x,y,z} ordered by inclusion. Order theory is the study of partially ordered sets, both finite and infinite. It provides a formal framework for describing statements such as "this is less than that" or "this precedes that". Various examples of partial orders appear in algebra, geometry, number theory and throughout combinatorics and graph theory. Notable classes and examples of partial orders include lattices and Boolean algebras. Matroid theory Matroid theory abstracts part of geometry. It studies the properties of sets (usually, finite sets) of vectors in a vector space that do not depend on the particular coefficients in a linear dependence relation. Not only the structure but also enumerative properties belong to matroid theory. Matroid theory was introduced by Hassler Whitney and studied as a part of order theory. It is now an independent field of study with a number of connections with other parts of combinatorics. Extremal combinatorics Extremal combinatorics studies how large or how small a collection of finite objects (numbers, graphs, vectors, sets, etc.) can be, if it has to satisfy certain restrictions. Much of extremal combinatorics concerns classes of set systems; this is called extremal set theory. For instance, in an n-element set, what is the largest number of k-element subsets that can pairwise intersect one another? What is the largest number of subsets of which none contains any other? The latter question is answered by Sperner's theorem, which gave rise to much of extremal set theory. The types of questions addressed in this case are about the largest possible graph which satisfies certain properties. For example, the largest triangle-free graph on 2n vertices is a complete bipartite graph Kn,n. Often it is too hard even to find the extremal answer f(n) exactly and one can only give an asymptotic estimate. Ramsey theory is another part of extremal combinatorics. It states that any sufficiently large configuration will contain some sort of order. It is an advanced generalization of the pigeonhole principle. Probabilistic combinatorics thumb|right|150px|Self-avoiding walk in a square grid graph. In probabilistic combinatorics, the questions are of the following type: what is the probability of a certain property for a random discrete object, such as a random graph? For instance, what is the average number of triangles in a random graph? Probabilistic methods are also used to determine the existence of combinatorial objects with certain prescribed properties (for which explicit examples might be difficult to find) by observing that the probability of randomly selecting an object with those properties is greater than 0. This approach (often referred to as the probabilistic method) proved highly effective in applications to extremal combinatorics and graph theory. A closely related area is the study of finite Markov chains, especially on combinatorial objects. Here again probabilistic tools are used to estimate the mixing time. Often associated with Paul Erdős, who did the pioneering work on the subject, probabilistic combinatorics was traditionally viewed as a set of tools to study problems in other parts of combinatorics. The area recently grew to become an independent field of combinatorics. Algebraic combinatorics thumb|right|150px|Young diagram of the integer partition (5, 4, 1). Algebraic combinatorics is an area of mathematics that employs methods of abstract algebra, notably group theory and representation theory, in various combinatorial contexts and, conversely, applies combinatorial techniques to problems in algebra. Algebraic combinatorics has come to be seen more expansively as an area of mathematics where the interaction of combinatorial and algebraic methods is particularly strong and significant. Thus the combinatorial topics may be enumerative in nature or involve matroids, polytopes, partially ordered sets, or finite geometries. On the algebraic side, besides group and representation theory, lattice theory and commutative algebra are common. Combinatorics on words thumb|right|210px|Construction of a Thue–Morse infinite word. Combinatorics on words deals with formal languages. It arose independently within several branches of mathematics, including number theory, group theory and probability. It has applications to enumerative combinatorics, fractal analysis, theoretical computer science, automata theory, and linguistics. While many applications are new, the classical Chomsky–Schützenberger hierarchy of classes of formal grammars is perhaps the best-known result in the field. Geometric combinatorics 150px|thumb|right|An icosahedron. Geometric combinatorics is related to convex and discrete geometry. It asks, for example, how many faces of each dimension a convex polytope can have. Metric properties of polytopes play an important role as well, e.g. the Cauchy theorem on the rigidity of convex polytopes. Special polytopes are also considered, such as permutohedra, associahedra and Birkhoff polytopes. Combinatorial geometry is a historical name for discrete geometry. It includes a number of subareas such as polyhedral combinatorics (the study of faces of convex polyhedra), convex geometry (the study of convex sets, in particular combinatorics of their intersections), and discrete geometry, which in turn has many applications to computational geometry. The study of regular polytopes, Archimedean solids, and kissing numbers is also a part of geometric combinatorics. Special polytopes are also considered, such as the permutohedron, associahedron and Birkhoff polytope. Topological combinatorics 150px|thumb|right|Splitting a necklace with two cuts. Combinatorial analogs of concepts and methods in topology are used to study graph coloring, fair division, partitions, partially ordered sets, decision trees, necklace problems and discrete Morse theory. It should not be confused with combinatorial topology which is an older name for algebraic topology. Arithmetic combinatorics Arithmetic combinatorics arose out of the interplay between number theory, combinatorics, ergodic theory, and harmonic analysis. It is about combinatorial estimates associated with arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division). Additive number theory (sometimes also called additive combinatorics) refers to the special case when only the operations of addition and subtraction are involved. One important technique in arithmetic combinatorics is the ergodic theory of dynamical systems. Infinitary combinatorics Infinitary combinatorics, or combinatorial set theory, is an extension of ideas in combinatorics to infinite sets. It is a part of set theory, an area of mathematical logic, but uses tools and ideas from both set theory and extremal combinatorics. Some of the things studied include continuous graphs and trees, extensions of Ramsey's theorem, and Martin's axiom. Recent developments concern combinatorics of the continuum and combinatorics on successors of singular cardinals. Gian-Carlo Rota used the name continuous combinatorics to describe geometric probability, since there are many analogies between counting and measure. Related fields 150px|right|thumb|Kissing spheres are connected to both coding theory and discrete geometry. Combinatorial optimization Combinatorial optimization is the study of optimization on discrete and combinatorial objects. It started as a part of combinatorics and graph theory, but is now viewed as a branch of applied mathematics and computer science, related to operations research, algorithm theory and computational complexity theory. Coding theory Coding theory started as a part of design theory with early combinatorial constructions of error-correcting codes. The main idea of the subject is to design efficient and reliable methods of data transmission. It is now a large field of study, part of information theory. Discrete and computational geometry Discrete geometry (also called combinatorial geometry) also began as a part of combinatorics, with early results on convex polytopes and kissing numbers. With the emergence of applications of discrete geometry to computational geometry, these two fields partially merged and became a separate field of study. There remain many connections with geometric and topological combinatorics, which themselves can be viewed as outgrowths of the early discrete geometry. Combinatorics and dynamical systems Combinatorial aspects of dynamical systems is another emerging field. Here dynamical systems can be defined on combinatorial objects. See for example graph dynamical system. Combinatorics and physics There are increasing interactions between combinatorics and physics, particularly statistical physics. Examples include an exact solution of the Ising model, and a connection between the Potts model on one hand, and the chromatic and Tutte polynomials on the other hand. See also Combinatorial biology Combinatorial chemistry Combinatorial data analysis Combinatorial game theory Combinatorial group theory Discrete mathematics List of combinatorics topics Phylogenetics Polynomial method in combinatorics Notes References Björner, Anders; and Stanley, Richard P.; (2010); A Combinatorial Miscellany Bóna, Miklós; (2011); A Walk Through Combinatorics (3rd ed.). Graham, Ronald L.; Groetschel, Martin; and Lovász, László; eds. (1996); Handbook of Combinatorics, Volumes 1 and 2. Amsterdam, NL, and Cambridge, MA: Elsevier (North-Holland) and MIT Press. Lindner, Charles C.; and Rodger, Christopher A.; eds. (1997); Design Theory, CRC-Press. . Stanley, Richard P. (1997, 1999); Enumerative Combinatorics, Volumes 1 and 2, Cambridge University Press. van Lint, Jacobus H.; and Wilson, Richard M.; (2001); A Course in Combinatorics, 2nd ed., Cambridge University Press. External links Combinatorial Analysis – an article in Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition Combinatorics, a MathWorld article with many references. Combinatorics, from a MathPages.com portal. The Hyperbook of Combinatorics, a collection of math articles links. The Two Cultures of Mathematics by W.T. Gowers, article on problem solving vs theory building. "Glossary of Terms in Combinatorics" List of Combinatorics Software and Databases
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorics
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Calculus
Calculus is the mathematical study of <!-- Please, do not link "continuous" or "change", they have the common-language meanings, and do not refer to any technical mathematical concept -->continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the calculus of infinitesimals", it has two major branches, differential calculus and integral calculus. The former concerns instantaneous rates of change, and the slopes of curves, while the latter concerns accumulation of quantities, and areas under or between curves. These two branches are related to each other by the fundamental theorem of calculus. They make use of the fundamental notions of convergence of infinite sequences and infinite series to a well-defined limit. It is the "mathematical backbone" for dealing with problems where variables change with time or another reference variable. Infinitesimal calculus was formulated separately in the late 17th century by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. Later work, including codifying the idea of limits, put these developments on a more solid conceptual footing. Today, calculus is widely used in science, engineering, biology, and even has applications in social science and other branches of math. Etymology In mathematics education, calculus is an abbreviation of both infinitesimal calculus and integral calculus, which denotes courses of elementary mathematical analysis. In Latin, the word calculus means “small pebble”, (the diminutive of calx, meaning "stone"), a meaning which still persists in medicine. Because such pebbles were used for counting out distances, tallying votes, and doing abacus arithmetic, the word came to be the Latin word for calculation. In this sense, it was used in English at least as early as 1672, several years before the publications of Leibniz and Newton, who wrote their mathematical texts in Latin. In addition to differential calculus and integral calculus, the term is also used for naming specific methods of computation or theories that imply some sort of computation. Examples of this usage include propositional calculus, Ricci calculus, calculus of variations, lambda calculus, sequent calculus, and process calculus. Furthermore, the term "calculus" has variously been applied in ethics and philosophy, for such systems as Bentham's felicific calculus, and the ethical calculus. History <!-- Attention: leave dates as they are. We're not that bothered, as the majority of Wikipedia dates state "BC". Just think of it as "Before Cronholm". --> Modern calculus was developed in 17th-century Europe by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (independently of each other, first publishing around the same time) but elements of it first appeared in ancient Egypt and later Greece, then in China<!-- Alphabetically, so please don't change the order, thank you --> and the Middle East, and still later again in medieval Europe and India. Ancient precursors Egypt Calculations of volume and area, one goal of integral calculus, can be found in the Egyptian Moscow papyrus (BC}}), but the formulae are simple instructions, with no indication as to how they were obtained. Greece to calculate the area under a parabola in his work Quadrature of the Parabola.]] Laying the foundations for integral calculus and foreshadowing the concept of the limit, ancient Greek mathematician Eudoxus of Cnidus (BC|lk=no}}) developed the method of exhaustion to prove the formulas for cone and pyramid volumes. During the Hellenistic period, this method was further developed by Archimedes (BC), who combined it with a concept of the indivisibles—a precursor to infinitesimals—allowing him to solve several problems now treated by integral calculus. In The Method of Mechanical Theorems he describes, for example, calculating the center of gravity of a solid hemisphere, the center of gravity of a frustum of a circular paraboloid, and the area of a region bounded by a parabola and one of its secant lines. China The method of exhaustion was later discovered independently in China by Liu Hui in the 3rd century AD to find the area of a circle. that would later be called Cavalieri's principle to find the volume of a sphere. Medieval Middle East In the Middle East, Hasan Ibn al-Haytham, Latinized as Alhazen (AD) derived a formula for the sum of fourth powers. He determined the equations to calculate the area enclosed by the curve represented by <math>yx^k</math> (which translates to the integral <math>\int x^k \, dx</math> in contemporary notation), for any given non-negative integer value of <math>k</math>.He used the results to carry out what would now be called an integration of this function, where the formulae for the sums of integral squares and fourth powers allowed him to calculate the volume of a paraboloid.IndiaBhāskara II () was acquainted with some ideas of differential calculus and suggested that the "differential coefficient" vanishes at an extremum value of the function. In his astronomical work, he gave a procedure that looked like a precursor to infinitesimal methods. Namely, if <math>x \approx y</math> then <math>\sin(y) - \sin(x) \approx (y - x)\cos(y).</math> This can be interpreted as the discovery that cosine is the derivative of sine. In the 14th century, Indian mathematicians gave a non-rigorous method, resembling differentiation, applicable to some trigonometric functions. Madhava of Sangamagrama and the Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics stated components of calculus. They studied series equivalent to the Maclaurin expansions of , , and more than two hundred years before their introduction in Europe. According to Victor J. Katz they were not able to "combine many differing ideas under the two unifying themes of the derivative and the integral, show the connection between the two, and turn calculus into the great problem-solving tool we have today". Kepler developed a method to calculate the area of an ellipse by adding up the lengths of many radii drawn from a focus of the ellipse. Significant work was a treatise, the origin being Kepler's methods, The combination was achieved by John Wallis, Isaac Barrow, and James Gregory, the latter two proving predecessors to the second fundamental theorem of calculus around 1670. The product rule and chain rule, the notions of higher derivatives and Taylor series, and of analytic functions were used by Isaac Newton in an idiosyncratic notation which he applied to solve problems of mathematical physics. In his works, Newton rephrased his ideas to suit the mathematical idiom of the time, replacing calculations with infinitesimals by equivalent geometrical arguments which were considered beyond reproach. He used the methods of calculus to solve the problem of planetary motion, the shape of the surface of a rotating fluid, the oblateness of the earth, the motion of a weight sliding on a cycloid, and many other problems discussed in his Principia Mathematica (1687). In other work, he developed series expansions for functions, including fractional and irrational powers, and it was clear that he understood the principles of the Taylor series. He did not publish all these discoveries, and at this time infinitesimal methods were still considered disreputable. He is now regarded as an independent inventor of and contributor to calculus. His contribution was to provide a clear set of rules for working with infinitesimal quantities, allowing the computation of second and higher derivatives, and providing the product rule and chain rule, in their differential and integral forms. Unlike Newton, Leibniz put painstaking effort into his choices of notation. Today, Leibniz and Newton are usually both given credit for independently inventing and developing calculus. Newton was the first to apply calculus to general physics. Leibniz developed much of the notation used in calculus today. A careful examination of the papers of Leibniz and Newton shows that they arrived at their results independently, with Leibniz starting first with integration and Newton with differentiation. It is Leibniz, however, who gave the new discipline its name. Newton called his calculus "the science of fluxions", a term that endured in English schools into the 19th century. The first complete treatise on calculus to be written in English and use the Leibniz notation was not published until 1815. ]] Since the time of Leibniz and Newton, many mathematicians have contributed to the continuing development of calculus. One of the first and most complete works on both infinitesimal and integral calculus was written in 1748 by Maria Gaetana Agnesi. Foundations In calculus, foundations refers to the rigorous development of the subject from axioms and definitions. In early calculus, the use of infinitesimal quantities was thought unrigorous and was fiercely criticized by several authors, most notably Michel Rolle and Bishop Berkeley. Berkeley famously described infinitesimals as the ghosts of departed quantities in his book The Analyst in 1734. Working out a rigorous foundation for calculus occupied mathematicians for much of the century following Newton and Leibniz, and is still to some extent an active area of research today. Several mathematicians, including Maclaurin, tried to prove the soundness of using infinitesimals, but it would not be until 150 years later when, due to the work of Cauchy and Weierstrass, a way was finally found to avoid mere "notions" of infinitely small quantities. The foundations of differential and integral calculus had been laid. In Cauchy's ''Cours d'Analyse'', we find a broad range of foundational approaches, including a definition of continuity in terms of infinitesimals, and a (somewhat imprecise) prototype of an (ε, δ)-definition of limit in the definition of differentiation. In his work, Weierstrass formalized the concept of limit and eliminated infinitesimals (although his definition can validate nilsquare infinitesimals). Following the work of Weierstrass, it eventually became common to base calculus on limits instead of infinitesimal quantities, though the subject is still occasionally called "infinitesimal calculus". Bernhard Riemann used these ideas to give a precise definition of the integral. It was also during this period that the ideas of calculus were generalized to the complex plane with the development of complex analysis. In modern mathematics, the foundations of calculus are included in the field of real analysis, which contains full definitions and proofs of the theorems of calculus. The reach of calculus has also been greatly extended. Henri Lebesgue invented measure theory, based on earlier developments by Émile Borel, and used it to define integrals of all but the most pathological functions. Laurent Schwartz introduced distributions, which can be used to take the derivative of any function whatsoever. Limits are not the only rigorous approach to the foundation of calculus. Another way is to use Abraham Robinson's non-standard analysis. Robinson's approach, developed in the 1960s, uses technical machinery from mathematical logic to augment the real number system with infinitesimal and infinite numbers, as in the original Newton-Leibniz conception. The resulting numbers are called hyperreal numbers, and they can be used to give a Leibniz-like development of the usual rules of calculus. There is also smooth infinitesimal analysis, which differs from non-standard analysis in that it mandates neglecting higher-power infinitesimals during derivations. The Hungarian polymath John von Neumann wrote of this work, Applications of differential calculus include computations involving velocity and acceleration, the slope of a curve, and optimization. Principles Limits and infinitesimals Calculus is usually developed by working with very small quantities. Historically, the first method of doing so was by infinitesimals. These are objects which can be treated like real numbers but which are, in some sense, "infinitely small". For example, an infinitesimal number could be greater than 0, but less than any number in the sequence 1, 1/2, 1/3, ... and thus less than any positive real number. From this point of view, calculus is a collection of techniques for manipulating infinitesimals. The symbols <math>dx</math> and <math>dy</math> were taken to be infinitesimal, and the derivative <math>dy/dx</math> was their ratio. In more explicit terms the "doubling function" may be denoted by 2x}} and the "squaring function" by x<sup>2</sup>}}. The "derivative" now takes the function , defined by the expression "", as an input, that is all the information—such as that two is sent to four, three is sent to nine, four is sent to sixteen, and so on—and uses this information to output another function, the function 2x}}, as will turn out. In Lagrange's notation, the symbol for a derivative is an apostrophe-like mark called a prime. Thus, the derivative of a function called is denoted by , pronounced "f prime" or "f dash". For instance, if x<sup>2</sup>}} is the squaring function, then 2x}} is its derivative (the doubling function from above). If the input of the function represents time, then the derivative represents change concerning time. For example, if is a function that takes time as input and gives the position of a ball at that time as output, then the derivative of is how the position is changing in time, that is, it is the velocity of the ball. If the graph of the function is not a straight line, however, then the change in divided by the change in varies. Derivatives give an exact meaning to the notion of change in output concerning change in input. To be concrete, let be a function, and fix a point in the domain of . is a point on the graph of the function. If is a number close to zero, then is a number close to . Therefore, is close to . The slope between these two points is :<math>m \frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{(a+h) - a} \frac{f(a+h) - f(a)}{h}.</math> This expression is called a difference quotient. A line through two points on a curve is called a secant line, so is the slope of the secant line between and . The second line is only an approximation to the behavior of the function at the point because it does not account for what happens between and . It is not possible to discover the behavior at by setting to zero because this would require dividing by zero, which is undefined. The derivative is defined by taking the limit as tends to zero, meaning that it considers the behavior of for all small values of and extracts a consistent value for the case when equals zero: :<math>\lim_{h \to 0}{f(a+h) - f(a)\over{h}}.</math> Geometrically, the derivative is the slope of the tangent line to the graph of at . The tangent line is a limit of secant lines just as the derivative is a limit of difference quotients. For this reason, the derivative is sometimes called the slope of the function . The indefinite integral, also known as the antiderivative, is the inverse operation to the derivative. A motivating example is the distance traveled in a given time. Fundamental theorem The fundamental theorem of calculus states that differentiation and integration are inverse operations.) The fundamental theorem provides an algebraic method of computing many definite integrals—without performing limit processes—by finding formulae for antiderivatives. It is also a prototype solution of a differential equation. Differential equations relate an unknown function to its derivatives and are ubiquitous in the sciences. Applications of the nautilus shell is a classical image used to depict the growth and change related to calculus.]] Calculus is used in every branch of the physical sciences, actuarial science, computer science, statistics, engineering, economics, business, medicine, demography, and in other fields wherever a problem can be mathematically modeled and an optimal solution is desired. It allows one to go from (non-constant) rates of change to the total change or vice versa, and many times in studying a problem we know one and are trying to find the other. Calculus can be used in conjunction with other mathematical disciplines. For example, it can be used with linear algebra to find the "best fit" linear approximation for a set of points in a domain. Or, it can be used in probability theory to determine the expectation value of a continuous random variable given a probability density function. In analytic geometry, the study of graphs of functions, calculus is used to find high points and low points (maxima and minima), slope, concavity and inflection points. Calculus is also used to find approximate solutions to equations; in practice, it is the standard way to solve differential equations and do root finding in most applications. Examples are methods such as Newton's method, fixed point iteration, and linear approximation. For instance, spacecraft use a variation of the Euler method to approximate curved courses within zero-gravity environments. Physics makes particular use of calculus; all concepts in classical mechanics and electromagnetism are related through calculus. The mass of an object of known density, the moment of inertia of objects, and the potential energies due to gravitational and electromagnetic forces can all be found by the use of calculus. An example of the use of calculus in mechanics is Newton's second law of motion, which states that the derivative of an object's momentum concerning time equals the net force upon it. Alternatively, Newton's second law can be expressed by saying that the net force equals the object's mass times its acceleration, which is the time derivative of velocity and thus the second time derivative of spatial position. Starting from knowing how an object is accelerating, we use calculus to derive its path. Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism and Einstein's theory of general relativity are also expressed in the language of differential calculus. Chemistry also uses calculus in determining reaction rates and in studying radioactive decay. Green's theorem, which gives the relationship between a line integral around a simple closed curve C and a double integral over the plane region D bounded by C, is applied in an instrument known as a planimeter, which is used to calculate the area of a flat surface on a drawing. For example, it can be used to calculate the amount of area taken up by an irregularly shaped flower bed or swimming pool when designing the layout of a piece of property. In the realm of medicine, calculus can be used to find the optimal branching angle of a blood vessel to maximize flow. Calculus can be applied to understand how quickly a drug is eliminated from a body or how quickly a cancerous tumor grows. In economics, calculus allows for the determination of maximal profit by providing a way to easily calculate both marginal cost and marginal revenue. See also * Glossary of calculus * List of calculus topics * List of derivatives and integrals in alternative calculi * List of differentiation identities * Publications in calculus * Table of integrals References Further reading * * * * * * Uses synthetic differential geometry and nilpotent infinitesimals. * * * * * * Keisler, H.J. (2000). Elementary Calculus: An Approach Using Infinitesimals. Retrieved 29 August 2010 from [http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html <nowiki>http://www.math.wisc.edu/~keisler/calc.html</nowiki>] * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * * * [http://djm.cc/library/Calculus_Made_Easy_Thompson.pdf Calculus Made Easy (1914) by Silvanus P. Thompson] Full text in PDF * * [http://www.calculus.org Calculus.org: The Calculus page] at University of California, Davis – contains resources and links to other sites * [http://www.economics.soton.ac.uk/staff/aldrich/Calculus%20and%20Analysis%20Earliest%20Uses.htm Earliest Known Uses of Some of the Words of Mathematics: Calculus & Analysis] * [http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-9217/calculus.htm The Role of Calculus in College Mathematics] from ERICDigests.org * [https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/mathematics/18-01sc-single-variable-calculus-fall-2010/ OpenCourseWare Calculus] from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology * [http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?titleInfinitesimal_calculus&oldid18648 Infinitesimal Calculus] – an article on its historical development, in Encyclopedia of Mathematics, ed. Michiel Hazewinkel. * * [http://www.imomath.com/index.php?options=277 Calculus training materials at imomath.com] * [http://www.wdl.org/en/item/4327/ The Excursion of Calculus], 1772
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus
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Communication
}} Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not only transmits meaning but also creates it. Models of communication are simplified overviews of its main components and their interactions. Many models include the idea that a source uses a coding system to express information in the form of a message. The message is sent through a channel to a receiver who has to decode it to understand it. The main field of inquiry investigating communication is called communication studies. A common way to classify communication is by whether information is exchanged between humans, members of other species, or non-living entities such as computers. For human communication, a central contrast is between verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal communication involves the exchange of messages in linguistic form, including spoken and written messages as well as sign language. Non-verbal communication happens without the use of a linguistic system, for example, using body language, touch, and facial expressions. Another distinction is between interpersonal communication, which happens between distinct persons, and intrapersonal communication, which is communication with oneself. Communicative competence is the ability to communicate well and applies to the skills of formulating messages and understanding them. Non-human forms of communication include animal and plant communication. Researchers in this field often refine their definition of communicative behavior by including the criteria that observable responses are present and that the participants benefit from the exchange. Animal communication is used in areas like courtship and mating, parent–offspring relations, navigation, and self-defense. Communication through chemicals is particularly important for the relatively immobile plants. For example, maple trees release so-called volatile organic compounds into the air to warn other plants of a herbivore attack. Most communication takes place between members of the same species. The reason is that its purpose is usually some form of cooperation, which is not as common between different species. Interspecies communication happens mainly in cases of symbiotic relationships. For instance, many flowers use symmetrical shapes and distinctive colors to signal to insects where nectar is located. Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals. Human communication has a long history and how people exchange information has changed over time. These changes were usually triggered by the development of new communication technologies. Examples are the invention of writing systems, the development of mass printing, the use of radio and television, and the invention of the internet. The technological advances also led to new forms of communication, such as the exchange of data between computers. Definitions The word has its root in the Latin verb }}, which means or . Communication is usually understood as the transmission of information: a message is conveyed from a sender to a receiver using some medium, such as sound, written signs, bodily movements, or electricity. Sender and receiver are often distinct individuals but it is also possible for an individual to communicate with themselves. In some cases, sender and receiver are not individuals but groups like organizations, social classes, or nations. In a different sense, the term communication refers to the message that is being communicated or to the field of inquiry studying communicational phenomena. The precise characterization of communication is disputed. Many scholars have raised doubts that any single definition can capture the term accurately. These difficulties come from the fact that the term is applied to diverse phenomena in different contexts, often with slightly different meanings. The issue of the right definition affects the research process on many levels. This includes issues like which empirical phenomena are observed, how they are categorized, which hypotheses and laws are formulated as well as how systematic theories based on these steps are articulated. Some definitions are broad and encompass unconscious and non-human behavior. Under a broad definition, many animals communicate within their own species and flowers communicate by signaling the location of nectar to bees through their colors and shapes. Other definitions restrict communication to conscious interactions among human beings. Some approaches focus on the use of symbols and signs while others stress the role of understanding, interaction, power, or transmission of ideas. Various characterizations see the communicator's intent to send a message as a central component. In this view, the transmission of information is not sufficient for communication if it happens unintentionally. A version of this view is given by philosopher Paul Grice, who identifies communication with actions that aim to make the recipient aware of the communicator's intention. One question in this regard is whether only successful transmissions of information should be regarded as communication. For example, distortion may interfere with and change the actual message from what was originally intended. A closely related problem is whether acts of deliberate deception constitute communication. According to a broad definition by literary critic I. A. Richards, communication happens when one mind acts upon its environment to transmit its own experience to another mind. Another interpretation is given by communication theorists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, who characterize communication as a transmission of information brought about by the interaction of several components, such as a source, a message, an encoder, a channel, a decoder, and a receiver. The transmission view is rejected by transactional and constitutive views, which hold that communication is not just about the transmission of information but also about the creation of meaning. Transactional and constitutive perspectives hold that communication shapes the participant's experience by conceptualizing the world and making sense of their environment and themselves. Researchers studying animal and plant communication focus less on meaning-making. Instead, they often define communicative behavior as having other features, such as playing a beneficial role in survival and reproduction, or having an observable response.Models of communication Models of communication are conceptual representations of the process of communication. Their goal is to provide a simplified overview of its main components. This makes it easier for researchers to formulate hypotheses, apply communication-related concepts to real-world cases, and test predictions. Due to their simplified presentation, they may lack the conceptual complexity needed for a comprehensive understanding of all the essential aspects of communication. They are usually presented visually in the form of diagrams showing the basic components and their interaction. Models of communication are often categorized based on their intended applications and how they conceptualize communication. Some models are general in the sense that they are intended for all forms of communication. Specialized models aim to describe specific forms, such as models of mass communication. One influential way to classify communication is to distinguish between linear transmission, interaction, and transaction models. Linear transmission models focus on how a sender transmits information to a receiver. They are linear because this flow of information only goes in a single direction. This view is rejected by interaction models, which include a feedback loop. Feedback is needed to describe many forms of communication, such as a conversation, where the listener may respond to a speaker by expressing their opinion or by asking for clarification. Interaction models represent the process as a form of two-way communication in which the communicators take turns sending and receiving messages. Transaction models further refine this picture by allowing representations of sending and responding at the same time. This modification is needed to describe how the listener can give feedback in a face-to-face conversation while the other person is talking. Examples are non-verbal feedback through body posture and facial expression. Transaction models also hold that meaning is produced during communication and does not exist independently of it. All the early models, developed in the middle of the 20th century, are linear transmission models. Lasswell's model, for example, is based on five fundamental questions: "Who?", "Says what?", "In which channel?", "To whom?", and "With what effect?". The goal of these questions is to identify the basic components involved in the communicative process: the sender, the message, the channel, the receiver, and the effect. Lasswell's model was initially only conceived as a model of mass communication, but it has been applied to other fields as well. Some communication theorists, like Richard Braddock, have expanded it by including additional questions, like "Under what circumstances?" and "For what purpose?". and then back into a message]] The Shannon–Weaver model is another influential linear transmission model. It is based on the idea that a source creates a message, which is then translated into a signal by a transmitter. Noise may interfere with and distort the signal. Once the signal reaches the receiver, it is translated back into a message and made available to the destination. For a landline telephone call, the person calling is the source and their telephone is the transmitter. The transmitter translates the message into an electrical signal that travels through the wire, which acts as the channel. The person taking the call is the destination and their telephone is the receiver. The Shannon–Weaver model includes an in-depth discussion of how noise can distort the signal and how successful communication can be achieved despite noise. This can happen by making the message partially redundant so that decoding is possible nonetheless. Other influential linear transmission models include Gerbner's model and Berlo's model. The earliest interaction model was developed by communication theorist Wilbur Schramm. He states that communication starts when a source has an idea and expresses it in the form of a message. This process is called encoding and happens using a code, i.e. a sign system that is able to express the idea, for instance, through visual or auditory signs. The message is sent to a destination, who has to decode and interpret it to understand it. In response, they formulate their own idea, encode it into a message, and send it back as a form of feedback. Another innovation of Schramm's model is that previous experience is necessary to be able to encode and decode messages. For communication to be successful, the fields of experience of source and destination have to overlap. The first transactional model was proposed by communication theorist Dean Barnlund in 1970. He understands communication as "the production of meaning, rather than the production of messages". Its goal is to decrease uncertainty and arrive at a shared understanding. This happens in response to external and internal cues. Decoding is the process of ascribing meaning to them and encoding consists in producing new behavioral cues as a response.HumanThere are many forms of human communication. A central distinction is whether language is used, as in the contrast between verbal and non-verbal communication. A further distinction concerns whether one communicates with others or with oneself, as in the contrast between interpersonal and intrapersonal communication. Forms of human communication are also categorized by their channel or the medium used to transmit messages. The field studying human communication is known as anthroposemiotics. Verbal Verbal communication is the exchange of messages in linguistic form, i.e., by means of language. In colloquial usage, verbal communication is sometimes restricted to oral communication and may exclude writing and sign language. However, in academic discourse, the term is usually used in a wider sense, encompassing any form of linguistic communication, whether through speech, writing, or gestures. Some of the challenges in distinguishing verbal from non-verbal communication come from the difficulties in defining what exactly language means. Language is usually understood as a conventional system of symbols and rules used for communication. Such systems are based on a set of simple units of meaning that can be combined to express more complex ideas. The rules for combining the units into compound expressions are called grammar. Words are combined to form sentences. One hallmark of human language, in contrast to animal communication, lies in its complexity and expressive power. Human language can be used to refer not just to concrete objects in the here-and-now but also to spatially and temporally distant objects and to abstract ideas. Humans have a natural tendency to acquire their native language in childhood. They are also able to learn other languages later in life as second languages. However, this process is less intuitive and often does not result in the same level of linguistic competence. The academic discipline studying language is called linguistics. Its subfields include semantics (the study of meaning), morphology (the study of word formation), syntax (the study of sentence structure), pragmatics (the study of language use), and phonetics (the study of basic sounds). A central contrast among languages is between natural and artificial or constructed languages. Natural languages, like English, Spanish, and Japanese, developed naturally and for the most part unplanned in the course of history. Artificial languages, like Esperanto, Quenya, C++, and the language of first-order logic, are purposefully designed from the ground up. Most everyday verbal communication happens using natural languages. Central forms of verbal communication are speech and writing together with their counterparts of listening and reading. Spoken languages use sounds to produce signs and transmit meaning while for writing, the signs are physically inscribed on a surface. Sign languages, like American Sign Language and Nicaraguan Sign Language, are another form of verbal communication. They rely on visual means, mostly by using gestures with hands and arms, to form sentences and convey meaning. Verbal communication serves various functions. One key function is to exchange information, i.e. an attempt by the speaker to make the audience aware of something, usually of an external event. But language can also be used to express the speaker's feelings and attitudes. A closely related role is to establish and maintain social relations with other people. Verbal communication is also utilized to coordinate one's behavior with others and influence them. In some cases, language is not employed for an external purpose but only for entertainment or personal enjoyment. Verbal communication further helps individuals conceptualize the world around them and themselves. This affects how perceptions of external events are interpreted, how things are categorized, and how ideas are organized and related to each other. Non-verbal is one form of non-verbal communication.]] Non-verbal communication is the exchange of information through non-linguistic modes, like facial expressions, gestures, and postures. However, not every form of non-verbal behavior constitutes non-verbal communication. Some theorists, like Judee Burgoon, hold that it depends on the existence of a socially shared coding system that is used to interpret the meaning of non-verbal behavior. Non-verbal communication has many functions. It frequently contains information about emotions, attitudes, personality, interpersonal relations, and private thoughts. Non-verbal communication often happens unintentionally and unconsciously, like sweating or blushing, but there are also conscious intentional forms, like shaking hands or raising a thumb. It often happens simultaneously with verbal communication and helps optimize the exchange through emphasis and illustration or by adding additional information. Non-verbal cues can clarify the intent behind a verbal message. Using multiple modalities of communication in this way usually makes communication more effective if the messages of each modality are consistent. However, in some cases different modalities can contain conflicting messages. For example, a person may verbally agree with a statement but press their lips together, thereby indicating disagreement non-verbally. There are many forms of non-verbal communication. They include kinesics, proxemics, haptics, paralanguage, chronemics, and physical appearance. Kinesics studies the role of bodily behavior in conveying information. It is commonly referred to as body language, even though it is, strictly speaking, not a language but rather non-verbal communication. It includes many forms, like gestures, postures, walking styles, and dance. Facial expressions, like laughing, smiling, and frowning, all belong to kinesics and are expressive and flexible forms of communication. Oculesics is another subcategory of kinesics in regard to the eyes. It covers questions like how eye contact, gaze, blink rate, and pupil dilation form part of communication. Some kinesic patterns are inborn and involuntary, like blinking, while others are learned and voluntary, like giving a military salute. Proxemics studies how personal space is used in communication. The distance between the speakers reflects their degree of familiarity and intimacy with each other as well as their social status. Haptics examines how information is conveyed using touching behavior, like handshakes, holding hands, kissing, or slapping. Meanings linked to haptics include care, concern, anger, and violence. For instance, handshaking is often seen as a symbol of equality and fairness, while refusing to shake hands can indicate aggressiveness. Kissing is another form often used to show affection and erotic closeness. Paralanguage, also known as vocalics, encompasses non-verbal elements in speech that convey information. Paralanguage is often used to express the feelings and emotions that the speaker has but does not explicitly stated in the verbal part of the message. It is not concerned with the words used but with how they are expressed. This includes elements like articulation, lip control, rhythm, intensity, pitch, fluency, and loudness. For example, saying something loudly and in a high pitch conveys a different meaning on the non-verbal level than whispering the same words. Paralanguage is mainly concerned with spoken language but also includes aspects of written language, like the use of colors and fonts as well as spatial arrangement in paragraphs and tables. Non-linguistic sounds may also convey information; crying indicates that an infant is distressed, and babbling conveys information about infant health and well-being. Chronemics concerns the use of time, such as what messages are sent by being on time versus late for a meeting. The physical appearance of the communicator, such as height, weight, hair, skin color, gender, clothing, tattooing, and piercing, also carries information. Appearance is an important factor for first impressions but is more limited as a mode of communication since it is less changeable. Some forms of non-verbal communication happen using such artifacts as drums, smoke, batons, traffic lights, and flags. Non-verbal communication can also happen through visual media like paintings and drawings. They can express what a person or an object looks like and can also convey other ideas and emotions. In some cases, this type of non-verbal communication is used in combination with verbal communication, for example, when diagrams or maps employ labels to include additional linguistic information. Traditionally, most research focused on verbal communication. However, this paradigm began to shift in the 1950s when research interest in non-verbal communication increased and emphasized its influence. For example, many judgments about the nature and behavior of other people are based on non-verbal cues. It is further present in almost every communicative act to some extent and certain parts of it are universally understood. These considerations have prompted some communication theorists, like Ray Birdwhistell, to claim that the majority of ideas and information is conveyed this way. It has also been suggested that human communication is at its core non-verbal and that words can only acquire meaning because of non-verbal communication. The earliest forms of human communication, such as crying and babbling, are non-verbal. Some basic forms of communication happen even before birth between mother and embryo and include information about nutrition and emotions. Non-verbal communication is studied in various fields besides communication studies, like linguistics, semiotics, anthropology, and social psychology. Interpersonal conversing in the White House, an example of interpersonal communication]] Interpersonal communication is communication between distinct people. Its typical form is dyadic communication, i.e. between two people, but it can also refer to communication within groups. It can be planned or unplanned and occurs in many forms, like when greeting someone, during salary negotiations, or when making a phone call. Some communication theorists, like Virginia M. McDermott, understand interpersonal communication as a fuzzy concept that manifests in degrees. In this view, an exchange varies in how interpersonal it is based on several factors. It depends on how many people are present, and whether it happens face-to-face rather than through telephone or email. A further factor concerns the relation between the communicators: group communication and mass communication are less typical forms of interpersonal communication and some theorists treat them as distinct types. Interpersonal communication can be synchronous or asynchronous. For asynchronous communication, the parties take turns in sending and receiving messages. This occurs when exchanging letters or emails. For synchronous communication, both parties send messages at the same time. This happens when one person is talking while the other person sends non-verbal messages in response signaling whether they agree with what is being said. Some communication theorists, like Sarah Trenholm and Arthur Jensen, distinguish between content messages and relational messages. Content messages express the speaker's feelings toward the topic of discussion. Relational messages, on the other hand, demonstrate the speaker's feelings toward their relation with the other participants. Various theories of the function of interpersonal communication have been proposed. Some focus on how it helps people make sense of their world and create society. Others hold that its primary purpose is to understand why other people act the way they do and to adjust one's behavior accordingly. A closely related approach is to focus on information and see interpersonal communication as an attempt to reduce uncertainty about others and external events. Other explanations understand it in terms of the needs it satisfies. This includes the needs of belonging somewhere, being included, being liked, maintaining relationships, and influencing the behavior of others. On a practical level, interpersonal communication is used to coordinate one's actions with the actions of others to get things done. Research on interpersonal communication includes topics like how people build, maintain, and dissolve relationships through communication. Other questions are why people choose one message rather than another and what effects these messages have on the communicators and their relation. A further topic is how to predict whether two people would like each other. Intrapersonal 's 1901 painting, Rêverie (Daydream) featuring Alice Guérin. Daydreaming is a form of intrapersonal communication.]] Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself. In some cases this manifests externally, such as when engaged in a monologue, taking notes, highlighting a passage, and writing a diary or a shopping list. But many forms of intrapersonal communication happen internally in the form of an inner exchange with oneself, as when thinking about something or daydreaming. Closely related to intrapersonal communication is communication that takes place within an organism below the personal level, such as exchange of information between organs or cells. Intrapersonal communication can be triggered by internal and external stimuli. It may happen in the form of articulating a phrase before expressing it externally. Other forms are to make plans for the future and to attempt to process emotions to calm oneself down in stressful situations. It can help regulate one's own mental activity and outward behavior as well as internalize cultural norms and ways of thinking. External forms of intrapersonal communication can aid one's memory. This happens, for example, when making a shopping list. Another use is to unravel difficult problems, as when solving a complex mathematical equation line by line. New knowledge can also be internalized this way, such as when repeating new vocabulary to oneself. Because of these functions, intrapersonal communication can be understood as "an exceptionally powerful and pervasive tool for thinking." Based on its role in self-regulation, some theorists have suggested that intrapersonal communication is more basic than interpersonal communication. Young children sometimes use egocentric speech while playing in an attempt to direct their own behavior. In this view, interpersonal communication only develops later when the child moves from their early egocentric perspective to a more social perspective. A different explanation holds that interpersonal communication is more basic since it is first used by parents to regulate what their child does. Once the child has learned this, they can apply the same technique to themselves to get more control over their own behavior. Channels For communication to be successful, the message has to travel from the sender to the receiver. The channel is the way this is accomplished. It is not concerned with the meaning of the message but only with the technical means of how the meaning is conveyed. Channels are often understood in terms of the senses used to perceive the message, i.e. hearing, seeing, smelling, touching, and tasting. But in the widest sense, channels encompass any form of transmission, including technological means like books, cables, radio waves, telephones, or television. Naturally transmitted messages usually fade rapidly whereas some messages using artificial channels have a much longer lifespan, as in the case of books or sculptures. The physical characteristics of a channel have an impact on the code and cues that can be used to express information. For example, typical telephone calls are restricted to the use of verbal language and paralanguage but exclude facial expressions. It is often possible to translate messages from one code into another to make them available to a different channel. An example is writing down a spoken message or expressing it using sign language. The transmission of information can occur through multiple channels at once. For example, face-to-face communication often combines the auditory channel to convey verbal information with the visual channel to transmit non-verbal information using gestures and facial expressions. Employing multiple channels can enhance the effectiveness of communication by helping the receiver better understand the subject matter. The choice of channels often matters since the receiver's ability to understand may vary depending on the chosen channel. For instance, a teacher may decide to present some information orally and other information visually, depending on the content and the student's preferred learning style. This underlines the role of a media-adequate approach. Communicative competence Communicative competence is the ability to communicate effectively or to choose the appropriate communicative behavior in a given situation. It concerns what to say, when to say it, and how to say it. It further includes the ability to receive and understand messages. Competence is often contrasted with performance since competence can be present even if it is not exercised, while performance consists in the realization of this competence. However, some theorists reject a stark contrast and hold that performance is the observable part and is used to infer competence in relation to future performances. Two central components of communicative competence are effectiveness and appropriateness. Effectiveness is the degree to which the speaker achieves their desired outcomes or the degree to which preferred alternatives are realized. This means that whether a communicative behavior is effective does not just depend on the actual outcome but also on the speaker's intention, i.e. whether this outcome was what they intended to achieve. Because of this, some theorists additionally require that the speaker be able to give an explanation of why they engaged in one behavior rather than another. Effectiveness is closely related to efficiency, the difference being that effectiveness is about achieving goals while efficiency is about using few resources (such as time, effort, and money) in the process. Appropriateness means that the communicative behavior meets social standards and expectations. Communication theorist Brian H. Spitzberg defines it as "the perceived legitimacy or acceptability of behavior or enactments in a given context". This means that the speaker is aware of the social and cultural context in order to adapt and express the message in a way that is considered acceptable in the given situation. For example, to bid farewell to their teacher, a student may use the expression "Goodbye, sir" but not the expression "I gotta split, man", which they may use when talking to a peer. To be both effective and appropriate means to achieve one's preferred outcomes in a way that follows social standards and expectations. Some definitions of communicative competence put their main emphasis on either effectiveness or appropriateness while others combine both features. Many additional components of communicative competence have been suggested, such as empathy, control, flexibility, sensitivity, and knowledge. It is often discussed in terms of the individual skills employed in the process, i.e. the specific behavioral components that make up communicative competence. Message production skills include reading and writing. They are correlated with the reception skills of listening and reading. There are both verbal and non-verbal communication skills. For example, verbal communication skills involve the proper understanding of a language, including its phonology, orthography, syntax, lexicon, and semantics. Many aspects of human life depend on successful communication, from ensuring basic necessities of survival to building and maintaining relationships. Communicative competence is a key factor regarding whether a person is able to reach their goals in social life, like having a successful career and finding a suitable spouse. Because of this, it can have a large impact on the individual's well-being. The lack of communicative competence can cause problems both on the individual and the societal level, including professional, academic, and health problems. Barriers to effective communication can distort the message. They may result in failed communication and cause undesirable effects. This can happen if the message is poorly expressed because it uses terms with which the receiver is not familiar, or because it is not relevant to the receiver's needs, or because it contains too little or too much information. Distraction, selective perception, and lack of attention to feedback may also be responsible. Noise is another negative factor. It concerns influences that interfere with the message on its way to the receiver and distort it. Crackling sounds during a telephone call are one form of noise. Ambiguous expressions can also inhibit effective communication and make it necessary to disambiguate between possible interpretations to discern the sender's intention. These interpretations depend also on the cultural background of the participants. Significant cultural differences constitute an additional obstacle and make it more likely that messages are misinterpreted. Other species by howling.]] Besides human communication, there are many other forms of communication found in the animal kingdom and among plants. They are studied in fields like biocommunication and biosemiotics. There are additional obstacles in this area for judging whether communication has taken place between two individuals. Acoustic signals are often easy to notice and analyze for scientists, but it is more difficult to judge whether tactile or chemical changes should be understood as communicative signals rather than as other biological processes. For this reason, researchers often use slightly altered definitions of communication to facilitate their work. A common assumption in this regard comes from evolutionary biology and holds that communication should somehow benefit the communicators in terms of natural selection. The biologists Rumsaïs Blatrix and Veronika Mayer define communication as "the exchange of information between individuals, wherein both the signaller and receiver may expect to benefit from the exchange". According to this view, the sender benefits by influencing the receiver's behavior and the receiver benefits by responding to the signal. These benefits should exist on average but not necessarily in every single case. This way, deceptive signaling can also be understood as a form of communication. One problem with the evolutionary approach is that it is often difficult to assess the impact of such behavior on natural selection. Another common pragmatic constraint is to hold that it is necessary to observe a response by the receiver following the signal when judging whether communication has occurred. Animals Animal communication is the process of giving and taking information among animals. The field studying animal communication is called zoosemiotics. There are many parallels to human communication. One is that humans and many animals express sympathy by synchronizing their movements and postures. Nonetheless, there are also significant differences, like the fact that humans also engage in verbal communication, which uses language, while animal communication is restricted to non-verbal (i.e. non-linguistic) communication. Some theorists have tried to distinguish human from animal communication based on the claim that animal communication lacks a referential function and is thus not able to refer to external phenomena. However, various observations seem to contradict this view, such as the warning signals in response to different types of predators used by vervet monkeys, Gunnison's prairie dogs, and red squirrels. A further approach is to draw the distinction based on the complexity of human language, especially its almost limitless ability to combine basic units of meaning into more complex meaning structures. One view states that recursion sets human language apart from all non-human communicative systems. Another difference is that human communication is frequently linked to the conscious intention to send information, which is often not discernable for animal communication. Despite these differences, some theorists use the term "animal language" to refer to certain communicative patterns in animal behavior that have similarities with human language. '', communicate with light to attract mates.]] Animal communication can take a variety of forms, including visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory communication. Visual communication happens in the form of movements, gestures, facial expressions, and colors. Examples are movements seen during mating rituals, the colors of birds, and the rhythmic light of fireflies. Auditory communication takes place through vocalizations by species like birds, primates, and dogs. Auditory signals are frequently used to alert and warn. Lower-order living systems often have simple response patterns to auditory messages, reacting either by approach or avoidance. More complex response patterns are observed for higher animals, which may use different signals for different types of predators and responses. For example, some primates use one set of signals for airborne predators and another for land predators. Tactile communication occurs through touch, vibration, stroking, rubbing, and pressure. It is especially relevant for parent-young relations, courtship, social greetings, and defense. Olfactory and gustatory communication happen chemically through smells and tastes, respectively. There are large differences between species concerning what functions communication plays, how much it is realized, and the behavior used to communicate. Common functions include the fields of courtship and mating, parent-offspring relations, social relations, navigation, self-defense, and territoriality. One part of courtship and mating consists in identifying and attracting potential mates. This can happen through various means. Grasshoppers and crickets communicate acoustically by using songs, moths rely on chemical means by releasing pheromones, and fireflies send visual messages by flashing light. For some species, the offspring depends on the parent for its survival. One central function of parent-offspring communication is to recognize each other. In some cases, the parents are also able to guide the offspring's behavior. Social animals, like chimpanzees, bonobos, wolves, and dogs, engage in various forms of communication to express their feelings and build relations. Communication can aid navigation by helping animals move through their environment in a purposeful way, e.g. to locate food, avoid enemies, and follow other animals. In bats, this happens through echolocation, i.e. by sending auditory signals and processing the information from the echoes. Bees are another often-discussed case in this respect since they perform a type of dance to indicate to other bees where flowers are located. In regard to self-defense, communication is used to warn others and to assess whether a costly fight can be avoided. Another function of communication is to mark and claim territories used for food and mating. For example, some male birds claim a hedge or part of a meadow by using songs to keep other males away and attract females. Two competing theories in the study of animal communication are nature theory and nurture theory. Their conflict concerns to what extent animal communication is programmed into the genes as a form of adaptation rather than learned from previous experience as a form of conditioning. To the degree that it is learned, it usually happens through imprinting, i.e. as a form of learning that only occurs in a certain phase and is then mostly irreversible.Plants, fungi, and bacteriaPlant communication refers to plant processes involving the sending and receiving of information. The field studying plant communication is called phytosemiotics. This field poses additional difficulties for researchers since plants are different from humans and other animals in that they lack a central nervous system and have rigid cell walls. These walls restrict movement and usually prevent plants from sending and receiving signals that depend on rapid movement. However, there are some similarities since plants face many of the same challenges as animals. For example, they need to find resources, avoid predators and pathogens, find mates, and ensure that their offspring survive. Many of the evolutionary responses to these challenges are analogous to those in animals but are implemented using different means. One crucial difference is that chemical communication is much more prominent in the plant kingdom in contrast to the importance of visual and auditory communication for animals. In plants, the term behavior is usually not defined in terms of physical movement, as is the case for animals, but as a biochemical response to a stimulus. This response has to be short relative to the plant's lifespan. Communication is a special form of behavior that involves conveying information from a sender to a receiver. It is distinguished from other types of behavior, like defensive reactions and mere sensing. Like in the field of animal communication, plant communication researchers often require as additional criteria that there is some form of response in the receiver and that the communicative behavior is beneficial to sender and receiver. Biologist Richard Karban distinguishes three steps of plant communication: the emission of a cue by a sender, the perception of the cue by a receiver, and the receiver's response. For plant communication, it is not relevant to what extent the emission of a cue is intentional. However, it should be possible for the receiver to ignore the signal. This criterion can be used to distinguish a response to a signal from a defense mechanism against an unwanted change like intense heat. Plant communication happens in various forms. It includes communication within plants, i.e. within plant cells and between plant cells, between plants of the same or related species, and between plants and non-plant organisms, especially in the root zone. A prominent form of communication is airborne and happens through volatile organic compounds (VOCs). For example, maple trees release VOCs when they are attacked by a herbivore to warn neighboring plants, which then react accordingly by adjusting their defenses. Another form of plant-to-plant communication happens through mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi form underground networks, colloquially referred to as the Wood-Wide Web, and connect the roots of different plants. The plants use the network to send messages to each other, specifically to warn other plants of a pest attack and to help prepare their defenses. Communication can also be observed for fungi and bacteria. Some fungal species communicate by releasing pheromones into the external environment. For instance, they are used to promote sexual interaction in several aquatic fungal species. One form of communication between bacteria is called quorum sensing. It happens by releasing hormone-like molecules, which other bacteria detect and respond to. This process is used to monitor the environment for other bacteria and to coordinate population-wide responses, for example, by sensing the density of bacteria and regulating gene expression accordingly. Other possible responses include the induction of bioluminescence and the formation of biofilms. Interspecies Most communication happens between members within a species as intraspecies communication. This is because the purpose of communication is usually some form of cooperation. Cooperation happens mostly within a species while different species are often in conflict with each other by competing over resources. However, there are also some forms of interspecies communication. This occurs especially for symbiotic relations and significantly less for parasitic or predator-prey relations. . Many flowers use vivid colors to signal to insects that they offer food like nectar.]] Interspecies communication plays a key role for plants that depend on external agents for reproduction. For example, flowers need insects for pollination and provide resources like nectar and other rewards in return. They use communication to signal their benefits and attract visitors by using distinctive colors and symmetrical shapes to stand out from their surroundings. This form of advertisement is necessary since flowers compete with each other for visitors. Many fruit-bearing plants rely on plant-to-animal communication to disperse their seeds and move them to a favorable location. This happens by providing nutritious fruits to animals. The seeds are eaten together with the fruit and are later excreted at a different location. Communication makes animals aware of where the fruits are and whether they are ripe. For many fruits, this happens through their color: they have an inconspicuous green color until they ripen and take on a new color that stands in visual contrast to the environment. Another example of interspecies communication is found in the ant-plant relation. It concerns, for instance, the selection of seeds by ants for their ant gardens and the pruning of exogenous vegetation as well as plant protection by ants. Some animal species also engage in interspecies communication, like apes, whales, dolphins, elephants, and dogs. For example, different species of monkeys use common signals to cooperate when threatened by a common predator. Humans engage in interspecies communication when interacting with pets and working animals. For instance, acoustic signals play a central role in communication with dogs. Dogs can learn to react to various commands, like "sit" and "come". They can even be trained to respond to short syntactic combinations, like "bring X" or "put X in a box". They also react to the pitch and frequency of the human voice to detect emotions, dominance, and uncertainty. Dogs use a range of behavioral patterns to convey their emotions to humans, for example, in regard to aggressiveness, fearfulness, and playfulness. Computer Computer communication concerns the exchange of data between computers and similar devices. For this to be possible, the devices have to be connected through a transmission system that forms a network between them. A transmitter is needed to send messages and a receiver is needed to receive them. A personal computer may use a modem as a transmitter to send information to a server through the public telephone network as the transmission system. The server may use a modem as its receiver. To transmit the data, it has to be converted into an electric signal. Communication channels used for transmission are either analog or digital and are characterized by features like bandwidth and latency. There are many forms of computer networks. The most commonly discussed ones are LANs and WANs. LAN stands for local area network, which is a computer network within a limited area, usually with a distance of less than one kilometer. This is the case when connecting two computers within a home or an office building. LANs can be set up using a wired connection, like Ethernet, or a wireless connection, like Wi-Fi. WANs, on the other hand, are wide area networks that span large geographical regions, like the internet. Their networks are more complex and may use several intermediate connection nodes to transfer information between endpoints. Further types of computer networks include PANs (personal area networks), CANs (campus area networks), and MANs (metropolitan area networks). For computer communication to be successful, the involved devices have to follow a common set of conventions governing their exchange. These conventions are known as the communication protocol. They concern various aspects of the exchange, like the format of messages and how to respond to transmission errors. They also cover how the two systems are synchronized, for example, how the receiver identifies the start and end of a signal. Based on the flow of informations, systems are categorized as simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex. For simplex systems, signals flow only in one direction from the sender to the receiver, like in radio, cable television, and screens displaying arrivals and departures at airports. Half-duplex systems allow two-way exchanges but signals can only flow in one direction at a time, like walkie-talkies and police radios. In the case of full-duplex systems, signals can flow in both directions at the same time, like regular telephone and internet. In either case, it is often important for successful communication that the connection is secure to ensure that the transmitted data reaches only the intended destination and is not intercepted by an unauthorized third party. This can be achieved by using cryptography, which changes the format of the transmitted information to make it unintelligible to potential interceptors. Human-computer communication is a closely related field that concerns topics like how humans interact with computers and how data in the form of inputs and outputs is exchanged. This happens through a user interface, which includes the hardware used to interact with the computer, like a mouse, a keyboard, and a monitor, as well as the software used in the process. On the software side, most early user interfaces were command-line interfaces in which the user must type a command to interact with the computer. Most modern user interfaces are graphical user interfaces, like Microsoft Windows and macOS, which are usually much easier to use for non-experts. They involve graphical elements through which the user can interact with the computer, commonly using a design concept known as skeumorphism to make a new concept feel familiar and speed up understanding by mimicking the real-world equivalent of the interface object. Examples include the typical computer folder icon and recycle bin used for discarding files. One aim when designing user interfaces is to simplify the interaction with computers. This helps make them more user-friendly and accessible to a wider audience while also increasing productivity.Communication studies Communication studies, also referred to as communication science'', is the academic discipline studying communication. It is closely related to semiotics, with one difference being that communication studies focuses more on technical questions of how messages are sent, received, and processed. Semiotics, on the other hand, tackles more abstract questions in relation to meaning and how signs acquire it. Communication studies covers a wide area overlapping with many other disciplines, such as biology, anthropology, psychology, sociology, linguistics, media studies, and journalism. Many contributions in the field of communication studies focus on developing models and theories of communication. Models of communication aim to give a simplified overview of the main components involved in communication. Theories of communication try to provide conceptual frameworks to accurately present communication in all its complexity. Some theories focus on communication as a practical art of discourse while others explore the roles of signs, experience, information processing, and the goal of building a social order through coordinated interaction. Communication studies is also interested in the functions and effects of communication. It covers issues like how communication satisfies physiological and psychological needs, helps build relationships, and assists in gathering information about the environment, other individuals, and oneself. A further topic concerns the question of how communication systems change over time and how these changes correlate with other societal changes. A related topic focuses on psychological principles underlying those changes and the effects they have on how people exchange ideas. Communication was studied as early as Ancient Greece. Early influential theories were created by Plato and Aristotle, who stressed public speaking and the understanding of rhetoric. According to Aristotle, for example, the goal of communication is to persuade the audience. The field of communication studies only became a separate research discipline in the 20th century, especially starting in the 1940s. The development of new communication technologies, such as telephone, radio, newspapers, television, and the internet, has had a big impact on communication and communication studies. Today, communication studies is a wide discipline. Some works in it try to provide a general characterization of communication in the widest sense. Others attempt to give a precise analysis of one specific form of communication. Communication studies includes many subfields. Some focus on wide topics like interpersonal communication, intrapersonal communication, verbal communication, and non-verbal communication. Others investigate communication within a specific area. Organizational communication concerns communication between members of organizations such as corporations, nonprofits, or small businesses. Central in this regard is the coordination of the behavior of the different members as well as the interaction with customers and the general public. Closely related terms are business communication, corporate communication, and professional communication. The main element of marketing communication is advertising but it also encompasses other communication activities aimed at advancing the organization's objective to its audiences, like public relations. Political communication covers topics like electoral campaigns to influence voters and legislative communication, like letters to a congress or committee documents. Specific emphasis is often given to propaganda and the role of mass media. Intercultural communication is relevant to both organizational and political communication since they often involve attempts to exchange messages between communicators from different cultural backgrounds. The cultural background affects how messages are formulated and interpreted and can be the cause of misunderstandings. It is also relevant for development communication, which is about the use of communication for assisting in development, like aid given by first-world countries to third-world countries. Health communication concerns communication in the field of healthcare and health promotion efforts. One of its topics is how healthcare providers, like doctors and nurses, should communicate with their patients. History Communication history studies how communicative processes evolved and interacted with society, culture, and technology. Human communication has a long history and the way people communicate has changed considerably over time. Many of these changes were triggered by the development of new communication technologies and had various effects on how people exchanged ideas. New communication technologies usually require new skills that people need to learn to use them effectively. In the academic literature, the history of communication is usually divided into ages based on the dominant form of communication in that age. The number of ages and the precise periodization are disputed. They usually include ages for speaking, writing, and print as well as electronic mass communication and the internet. According to communication theorist Marshall Poe, the dominant media for each age can be characterized in relation to several factors. They include the amount of information a medium can store, how long it persists, how much time it takes to transmit it, and how costly it is to use the medium. Poe argues that subsequent ages usually involve some form of improvement of one or more of the factors. According to some scientific estimates, language developed around 40,000 years ago while others consider it to be much older. Before this development, human communication resembled animal communication and happened through a combination of grunts, cries, gestures, and facial expressions. Language helped early humans to organize themselves and plan ahead more efficiently. In early societies, spoken language was the primary form of communication. Most knowledge was passed on through it, often in the form of stories or wise sayings. This form does not produce stable knowledge since it depends on imperfect human memory. Because of this, many details differ from one telling to the next and are presented differently by distinct storytellers. As people started to settle and form agricultural communities, societies grew and there was an increased need for stable records of ownership of land and commercial transactions. This triggered the invention of writing, which is able to solve many problems that arose from using exclusively oral communication. It is much more efficient at preserving knowledge and passing it on between generations since it does not depend on human memory. Before the invention of writing, certain forms of proto-writing had already developed. Proto-writing encompasses long-lasting visible marks used to store information, like decorations on pottery items, knots in a cord to track goods, or seals to mark property. Most early written communication happened through pictograms. Pictograms are graphical symbols that convey meaning by visually resembling real-world objects. The use of basic pictographic symbols to represent things like farming produce was common in ancient cultures and began around 9000 BCE. The first complex writing system including pictograms was developed around 3500 BCE by the Sumerians and is called cuneiform. Pictograms are still in use today, like no-smoking signs and the symbols of male and female figures on bathroom doors. A significant disadvantage of pictographic writing systems is that they need a large amount of symbols to refer to all the objects one wants to talk about. This problem was solved by the development of other writing systems. For example, the symbols of alphabetic writing systems do not stand for regular objects. Instead, they relate to the sounds used in spoken language. Other types of early writing systems include logographic and ideographic writing systems. A drawback of many early forms of writing, like the clay tablets used for cuneiform, was that they were not very portable. This made it difficult to transport the texts from one location to another to share information. This changed with the invention of papyrus by the Egyptians around 2500 BCE and was further improved later by the development of parchment and paper. Until the 1400s, almost all written communication was hand-written, which limited the spread of written media within society since copying texts by hand was costly. The introduction and popularization of mass printing in the middle of the 15th century by Johann Gutenberg resulted in rapid changes. Mass printing quickly increased the circulation of written media and also led to the dissemination of new forms of written documents, like newspapers and pamphlets. One side effect was that the augmented availability of written documents significantly improved the general literacy of the population. This development served as the foundation for revolutions in various fields, including science, politics, and religion. Scientific discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries caused many further developments in the history of communication. They include the invention of telegraphs and telephones, which made it even easier and faster to transmit information from one location to another without the need to transport written documents. These communication forms were initially limited to cable connections, which had to be established first. Later developments found ways of wireless transmission using radio signals. They made it possible to reach wide audiences and radio soon became one of the central forms of mass communication. Various innovations in the field of photography enabled the recording of images on film, which led to the development of cinema and television. The reach of wireless communication was further enhanced with the development of satellites, which made it possible to broadcast radio and television signals to stations all over the world. This way, information could be shared almost instantly everywhere around the globe. The development of the internet constitutes a further milestone in the history of communication. It made it easier than ever before for people to exchange ideas, collaborate, and access information from anywhere in the world by using a variety of means, such as websites, e-mail, social media, and video conferences.See also References Citations Sources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * External links * * Category:Main topic articles
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication
2025-04-05T18:27:04.642726
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Classics
Classics, also classical studies or Ancient Greek and Roman studies, is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, classics traditionally refers to the study of Ancient Greek and Roman literature and their original languages, Ancient Greek and Latin. Classics may also include as secondary subjects Greco-Roman philosophy, history, archaeology, anthropology, art, mythology, and society. In Western civilization, the study of the Ancient Greek and Roman classics was considered the foundation of the humanities, and they traditionally have been the cornerstone of an elite higher education. Etymology The word classics is derived from the Latin adjective classicus, meaning "belonging to the highest class of citizens." The word was originally used to describe the members of the Patricians, the highest class in ancient Rome. By the 2nd century AD the word was used in literary criticism to describe writers of the highest quality. For example, Aulus Gellius, in his Attic Nights, contrasts "classicus" and "proletarius" writers. By the 6th century AD, the word had acquired a second meaning, referring to pupils at a school. Medieval education taught students to imitate earlier classical models, and Latin continued to be the language of scholarship and culture, despite the increasing difference between literary Latin and the vernacular languages of Europe during the period. Greek was rarely studied in the West, and Greek literature was known almost solely in Latin translation. The works of even major Greek authors such as Hesiod, whose names continued to be known by educated Europeans, along with most of Plato, were unavailable in Christian Europe. developed. Humanism saw a reform in education in Europe, introducing a wider range of Latin authors as well as bringing back the study of Greek language and literature to Western Europe. This reintroduction was initiated by Petrarch (1304–1374) and Boccaccio (1313–1375) who commissioned a Calabrian scholar to translate the Homeric poems. This humanist educational reform spread from Italy, in Catholic countries as it was adopted by the Jesuits, and in countries that became Protestant such as England, Germany, and the Low Countries, in order to ensure that future clerics were able to study the New Testament in the original language. Neoclassicism The late 17th and 18th centuries are the period in Western European literary history which is most associated with the classical tradition, as writers consciously adapted classical models. Classical models were so highly prized that the plays of William Shakespeare were rewritten along neoclassical lines, and these "improved" versions were performed throughout the 18th century. In the United States, the nation's Founders were strongly influenced by the classics, and they looked in particular to the Roman Republic for their form of government. From the beginning of the 18th century, the study of Greek became increasingly important relative to that of Latin. In this period Johann Winckelmann's claims for the superiority of the Greek visual arts influenced a shift in aesthetic judgements, while in the literary sphere, G. E. Lessing "returned Homer to the centre of artistic achievement". In the United Kingdom, the study of Greek in schools began in the late 18th century. The poet Walter Savage Landor claimed to have been one of the first English schoolboys to write in Greek during his time at Rugby School. In the United States, philhellenism began to emerge in the 1830s, with a turn "from a love of Rome and a focus on classical grammar to a new focus on Greece and the totality of its society, art, and culture." 19th century The 19th century saw the influence of the classical world, and the value of a classical education, decline, especially in the United States, where the subject was often criticised for its elitism. By the 19th century, little new literature was still being written in Latin – a practice which had continued as late as the 18th century – and a command of Latin declined in importance. In the same decade came the first challenges to the requirement of Greek at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, though it would not be finally abolished for another 50 years. Though the influence of classics as the dominant mode of education in Europe and North America was in decline in the 19th century, the discipline was rapidly evolving in the same period. Classical scholarship was becoming more systematic and scientific, especially with the "new philology" created at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th century. Its scope was also broadening: it was during the 19th century that ancient history and classical archaeology began to be seen as part of classics, rather than separate disciplines. When the National Curriculum was introduced in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland in 1988, it did not mention the classics. In 2016, AQA, the largest exam board for A-Levels and GCSEs in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, announced that it would be scrapping A-Level subjects in Classical Civilisation, Archaeology, and Art History. This left just one out of five exam boards in England which still offered Classical Civilisation as a subject. The decision was immediately denounced by archaeologists and historians, with Natalie Haynes of The Guardian stating that the loss of the A-Level would deprive state school students, 93% of all students, the opportunity to study classics while making it once again the exclusive purview of wealthy private-school students. However, the study of classics has not declined as fast elsewhere in Europe. In 2009, a review of Meeting the Challenge, a collection of conference papers about the teaching of Latin in Europe, noted that though there is opposition to the teaching of Latin in Italy, it is nonetheless still compulsory in most secondary schools. The same may also be said in the case of France or Greece. Indeed, Ancient Greek is one of the compulsory subjects in Greek secondary education, whereas in France, Latin is one of the optional subjects that can be chosen in a majority of middle schools and high schools. Ancient Greek is also still being taught, but not as much as Latin. Subdisciplines One of the most notable characteristics of the modern study of classics is the diversity of the field. Although traditionally focused on ancient Greece and Rome, the study now encompasses the entire ancient Mediterranean world, thus expanding the studies to Northern Africa and parts of the Middle East. Philology thumb|right|alt=Black-and-white image of Friedrich August Wolf in profile|The eighteenth-century classicist Friedrich August Wolf was the author of Prolegomena to Homer, one of the first great works of classical philology. Philology is the study of language preserved in written sources; classical philology is thus concerned with understanding any texts from the classical period written in the classical languages of Latin and Greek. The roots of classical philology lie in the Renaissance, as humanist intellectuals attempted to return to the Latin of the classical period, especially of Cicero, and as scholars attempted to produce more accurate editions of ancient texts. Some of the principles of philology still used today were developed during this period; for instance, the observation that if a manuscript could be shown to be a copy of an earlier extant manuscript, then it provides no further evidence of the original text, was made as early as 1489 by Angelo Poliziano. Other philological tools took longer to be developed: the first statement, for instance, of the principle that a more difficult reading should be preferred over a simpler one, was in 1697 by Jean Le Clerc. The modern discipline of classical philology began in Germany at the turn of the nineteenth century. in order to provide a set of rules by which scholars could determine which manuscripts were most accurate. This "new philology", as it was known, centered around the construction of a genealogy of manuscripts, with which a hypothetical common ancestor, closer to the original text than any existing manuscript, could be reconstructed. Archaeology thumb|right|alt=Black and white photograph of the Lion Gate at Mycenae.|Schliemann and Dörpfeld's excavation at Mycenae was one of the earliest excavations in the field of classical archaeology. Classical archaeology is the oldest branch of archaeology, with its roots going back to J. J. Winckelmann's work on Herculaneum in the 1760s. It was not until the last decades of the 19th century, however, that classical archaeology became part of the tradition of Western classical scholarship. This period also saw the foundation of important archaeological associations (e.g. the Archaeological Institute of America in 1879), including many foreign archaeological institutes in Athens and Rome (the American School of Classical Studies at Athens in 1881, British School at Athens in 1886, American Academy in Rome in 1895, and British School at Rome in 1900). More recently, classical archaeology has taken little part in the theoretical changes in the rest of the discipline, largely ignoring the popularity of "New Archaeology", which emphasized the development of general laws derived from studying material culture, in the 1960s. New Archaeology is still criticized by traditional minded scholars of classical archaeology despite a wide acceptance of its basic techniques. Art history Some art historians focus their study on the development of art in the classical world. Indeed, the art and architecture of ancient Rome and Greece is very well regarded and remains at the heart of much of our art today. For example, ancient Greek architecture gave us the classical orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Parthenon is still the architectural symbol of the classical world. Greek sculpture is well known and we know the names of several ancient Greek artists: for example, Phidias. Ancient history With philology, archaeology, and art history, scholars seek understanding of the history and culture of a civilization, through critical study of the extant literary and physical artefacts, in order to compose and establish a continual historic narrative of the Ancient World and its peoples. The task is difficult due to a dearth of physical evidence: for example, Sparta was a leading Greek city-state, yet little evidence of it survives to study, and what is available comes from Athens, Sparta's principal rival; likewise, the Roman Empire destroyed most evidence (cultural artefacts) of earlier, conquered civilizations, such as that of the Etruscans. Philosophy The English word philosophy comes from the Greek word φιλοσοφία, meaning "love of wisdom", probably coined by Pythagoras. Along with the word itself, the discipline of philosophy as we know it today has its roots in ancient Greek thought, and according to Martin West "philosophy as we understand it is a Greek creation". Ancient philosophy was traditionally divided into three branches: logic, physics, and ethics. However, not all of the works of ancient philosophers fit neatly into one of these three branches. For instance, Aristotle's Rhetoric and Poetics have been traditionally classified in the West as "ethics", but in the Arabic world were grouped with logic; in reality, they do not fit neatly into either category. Previously, works on ancient philosophy had been unconcerned with chronological sequence and with reconstructing the reasoning of ancient thinkers; with what Wolfgang-Ranier Mann calls "New Philosophy", this changed. Reception studies Another discipline within the classics is "reception studies", which developed in the 1960s at the University of Konstanz. Reception studies is concerned with how students of classical texts have understood and interpreted them. Though the idea of an "aesthetics of reception" was first put forward by Hans Robert Jauss in 1967, the principles of reception theory go back much earlier than this. As early as 1920, T. S. Eliot wrote that "the past [is] altered by the present as much as the present is directed by the past"; Charles Martindale describes this as a "cardinal principle" for many versions of modern reception theory. The Classical period of Greek history is generally considered to have begun with the first and second Persian invasions of Greece at the start of the Greco-Persian wars, and to have ended with the death of Alexander the Great. Classical Greek culture had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean region and Europe; thus Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of Western civilization. Language right|thumb|alt=|Map showing the regional dialects of Greek during the Classical period Ancient Greek is the historical stage in the development of the Greek language spanning the Archaic ( to 6th centuries BC), Classical ( to 4th centuries BC), and Hellenistic ( century BC to 6th century AD) periods of ancient Greece and the ancient world. It is predated in the 2nd millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek. Its Hellenistic phase is known as Koine ("common") or Biblical Greek, and its late period mutates imperceptibly into Medieval Greek. Koine is regarded as a separate historical stage of its own, although in its earlier form it closely resembles Classical Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classical and earlier periods included several regional dialects. Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology. Literature The earliest surviving works of Greek literature are epic poetry. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey are the earliest to survive to us today, probably composed in the eighth century BC. These early epics were oral compositions, created without the use of writing. Around the same time that the Homeric epics were composed, the Greek alphabet was introduced; the earliest surviving inscriptions date from around 750 BC. Legacy of the classical world The classical languages of the ancient Mediterranean world influenced every European language, imparting to each a learned vocabulary of international application. Thus, Latin grew from a highly developed cultural product of the Golden and Silver eras of Latin literature to become the international lingua franca in matters diplomatic, scientific, philosophic and religious, until the 17th century. Long before this, Latin had evolved into the Romance languages and Ancient Greek into Modern Greek and its dialects. In the specialised science and technology vocabularies, the influence of Latin and Greek is notable. Ecclesiastical Latin, the Roman Catholic Church's official language, remains a living legacy of the classical world in the contemporary world. Latin had an impact far beyond the classical world. It continued to be the pre-eminent language for serious writings in Europe long after the fall of the Roman Empire. The modern Romance languages (French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, Galician, Catalan) all derive from Latin. Latin is still seen as a foundational aspect of European culture. The legacy of the classical world is not confined to the influence of classical languages. The Roman Empire was taken as a model by later European empires, such as the Spanish and British empires. Classical art has been taken as a model in later periods – medieval Romanesque architecture and Enlightenment-era neoclassical literature See also Classical tradition Great Books of the Western World Neoclassicism Outline of classical studies Outline of ancient Greece Outline of ancient Rome References Citations Sources Works cited Further reading General Art and archaeology History, Greek History, Roman Literature Philology Philosophy External links Electronic Resources for Classicists by the University of California, Irvine. Perseus Project website at Tufts University Alpheios Project website Category:Ancient Greece studies Category:Humanities Category:Ancient Roman studies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classics
2025-04-05T18:27:04.760006
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Chemistry
Chemical Science (journal)}} }} Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and compounds made of atoms, molecules and ions: their composition, structure, properties, behavior and the changes they undergo during reactions with other substances. Chemistry also addresses the nature of chemical bonds in chemical compounds. In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology. It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant growth (botany), the formation of igneous rocks (geology), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (ecology), the properties of the soil on the Moon (cosmochemistry), how medications work (pharmacology), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics). Chemistry has existed under various names since ancient times. It has evolved, and now chemistry encompasses various areas of specialisation, or subdisciplines, that continue to increase in number and interrelate to create further interdisciplinary fields of study. The applications of various fields of chemistry are used frequently for economic purposes in the chemical industry.Etymology The word chemistry comes from a modification during the Renaissance of the word alchemy, which referred to an earlier set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism, and medicine. Alchemy is often associated with the quest to turn lead or other base metals into gold, though alchemists were also interested in many of the questions of modern chemistry. The modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word (). This may have Egyptian origins since is derived from the Ancient Greek , which is in turn derived from the word , which is the ancient name of Egypt in the Egyptian language. Alternately, may derive from 'cast together'.Modern principles , Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne in Germany]] The current model of atomic structure is the quantum mechanical model. Traditional chemistry starts with the study of elementary particles, atoms, molecules, substances, metals, crystals and other aggregates of matter. Matter can be studied in solid, liquid, gas and plasma states, in isolation or in combination. The interactions, reactions and transformations that are studied in chemistry are usually the result of interactions between atoms, leading to rearrangements of the chemical bonds which hold atoms together. Such behaviors are studied in a chemistry laboratory. The chemistry laboratory stereotypically uses various forms of laboratory glassware. However glassware is not central to chemistry, and a great deal of experimental (as well as applied/industrial) chemistry is done without it. and nitric acid, illuminated in different colors]] A chemical reaction is a transformation of some substances into one or more different substances. The basis of such a chemical transformation is the rearrangement of electrons in the chemical bonds between atoms. It can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation, which usually involves atoms as subjects. The number of atoms on the left and the right in the equation for a chemical transformation is equal. (When the number of atoms on either side is unequal, the transformation is referred to as a nuclear reaction or radioactive decay.) The type of chemical reactions a substance may undergo and the energy changes that may accompany it are constrained by certain basic rules, known as chemical laws. Energy and entropy considerations are invariably important in almost all chemical studies. Chemical substances are classified in terms of their structure, phase, as well as their chemical compositions. They can be analyzed using the tools of chemical analysis, e.g. spectroscopy and chromatography. Scientists engaged in chemical research are known as chemists. Most chemists specialize in one or more sub-disciplines. Several concepts are essential for the study of chemistry; some of them are:Matter In chemistry, matter is defined as anything that has rest mass and volume (it takes up space) and is made up of particles. The particles that make up matter have rest mass as well – not all particles have rest mass, such as the photon. Matter can be a pure chemical substance or a mixture of substances.Atom ]] The atom is the basic unit of chemistry. It consists of a dense core called the atomic nucleus surrounded by a space occupied by an electron cloud. The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons (together called nucleons), while the electron cloud consists of negatively charged electrons which orbit the nucleus. In a neutral atom, the negatively charged electrons balance out the positive charge of the protons. The nucleus is dense; the mass of a nucleon is approximately 1,836 times that of an electron, yet the radius of an atom is about 10,000 times that of its nucleus. The atom is also the smallest entity that can be envisaged to retain the chemical properties of the element, such as electronegativity, ionization potential, preferred oxidation state(s), coordination number, and preferred types of bonds to form (e.g., metallic, ionic, covalent). Element of chemical elements. The colors represent different blocks of elements.]] A chemical element is a pure substance which is composed of a single type of atom, characterized by its particular number of protons in the nuclei of its atoms, known as the atomic number and represented by the symbol Z. The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in a nucleus. Although all the nuclei of all atoms belonging to one element will have the same atomic number, they may not necessarily have the same mass number; atoms of an element which have different mass numbers are known as isotopes. For example, all atoms with 6 protons in their nuclei are atoms of the chemical element carbon, but atoms of carbon may have mass numbers of 12 or 13. The standard presentation of the chemical elements is in the periodic table, which orders elements by atomic number. The periodic table is arranged in groups, or columns, and periods, or rows. The periodic table is useful in identifying periodic trends.Compound (CO<sub>2</sub>), an example of a chemical compound]] A compound is a pure chemical substance composed of more than one element. The properties of a compound bear little similarity to those of its elements. The standard nomenclature of compounds is set by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Organic compounds are named according to the organic nomenclature system. The names for inorganic compounds are created according to the inorganic nomenclature system. When a compound has more than one component, then they are divided into two classes, the electropositive and the electronegative components. In addition the Chemical Abstracts Service has devised a method to index chemical substances. In this scheme each chemical substance is identifiable by a number known as its CAS registry number. Molecule molecule (C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>10</sub>N<sub>4</sub>O<sub>2</sub>)]] A molecule is the smallest indivisible portion of a pure chemical substance that has its unique set of chemical properties, that is, its potential to undergo a certain set of chemical reactions with other substances. However, this definition only works well for substances that are composed of molecules, which is not true of many substances (see below). Molecules are typically a set of atoms bound together by covalent bonds, such that the structure is electrically neutral and all valence electrons are paired with other electrons either in bonds or in lone pairs. Thus, molecules exist as electrically neutral units, unlike ions. When this rule is broken, giving the "molecule" a charge, the result is sometimes named a molecular ion or a polyatomic ion. However, the discrete and separate nature of the molecular concept usually requires that molecular ions be present only in well-separated form, such as a directed beam in a vacuum in a mass spectrometer. Charged polyatomic collections residing in solids (for example, common sulfate or nitrate ions) are generally not considered "molecules" in chemistry. Some molecules contain one or more unpaired electrons, creating radicals. Most radicals are comparatively reactive, but some, such as nitric oxide (NO) can be stable. of a benzene molecule (C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>)]] The "inert" or noble gas elements (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) are composed of lone atoms as their smallest discrete unit, but the other isolated chemical elements consist of either molecules or networks of atoms bonded to each other in some way. Identifiable molecules compose familiar substances such as water, air, and many organic compounds like alcohol, sugar, gasoline, and the various pharmaceuticals. However, not all substances or chemical compounds consist of discrete molecules, and indeed most of the solid substances that make up the solid crust, mantle, and core of the Earth are chemical compounds without molecules. These other types of substances, such as ionic compounds and network solids, are organized in such a way as to lack the existence of identifiable molecules per se. Instead, these substances are discussed in terms of formula units or unit cells as the smallest repeating structure within the substance. Examples of such substances are mineral salts (such as table salt), solids like carbon and diamond, metals, and familiar silica and silicate minerals such as quartz and granite. One of the main characteristics of a molecule is its geometry often called its structure. While the structure of diatomic, triatomic or tetra-atomic molecules may be trivial, (linear, angular pyramidal etc.) the structure of polyatomic molecules, that are constituted of more than six atoms (of several elements) can be crucial for its chemical nature. Substance and mixture A chemical substance is a kind of matter with a definite composition and set of properties. A collection of substances is called a mixture. Examples of mixtures are air and alloys.Mole and amount of substance The mole is a unit of measurement that denotes an amount of substance (also called chemical amount). One mole is defined to contain exactly particles (atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons), where the number of particles per mole is known as the Avogadro constant. Molar concentration is the amount of a particular substance per volume of solution, and is commonly reported in mol/dm<sup>3</sup>.Phase In addition to the specific chemical properties that distinguish different chemical classifications, chemicals can exist in several phases. For the most part, the chemical classifications are independent of these bulk phase classifications; however, some more exotic phases are incompatible with certain chemical properties. A phase is a set of states of a chemical system that have similar bulk structural properties, over a range of conditions, such as pressure or temperature. Physical properties, such as density and refractive index tend to fall within values characteristic of the phase. The phase of matter is defined by the phase transition, which is when energy put into or taken out of the system goes into rearranging the structure of the system, instead of changing the bulk conditions. Sometimes the distinction between phases can be continuous instead of having a discrete boundary; in this case the matter is considered to be in a supercritical state. When three states meet based on the conditions, it is known as a triple point and since this is invariant, it is a convenient way to define a set of conditions. The most familiar examples of phases are solids, liquids, and gases. Many substances exhibit multiple solid phases. For example, there are three phases of solid iron (alpha, gamma, and delta) that vary based on temperature and pressure. A principal difference between solid phases is the crystal structure, or arrangement, of the atoms. Another phase commonly encountered in the study of chemistry is the aqueous phase, which is the state of substances dissolved in aqueous solution (that is, in water). Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose–Einstein condensates and fermionic condensates and the paramagnetic and ferromagnetic phases of magnetic materials. While most familiar phases deal with three-dimensional systems, it is also possible to define analogs in two-dimensional systems, which has received attention for its relevance to systems in biology. Bonding (Na) and chlorine (Cl) to form sodium chloride, or common table salt. Ionic bonding involves one atom taking valence electrons from another (as opposed to sharing, which occurs in covalent bonding).]] Atoms sticking together in molecules or crystals are said to be bonded with one another. A chemical bond may be visualized as the multipole balance between the positive charges in the nuclei and the negative charges oscillating about them. More than simple attraction and repulsion, the energies and distributions characterize the availability of an electron to bond to another atom. The chemical bond can be a covalent bond, an ionic bond, a hydrogen bond or just because of Van der Waals force. Each of these kinds of bonds is ascribed to some potential. These potentials create the interactions which hold atoms together in molecules or crystals. In many simple compounds, valence bond theory, the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion model (VSEPR), and the concept of oxidation number can be used to explain molecular structure and composition. An ionic bond is formed when a metal loses one or more of its electrons, becoming a positively charged cation, and the electrons are then gained by the non-metal atom, becoming a negatively charged anion. The two oppositely charged ions attract one another, and the ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between them. For example, sodium (Na), a metal, loses one electron to become an Na<sup>+</sup> cation while chlorine (Cl), a non-metal, gains this electron to become Cl<sup>−</sup>. The ions are held together due to electrostatic attraction, and that compound sodium chloride (NaCl), or common table salt, is formed. molecule (CH<sub>4</sub>), the carbon atom shares a pair of valence electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms. Thus, the octet rule is satisfied for C-atom (it has eight electrons in its valence shell) and the duet rule is satisfied for the H-atoms (they have two electrons in their valence shells).]] In a covalent bond, one or more pairs of valence electrons are shared by two atoms: the resulting electrically neutral group of bonded atoms is termed a molecule. Atoms will share valence electrons in such a way as to create a noble gas electron configuration (eight electrons in their outermost shell) for each atom. Atoms that tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shell are said to follow the octet rule. However, some elements like hydrogen and lithium need only two electrons in their outermost shell to attain this stable configuration; these atoms are said to follow the duet rule, and in this way they are reaching the electron configuration of the noble gas helium, which has two electrons in its outer shell. Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. With more complicated compounds, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory is less applicable and alternative approaches, such as the molecular orbital theory, are generally used. Energy In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structures, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. A reaction is said to be exothermic if the reaction releases heat to the surroundings; in the case of endothermic reactions, the reaction absorbs heat from the surroundings. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor <math>e^{-E/kT} </math> – that is the probability of a molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation. The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction to occur can be in the form of heat, light, electricity or mechanical force in the form of ultrasound. A related concept free energy, which also incorporates entropy considerations, is a very useful means for predicting the feasibility of a reaction and determining the state of equilibrium of a chemical reaction, in chemical thermodynamics. A reaction is feasible only if the total change in the Gibbs free energy is negative, <math> \Delta G \le 0 \,</math>; if it is equal to zero the chemical reaction is said to be at equilibrium. There exist only limited possible states of energy for electrons, atoms and molecules. These are determined by the rules of quantum mechanics, which require quantization of energy of a bound system. The atoms/molecules in a higher energy state are said to be excited. The molecules/atoms of substance in an excited energy state are often much more reactive; that is, more amenable to chemical reactions. The phase of a substance is invariably determined by its energy and the energy of its surroundings. When the intermolecular forces of a substance are such that the energy of the surroundings is not sufficient to overcome them, it occurs in a more ordered phase like liquid or solid as is the case with water (H<sub>2</sub>O); a liquid at room temperature because its molecules are bound by hydrogen bonds. Whereas hydrogen sulfide (H<sub>2</sub>S) is a gas at room temperature and standard pressure, as its molecules are bound by weaker dipole–dipole interactions. The transfer of energy from one chemical substance to another depends on the size of energy quanta emitted from one substance. However, heat energy is often transferred more easily from almost any substance to another because the phonons responsible for vibrational and rotational energy levels in a substance have much less energy than photons invoked for the electronic energy transfer. Thus, because vibrational and rotational energy levels are more closely spaced than electronic energy levels, heat is more easily transferred between substances relative to light or other forms of electronic energy. For example, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation is not transferred with as much efficacy from one substance to another as thermal or electrical energy. The existence of characteristic energy levels for different chemical substances is useful for their identification by the analysis of spectral lines. Different kinds of spectra are often used in chemical spectroscopy, e.g. IR, microwave, NMR, ESR, etc. Spectroscopy is also used to identify the composition of remote objects – like stars and distant galaxies – by analyzing their radiation spectra. ]] The term chemical energy is often used to indicate the potential of a chemical substance to undergo a transformation through a chemical reaction or to transform other chemical substances. Reaction , reacts with carbon monoxide to form iron, one of the chemical elements, and carbon dioxide.]] When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A chemical reaction is therefore a concept related to the "reaction" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often laboratory glassware. Chemical reactions can result in the formation or dissociation of molecules, that is, molecules breaking apart to form two or more molecules or rearrangement of atoms within or across molecules. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds. Oxidation, reduction, dissociation, acid–base neutralization and molecular rearrangement are some examples of common chemical reactions. A chemical reaction can be symbolically depicted through a chemical equation. While in a non-nuclear chemical reaction the number and kind of atoms on both sides of the equation are equal, for a nuclear reaction this holds true only for the nuclear particles viz. protons and neutrons. The sequence of steps in which the reorganization of chemical bonds may be taking place in the course of a chemical reaction is called its mechanism. A chemical reaction can be envisioned to take place in a number of steps, each of which may have a different speed. Many reaction intermediates with variable stability can thus be envisaged during the course of a reaction. Reaction mechanisms are proposed to explain the kinetics and the relative product mix of a reaction. Many physical chemists specialize in exploring and proposing the mechanisms of various chemical reactions. Several empirical rules, like the Woodward–Hoffmann rules often come in handy while proposing a mechanism for a chemical reaction. According to the IUPAC gold book, a chemical reaction is "a process that results in the interconversion of chemical species." Accordingly, a chemical reaction may be an elementary reaction or a stepwise reaction. An additional caveat is made, in that this definition includes cases where the interconversion of conformers is experimentally observable. Such detectable chemical reactions normally involve sets of molecular entities as indicated by this definition, but it is often conceptually convenient to use the term also for changes involving single molecular entities (i.e. 'microscopic chemical events'). Ions and salts (KCl), a salt which is formed due to the attraction of K<sup>+</sup> cations and Cl<sup>−</sup> anions. The overall charge of the ionic compound is zero.]] An ion is a charged species, an atom or a molecule, that has lost or gained one or more electrons. When an atom loses an electron and thus has more protons than electrons, the atom is a positively charged ion or cation. When an atom gains an electron and thus has more electrons than protons, the atom is a negatively charged ion or anion. Cations and anions can form a crystalline lattice of neutral salts, such as the Na<sup>+</sup> and Cl<sup>−</sup> ions forming sodium chloride, or NaCl. Examples of polyatomic ions that do not split up during acid–base reactions are hydroxide (OH<sup>−</sup>) and phosphate (PO<sub>4</sub><sup>3−</sup>). Plasma is composed of gaseous matter that has been completely ionized, usually through high temperature. Acidity and basicity exists in the gas phase as a diatomic molecule.]] A substance can often be classified as an acid or a base. There are several different theories which explain acid–base behavior. The simplest is Arrhenius theory, which states that an acid is a substance that produces hydronium ions when it is dissolved in water, and a base is one that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. According to Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids are substances that donate a positive hydrogen ion to another substance in a chemical reaction; by extension, a base is the substance which receives that hydrogen ion. A third common theory is Lewis acid–base theory, which is based on the formation of new chemical bonds. Lewis theory explains that an acid is a substance which is capable of accepting a pair of electrons from another substance during the process of bond formation, while a base is a substance which can provide a pair of electrons to form a new bond. There are several other ways in which a substance may be classified as an acid or a base, as is evident in the history of this concept. Acid strength is commonly measured by two methods. One measurement, based on the Arrhenius definition of acidity, is pH, which is a measurement of the hydronium ion concentration in a solution, as expressed on a negative logarithmic scale. Thus, solutions that have a low pH have a high hydronium ion concentration and can be said to be more acidic. The other measurement, based on the Brønsted–Lowry definition, is the acid dissociation constant (K<sub>a</sub>), which measures the relative ability of a substance to act as an acid under the Brønsted–Lowry definition of an acid. That is, substances with a higher K<sub>a</sub> are more likely to donate hydrogen ions in chemical reactions than those with lower K<sub>a</sub> values. Redox Redox (uction}}-idation}}) reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers. A reductant transfers electrons to another substance and is thus oxidized itself. And because it "donates" electrons it is also called an electron donor. Oxidation and reduction properly refer to a change in oxidation number—the actual transfer of electrons may never occur. Thus, oxidation is better defined as an increase in oxidation number, and reduction as a decrease in oxidation number. Equilibrium Although the concept of equilibrium is widely used across sciences, in the context of chemistry, it arises whenever a number of different states of the chemical composition are possible, as for example, in a mixture of several chemical compounds that can react with one another, or when a substance can be present in more than one kind of phase. A system of chemical substances at equilibrium, even though having an unchanging composition, is most often not static; molecules of the substances continue to react with one another thus giving rise to a dynamic equilibrium. Thus the concept describes the state in which the parameters such as chemical composition remain unchanged over time. Chemical laws Chemical reactions are governed by certain laws, which have become fundamental concepts in chemistry. Some of them are: * Avogadro's law * Beer–Lambert law * Boyle's law (1662, relating pressure and volume) * Charles's law (1787, relating volume and temperature) * Fick's laws of diffusion * Gay-Lussac's law (1809, relating pressure and temperature) * Le Chatelier's principle * Henry's law * Hess's law * Law of conservation of energy leads to the important concepts of equilibrium, thermodynamics, and kinetics. * Law of conservation of mass continues to be conserved in isolated systems, even in modern physics. However, special relativity shows that due to mass–energy equivalence, whenever non-material "energy" (heat, light, kinetic energy) is removed from a non-isolated system, some mass will be lost with it. High energy losses result in loss of weighable amounts of mass, an important topic in nuclear chemistry. * Law of definite composition, although in many systems (notably biomacromolecules and minerals) the ratios tend to require large numbers, and are frequently represented as a fraction. * Law of multiple proportions * Raoult's law History The history of chemistry spans a period from the ancient past to the present. Since several millennia BC, civilizations were using technologies that would eventually form the basis of the various branches of chemistry. Examples include extracting metals from ores, making pottery and glazes, fermenting beer and wine, extracting chemicals from plants for medicine and perfume, rendering fat into soap, making glass, and making alloys like bronze. Chemistry was preceded by its protoscience, alchemy, which operated a non-scientific approach to understanding the constituents of matter and their interactions. Despite being unsuccessful in explaining the nature of matter and its transformations, alchemists set the stage for modern chemistry by performing experiments and recording the results. Robert Boyle, although skeptical of elements and convinced of alchemy, played a key part in elevating the "sacred art" as an independent, fundamental and philosophical discipline in his work The Sceptical Chymist (1661). While both alchemy and chemistry are concerned with matter and its transformations, the crucial difference was given by the scientific method that chemists employed in their work. Chemistry, as a body of knowledge distinct from alchemy, became an established science with the work of Antoine Lavoisier, who developed a law of conservation of mass that demanded careful measurement and quantitative observations of chemical phenomena. The history of chemistry afterwards is intertwined with the history of thermodynamics, especially through the work of Willard Gibbs. Definition The definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term "chymistry", in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, meant the subject of the material principles of mixed bodies. In 1663, the chemist Christopher Glaser described "chymistry" as a scientific art, by which one learns to dissolve bodies, and draw from them the different substances on their composition, and how to unite them again, and exalt them to a higher perfection. The 1730 definition of the word "chemistry", as used by Georg Ernst Stahl, meant the art of resolving mixed, compound, or aggregate bodies into their principles; and of composing such bodies from those principles. In 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word "chemistry" to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. This definition further evolved until, in 1947, it came to mean the science of substances: their structure, their properties, and the reactions that change them into other substances—a characterization accepted by Linus Pauling. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of "chemistry" to mean the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Background ' atomist philosophy was later adopted by Epicurus (341–270 BCE).]] Early civilizations, such as the Egyptians, Babylonians, and Indians, amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but did not develop a systematic theory. A basic chemical hypothesis first emerged in Classical Greece with the theory of four elements as propounded definitively by Aristotle stating that fire, air, earth and water were the fundamental elements from which everything is formed as a combination. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by philosophers such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BCE, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his poem De rerum natura (On The Nature of Things). Unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. An early form of the idea of conservation of mass is the notion that "Nothing comes from nothing" in Ancient Greek philosophy, which can be found in Empedocles (approx. 4th century BC): "For it is impossible for anything to come to be from what is not, and it cannot be brought about or heard of that what is should be utterly destroyed." and Epicurus (3rd century BC), who, describing the nature of the Universe, wrote that "the totality of things was always such as it is now, and always will be". (Geber), a Perso-Arab alchemist and pioneer in organic chemistry]] In the Hellenistic world the art of alchemy first proliferated, mingling magic and occultism into the study of natural substances with the ultimate goal of transmuting elements into gold and discovering the elixir of eternal life. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. Alchemy continued to be developed and practised throughout the Arab world after the Muslim conquests, and from there, and from the Byzantine remnants, diffused into medieval and Renaissance Europe through Latin translations. The Arabic works attributed to Jabir ibn Hayyan introduced a systematic classification of chemical substances, and provided instructions for deriving an inorganic compound (sal ammoniac or ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair) by chemical means. Some Arabic Jabirian works (e.g., the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") were later translated into Latin under the Latinized name "Geber", and in 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, usually referred to as pseudo-Geber, started to produce alchemical and metallurgical writings under this name. Later influential Muslim philosophers, such as Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī and Avicenna disputed the theories of alchemy, particularly the theory of the transmutation of metals. , author of De re metallica, was the first to drop the Arabic definite article al-, exclusively writing chymia and chymista, giving chemistry its modern name. Under the influence of the new empirical methods propounded by Sir Francis Bacon and others, a group of chemists at Oxford, Robert Boyle, Robert Hooke and John Mayow began to reshape the old alchemical traditions into a scientific discipline. Boyle in particular questioned some commonly held chemical theories and argued for chemical practitioners to be more "philosophical" and less commercially focused in The Sceptical Chemyst''. is considered the "Father of Modern Chemistry".]] In the following decades, many important discoveries were made, such as the nature of 'air' which was discovered to be composed of many different gases. The Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Flemish Jan Baptist van Helmont discovered carbon dioxide, or what Black called 'fixed air' in 1754; Henry Cavendish discovered hydrogen and elucidated its properties and Joseph Priestley and, independently, Carl Wilhelm Scheele isolated pure oxygen. The theory of phlogiston (a substance at the root of all combustion) was propounded by the German Georg Ernst Stahl in the early 18th century and was only overturned by the end of the century by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, the chemical analogue of Newton in physics. Lavoisier did more than any other to establish the new science on proper theoretical footing, by elucidating the principle of conservation of mass and developing a new system of chemical nomenclature used to this day. English scientist John Dalton proposed the modern theory of atoms; that all substances are composed of indivisible 'atoms' of matter and that different atoms have varying atomic weights. The development of the electrochemical theory of chemical combinations occurred in the early 19th century as the result of the work of two scientists in particular, Jöns Jacob Berzelius and Humphry Davy, made possible by the prior invention of the voltaic pile by Alessandro Volta. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current. predicted the existence of 7 new elements, and placed all 60 elements known at the time in their correct places.]] British William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. J.A.R. Newlands devised an early table of elements, which was then developed into the modern periodic table of elements in the 1860s by Dmitri Mendeleev and independently by several other scientists including Julius Lothar Meyer. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhler's synthesis of urea. Other crucial 19th century advances were; an understanding of valence bonding (Edward Frankland in 1852) and the application of thermodynamics to chemistry (J. W. Gibbs and Svante Arrhenius in the 1870s). s passing through the plum pudding model of the atom undisturbed.<br> Bottom: Observed results: a small portion of the particles were deflected, indicating a small, concentrated charge.]] At the turn of the twentieth century the theoretical underpinnings of chemistry were finally understood due to a series of remarkable discoveries that succeeded in probing and discovering the very nature of the internal structure of atoms. In 1897, J.J. Thomson of the University of Cambridge discovered the electron and soon after the French scientist Becquerel as well as the couple Pierre and Marie Curie investigated the phenomenon of radioactivity. In a series of pioneering scattering experiments Ernest Rutherford at the University of Manchester discovered the internal structure of the atom and the existence of the proton, classified and explained the different types of radioactivity and successfully transmuted the first element by bombarding nitrogen with alpha particles. His work on atomic structure was improved on by his students, the Danish physicist Niels Bohr, the Englishman Henry Moseley and the German Otto Hahn, who went on to father the emerging nuclear chemistry and discovered nuclear fission. The electronic theory of chemical bonds and molecular orbitals was developed by the American scientists Linus Pauling and Gilbert N. Lewis. The year 2011 was declared by the United Nations as the International Year of Chemistry. It was an initiative of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, and of the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization and involves chemical societies, academics, and institutions worldwide and relied on individual initiatives to organize local and regional activities.PracticeIn the practice of chemistry, pure chemistry is the study of the fundamental principles of chemistry, while applied chemistry applies that knowledge to develop technology and solve real-world problems.SubdisciplinesChemistry is typically divided into several major sub-disciplines. There are also several main cross-disciplinary and more specialized fields of chemistry. * Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. Analytical chemistry incorporates standardized experimental methods in chemistry. These methods may be used in all subdisciplines of chemistry, excluding purely theoretical chemistry. studies interactions between electromagnetic radiation (light) and matter. A spectrophotometer is a machine used to measure the effect light has on matter. The model pictured is the Beckman DU-640]] * Biochemistry is the study of the chemicals, chemical reactions and interactions that take place at a molecular level in living organisms. Biochemistry is highly interdisciplinary, covering medicinal chemistry, neurochemistry, molecular biology, forensics, plant science and genetics. * Inorganic chemistry is the study of the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds, such as metals and minerals. The distinction between organic and inorganic disciplines is not absolute and there is much overlap, most importantly in the sub-discipline of organometallic chemistry. is an organometallic complex that features either zirconium or hafnium metal centers. Depending on the placement of the catalyst's cyclopentadiene ligands, it can produce polypropylenes with different tacticity. 1 creates atactic polypropylene, which is soft and amorphous with a free-flowing composition. 2 creates isotactic polypropylene, which is hard and used in re-usable plastic containers. 3 creates syndiotactic polypropylene, which is rubbery and semi-crystalline.]] * Materials chemistry is the preparation, characterization, and understanding of solid state components or devices with a useful current or future function. The field is a new breadth of study in graduate programs, and it integrates elements from all classical areas of chemistry like organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and crystallography with a focus on fundamental issues that are unique to materials. Primary systems of study include the chemistry of condensed phases (solids, liquids, polymers) and interfaces between different phases. * Neurochemistry is the study of neurochemicals; including transmitters, peptides, proteins, lipids, sugars, and nucleic acids; their interactions, and the roles they play in forming, maintaining, and modifying the nervous system. * Nuclear chemistry is the study of how subatomic particles come together and make nuclei. Modern transmutation is a large component of nuclear chemistry, and the table of nuclides is an important result and tool for this field. In addition to medical applications, nuclear chemistry encompasses nuclear engineering which explores the topic of using nuclear power sources for generating energy. is an atomic bomb utilizing a uranium-235 fission reaction. By firing sub-critical uranium into another mass of sub-critical uranium within the bomb, creating a supercritical mass, a self-sustaining nuclear reaction starts. It generated an explosive force of over 15,000 tons of equivalent TNT.]] * Organic chemistry is the study of the structure, properties, composition, mechanisms, and reactions of organic compounds. An organic compound is defined as any compound based on a carbon skeleton. Organic compounds can be classified, organized and understood in reactions by their functional groups, unit atoms or molecules that show characteristic chemical properties in a compound. is an organic compound with an aldehyde (right) functional group and an alcohol (left) functional group.]] * Physical chemistry is the study of the physical and fundamental basis of chemical systems and processes. In particular, the energetics and dynamics of such systems and processes are of interest to physical chemists. Important areas of study include chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, statistical mechanics, spectroscopy, and more recently, astrochemistry. Physical chemistry has large overlap with molecular physics. Physical chemistry involves the use of infinitesimal calculus in deriving equations. It is usually associated with quantum chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Physical chemistry is a distinct discipline from chemical physics, but again, there is very strong overlap. * Theoretical chemistry is the study of chemistry via fundamental theoretical reasoning (usually within mathematics or physics). In particular the application of quantum mechanics to chemistry is called quantum chemistry. Since the end of the Second World War, the development of computers has allowed a systematic development of computational chemistry, which is the art of developing and applying computer programs for solving chemical problems. Theoretical chemistry has large overlap with (theoretical and experimental) condensed matter physics and molecular physics. featured foundational scientists to the field of theoretical chemistry and physics. This conference discussed electrons and photons]] Other subdivisions include electrochemistry, femtochemistry, flavor chemistry, flow chemistry, immunohistochemistry, hydrogenation chemistry, mathematical chemistry, molecular mechanics, natural product chemistry, organometallic chemistry, petrochemistry, photochemistry, physical organic chemistry, polymer chemistry, radiochemistry, sonochemistry, supramolecular chemistry, synthetic chemistry, and many others. Interdisciplinary Interdisciplinary fields include agrochemistry, astrochemistry (and cosmochemistry), atmospheric chemistry, chemical engineering, chemical biology, chemo-informatics, environmental chemistry, geochemistry, green chemistry, immunochemistry, marine chemistry, materials science, mechanochemistry, medicinal chemistry, molecular biology, nanotechnology, oenology, pharmacology, phytochemistry, solid-state chemistry, surface science, thermochemistry, and many others. Industry The chemical industry represents an important economic activity worldwide. The global top 50 chemical producers in 2013 had sales of US$980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%. Professional societies * American Chemical Society * American Society for Neurochemistry * Chemical Institute of Canada * Chemical Society of Peru * International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry * Royal Australian Chemical Institute * Royal Netherlands Chemical Society * Royal Society of Chemistry * Society of Chemical Industry * World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists See also * Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling * Glossary of chemistry terms * International Year of Chemistry * List of chemists * List of compounds * List of important publications in chemistry * List of unsolved problems in chemistry * Outline of chemistry * Periodic systems of small molecules * Philosophy of chemistry * Science tourism References Bibliography * * * Further reading Popular reading * Atkins, P. W. ''Galileo's Finger (Oxford University Press) * Atkins, P. W. Atkins' Molecules (Cambridge University Press) * Kean, Sam. The Disappearing Spoon – and Other True Tales from the Periodic Table (Black Swan) London, England, 2010 * Levi, Primo The Periodic Table (Penguin Books) [1975] translated from the Italian by Raymond Rosenthal (1984) * Stwertka, A. A Guide to the Elements (Oxford University Press) * * Introductory undergraduate textbooks * Atkins, P.W., Overton, T., Rourke, J., Weller, M. and Armstrong, F. Shriver and Atkins Inorganic Chemistry (4th ed.) 2006 (Oxford University Press) * Chang, Raymond. Chemistry 6th ed. Boston, Massachusetts: James M. Smith, 1998. * * Voet and Voet. Biochemistry (Wiley) Advanced undergraduate-level or graduate textbooks * Atkins, P. W. Physical Chemistry (Oxford University Press) * Atkins, P. W. et al. Molecular Quantum Mechanics (Oxford University Press) * McWeeny, R. Coulson's Valence (Oxford Science Publications) * Pauling, L. The Nature of the chemical bond (Cornell University Press) * Pauling, L., and Wilson, E. B. Introduction to Quantum Mechanics with Applications to Chemistry (Dover Publications) * Smart and Moore. Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (Chapman and Hall) * Stephenson, G. Mathematical Methods for Science Students'' (Longman) External links * [http://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/General%20Chemistry%20Principles,%20Patterns,%20and%20Applications.pdf General Chemistry principles, patterns and applications].
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry
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Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm describes all the material within a eukaryotic or prokaryotic cell, enclosed by the cell membrane, including the organelles and excluding the nucleus in eukaryotic cells. The material inside the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell and contained within the nuclear membrane is termed the nucleoplasm. The main components of the cytoplasm are the cytosol (a gel-like substance), the cell's internal sub-structures, and various cytoplasmic inclusions. In eukaryotes the cytoplasm also includes the nucleus, and other membrane-bound organelles.The cytoplasm is about 80% water and is usually colorless. The submicroscopic ground cell substance, or cytoplasmic matrix, that remains after the exclusion of the cell organelles and particles is groundplasm. It is the hyaloplasm of light microscopy, a highly complex, polyphasic system in which all resolvable cytoplasmic elements are suspended, including the larger organelles such as the ribosomes, mitochondria, plant plastids, lipid droplets, and vacuoles. Many cellular activities take place within the cytoplasm, such as many metabolic pathways, including glycolysis, photosynthesis, and processes such as cell division. The concentrated inner area is called the endoplasm and the outer layer is called the cell cortex, or ectoplasm. Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is a signaling activity for metabolic processes. In plants, movement of the cytoplasm around vacuoles is known as cytoplasmic streaming. History The term was introduced by Rudolf von Kölliker in 1863, originally as a synonym for protoplasm, but later it has come to mean the cell substance and organelles outside the nucleus. There has been certain disagreement on the definition of cytoplasm, as some authors prefer to exclude from it some organelles, especially the vacuoles and sometimes the plastids. Physical nature It remains uncertain how the various components of the cytoplasm interact to allow movement of organelles while maintaining the cell's structure. The flow of cytoplasmic components plays an important role in many cellular functions which are dependent on the permeability of the cytoplasm. An example of such function is cell signalling, a process which is dependent on the manner in which signaling molecules are allowed to diffuse across the cell. While small signaling molecules like calcium ions are able to diffuse with ease, larger molecules and subcellular structures often require aid in moving through the cytoplasm. The irregular dynamics of such particles have given rise to various theories on the nature of the cytoplasm. As a sol-gel There has long been evidence that the cytoplasm behaves like a sol-gel. It is thought that the component molecules and structures of the cytoplasm behave at times like a disordered colloidal solution (sol) and at other times like an integrated network, forming a solid mass (gel). This theory thus proposes that the cytoplasm exists in distinct fluid and solid phases depending on the level of interaction between cytoplasmic components, which may explain the differential dynamics of different particles observed moving through the cytoplasm. A papers suggested that at length scale smaller than 100 nm, the cytoplasm acts like a liquid, while in a larger length scale, it acts like a gel. As a glass It has been proposed that the cytoplasm behaves like a glass-forming liquid approaching the glass transition. Constituents The three major elements of the cytoplasm are the cytosol, organelles and inclusions. Cytosol The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-bound organelles. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water. The cytosol's filaments include the protein filaments such as actin filaments and microtubules that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes. The inner, granular and more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.thumb|right|250px|Proteins in different cellular compartments and structures tagged with green fluorescent protein Due to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol interact with each other. Organelles Organelles (literally "little organs") are usually membrane-bound structures inside the cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells, chloroplasts. Cytoplasmic inclusions The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty acids and sterols. Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types. Controversy and research The cytoplasm, mitochondria, and most organelles are contributions to the cell from the maternal gamete. Contrary to the older information that disregards any notion of the cytoplasm being active, new research has shown it to be in control of movement and flow of nutrients in and out of the cell by viscoplastic behavior and a measure of the reciprocal rate of bond breakage within the cytoplasmic network. The material properties of the cytoplasm remain an ongoing investigation. A method of determining the mechanical behaviour of living cell mammalian cytoplasm with the aid of optical tweezers has been described. See also References External links Category:Cell anatomy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplasm
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Christ (title)
'' – Saint Catherine's Monastery. The halo is a representation of the divine Logos of Christ, and the two different facial expressions on either side emphasize Christ's dual nature as both divine and human.]] Christ, . From ; from ; a semantic loan of or ; from or . Alternatively (Messiah or Messias): , from (alternative to ), from the same Semitic word.}} used by Christians as both a name and a title, unambiguously refers to Jesus. It is also used as a title, in the reciprocal usage "Christ Jesus", meaning "the Messiah Jesus" or "Jesus the Anointed", and independently as "the Christ". often call Jesus "Christ Jesus" or just "Christ". The concept of the Christ in Christianity originated from the concept of the messiah in Judaism. Christians believe that Jesus is the messiah foretold in the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Although the conceptions of the messiah in each religion are similar, for the most part they are distinct from one another due to the split of early Christianity and Judaism in the 1st century. Although the original followers of Jesus believed Jesus to be the Jewish messiah, e.g. in the Confession of Peter, he was usually called "Jesus of Nazareth" or "Jesus, son of Joseph". Jesus came to be called "Jesus Christ" (meaning "Jesus the Khristós", i.e. "Jesus the Messiah" or "Jesus the Anointed") by Christians, who believe that his crucifixion and resurrection fulfill the messianic prophecies of the Old Testament, especially the prophecies outlined in Isaiah 53 and Psalm 22.EtymologyChrist derives from the Greek word (), meaning "anointed one". The word is derived from the Greek verb (), meaning "to anoint." In the Greek Septuagint, χριστός was a semantic loan used to translate the Hebrew (, messiah), meaning "[one who is] anointed".Usage The word Christ (and similar spellings) appears in English and in most European languages. English speakers now often use "Christ" as if it were a name, one part of the name "Jesus Christ", though it was originally a title ("the Messiah"). Its usage in "Christ Jesus" emphasizes its nature as a title. Compare the usage "the Christ". In modern and ancient usage, even in secular terminology, "Christ" usually refers to Jesus, based on the centuries-old tradition of such usage. Since the Apostolic Age, the use of the definite article before the word Christ and its gradual development into a proper name show the Christians identified the bearer with the promised Messias of the Jews. Background and New Testament references , by Sargis Pitsak (14th century): "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God"]] Pre–New-Testament references In the Old Testament, anointing was a ceremonial ritual reserved to: * the Kings of Israel (1 Kings 19:16; 24:7, Psalms 17 (18):51); * Cyrus the Great (Isaiah 45:1); * the High Priest of Israel; * the patriarchs (Psalms 104(105):15); and * the prophets. (referring to the anointed High Priest of Israel) and in the Book of Sirach 46:19, in relation to Samuel, prophet and institutor of the kingdom under Saul. At the time of Jesus, there was no single form of Second Temple Judaism, and there were significant political, social, and religious differences among the various Jewish groups. But for centuries the Jews had used the term moshiach ("anointed") to refer to their expected deliverer. Sanhedrin trial of Jesus (Matthew, Mark and Luke) During the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus, it might appear from the narrative of Matthew that Jesus at first refused a direct reply to the high priest Caiaphas's question: "Are you the Messiah, the Son of God?", where his answer is given merely as Σὺ εἶπας (Su eipas, "You [singular] have said it"). Similarly but differently in Luke, all those present are said to ask Jesus: 'Are you then the Son of God?', to which Jesus reportedly answered: Ὑμεῖς λέγετε ὅτι ἐγώ εἰμι (Hymeis legete hoti ego eimi, "You [plural] say that I am". In the Gospel of Mark, however, when asked by Caiaphas 'Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?', Jesus tells the Sanhedrin: Ἐγώ εἰμι (ego eimi, "I am"). There are instances from Jewish literature in which the expression "you have said it" is equivalent to "you are right". Pauline epistles The word "Christ" is closely associated with Jesus in the Pauline epistles, which suggests that there was no need for the early Christians to claim that Jesus is Christ because it was considered widely accepted among them. Hence Paul can use the term Khristós with no confusion as to whom it refers, and he can use expressions such as "in Christ" to refer to the followers of Jesus, as in and . Paul proclaimed him as the Last Adam, who restored through obedience what Adam lost through disobedience. The Pauline epistles are a source of some key Christological connections; e.g., relates the love of Christ to the knowledge of Christ, and considers the love of Christ as a necessity for knowing him. There are also implicit claims to him being the Christ in the words and actions of Jesus. Christology Christology, literally "the understanding of Christ", is the study of the nature (person) and work (role in salvation) of Jesus in Christianity. It studies Jesus Christ's humanity and divinity, and the relation between these two aspects; and the role he plays in salvation. From the second to the fifth centuries, the relation of the human and divine nature of Christ was a major focus of debates in the early church and at the first seven ecumenical councils. The Council of Chalcedon in 451 issued a formulation of the hypostatic union of the two natures of Christ, one human and one divine, "united with neither confusion nor division". Most of the major branches of Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy subscribe to this formulation, while many branches of Oriental Orthodox Churches reject it, subscribing to miaphysitism. According to the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas, in the singular case of Jesus, the word Christ has a twofold meaning, which stands for "both the Godhead anointing and the manhood anointed". It derives from the twofold human-divine nature of Christ (dyophysitism): the Son of man is anointed in consequence of His incarnated flesh, as well as the Son of God is anointing in consequence of the "Godhead which He has with the Father" (ST III, q. 16, a. 5). Symbols The use of "Χ" as an abbreviation for "Christ" derives from the Greek letter Chi (χ), in the word (). An early Christogram is the Chi Rho symbol, formed by superimposing the first two Greek letters in Christ, chi (Χ) and rho (Ρ), to produce <big>☧</big>. The centuries-old English word Χmas (or, in earlier form, XPmas) is an English form of χ-mas, itself an abbreviation for Christ-mas. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and the OED Supplement have cited usages of "X-" or "Xp-" for "Christ-" as early as 1485. The terms "Xpian" and "Xren" have been used for "Christian", "Xst" for "Christ's" "Xρofer" for (Saint) Christopher and Xmas, Xstmas, and Xtmas for Christmas. The OED further cites usage of "Xtianity" for "Christianity" from 1634. According to ''Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage, most of the evidence for these words comes from "educated Englishmen who knew their Greek". The December 1957 News and Views published by the Church League of America, a conservative organization founded in 1937, attacked the use of "Xmas" in an article titled "XThe Unknown Quantity". Gerald L. K. Smith picked up the statements later, in December 1966, saying that Xmas was a "blasphemous omission of the name of Christ" and that "'X' is referred to as being symbolical of the unknown quantity." More recently, American evangelist Franklin Graham and former CNN contributor Roland S. Martin publicly raised concerns. Graham stated in an interview that the use of "Xmas" is taking "Christ out of Christmas" and called it a "war against the name of Jesus Christ." Roland Martin relates the use of "Xmas" to his growing concerns of increasing commercialization and secularization of what he says is one of Christianity's highest holy days. See also * Chrism * Ichthys * Dyophysitism * Hypostatic union * Kerigma * Knowledge of Christ * Masih * Names and titles of Jesus in the Quran * Perfection of Christ * You are Christ * Redeemer (Christianity) Notes References Further reading * * * * * * * * * * * * * Category:Christian messianism Category:Christian terminology Category:Christology Category:Religious titles Category:Septuagint words and phrases Category:Davidic line
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_(title)
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Capital
Capitol}} Capital and its variations may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital ** List of national capitals * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Economics and social sciences * Capital (economics), the durable produced goods used for further production * Capital (Marxism), a central concept in Marxian critique of political economy * Economic capital * Financial capital, an economic resource measured in terms of money * Capital good * Human capital * Natural capital * Public capital * Social capital Architecture and buildings * Capital (architecture), the topmost member of a column or pilaster * The Capital (building), a commercial building in Mumbai, India * Capital (fortification), a proportion of a bastion Arts, entertainment and media Literature Books * Capital (novel), by John Lanchester, 2012 * Das Kapital ('Capital: Critique of Political Economy'), a foundational theoretical text by Karl Marx * Capital in the Twenty-First Century by Thomas Piketty, 2013 * Capital: The Eruption of Delhi, a 2014 book by Rana Dasgupta Periodicals * Capital (French magazine), a French-language magazine * Capital (German magazine), a German-language magazine * Kapital (magazine), in Norway * Capital (Bulgarian newspaper), in Bulgaria * Kapital (newspaper), in North Macedonia * Capital (Romanian newspaper) * Capital (Ukrainian newspaper) * Capital (Ethiopia), a newspaper * A Capital, a defunct daily newspaper in Lisbon, Portugal * Capital New York, an online news site owned by Politico * The Capital, a daily newspaper based in Annapolis, Maryland, U.S. * La Capital, a daily newspaper based in Rosario, Argentina * La Capital (Mar del Plata), a daily newspaper based in Mar del Plata, Argentina * La Capitale, a daily newspaper based in Brussels, Belgium Film, television, radio * Capital (radio network), a group of radio stations operating across the United Kingdom * Capital (film) (), a 2012 French drama film directed by Costa-Gavras * Capital (British TV series), a 2015 adaptation of Lanchester's novel * Capital (Iranian TV series), 2011–2020 * Capital TV, a former British rolling-music TV channel * Capital TV (Belarus), a TV channel * Capital TV (Cardiff), a former TV channel in Wales * CTC (TV station), formerly called Capital Television, Ten Capital and Capital 7 * Capital Television (New Zealand), a former television channel in Wellington, the capital of New Zealand, operated by TVNZ * Capital TV (Nigeria), a Nigerian news channel * Capital TV (Malaysia), a defunct Malaysian television channel * Capital FM 88.9, a defunct Malaysian radio station * YLE Capital FM, a defunct Finnish radio station * DWFT, an FM radio station in Metro Manila, Philippines known as 104.3 The Capital Music * Capital (album), by Mick Softley, 1976 * Capital (band), a British band * "Capital (It Fails Us Now)", a song by Gang of Four from the 1982 album Another Day/Another Dollar Education * Capital College (disambiguation), the name of several institutions * Capital Community College, in Hartford, Connecticut, U.S. * Capital University, in Bexley, Ohio, U.S. * Capital University, Jharkhand, in India Places * La Capital Department, Santa Fe, Argentina * La Capital Department, San Luis, Argentina * City of Capitals, Moscow, Russia; an office complex Sports * Capital CF, a Brazilian football club * Albany Capitals, an American professional soccer team * Atlanta Capitals, an American ice hockey team * Baton Rouge Capitals, an American soccer team * Bonn Capitals, a German baseball/softball team * Brampton Capitals, a Canadian Junior-A ice hockey team * Bratislava Capitals, a Slovakian professional ice hockey team * Brisbane Capitals, an Australian basketball team * Central Penn Capitals, an American indoor American gridiron football team based in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania * Columbus Capitals, an American indoor soccer team * Cowichan Valley Capitals, a Canadian junior ice hockey team * Delhi Capitals, an Indian cricket team * Delhi Capitals (basketball), an Indian basketball team * Delhi Capitals (WPL), an Indian women's cricket team * Dubai Capitals, an Emirati cricket team * Edinburgh Capitals, a Scottish ice-hockey team * Edmonton Capitals, a Canadian baseball team * India Capitals, an Indian professional cricket team from New Delhi * Indianapolis Capitals, an American professional ice hockey team in the American Hockey League (AHL) * Indianapolis Capitals, former name of the Cincinnati Wings, an American professional ice hockey team in the Central Professional Hockey League (CPHL) * Ottawa Capitals, a Canadian multi-sport team sports club * Québec Capitales, a Canadian professional baseball team based in Quebec City, nicknamed "The Caps" * Quezon City Capitals, a Philippine professional basketball team * Pretoria Capitals, a South African professional cricket team * Puerto Rico Capitals, an American women's soccer team * Raleigh Capitals, an American minor-league professional baseball team * Regina Capitals, a Canadian professional ice hockey team * Rouyn-Noranda Capitales, a Canadian Junior-A ice hockey team * Sacramento Capitals, an American tennis team * Salem Capitals, an American professional basketball team * St. John's Capitals, a Canadian senior ice hockey team * Springfield Capitals, an American independent baseball team * Summerside Western Capitals, a Canadian Junior-A ice hockey team * Tallahassee Capitals, an American minor league baseball team * Topeka Capitals (disambiguation) * University of Canberra Capitals, an Australian women's basketball team * Victoria Capitals, a Canadian baseball team * Vienna Capitals, an Austrian ice-hockey team * Walkerton Capitals, a Canadian senior ice hockey team * Walkerton Capitals (PJHL), a Canadian junior ice hockey team * Washington Capitals, an American professional ice hockey team in the National Hockey League (NHL) Transportation and vehicular * Capital (sidewheeler), a 19th-century American steamboat * Capital Airlines (disambiguation), several uses * Capitals Limited, a British passenger train * Capital ship, a classification of a naval vessel Other uses * Capitals (typeface), a serif font composed entirely of capital letters * Gaisano Capital, a shopping mall based in the Philippines * La Capitale (company), a financial company based in Quebec * Studio Capitale, a post-production studio owned by Stéphane Meer See also * * * Cap (disambiguation) * Capitalism (disambiguation) * Capitalization (disambiguation) * Capital City (disambiguation) * Capital Radio (disambiguation) * Capital region (disambiguation) * Old capital (disambiguation) * Captal, a medieval feudal title in Gascony * External links * *
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital
2025-04-05T18:27:04.854004
5188
Central Europe
Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe. Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity; however, countries in this region also share historical and cultural similarities. Whilst the region is variously defined, it often includes Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland and Romania's western region of Transylvania. until the early 18th century, parts of Croatia, Hungary and Transylvania were ruled by the Turkish Empire. During the 17th century, the empire also occupied southern parts of present-day Slovakia. During the Early Modern period, the territories of Poland and Lithuania were part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Meanwhile, the Archduchy of Austria, the Kingdom of Bohemia (Czech Republic), the Duchy of Carniola (part of present-day Slovenia), the various German Principalities and the Old Swiss Confederacy were within the Holy Roman Empire. By the end of the 18th century, the Habsburg monarchy, a prominent power within the Holy Roman Empire, came to reign over the territories of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Slovakia and Slovenia, alongside parts of Serbia, Germany, Italy, Poland and Switzerland. Between the early 18th and early 20th centuries, Central Europe had a substantial Jewish population. divided into either Eastern or Western Europe. After World War II, Europe was divided by the Iron Curtain into two parts, the capitalist Western Bloc and the socialist Eastern Bloc, although Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia (encompassing the territories of present-day Croatia, Slovenia and various other Balkan nations) declared neutrality. The Berlin Wall was one of the most visible symbols of this division. Respectively, countries in Central Europe have historical, cultural and geopolitical ties with these wider regions of Europe. Central Europe began a "strategic awakening" in the late 20th and early 21st century, with initiatives such as the Central European Defence Cooperation, the Central European Initiative, Centrope, and the Visegrád Four Group. This awakening was accelerated by writers and other intellectuals, who recognized the societal paralysis of decaying dictatorships and felt compelled to speak up against Soviet oppression.Historical perspectiveMiddle Ages and early modern periodIn the early Middle Ages, Central Europe had a diverse landscape, with various ethnic groups inhabiting the region. Germanic tribes, among them the Franks, Alemans and Bavarians, were predominantly situated in the west, while Slavic tribes were predominantly in the east. However, the region encompassed a wide spectrum of additional tribes and communities. From the late 6th century to the early 9th century, the area roughly corresponding to the Carpathian Basin was part of the Avar Khaganate, the realm of the Pannonian Avars. While the Avars dominated the east of what is now Austria, its north and south were under Germanic and Slavic influence, respectively. Meanwhile, the territories now comprising Germany and Switzerland were under the influence of the Merovingian dynasty, and later the Carolingian dynasty. Various Slavic tribes that inhabited eastern Central Europe established settlements during this period, primarily in present-day Croatia, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia. The territory of Lithuania was inhabited by Baltic tribes. Amongst them were the Samogitians, Lithuanians and Curonians. The Holy Roman Empire was founded at the turn of the 9th century, following the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III. At its inception, it incorporated present-day Germany and nearby regions, including parts of what is now Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovenia and Switzerland. Three decades later, Great Moravia, centred in present-day Czech Republic and Slovakia, became one of the first West Slavic states to be founded in Central Europe. In the late 9th Century, the Hungarian tribes, originating in North and Central Asia, settled in the Carpathian Basin and established the Principality of Hungary. The earliest recorded concept of Europe as a cultural sphere (instead of simply a geographic term) was formed by Alcuin of York in the late 8th century during the Carolingian Renaissance, limited to the territories that practised Western Christianity at the time. "European" as a cultural term did not include much of the territories where the Orthodox Church represented the dominant religion until the 19th century. Following the Christianization of various Central European countries, elements of cultural unity emerged within the region, specifically Catholicism and Latin. Eastern Europe remained Eastern Orthodox, and was dominated by Byzantine cultural influence. After the East–West Schism in 1054, significant parts of Eastern Europe developed cultural unity and resistance to Catholic Western and Central Europe within the framework of the Eastern Orthodox Church, Church Slavonic language and the Cyrillic alphabet. <gallery mode="center"> Francia 814.svg|Frankish Empire and its tributaries in 814 East Francia 843.svg|East Francia in 843 Great moravia svatopluk.png|Possible furthest extent of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (870–894) Duchy of Poland 1000.svg|Duchy of Poland under the Piast dynasty in 1000 Duchy of Bohemia 1000.svg|Duchy of Bohemia (Czech Duchy) in 1000 Kingdom of Germany 1004.svg|Kingdom of Germany in 1004 Kingdom of Hungary 1190.svg|Kingdom of Hungary in 1190 Croatia 1260.png|Kingdom of Croatia in 1260 Holy Roman Empire (c. 1600).svg|Holy Roman Empire in 1600 Map of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1619–1621).png|Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and its fiefs in 1619 </gallery> According to historian Jenő Szűcs, at the end of the first millennium Central Europe became influenced by Western European developments. Szűcs argued that between the 11th and 15th centuries, not only did Christianization influence the cultures within Central Europe, but well-defined social features were also implemented in the region based on Western characteristics. The keyword of Western social development after the turn of the millennium was the spread of Magdeburg rights in some cities and towns of Western Europe. These began to spread in the middle of the 13th century in Central European countries, bringing about self-governments of towns and counties. In 1335, the Kings of Poland, Bohemia and Hungary and Croatia met in the castle of Visegrád In 1386, Jogaila, the Grand Duke of Lithuania, converted to Christianity (specifically Catholicism) and subsequently became King of Poland through marriage to Queen Jadwiga of Poland. This initiated the Christianization of Lithuania. It also resulted in the Union of Krewo, signifying a personal union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. The union commenced an enduring political alliance between the two entities and laid the foundations for the later establishment of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1569. Between the 15th and early 16th centuries, the Kingdom of Croatia, which was at the time in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary, served as a significant maritime gateway of Central Europe, with its ports facilitating key trade routes between Central Europe and the Mediterranean. The Republic of Ragusa emerged as a prominent hub for cultural exchange during this time. ]] Before 1870, the industrialization that had started to develop in Northwestern and Central Europe and the United States did not extend in any significant way to the rest of the world. Even in Eastern Europe, industrialization lagged far behind. Russia, for example, remained largely rural and agricultural, and its autocratic rulers kept the peasants in serfdom. The concept of Central Europe was already known at the beginning of the 19th century, but it developed further and became an object of intensive interest towards the 20th century. However, the first concept mixed science, politics, and economy – it was strictly connected with the aspirations of German states to dominate a part of European continent called Mitteleuropa. At the Frankfurt Parliament, which was established in the wake of the March Revolution of 1848, there were multiple competing ideas for the integration of German-speaking areas, including the mitteleuropäische Lösung (Central European Solution) propagated by Austria, which sought to merge the smaller German-speaking states with the multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire, but was opposed by Prussia and others. An imperialistic idea of Mitteleuropa also became popular in the German Empire established in 1871, which experienced intensive economic growth. The term was used when the Union of German Railway Administrations established the Mitteleuropäische Eisenbahn-Zeit (Central European Railway Time) time zone, which was applied by the railways from 1 June 1891 and was later widely adopted in civilian life, thus the time zone name shortened to the present-day Central European Time. The German term denoting Central Europe was so fashionable that other languages started referring to it when indicating territories from Rhine to Vistula, or even Dnieper, and from the Baltic Sea to the Balkans. An example of this vision of Central Europe may be seen in Joseph Partsch's book of 1903. On 21 January 1904, Mitteleuropäischer Wirtschaftsverein (Central European Economic Association) was established in Berlin with economic integration of Germany and Austria (with eventual extension to Switzerland, Belgium and the Netherlands) as its main aim. Another time, the term Central Europe became connected to the German plans of political, economic, and cultural domination. The "bible" of the concept was Friedrich Naumann's book Mitteleuropa in which he called for an economic federation to be established after World War I. Naumann's proposed a federation with Germany and the Habsburg empire as its centre, eventually uniting all external European nations through economic prosperity. The concept failed after the German defeat in World War I. The revival of the idea may be observed during the Hitler era.Interwar period Mitteleuropa may refer to a historical concept or a contemporary German definition of Central Europe. As a historical concept, the German term Mitteleuropa (or alternatively its literal translation into English, Middle Europe) is an ambiguous German concept. According to Fritz Fischer Mitteleuropa was a scheme in the era of the Reich of 1871–1918 by which the old imperial elites had allegedly sought to build a system of German economic, military and political domination from the northern seas to the Near East and from the Low Countries through the steppes of Russia to the Caucasus. Later on, professor Fritz Epstein argued the threat of a Slavic "Drang nach Westen" (Western expansion) had been a major factor in the emergence of a Mitteleuropa ideology before the Reich of 1871 ever came into being. In Germany the connotation was also sometimes linked to the pre-war German provinces east of the Oder-Neisse line. The term "Mitteleuropa" conjures up negative historical associations among some people, although the Germans have not played an exclusively negative role in the region. Most Central European Jews embraced the enlightened German humanistic culture of the 19th century. Jews of turn of the 20th century Central Europe became representatives of what many consider to be Central European culture at its best, though the Nazi conceptualisation of "Mitteleuropa" sought to destroy this culture. The term "Mitteleuropa" is widely used in German education and media without negative meaning, especially since the end of communism. Many people from the new states of Germany do not identify themselves as being part of Western Europe and therefore prefer the term "Mitteleuropa". Central Europe during World War II at the height of the Axis conquests in 1942]] During World War II, Central Europe was largely occupied by Nazi Germany. Many areas were a battle area and were devastated. The mass murder of the Jews depopulated many of their centuries-old settlement areas or settled other people there and their culture was wiped out. Both Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin diametrically opposed the centuries-old Habsburg principles of "live and let live" with regard to ethnic groups, peoples, minorities, religions, cultures and languages and tried to assert their own ideologies and power interests in Central Europe. There were various Allied plans for state order in Central Europe for post-war. While Stalin tried to get as many states under his control as possible, Winston Churchill preferred a Central European Danube Confederation to counter these countries against Germany and Russia. There were also plans to add Bavaria and Württemberg to an enlarged Austria. There were also various resistance movements around Otto von Habsburg that pursued this goal. The group around the Austrian priest Heinrich Maier also planned in this direction, which also successfully helped the Allies to wage war by, among other things, forwarding production sites and plans for V-2 rockets, Tiger tanks and aircraft to the USA. Otto von Habsburg tried to relieve Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and northern Yugoslavia (particularly the territories of present-day Croatia and Slovenia) from Nazi German, and Soviet, influence and control. There were various considerations to prevent German and Soviet power in Europe after the war. Churchill's idea of reaching the area around Vienna before the Russians via an operation from the Adriatic had not been approved by the Western Allied chiefs of staff. As a result of the military situation at the end of the war, Stalin's plans prevailed and much of Central Europe came under Russian control.Central Europe behind the Iron Curtain during the Cold War: ]] Following World War II, parts of Central Europe became part of the Eastern Bloc. The boundary between the two blocks was called the Iron Curtain. Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia remained neutral. The post-World War II period brought blocking of research on Central Europe in the Eastern Bloc countries, as its every result proved the dissimilarity of Central Europe, which was inconsistent with the Stalinist doctrine. On the other hand, the topic became popular in Western Europe and the United States, much of the research being carried out by immigrants from Central Europe. Following the Fall of Communism, publicists and historians in Central Europe, especially the anti-communist opposition, returned to their research. According to Karl A. Sinnhuber (Central Europe: Mitteleuropa: Europe Centrale: An Analysis of a Geographical Term) most Central European states were unable to preserve their political independence and became Soviet satellites. Besides Austria, Switzerland and Yugoslavia, only the marginal European states of Cyprus, Finland, Malta and Sweden preserved their political sovereignty to a certain degree, being left out of any military alliances in Europe. The opening of the Iron Curtain between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on 19 August 1989 then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer an East Germany and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. After the picnic, which was based on an idea by Otto von Habsburg to test the reaction of the USSR and Mikhail Gorbachev to an opening of the border, tens of thousands of media-informed East Germans set off for Hungary. The leadership of the GDR in East Berlin did not dare to completely block the borders of their own country and the USSR did not respond at all. This broke the bracket of the Eastern Bloc and Central Europe subsequently became free from communism. Roles According to American professor Ronald Tiersky, the 1991 summit held in Visegrád attended by the Czechoslovak, Hungarian and Polish presidents was hailed at the time as a major breakthrough in Central European cooperation, but the Visegrád Group became a vehicle for coordinating Central Europe's road to the European Union, while development of closer ties within the region languished. American professor Peter J. Katzenstein described Central Europe as a way station in a Europeanization process that marks the transformation process of the Visegrád Group countries in different, though comparable ways. According to him, in Germany's contemporary public discourse "Central European identity" refers to the civilizational divide between Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. He argued that there is no precise way to define Central Europe and that the region may even include Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia and Serbia.Definitions The issue of how to name and define the Central European area is subject to debates. Very often, the definition depends on the nationality and historical perspective of its author. The concept of "Central Europe" appeared in the 19th century. It was understood as a contact zone between the Southern and Northern areas, and later the Eastern and Western areas of Europe. Thinkers portrayed "Central Europe" either as a separate region, or a buffer zone between these regions. In the early nineteenth century, the terms "Middle" or "Central" Europe (known as "Mitteleuropa" in German and "Europe centrale" in French) were introduced in geographical scholarship in both German and French languages. At first, these terms were linked to the regions spanning from the Pyrenees to the Danube, which, according to German authors, could be united under German authority. However, after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the French began to exclude France from this area, and later the Germans also adopted this perspective by the end of World War I. The concept of "Central" or "Middle Europe", understood as a region with German influence, lost a significant part of its popularity after WWI and was completely dismissed after WWII. Two defeats of Germany in the world wars, combined with the division of Germany, an almost complete disappearance of German-speaking communities in these countries, and the Communist-led isolation of Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland and Yugoslavia from the Western world, turned the concept of "Central/Middle Europe" into an anachronism. On the other side, the non-German areas of Central Europe were almost universally regarded as "Eastern European" primarily associated with the Soviet sphere of influence in the late 1940s–1980s. For the most part, this geographical framework lost its attraction after the end of the Cold War. A number of Post-Communist countries rather re-branded themselves in the 1990s as "Central European.", while avoiding the stained wording of "Middle Europe," which they associated with German influence in the region. This reinvented concept of "Central Europe" excluded Germany, Austria and Switzerland, reducing its coverage chiefly to Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Lithuania and Yugoslavia. * West-Central and East-Central Europe – this conception, presented in 1950, distinguishes two regions in Central Europe: the German West-Centre and the East-Centre covered by a variety of nations from Finland to Greece, placed between the great empires of Scandinavia, Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union. * Central Europe as a region comprising countries in mainland Europe speaking West Germanic (Austria, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and Switzerland) and West Slavic languages (the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland). * Central Europe as the area of the cultural heritage of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth – Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian historians, in cooperation (since 1990) with Polish historians, insist on the importance of this concept. (divided between Cisleithanian/Austrian-administered and Transalthanian/Hungarian-administered)]] * Central Europe as the area of the former Habsburg Empire – a concept which is popular in large parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina. * A concept underlining the links connecting Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine with Russia and treating the Russian Empire together with the whole Slavic Orthodox population as one entity – this position is taken by Russian historiographers. * A concept putting the accent on links with the West, especially from the 19th century and the grand period of liberation and formation of Nation-states – this idea is represented by the South-Eastern states, which prefer the enlarged concept of the "East Centre" expressing their links with Western culture. Former University of Vienna professor Lonnie R. Johnson points out criteria to distinguish Central Europe from Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe:}} * One criterion for defining Central Europe is the frontiers of medieval empires and kingdoms that largely correspond to the religious frontiers between Catholic Western and Central Europe and Orthodox Eastern Europe. Following this criterion, the pagans of Central Europe were converted to Catholicism while in Eastern and Southeastern Europe they were brought into the fold of the Eastern Orthodox Church. He also thinks that Central Europe is a dynamic historical concept, not a static spatial one. For example, a fair share of Belarus and Right-bank Ukraine are in Eastern Europe today, but |-1}} years ago they were in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Johnson's study on Central Europe received acclaim and positive reviews in the scientific community. However, according to Romanian researcher Maria Bucur, this very ambitious project suffers from the weaknesses imposed by its scope (almost 1600 years of history). Encyclopedias, gazetteers, dictionaries The World Factbook Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Central Europe is a part of Europe composed of Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Romania and Switzerland, and northern marginal regions of Italy and Yugoslavia (northern states – Croatia and Slovenia), as well as northeastern France. The German (Standing Committee on Geographical Names), which develops and recommends rules for the uniform use of geographical names, proposes two sets of boundaries. The first follows international borders of current countries. The second subdivides and includes some countries based on cultural criteria. In comparison to some other definitions, it is broader, including Luxembourg, Estonia, Latvia, and in the second sense, parts of Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Italy, and France. Geographical ]] There is no general agreement either on what geographic area constitutes Central Europe, nor on how to further subdivide it geographically. At times, the term "Central Europe" denotes a geographic definition as the Danube region in the heart of the continent, including the language and culture areas which are today included in the states of Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Moldova, Poland, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Ukraine and usually also Germany. Governmental and standards organisations The terminology EU11 countries refer the Central, Eastern and Baltic European member states which accessed in 2004 and after: in 2004 Czech Republic, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Hungary, Poland, Slovenia, and Slovakia; in 2007 Bulgaria, Romania; and in 2013 Croatia. The EU-funded Interreg region "Central Europe" includes the following countries and regions: * Austria * Croatia * Czechia * Germany: Berlin, Brandenburg, Saxony-Anhalt, Saxony, Thuringia, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern * Hungary * Italy: Lombardy, Trentino - Alto Adige, Aosta Valley, Veneto, Emiglia Romagna, Liguria, Friuli - Venezia Giulia * Poland * Slovakia * Slovenia The Central European Free Trade Agreement includes the following countries: * Albania * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Kosovo * Moldova * Montenegro * North Macedonia * Serbia Map gallery <gallery> File:Central Europe Katzenstein.png|Central Europe according to Peter J. Katzenstein (1997):<br />}} }} File:Visegrad group countries.png|According to The Economist and Ronald Tiersky, a strict definition of Central Europe means the Visegrád Group. File:Central Europe (Lonnie R. Johnson)2.PNG|Map of Central Europe, according to Lonnie R. Johnson (2011): File:Central Europe (by A.Mutton).PNG|Central Europe, according to Alice F. A. Mutton in Central Europe. A Regional and Human Geography (1961) File:Central Europe (Larousse).PNG|Central Europe, as defined in the French Encylopédie Larousse (2009) File:Europe médiane, Czesław Miłosz.png|Central Europe, as defined by Czesław Miłosz (1983) File:Europe centrale, Castellan.png|Central Europe, as defined by Georges Castellan (1994) File:Central Europe (by E. Schenk).PNG|Central Europe, as defined by E. Schenk (1950) File:Central-Europe-Encarta.png|Central European countries in Encarta Encyclopedia (2009):<br /> File:Central Europe (Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon).PNG|The Central European Countries according to Meyers Grosses Taschenlexikon (1999):<br /> File:Central Europe (Brockhaus).PNG|Middle Europe (Brockhaus Enzyklopädie, 1998) File:Central-Europe-SwanseaUniv.png|Central Europe according to Swansea University professors Robert Bideleux and Ian Jeffries (1998) File:Central Europe (Mayers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon).PNG|Central Europe according to Meyers Enzyklopaedisches Lexikon (1980) </gallery> States ]] The choice of states that make up Central Europe is an ongoing source of controversy. Although views on which countries belong to Central Europe are vastly varied, according to many sources (see section Definitions) the region includes some or all of the states listed in the sections below: *Austria *Croatia}} *Czech Republic *Germany *Hungary *Liechtenstein *Lithuania *Poland *Slovakia *Slovenia *Switzerland Depending on the context, Central European countries are sometimes not seen as a specific group, but sorted as either Eastern or Western European countries. Croatia is alternatively placed in Southeastern Europe. Additionally, Hungary and Slovenia *Latvia (considered to have been part of extended definitions of 'Mitteleuropa') *Romania (Transylvania, along with Banat, Crișana, Maramureș, Bukovina and Muntenia along with Oltenia) *Russia (Kaliningrad Oblast) *Serbia (primarily Vojvodina and Northern Belgrade, alternatively placed in Southeast Europe)}} *Ukraine (Transcarpathia, Galicia and Northern Bukovina The Pannonian Plain stretches over the following countries: Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia and Slovenia, and touches borders of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Ukraine ("peri- Pannonian states"). South of the Eastern Alps (spanning Austria, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Slovenia and Switzerland), the Dinaric Alps extend for 650 kilometres along the coast of the Adriatic Sea (northwest-southeast), from the Julian Alps in the northwest down to the Šar-Korab massif, north–south. According to the Freie Universität Berlin, this mountain chain is classified as South Central European. The city of Trieste in this area, for example, expressly sees itself as a città mitteleuropea. This is particularly because it lies at the interface between the Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Greek and Jewish culture on the one hand and the geographical area of the Mediterranean and the Alps on the other. A geographical and cultural assignment is made. The Central European flora region stretches from Central France (the Massif Central) to the Northern Balkans, Central Romania (Carpathians) and Southern Scandinavia. Demography Central Europe is one of the continent's most populous regions. It includes countries of varied sizes, ranging from tiny Liechtenstein to Germany, the second largest European country by population. Demographic figures for countries entirely located within notion of Central Europe ("the core countries") number around 173 million people, out of which around 82 million are residents of Germany. Other populations include: Poland with around 38.5 million residents, Czech Republic at 10.5 million, Hungary at 10 million, Austria with 9.2 million, Switzerland with 8.5 million, Slovakia at 5.4 million, Croatia with 4.3 million, Lithuania with 2.9 million, Slovenia with 2.1 million and Liechtenstein at a bit less than 40,000. If the countries which are sometimes also included in Central Europe were counted in, partially or in whole – Romania (20 million), Latvia (2 million), Estonia (1.3 million), Serbia (7.1 million) – this would contribute around an additional 30.4 million, although this figure would vary depending on whether a regional or integral approach is used. If smaller, western and eastern historical parts of Central Europe would be included in the demographic corpus, a further 20 million people of different nationalities would also be added in the overall count, surpassing a total of 200 million people. Economy Currencies Currently, the members of the Eurozone include Austria, Croatia, Germany, Lithuania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. The Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland use their own currencies (koruna, forint, Polish złoty, respectively), but are obliged to adopt the Euro. Switzerland uses its own currency (Swiss franc), as does Serbia (dinar) and Romania (Romanian leu). Human Development Index upright=1.35|thumb|World map by quartiles of Human Development Index in 2013: {| border"0" cellspacing"0" cellpadding"0" style"width:100%;" |- | || |- | || |- | || |} In 2018, Switzerland topped the HDI list among Central European countries, also ranking No. 2 in the world. Serbia rounded out the list at No. 11 (67 world). Globalisation The index of globalization in Central European countries (2016 data): Switzerland topped this list as well (#1 world). Prosperity Index Legatum Prosperity Index demonstrates an average and high level of prosperity in Central Europe (2018 data). Switzerland topped the index (#4 world). Corruption thumb|upright=1.35|Overview of the index of perception of corruption, 2015: {| border"0" style"width: 100%; background: #f9f9f9;" |- | | | | |- | | | | |- | | | |} Most countries in Central Europe tend to score above the average in the Corruption Perceptions Index (2018 data), led by Switzerland, Germany, and Austria. Rail Central Europe contains the continent's earliest railway systems, whose greatest expansion was recorded in Austrian, Czech, German, Hungarian and Swiss territories between 1860-1870s. By the mid-19th century Berlin, Vienna, Zurich, Pest and Prague were focal points for network lines connecting industrial areas of Saxony, Silesia, Bohemia, Moravia and Lower Austria with the Baltic (Kiel, Szczecin) and Adriatic (Rijeka, Trieste).}} By 1913, the combined length of the railway tracks of Austria and Hungary reached . By 1936, 70% of the Swiss Federal Railway network had undergone electrification. Rail infrastructure in Central Europe remains the densest in the world. Railway density as of 2022, with total length of lines operated (km) per 1,000 km2, from highest to lowest is Switzerland (129.2), the Czech Republic (120.7), Germany (108.8), Hungary (85.0), Slovakia (74.0), Austria (66.5), Poland (61.9), Slovenia (59.6), Serbia (49.2), Croatia (46.3) and Lithuania (29.4).River transport and canalsBefore the first railroads appeared in the 1840s, river transport constituted the main means of communication and trade.}} Earliest canals included Plauen Canal (1745), Finow Canal, and also Bega Canal (1710) which connected Timișoara to Novi Sad and Belgrade via the Danube.}} The most significant achievement in this regard was the facilitation of navigability on the Danube from the Black sea to Ulm in the 19th century. The economies of Austria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Switzerland tend to demonstrate high complexity. Industrialisation reached Central Europe relatively early beginning with Germany and the Czech lands near the end of the 18th century. The industrialization of the cities of Romania and Serbia started in the interwar period, and did not make significant progress until the post ww2 era. Agriculture Central European countries are some of the most significant food producers in the world. Germany is the world's largest hops producer with 34.27% share in 2010, 3rd largest producer of rye and barley, 5th rapeseed producer, 6th largest milk producer, and 5th largest potato producer. Poland is the world's largest triticale producer, 2nd largest producer of raspberries, currants, 3rd largest of rye, the 5th apple and buckwheat producer, and 7th largest producer of potatoes. The Czech Republic is the world's 4th largest hops producer and 8th producer of triticale. Slovenia is one of the world's leading producers of honey and the world's 6th largest hops producer. Hungary is world's 5th hops and 7th largest triticale producer. Serbia is the world's 2nd largest producer of plums and 2nd largest producer of raspberries.BusinessCentral European business has a regional organisation, Central European Business Association (CEBA), founded in 1996 in New York as a non-profit organization dedicated to promoting business opportunities within Central Europe and supporting the advancement of professionals in America with a Central European background. Tourism Central European countries, especially Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland are some of the most competitive tourism destinations. Education Languages Education performance Student performance has varied across Central Europe, according to the Programme for International Student Assessment. In the 2012 study, countries scored medium, below or over the average scores in three fields studied. Higher education of the Charles University in Prague]] Universities The first university established east of France and north of the Alps was in Prague in 1348 by Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. The Charles University was modeled upon the University of Paris and initially included the faculty of law, medicine, philosophy, and theology. Central European University in Budapest]] In 1991, Ernest Gellner proposed the establishment of a truly Central European institution of higher learning in Prague (1991–1995). Eventually, the Central European University (CEU) project was taken on and financially supported by the Hungarian philanthropist George Soros, who had provided an endowment of US$880 million, making the university one of the wealthiest in Europe. Over its 30-year history CEU has become one of the most internationally diverse and recognisable universities in the world. For example, as of 2019, 1217 students were enrolled in the university, of which 962 were international students, making the student body the fourth most international in the world. CEU offers highly selective programs with a student to faculty ratio of 7:1. In 2021, the admission rate into its programs was 13%. CEU has thus become a leading global university in Europe promoting a distinctively Central European perspective while emphasizing academic rigor, applied research, and academic honesty and integrity. CEU is a founding member of CIVICCA, a group of prestigious European higher education institutions in the social sciences, humanities, business management and public policy, such as Sciences Po (France), The London School of Economics and Political Science (UK), Bocconi University (Italy) and the Stockholm School of Economics (Sweden). In 2019, Central European University leadership announced their preparatory work on moving CEU to Vienna due to legal constraints against academic freedom in Hungary.Culture and societyResearchResearch centres of Central European literature include Harvard University (Cambridge, MA), Purdue University, and Central European Studies Programme (CESP), Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.ArchitectureReligion Central European countries are mostly Catholic (Austria, Croatia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Poland and Slovenia) or historically both Catholic and Protestant (the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Slovakia and Switzerland). Large Protestant groups include Lutheran, Calvinist, and the Unity of the Brethren affiliates. Significant populations of Eastern Catholicism and Old Catholicism are also prevalent throughout Central Europe. Orthodox Christianity is a minority denomination observed to varying extents across Central Europe. Central Europe has been the center of the Protestant movement for centuries, with the majority of Protestants suppressed and annihilated during the Counterreformation. Historically, people in Bohemia in today's Czech Republic were some of the first Protestants in Europe. As a result of the Thirty Years' War following the Bohemian Revolt, many Czechs were either killed, executed (see for Old Town Square execution), forcibly turned into Roman Catholics, or emigrated to Scandinavia and the Low Countries. In the aftermath of the Thirty Years' War, the number of inhabitants in the Kingdom of Bohemia decreased from three million to only 800,000 due to multiple factors, including devastating ongoing battles such as the significant Battle of White Mountain and the Battle of Prague (1648). However, in recent years, most Czechs report as overwhelmingly non-religious, with some describing themselves as Catholic (10.3%). Before the Holocaust (1941–45), there was also a sizeable Ashkenazi Jewish community in the region, numbering approximately 16.7 million people. Poland, Lithuania and Hungary had the largest Jewish populations in Europe as a percentage of their total populations, with Jews constituting 9.5% of the Polish population in 1933. Certain countries in Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Germany and Switzerland have sizeable atheist and non-religious populations. In 2021, 48% of the Czech population declared that they had no religion. In 2022, 43.8% of the German population declared that they had no religion. Meanwhile, 33.5% of the Swiss population stated that they were not affiliated with any religion. Cuisine Central European cuisine has evolved over centuries due to social and political change and is generally diverse. However, the national cuisines of western Central Europe share notable similarities, as do the cuisines of eastern Central Europe. Sausages, salamis and cheeses are popular in most of Central Europe, with the earliest evidence of cheesemaking in the archaeological record dates back to 5,500 BCE (Kuyavia region, Poland). Other popular food items in Central Europe include soups, stews, pickled and fermented vegetables. Schnitzel, goulash and cabbage rolls are popular in the region. Another common feature among Central European cuisines, particularly Austrian, Croatian, Lithuanian, Slovenian and Swiss cuisine, is the use of wild ingredients in traditional dishes, spanning from wild herbs to mushrooms and berries. Beer consumption is also prominent in parts of Central Europe, where the Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita globally, followed by Austria, with Germany coming 4th. The cuisines of Central European countries that are included in broader definitions of Eastern Europe share similarities and traditions with other Eastern European cuisines. This is particularly evident in the cuisines of Lithuania and Poland, which feature dishes like borscht, pierogi and sour rye soup. Human rights Generally, the countries in the region have been progressive on the issue of human rights: death penalty is illegal in all of them, corporal punishment is outlawed in most of them and people of both genders can vote in elections. However, Central European countries are divided on the subject of same-sex marriage and abortion. Austria, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Poland also have a history of participation in the CIA's extraordinary rendition and detention program, according to the Open Society Foundations. Literature Regional writing tradition revolves around the turbulent history of the region, as well as its cultural diversity. Its existence is sometimes challenged. Specific courses on Central European literature are taught at Stanford University, Harvard University and Jagiellonian University as well as cultural magazines dedicated to regional literature. Angelus Central European Literature Award is an award worth 150,000.00 PLN (about $50,000 or £30,000) for writers originating from the region. Likewise, the Vilenica International Literary Prize is awarded to a Central European author for "outstanding achievements in the field of literature and essay writing".MediaSport There is a number of Central European Sport events and leagues. They include: *Central European Tour Miskolc GP (Hungary)* *Central European Tour Budapest GP (Hungary) *2008 Central Europe Rally (Romania and Hungary)* *2023 Central Europe Rally (Germany, Austria and Czech Republic) *Central European Football League (Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Turkey) *Central European International Cup (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Switzerland and Yugoslavia; 1927–1960) *Central Europe Throwdown* Football is one of the most popular sports. Countries of Central Europe hosted several major competitions. Germany hosted two FIFA World Cups (1974 and 2006) and two UEFA European Championships (1988 and 2024). Yugoslavia hosted the UEFA Euro 1976 before the competition expanded to 8 teams. Recently, the 2008 and 2012 UEFA European Championships were held in Austria & Switzerland and Poland & Ukraine respectively. Politics Organisations Central Europe is a birthplace of regional political organisations: *Central European Defence Cooperation *Central European Free Trade Agreement *Central European Initiative *Centrope *Middleeuropean Initiative *Three Seas Initiative *Visegrád Group <gallery> File:CEDC.svg|Central European Defence Cooperation File:CEFTA 1992.PNG|CEFTA founding states File:CEFTA 2003.PNG|CEFTA members in 2003, before joining the EU File:Central European Free Trade Agreement.svg|Current CEFTA members File:CEI members.svg|Central European Initiative File:Three Seas Initiative.svg|Three Seas Initiative File:Visegrad group countries.svg|Visegrád Group </gallery> Democracy Index Democracy index map for 2022, with greener colours representing more democratic countries]] Central Europe is a home to some of world's oldest democracies. However, most of them have been impacted by totalitarianism, particularly Fascism and Nazism. Germany and Italy occupied all Central European countries, except Switzerland. In all occupied countries, the Axis powers suspended democracy and installed puppet regimes loyal to the occupation forces. Also, they forced conquered countries to apply racial laws and formed military forces for helping German and Italian struggle against Communists. After World War II, almost the whole of Central Europe (the Eastern and Middle part) had been transformed into communist states, most of which had been occupied and later allied with the Soviet Union, often against their will through forged referendum (e.g., Polish people's referendum in 1946) or force (northeast Germany, Poland, Hungary et alia). Nevertheless, these experiences have been dealt in most of them. Most of Central European countries score very highly in the Democracy Index.Global Peace Index In spite of its turbulent history, Central Europe is currently one of world's safest regions. Most Central European countries are in top 20%. Central European Time The time zone is a standard time which is 1 hour ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Countries using CET include: * Albania * Andorra * Austria * Belgium * Bosnia and Herzegovina * Croatia * Czech Republic * Denmark * France * Germany * Hungary * Italy * Luxembourg * Monaco * Montenegro * Netherlands * North Macedonia * Norway * Poland * San Marino * Slovakia * Slovenia *Serbia * Sweden * Switzerland * Vatican City In popular culture Central Europe is mentioned in the 35th episode of Lovejoy, entitled "The Prague Sun", filmed in 1992. While walking over the well-regarded and renowned Charles Bridge in Prague, the main character, Lovejoy, says: "I've never been to Prague before. Well, it is one of the great unspoiled cities in Central Europe. Notice: I said: 'Central', not 'Eastern'! The Czechs are a bit funny about that, they think of Eastern Europeans as turnip heads." Wes Anderson's Oscar-winning film The Grand Budapest Hotel depicts a fictional grand hotel located somewhere in Central Europe which is in actuality modeled on the Grandhotel Pupp in Karlovy Vary in the Czech Republic. The film is a celebration of the 1920s and 1930s Central Europe with its artistic splendor and societal sensibilities.See also * Central and Eastern Europe * Geographical midpoint of Europe * Life zones of central Europe * Międzymorze (Intermarum) References General and cited references * * * * * * |chapterCentral Europe: The History of An Idea |pages293–304 |publisherOxford |isbn9780199281442 |oclc70258980 |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541621.003.0016 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHf3EJYZcpqYC <!--full-text: https://epdf.pub/austria-hungary-and-the-habsburgs-central-europe-c1683-1867.html -->}} * * * * * * }} * [https://www.academia.edu/18698805/Shared_Pasts_in_Central_and_Southeast_Europe_17th_21st_Centuries_Hungarian_and_Bulgarian_Approaches._Eds._G%C3%A1bor_Demeter_Penka_Peykovska._Sofia-Budapest_2015_440_p/ Shared Pasts in Central and Southeast Europe, 17th–21st Centuries. Eds. G. Demeter, P. Peykovska. 2015] Further reading * Ágh, Attila. Declining Democracy in East-Central Europe: The Divide in the EU and Emerging Hard Populism (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2019). * Baldersheim, Harald, ed. Local democracy and the processes of transformation in East-Central Europe (Routledge, 2019). * * * Centre of Central European Studies, Agrarianism in Central and Eastern Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries (2013) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=40721 online review]. * * Gardner, Hall, ed. Central and South-central Europe in Transition (Praeger, 2000) * * * Lederer, David. Early Modern Central European History (2011) [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=35721 online review by Linnéa Rowlatt] * |doi10.1017/S0008938919000736 |jstor26795026 |s2cid204351865 |doi-access=free }} * * * * * 'Mapping Central Europe' in [http://www.hiddeneurope.co.uk/ hidden europe], 5, pp. 14–15 (November 2005) External links * [http://www.ece.ceu.hu Journal of East Central Europe] * [http://www.politicsincentraleurope.eu/ Central European Political Science Association's journal "Politics in Central Europe"] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100503141351/http://www.ceu.hu/poliscijournal CEU Political Science Journal (PSJ)] * [http://www.cejiss.org/ Central European Journal of International and Security Studies] * [http://www.cepsr.com/ Central European Political Studies Review] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150120161454/https://www.wien.gv.at/english/politics/international/strategy/mycentrope.html The Centrope region] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20111120070558/http://www.europemaps.info/ Maps of Europe and European countries] * [http://www.central2020.eu/ CENTRAL EUROPE 2020] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110805130513/http://www.databasece.com/en/macro-summary Central Europe Economy] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130826202405/http://www.unhcr-centraleurope.org/en/about-us/unhcr-in-central-europe.html UNHCR Office for Central Europe] Category:Regions of Europe
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Europe
2025-04-05T18:27:04.913451
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Geography of Canada
<!-- This short description is INTENTIONALLY "none" - please see WP:SDNONE before you consider changing it! --> | continent = North America | region = Northern America | coordinates = | area ranking = 2nd | km area = 9,984,671 | percent land = 91.08 | percent water = 8.92 | km coastline = 243042 | borders = 8,893 km | highest point Mount Logan,<br/> | lowest point = Atlantic Ocean, Sea Level | longest river Mackenzie River, <br/> | largest lake Great Bear Lake<br/> | climate = temperate, or humid continental to subarctic or arctic in north, and tundra in mountainous areas, and the far north | terrain = mostly plains and mountains in west, to highlands (low mountains) in the south east, and east, to flatlands in the Great lakes | natural resources = iron ore, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, potash, diamonds, silver, fish, timber, wildlife, coal, petroleum, natural gas, hydropower | natural hazards = permafrost, cyclonic storms, tornadoes, earthquakes, forest fires | environmental issues = air and water pollution, acid rains | exclusive economic zone }} Canada has a vast geography that occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing a land border with the contiguous United States to the south and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean. Greenland is to the northeast with a shared border on Hans Island. To the southeast Canada shares a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the last vestige of New France. By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, the difference being due to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes. Of Canada's thirteen provinces and territories, only two are landlocked (Alberta and Saskatchewan) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans. Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies from the North Pole. Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of ; additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching . Three of Canada's Arctic islands, Baffin Island, Victoria Island and Ellesmere Island, are among the ten largest in the world. Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago. Canada is also divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones, encompassing over 80,000 classified species of life. Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield; 42 percent of the land acreage of Canada is covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land), made up mostly of spruce, poplar and pine. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than —which is more than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water. There are also freshwater glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera. A recent global remote sensing analysis also suggested that there were 6,477 km<sup>2</sup> of tidal flats in Canada, making it the 5th ranked country in terms of how much tidal flat occurs there. Protected areas of Canada and National Wildlife Areas have been established to preserve ecosystems. Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada range from Arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons.Physiography , the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago.]] Canada covers and a panoply of various geoclimatic regions, of which there are seven main regions. The physical geography of Canada is widely varied. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northerly Arctic regions and through the Canadian Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population. The National Topographic System is used by Natural Resources Canada for providing general purpose topographic maps of the country. The maps provide details on landforms and terrain, lakes and rivers, forested areas, administrative zones, populated areas, roads and railways, as well as other man-made features. These maps are used by all levels of government and industry for forest fire and flood control (as well as other environmental issues), depiction of crop areas, right-of-way, real estate planning, development of natural resources and highway planning. It also runs through parts of southern Quebec. Parts of the Appalachians are home to a rich endemic flora and fauna and are considered to have been nunataks during the last glaciation era. Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Lowlands showing the five sub-basins within. Left to right they are: Superior, including Nipigon's basin, (magenta); Michigan (cyan); Huron (pale green); Erie (yellow); Ontario (light coral).]] Canadian Shield is a broad region of Precambrian rock (pictured in shades of red)]] The northeastern part of Alberta, northern parts of Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec, all of Labrador and the Great Northern Peninsula of Newfoundland, eastern mainland Northwest Territories, most of Nunavut's mainland and, of its Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Island and significant bands through Somerset, Southampton, Devon and Ellesmere islands are located on a vast rock base known as the Canadian Shield. The Shield mostly consists of eroded hilly terrain and contains many lakes and important rivers used for hydroelectric production, particularly in northern Quebec and Ontario. The Shield also encloses an area of wetlands around the Hudson Bay. Some particular regions of the Shield are referred to as mountain ranges, including the Torngat and Laurentian Mountains. The Shield cannot support intensive agriculture, although there is subsistence agriculture and small dairy farms in many of the river valleys and around the abundant lakes, particularly in the southern regions. Boreal forest covers much of the shield, with a mix of conifers that provide valuable timber resources in areas such as the Central Canadian Shield forests ecoregion that covers much of Northern Ontario. The Canadian Shield is known for its vast mineral reserves such as emeralds, diamonds and copper, and is there also called the "mineral house". The Arctic, when defined as everything north of the tree line, covers most of Nunavut and the northernmost parts of Northwest Territories, Yukon, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador. The archipelago consists of 36,563 islands, of which 94 are classified as major islands, being larger than , and cover a total area of . Its southeastern end is separated from the North Cascades by the Fraser Lowland, where nearly a third of Western Canada's population reside. The coastal flank of the Coast Mountains is characterized by an intense network of fjords and associated islands, very similar to the Norwegian coastline in Northern Europe; while their inland side transitions to the high plateau with dryland valleys notable for a series of large alpine lakes similar to those in southern Switzerland, beginning in deep mountains and ending in flatland. They are subdivided in three main groups, the Pacific Ranges between the Fraser River and Bella Coola, the Kitimat Ranges from there northwards to the Nass River<!--or Skeena?-->, and the Boundary Ranges from there to the mountain terminus in Yukon at Champagne Pass and Chilkat Pass northwest of Haines, Alaska. The widespread granite forming the Coast Mountains formed when magma intruded and cooled at depth beneath volcanoes of the Coast Range Arc whereas the metamorphic formed when intruding magma heated the surrounding rock to produce schist. The Insular Mountains extend from Vancouver Island in the south to the Haida Gwaii in the north on the British Columbia Coast. It contains two main mountain ranges, the Vancouver Island Ranges on Vancouver Island and the Queen Charlotte Mountains on Haida Gwaii. Hudson Bay Lowlands ecoregion of North America.]] Extreme points The northernmost point of land within the boundaries of Canada is Cape Columbia, Ellesmere Island, Nunavut . The northernmost point of the Canadian mainland is Zenith Point on Boothia Peninsula, Nunavut . whilst the highest point is Mount Logan, Yukon, at 5,959 m / 19,550 ft . The furthest straight-line distance that can be travelled to Canadian points of land is between the southwest tip of Kluane National Park and Reserve (next to Mount Saint Elias) and Cripple Cove, Newfoundland (near Cape Race) at a distance of . Climatology Climate varies widely from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near , but can drop below with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from , with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding . Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada. Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by , with changes ranging from in various regions, since 1948. In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.Biogeography Canada is divided into fifteen major terrestrial and five marine ecozones, that are further subdivided into 53 ecoprovinces, 194 ecoregions, and 1,027 ecodistricts. Due to pollution, loss of biodiversity, over-exploitation of commercial species, invasive species, and habitat loss, there are currently more than 800 wild life species at risk of being lost. Canada's major biomes are the tundra, boreal forest, grassland, and temperate deciduous forest. British Columbia contains several smaller biomes, including; mountain forest which extends to Alberta, and a small temperate rainforest along the Pacific coast, the semi arid desert located in the Okanagan and alpine tundra in the higher mountainous regions. Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development. Approximately half of Canada is covered by forest, totaling around . The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with around undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. The Canadian Arctic tundra is the second-largest vegetation region in the country consisting of dwarf shrubs, sedges and grasses, mosses and lichens. Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas. Palaeogeography Hydrography Canada holds vast reserves of water: its rivers discharge nearly 7% of the world's renewable water supply, Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than —which is more than any other country and has the third largest amount of glacier water. Canada is also home to about twenty five percent (134.6 million ha) of the world's wetlands that support a vast array of local ecosystems. Canada's waterways host forty-seven rivers of at least in length, with the two longest being the Mackenzie River, that begins at Great Slave Lake and ends in the Arctic Ocean, with its drainage basin covering a large part of northwestern Canada, and the Saint Lawrence River, which drains the Great Lakes into the Gulf of St. Lawrence ending in the Atlantic Ocean. The Mackenzie, including its tributaries is over in length and lies within the second largest drainage basin of North America, while the St. Lawrence in length, drains the world's largest system of freshwater lakes. The Atlantic watershed drains the entirety of the Atlantic provinces (parts of the Quebec-Labrador border are fixed at the Atlantic Ocean-Arctic Ocean continental divide), most of inhabited Quebec and large parts of southern Ontario. It is mostly drained by the economically important St. Lawrence River and its tributaries, notably the Saguenay, Manicouagan, and Ottawa rivers. The Great Lakes and Lake Nipigon are also drained by the St. Lawrence. The Churchill River and Saint John River are other important elements of the Atlantic watershed in Canada. The Hudson Bay watershed drains over a third of Canada. It covers Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec, most of Saskatchewan, southern Alberta, southwestern Nunavut, and the southern half of Baffin Island. This basin is most important in fighting drought in the prairies and producing hydroelectricity, especially in Manitoba, northern Ontario and Quebec. Major elements of this watershed include Lake Winnipeg, Nelson River, the North Saskatchewan and South Saskatchewan Rivers, Assiniboine River, and Nettilling Lake on Baffin Island. Wollaston Lake lies on the boundary between the Hudson Bay and Arctic Ocean watersheds and drains into both. It is the largest lake in the world that naturally drains in two directions. The fisheries industry has historically been one of Canada's strongest. Unmatched cod stocks on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland launched this industry in the 16th century. Today these stocks are nearly depleted, and their conservation has become a preoccupation of the Atlantic Provinces. On the West Coast, tuna stocks are now restricted. The less depleted (but still greatly diminished) salmon population continues to drive a strong fisheries industry. Canada claims of territorial sea, a contiguous zone of , an exclusive economic zone of with and a continental shelf of or to the edge of the continental margin. Five per cent of Canada's land area is arable, none of which is for permanent crops. Three per cent of Canada's land area is covered by permanent pastures. Canada has of irrigated land (1993 estimate). Agricultural regions in Canada include the Canadian Prairies, the Lower Mainland and various regions within the Interior of British Columbia, the St. Lawrence Basin and the Canadian Maritimes. Main crops in Canada include flax, oats, wheat, maize, barley, sugar beets and rye in the prairies; flax and maize in Western Ontario; Oats and potatoes in the Maritimes. Fruit and vegetables are grown primarily in the Annapolis Valley of Nova Scotia, Southwestern Ontario, the Golden Horseshoe region of Ontario, along the south coast of Georgian Bay and in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia. Cattle and sheep are raised in the valleys and plateaus of British Columbia. Cattle, sheep and hogs are raised on the prairies, cattle and hogs in Western Ontario, sheep and hogs in Quebec, and sheep in the Maritimes. There are significant dairy regions in central Nova Scotia, southern New Brunswick, the St. Lawrence Valley, northeastern Ontario, southwestern Ontario, the Red River valley of Manitoba and the valleys in the British Columbia Interior, on Vancouver Island and in the Lower Mainland. (mostly light green), which stretches from southwestern Manitoba to northeastern British Columbia.]] Fossil fuels are a more recently developed resource in Canada, with oil and gas being extracted from deposits in the Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin since the mid-1900s. While Canada's crude oil deposits are fewer, technological developments in recent decades have opened up oil production in Alberta's Oil Sands to the point where Canada now has some of the largest reserves of oil in the world. In other forms, Canadian industry has a long history of extracting large coal and natural gas reserves. Canada's mineral resources are diverse and extensive. Across the Canadian Shield and in the north there are large iron, nickel, zinc, copper, gold, lead, molybdenum, and uranium reserves. Large diamond concentrations have been recently developed in the Arctic, making Canada one of the world's largest producers. Throughout the Shield there are many mining towns extracting these minerals. The largest, and best known, is Sudbury, Ontario. Sudbury is an exception to the normal process of forming minerals in the Shield since there is significant evidence that the Sudbury Basin is an ancient meteorite impact crater. The nearby, but less known Temagami Magnetic Anomaly has striking similarities to the Sudbury Basin. Its magnetic anomalies are very similar to the Sudbury Basin, and so it could be a second metal-rich impact crater. The Shield is also covered by vast boreal forests that support an important logging industry. Canada's many rivers have afforded extensive development of hydroelectric power. Extensively developed in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador, the many dams have long provided a clean, dependable source of energy. Environmental issues is a significant source of air pollution in Canada.]] Air pollution and resulting acid rain severely affects lakes and damages forests. the exploration for resource then the extraction of these resources and an alternative transport route to the Panama Canal through the Northwest Passage. Canada is currently warming at twice the global average, and this is effectively irreversible.Political geography Canada is divided into ten provinces and three territories. According to Statistics Canada, 72.0 percent of the population is concentrated within of the nation's southern border with the United States, 70.0% live south of the 49th parallel, and over 60 percent of the population lives along the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River between Windsor, Ontario, and Quebec City. This leaves the vast majority of Canada's territory as sparsely populated wilderness; Canada's population density is , among the lowest in the world. Despite this, 79.7 percent of Canada's population resides in urban areas, where population densities are increasing. Canada shares with the U.S. the world's longest binational border at ; are with Alaska. The Danish island dependency of Greenland lies to Canada's northeast, separated from the Canadian Arctic islands by Baffin Bay and Davis Strait. As of June 14, 2022, Canada shares a land border with Greenland on Hans Island. The French islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon lie off the southern coast of Newfoundland in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and have a maritime territorial enclave within Canada's exclusive economic zone. Canada's geographic proximity to the United States has historically bound the two countries together in the political world as well. Canada's position between the Soviet Union (now Russia) and the U.S. was strategically important during the Cold War since the route over the North Pole and Canada was the fastest route by air between the two countries and the most direct route for intercontinental ballistic missiles. Since the end of the Cold War, there has been growing speculation that Canada's Arctic maritime claims may become increasingly important if global warming melts the ice enough to open the Northwest Passage. See also * Atlas of Canada * Canadian Geographic * Canadian Rockies * Extreme points of North America * List of highest points of Canadian provinces and territories * National Parks of Canada * List of Ultras of Canada * Mountain peaks of Canada * Temperature in Canada * References Further reading * * * * * * * * External links * Government of Canada – [https://web.archive.org/web/20050115094903/http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference The Atlas of Canada] * Canadian Geographic – [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/ The Canadian Atlas Online] * Cartography of Canada – [http://geamap.com/en/canada The Canadian Map Online] * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/ Canada]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Canada
2025-04-05T18:27:04.960894
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Demographics of Canada
41,465,298 (2024 Q4 est.) | density | growth 0.85% (2022 est.) | birth = 10.17 births/1,000 population (2022 est.) | death = 8.12 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.) | life = 83.8 years | life_male = 81.52 years | life_female = 86.21 years (2022 est.) | fertility = 1.26 children born/woman (2023 est.) | infant_mortality = 4.38 deaths/1,000 live births | net_migration = 5.46 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.) <!-- age structure --> | under_18_years | age_18–44_years | age_45-64_years | age_0–14_years 15.99% | age_15–64_years | age_65_years 18.98% <!-- sex ratio --> | total_mf_ratio =0.98 male(s)/female (2022 est.) | sr_at_birth =1.05 male(s)/female | sr_under_15 =1.06 male(s)/female | sr_15–64_years | sr_65_years_over0.75 male(s)/female <!-- nationality --> | nation = Canadian | major_ethnic White () It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40 million in 2023 and 41 million in 2024. Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth. The main driver of population growth is immigration, or about 2.5 million people. Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase. Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world, driven mainly by economic policy and, to a lesser extent, family reunification. In 2021, a total of 405,330 immigrants were admitted to Canada. New immigrants to Canada settle mostly in major urban areas such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver. Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements. History Population thumb|upright=1.2|Population density of Canadian provinces and territories The 2021 Canadian census had a total population count of 36,991,981 individuals, making up approximately 0.5% of the world's total population. A population estimate for 2024 put the total number of people in Canada at 41,012,563. Provinces and territories <onlyinclude> {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header-multi" styletext-align:left" style="margin:1em auto;" |- ! rowspan="2" |Population ! rowspan"2" | Name Cities Hamilton | div_10 Ontario | pop_10 = 569,353 | city_11 Surrey, British ColumbiaSurrey | div_11 British Columbia | pop_11 = 568,322 | city_12 Quebec City | div_12 Quebec | pop_12 = 549,459 | city_13 Halifax, Nova ScotiaHalifax | div_13 Nova Scotia | pop_13 = 439,819 | city_14 Laval, QuebecLaval | div_14 Quebec | pop_14 = 438,366 | city_15 London, OntarioLondon | div_15 Ontario | pop_15 = 422,324 | city_16 Markham, OntarioMarkham | div_16 Ontario | pop_16 = 338,503 | city_17 Vaughan | div_17 Ontario | pop_17 = 323,103 | city_18 Gatineau | div_18 Quebec | pop_18 = 291,041 | city_19 Saskatoon | div_19 Saskatchewan | pop_19 = 266,141 | city_20 Kitchener, OntarioKitchener | div_20 Ontario | pop_20 = 256,885 }} Census metropolitan areas Fertility rate The total fertility rate is the number of children born in a specific year cohort to the total number of women who can give birth in the country. In 1971, the birth rate for the first time dipped below replacement and since then has not rebounded. below the population replacement level, which stands at 2.1 births per woman. In 2020, Canada also experienced the country's lowest number of births in 15 years, |- !1861 !1862 !1863 !1864 !1865 !1866 !1867 !1868 !1869 !1870 |- |5.72 |5.63 |5.54 |5.44 |5.35 |5.26 |5.17 |5.07 |4.98 |4.89 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1871 !1872 !1873 !1874 !1875 !1876 !1877 !1878 !1879 !1880 |- |4.83 |4.77 |4.75 |4.72 |4.7 |4.68 |4.65 |4.63 |4.6 |4.53 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1881 !1882 !1883 !1884 !1885 !1886 !1887 !1888 !1899 !1890 |- |4.56 |4.52 |4.49 |4.45 |4.42 |4.38 |4.35 |4.31 |4.27 |4.24 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1891 !1892 !1893 !1894 !1895 !1896 !1897 !1898 !1899 !1900 |- |4.2 |4.19 |4.17 |4.15 |4.13 |4.11 |4.1 |4.08 |4.06 |4.04 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1901 !1902 !1903 !1904 !1905 !1906 !1907 !1908 !1909 !1910 |- |4.02 |4.03 |4.03 |4.03 |4.03 |4.04 |4.04 |4.04 |4.04 |4.05 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1911 !1912 !1913 !1914 !1915 !1916 !1917 !1918 !1919 !1920 |- |4.05 |4 |3.95 |3.89 |3.84 |3.79 |3.74 |3.68 |3.63 |3.58 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1921 !1922 !1923 !1924 !1925 !1926 !1927 !1928 !1929 !1930 |- |3.53 |3.4 |3.23 |3.22 |3.13 |3.35 |3.32 |3.29 |3.22 |3.28 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1931 !1932 !1933 !1934 !1935 !1936 !1937 !1938 !1939 !1940 |- |3.19 |3.08 |2.86 |2.8 |2.75 |2.69 |2.64 |2.7 |2.65 |2.76 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1941 !1942 !1943 !1944 !1945 !1946 !1947 !1948 !1949 !1950 |- |2.82 |2.96 |3.04 |3 |3.01 |3.37 |3.59 |3.44 |3.45 |3.45 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- !1961 !1971 !1981 !1991 !2001 !2006 !2011 !2016 !2021 !- |- |3.81 |2.11 |1.65 |1.67 |1.52 |1.6 |1.63 |1.58 |1.46 | – |} Total fertility rates by provinces and territories {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;" |+ 2023 !Province/Territory !TFR |- |||2.48 |- |||1.63 |- |||1.52 |- |||1.41 |- |||1.39 |- |||1.38 |- |||1.26 |- |||1.24 |- |||1.22 |- |||1.16 |- |||1.08 |- |||1.05 |- |||1.01 |- |||1.00 |} Mother's mean age at first birth Canada is among late-childbearing countries, with the average age of mothers at the first birth being 31.3 years in 2020. {| class="wikitable" ! rowspan"27" |Average age of childbirth at first birth However, over the same period, the population of France grew by 8.0%. And from 1991 to 2011, the population of the UK increased by 10.0%. The current population growth rate for Canada in 2022 was 0.75%. |2021|39110000 |2031|44430000 |2041|49900000 |2051|56070000 |2061|63000000 }} </div> <div style="display:inline-grid;"> </div> <div style="display:inline-grid;"> {{Historical populations |title=Immigration projections<br />projection, 2020 est. |align=centre |footnote= |2020|341,000 |2021|401,000 |2022|411,000 |- | | | | | | | | | colspan="2" | |- |1831 |1841 |1851 |1861 |1871 |1881 |1891 |1901 | colspan="2" |1911 |- |39.0 |40.3 |41.0 |41.6 |42.6 |44.7 |45.2 |48.6 | colspan="2" |52.5 |- | | | | | | | | | colspan="2" | |- |1921 |1922 |1923 |1924 |1925 |1926 |1927 |1928 | colspan="2" |1929 |- |57.0 |57.0 |56.9 |58.8 |59.2 |57.2 |58.6 |58.4 | colspan="2" |57.9 |- | | | | | | | | | colspan="2" | |- |1930 |1931 |1932 |1933 |1934 |1935 |1936 |1937 |1938 |1939 |- |58.9 |60.3 |61.4 |62.3 |62.7 |62.4 |62.7 |61.3 |63.3 |63.7 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- |1940 |1941 |1942 |1943 |1944 |1945 |1946 |1947 |1948 |1949 |- |64.0 |63.7 |64.6 |64.6 |65.3 |66.3 |66.5 |66.7 |67.3 |67.6 |- | | | | | | | | | | |- |1950 |1950–55 |1955–60 |1960–65 |1965–70 |1970–75 |1975–80 |1980–85 | colspan="2" |1985–90 |- |68.2 |69.1 |70.3 |71.3 |72.2 |73.0 |74.3 |75.9 |76.8 | |- | | | | | | | | | colspan="2" | |- |1990–95 |1995–2000 |2000–2005 |2005–2010 |2010–2015 |2015–2020 | colspan"4" rowspan"2" | |- |77.8 |78.6 |79.7 |80.8 |81.8 |83.7 |} School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education) :total: 16 years :male: 16 years :female: 17 years (2016) Infant mortality rate :total: 4.5 deaths/1,000 live births. Country comparison to the world: 180th :male: 4.8 deaths/1,000 live births :female: 4.2 deaths/1,000 live births (2017 est.) Age characteristics Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 10.V.2016) (To ensure confidentiality, the values, including totals are randomly rounded either up or down to a multiple of '5' or '10.' As a result, when these data are summed or grouped, the total value may not match the individual values since totals and sub-totals are independently rounded. Similarly, percentages, which are calculated on rounded data, may not necessarily add up to 100%.): {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;" |- ! width="80pt"|Age Group ! width="80pt"|Male ! width="80pt"|Female ! width="80pt"|Total ! width="80pt"|% |- | align="right" | Total | align="right" | 17 264 200 | align="right" | 17 887 530 | align="right" | 35 151 730 | align="right" | 100 |- | align="right" | 0–4 | align="right" | 973 030 | align="right" | 925 760 | align="right" | 1 898 790 | align="right" | 5.40 |- | align="right" | 5–9 | align="right" | 1 034 685 | align="right" | 983 445 | align="right" | 2 018 130 | align="right" | 5.74 |- | align="right" | 10–14 | align="right" | 985 200 | align="right" | 937 445 | align="right" | 1 922 645 | align="right" | 5.47 |- | align="right" | 15–19 | align="right" | 1 039 215 | align="right" | 986 940 | align="right" | 2 026 160 | align="right" | 5.76 |- | align="right" | 20–24 | align="right" | 1 144 495 | align="right" | 1 098 200 | align="right" | 2 242 695 | align="right" | 6.38 |- | align="right" | 25–29 | align="right" | 1 144 475 | align="right" | 1 141 515 | align="right" | 2 285 990 | align="right" | 6.50 |- | align="right" | 30–34 | align="right" | 1 148 290 | align="right" | 1 181 105 | align="right" | 2 329 400 | align="right" | 6.63 |- | align="right" | 35–39 | align="right" | 1 118 635 | align="right" | 1 169 730 | align="right" | 2 288 365 | align="right" | 6.51 |- | align="right" | 40–44 | align="right" | 1 104 445 | align="right" | 1 150 690 | align="right" | 2 255 135 | align="right" | 6.42 |- | align="right" | 45–49 | align="right" | 1 157 755 | align="right" | 1 202 205 | align="right" | 2 359 965 | align="right" | 6.71 |- | align="right" | 50–54 | align="right" | 1 318 755 | align="right" | 1 359 320 | align="right" | 2 678 070 | align="right" | 7.62 |- | align="right" | 55–59 | align="right" | 1 285 190 | align="right" | 1 335 050 | align="right" | 2 620 240 | align="right" | 7.45 |- | align="right" | 60–64 | align="right" | 1 114 880 | align="right" | 1 175 630 | align="right" | 2 290 510 | align="right" | 6.52 |- | align="right" | 65–69 | align="right" | 953 070 | align="right" | 1 019 405 | align="right" | 1 972 475 | align="right" | 5.61 |- | align="right" | 70–74 | align="right" | 677 975 | align="right" | 742 900 | align="right" | 1 420 875 | align="right" | 4.04 |- | align="right" | 75–79 | align="right" | 469 550 | align="right" | 552 305 | align="right" | 1 021 850 | align="right" | 2.91 |- | align="right" | 80–84 | align="right" | 325 760 | align="right" | 423 885 | align="right" | 749 645 | align="right" | 2.13 |- | align="right" | 85–89 | align="right" | 185 535 | align="right" | 296 985 | align="right" | 482 525 | align="right" | 1.37 |- | align="right" | 90–94 | align="right" | 68 675 | align="right" | 154 835 | align="right" | 223 505 | align="right" | 0.64 |- | align="right" | 95–99 | align="right" | 13 245 | align="right" | 43 280 | align="right" | 56 525 | align="right" | 0.16 |- | align="right" | 100+ | align="right" | 1 340 | align="right" | 6 895 | align="right" | 8 230 | align="right" | 0.02 |- ! width="50"|Age group ! width="80pt"|Male ! width="80"|Female ! width="80"|Total ! width="50"|Percent |- | align="right" | 0–14 | align="right" | 2 992 915 | align="right" | 2 846 650 | align="right" | 5 839 565 | align="right" | 16.61 |- | align="right" | 15–64 | align="right" | 11 576 135 | align="right" | 11 800 390 | align="right" | 23 376 525 | align="right" | 66.50 |- | align="right" | 65+ | align="right" | 2 695 150 | align="right" | 3 240 490 | align="right" | 5 935 640 | align="right" | 16.89 |- |} Age structure :# Newfoundland and Labrador: 44.0 :# Nova Scotia: 43.7 :# New Brunswick: 43.7 :# Prince Edward Island: 42.8 :# Quebec: 41.9 :# British Columbia: 41.9 :# Ontario: 40.4 :# Yukon: 39.1 :# Manitoba: 38.4 :# Saskatchewan: 38.2 :# Alberta: 36.5 :# Northwest Territories: 32.3 :# Nunavut: 24.1 Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female 0–14 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 15–24 years: 1.06 male(s)/female 25–54 years: 1.01 male(s)/female 55–64 years: 0.98 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.75 male(s)/female total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2022 est). Dependency ratios :total dependency ratio: 47.3 :youth dependency ratio: 23.5 :elderly dependency ratio: 23.8 :potential support ratio: 4.2 (2015 est.) Vital statistics <span style="color: #CE2029; text-shadow: 1px 1px 2px #000000;">Note: This table uses the sticky table format to make scrolling easier. If you prefer, you can disable it. </span> {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;"|- ! ! style="width:70pt;" | Average population (on July 1) ! style="width:70pt;" | Live births ! style="width:70pt;" | Deaths ! style="width:70pt;" | Natural change ! style="width:70pt;" | Birth rate (per 1,000) ! style="width:70pt;" | Death rate (per 1,000) ! style="width:70pt;" | Natural change (per 1,000) ! style="width:70pt;" | Crude Migration change (per 1,000) ! style"width:70pt;" | Total fertility rate {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;" |+ |- ! Period ! Live births ! Deaths ! Natural increase |- ! January–December 2023 | 352,196 | 339,700 | +14,300 |- ! January–December 2024 | 365,567 | 345,829 | +18,757 |- ! Difference | +11,020 (+3.8%) | +6,563 (+1.8%) | +4,457 |} Note: all numbers in this table are provisional. While data for at least two years ago may be final, newer data for recent days are subject to change in the future. For example, as of September 25 2024, The numbers are final up to December 2021, updated from January 2022 to March 2024 and preliminary from April 2024. Employment Unemployment, youth ages 15–24 :total: 20.2% :male: 20.9% :female: 19.4% (2020 est.) Ethnicity and visible minorities Canadians as ethnic group by province All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire. The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify directly with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude of reasons such as generational distance from ancestral lineage, intermarriage with variety of ethnic groups, and loss of ancestral language. {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;" |- ! Province / Territory !! Percent Canadians !Total Canadians |- | Alberta ||22.7% |902,310 |- | British Columbia ||19.0% |866,530 |- | Manitoba ||18.2% |232,660 |- | New Brunswick ||57.8% |415,810 |- | Newfoundland and Labrador ||43.4% |271,345 |- | Nova Scotia ||42.6% |387,360 |- | Ontario ||23.5% |3,109,770 |- | Prince Edward Island ||45.0% |60,000 |- | Quebec ||60.1% |4,474,115 |- | Saskatchewan ||25.0% |274,580 |- ! Canada total || 32.3% || 11,136,134 |} Ethnic origin According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins" were self-reported by Canadians. Statistics Canada reports that 35.5% of the population reported multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100%.}} (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Indian (5.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent). Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021 approximately 24.5 million reported being "White", representing 67.4 percent of the population. One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,}} the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent). As data is completely self-reported, and reporting individuals may have varying definitions of "Ethnic origin" (or may not know their ethnic origin), these figures should not be considered an exact record of the relative prevalence of different ethno-cultural ancestries but rather how Canadians self-identify. Data from this section from Statistics Canada, 2021. {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;" |- ! scope"col" | Ethnic origin ! % ! scope="col" | Population |- ! scope"row" | Canadian | 15.6% | style="text-align:right;"| 5,677,205 |- ! scope="row" | English | 14.7% | style="text-align:right;"| 5,322,830 |- ! scope="row" | Irish | 12.1% | style="text-align:right;"| 4,413,120 |- ! scope="row" | Scottish | 12.1% | style="text-align:right;"| 4,392,200 |- ! scope="row" | French | 11.0% | style="text-align:right;"| 3,985,945 |- ! scope="row" | German | 8.1% | style="text-align:right;"| 2,955,695 |- ! scope"row" | Indian | 5.1% | style="text-align:right;"| 1,855,415 |- ! scope="row" | Chinese | 4.7% | style="text-align:right;"| 1,713,870 |- ! scope="row" | Italian | 4.3% | style="text-align:right;"| 1,546,390 |- ! scope="row" | Ukrainian | 3.5% | style="text-align:right;"| 1,258,635 |- ! scope="row" | Dutch | 2.7% | style="text-align:right;"| 988,585 |- ! scope="row" | Polish | 2.7% | style="text-align:right;"| 982,820 |- ! scope="row" | Québécois | 2.7% | style="text-align:right;"| 981,635 |- ! scope="row" | British Isles, n.o.s. | 2.6% | style="text-align:right;"| 981,635 |- ! scope="row" | Filipino | 2.5% | style="text-align:right;"| 925,490 |- ! scope="row" | French Canadian | 2.5% | style="text-align:right;"| 906,315 |- ! scope="row" | Caucasian (White), n.o.s. | 1.9% | style="text-align:right;"| 691,260 |- ! scope="row" | First Nations, n.o.s. | 1.7% | style="text-align:right;"| 632,340 |- ! scope="row" | Métis | 1.5% | style="text-align:right;"| 560,335 |- ! scope="row" | European, n.o.s. | 1.5% | style="text-align:right;"| 551,910 |} The most common ethnic origins per province are as follows in 2006 (total responses; only percentages 10% or higher shown; ordered by percentage of "Canadian"): * Quebec (7,723,525): Canadian (59.1%), French (29.1%) * New Brunswick (735,835): Canadian (50.3%), French (27.2%), English (25.9%), Irish (21.6%), Scottish (19.9%) * Newfoundland and Labrador (507,265): Canadian (49.0%), English (43.4%), Irish (21.8%) * Nova Scotia (906,170): Canadian (39.1%), Scottish (31.2%), English (30.8%), Irish (22.3%), French (17.0%), German (10.8%) * Prince Edward Island (137,375): Scottish (39.3%), Canadian (36.8%), English (31.1%), Irish (30.4%), French (21.1%) * Ontario (12,651,795): Canadian (23.3%), English (23.1%), Scottish (16.4%), Irish (16.4%), French (10.8%) * Alberta (3,567,980): English (24.9%), Canadian (21.8%), German (19.2%), Scottish (18.8%), Irish (15.8%), French (11.1%) * Manitoba (1,174,345): English (21.8%), German (18.6%), Canadian (18.5%), Scottish (18.0%), Ukrainian (14.9%), Irish (13.2%), French (12.6%), North American Indian (10.6%) * Saskatchewan (1,008,760): German (28.6%), English (24.9%), Scottish (18.9%), Canadian (18.8%), Irish (15.5%), Ukrainian (13.5%), French (12.2%), North American Indian (12.1%) * British Columbia (4,324,455): English (27.7%), Scottish (19.3%), Canadian (19.1%), German (13.1%), Chinese (10.7%) * Yukon (33,320): English (28.5%), Scottish (25.0%), Irish (22.0%), North American Indian (21.8%), Canadian (21.8%), German (15.6%), French (13.1%) * Northwest Territories (40,800): North American Indian (37.0%), Scottish (13.9%), English (13.7%), Canadian (12.8%), Irish (11.9%), Inuit (11.7%) * Nunavut (31,700): Inuit (85.4%) Italics indicates either that this response is dominant within this province, or that this province has the highest ratio (percentage) of this response among provinces. Visible minority population {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;" |+ Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 1981–1996 ! rowspan="2"| Group ! colspan"2" | 1981 census<br /> ! colspan"2" | 1991 census<br /> |- style="background:#e0e0e0;" ! Total ! % ! Total ! % ! Total ! % ! Total ! % |- class="sortbottom" ! Visible minority ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || South Asian ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Chinese (East Asian) ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Black ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Filipino ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Latin American ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Arab/West Asian ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Southeast Asian<br />(except Filipino) ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Korean (East Asian) ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- || Japanese (East Asian) ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- class="sortbottom" || Multiple visible minorities ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- class="sortbottom" || Visible minority, ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- class="sortbottom" || Other ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- class="sortbottom" ! Not a visible minority ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- class="sortbottom" || Indigenous<br />(see breakdown below) ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- class="sortbottom" || Non-Indigenous &<br />Non-Visible Minority<br />(European/White) {|class"wikitable sortable sticky-header" styletext-align:left;" |+ Visible and non-visible minority populations by group, 2001–2021 ! rowspan="2"| Group ! colspan"2" | 2001 census ! colspan"2" | 2021 census ! colspan"2" | 2001 ! colspan"2" | 2006 ! colspan"2" | 2011 ! colspan"2" | 2016 ! colspan"2" | 2021 |- style="background:#e0e0e0;" ! % !! Total !! % !! Total !! % !! Total !! % !! Total !! % !! Total !! % !! Total |- |align="left"|Total Indigenous |2.8% |799,005 |3.3% |976,305 |3.8% |1,172,785 |4.3% |1,400,685 |4.9% |1,673,780 | |1,807,250 |- |align="left"|First Nations |1.8% |529,040 |2.1% |608,850 |2.2% |698,025 |2.6% |851,560 |2.8% |977,230 | |1,048,405 |- |align="left"|Métis |0.7% |204,115 |1.0% |292,305 |1.2% |389,780 |1.4% |451,795 |1.7% |587,545 | |624,220 |- |align="left"|Inuit |0.14% |40,220 | | |0.16% |50,485 |0.2% |59,445 |0.2% |65,025 | |70,540 |} Note: Other Indigenous and mixed Indigenous groups are not listed as their own, but they are all accounted for in total Indigenous Future projections Statistics Canada projects that visible minorities will make up between 38.2% and 43.0% of the total Canadian population by 2041, ! style"text-align:center;" colspan"2"|<big>2036</big> ! colspan"2" |2011 ! colspan"2" |2001 ! colspan"2" |1991 |- ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! |- | English | 31,628,570 | | 28,360,235 | | 25,246,220 | | 22,505,415 | |- | French | 10,563,235 | | 9,960,585||34,767,250||||33,121,175||||31,241,030|||| |} Work {| class"wikitable sortable" |+ Language used most often at work |- !Language !% of total population (2016) !% of total population (2006) |- |English | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |French | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |Non-official | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |English and French | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |English and non-official | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |Other | align="right" | | align="right" | |} Home {| class="wikitable sortable" |+ Language used most often at home |- !Language !% of total population (2016) !% of total population (2006) |- |English | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |French | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |Non-official | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |English and non-official | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |English and French | align="right" | | align="right" | |- |Other | align="right" | | align="right" | |} Immigration According to the 2021 Canadian census, immigrants in Canada number 8.3 million persons and make up approximately 23 percent of Canada's total population. Immigrants from specific countries are divided into several ethnic groups. For example, there are both Punjabis and Muhajirs from Pakistan, both Turks and Kurds from Turkey and both Sinhalese and Tamil from Sri Lanka. Immigrants from Iran are divided into Mazandaranians, Azeris, Persians, Kurds, Gilaks and Lurs. Since confederation in 1867 through to the contemporary era, decadal and demi-decadal census reports have detailed immigration statistics. During this period, the highest annual immigration rate in Canada occurred in 1913, when 400,900 new immigrants accounted for 5.3 percent of the total population, while the greatest number of foreign-born individuals admitted to Canada in single year occurred in 2021, with 405,330 new immigrants accounting for 1.1 percent of the total population. Statistics Canada projects that immigrants will represent between 29.1% and 34.0% of Canada's population in 2041, compared with 23.0% in 2021, while the Canadian population with at least one foreign born parent (first and second generation persons) could rise to between 49.8% and 54.3%, up from 44.0% in 2021. {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Canada Immigration Statistics !Year !Immigrant percentage !Immigrant population !Total responses !Total population |- |1871 | |594,207 | |3,689,257 |- |1881 | |602,984 | |4,324,810 |- |1891 | |643,871 | |4,833,239 |- |1901 | |699,500 | |5,371,315 |- |1911 | |1,586,961 | |7,206,643 |- |1921 | |1,955,736 | |8,787,949 |- |1931 | |2,307,525 | |10,374,196 |- |1941 | |2,018,847 | |11,506,655 |- |1951 | |2,059,911 | |14,009,429 |- |1961 | |2,844,263 | |18,238,247 |- |1971 | |3,295,535 |21,568,310 |21,568,311 |- |1981 | |3,843,335 |24,083,495 |24,343,181 |- |1986 | |3,908,150 |25,022,005 |25,309,331 |- |1991 | |4,342,890 |26,994,045 |27,296,859 |- |1996 | |4,971,070 |28,528,125 |28,846,761 |- |2001 | |5,448,480 |29,639,030 |30,007,094 |- |2006 | |6,186,950 |31,241,030 |31,612,897 |- |2011 | |6,775,765 |32,852,325 |33,476,688 |- |2016 | |7,540,830 |34,460,060 |35,151,728 |- |2021 | |8,361,505 |36,328,475 |36,991,981 |- |} Migration data {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Canada Net migration, 1952–1971 ! Year !! Immigration !! Emigration !! Net Migration |- | 1952 || 164,498 || 60,559 || 106,939 |- | 1953 || 168,868 || 57,975 || 110,893 |- | 1954 || 154,227 || 57,150 || 97,077 |- | 1955 || 109,946 || 61,893 || 48,053 |- | 1956 || 164,857 || 68,753 || 96,104 |- | 1957 || 282,164 || 74,383 || 207,781 |- | 1958 || 124,851 || 61,681 || 63,170 |- | 1959 || 106,928 || 69,189 || 37,739 |- | 1960 || 104,111 || 75,596 || 28,515 |- | 1961 || 71,689 || 72,305 || −616 |- | 1962 || 74,586 || 76,740 || −2,154 |- | 1963 || 93,151 || 83,563 || 9,588 |- | 1964 || 112,606 || 92,430 || 20,176 |- | 1965 || 146,758 || 105,307 || 41,451 |- | 1966 || 194,743 || 91,489 || 103,254 |- | 1967 || 222,876 || 108,462 || 114,414 |- | 1968 || 183,974 || 100,036 || 83,938 |- | 1969 || 161,531 || 90,089 || 71,495 |- | 1970 || 147,713 || 80,961 || 66,752 |- | 1971 || 121,162 || 70,097 || 51,065 |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Canada Net migration, 1972–2019 ! Year !! Immigration !! Emigration !! Net migration !! Net non-permanent migration !! Total net migration |- | 1972 || 122,006 || 26,175 || 95,831 || 2,975 || 98,806 |- | 1973 || 184,200 || 40,714 || 143,486 || 7,928 || 151,414 |- | 1974 || 218,465 || 42,020 || 176,445 || 1,977 || 178,422 |- | 1975 || 187,881 || 34,280 || 153,601 || 7,931 || 161,532 |- | 1976 || 146,429 || 28,292 || 118,137 || −2,969 || 115,168 |- | 1977 || 117,914 || 29,106 || 88,808 || −1,982 || 86,826 |- | 1978 || 86,313 || 31,692 || 54,621 || −2,970 || 51,651 |- | 1979 || 112,036 || 24,492 || 87,544 || 7,930 || 95,474 |- | 1980 || 143,498 || 17,623 || 125,875 || 14,869 || 140,744 |- | 1981 || 128,794 || 24,604 || 104,190 || 30,281 || 134,471 |- | 1982 || 121,331 || 31,054 || 90,277 || −3,727 || 86,550 |- | 1983 || 89,377 || 31,803 || 57,574 || 4,369 || 61,943 |- | 1984 || 88,599 || 29,064 || 59,535 || −349 || 59,186 |- | 1985 || 84,339 || 26,864 || 57,474 || 10,981 || 68,455 |- | 1986 || 97,343 || 30,232 || 67,111 || 46,537 || 113,648 |- | 1987 || 152,031 || 28,865 || 123,166 || 40,899 || 164,065 |- | 1988 || 161,534 || 24,534 || 137,000 || 108,917 || 245,917 |- | 1989 || 191,516 || 26,706 || 164,810 || 67,356 || 232,166 |- | 1990 || 216,424 || 25,011 || 191,413 || −10,951 || 180,462 |- | 1991 || 232,776 || 43,396 || 189,380 || −54,661 || 134,719 |- | 1992 || 254,856 || 48,721 || 206,135 || −31,933 || 174,202 |- | 1993 || 256,754 || 50,657 || 206,097 || −63,292 || 142,805 |- | 1994 || 224,395 || 55,682 || 168,713 || −16,500 || 152,213 |- | 1995 || 212,875 || 51,252 || 151,623 || 169 || 151,792 |- | 1996 || 226,061 || 49,841 || 176,220 || −9,667 || 166,553 |- | 1997 || 216,034 || 62,803 || 153,231 || 791 || 154,022 |- | 1998 || 174,184 || 57,842 || 116,342 || 921 || 117,263 |- | 1999 || 189,971 || 54,387 || 135,584 || 22,431 || 158,015 |- | 2000 || 227,429 || 57,109 || 170,330 || 28,433 || 198,763 |- | 2001 || 250,638 || 59,391 || 191,247 || 47,286 || 238,533 |- | 2002 || 229,049 || 45,682 || 183,367 || 29,133 || 212,500 |- | 2003 || 221,349 || 49,876 || 171,473 || 22,943 || 194,416 |- | 2004 || 235,859 || 55,085 || 180,774 || 14,225 || 194,999 |- | 2005 || 262,246 || 52,436 || 209,810 || 3,159 || 212,969 |- | 2006 || 251,649 || 47,890 || 203,759 || 12,741 || 216,500 |- | 2007 || 236,763 || 51,455 || 185,308 || 43,958 || 229,266 |- | 2008 || 247,262 || 52,678 || 194,584 || 71,669 || 266,253 |- | 2009 || 252,218 || 41,131 || 211,087 || 55,977 || 267,064 |- | 2010 || 280,739 || 42,187 || 238,552 || 31,927 || 270,479 |- | 2011 || 248,735 || 50,932 || 197,803 || 42,802 || 240,605 |- | 2012 || 257,825 || 50,426 || 207,399 || 46,207 || 253,606 |- | 2013 || 259,046 || 26,608 || 232,438 || 52,984 || 285,422 |- | 2014 || 260,308 || 54,956 || 205,352 || 16,970 || 222,322 |- | 2015 || 271,867 || 56,566 || 215,301 || −9,330 || 205,971 |- | 2016 || 296,385 || 56,772 || 239,613 || 88,722 || 328,335 |- | 2017 || 286,537 || 43,832 || 242,705 || 138,034 || 380,739 |- | 2018 || 321,054 || 37,915 || 283,139 || 154,917 || 438,056 |- | 2019 || 341,174 || 35,791 || 305,383 || 189,781 || 495,164 |} {| class="wikitable sortable" |+Canada Net migration 2020–present ! Year !! Immigration !! Emigration !! Net Migration !! Non-permanent Resident Inflow !! Non-permanent Resident Outflow !! Net Non-permanent Resident !! Total Net Migration |- | 2020 || 184,594 || 19,235 || 165,359 || – || – || −96,066 || 69,293 |- | 2021 || 406,046 || 39,161 || 366,885 || – || – || 77,052 || 443,937 |- | 2022 || 437,612 || 47,991 || 389,621 || 960,266 || 408,722 || 551,544 || 941,165 |- | 2023 || 471,871 || 48,709 || 423,162 || 1,289,173 || 468,407 || 820,766 || 1,243,928 |- | 2024 || 483,591 || 50,170 || 433,421 || 1,036,471 || 745,306 || 291,165 || 724,586 |} Religion In 2021, 53.3% of Canadians were Christians, down from 67.3% in 2011. 29.9% were Catholic while 11.4% were Protestant (all other listed denominations excluding Christian Orthodox, Latter Day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses). 7.6% were Christian not otherwise specified, 2.1% were "other Christian and Christian-related traditions", 1.7% were Christian Orthodox, 0.4% were Jehovah's Witnesses and 0.2% were Latter Day Saints adherents. 34.6% of Canadians were non-religious or secular, up from 23.9% in 2011. Of the non-Christian religions listed, 4.9% of Canadians were Muslim (3.2% in 2011), 2.3% were Hindu (1.5% in 2011), 2.1% were Sikh (1.4% in 2011), 1.0% were Buddhist (1.1% in 2011), 0.9% were Jewish (1.0% in 2011), 0.2% were believers of traditional (North American Indigenous) spirituality (same as 2011), and 0.6% were believers of other religions and spiritual traditions (0.4% in 2011). {| class="wikitable sortable collapsible" !colspan3 |Religion status of the Canadian Population in 2021<ref name":2" /> |- !scope="col"| Religion !scope"col" data-sort-type"number" | Total !scope"col" data-sort-type"number" | Percent |- | scope"row" | Christian || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Roman Catholic || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Christian n.o.s. || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | United Church || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Anglican || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Christian Orthodox || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Baptist || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Pentecostal and other Charismatic || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Lutheran || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Presbyterian || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Anabaptist || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Jehovah's Witness || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Methodist and Wesleyan (Holiness) || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Latter Day Saints|| align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Reformed || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Other Christian and Christian-related traditions|| align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Muslim|| align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Hindu || align"center" | || align="center" | |- | scope"row" | Sikh|| align"center" | || align="center" | |- |scope"row"| Buddhist ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- | scope"row" | Jewish || align"center" | || align="center" | |- |scope"row"| Traditional (North American Indigenous) Spirituality ||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- |scope"row"| Other religions and spiritual traditions||aligncenter| ||aligncenter| |- |scope"row"| No religion and secular perspectives || align"center" | ||align=center| |} See also * Demographics of North America * 1666 census of New France * 2016 Canadian census * 2021 Canadian census * List of Canadian census areas demographic extremes * Interprovincial migration in Canada * Canada immigration statistics * Cahiers québécois de démographie academic journal * Canadian Studies in Population academic journal Notes <references group="Note" /> References Further reading * * * * * * Roderic Beaujot and Don Kerr, (2007) [https://books.google.com/books?idCofPBh5BRhwC&dqThe%20Changing%20Face%20of%20Canada%3A%20Essential%20Readings%20in%20Population&pg=PP1 The Changing Face of Canada: Essential Readings in Population], Canadian Scholars' Press, . External links * [http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/11-402-x2010000-eng.htm Canada Year Book (2010)] – Statistics Canada * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101202045341/http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo23a-eng.htm Population estimates and projections, 2010 – 2036] – Statistics Canada * [https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/71-607-x/71-607-x2018005-eng.htm Canada's population clock] }}
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Canada
2025-04-05T18:27:05.330019
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Politics of Canada
<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> The politics of Canada functions within a framework of parliamentary democracy and a federal system of parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Canada is a constitutional monarchy where the monarch is the ceremonial head of state. In practice, executive authority is entrusted to the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown chaired by the prime minister of Canada that act as the executive committee of the King's Privy Council for Canada and are responsible to the democratically elected House of Commons. Canada is described as a "full democracy", with a tradition of secular liberalism, and an egalitarian, moderate political ideology. Extremism has never been prominent in Canadian politics. The traditional "brokerage" model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology. Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government. An emphasis on multiculturalism and social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture. Canada has placed emphasis on diversity, equity and inclusion for all its people. The country has a multi-party system in which many of its legislative practices derive from the unwritten conventions of and precedents set by the Westminster parliament of the United Kingdom. The two dominant political parties in Canada have historically been the Liberal Party of Canada and the current Conservative Party of Canada (as well as its numerous predecessors). Parties like the New Democratic Party, the Quebec nationalist Bloc Québécois and the Green Party of Canada have grown in prominence, exerting their own influence to the political process. but the federal model and division of powers were devised by Canadian politicians. Particularly after World War I, citizens of the self-governing Dominions, such as Canada, began to develop a strong sense of identity, and, in the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the British government and the governments of the six Dominions jointly agreed that the Dominions had full autonomy within the British Commonwealth. In 1931, after further consultations and agreements between the British government and the governments of the Dominions, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster, giving legal recognition to the autonomy of Canada and other Dominions. However, Canadian politicians were unable to obtain consensus on a process for amending the constitution, which was therefore not affected by the Statute of Westminster, meaning amendments to Canada's constitution continued to require the approval of the British parliament until that date. Similarly, the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in Britain continued to make the final decision on criminal appeals until 1933 and on civil appeals until 1949. It was not until 1982, with the Patriation of the Constitution, that the role of the British Parliament was ended.Political culture Canada's egalitarian approach to governance has emphasized social welfare, economic freedom, and multiculturalism, which is based on selective economic migrants, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, that has wide public and political support. Its broad range of constituent nationalities and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected. Individual rights, equality and inclusiveness (social equality) have risen to the forefront of political and legal importance for most Canadians, as demonstrated through support for the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a relatively free economy, and social liberal attitudes toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination), divorce, homosexuality, same-sex marriage, birth control, euthanasia or cannabis use. There is also a sense of collective responsibility in Canadian political culture, as is demonstrated in general support for universal health care, multiculturalism, evolution, gun control, foreign aid, and other social programs. At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics", the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors). "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology" as the Canadian catch-all party system requires support from a broad spectrum of voters. with the Conservatives sitting on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left. Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2021 election: the Liberal Party who currently form the government, the Conservative Party who are the Official Opposition, the New Democratic Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada. Polls have suggested that Canadians generally do not have a solid understanding of civics. This has been theorized to be a result of less attention being given to the subject in provincial education curricula, beginning in the 1960s. By 2008, a poll showed only 24 per cent of respondents could name the monarch as head of state. Likewise, Senator Lowell Murray wrote five years earlier that "the Crown has become irrelevant to most Canadians' understanding of our system of Government." As John Robson of the National Post opined in 2015: "Intellectually, voters and commentators succumb to the mistaken notion that we elect 'governments' of prime ministers and cabinets with untrammelled authority, that indeed ideal 'democracy' consists precisely in this kind of plebiscitary autocracy." Governmental organization ; Type of government : Westminster style federal parliamentary democracy within a constitutional monarchy. ; Administrative divisions : Ten provinces and three territories*: Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Northwest Territories*, Nova Scotia, Nunavut*, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, Yukon*. ; Constitution : Westminster system, based on unwritten conventions and written legislation. ; Legal system : English common law for all matters within federal jurisdiction and in all provinces and territories except Quebec, which is based on the civil law, based on the Custom of Paris in pre-revolutionary France as set out in the Civil Code of Quebec; accepts compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction, with reservations. ; Suffrage : Citizens aged 18 years or older. Only two adult citizens in Canada cannot vote: the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Deputy Chief Electoral Officer. The Governor General is eligible to vote, but abstains due to constitutional convention. Monarchy ; Head of state: Charles III, King of Canada (since September 8, 2022). ; Viceroy: Mary Simon, Governor General of Canada (since July 26, 2021). Canada is a constitutional monarchy, wherein the role of the reigning sovereign is both legal and practical, but not political. The monarch is formally vested with all powers of state, which are in practice excercised only by the various institutions of government acting under the sovereign's authority. The executive is thus formally referred to as the King-in-Council, the legislature as the King-in-Parliament, and the courts as the King-on-the-Bench. Though the person who is monarch of Canada (currently plainname1}}) is also the monarch of 14 other countries in the Commonwealth of Nations, he nevertheless reigns separately as King of Canada, an office that is "truly Canadian" and "totally independent from that of the monarch of the United Kingdom or the other Commonwealth realms." On the advice of the Canadian prime minister, the sovereign appoints a federal viceregal representative—the governor general(currently Mary Simon)—who, since 1947, is permitted to exercise almost all of the monarch's royal prerogative; though, there are some duties which must be specifically performed by the monarch themselves (such as assent of certain bills). In case of the governor general's absence or incapacitation, the administrator of Canada performs the Crown's most basic functions. Royal assent is required to enact laws. As part of the royal prerogative, the royal sign-manual gives authority to letters patent and orders-in-Council. The royal prerogative also includes summoning, proroguing, and dissolving Parliament in order to call an election and extends to foreign affairs, which include the negotiation and ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and declarations of war; the accreditation of Canadian diplomats and receipt of foreign diplomats; and the issuance of passports. Despite the wide theoretical extent of the sovereign's powers, in actual practice he or she excercises them only through or with the advice of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Within the constitutional conventions of the Westminster system, the sovereign's freedom of action or personal choice in any area of governance is quite limited. Executive power from 1867 to 1963. The Prime Minister of Canada serves as the head of government.]] ; Head of government: Mark Carney, Prime Minister of Canada (since March 14, 2025). ; Cabinet: Ministers (usually around thirty) chosen by the prime minister and appointed by the governor general to lead various ministries and agencies, generally with regional representation. Traditionally most, if not all, cabinet ministers will be members of the leader's own party in the House of Commons or Senate (see Cabinet of Canada); however this is not legally or constitutionally mandated, and occasionally, the prime minister will appoint a cabinet minister from another party. ; Elections : The monarchy is hereditary. The governor general is appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister for a non-specific term, though it is traditionally approximately five years. Following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party in the House of Commons is usually designated by the governor general to become prime minister. Legislative power The bicameral Parliament of Canada consists of three parts: the monarch, the Senate, and the House of Commons. Currently, the Senate, which is frequently described as providing regional representation, has 105 members appointed by the Governor-General on the advice of the Prime Minister to serve until age 75. It was created with equal representation from the three regions of Ontario, Quebec, and the Maritimes (originally New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, expanded in 1873 to include Prince Edward Island). In 1915, a new Western division was created, with six senators from each of the four western provinces, so that each of the four regions had 24 seats in the Senate. When Newfoundland and Labrador joined Confederation in 1949, it was not included in an existing region and was assigned six seats. Each of the three territories has one seat. It is not based on representation-by-population. The normal number of senators can be exceeded by the monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, as long as the additional senators are distributed equally with regard to region (up to a total of eight additional Senators). This power of additional appointment has only been used once, when Prime Minister Brian Mulroney petitioned Queen Elizabeth II to add eight seats to the Senate so as to ensure the passage of the Goods and Services Tax legislation. is one of three components of the Parliament of Canada.]] The House of Commons currently has 338 members elected in single-member districts in a plurality voting system (first past the post), meaning that members must attain only a plurality (the most votes of any candidate) rather than a majority. The electoral districts are also known as ridings. Mandates cannot exceed five years; an election must occur by the end of this time. This fixed mandate has been exceeded only once, when Prime Minister Robert Borden perceived the need to do so during World War I. A constitutional amendment was passed, extending the life of the Parliament by one year, by the unanimous consent of the House of Commons. The size of the House and apportionment of seats to each province is revised after every census, conducted every five years, and is based on population changes and approximately on representation-by-population. Elections and government formation Canadians vote for the election of their local member of parliament (MP) only. A vote is cast directly for a candidate. The candidate in each riding who receives a plurality of votes (first-past-the-post system) is elected. An MP need not be a member of any political party: such MPs are known as independents. When a number of MPs share political opinions they may form a body known as a political party. The Canada Elections Act defines a political party as "an organization one of whose fundamental purposes is to participate in public affairs by endorsing one or more of its members as candidates and supporting their election." Forming and registering a federal political party are two different things. There is no legislation regulating the formation of federal political parties. Elections Canada cannot dictate how a federal political party should be formed or how its legal, internal and financial structures should be established. Most parties elect their leaders in instant-runoff elections to ensure that the winner receives more than 50% of the votes. Normally the party leader stands as a candidate to be an MP during an election. This happens at leadership conventions. Canada's parliamentary system empowers political parties and their party leaders. Where one party gets a majority of the seats in the House of Commons, that party is said to have a "majority government." Through party discipline, the party leader, who is elected in only one riding, exercises a great deal of control over the cabinet and the parliament. Historically, the prime minister and senators are selected by the Governor General as a representative of the King, though in modern practice the monarch's duties are ceremonial. Consequently, the prime minister, while technically selected by the Governor General, is for all practical purposes selected by the party with the majority of seats. That is, the party that gets the most seats normally forms the government, with that party's leader becoming prime minister. The prime minister is not directly elected by the general population, although the prime minister is almost always directly elected as an MP within his or her constituency. Often the most popular party in an election takes a majority of the seats, even if it did not receive a majority of the vote. However, as there are usually three or more political parties represented in parliament, often no party takes a majority of the seats. A minority government occurs when the party that holds the most seats in the House of Commons holds fewer seats than the opposition parties combined. Where no party is given a majority, the defeated Ministry may choose to stay in office until defeated on a vote of confidence in the House, or it may resign. If it resigns, the Governor General will ask the leader of the opposition party most likely to enjoy the confidence of the House to form a government; however, for the government to survive and to pass laws, the leader chosen must have the support of the majority of the House, meaning they need the support of the elected members of at least one other party. This can be done on a case-by-case basis, through a coalition government (which has only occurred once at the federal level, the Unionist government formed during World War I) or through a confidence-and-supply agreement (such as the one the Liberals and the NDP signed in 2022). Federal-provincial relations (centre), Prime minister of Canada, between Howard Ferguson (left), Premier of Ontario, and Louis-Alexandre Taschereau (right), Premier of Quebec, at the Dominion-Provincial Conference, 1927.]] As a federation, the existence and powers of the federal government and the ten provinces are guaranteed by the Constitution. The Constitution Act, 1867 sets out the basic constitutional structure of the federal government and the provinces. The Sovereign is the formal head of state of the federal government and each of the ten provinces, but has no political role. The governments are led by the representatives of the people: elected by all adult Canadians at the federal level, and by the citizens of each province at the provincial level. Federal-provincial (or intergovernmental, formerly Dominion-provincial) relations is a regular issue in Canadian politics: Quebec wishes to preserve and strengthen its distinctive nature, western provinces desire more control over their abundant natural resources, especially energy reserves; industrialized Central Canada is concerned with its manufacturing base, and the Atlantic provinces strive to escape from being less affluent than the rest of the country. In order to ensure that social programs such as health care and education are funded consistently throughout Canada, the "have-not" (poorer) provinces receive a proportionately greater share of federal "transfer (equalization) payments" than the richer, or "have", provinces do; this has been somewhat controversial. The richer provinces often favour freezing transfer payments, or rebalancing the system in their favour, based on the claim that they already pay more in taxes than they receive in federal government services, and the poorer provinces often favour an increase on the basis that the amount of money they receive is not sufficient for their existing needs. This power allows the federal government to influence provincial policies, by offering funding in areas that the federal government cannot itself regulate. The federal spending power is not expressly set out in the Constitution Act, 1867; however, in the words of the Court of Appeal for Ontario the power "can be inferred" from s. 91(1A), "the public debt and property". A prime example of an exercise of the spending power is the Canada Health Act, which is a conditional grant of money to the provinces. Regulation of health services is, under the Constitution, a provincial responsibility. However, by making the funding available to the provinces under the Canada Health Act contingent upon delivery of services according to federal standards, the federal government has the ability to influence health care delivery. Quebec and Canadian politics Except for three short-lived transitional or minority governments, prime ministers from Quebec led Canada continuously from 1968 to early 2006. People from Quebec led both Liberal and Progressive Conservative governments in this period. Monarchs, governors general, and prime ministers are now expected to be at least functional, if not fluent, in both English and French. In selecting leaders, political parties give preference to candidates who are fluently bilingual. By law, three of the nine positions on the Supreme Court of Canada must be held by judges from Quebec. This representation makes sure that at least three judges have sufficient experience with the civil law system to treat cases involving Quebec laws. National unity Canada has a long and storied history of secessionist movements (see Secessionist movements of Canada). National unity has been a major issue in Canada since the forced union of Upper and Lower Canada in 1840. The predominant and lingering issue concerning Canadian national unity has been the ongoing conflict between the French-speaking majority in Quebec and the English-speaking majority in the rest of Canada. Quebec's continued demands for recognition of its "distinct society" through special political status has led to attempts for constitutional reform, most notably with the failed attempts to amend the constitution through the Meech Lake Accord and the Charlottetown Accord (the latter of which was rejected through a national referendum). Since the Quiet Revolution, sovereigntist sentiments in Quebec have been variably stoked by the patriation of the Canadian constitution in 1982 (without Quebec's consent) and by the failed attempts at constitutional reform. Two provincial referendums, in 1980 and 1995, rejected proposals for sovereignty with majorities of 60% and 50.6% respectively. Given the narrow federalist victory in 1995, a reference was made by the Chrétien government to the Supreme Court of Canada in 1998 regarding the legality of unilateral provincial secession. The court decided that a unilateral declaration of secession would be unconstitutional. This resulted in the passage of the Clarity Act in 2000. The Bloc Québécois, a sovereigntist party which runs candidates exclusively in Quebec, was started by a group of MPs who left the Progressive Conservative (PC) party (along with several disaffected Liberal MPs), and first put forward candidates in the 1993 federal election. With the collapse of the PCs in that election, the Bloc and Liberals were seen as the only two viable parties in Quebec. Thus, prior to the 2006 election, any gain by one party came at the expense of the other, regardless of whether national unity was really at issue. The Bloc, then, benefited (with a significant increase in seat total) from the impressions of corruption that surrounded the Liberal Party in the lead-up to the 2004 election. However, the newly unified Conservative party re-emerged as a viable party in Quebec by winning 10 seats in the 2006 election. In the 2011 election, the New Democratic Party succeeded in winning 59 of Quebec's 75 seats, successfully reducing the number of seats of every other party substantially. The NDP surge nearly destroyed the Bloc, reducing them to 4 seats, far below the minimum requirement of 12 seats for official party status. Newfoundland and Labrador is also a problem regarding national unity. As the Dominion of Newfoundland was a self-governing country equal to Canada until 1949, there are large, though unco-ordinated, feelings of Newfoundland nationalism and anti-Canadian sentiment among much of the population. This is due in part to the perception of chronic federal mismanagement of the fisheries, forced resettlement away from isolated settlements in the 1960s, the government of Quebec still drawing inaccurate political maps whereby they take parts of Labrador, and to the perception that mainland Canadians look down upon Newfoundlanders. In 2004, the Newfoundland and Labrador First Party contested provincial elections and in 2008 in federal ridings within the province. In 2004, then-premier Danny Williams ordered all federal flags removed from government buildings as a result of lost offshore revenues to equalization clawbacks. On December 23, 2004, premier Williams made this statement to reporters in St. John's, According to recent scholars, there have been four party systems in [Canada] at the federal level since Confederation, each with its own distinctive pattern of social support, patronage relationships, leadership styles, and electoral strategies. Political scientists disagree on the names and precise boundaries of the eras, however. Steve Patten identifies four party systems in Canada's political history Clarkson (2005) shows how the Liberal Party has dominated all the party systems, using different approaches. It began with a "clientelistic approach" under Laurier, which evolved into a "brokerage" system of the 1920s, 1930s and 1940s under Mackenzie King. The 1950s saw the emergence of a "pan-Canadian system", which lasted until the 1990s. The 1993 election — categorized by Clarkson as an electoral "earthquake" which "fragmented" the party system, saw the emergence of regional politics within a four party-system, whereby various groups championed regional issues and concerns. Clarkson concludes that the inherent bias built into the first-past-the-post system, has chiefly benefited the Liberals. Party funding The rules governing the funding of parties are designed to ensure reliance on personal contributions. Personal donations to federal parties and campaigns benefit from tax credits, although the amount of tax relief depends on the amount given. Also only people paying income taxes receive any benefit from this. The rules are based on the belief that union or business funding should not be allowed to have as much impact on federal election funding as these are not contributions from citizens and are not evenly spread out between parties. The new rules stated that a party had to receive 2% of the vote nationwide in order to receive the general federal funding for parties. Each vote garnered a certain dollar amount for a party (approximately $1.75) in future funding. For the initial disbursement, approximations were made based on previous elections. The NDP received more votes than expected (its national share of the vote went up) while the new Conservative Party of Canada received fewer votes than had been estimated and was asked to refund the difference. Quebec was the first province to implement a similar system of funding many years before the changes to funding of federal parties. Federal funds are disbursed quarterly to parties, beginning at the start of 2005. For the moment, this disbursement delay leaves the NDP and the Green Party in a better position to fight an election, since they rely more on individual contributors than federal funds. The Green Party now receives federal funds, since it for the first time received a sufficient share of the vote in the 2004 election. In 2007, news emerged of a funding loophole that "could cumulatively exceed the legal limit by more than $60,000", through anonymous recurrent donations of $200 to every riding of a party from corporations or unions. At the time, for each individual, the legal annual donation limit was $1,100 for each party, $1,100 combined total for each party's associations, and in an election year, an additional $1,100 combined total for each party's candidates. All three limits increase on 1 April every year based on the inflation rate. Two of the biggest federal political parties in Canada experienced a drop in donations in 2020, in light of the COVID-19 pandemic impact on the global economy. Political parties, leaders and status <small>Ordered by number of elected representatives in the House of Commons</small> *Liberal Party: Mark Carney, Prime Minister of Canada *Conservative Party: Pierre Poilievre, Leader of the Official Opposition *Bloc Québécois: Yves-François Blanchet *New Democratic Party: Jagmeet Singh *Green Party: Elizabeth May and Jonathan Pedneault Leaders' debates Leaders' debates in Canada consist of two debates, one English and one French, both produced by a consortium of Canada's five major television broadcasters (CBC/SRC, CTV, Global and TVA) and usually consist of the leaders of all parties with representation in the House of Commons. These debates air on the networks of the producing consortium as well as the public affairs and parliamentary channel CPAC and the American public affairs network C-SPAN. Judiciary is the highest court in the Canadian justice system.]] Government departments and structure The Canadian government operates the public service using departments, smaller agencies (for example, commissions, tribunals, and boards), and crown corporations. There are two types of departments: central agencies such as Finance, Privy Council Office, and Treasury Board Secretariat have an organizing and oversight role for the entire public service; line departments are departments that perform tasks in a specific area or field, such as the departments of Agriculture, Environment, or Defence. *Significant departments include Finance, Revenue, Human Resources and Skills Development, National Defence, Public Safety and Emergency Preparedness, and Foreign Affairs/International Trade. Scholar Peter Aucoin, writing about the Canadian Westminster system, raised concerns in the early 2000s about the centralization of power; an increased number, role and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day. Elections * Elections ** House of Commons: direct plurality representation (last election held October 21, 2019) ** Senate: appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the prime minister * Election results See also * Constitutional debate in Canada * Fair Vote Canada * Federal political financing in Canada * List of Canadian federal electoral districts * List of Canadian federal general elections * List of Canadian political scandals * List of political parties in Canada * Populism in Canada * Republicanism in Canada * Socialism in Canada Notes References Further reading * Argyle, Ray. Turning Points: The Campaigns That Changed Canada - 2011 and Before (2011) 440pp [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/B005233WJG/ excerpt and text search] ch. 1 * * * * * * * * Hyde, Anthony (1997). Promises, Promises: Breaking Faith in Canadian Politics. Toronto: Viking. viii, 218 p. * * * * * Pammett, Jon H., and Christopher Dornan, eds. The Canadian Federal Election of 2011 (2011) [https://www.amazon.com/Canadian-Federal-Election-2011/dp/1459701801/ excerpt and text search]; 386pp; essays by experts * * * ; Political thought * Katherine Fierlbeck, [https://books.google.com/books?id0bZBHlF4V8EC&lpgPP1&dqPolitical%20Thought%20in%20Canada%3A%20An%20Intellectual%20History&pgPP1 Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History], Broadview Press, 2006 * Ian McKay, ''[https://books.google.com/books?idGc_yHAW03fIC&lpgPP1&dqRebels%2C%20Reds%2C%20Radicals%3A%20Rethinking%20Canada's%20Left%20History&pgPP1 Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada's Left History]'', Between the Lines, 2006 External links * [http://www.canadanewsnet.com/ Canada Newsnet (formerly PoliWonk) - Extensive Canadian Politics news and resources] * [http://canadian-politics.com/ Canadian-Politics.com]; —Comprehensive overview of politics in Canada * [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-73-1700/politics_economy/political_scandals/ CBC Digital Archives – Scandals, Boondoggles and White Elephants] * [http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-73-1181/politics_economy/federal_elections/ CBC Digital Archives – Campaigning for Canada] * [http://etatscanadiens-canadiangovernments.enap.ca/fr/index.aspx Canadian Governments Compared] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120313090329/http://www.northernblue.ca/cpo/index.php/Canadian_Politics_Online Canadian Politics Online Digital Textbook] }} <!--Categories--> Category:Political history of Canada Category:Westminster system
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Canada
2025-04-05T18:27:05.370878
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Economy of Canada
$2.330 trillion (nominal; 2025) * $2.690 trillion (PPP; 2025) * 1.5% }} | components | inflation 1.6% (12 month change – September 2024) | poverty 9.9% (official, 2022; StatCan) | gini 0.281 (2020, StatCan) | hdi = 0.935 (2022) (18th) * 0.860 IHDI (14th) (2021)}} | labor = 21.34 million (2022) * 59.1% employment rate (September 2020)}} | occupations | unemployment 6.5% (September 2024) * 13.5% youth unemployment (September 2024; 15 to 24 year-olds) * 1.2 million unemployed (December 2021) (2022) | average net salary C$5,065 / US$3,700 monthly (2022) | industries = | edbr 23rd (very easy, 2020) | current account $1.4 billion (Q3 2021) | exports US$717.6 billion (2023) | export-goods = motor vehicles and parts, industrial machinery, aircraft, telecommunications equipment; chemicals, plastics, fertilizers; wood pulp, timber, crude petroleum, natural gas, electricity, aluminum | export-partners (+) 76.9%| (-) 4.6%| (-) 3.7%| (+) 2.4%| (+) 2.3%| Other 10.1% }} | imports US$726.1 billion (2023) | import-goods = machinery and equipment, motor vehicles and parts, crude oil, chemicals, electricity, durable consumer goods | import-partners (-) 49.2%| (+) 13.5%| (-) 10.8%| (-) 5.5%| (-) 2.3%| Other 18.7% *Outward: $2.096 trillion (2022) | balance −1% (of GDP) (2017 est.) | credit = * Moody's: * Fitch: }} | reserves US$122.9 billion (July 2024) | cianame = canada | spelling = Oxford }} The economy of Canada is a highly developed mixed economy, the world's ninth-largest , and a nominal GDP of approximately . In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion. Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States. Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions. It ranks low in the Corruption Perceptions Index (12th in 2023) and "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world". It ranks high in the Global Competitiveness Report (14th in 2019) and Global Innovation Indexes (15th in 2022). Canada's economy ranks above most Western nations on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity. The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average. Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability Among OECD members, Canada has a highly efficient and strong social security system; social expenditure stood at roughly 23.1% of GDP. Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce. Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components. Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada spends around 1.70% of GDP on advanced research and development across various sectors of the economy. Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry. In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted the federal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA). The government abolished the NEP in the 1980s and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada to encourage foreign investment. The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement). As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 countries. Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy. Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world. The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third or fourth-largest. Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains. The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium. Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries. The fishing industry is also a key contributor to the economy. Overview With the exception of a few island nations in the Caribbean, Canada is the only North American country to use the parliamentary system of government. As a result, Canada has developed its own social and political institutions, distinct from most other countries in the world. Though the Canadian economy is closely integrated with the American economy, it has developed unique economic institutions. The Canadian economic system generally combines elements of private enterprise and public enterprise. Many aspects of public enterprise, most notably the development of an extensive welfare spending system to redress social and economic inequities, were adopted after the end of World War II in 1945. Canada has one of the highest levels of economic freedom in the world. Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system and pattern of production. As of 2019, Canada has 56 companies in the Forbes Global 2000 list, ranking ninth just behind South Korea and ahead of Saudi Arabia. International trade makes up a large part of the Canadian economy, particularly of its natural resources. In 2009, agriculture, energy, forestry and mining exports accounted for about 58% of Canada's total exports. Machinery, equipment, automotive products and other manufactures accounted for a further 38% of exports in 2009. Canada's combined exports and imports ranked 8th among all nations in 2006. About 4% of Canadians are directly employed in primary resource fields, and they account for 6.2% of GDP. They are still paramount in many parts of the country. Many, if not most, towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber. Canada is a world leader in the production of many natural resources such as gold, nickel, uranium, diamonds, lead, and in recent years, crude petroleum, which, with the world's second-largest oil reserves, is taking an increasingly prominent position in natural resources extraction. Several of Canada's largest companies are based in natural resource industries, such as Encana, Cameco, Goldcorp, and Barrick Gold. The vast majority of these products are exported, mainly to the United States. There are also many secondary and service industries that are directly linked to primary ones. For instance one of Canada's largest manufacturing industries is the pulp and paper sector, which is directly linked to the logging business. The reliance on natural resources has several effects on the Canadian economy and Canadian society. While manufacturing and service industries are easy to standardize, natural resources vary greatly by region. This ensures that differing economic structures developed in each region of Canada, contributing to Canada's strong regionalism. At the same time the vast majority of these resources are exported, integrating Canada closely into the international economy. Howlett and Ramesh argue that the inherent instability of such industries also contributes to greater government intervention in the economy, to reduce the social impact of market changes. Natural resource industries also raise important questions of sustainability. Despite many decades as a leading producer, there is little risk of depletion. Large discoveries continue to be made, such as the massive nickel find at Voisey's Bay. Moreover, the far north remains largely undeveloped as producers await higher prices or new technologies as many operations in this region are not yet cost effective. In recent decades Canadians have become less willing to accept the environmental destruction associated with exploiting natural resources. High wages and Aboriginal land claims have also curbed expansion. Instead, many Canadian companies have focused their exploration, exploitation and expansion activities overseas where prices are lower and governments more amenable. Canadian companies are increasingly playing important roles in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. The depletion of renewable resources has raised concerns in recent years. After decades of escalating overutilization the cod fishery all but collapsed in the 1990s, and the Pacific salmon industry also suffered greatly. The logging industry, after many years of activism, has in recent years moved to a more sustainable model, or to other countries. Measuring productivity Productivity measures are key indicators of economic performance and a key source of economic growth and competitiveness. OECD's Compendium of Productivity Indicators, According to the definition above "MFP is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation". Measures of productivity include the gross domestic product (GDP) and total factor productivity.Multifactor productivity Another productivity measure, used by OECD, is the long-term trend in multifactor productivity (MFP) also known as total factor productivity (TFP). This indicator assesses an economy's "underlying productive capacity ('potential output'), itself an important measure of the growth possibilities of economies and of inflationary pressures". MFP measures the residual growth that cannot be explained by the rate of change in the services of labour, capital and intermediate outputs, and is often interpreted as the contribution to economic growth made by factors such as technical and organisational innovation. According to OECD's annual economic survey of Canada in June 2012, Canada has experienced weak growth of multi-factor productivity (MFP) and has been declining further since 2002. One of the ways MFP growth is raised is by boosting innovation and Canada's innovation indicators such as business R&D and patenting rates were poor. Raising MFP growth is "needed to sustain rising living standards, especially as the population ages". Since 2010, productivity growth has picked up, almost entirely driven by above average multifactor productivity growth. However, productivity on the whole still lags behind the upper half of OECD countries such as the United States. Canada's productivity is now around the median OECD productivity, close to that of Australia. More can be done to increase productivity, such as increasing the productivity of capital through improving the capital stock to output ratio and capital quality. This could be achieved through the liberalization of internal trade barriers, as suggested in the OECD's latest Canadian economic survey. Bank of Canada The mandate of the central bank—the Bank of Canada is to conduct monetary policy that "preserves the value of money by keeping inflation low and stable". The Bank of Canada, a federal crown corporation, has the responsibility of Canada's monetary system. The inflation target was set at 2 per cent, which is the midpoint of an inflation range of 1 to 3 per cent. They established a set of inflation-reduction targets to keep inflation "low, stable and predictable" and to foster "confidence in the value of money", contribute to Canada's sustained growth, employment gains and improved standard of living. Inflation targeting During the period that John Crow was Governor of the Bank of Canada—1987 to 1994—there was a worldwide recession and the bank rate rose to around 14% and unemployment topped 11%. Although since that time inflation-targeting has been adopted by "most advanced-world central banks", As a result, interest rates and inflation eventually came down along with the value of the Canadian dollar. On July 15, 2015, the Bank of Canada announced that it was lowering its target for the overnight rate by another one-quarter percentage point, to 0.5 per cent "to try to stimulate an economy that appears to have failed to rebound meaningfully from the oil shock woes that dragged it into decline in the first quarter". According to the Bank of Canada announcement, in the first quarter of 2015, the total Consumer price index (CPI) inflation was about 1 per cent. This reflects "year-over-year price declines for consumer energy products". Core inflation in the first quarter of 2015 was about 2 per cent with an underlying trend in inflation at about 1.5 to 1.7 per cent. The Chinese stock market had lost about US$3 trillion of wealth by July 2015 when panicked investors sold stocks, which created declines in the commodities markets, which in turn negatively impacted resource-producing countries like Canada. The Bank's main priority has been to keep inflation at a moderate level. As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years. Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%. In mid 2017, inflation remained below the Bank's 2% target, (at 1.6%) mostly because of reductions in the cost of energy, food and automobiles; as well, the economy was in a continuing spurt with a predicted GDP growth of 2.8 percent by year end. Early on July 12, 2017, the bank issued a statement that the benchmark rate would be increased to 0.75%. Following the COVID-19 pandemic, critics have pointed out that the Bank of Canada's inflation-targeting has had unintended consequences, such as fuelling an increase in home prices and contributing to wealth inequalities by supporting higher equity values.Key industriesIn 2020, the Canadian economy had the following relative weighting by the industry as a percentage value of GDP: {| class="wikitable" |- ! Industry !! Share of GDP |- | Real estate and rental and leasing || 13.01% |- | Manufacturing || 10.37% |- | Mining, quarrying, and oil and gas extraction || 8.21% |- | Finance and insurance || 7.06% |- | Construction || 7.08% |- | Health care and social assistance || 6.63% |- | Public administration || 6.28% |- | Wholesale trade || 5.78% |- | Retail trade || 5.60% |- | Professional, scientific and technical services || 5.54% |- | Educational services || 5.21% |- | Transportation and warehousing || 4.60% |- | Information and cultural industries || 3.00% |- | Administrative and support, waste management, and remediation services || 2.46% |- | Utilities || 2.21% |- | Accommodation and food services || 2.15% |- | Other services (except public administration) || 1.89% |- | Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting || 1.53% |- | Arts, entertainment and recreation || 0.77% |- | Management of companies and enterprises || 0.62% |} Real estate, rental, and leasing Canada's real estate market is the backbone of the economy, comprising over 13% of the GDP by sector in 2020. In 2021, housing investment accounted for 21% of national wealth. The commoditization of shelter in Canada is thought to undermine free-market capitalism by strictly controlling the demand and supply of housing in order produce wealth from the vulnerability of those living in harsh climates. Moreover, it is difficult to discern the actual contribution of other sectors (Construction, Investment and Financial Services, Manufacturing, Forestry, etc) to Real Estate, Rental and Leasing, as these industries are intrinsically linked in a complex economy. In order to prevent free-market forces from acting to stabilize the cost of housing, the Bank of Canada has increased its mortgage bond holdings to target 50% of the fixed-rate primary issuances. Service sector The service sector in Canada is vast and multifaceted, employing about three quarters of Canadians and accounting for 70% of GDP. The largest employer is the retail sector, employing almost 12% of Canadians. The retail industry is concentrated mainly in a small number of chain stores clustered together in shopping malls. In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of big-box stores, such as Walmart (of the United States), Real Canadian Superstore, and Best Buy (of the United States). This has led to fewer workers in this sector and the migration of retail jobs to the suburbs. in Downtown Vancouver. Canadian business services are largely concentrated in large urban areas of Canada.]] The second-largest portion of the service sector is the business service, and it employs only a slightly smaller percentage of the population. This includes the financial services, real estate, and communications industries. This portion of the economy has been rapidly growing in recent years. It is largely concentrated in the major urban centres, especially Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver (see Banking in Canada). The education and health sectors are two of Canada's largest, but both are primarily under the influence of the government. The health care industry has been quickly growing and is the third-largest in Canada. Its rapid growth has led to problems for governments who must find money to fund it. Canada has an important high tech industry, and a burgeoning film, television, and entertainment industry creating content for local and international consumption (see Media in Canada). Tourism is of ever increasing importance, with the vast majority of international visitors coming from the United States. Casino gaming is currently the fastest-growing component of the Canadian tourism industry, contributing $5 billion in profits for Canadian governments and employing 41,000 Canadians as of 2001. Manufacturing 's Oakville Assembly in the Greater Toronto Area. Central Canada is home to several auto factories of the major American and Japanese automakers.]] The general pattern of development for wealthy nations was a transition from a raw material production-based economy to a manufacturing-based economy and then to a service-based economy. At its World War II peak in 1944, Canada's manufacturing sector accounted for 29% of GDP, declining to 10.37% in 2017. Manufacturing in Canada declined significantly during the Great Recession. As of 2017, manufacturing accounts for 10% of Canada's GDP, In 2017, heavy industry accounted for 10.2% of Canada's greenhouse gas emissions. |- |Gold |5 | |- |Nickel |5 | |- |Copper |10 | |- |Iron (ore) |8 | |- |Titanium |4 | |- |Potash |1 | |- |Niobium |2 | |- |Molybdenum||7|| |- |Cobalt||7|| |- |Lithium||8|| |- |Zinc||8|| |} In 2019, the country was also the 4th largest world producer of sulfur; the 13th largest world producer of gypsum; the 14th worldwide producer of antimony; the world's 10th largest producer of graphite; in addition to being the 6th largest world producer of salt. It was the 2nd largest producer in the world of uranium in 2018. Energy Canada has access to cheap sources of energy because of its geography. This has enabled the creation of several important industries, such as the large aluminum industries in British Columbia and Quebec. Canada is also one of the world's highest per capita consumers of energy.Electricity The electricity sector in Canada has played a significant role in the economic and political life of the country since the late 19th century. The sector is organized along provincial and territorial lines. In a majority of provinces, large government-owned integrated public utilities play a leading role in the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity. Ontario and Alberta have created electricity markets in the last decade in order to increase investment and competition in this sector of the economy. In 2017, the electricity sector accounted for 10% of total national greenhouse gas emissions. Canada has substantial electricity trade with the neighbouring United States amounting to 72 TWh exports and 10 TWh imports in 2017. Hydroelectricity accounted for 59% of all electric generation in Canada in 2016, making Canada the world's second-largest producer of hydroelectricity after China. Since 1960, large hydroelectric projects, especially in Quebec, British Columbia, Manitoba and Newfoundland and Labrador, have significantly increased the country's generation capacity. The second-largest single source of power (15% of the total) is nuclear power, with several plants in Ontario generating more than half of that province's electricity and one generator in New Brunswick. This makes Canada the world's sixth-largest electricity producer generated by nuclear power, producing 95 TWh in 2017. Fossil fuels provide 19% of Canadian electric power, about half as coal (9% of the total), and the remainder a mix of natural gas and oil. Only five provinces use coal for electricity generation. Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Nova Scotia rely on coal for nearly half of their generation, while other provinces and territories use little or none. Alberta and Saskatchewan also use a substantial amount of natural gas. Remote communities, including all of Nunavut and much of the Northwest Territories, produce most of their electricity from diesel generators at high economic and environmental costs. The federal government has set up initiatives to reduce dependence on diesel-fired electricity. Non-hydro renewables are a fast-growing portion of the total, at 7% in 2016.Oil and gas 's Mildred Lake plant site at the Athabasca oil sands in Alberta]] Canada possesses extensive oil and gas resources centered in Alberta, and the Northern Territories but is also present in neighboring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast Athabasca oil sands give Canada the world's third-largest reserves of oil after Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, according to USGS. The oil and gas industry represents 27% of Canada's total greenhouse gas emissions, an increase of 84% since 1990, mostly due to the development of the oil sands. The National Energy Policy of the early 1980s attempted to make Canada oil-sufficient and to ensure equal supply and price of oil in all parts of Canada, especially for the eastern manufacturing base. This policy proved deeply divisive as it forced Alberta to sell low-priced oil to eastern Canada. The policy was eliminated 5 years after it was first announced amid a collapse of oil prices in 1985. The new Prime Minister Brian Mulroney had campaigned against the policy in the 1984 Canadian federal election. One of the most controversial sections of the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement of 1988 was a promise that Canada would never charge the United States more for energy than fellow Canadians.Agriculture in Saskatchewan]] Canada is one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products, particularly wheat and other grains. Canada is a major exporter of agricultural products, to the United States and Asia. As with all other developed nations, the proportion of the population and GDP devoted to agriculture fell dramatically over the 20th century. The agriculture and agri-food manufacturing sector created $49.0 billion to Canada's GDP in 2015, accounting for 2.6% of total GDP. This sector also accounts for 8.4% of Canada's Greenhouse gas emissions. However, Canada has strongly supported reducing market influencing subsidies through the World Trade Organization. In 2000, Canada spent approximately CDN$4.6 billion on support for the industry. $2.32 billion was classified under the WTO designation of "green box" license, meaning it did not directly influence the market, such as money for research or disaster relief. All but $848.2 million were subsidies worth less than 5% of the value of the crops they were provided for. Free-trade agreements Free-trade agreements in force <!-- For future editors, agreements are sorted from oldest to newest --> :Source: * Canada–Israel Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force January 1, 1997, modernization ongoing) * Canada–Chile Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force July 5, 1997) * Canada–Costa Rica Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force November 1, 2002, modernization ongoing) * Canada–European Free Trade Association Free Trade Agreement (Iceland, Norway, Switzerland and Liechtenstein; entered into force July 1, 2009) * Canada–Peru Free Trade Agreement (Entered into force August 1, 2009) * Canada–Colombia Free Trade Agreement (Signed November 21, 2008, entered into force August 15, 2011; Canada's ratification of this FTA had been dependent upon Colombia's ratification of the "Agreement Concerning Annual Reports on Human Rights and Free Trade Between Canada and the Republic of Colombia" signed on May 27, 2010) * Canada–Jordan Free Trade Agreement (Signed on June 28, 2009, entered into force October 1, 2012) * Canada–Panama Free Trade Agreement (Signed on May 14, 2010, entered into force April 1, 2013) * Canada–South Korea Free Trade Agreement (Signed on March 11, 2014, entered into force January 1, 2015) * Canada–Ukraine Free Trade Agreement (Signed 11 July 2016, entered into force August 1, 2017) * Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement with the European Union (EU) (signed 30 October 2016, entered into force 21 September 2017) * Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (signed March 8, 2018, entered into force December 30, 2018) * Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement (signed November 30, 2018, entered into force July 1, 2020) * Canada–UK Trade Continuity Agreement (signed 9 December 2020, entered into force 1 April 2021) Free-trade agreements no longer in force :Source: Canada is negotiating bilateral FTAs with the following countries respectively trade blocs: * Caribbean Community (CARICOM) * Guatemala, Nicaragua and El Salvador * Dominican Republic * India * Japan * Morocco * Singapore * Andean Community (FTA's are already in force with Peru and Colombia) Canada has been involved in negotiations to create the following regional trade blocks: * Canada and Central American Free Trade Agreement * Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA) Political issues Canada–United States trade relations Canada and the United States share a common trading relationship. Canada's job market continues to perform well along with the US, reaching a 30-year low in the unemployment rate in December 2006, following 14 consecutive years of employment growth. The United States is by far Canada's largest trading partner, with more than $1.7 billion CAD in trade per day in 2005. In 2009, 73% of Canada's exports went to the United States, and 63% of Canada's imports were from the United States. Trade with Canada makes up 23% of the United States' exports and 17% of its imports. By comparison, in 2005 this was more than U.S. trade with all countries in the European Union combined, and well over twice U.S. trade with all the countries of Latin America combined. Just the two-way trade that crosses the Ambassador Bridge between Michigan and Ontario equals all U.S. exports to Japan. Canada's importance to the United States is not just a border-state phenomenon: Canada is the leading export market for 35 of 50 U.S. states, and is the United States' largest foreign supplier of energy. Bilateral trade increased by 52% between 1989, when the U.S.–Canada Free Trade Agreement (FTA) went into effect, and 1994, when the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) superseded it. Trade has since increased by 40%. NAFTA continues the FTA's moves toward reducing trade barriers and establishing agreed-upon trade rules. It also resolves some long-standing bilateral irritants and liberalizes rules in several areas, including agriculture, services, energy, financial services, investment, and government procurement. NAFTA forms the largest trading area in the world, embracing the 405 million people of the three North American countries. The largest component of U.S.–Canada trade is in the commodity sector. The U.S. is Canada's largest agricultural export market, taking well over half of all Canadian food exports. Nearly two-thirds of Canada's forest products, including pulp and paper, are exported to the United States; 72% of Canada's total newsprint production also is exported to the U.S. At [https://web.archive.org/web/20060411203756/http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/statistics/energy/default.html $73.6] billion in 2004, U.S.-Canada trade in energy is the largest U.S. energy trading relationship, with the overwhelming majority ($66.7 billion) being exports from Canada. The primary components of U.S. energy trade with Canada are petroleum, natural gas, and electricity. Canada is the United States' largest oil supplier and the fifth-largest energy producing country in the world. Canada provides about 16% of U.S. oil imports and 14% of total U.S. consumption of natural gas. The United States and Canada's national electricity grids are linked, and both countries share hydropower facilities on the western borders. While most of U.S.-Canada trade flows smoothly, there are occasionally bilateral trade disputes, particularly in the agricultural and cultural fields. Usually these issues are resolved through bilateral consultative forums or referral to World Trade Organization (WTO) or NAFTA dispute resolution. In May 1999, the U.S. and Canadian governments negotiated an agreement on magazines that provides increased access for the U.S. publishing industry to the Canadian market. The United States and Canada also have resolved several major issues involving fisheries. By common agreement, the two countries submitted a Gulf of Maine boundary dispute to the International Court of Justice in 1981; both accepted the court's October 12, 1984 ruling which demarcated the territorial sea boundary. A current issue between the United States and Canada is the ongoing softwood lumber dispute, as the U.S. alleges that Canada unfairly subsidizes its forestry industry. In 1990, the United States and Canada signed a bilateral Fisheries Enforcement Agreement, which has served to deter illegal fishing activity and reduce the risk of injury during fisheries enforcement incidents. The U.S. and Canada signed a Pacific Salmon Agreement in June 1999 that settled differences over implementation of the 1985 Pacific Salmon Treaty for the next decade. Canada and the United States signed an aviation agreement during Bill Clinton's visit to Canada in February 1995, and air traffic between the two countries has increased dramatically as a result. The two countries also share in operation of the St. Lawrence Seaway, connecting the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean. The U.S. remains Canada's largest foreign investor and the most popular destination for Canadian foreign investments. In 2018, the stock of U.S. direct investment in Canada totaled $406 billion, while the stock of Canadian investment in the U.S. totaled $595 billion, or 46% of the overall CDIA stock for 2018. This made Canada the second largest investing country in the U.S. for 2018 US investments are primarily directed at Canada's mining and smelting industries, petroleum, chemicals, the manufacture of machinery and transportation equipment, and finance, while Canadian investment in the United States is concentrated in manufacturing, wholesale trade, real estate, petroleum, finance, insurance and other services.Debt in 2006–2007 and 2019 ]] Canadian government debt Canadian government debt, also called Canada's public debt, is the liabilities of the government sector. For 2019 (the fiscal year ending 31 March 2020), total financial liabilities or gross debt was $2.434 trillion for the consolidated Canadian general government (federal, provincial, territorial, and local governments combined). This corresponds to 105.3% as a ratio of GDP (GDP was $2.311 trillion). Of the $2.434 trillion, $1.146 trillion or 47% was federal (central) government liabilities (49.6% as a ratio of GDP). Provincial government liabilities comprise most of the remaining liabilities. According to Statistics Canada, [https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid1010011801 total household credit] as of July 2019 was CAD$2.2 trillion. According to Philip Cross of the Fraser Institute, in May 2015, while the Canadian household debt-to-income ratio is similar to that in the US, however lending standards in Canada are tighter than those in the United States to protect against high-risk borrowers taking out unsustainable debt. Mergers and acquisitions Since 1985, 63,755 deals in- and outbound Canada have been announced, with an overall value of US$3.7 billion. Almost 50% of the targets of Canadian companies (outbound deals) have a parent company in the US. Inbound deals are 82% percent from the US. Here is a list of the biggest deals in Canadian history: {| class"wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style"text-align:center;" !Year !GDP <small>(in Bil. US$PPP)</small> !GDP per capita <small>(in US$ PPP)</small> !GDP <small>(in Bil. US$nominal)</small> !GDP per capita <small>(in US$ nominal)</small> !GDP growth <small>(real)</small> !Inflation rate <small>(in Percent)</small> !Unemployment <small>(in Percent)</small> !Government debt <small>(in % of GDP)</small> |- |1980 |288.7 |11,798.2 |276.1 |11,281.4 |2.2% |10.2% |7.5% |44.6% |- |1981 |327.1 |13,197.5 |307.2 |12,396.7 |3.5% |12.5% |7.6% |46.1% |- |1982 |336.2 |13,404.9 |314.6 |12,543.9 |-3.2% |10.8% |11.1% |51.7% |- |1983 |358.5 |14,149.5 |341.9 |13,493.2 |2.6% |5.8% |12.0% |57.2% |- |1984 |393.4 |15,380.2 |356.7 |13,947.4 |5.9% |4.3% |11.4% |60.2% |- |1985 |425.0 |16,466.0 |366.2 |14,185.9 |4.7% |4.0% |10.5% |65.2% |- |1986 |442.9 |16,990.4 |379.0 |14,539.8 |2.1% |4.2% |9.6% |69.3% |- |1987 |472.3 |17,893.0 |433.1 |16,408.1 |4.1% |4.4% |8.8% |69.8% |- |1988 |510.6 |19,085.3 |509.4 |19,041.2 |4.4% |4.0% |7.8% |69.7% |- |1989 |542.9 |19,947.7 |567.2 |20,842.5 |2.3% |5.0% |7.5% |71.0% |- |1990 |564.1 |20,415.1 |596.1 |21,572.1 |0.2% |4.8% |8.2% |73.7% |- |1991 |571.0 |20,403.3 |612.5 |21,885.6 |-2.1% |5.6% |10.3% |81.7% |- |1992 |589.3 |20,805.6 |594.4 |20,984.8 |0.9% |1.5% |11.2% |88.2% |- |1993 |619.3 |21,615.6 |579.1 |20,210.5 |2.7% |1.9% |11.4% |94.7% |- |1994 |661.0 |22,823.8 |579.9 |20,024.6 |4.5% |0.2% |10.4% |97.5% |- |1995 |693.0 |23,682.4 |605.9 |20,706.7 |2.7% |2.1% |9.5% |100.1% |- |1996 |717.1 |24,252.2 |630.6 |21,325.7 |1.6% |1.6% |9.6% |100.2% |- |1997 |760.7 |25,469.8 |655.0 |21,930.5 |4.3% |1.6% |9.1% |95.3% |- |1998 |799.3 |26,532.4 |634.0 |21,046.6 |3.9% |1.0% |8.3% |93.3% |- |1999 |852.4 |28,068.8 |678.4 |22,340.6 |5.2% |1.7% |7.6% |89.0% |- |2000 |916.8 |29,914.7 |744.6 |24,296.7 |5.2% |2.7% |6.8% |80.4% |- |2001 |954.2 |30,810.5 |739.0 |23,859.7 |1.8% |2.5% |7.2% |81.5% |- |2002 |998.4 |31,887.8 |760.1 |24,279.2 |3.0% |2.3% |7.7% |79.6% |- |2003 |1,036.4 |32,794.3 |895.6 |28,338.7 |1.8% |2.8% |7.6% |75.9% |- |2004 |1,097.1 |34,390.0 |1,026.5 |32,176.6 |3.1% |1.9% |7.2% |71.9% |- |2005 |1,167.7 |36,260.7 |1,173.5 |36,439.6 |3.2% |2.2% |6.8% |70.6% |- |2006 |1,235.5 |37,980.7 |1,319.4 |40,558.9 |2.6% |2.0% |6.3% |69.9% |- |2007 |1,295.2 |39,428.2 |1,468.9 |44,717.0 |2.1% |2.1% |6.1% |66.9% |- |2008 |1,333.3 |40,159.1 |1,552.9 |46,773.8 |1.0% |2.4% |6.2% |67.9% |- |2009 |1,302.5 |38,788.0 |1,376.5 |40,990.6 |-2.9% |0.3% |8.4% |79.3% |- |2010 |1,358.9 |40,017.6 |1,617.3 |47,627.3 |3.1% |1.8% |8.1% |81.2% |- |2011 |1,430.8 |41,716.4 |1,793.3 |52,285.9 |3.1% |2.9% |7.6% |81.8% |- |2012 |1,468.1 |42,351.1 |1,828.4 |52,744.0 |1.8% |1.5% |7.4% |85.4% |- |2013 |1,554.1 |44,360.4 |1,846.6 |52,708.6 |2.3% |0.9% |7.1% |86.1% |- |2014 |1,621.4 |45,812.0 |1,805.8 |51,020.8 |2.9% |1.9% |7.0% |85.6% |- |2015 |1,594.9 |44,702.5 |1,556.5 |43,626.5 |0.7% |1.1% |6.9% |91.2% |- |2016 |1,678.4 |46,554.1 |1,528.0 |42,382.6 |1.0% |1.4% |7.1% |91.8% |- |2017 |1,776.9 |48,688.1 |1,649.3 |45,192.0 |3.0% |1.6% |6.4% |88.9% |- |2018 |1,869.8 |50,531.6 |1,725.3 |46,625.9 |2.8% |2.3% |5.9% |88.9% |- |2019 |1,939.0 |51,652.6 |1,742.0 |46,404.0 |1.9% |1.9% |5.8% |87.2% |- |2020 |1,859.7 |48,946.8 |1,645.4 |43,306.6 |-5.2% |0.7% |9.6% |117.8% |- |2021 |2,025.0 |52,973.0 |1,988.3 |52,015.1 |4.5% |3.4% |7.4% |112.9% |- |2022 |2,240.4 |57,827.5 |2,200.4 |56,794.0 |3.3% |6.9% |5.3% |102.2% |- |2023 |2,353.9 |59,872.2 |2,326.6 |59,179.0 |1.5% |4.2% |5.9% |98.7% |- |2024 |2,441.8 |61,274.7 |2,420.7 |60,745.3 |1.6% |2.4% |6.2% |96.3% |- |2025 |2,544.9 |63,042.6 |2,531.2 |62,703.5 |2.3% |1.9% |6.1% |93.3% |- |2026 |2,642.5 |64,649.4 |2,630.3 |64,352.5 |1.9% |1.9% |6.0% |90.9% |- |2027 |2,739.4 |66,221.6 |2,728.4 |65,954.5 |1.7% |2.0% |6.0% |88.7% |} Unemployment rate {| class"sortable wikitable" style"text-align: right" |- ! Province ! Unemployment rate<br />percentage of labour force<br />as of March 2024 !Employment |- |style="text-align: left" |Alberta | 6.3% |2,526,900 |- |style="text-align: left" |British Columbia | 5.5% |2,847,800 |- |style="text-align: left" |Manitoba | 5.0% |700,400 |- |style="text-align: left" |Newfoundland and Labrador | 10.1% |243,700 |- |style="text-align: left" |New Brunswick | 7.8% |390,900 |- |style="text-align:left" |Nova Scotia | 6.2% |516,400 |- |style="text-align: left" | Ontario | 6.7% |7,970,500 |- |style="text-align: left" | Prince Edward Island | 7.4% |91,900 |- |style="text-align: left" | Quebec | 5.0% |4,515,200 |- |style="text-align: left" | Saskatchewan | 5.4% |597,100 |- |style"text-align: left" data-sort-value"ZZZZZZ" | Canada (national) | 6.1% |20,400,700 |} Export trade Export trade from Canada measured in US dollars. In 2021, Canada exported US$503.4 billion. That dollar amount reflects a 19.5% gain since 2017 and a 29.1% increase from 2020 to 2021. {| class"sortable wikitable" style"text-align: right" |- !Partner !Value !Fraction |- |United States | $380.4 billion |75.6% |- |China | $23 billion |4.6% |- |United Kingdom | $12.9 billion |2.6% |- |Japan | $11.5 billion |2.3% |- |Mexico | $6.5 billion |1.3% |- |Germany | $5.5 billion |1.1% |- |South Korea |$4.5 billion |0.9% |- |Netherlands |$3.8 billion |0.8% |- |France |$3.2 billion |0.6% |- |Belgium |$3.0 billion |0.6% |- |Hong Kong |$2.8 billion |0.6% |- |Norway |$2.5 billion |0.5% |- |Switzerland |$1.6 billion |0.5% |- |India |$2.35 billion |0.5% |- |Italy |$2.1 billion |0.4% |- |} Import trade Import trade in 2017 measured in US dollars. {| class"sortable wikitable" style"text-align: right" |- !Partner !Value !Fraction |- |United States | $222.0 billion | 51.3% |- ||China | $54.7 billion | 12.7% |- |Mexico | $27.4 billion | 6.3% |- |Germany | $13.8 billion | 3.2% |- |Japan | $13.5 billion | 3.1% |- |United Kingdom | $6.9 billion | 1.6% |- |South Korea | $6.7 billion | 1.5% |- |Italy | $6.3 billion | 1.5% |- |France | $4.8 billion | 1.1% |- |Vietnam | $3.9 billion | 0.9% |} See also *Canada's Global Markets Action Plan *Comparison of Canadian and American economies *Economy of Alberta *Economy of Ontario *Economy of Quebec *Economy of Saskatchewan *History of the petroleum industry in Canada *List of Median household income of cities in Canada *List of Commonwealth of Nations countries by GDP *List of Canadian provinces and territories by gross domestic product *List of Canadian metropolitan areas by GDP Notes *ReferencesFurther reading * Howlett, Michael and M. Ramesh. Political Economy of Canada: An Introduction. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1992. * Wallace, Iain, A Geography of the Canadian Economy. Don Mills: Oxford University Press, 2002. * * * * * * * * * * External links <!-- Please be cautious adding more external links. Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising. Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed. See Wikipedia:External links and Wikipedia:Spam for details. If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on the article's talk page. --> *[https://www.statcan.gc.ca/eng/start Statistics Canada] *[https://www.fin.gc.ca/ Department of Finance Canada] *[http://www.bankofcanada.ca/ Bank of Canada] *[http://www.oecd.org/canada/ Canada – OECD] *[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/canada/ Canada profile] at the CIA World Factbook *[http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/canada Canada profile] at The World Bank *[https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/en/Country/CAN/Year/LTST/TradeFlow/EXPIMP/Partner/by-country Canada Exports and Imports] }} Canada Canada
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Canada
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Telecommunications in Canada
<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE --> Present-day telecommunications in Canada include telephone, radio, television, and internet usage. In the past, telecommunications included telegraphy available through Canadian Pacific and Canadian National. History cable for the British Empire. Canada as an interconnection-point. c.a. 1903]] The history of telegraphy in Canada dates back to the Province of Canada. While the first telegraph company was the Toronto, Hamilton and Niagara Electro-Magnetic Telegraph Company, founded in 1846, it was the Montreal Telegraph Company, controlled by Hugh Allan and founded a year later, that dominated in Canada during the technology's early years. In 1967 the CP and CN networks were merged to form CNCP Telecommunications. As of 1951, approximately 7000 messages were sent daily from the United States to Canada. although four radio stations in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador retained call letters beginning with VO when Newfoundland joined Canadian Confederation in 1949. Stations owned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation use CB through a special agreement with the government of Chile. Some codes beginning with VE and VF are also in use to identify radio repeater transmitters. Radio As of 2016, there were over 1,100 radio stations and audio services broadcasting in Canada. Of these, 711 are private commercial radio stations. These commercial stations account for over three quarters of radio stations in Canada. The remainder of the radio stations are a mix of public broadcasters, such as CBC Radio, as well as campus, community, and Aboriginal stations. Cable and satellite television services are available throughout Canada. The largest cable providers are Bell Canada, Rogers Cable, Vidéotron, Telus and Cogeco, while the two licensed satellite providers are Bell Satellite TV and Shaw Direct. Internet Bell, Rogers, Telus, and Shaw are among the bigger ISPs in Canada. Depending on your location, Bell and Rogers would be the big internet service providers in Eastern provinces, while Shaw and Telus are the main players competing in western provinces. * Internet service providers: there are more than 44 ISPs in Canada. * Internet Exchange Points: There are multiple Internet Exchange Points in Canada, the largest of which are in Calgary, Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver. Most ISP's peer at one or more of these Exchanges, except for Bell Canada. The Toronto Internet Exchange ranks as one of the largest internet exchanges in the world. *Country codes: .CA, CDN, 124 *Internet users: 33 million users *Internet hosts: 8.7 million (2012–2017) *Percentage of households with Internet access: 87(2016) *Total households with high speed connection: 67% (2014) *Total users of home online banking: 68% (2016) Mobile networks The three major mobile network operators are Rogers Wireless (13.7 million subscribers), Bell Mobility (10.29 million) and Telus Mobility (9.5 million), which have a combined 86% of market share. Administration and Government Federally, telecommunications are overseen by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission ()&ndash;CRTC as outlined under the provisions of both the Telecommunications Act and Radiocommunication Acts. CRTC further works with Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada (formerly Industry Canada) on various technical aspects including: allocating frequencies and call signs, managing the broadcast spectrum, and regulating other technical issues such as interference with electronics equipment. As Canada comprises a part of the North American Numbering Plan for area codes, the Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium within Canada is responsible for allocating and managing area codes in Canada. See also * Media in Canada * List of newspapers in Canada * List of mobile network operators of the Americas * List of telephone operating companies * List of area codes in Canada * List of postcode areas in Canada * Canadian Association of Broadcasters * Canadian Broadcast Standards Council * Canadian Broadcasting Corporation * Canadian Communications Foundation References Further reading * Bibliography<br /> * [https://www.cira.ca/community-investment-program/canadas-internet-infrastructure-internet-exchange-points-ixps Canada’s internet infrastructure Internet Exchange Points (IXPs)], Canadian Internet Registration Authority (CIRA) * [https://cnac.ca/area_code_maps/canadian_area_codes.htm Canadian Area Codes], Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium, Inc. (CNAC) * [https://www.submarinecablemap.com/country/canada Canada], SubmarineCableMap.com * [https://www.ic.gc.ca/app/sitt/bbmap/hm.html?langeng National Broadband Internet Service Availability Map], Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada External links *[http://www.broadcasting-history.ca/ The Canadian Communications Foundation] – A History of Canadian Broadcasting *[https://crtc.gc.ca/eng/comm/fourprov.htm Find Service Providers in Canada], CRTC (Mobile, Phone, Internet, or free/paid TV) by location *[https://www.planhub.ca Compare Internet & Phone Plans in Canada] – Free Online Comparison Tool
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Canada
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Transportation in Canada
<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is already sufficiently detailed; see WP:SDNONE --> Canada, the world's second-largest country in total area, is dedicated to having an efficient, high-capacity multimodal transportation spanning often vast distances between natural resource extraction sites, agricultural and urban areas. Canada's transportation system includes more than of roads, 10 major international airports, 300 smaller airports, of functioning railway track, and more than 300 commercial ports and harbours that provide access to the Pacific, Atlantic and Arctic oceans as well as the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence Seaway. In 2005, the transportation sector made up 4.2% of Canada's GDP, compared to 3.7% for Canada's mining and oil and gas extraction industries. Transport Canada oversees and regulates most aspects of transportation within federal jurisdiction, including interprovincial transport. This primarily includes rail, air and maritime transportation. Transport Canada is under the direction of the federal government's Minister of Transport. The Transportation Safety Board of Canada is responsible for maintaining transportation safety in Canada by investigating accidents and making safety recommendations. {| class"wikitable" style"float:right;" |+Gross domestic product, transport industries, 2005 European contact Prior to the arrival of European settlers, Aboriginal peoples in Canada walked. They also used canoes, kayaks, umiaks and Bull Boats, in addition to the snowshoe, toboggan and sled in winter. They had no wheeled vehicles, and no animals larger than dogs. Europeans adopted canoes as they pushed deeper into the continent's interior, and were thus able to travel via the waterways that fed from the St. Lawrence River and Hudson Bay. In the 19th century and early 20th century transportation relied on harnessing oxen to Red River ox carts or horse to wagon. Maritime transportation was via manual labour such as canoe or wind on sail. Water or land travel speeds was approximately . Settlement was along river routes. Agricultural commodities were perishable, and trade centres were within . Rural areas centred around villages, and they were approximately apart. The advent of steam railways and steamships connected resources and markets of vast distances in the late 19th century.}} The Federal Department of Transport (established November 2, 1936) supervised railways, canals, harbours, marine and shipping, civil aviation, radio and meteorology. The Transportation Act of 1938 and the amended Railway Act, placed control and regulation of carriers in the hands of the Board of Transport commissioners for Canada. The Royal Commission on Transportation was formed December 29, 1948, to examine transportation services to all areas of Canada to eliminate economic or geographic disadvantages. The commission also reviewed the Railway Act to provide uniform yet competitive freight-rates. There are no regulations at a federal level that regulate Canada's road infrastructure, highway system, or traffic safety laws; it is left to the individual provinces and territories to regulate these elements. Regulations on a provincial level include Ontario's Highway Traffic Act, Alberta's Traffic Safety Act, and British Columbia's Motor Vehicle Act, for example. The only regulation at a federal level that relates to motor vehicles is the Motor Vehicle Safety Act, which deals with the manufacturing and importing of motor vehicles and motor vehicle equipment within the country. In 2009, there were 20,706,616 road vehicles registered in Canada, of which 96% were vehicles under , 2.4% were vehicles between and 1.6% were or greater. These vehicles travelled a total of 333.29 billion kilometres, of which 303.6 billion was for vehicles under 4.5 tonnes, 8.3 billion was for vehicles between 4.5 and 15 tonnes and 21.4 billion was for vehicles over 15 tonnes. For the 4.5- to 15-tonne trucks, 88.9% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips, 4.9% were inter-province, 2.8% were between Canada and the US and 3.4% made outside of Canada. For the trucks over 15 tonnes, 59.1% of vehicle-kilometres were intra-province trips, 20% inter-province trips, 13.8% Canada-US trips and 7.1% trips made outside of Canada. between Windsor, Ontario and Detroit, Michigan has a quarter of US-Canada trade cross over it.]] Canada's vehicles consumed a total of of gasoline and of diesel. Internationally, Canada has road links with both the lower 48 US states and Alaska. The Ministry of Transportation maintains the road network in Ontario and also employs Ministry of Transport Enforcement Officers for the purpose of administering the Canada Transportation Act and related regulations. The Department of Transportation in New Brunswick performs a similar task in that province as well. The safety of Canada's roads is moderately good by international standards, and is improving both in terms of accidents per head of population and per billion vehicle kilometers.Air transport Air transportation made up 9% of the transport sector's GDP generation in 2005. Canada's largest air carrier and its flag carrier is Air Canada, which had 34 million customers in 2006 and, as of April 2010, operates 363 aircraft (including Air Canada Jazz). CHC Helicopter, the largest commercial helicopter operator in the world, is second with 142 aircraft According to a 2016 report, Canada's air transportation was the most expensive for consumers globally; however, this was prior to the emergence of ultra-low-cost carriers such as Flair Airlines. The Canadian Transportation Agency employs transportation enforcement officers to maintain aircraft safety standards, and conduct periodic aircraft inspections, of all air carriers. The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority is charged with the responsibility for the security of air traffic within Canada. In 1994 the National Airports Policy was enacted Principal airports Of over 1,800 registered Canadian aerodromes, certified airports, heliports, and floatplane bases, 26 are specially designated under Canada's National Airports System (NAS): these include all airports that handle 200,000 or more passengers each year, as well as the principal airport serving each federal, provincial, and territorial capital. However, since the introduction of the policy only one, Iqaluit Airport, has been added and no airports have been removed despite dropping below 200,000 passengers. The Government of Canada, with the exception of the three territorial capitals, retains ownership of these airports and leases them to local authorities. The next tier consists of 64 regional/local airports formerly owned by the federal government, most of which have now been transferred to other owners (most often to municipalities). ||align"right"|2.0% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 2 || Vancouver International Airport|| Vancouver ||align"right"|26,395,820 ||align"right"|1.8% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 3 || Montréal-Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport || Montreal ||align"right"|20,305,106 ||align"right"|4.5% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 4 || Calgary International Airport || Calgary ||align"right"|17,957,780 ||align="right"|3.5% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 5 || Edmonton International Airport|| Edmonton ||align"right"|8,151,532 ||align="right"| 1.2% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 6 || Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport || Ottawa ||align"right"|5,106,487 ||align="right"|0.1% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 7 || Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport || Winnipeg ||align"right"|4,484,249 ||align"right"|0.0% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 8 || Halifax Stanfield International Airport|| Halifax ||align"right"| 4,188,443||align="right"|3.0% |- | style"text-align: center;" | 9 || Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport (Toronto Island) || Toronto ||align"right"| - ||align="right"| − |- | style"text-align: center;" | 10 || Kelowna International Airport || Kelowna ||align"right"| 2,032,144||align="right"| 1.3% |- |} Railways ]] <!--See the 1940 Canada year book page 635-638 for railway history, also Page 616-612 1922 to 1923 Yearbook, Pages 601 to 601 of the 1926 Yearbook and Pages 694 to 698 of the 1934 to 1935 Yearbook. -->In 2007, Canada had a total of of freight and passenger railway, of which is electrified. While intercity passenger transportation by rail is now very limited, freight transport by rail remains common. Total revenues of rail services in 2006 was $10.4 billion, of which only 2.8% was from passenger services. In a year are usually earned about $11 billion, of which 3.2% is from passengers and the rest from freight. The Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Kansas City are Canada's two major freight railway companies, each having operations throughout North America. In 2007, 357 billion tonne-kilometres of freight were transported by rail, and 4.33 million passengers travelled 1.44 billion passenger-kilometres (an almost negligible amount compared to the 491 billion passenger-kilometres made in light road vehicles). 34,281 people were employed by the rail industry in the same year. Nationwide passenger services are provided by the federal crown corporation Via Rail. VIA Rail has faced criticism for frequent delays, and low speeds compared to peer countries and historical train travel times, such as the records set by the TurboTrain during the 1970s. Three Canadian cities have commuter rail services: in the Montreal area by Exo, in the Toronto area by GO Transit, and in the Vancouver area by West Coast Express. Smaller railways such as Ontario Northland, Rocky Mountaineer, and Algoma Central also run passenger trains to remote rural areas. In Canada railways are served by standard gauge, , rails. See also track gauge in Canada. Canada has railway links with the lower 48 US States, but no connection with Alaska, although a line has been proposed. There are no other international rail connections. Waterways , Canada's busiest port]] In 2005, of cargo was loaded and unloaded at Canadian ports. The Port of Vancouver is the busiest port in Canada, moving or 15% of Canada's total in domestic and international shipping in 2003. Transport Canada oversees most of the regulatory functions related to marine registration, safety of large vessel, and port pilotage duties. Many of Canada's port facilities are in the process of being divested from federal responsibility to other agencies or municipalities. Inland waterways comprise , including the St. Lawrence Seaway. Transport Canada enforces acts and regulations governing water transportation and safety. {|class="wikitable sortable" |- |+Container traffic in Canadian ports, 2006 |- !Rank||Port||Province||TEUs||Boxes||Containerized cargo (tonnes) |- |1||Vancouver||British Columbia||align"right"|2,207,730||align"right"|1,282,807||align="right"|17,640,024 |- |2||Montreal||Quebec||align"right"|1,288,910||align"right"|794,735||align="right"|11,339316 |- |3|| Halifax||Nova Scotia||align"right"|530,722||align"right"|311,065||align="right"|4,572,020 |- |4|| St. John's||Newfoundland and Labrador||align"right"|118,008||align"right"|55,475||align="right"|512,787 |- |5|| Fraser River||British Columbia|| align"right" |94,651||align"right"|N/A||align="right"|742,783 |- |6|| Saint John||New Brunswick||align"right"|44,566||align"right"|24,982||align="right"|259,459 |- |7|| Toronto||Ontario||align"right"|24,585||align"right"|24,585||align="right"|292,834 |} from the Swartz Bay ferry terminal]] Ferry services *Passenger ferry service **Vancouver Island and surrounding islands and peninsulas to the British Columbia mainland **Several Sunshine Coast communities to the British Columbia mainland and to Alaska **Internationally to St. Pierre and Miquelon *Automobile ferry service **Nova Scotia to Newfoundland and Labrador **Quebec to Newfoundland across the Strait of Belle Isle **Labrador to Newfoundland **Chandler to the Magdalen Islands, Quebec **Prince Edward Island to the Magdalen Islands, Quebec **Prince Edward Island to Nova Scotia **Digby, Nova Scotia, to Saint John, New Brunswick Canals The main route canals of Canada are those of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. The others are subsidiary canals. * St. Lawrence Seaway * Welland Canal * Soo Locks * Trent-Severn Waterway * Rideau Canal Ports and harbours The National Harbours Board administered Halifax, Saint John, Chicoutimi, Trois-Rivières, Churchill, and Vancouver until 1983. At one time, over 300 harbours across Canada were supervised by the Department of Transport. as indicated by a DoT list. The government maintains an active divestiture programme, and after divestiture Transport Canada oversees only 17 Canada Port Authorities for the 17 largest shipping ports. Pacific coast *Victoria, British Columbia *Vancouver, British Columbia *Prince Rupert, British Columbia Atlantic coast *Halifax, Nova Scotia *Saint John, New Brunswick *St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador *Sept-Îles, Quebec *Sydney, Nova Scotia *Botwood, Newfoundland and Labrador Arctic coast *Churchill, Manitoba Seaport]] Great Lakes and St Lawrence River *Bécancour, Quebec *Hamilton, Ontario *Montreal, Quebec *Quebec City, Quebec *Trois-Rivières, Quebec *Thunder Bay, Ontario *Toronto, Ontario *Windsor, Ontario Merchant marine <!--see the 1934 to 1935 Canada Yearbook--> Canada's merchant marine comprised a total of 173 ships ( or over) or at the end of 2007. Government organizations across Canada owned 17,852 buses of various types in 2016. Organizations in Ontario (38.8%) and Quebec (21.9%) accounted for just over three-fifths of the country's total bus fleet. Urban municipalities owned more than 85% of all buses.[https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/181127/dq181127c-eng.htm] in 2016, diesel buses were the leading bus type in Canada (65.9%), followed by bio-diesel (18.1%) and hybrid (9.4%) buses. Electric, natural gas and other buses collectively accounted for the remaining 6.6%.[https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/181127/dq181127c-eng.htm] Rapid transit systems There are three rapid transit systems operating in Canada: the Montreal Metro, the Toronto subway, and the Vancouver SkyTrain. {|class"wikitable" style"margin-left:20px;" |+Rapid transit in Canada !align=left|Location !align=left|Transit !align=left|Weekday daily ridership !align=left|Length/stations |- comparison | Montreal, Quebec |Montreal Metro |1,254,700 (Q4 2016) | / 75 |- | Vancouver, British Columbia |SkyTrain |454,600 (December 2016) | / 53 |- |} There is also an airport circulator, the Link Train, at Toronto Pearson International Airport. It operates 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and is wheelchair-accessible. It is free of cost. Light rail systems There are light rail systems in four cities – the Calgary CTrain, the Edmonton LRT, the Ottawa O-Train, and Waterloo Region's Ion – while Toronto has an extensive streetcar system. {|class"wikitable" style"margin-left:20px;" |+Light rail transit in Canada !align=left|Location !align=left|Transit !align=left|Weekday daily ridership !align=left|Length/stations |- comparison |- | Toronto, Ontario |Toronto streetcar system |530,600 (Q4 2019) | / 685 |- | Calgary, Alberta |CTrain |313,800 (Q4 2019) |- | Edmonton, Alberta |Edmonton LRT |113,804 (2019) | / 29 |- | Ottawa, Ontario |O-Train |159,000 (Q4 2019) | / 18 |- | Waterloo Region, Ontario | Ion rapid transit | N/A | / 19 |} The 2016 Canada's Core Public Infrastructure Survey from Statistics Canada found that all of Canada's 247 streetcars were owned by the City of Toronto. The vast majority (87.9%) of these streetcars were purchased from 1970 to 1999, while 12.1% were purchased in 2016. Reflecting the age of the streetcars, 88.0% were reported to be in very poor condition, while 12.0% were reported to be in good condition.[https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/181127/dq181127c-eng.htm] Commuter train systems Commuter trains serve the cities and surrounding areas of Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver: {|class"wikitable" style"margin-left:20px;" |+Commuter train systems in Canada !align=left|Location !align=left|Transit !align=left|Daily ridership !align=left|System length |- | Toronto, Ontario |GO Transit |187,000 (2013) | |- | Montreal, Quebec |Agence métropolitaine de transport |83,100 (Q2 2013) | |- | Vancouver, British Columbia |West Coast Express |11,100 (Q2 2013) |} See also * Royal Commission on Railways *The Romance of Transportation in Canada, a National Film Board of Canada animated short * Taxicabs of Canada * Plug-in electric vehicles in Canada References Further reading * Brown, Ron. ''Rails Across the Prairies: The Railway Heritage of Canada's Prairie Provinces (Dundurn, 2012) * Currie, Archibald William. Economics of Canadian transportation (U of Toronto Press, 1954.) * Daniels, Rudolph L. Trains across the continent: North American railroad history (Indiana University Press, 2000) * Glazebrook, G.P. de T. A history of transportation in Canada (1938; reprinted 1969), The standard scholarly history * McCalla, Robert J. Water Transportation in Canada (1994) * McIlwraith, Thomas F. "Transportation in Old Ontario." American Review of Canadian Studies 14.2 (1984): 177–192. * Pigott, Peter. Canada: The History (2014); Pigott has numerous books on aviation in Canada * Schreiner, John. Transportation: The evolution of Canada's networks (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972) * Stagg, Ronald. The Golden Dream: A History of the St. Lawrence Seaway (Dundurn, 2010) * Willoughby, William R. The St. Lawrence waterway: a study in politics and diplomacy (University of Wisconsin Press, 1961) External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150503235850/http://www.transportationindustry.ca/ Directory of Canada Transportation Companies] www.transportationindustry.ca *[https://web.archive.org/web/20071001050359/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/virtual-vault/026018-119.01-e.php?q1Transportation+and+Maps&PHPSESSID4nel0brdl9jig2875u4atpbmc4 "Transportation and Maps" in Virtual Vault''], an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada * [http://nats.sct.gob.mx/ North American transportation statistics] *
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_in_Canada
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Canada–United States relations
Canada and the United States have a long and complex relationship that has had a significant impact on Canada's history, economy, and culture. The two countries have long considered themselves among the "closest allies". They share the longest border () between any two nations in the world, and also have significant military interoperability. Both Americans and Canadians have historically ranked each other as one of their respective "favorite nations". Since the end of World War II, the economies and supply chains of both countries have grown to be fully integrated. In 2024 every day, around 400,000 people and $2.7 billion in goods and services cross the Canada–U. S. border. The close economic partnership has been facilitated by shared values and strong bilateral trade agreements. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and its successor, the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), have played a pivotal role in fostering economic cooperation and integration between the two nations. Cross-border projects, such as communications, highways, bridges, and pipelines have led to shared energy networks and transportation systems. The countries have established joint inspection agencies, share data and have harmonized regulations on everything from food to manufactured goods. Despite these facts, disputes have included repeated trade disagreements, environmental concerns, Canadian concern for the future of oil exports, the issue of illegal immigration, the threat of terrorism and illicit drug trade. Military collaboration was close during World War II and continued throughout the Cold War, bilaterally through NORAD and multilaterally through NATO. However, Canada has long been reluctant to participate in U.S. military operations that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War or the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Canadian peacekeeping is a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their military foreign policy apart from the United States. Canadian anti-Americanism has manifested itself in a variety of ways, ranging from political, Starting with the American Revolution, when Loyalists were resettled in Canada, a vocal element in Canada has warned against American dominance or annexation. The War of 1812 saw invasions across the border in both directions, but the war ended with unchanged borders. The British ceased aiding Native American attacks on the United States, and the United States never again attempted to invade Canada. As Britain decided to disengage, fears of an American takeover played a role in the Canadian Confederation (1867). A trade war involving the United States, Canada, and Mexico began on February 1, 2025, when U.S. president Donald Trump signed orders imposing near-universal tariffs on goods from the two countries entering the United States. The two countries' relations saw rapid deterioration during Trump's second term due to his tariffs and annexation threats towards Canada, with recent polls suggesting increased distrust of the United States by Canadians. Much of the fighting involved ambushes and small-scale warfare in the villages along the border between New England and Quebec. The New England colonies had a much larger population than Quebec, so major invasions came from south to north. The tension along the border was exacerbated by religion, as the French Catholics and English Protestants had a deep mutual distrust. There was a naval dimension as well, involving privateers attacking enemy merchant ships. England seized Quebec from 1629 to 1632, and Acadia in 1613 and again from 1654 to 1670; These territories were returned to France by the peace treaties. The major wars were (to use American names), King William's War (1689–1697); Queen Anne's War (1702–1713); King George's War (1744–1748), and from 1755 to 1763 the French and Indian War (known in Europe as the Seven Years’ War). New England soldiers and sailors were critical to the successful British campaign to capture the French fortress of Louisbourg in 1745, and (after it had been returned by treaty) to capture it again in 1758. American Revolutionary War flag, that is very similar to the Union Jack, was used by immigrants who remained loyal to the British crown during the American Revolutionary War. In present-day Canada, the United Empire Loyalist flag continues to be used as symbol of pride and heritage for loyalist townships and organizations.]] At the outset of the American Revolutionary War, the American revolutionaries hoped the French Canadians in Quebec and the Colonists in Nova Scotia would join their rebellion. They were pre-approved for joining the United States in the Articles of Confederation. When northeastern Quebec was invaded, thousands joined the American cause and formed regiments that fought during the war; however, most remained neutral and some joined the British effort. Britain advised the French Canadians that the British Empire already enshrined their rights in the Quebec Act, which the American colonies had viewed as one of the Intolerable Acts. The American invasion was a fiasco and Britain tightened its grip on its northern possessions; in 1777, a major British invasion into New York led to the surrender of the entire British army at Saratoga and led France to enter the war as an ally of the U.S. The French Canadians largely ignored France's appeals for solidarity. The American forces had much better success in southwestern Quebec, owing to the leadership of Virginia militia leader George Rogers Clark. In 1778, 200 men under Clark, supplied and supported mainly by Virginia, came down the Ohio River near Louisville, Kentucky, marched across southern Illinois, and then captured Kaskaskia without loss of life. From there, part of his men took Vincennes, but was soon lost to British Lieutenant Colonel Henry Hamilton, the commander at Fort Detroit. Clark later retook it in the Siege of Fort Vincennes in February 1779. Roughly half of Clark's militia in the theater were Canadian volunteers sympathetic to the American cause. In the end, America won its independence and the Treaty of Paris compelled Britain to cede parts of southwestern Canada to them. Following America's independence, Canada became a refuge for about an estimated 70,000 or 15% of Loyalists who either wanted to leave the U.S. or were compelled by Patriot reprisals to do so. Among the original Loyalists, there were 3,500 free African Americans. Most went to Nova Scotia and in 1792, 1,200 migrated to Sierra Leone. About 2,000 black slaves were brought in by Loyalist owners; they remained slaves in Canada until the Empire abolished slavery in 1833. Around 85% of the loyalists remained in the new United States and became American citizens. War of 1812 (1812-1815) The Treaty of Paris of 1783, which ended the American Revolutionary War, called for British forces to vacate all their forts south of the Great Lakes border. Britain refused to do so, citing the failure of the newly-independent United States to provide financial restitution for Loyalists who had lost property in the war. The Jay Treaty in 1795 with Great Britain resolved that lingering issue and the British departed the forts. Thomas Jefferson saw the nearby British presence as a threat to the United States, and so he opposed the Jay Treaty, and it became one of the major political issues in the United States at the time. Thousands of Americans immigrated to Upper Canada (Ontario) from 1785 to 1812 to obtain cheaper land and better tax rates prevalent in that province; despite expectations that they would be loyal to the U.S. if a war broke out, in the event they were largely non-political. Tensions mounted again after 1805, erupting into the War of 1812 (1812-1815), when the United States Congress, approved/signed by the fourth President James Madison (1751-1836, served 1809-1817), declared war in June 1812 on Britain. The Americans were angered by British harassment of U.S. ships on the high seas and seizure of 6,000 sailors from American ships, severe restrictions against neutral American trade with France, and British support for hostile Native American tribes in Ohio and territories the U.S. had gained in 1783. American "honor" was an implicit issue. While the Americans could not hope to defeat the Royal Navy and control the seas, they could call on an army much larger than the British garrison in Canada, and so a land invasion of Canada was proposed as the most advantageous means of attacking the British Empire. Americans on the western frontier also hoped an invasion would bring an end to British support of Native American resistance to American expansion, typified by Tecumseh's coalition of tribes. Americans may also have wanted to acquire Canada. Once war broke out, the American strategy was to seize Canada. There was some hope that settlers in western Canada—most of them recent immigrants from the U.S.—would welcome the chance to overthrow their British rulers. However, the American invasions were defeated primarily by British regulars with support from Native Americans and Upper Canada militia. Aided by the large Royal Navy, a series of British raids on the American coast were highly successful, culminating with an attack on Washington that resulted in the British burning of the White House, the Capitol, and other public buildings. At the end of the war, Britain's American Indian allies had largely been defeated, and the Americans controlled a strip of Western Ontario centered on Fort Malden. However, Britain held much of Maine, and, with the support of their remaining American Indian allies, huge areas of the Old Northwest, including Wisconsin and much of Michigan and Illinois. With the surrender of Napoleon in 1814, Britain ended naval policies that angered Americans; with the defeat of the Indian tribes, the threat to American expansion was ended. The upshot was both the United States and Canada asserted their sovereignty, Canada remained under British rule, and London and Washington had nothing more to fight over. The war was ended by the Treaty of Ghent, which took effect in February 1815. A series of postwar agreements further stabilized peaceful relations along the Canada–US border. Canada reduced American immigration for fear of undue American influence and built up the Anglican Church of Canada as a counterweight to the largely American Baptist and Methodist churches. In later years, Anglophone Canadians, especially in Ontario, viewed the War of 1812 as a heroic and successful resistance against invasion and as a victory that defined them as a people. The myth that the Canadian militia had defeated the invasion almost single-handed, known logically as the "militia myth", became highly prevalent after the war, having been propounded by John Strachan, Anglican Bishop of York. Post War of 1812 and mid-19th century In the aftermath of the War of 1812, pro-British conservatives led by Anglican Bishop John Strachan took control in Ontario ("Upper Canada") and promoted the Anglican religion as opposed to the more republican Methodist and Baptist churches. A small interlocking elite, known as the Family Compact took full political control. Democracy, as practiced in the United States, was ridiculed. The policies had the desired effect of deterring immigration from the United States. Revolts in favor of democracy in Ontario and Quebec ("Lower Canada") in 1837 were suppressed; many of the leaders fled to the US. The American policy was to largely ignore the rebellions, and indeed ignore Canada generally in favor of the westward expansion of the American Frontier. The 1842 Webster–Ashburton Treaty formalized the U.S.–Canada border in Maine, averting the Aroostook War. During the Manifest Destiny era, the "Fifty-Four Forty or Fight" agenda called for U.S. annexation of what became Western Canada; the U.S. and Britain instead agreed to a boundary of the 49th parallel. As harsher fugitive slave laws were passed, Canada became a destination for slaves escaping on the Underground Railroad. American Civil War . The Confederate soldiers launched their raid from the Province of Canada.]] The British Empire was neutral during the American Civil War. About 40,000 Canadians volunteered for the Union Army—many already lived in the U.S., and a few for the Confederate Army. However, hundreds of Americans who were called up in the draft fled to Canada. Several events caused strained relations between the British Empire and the United States, over the former's unofficial role in supporting the Confederacy. Blockade runners loaded with arms came from Great Britain and made use of Canadian ports in the Maritimes to break through the Union blockade to deliver the weaponry to the Confederacy in exchange for cotton. Attacks were made on American merchant shipping by British-built Confederate warships such as CSS Alabama. On December 7, 1863, pro-Confederate Canadian sympathizers hijacked an American steamer and killed a crew member off the coast of Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and then used the steamer, originally intended as a blockade runner, to flee back to the Maritimes where they were later able to escape justice for murder and piracy. Confederate Secret Service agents also used Canada as a base to attack American border towns, such as St. Albans, Vermont on October 19, 1864, where they killed an American citizen, robbed three banks of over US$200,000, then escaped to Canada where they were arrested but then released by a Canadian court to widespread American anger. Many Americans falsely suspected that the Canadian government knew of the raid ahead of time. American Secretary of State William H. Seward let the British government know that "it is impossible to consider those proceedings as either legal, just or friendly towards the United States." Alabama claims Americans were angry at Britain's perceived support for the Confederacy during the American Civil War. Some leaders demanded a huge payment, on the premise that British involvement had lengthened the war by two years, Senator Charles Sumner, the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, originally wanted to ask for $2 billion in war reparations, or alternatively the ceding of all of Canada to the United States. When American Secretary of State William H. Seward negotiated the Alaska Purchase with Russia in 1867, he intended it as the first step in a comprehensive plan to gain control of the entire northwest Pacific Coast. Seward was a firm believer in Manifest Destiny, primarily for its commercial advantages to the U.S. Seward expected British Columbia to seek annexation to the U.S. and thought Britain might accept this in exchange for the Alabama claims. Soon other elements endorsed annexation, they planned to annex British Columbia, Red River Colony (Manitoba), and Nova Scotia, in exchange for dropping the damage claims. The idea peaked in the spring and summer of 1870, with American expansionists, Canadian separatists, and pro-American Englishmen seemingly combining forces. The plan was dropped for multiple reasons. London continued to stall, American commercial and financial groups pressed Washington for a quick settlement of the dispute on a cash basis, growing Canadian nationalist sentiment in British Columbia called for staying inside the British Empire, Congress became preoccupied with Reconstruction, and most Americans showed little interest in territorial expansion. The "Alabama Claims" dispute went to international arbitration. In one of the first major cases of arbitration, the tribunal in 1872 rejected the American claims for damages relating to the British blockade running but ordered Britain to pay $15.5 million only for damages caused by British-built Confederate ships. Late 19th century Canada became a self-governing dominion in 1867 in internal affairs while Britain retained control of diplomacy and defence policy. Before Confederation, there was an Oregon boundary dispute in which the Americans claimed the 54th degree latitude. The Oregon Treaty of 1846 largely resolved the issue, splitting the disputed territory along the 49th parallel – the northern half became British Columbia, and the southern half eventually formed the states of Washington and Oregon. in 1870. The American-based Fenian Brotherhood launched several raids into Canada in 1866 and 1870–71.]] Strained relations with America continued, however, due to a series of small-scale armed incursions called the "Fenian raids" conducted by Irish-American Civil War veterans across the border from 1866 to 1871 in an attempt to trade Canada for Irish independence. The American government, angry at Canadian tolerance of Confederate raiders during the American Civil War of 1861 to 1865, moved very slowly to disarm the Fenians. The Fenian raids were small-scale attacks carried out by the Fenian Brotherhood, an Irish Republican organization based among Irish Catholics in the United States. Targets included British Army forts, customs posts, and other locations near the border. The raids were small, unsuccessful episodes in 1866, and again from 1870 to 1871. They aimed to bring pressure on Great Britain to withdraw from Ireland. None of these raids achieved their aims and all were quickly defeated by local Canadian forces. The British government, in charge of diplomatic relations, protested cautiously, as Anglo-American relations were tense. Much of the tension was relieved as the Fenians faded away and in 1872 by the settlement of the Alabama Claims, when Britain paid the U.S. $15.5 million for war losses caused by warships built in Britain and sold to the Confederacy. Disputes over ocean boundaries on Georges Bank and fishing, whaling, and sealing rights in the Pacific were settled by international arbitration, setting an important precedent. Early 20th century Alaska boundary . The border dispute was settled by arbitration in 1903, with the modern boundary marked by a yellow line.]] A short-lived controversy was the Alaska boundary dispute, settled in favor of the United States in 1903. The issue was unimportant until the Klondike Gold Rush brought tens of thousands of men to Canada's Yukon, and they had to arrive through American ports. Canada needed its port and claimed that it had a legal right to a port near the present American town of Haines, Alaska. It would provide an all-Canadian route to the rich goldfields. The dispute was settled by arbitration, and the British delegate voted with the Americans—to the astonishment and disgust of Canadians who suddenly realized that Britain considered its relations with the United States paramount compared to those with Canada. The arbitration validated the status quo, but made Canada angry at London. 1907 saw a minor controversy over USS Nashville sailing into the Great Lakes via Canada without Canadian permission. To head off future embarrassments, in 1909 the two sides signed the International Boundary Waters Treaty, and the International Joint Commission was established to manage the Great Lakes and keep them disarmed. It was amended in World War II to allow the building and training of warships. Free trade rejected Anti-Americanism reached a shrill peak in 1911 in Canada. The Liberal government in 1911 negotiated a Reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower trade barriers. Canadian manufacturing interests were alarmed that free trade would allow the bigger and more efficient American factories to take their markets. The Conservatives made it a central campaign issue in the 1911 election, warning that it would be a "sell-out" to the United States with economic annexation a special danger. The Conservative slogan was "No truck or trade with the Yankees", as they appealed to Canadian nationalism and nostalgia for the British Empire to win a major victory. World War I British Canadians were annoyed during a brief period from 1914 to 1916, when the United States insisted on neutrality and seemed to profit heavily, while Canada was sacrificing its wealth and its youth. However, when the U.S. finally declared war on Germany in April 1917, there was swift cooperation and friendly coordination, as one historian reports:<blockquote> Official co-operation between Canada and the United States—the pooling of grain, fuel, power, and transportation resources, the underwriting of a Canadian loan by bankers of New York—produced a good effect on the public mind. Canadian recruiting detachments were welcomed in the United States, while a reciprocal agreement was ratified to facilitate the return of draft evaders. A Canadian War Mission was established at Washington, and in many other ways, the activities of the two countries were coordinated for efficiency. Immigration regulations were relaxed and thousands of American farmhands crossed the border to assist in harvesting Canadian crops. Officially and publicly, at least, the two nations were on better terms than ever before in their history, and on the American side, this attitude extended through almost all classes of society.</blockquote> Post-World War I Canada demanded and received permission from London to send its delegation to the Versailles Peace Talks in 1919, with the proviso that it sign the treaty under the British Empire. Throughout the 1920s, Canada began assuming greater responsibility for its own foreign and military affairs. In 1927, the U.S. and Canada exchanged ambassadors for the first time with Canada appointing Vincent Massey and America William Phillips respectively. The postwar era saw the United States pursue isolationism while Canada became an active member of the British Commonwealth, the League of Nations, and the World Court. In July 1923, as part of his Pacific Northwest tour and a week before his death, U.S. President Warren Harding visited Vancouver, making him the first American head of state to visit confederated Canada. The then Premier of British Columbia, John Oliver, and then mayor of Vancouver, Charles Tisdall, hosted a lunch in his honor at the Hotel Vancouver. Over 50,000 people heard Harding speak in Stanley Park. A monument to Harding designed by Charles Marega was unveiled in Stanley Park in 1925. Relations with the United States remained cordial until 1930 when Canada vehemently protested the new Smoot–Hawley Tariff Act by which the U.S. raised tariffs on products imported from Canada. Canada retaliated with higher tariffs of its own against American products and moved toward more trade within the British Commonwealth. U.S.–Canadian trade fell 75% as the Great Depression dragged both countries down. During the 1920s, the war and naval departments of both nations designed war game scenarios with the other as an enemy as part of routine training exercises. In 1921, Canada developed Defence Scheme No. 1 for an attack on American cities and for forestalling an invasion by the United States until British reinforcements could arrive. Throughout the later 1920s and 1930s, the United States Army War College developed a plan for a war with the British Empire waged largely on North American territory: War Plan Red. Herbert Hoover's meeting in 1927 with British Ambassador Sir Esme Howard agreed on the "absurdity of contemplating the possibility of war between the United States and the British Empire". speaking at Queen's University at Kingston. Roosevelt spoke on the U.S. relations with Canada while there.]] In 1938, as the roots of World War II were set in motion, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt gave a public speech at Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario, declaring that the United States would not sit idly by if another power tried to dominate Canada. Diplomats saw it as a clear warning to Germany not to attack Canada. World War II The two nations cooperated closely in World War II, as both nations saw new levels of prosperity and a determination to defeat the Axis powers. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King and President Franklin D. Roosevelt were determined not to repeat the mistakes of their predecessors. They met in August 1940 at Ogdensburg, issuing a declaration calling for close cooperation, and formed the Permanent Joint Board on Defense (PJBD). King sought to raise Canada's international visibility by hosting the August 1943 Quadrant conference in Quebec on military and political strategy; he was a gracious host but was kept out of the important meetings by Winston Churchill and Roosevelt. Canada allowed the construction of the Alaska Highway and participated in the building of the atomic bomb. 49,000 Americans joined the RCAF (Canadian) or RAF (British) air forces through the Clayton Knight Committee, which had Roosevelt's permission to recruit in the U.S. in 1940–42. American attempts in the mid-1930s to integrate British Columbia into a united West Coast military command had aroused Canadian opposition. Fearing a Japanese invasion of Canada's vulnerable British Columbia Coast, American officials urged the creation of a united military command for an eastern Pacific Ocean theater of war. Canadian leaders feared American imperialism and the loss of autonomy more than a Japanese invasion. In 1941, Canadians successfully argued within the PJBD for cooperation rather than the unified command for the West Coast. Newfoundland The United States built large military bases in Newfoundland during World War II. At the time it was a British crown colony, having lost dominion status. The American spending ended the depression and brought new prosperity; Newfoundland's business community sought closer ties with the United States as expressed by the Economic Union Party. Ottawa took notice and wanted Newfoundland to join Canada, which it did after hotly contested referendums. There was little demand in the United States for the acquisition of Newfoundland, so the United States did not protest the British decision not to allow an American option on the Newfoundland referendum. Cold War Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, working closely with his Foreign Minister Louis St. Laurent, handled foreign relations 1945–48 cautiously. Canada donated money to the United Kingdom to help it rebuild; was elected to the UN Security Council; and helped design NATO. However, Mackenzie King rejected free trade with the United States, and decided not to play a role in the Berlin airlift. Canada had been actively involved in the League of Nations, primarily because it could act separately from Britain. It played a modest role in the postwar formation of the United Nations, as well as the International Monetary Fund. It played a somewhat larger role in 1947 in designing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. After the mid-20th century onwards, Canada and the United States became extremely close partners. Canada was a close ally of the United States during the Cold War. Vietnam War resisters While Canada openly accepted draft evaders and later deserters from the United States, there was never a serious international dispute due to Canada's actions, while Sweden's acceptance was heavily criticized by the United States. The issue of accepting American exiles became a local political debate in Canada that focused on Canada's sovereignty in its immigration law. The United States did not become involved because American politicians viewed Canada as a geographically close ally not worth disturbing. Nixon Shock 1971 of the Parliament of Canada, 1972]] The United States had become Canada's largest market, and after the war, the Canadian economy became dependent on smooth trade flows with the United States so much that in 1971 when the United States enacted the "Nixon Shock" economic policies (including a 10% tariff on all imports) it put the Canadian government into a panic. Washington refused to exempt Canada from its 1971 New Economic Policy, so Canadian prime minister Pierre Trudeau saw a solution in closer economic ties with Europe. Trudeau proposed a "Third Option" policy of diversifying Canada's trade and downgrading the importance of the American market. In a 1972 speech in Ottawa, Nixon declared the "special relationship" between Canada and the United States dead. Relations deteriorated on many points in the Nixon years (1969–74), including trade disputes, defense agreements, energy, fishing, the environment, cultural imperialism, and foreign policy. They changed for the better when Trudeau and Carter found a better rapport. The late 1970s saw a more sympathetic American attitude toward Canadian political and economic needs, the pardoning of draft evaders who had moved to Canada, and the passing of old such as the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War. Canada more than ever welcomed American investments during "the stagflation" that hurt both nations. 1990s in October 1992]] The main issues in Canada–US relations in the 1990s focused on the North American Free Trade Agreement, which was signed in 1994. It created a common market that by 2014 was worth $19 trillion, encompassed 470 million people, and had created millions of jobs. Wilson says, "Few dispute that NAFTA has produced large and measurable gains for Canadian consumers, workers, and businesses". However, he adds, "NAFTA has fallen well short of expectations." 21st century Migration history From the 1750s to the 21st century, there has been an extensive mingling of the Canadian and American populations, with large movements in both directions. New England Yankee settled large parts of Nova Scotia before 1775 and were neutral during the American Revolution. At the end of the American Revolution, about 75,000 United Empire Loyalists moved out of the new United States to the eastern Atlantic provinces and south of Quebec. From 1790 to 1812 many farmers moved from New York and New England into Upper Canada (mostly to Niagara, and the north shore of Lake Ontario). In the mid and late 19th century gold rushes attracted American prospectors, mostly to British Columbia after the Cariboo Gold Rush, Fraser Canyon Gold Rush, and later to the Yukon Territory. In the early 20th century, the opening of land blocks in the Prairie Provinces attracted many farmers from the American Midwest. Many Mennonites immigrated from Pennsylvania and formed their colonies. In the 1890s some Mormons went north to form communities in Alberta after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints rejected plural marriage. The 1960s saw the arrival of about 50,000 draft-dodgers who opposed the Vietnam War. landing in present-day New Brunswick. Large movements of population occurred in both directions from the late-18th to 20th century.]] Canada was a way station through which immigrants from other lands stopped for a while, ultimately heading to the U.S. Between 1851 and 1951, 7.1 million people arrived in Canada (mostly from Continental Europe), and 6.6 million left Canada, most of them to the U.S. The southward migration slacked off after 1890, as Canadian industry began a growth spurt. By then, the American frontier was closing, and thousands of farmers looking for fresh land moved from the United States north into the Prairie Provinces. The net result of the flows was that in 1901 there were 128,000 American-born residents in Canada (3.5% of the Canadian population) and 1.18 million Canadian-born residents in the United States (1.6% of the U.S. population). In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, about 900,000 French Canadians moved to the U.S., with 395,000 residents there in 1900. Two-thirds went to mill towns in New England, where they formed distinctive ethnic communities. By the late 20th century, most had abandoned the French language (see New England French), but most kept the Catholic religion. About twice as many English Canadians came to the U.S., but they did not form distinctive ethnic settlements. Relations between political executives The executive of each country is represented differently. The President of the United States serves as both the head of state and head of government, and his "administration" is the executive, while the Prime Minister of Canada is head of government only, and his or her "government" or "ministry" directs the executive. <!-- leaders should go in the alphabetic order of their surnames in the titles, for neutrality's sake --> W. L. Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt (October 1935 – April 1945) , Franklin D. Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill at the First Quebec Conference in 1943.]] In 1940, W.L. Mackenzie King and Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a defense pact, known as the Ogdensburg Agreement. King hosted conferences for Churchill and Roosevelt, but did not participate in the talks. Louis St. Laurent and Harry S. Truman (November 1948 – January 1953) Prime Minister Laurent and President Truman were both anti-communist during the early years of the Cold War. John G. Diefenbaker and Dwight Eisenhower (June 1957 – January 1961) President Dwight D. Eisenhower (1951–1961) took pains to foster good relations with Progressive Conservative John Diefenbaker (1957–1963). That led to the approval of plans to join in NORAD, an integrated air defense system, in mid-1957. Relations with President John Kennedy were much less cordial. Diefenbaker opposed apartheid in the South Africa and helped force it out of the Commonwealth of Nations. His indecision on whether to accept Bomarc nuclear missiles from the United States led to his government's downfall. John G. Diefenbaker and John F. Kennedy (January 1961 – April 1963) Diefenbaker and President John F. Kennedy did not get along well personally. This was evident in Diefenbaker's response to the Cuban Missile Crisis, where he was slow to support the United States. However, Diefenbaker's Minister of Defence went behind Diefenbaker's back and sent Canada's military to high alert given Canada's legal treaty obligations, to try and appease Kennedy. Lester B. Pearson and Lyndon B. Johnson (November 1963 – April 1968) In 1965, Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson gave a speech in Philadelphia criticizing American involvement in the Vietnam War. This infuriated President Lyndon B. Johnson, who gave him a harsh talk, saying "You don't come here and piss on my rug". Mulroney government (1984–1993) Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan (September 1984 – January 1989) Relations between Brian Mulroney and Ronald Reagan were famously close. This relationship resulted in negotiations for the Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, and the U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement to reduce acid-rain-causing emissions. Brian Mulroney and George H. W. Bush (January 1989 – January 1993) Both major policy goals of Mulroney would be finalized under the presidency of George H. W. Bush. Mulroney delivered eulogies at the funerals of both Ronald Reagan in 2004 and George H. W. Bush in 2018. Chrétien government (1993–2003) Jean Chrétien and Bill Clinton (November 1993 – January 2001) summit meeting in November 1993]] Although Jean Chrétien was wary of appearing too close to President Bill Clinton, both men had a passion for golf. During a news conference with Prime Minister Chrétien in April 1997, President Clinton quipped "I don't know if any two world leaders have played golf together more than we have, but we meant to break a record". Their governments had many small trade quarrels over the Canadian content of American magazines, softwood lumber, and so on, but on the whole were quite friendly. Both leaders had run on reforming or abolishing NAFTA, but the agreement went ahead with the addition of environmental and labor side agreements. Crucially, the Clinton administration lent rhetorical support to Canadian unity during the 1995 referendum in Quebec on separation from Canada. Jean Chrétien and George W. Bush (January 2001 – December 2003) Relations between Chrétien and George W. Bush were strained throughout their overlapping times in office. Canada offered its full assistance to the U.S. as the September 11 attacks were unfolding. One tangible show of support was Operation Yellow Ribbon, in which more than 200 U.S.-bound flights were diverted to Canada after the U.S. shut down their airspace. Later, however, Chrétien publicly mused that U.S. foreign policy might be part of the "root causes" of terrorism. Some Americans criticized his "smug moralism", and Chrétien's public refusal to support the 2003 Iraq war was met with negative responses in the United States, especially among conservatives. Harper government (2006–2015) Stephen Harper and George W. Bush (February 2006 – January 2009) Stephen Harper and George W. Bush were thought to share warm personal relations and also close ties between their administrations. Because Bush was so unpopular among liberals in Canada (particularly in the media), this was underplayed by the Harper government. Shortly after being congratulated by Bush for his victory in February 2006, Harper rebuked the U.S. ambassador to Canada David Wilkins for criticizing the Conservatives' plans to assert Canada's sovereignty over the Arctic Ocean waters with military force. Stephen Harper and Barack Obama (January 2009 – November 2015) President Barack Obama's first international trip was to Canada on February 19, 2009, thereby sending a strong message of peace and cooperation. Except Canadian lobbying against "Buy American" provisions in the U.S. stimulus package, relations between the two administrations were smooth. They also held friendly bets on hockey games during the Winter Olympic season. In the 2010 Winter Olympics hosted by Canada in Vancouver, Canada defeated the U.S. in both gold medal matches, entitling Stephen Harper to receive a case of Molson Canadian beer from Barack Obama; in reverse, if Canada had lost, Harper would have provided a case of Yuengling beer to Obama. During the 2014 Winter Olympics, alongside U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry & Minister of Foreign Affairs John Baird, Stephen Harper was given a case of Samuel Adams beer by Obama for the Canadian gold medal victory over the U.S. in women's hockey, and the semi-final victory over the U.S. in men's hockey. Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) (2011) On February 4, 2011, Harper and Obama issued a "Declaration on a Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Economic Competitiveness" and announced the creation of the Canada–United States Regulatory Cooperation Council (RCC) "to increase regulatory transparency and coordination between the two countries." Health Canada and the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the RCC mandate, undertook the "first of its kind" initiative by selecting "as its first area of alignment common cold indications for certain over-the-counter antihistamine ingredients (GC January 10, 2013)". On December 7, 2011, Harper flew to Washington, met with Obama, and signed an agreement to implement the joint action plans that had been developed since the initial meeting in February. The plans called on both countries to spend more on border infrastructure, share more information on people who cross the border, and acknowledge more of each other's safety and security inspection on third-country traffic. An editorial in The Globe and Mail praised the agreement for giving Canada the ability to track whether failed refugee claimants have left Canada via the U.S. and for eliminating "duplicated baggage screenings on connecting flights". The agreement is not a legally binding treaty and relies on the political will and ability of the executives of both governments to implement the terms of the agreement. These types of executive agreements are routine—on both sides of the Canada–U.S. border. Trudeau government (2015–2025) Justin Trudeau and Barack Obama (November 2015 – January 2017) and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, March 2016]] President Barack Obama and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau first met formally at the APEC summit meeting in Manila, Philippines in November 2015, nearly a week after the latter was sworn into the office. Both leaders expressed eagerness for increased cooperation and coordination between the two countries during Trudeau's government with Trudeau promising an "enhanced Canada–U.S. partnership". On November 6, 2015, Obama announced the U.S. State Department's rejection of the proposed Keystone XL pipeline, the fourth phase of the Keystone oil pipeline system running between Canada and the United States, to which Trudeau expressed disappointment but said that the rejection would not damage Canada–U.S. relations and would instead provide a "fresh start" to strengthening ties through cooperation and coordination, saying that "Canada–U.S. relationship is much bigger than any one project." Obama has since praised Trudeau's efforts to prioritize the reduction of climate change, calling it "extraordinarily helpful" to establish a worldwide consensus on addressing the issue. Although Trudeau has told Obama his plans to withdraw Canada's McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet jets assisting in the American-led intervention against ISIL, Trudeau said that Canada will still "do more than its part" in combating the terrorist group by increasing the number of Canadian special forces members training and fighting on the ground in Iraq and Syria. Trudeau visited the White House for an official visit and state dinner on March 10, 2016. Trudeau and Obama were reported to have shared warm personal relations during the visit, making humorous remarks about which country was better at hockey and which country had better beer. Obama complimented Trudeau's 2015 election campaign for its "message of hope and change" and "positive and optimistic vision". Obama and Trudeau also held "productive" discussions on climate change and relations between the two countries, and Trudeau invited Obama to speak in the Canadian parliament in Ottawa later in the year. Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2017 – January 2021) and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, June 2019]] Following the victory of Donald Trump in the 2016 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him and invited him to visit Canada at the "earliest opportunity". Prime Minister Trudeau and President Trump formally met for the first time at the White House on February 13, 2017, nearly a month after Trump was sworn into the office. Trump has ruffled relations with Canada with tariffs on softwood lumber. Diafiltered Milk was brought up by Trump as an area that needed negotiating. In 2018, Trump and Trudeau negotiated the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement (USMCA), a free trade agreement concluded between Canada, Mexico, and the United States that succeeded the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). The agreement has been characterized as "NAFTA 2.0", or "New NAFTA", since many provisions from NAFTA were incorporated and its changes were seen as largely incremental. On July 1, 2020, the USMCA entered into force in all member states. In June 2018, after Trudeau explained that Canadians would not be "pushed around" by the first Trump tariffs on Canada's aluminum and steel, Trump labeled Trudeau as "dishonest" and "meek", and accused Trudeau of making "false statements", although it is unclear which statements Trump was referring to. Trump's adviser on trade, Peter Navarro, said that there was a "special place in hell" for Trudeau as he employed "bad faith diplomacy with President Donald J. Trump and then tried to stab him in the back on the way out the door ... that comes right from Air Force One." Days later, Trump said that Trudeau's comments are "going to cost a lot of money for the people of Canada". In June 2019, the U.S. State Department spokesperson Morgan Ortagus said the U.S. "view Canada's claim that the waters of the Northwest Passage are internal waters of Canada as inconsistent with international law". Justin Trudeau and Joe Biden (January 2021 – January 2025) and Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, March 2023]] Following the victory of Joe Biden in the 2020 U.S. presidential election, Trudeau congratulated him on his victory; indicating a significant improvement in Canada–U.S. relationships, which had been strained in the years prior during the Presidency of Donald Trump. On January 22, 2021, Biden and Trudeau held their first phone call. Trudeau was the first foreign leader to receive a phone call from Biden as President. On February 23, 2021, Biden and Trudeau held their first bilateral meeting. Although virtual, the bilateral meeting was Biden's first as President. The two leaders discussed "COVID-19, economic recovery, climate change, and refugees and migration" among other subjects. Justin Trudeau and Donald Trump (January 2025 – March 2025) During his 2024 campaign and continuing into his second presidency, Trump spoke repeatedly about imposing tariffs on Canada and making Canada the 51st U.S. state. On November 29, 2024, Trudeau met with Trump to address trade issues after Trump threatened a 25% tariff on Canadian imports and planned to rethink the USMCA. Trudeau warned of retaliation if tariffs were enacted. Trump continued his comments throughout December, calling Canada a state and Trudeau a governor. On December 18, he claimed many Canadians supported the idea of becoming the 51st state. Trudeau firmly rejected any possibility of annexation on January 7. In early February 2025, Trudeau announced retaliatory tariffs of 25% against the United States on billion worth of U.S. goods. Mark Carney and Donald Trump (March 2025 – present) In March 2025, Mark Carney vowed to "win the trade war" against U.S. President Donald Trump, who had imposed tariffs on Canadian goods and suggested annexing Canada as the 51st state. Carney condemned Trump's "unjustified tariffs" and pledged retaliatory measures until the U.S. "shows respect." In light of increased hostility between the two nations, Canadian prime minister Mark Carney claimed that the economic and military cooperation that Canada and the US once had was permanently altered to the point of the previously positive relations being over. Military and security The Canadian military, like forces of other NATO countries, fought in cooperation with the United States in most major conflicts since World War II, including the Korean War, the Gulf War, the Kosovo War, and most recently the war in Afghanistan. The main exceptions to this were the Canadian government's opposition to some CIA activities in Canada, the Vietnam War, and the Iraq War, which caused some brief diplomatic tensions. Despite these issues, military relations have remained close. The Permanent Joint Board of Defense, established in 1940, provides policy-level consultation on bilateral defense matters. The United States and Canada share North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) mutual security commitments. In addition, American and Canadian military forces have cooperated since 1958 on continental air defense within the framework of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). Canadian forces have provided indirect support for the American invasion of Iraq that began in 2003. Moreover, interoperability with the American armed forces has been a guiding principle of Canadian military force structuring and doctrine since the end of the Cold War. Canadian navy frigates, for instance, integrate seamlessly into American carrier battle groups. In commemoration of the 200th Anniversary of the War of 1812 ambassadors from Canada and the United States, and naval officers from both countries gathered at the Pritzker Military Library on August 17, 2012, for a panel discussion on Canada–U.S. relations with emphasis on national security-related matters. Also as part of the commemoration, the navies of both countries sailed together throughout the Great Lakes region. According to Canadian and U.S. officials, a U.S. fighter jet shot down an unidentified object over Canada on February 23, 2023, on the orders of Prime Minister Justin Trudeau. The operation was coordinated by the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD), a joint U.S.-Canadian air defense organization. Prime Minister Trudeau said investigators were looking for debris. This decision was made following the conversation between Biden and Trudeau. The foreign policies of the countries have been closely aligned, yet ultimately independent, since the Cold War. There is also debate on whether the Northwest Passage is in international waters or under Canadian sovereignty. Iran hostage crisis During the 1979 revolution, protesters invaded the U.S. embassy and took many hostages. Six Americans evaded capture and were sheltered by the British and Canadian diplomatic missions. After a U.S. military operation to get them out of Iran failed, Canadian diplomat Ken Taylor, Secretary of State for External Affairs Flora MacDonald, and Prime Minister Joe Clark decided to smuggle the six Americans out of Iran on an international flight by using Canadian passports. An Order in Council was made to issue multiple official copies of Canadian passports with fake identities to the American diplomats in the Canadian sanctuary. The passports contained forged Iranian visas prepared by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. War in Afghanistan soldiers gather to commemorate the 65th anniversary of 1st Special Service Force in Bagram, Afghanistan. The 1st Special Service Force was an American-Canadian unit during World War II.]] Canada's elite JTF2 unit joined American special forces in Afghanistan shortly after the al-Qaeda attacks on September 11, 2001. Canadian forces joined the multinational coalition in Operation Anaconda in January 2002. On April 18, 2002, an American pilot bombed Canadian forces involved in a training exercise, killing four and wounding eight Canadians. A joint American-Canadian inquiry determined the cause of the incident to be pilot error, in which the pilot interpreted ground fire as an attack; the pilot ignored orders that he felt were "second-guessing" his field tactical decision. Canadian forces assumed a six-month command rotation of the International Security Assistance Force in 2003; in 2005, Canadians assumed operational command of the multi-national Brigade in Kandahar, with 2,300 troops, and supervises the Provincial Reconstruction Team in Kandahar, where al-Qaida forces are most active. Canada has also deployed naval forces in the Persian Gulf since 1991 in support of the UN Gulf Multinational Interdiction Force. The Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C. maintains a public relations website named [http://www.canadianembassy.org/ca/index-eng.asp CanadianAlly.com], which is intended "to give American citizens a better sense of the scope of Canada's role in North American and Global Security and the War on Terror". The New Democratic Party and some recent Liberal leadership candidates have expressed opposition to Canada's expanded role in the Afghan conflict because it is inconsistent with Canada's historic role (since the Second World War) of peacekeeping operations. 2003 Invasion of Iraq According to contemporary polls, 71% of Canadians were opposed to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Many Canadians, and the former Liberal Cabinet headed by Paul Martin (as well as many Americans such as Bill Clinton and Barack Obama), made a policy distinction between conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, unlike the Bush Doctrine, which linked these together in a "Global war on terror". Responding to ISIS/Daesh meets with U.S. Secretary of Defense Ash Carter at NATO headquarters in 2016]] Canada has been involved in international responses to the threats from Daesh/ISIS/ISIL in Syria and Iraq and is a member of the Global Coalition to Counter Daesh. In October 2016, Foreign Affairs Minister Dion and National Defence Minister Sajjan met the U.S. special envoy for this coalition. The Americans thanked Canada "for the role of Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) in providing training and assistance to Iraqi security forces, as well as the CAF's role in improving essential capacity-building capabilities with regional forces". Illicit drugs In 2003, the American government became concerned when members of the Canadian government announced plans to decriminalize the use of cannabis. David Murray, an assistant to the U.S. Drug Czar John P. Walters, said in a CBC interview that, "We would have to respond. We would be forced to respond." However, the election of the Conservative Party in early 2006 halted the liberalization of cannabis laws until the Liberal Party of Canada legalized recreational cannabis use in 2018. A 2007 joint report by American and Canadian officials on cross-border drug smuggling indicated that, despite their best efforts, "drug trafficking still occurs in significant quantities in both directions across the border. The principal illicit substances smuggled across our shared border are MDMA (Ecstasy), cocaine, and cannabis" The report indicated that Canada was a major producer of Ecstasy and marijuana for the U.S. market, while the U.S. was a transit country for cocaine entering Canada. Trade in Vancouver. Trade disputes over softwood lumber exist between the two countries.]] Canada and the United States have the world's second-largest trading relationship, with huge quantities of goods and people flowing across the border each year. Since the 1987 Canada–United States Free Trade Agreement, there have been no tariffs on most goods passed between the two countries. In the course of the softwood lumber dispute, the U.S. has placed tariffs on Canadian softwood lumber because of what it argues is an unfair Canadian government subsidy, a claim that Canada disputes. The dispute has cycled through several agreements and arbitration cases. Other notable disputes include the Canadian Wheat Board, and Canadian cultural protectionism in cultural industries such as magazines, radio, and television. Canadians have been criticized about such things as the ban on beef since a case of Mad Cow disease was discovered in 2003 in cows from the United States (and a few subsequent cases) and the high American agricultural subsidies. Concerns in Canada also run high over aspects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) such as Chapter 11, prior to its suspension and replacement with USMCA. Canada had also already been in the process of implementing more advanced border security in December of 2024 a month before Trump's inauguration. By February 3, 2025 after the threat of counter tariffs Trump paused his tariff threat on Canada, despite saying in an interview there was nothing Canada can do to stop the tariffs, and negotiated with Trudeau over issues on the border. Cultural relations Sports baserunner attempting to score against the Baltimore Orioles. Several sports leagues in the United States feature Canadian teams]] Several major sports that are popular in the United States have origins in or influences from Canada, such as basketball, which was invented by Canadian-American James Naismith. The early history and formation of North American baseball deeply involves both nations. American migrants played a role in expanding the presence of baseball in Canada, and due to the difficulty of long-distance travel, provincial Canadian teams often played against neighboring American regions rather than against each other. Traditionally, high-level American hockey development often involved players participating in Canadian competitions, which were of a higher caliber. In the 21st century, American teams have reached greater parity with Canadian teams both at the international level and in the National Hockey League. Environmental issues at the signing ceremony for the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement in 1972]] A principal instrument of this cooperation is the International Joint Commission (IJC), established as part of the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909 to resolve differences and promote international cooperation on boundary waters. The Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 is another historic example of cooperation in controlling trans-border water pollution. However, there have been some disputes. Most recently, the Devil's Lake Outlet, a project instituted by North Dakota, has angered Manitobans who fear that their water may soon become polluted as a result of this project. Beginning in 1986, the Canadian government of Brian Mulroney began pressing the Reagan administration for an "Acid Rain Treaty" to do something about U.S. industrial air pollution causing acid rain in Canada. The Reagan administration was hesitant and questioned the science behind Mulroney's claims. However, Mulroney was able to prevail. The product was the signing and ratification of the Air Quality Agreement of 1991 by the first Bush administration. Under that treaty, the two governments consult semi-annually on trans-border air pollution, which has demonstrably reduced acid rain, and they have since signed an annex to the treaty dealing with ground level ozone in 2000. Despite this, trans-border air pollution remains an issue, particularly in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence watershed during the summer. The main source of this trans-border pollution results from coal-fired power stations, most of them located in the Midwestern United States. As part of the negotiations to create NAFTA, Canada and the U.S. signed, along with Mexico, the North American Agreement on Environmental Cooperation that created the Commission for Environmental Cooperation that monitors environmental issues across the continent, publishing the North American Environmental Atlas as one aspect of its monitoring duties. Currently, neither of the countries' governments support the Kyoto Protocol, which set out time scheduled curbing of greenhouse gas emissions. Unlike the United States, Canada has ratified the agreement. Yet after ratification, due to internal political conflict within Canada, the Canadian government does not enforce the Kyoto Protocol and has received criticism from environmental groups and other governments for its climate change positions. In January 2011, the Canadian minister of the environment, Peter Kent, explicitly stated that the policy of his government about greenhouse gas emissions reductions is to wait for the United States to act first, and then try to harmonize with that action – a position that has been condemned by environmentalists and Canadian nationalists, and as well as scientists and government think-tanks. With large freshwater supplies in Canada and long-term concern about water scarcity in parts of the United States, water export availability or restriction has been identified as an issue of possible future contention between the countries. Newfoundland fisheries dispute The United States and Britain had a long-standing dispute about the rights of Americans fishing in the waters near Newfoundland. Before 1776, there was no question that American fishermen, mostly from Massachusetts, had rights to use the waters off Newfoundland. In the peace treaty negotiations of 1783, the Americans insisted on a statement of these rights. However, France, an American ally, disputed the American position because France had its own specified rights in the area and wanted them to be exclusive. The Treaty of Paris (1783) gave the Americans not rights, but rather "liberties" to fish within the territorial waters of British North America and to dry fish on certain coasts. After the War of 1812, the Convention of 1818 between the United States and Britain specified exactly what liberties were involved. Canadian and Newfoundland fishermen contested these liberties in the 1830s and 1840s. The Canadian–American Reciprocity Treaty of 1854, and the Treaty of Washington of 1871 spelled out the liberties in more detail. However the Treaty of Washington expired in 1885, and there was a continuous round of disputes over jurisdictions and liberties. Britain and the United States sent the issue to the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 1909. It produced a compromise settlement that permanently ended the problems. Common memberships Canada and the United States both hold membership in several multinational organizations, including: * Arctic Council * Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation * Canadian Hockey League (CHL) * CONCACAF * FIBA * FIFA * Food and Agriculture Organization * G7 * G-10 * G-20 major economies * International Chamber of Commerce * International Development Association * International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) * International Monetary Fund (IMF) * International Olympic Committee (IOC) * Interpol * Major League Baseball (MLB) * Major League Soccer (MLS) * National Basketball Association (NBA) * National Hockey League (NHL) * National Lacrosse League (NLL) * North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) * North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) * North American Numbering Plan * North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) * Organization of American States * Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) * Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America * UKUSA Community * United Nations (UN) * UNESCO * World Bowling * World Health Organization (WHO) * World Trade Organization (WTO) * World Bank * World Rugby Territorial disputes . The waters around the island are one of several maritime territorial disputes between the two countries.]] The two countries have had several territorial disputes throughout their histories. Current maritime territorial disputes between the two countries include the Beaufort Sea, Dixon Entrance, Strait of Juan de Fuca, San Juan Islands, Machias Seal Island, and North Rock. Additionally, the United States is one of several countries that contends the Northwest Passage is international waters; whereas the Canadian government asserts it forms Canadian Internal Waters. The Inside Passage is also disputed as international waters by the United States. Historical boundary disputes include the Aroostook War at the Maine–New Brunswick border; the Oregon boundary dispute at the present day British Columbia–Washington border; and the Alaska Boundary Dispute at the Alaska–British Columbia border. The Maine–New Brunswick boundary dispute was resolved through the Webster–Ashburton Treaty in 1842, the Oregon boundary dispute through the Oregon Treaty of 1846, and the Alaska boundary dispute through arbitration in 1903. Northwest Passage ]] A long-simmering dispute between Canada and the U.S. involves the issue of Canadian sovereignty over the Northwest Passage (the sea passages in the Arctic). Canada's assertion that the Northwest Passage represents internal (territorial) waters has been challenged by other countries, especially the U.S., which argue that these waters constitute an international strait. Canadians were alarmed when Americans drove the reinforced oil tanker through the Northwest Passage in 1969, followed by the icebreaker Polar Sea in 1985, which resulted in a minor diplomatic incident. In 1970, the Canadian parliament enacted the Arctic Waters Pollution Prevention Act, which asserts Canadian regulatory control over pollution within a 100-mile zone. In response, the United States in 1970 stated, "We cannot accept the assertion of a Canadian claim that the Arctic waters are internal waters of Canada. ... Such acceptance would jeopardize the freedom of navigation essential for United States naval activities worldwide." A compromise of sorts was reached in 1988, by an agreement on "Arctic Cooperation", which pledges that voyages of American icebreakers "will be undertaken with the consent of the Government of Canada". However, the agreement did not alter either country's basic legal position. Paul Cellucci, the American ambassador to Canada, in 2005 suggested to Washington that it should recognize the straits as belonging to Canada. His advice was rejected and Harper took opposite positions. The U.S. opposes Harper's proposed plan to deploy military icebreakers in the Arctic to detect interlopers and assert Canadian sovereignty over those waters. Views of presidents and prime ministers Presidents and prime ministers typically make formal or informal statements that indicate the diplomatic policy of their administration. Diplomats and journalists at the time—and historians since—dissect the nuances and tone to detect the warmth or coolness of the relationship. * Prime Minister John A. Macdonald, speaking at the beginning of the 1891 election (fought mostly over Canadian free trade with the United States), arguing against closer trade relations with the U.S. stated "As for myself, my course is clear. A British subject I was born—a British subject I will die. With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the 'veiled treason' which attempts by sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance." (February 3, 1891.) Canada's first Prime Minister also said: * Prime Minister John Sparrow Thompson, angry at failed trade talks in 1888, privately complained to his wife, Lady Thompson, that "These Yankee politicians are the lowest race of thieves in existence." * After World War II years of close military and economic cooperation, President Harry S. Truman said in 1947 that "Canada and the United States have reached the point where we can no longer think of each other as 'foreign' countries." * President John F. Kennedy told Parliament in Ottawa in May 1961 that "Geography has made us neighbors. History has made us friends. Economics has made us partners. And necessity has made us allies. Those whom nature hath so joined together, let no man put asunder." * President Lyndon B. Johnson helped open Expo '67 with an upbeat theme, saying "We of the United States consider ourselves blessed. We have much to give thanks for. But the gift of providence we cherish most is that we were given as our neighbors on this wonderful continent the people and the nation of Canada." Remarks at Expo '67, Montreal, May 25, 1967. * Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau famously said that being America's neighbor "is like sleeping with an elephant. No matter how friendly and even-tempered the beast, if one can call it that, one is affected by every twitch and grunt." * Prime Minister Pierre Elliot Trudeau, sharply at odds with the U.S. over Cold War policy, warned at a press conference in 1971 that the overwhelming American presence posed "a danger to our national identity from a cultural, economic and perhaps even military point of view." * President Richard Nixon, in a speech to Parliament in 1972 was angry at Trudeau and declared that the "special relationship" between Canada and the United States was dead. "It is time for us to recognize", he stated, "that we have very separate identities; that we have significant differences; and that nobody's interests are furthered when these realities are obscured." * In late 2001, President George W. Bush did not mention Canada during a speech in which he thanked a list of countries who had assisted in responding to the events of September 11, although Canada had provided military, financial, and other support. Ten years later, David Frum, one of President Bush's speechwriters, stated that it was an unintentional omission. * Prime Minister Stephen Harper, in a statement congratulating Barack Obama on his inauguration, stated that "The United States remains Canada's most important ally, closest friend and largest trading partner and I look forward to working with President Obama and his administration as we build on this special relationship." * President Barack Obama, speaking in Ottawa at his first official international visit on February 19, 2009, said, "I love this country. We could not have a better friend and ally." * President Joe Biden, while addressing Parliament on March 24, 2023, emphasized the strong relationship between the two countries, stating, “Americans and Canadians are two people, two countries, in my view, sharing one heart, a personal connection. No two nations on Earth are bound by such close ties, friendship, family, commerce and culture." Biden additionally commented on Canada's sports culture, saying, "I have to say, I like your teams except the Leafs." which was met with laughter and applause. Public opinion Today there remain cross-border cultural ties and according to Gallup's annual public opinion polls, Canada has consistently been Americans' favorite nation, with 96% of Americans viewing Canada favorably in 2012. As of spring 2013, 64% of Canadians had a favorable view of the U.S. and 81% expressed confidence in then-US President Obama to do the right thing in international matters. According to the same poll, 30% viewed the U.S. negatively. In addition, according to Spring 2017 Global Attitudes Survey, 43% of Canadians view the U.S. positively, while 51% hold a negative view. More recently, however, a poll in January 2018 showed Canadians' approval of U.S. leadership dropped by over 40 percentage points under President Donald Trump, in line with the view of residents of many other U.S. allied and neutral countries. Canadian opinion of the U.S. has improved significantly between 2021 and 2024, following an international rebound in the U.S. image abroad following the transition as President of the United States from Donald Trump to Joe Biden, with 61% of Canadians having a favorable opinion of the United States in 2021. This would however be effectively reversed following the second inauguration of Donald Trump, with a Pollara poll finding that 63% of Canadians in January 2025 — up from 40% in June 2024 — have a negative view of the United States. A Harvard CAPS/Harris poll conducted in January 2025 found that only 40 percent of American voters think tariffs on Canada are the right choice, with 59 percent of them Republicans and 24 percent Democrats. Anti-Americanism Anti-Americanism in Canada has unique historic roots. Since the arrival of the Loyalists as refugees from the American Revolution in the 1780s, historians have identified a constant theme of Canadian fear of the United States and of "Americanization" or a cultural takeover. In the War of 1812, for example, the enthusiastic response by French militia to defend Lower Canada reflected, according to Heidler and Heidler (2004), "the fear of Americanization". Scholars have traced this attitude over time in Ontario and Quebec. from "Dominion House", while John Bull watches in the background]] Canadian intellectuals who wrote about the U.S. in the first half of the 20th century identified America as the world center of modernity and deplored it. Anti-American Canadians (who admired the British Empire) explained that Canada had narrowly escaped American conquest with its rejection of tradition, its worship of "progress" and technology, and its mass culture; they explained that Canada was much better because of its commitment to orderly government and societal harmony. There were a few ardent defenders of the nation to the south, notably liberal and socialist intellectuals such as F. R. Scott and Jean-Charles Harvey (1891–1967). Looking at television, Collins (1990) finds that it is in Anglophone Canada that fear of cultural Americanization is most powerful, for there the attractions of the U.S. are strongest. Meren (2009) argues that after 1945, the emergence of Quebec nationalism and the desire to preserve French-Canadian cultural heritage led to growing anxiety regarding American cultural imperialism and Americanization. In 2006 surveys showed that 60 percent of Québécois had a fear of Americanization, while other surveys showed they preferred their current situation to that of the Americans in the realms of health care, quality of life as seniors, environmental quality, poverty, educational system, racism and standard of living. While agreeing that job opportunities are greater in America, 89 percent disagreed with the notion that they would rather be in the United States, and they were more likely to feel closer to English Canadians than to Americans. However, there is evidence that the elites and Quebec are much less fearful of Americanization and much more open to economic integration than the general public. Jamie Glazov writes, "More than anything else, Diefenbaker became the tragic victim of Canadian anti-Americanism, a sentiment the prime minister had fully embraced by 1962. [He was] unable to imagine himself (or his foreign policy) without enemies." Historian J. M. Bumsted says, "In its most extreme form, Canadian suspicion of the United States has led to outbreaks of overt anti-Americanism, usually spilling over against American residents in Canada." John R. Wennersten writes, "But at the heart of Canadian anti-Americanism lies a cultural bitterness that takes an American expatriate unaware. Canadians fear the American media's influence on their culture and talk critically about how Americans are exporting a culture of violence in its television programming and movies." However Kim Nossal points out that the Canadian variety is much milder than anti-Americanism in some other countries. By contrast, Americans show very little knowledge or interest one way or the other regarding Canadian affairs. Canadian historian Frank Underhill, quoting Canadian playwright Merrill Denison summed it up: "Americans are benevolently ignorant about Canada, whereas Canadians are malevolently informed about the United States." Canadian public opinion on U.S. presidents in January 2017]] United States President George W. Bush was "deeply disliked" by a majority of Canadians according to the Arizona Daily Sun. A 2004 poll found that more than two-thirds of Canadians favored Democrat John Kerry over Bush in the 2004 presidential election, with Bush's lowest approval ratings in Canada being in the province of Quebec where just 11% of the population supported him. Canadian public opinion of Barack Obama was significantly more positive. A 2012 poll found that 65% of Canadians would vote for Obama in the 2012 presidential election "if they could" while only 9% of Canadians would vote for his Republican opponent Mitt Romney. The same study found that 61% of Canadians felt that the Obama administration had been "good" for America, while only 12% felt it had been "bad". Similarly, a Pew Research poll conducted in June 2016 found that 83% of Canadians were "confident in Obama to do the right thing regarding world affairs". The study also found that a majority of members of all three major Canadian political parties supported Obama, and also found that Obama had slightly higher approval ratings in Canada in 2012 than he did in 2008. John Ibbitson of The Globe and Mail stated in 2012 that Canadians generally supported Democratic presidents over Republican presidents, citing how President Richard Nixon was "never liked" in Canada and that Canadians generally did not approve of Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's friendship with President Ronald Reagan. A November 2016 poll found 82% of Canadians preferred Hillary Clinton over Donald Trump. A January 2017 poll found that 66% of Canadians "disapproved" of Donald Trump, with 23% approving of him and 11% being "unsure". The poll also found that only 18% of Canadians believed Trump's presidency would have a positive impact on Canada, while 63% believed it would have a negative effect. A July 2019 poll found 79% of Canadians preferred Joe Biden or Bernie Sanders over Trump. A Pew Research poll released in June 2021, showed that Canadian opinion of American president Joe Biden is much more favorable than his predecessor Donald Trump, with 77% approving of his leadership and having confidence in him to do the right thing. Passenger bookings on Canada to US routes fell by more than 70% in early 2025 compared to the same period in 2024, according to data from aviation analytics firm OAG. Resident diplomatic missions ; Resident diplomatic missions of Canada in the United States * Washington, D.C. (Embassy) * Atlanta (Consulate-General) * Boston (Consulate-General) * Chicago (Consulate-General) * Dallas (Consulate-General) * Denver (Consulate-General) * Detroit (Consulate-General) * Los Angeles (Consulate-General) * Miami (Consulate-General) * Minneapolis (Consulate-General) * New York City (Consulate-General) * San Francisco (Consulate-General) * Seattle (Consulate-General) * Houston (Trade Office) * Palo Alto (Trade Office) * San Diego (Trade Office) ; Resident diplomatic missions of the United States in Canada * Ottawa (Embassy) * Calgary (Consulate-General) * Halifax (Consulate-General) * Montreal (Consulate-General) * Quebec City (Consulate-General) * Toronto (Consulate-General) * Vancouver (Consulate-General) * Winnipeg (Consulate) See also * Comparison of Canadian and American economies * Comparison of the Canadian and American healthcare systems * Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America * List of ambassadors of Canada to the United States * List of ambassadors of the United States to Canada * CIA activities in Canada References Cited sources * Further reading * * Azzi, Stephen. Reconcilable Differences: A History of Canada–US Relations (Oxford University Press, 2014) * Behiels, Michael D. and Reginald C. Stuart, eds. Transnationalism: Canada–United States History into the Twenty-First Century (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010) 312 pp. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=35132 online 2012 review] * Bothwell, Robert. Your Country, My Country: A Unified History of the United States and Canada (2015), 400 pages; traces relations, shared values, and differences across the centuries * Boyko, John. ''Cold fire: Kennedy's northern front (Alfred A. Knopf Canada, 2016) * Congressional Research Service. Canada–U.S. Relations (Congressional Research Service, 2021) [https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/96-397.pdf 2021 Report], by an agency of the U.S. Congress; Updated February 10, 2021 * Clarkson, Stephen. Uncle Sam and Us: Globalization, Neoconservatism and the Canadian State (University of Toronto Press, 2002) * Doran, Charles F., and James Patrick Sewell, "Anti-Americanism in Canada", Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 497, Anti-Americanism: Origins and Context (May 1988), pp. 105–119 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1045764 in JSTOR] * Dunning, William Archibald. The British Empire and the United States (1914) [https://archive.org/details/britishempireuni0000dunn/page/n5/mode/2up online] celebratory study by a leading American scholar. * Dyment, David "Doing the Continental: A New Canadian-American Relationship" (Dundurn Press, 2010) * Engler, Yves * Granatstein, J. L. Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism (1997) * Granatstein, J. L. and Norman Hillmer, For Better or for Worse: Canada and the United States to the 1990s (1991) * Gravelle, Timothy B. "Partisanship, Border Proximity, and Canadian Attitudes toward North American Integration." International Journal of Public Opinion Research (2014) 26#4 pp: 453–474. * Gravelle, Timothy B. "Love Thy Neighbor (u) r? Political Attitudes, Proximity and the Mutual Perceptions of the Canadian and American Publics". Canadian Journal of Political Science (2014) 47#1 pp: 135–157. * Greaves, Wilfrid. "Democracy, Donald Trump, and the Canada-US Security Environment". (NAADSN – North American and Arctic Defense Security Network, 2020). [https://www.naadsn.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/20-May_Greaves_Democracy-Trump-and-the-Canada-US-PSC.pdf online] * * Hale, Geoffrey. So Near Yet So Far: The Public and Hidden Worlds of Canada-US Relations (University of British Columbia Press, 2012); 352 pages focus on 2001–2011 * Hillmer, Norman, and Philippe Lagassé, eds. Justin Trudeau and Canadian foreign policy (Springer, 2018) [https://books.google.com/books?idC5ZaDwAAQBAJ&dqforeign+policy+justin+trudeau&pg=PR6 online]. * Holland, Kenneth. "The Canada–United States defense relationship: a partnership for the twenty-first century". Canadian Foreign Policy Journal ahead-of-print (2015): 1–6. [http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/11926422.2014.995686 online] * Holmes, Ken. "The Canadian Cognitive Bias and its Influence on Canada/US Relations". International Social Science Review (2015) 90#1 [http://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1073&contextissr online]. * Holmes, John W. "Canadian External Policies since 1945" "International Journal" 18#2 (1963) 137–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/002070206301800201 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40198783 online] * Holmes, John W. "Impact of Domestic Political Factors on Canadian-American Relations: Canada", International Organization, Vol. 28, No. 4, Canada and the United States: Transnational and Transgovernmental Relations (Autumn, 1974), pp. 611–635 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2706227 in JSTOR] * Innes, Hugh, ed. Americanization: Issues for the Seventies (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 1972). ; re 1970s * Keenleyside, Hugh Ll. Canada and the United States (1929) [https://archive.org/details/canadaunitedstat0000unse_t5a2 online] * Lennox, Patrick. At Home and Abroad: The Canada-U.S. Relationship and Canada's Place in the World (University of British Columbia Press; 2010) 192 pages; the post–World War II period. * Little, John Michael. "Canada Discovered: Continental Perceptions of the Roosevelt Administration, 1939–1945", PhD dissertation. Dissertation Abstracts International, 1978, Vol. 38 Issue 9, p5696-5697 * Lumsden, Ian, ed. The Americanization of Canada, ed. for the University League for Social Reform (U of Toronto Press, 1970). * McInnis, Edgard W. The Unguarded Frontier: A History of American-Canadian Relations (1942) [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.225182 online]; well-regarded older study * MacKenzie, Scott A. "But There Was No War: The Impossibility of a United States Invasion of Canada after the Civil War" American Review of Canadian Studies (2017): [https://doi.org/10.1080/02722011.2017.1406965 online] * McKercher, Asa. Camelot and Canada: Canadian-American Relations in the Kennedy Era (Oxford UP, 2016). xii, 298 pp. 1960-1963. * Molloy, Patricia. Canada/US and Other Unfriendly Relations: Before and After 9/11 (Palgrave Macmillan; 2012) 192 pages; essays on various "myths" * Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant. Invisible and Inaudible in Washington: American Policies toward Canada during the Cold War (1999) * Mount, Graeme S. and Edelgard Mahant. An Introduction to Canadian-American Relations (2nd ed.1989) * Myers, Phillip E. Dissolving Tensions: Rapprochement and Resolution in British-American-Canadian Relations in the Treaty of Washington Era, 1865–1914 (Kent State UP, 2015). x, 326 pp. * Pacheco, Daniela Pereira. "Politics on Twitter: a comparison between Donald Trump and Justin Trudeau". (ICSCP 2020). [http://www.academia.edu/download/61922051/Paper_-_Daniela_Pacheco.pdf online] * Paltiel, Jeremy. "Canada's middle-power ambivalence: The palimpsest of US power under the Chinese shadow". in ''America's Allies and the Decline of US Hegemony (Routledge, 2019) pp. 126–140. * Pederson, William D. ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt'' (2011) pp 517–41, covers FDR's policies * * Stoett, Peter J. "Fairweather Friends? Canada–United States Environmental Relations in the Days of Trump and the Era of Climate Change". in Canada–US Relations (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2019) pp. 105–123. * Stuart, Reginald C. Dispersed Relations: Americans and Canadians in Upper North America (2007) [https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0801887852 excerpt and text search] * Tagg, James. "'And, We Burned down the White House, Too': American History, Canadian Undergraduates, and Nationalism", The History Teacher, 37#3 (May 2004), pp. 309–334 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1555672 in JSTOR] * Tansill, C. C. Canadian-American Relations, 1875–1911 (1943) * Thompson, John Herd, and Stephen J. Randall. Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (4th ed. McGill-Queen's UP, 2008), 387pp * Wrong, Hume, and John W. Holmes. "The Canada–United States Relationship 1927/1951". International Journal 31#3 (1976): 529–45. [https://doi.org/10.2307/40201357 The Canada–United States Relationship 1927/1951] [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40201357 online] Trade and tariffs * Ciuriak, Dan, How U.S. Trade Policy Has Changed Under President Donald Trump – Perceptions From Canada (SSRN, March 29, 2019). [https://ssrn.com/abstract=3362910 online] or [http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3362910 How U.S. Trade Policy Has Changed Under President Donald Trump – Perceptions From Canada] * Georges, Patrick. "Canada's Trade Policy Options under Donald Trump: NAFTA's rules of origin, Canada US security perimeter, and Canada's geographical trade diversification opportunities". (Working Paper #1707E Department of Economics, University of Ottawa, 2017). [https://ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/40361/1/1707E.pdf online] * Grey, Earl. The Commercial Policy of the British Colonies and the McKinley Tariff (London: Macmillan, 1892). [https://archive.org/details/commercialpolic00greygoog online] * Lawder, Robert H. Commerce between the United States & Canada, Observations on Reciprocity and the McKinley Tariff (Toronto: Monetary Times Printing, 1892). [https://archive.org/details/cihm_09012 online] * Muirhead, Bruce. "From Special Relationship to Third Option: Canada, the U.S., and the Nixon Shock", American Review of Canadian Studies, Vol. 34, 2004 * Palen, Marc-William. "Protection, federation, and union: The global impact of the McKinley tariff upon the British Empire, 1890–94". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 38.3 (2010): 395–418 [https://www.academia.edu/download/28641358/Palen_Protection__Federation_and_Union.pdf online]. * Rioux, Hubert. "Canada First vs. America First: Economic Nationalism and the Evolution of Canada–US Trade Relations". European Review of International Studies 6.3 (2019): 30–56. [https://budrich.de/Zeitschriften/Leseprobe/ERIS-2019-3-04-Rioux-Canada-America-Economy-Nationalism-Trade-Relations.pdf online] Primary sources * Gallagher, Connell. "The Senator George D. Aiken Papers: Sources for the Study of Canadian-American Relations, 1930–1974". Archivaria 1#21 (1985) pp. 176–79 [http://journals.sfu.ca/archivar/index.php/archivaria/article/viewFile/11247/12186 online]. * * * Riddell, Walter A. ed. Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917–1939 Oxford University Press, 1962 806 pages of documents External links * [https://history.state.gov/countries/canada History of Canada – U.S. relations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130714135714/http://can-am.gc.ca/washington/index.aspx Canadian Embassy in Washington, D.C.] * [https://ca.usembassy.gov/ U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Canada] * [http://www.canadianassociationny.org/ Canadian Association of New York] * [https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canada-and-the-united-states Canada and the United States, by Stephen Azzi and J.L. Granatstein] * [https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/canadian-american-relations Canadian-American Relations, by John English] United States Category:Bilateral relations of the United States
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada–United_States_relations
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Christianity
| separations | number_of_followers 2.38 billion (referred to as Christians) }} Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, professing that Jesus was raised from the dead and is the Son of God, whose coming as the Messiah (Christ) was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament in Christianity) and chronicled in the New Testament. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with over 2.38 billion followers, comprising around 31.2% of the world population. The three main branches of Christianity are Roman Catholicism (1.3 billion people), Protestantism (625 million-900 million), and Eastern Orthodoxy (230 million) while other prominent branches include Oriental Orthodoxy (60 million), Restorationism (35 million), and the Church of the East (600,000). Smaller church communities number in the thousands despite efforts toward unity (ecumenism). In the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a decline in adherence, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity is growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents. Christians are persecuted in some regions of the world, particularly where they are in the minority in the Middle East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia. <!--Do NOT add citations to the lead, except for material likely to be challenged, per MOS:LEADCITE (Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section#Citations). Move unneeded citations to the body.--> Etymology Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as 'The Way' (), probably coming from Isaiah 40:3, "prepare the way of the Lord"., and . Some English translations of the New Testament capitalize 'the Way' (e.g. the New King James Version and the English Standard Version), indicating that this was how 'the new religion seemed then to be designated' whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—'the way', 'that way' or 'the way of the Lord'. The Syriac version reads, "the way of God" and the Vulgate Latin version, "the way of the Lord".}} According to Acts 11:26, the term "Christian" (, ), meaning "followers of Christ" about Jesus's disciples, was first used in the city of Antioch by the non-Jewish inhabitants there. The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity/Christianism" (, ) was by Ignatius of Antioch around 100 AD. The name Jesus comes from , likely from Yēšūaʿ. History Early Christianity Apostolic Age on Mount Zion in Jerusalem, claimed to be the location of the Last Supper and Pentecost]] Christianity developed during the 1st century AD as a Jewish Christian sect with Hellenistic influence of Second Temple Judaism. An early Jewish Christian community was founded in Jerusalem under the leadership of the three Pillars of the Church, namely James the Just, Peter, and John. Jewish Christianity soon attracted Gentile God-fearers, posing a problem for its Jewish religious outlook, which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commandments. Paul the Apostle solved this by insisting that salvation by faith in Christ, and participation in his death and resurrection by their baptism, sufficed. At first he persecuted the early Christians, but after a conversion experience he preached to the gentiles, and is regarded as having had a formative effect on the emerging Christian identity as separate from Judaism. Eventually, his departure from Jewish customs would result in the establishment of Christianity as an independent religion. Ante-Nicene period , an early-3rd-century collection of Pauline epistles]] This formative period was followed by the early bishops, whom Christians consider the successors of Christ's apostles. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the Church Fathers, and the study of them is called patristics. Notable early Fathers include Ignatius of Antioch, Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen. Persecution of Christians occurred intermittently and on a small scale by both Jewish and Roman authorities, with Roman action starting at the time of the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD. Examples of early executions under Jewish authority reported in the New Testament include the deaths of Saint Stephen and James, son of Zebedee. The Decian persecution was the first empire-wide conflict, when the edict of Decius in 250 AD required everyone in the Roman Empire (except Jews) to perform a sacrifice to the Roman gods. The Diocletianic Persecution beginning in 303 AD was also particularly severe. Roman persecution ended in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan. While Proto-orthodox Christianity was becoming dominant, heterodox sects also existed at the same time, which held radically different beliefs. Gnostic Christianity developed a duotheistic doctrine based on illusion and enlightenment rather than forgiveness of sin. With only a few scriptures overlapping with the developing orthodox canon, most Gnostic texts and Gnostic gospels were eventually considered heretical and suppressed by mainstream Christians. A gradual splitting off of Gentile Christianity left Jewish Christians continuing to follow the Law of Moses, including practices such as circumcision. By the fifth century, they and the Jewish–Christian gospels would be largely suppressed by the dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity. Spread and acceptance in the Roman Empire , located atop Mount Alfaf in northern Iraq, is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.]] Christianity spread to Aramaic-speaking peoples along the Mediterranean coast and also to the inland parts of the Roman Empire and beyond that into the Parthian Empire and the later Sasanian Empire, including Mesopotamia, which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires. The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around Carthage. Mark the Evangelist is claimed to have started the Church of Alexandria in about 43 AD; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the Coptic Orthodox Church. Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria, Origen of Alexandria, Cyprian, Athanasius, and Augustine of Hippo. monastery in the shadow of Mount Ararat; Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion in the early 4th century AD. It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier. Constantine I was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed. During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians was ended with the Edict of Toleration in 311 and the Edict of Milan in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief, comprising perhaps only 5% of the Roman population. Influenced by his adviser Mardonius, Constantine's nephew Julian unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity. On 27 February 380, Theodosius I, Gratian, and Valentinian II issued the Edict of Thessalonica establishing Nicene Christianity as the State church of the Roman Empire. As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land. Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the First Council of Nicaea in 325, which sought to address Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and many other Protestant churches. The Church of the East did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors (Assyrian Church of the East). In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Christian civilization, and Constantinople remained the leading city of the Christian world in size, wealth, and culture. There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy, as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek. Byzantine art and literature held a preeminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of Byzantine art on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance. The later rise of Islam in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the Coptic Church in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church in the Horn of Africa and the Nubian Church in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia). Middle Ages Early Middle Ages With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the West, the papacy became a political player, first visible in Pope Leo's diplomatic dealings with Huns and Vandals. the Celtic, the Baltic and some Slavic peoples. Around 500, Christianity was thoroughly integrated into Byzantine and Kingdom of Italy culture and Benedict of Nursia set out his Monastic Rule, establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of monasteries. Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed the ecclesiastical structure and administration. In the early 8th century, iconoclasm became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the Byzantine emperors. The Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons. In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of Cluny. High and Late Middle Ages mosaic at the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople]] at the Council of Clermont, where he preached the First Crusade. Illustration by Jean Colombe from the ''Passages d'outremer, .]] In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools became universities (see, for example, University of Oxford, University of Paris and University of Bologna). Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (Scholae monasticae), led by monks and nuns. Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century AD. These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians. The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, mendicant orders were founded, bringing the consecrated religious life out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the Franciscans and the Dominicans, founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic, respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order was the Cistercians, whose large, isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of Romanesque and Gothic architecture and the building of the great European cathedrals. Christian nationalism emerged during this era in which Christians felt the desire to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished. From 1095 under the pontificate of Urban II, the First Crusade was launched. These were a series of military campaigns in the Holy Land and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I for aid against Turkish expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade. The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a schism between the Latin Church of Western Christianity branch, the now-Catholic Church, and an Eastern, largely Greek, branch (the Eastern Orthodox Church). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy. The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various smaller eastern churches. In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290, the first of many such expulsions in Europe. Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against Cathar heresy, various institutions, broadly referred to as the Inquisition, were established with the aim of suppressing heresy and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through conversion and prosecution. Modern era Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation initiated the Reformation with his Ninety-five Theses in 1517.]] The 15th-century Renaissance brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the Reformation, Martin Luther posted the Ninety-five Theses 1517 against the sale of indulgences. Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the Edict of Worms condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the Western Christendom into several branches. Other reformers like Zwingli, Oecolampadius, Calvin, Knox, and Arminius further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called Protestantism, which repudiated the primacy of the pope, the role of tradition, the seven sacraments, and other doctrines and practices. Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the Magisterial Reformation as corrupted. Their activity brought about the Radical Reformation, which gave birth to various Anabaptist denominations. 's 1498–99 Pietà in St. Peter's Basilica; the Catholic Church was among the patronages of the Renaissance.]] Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reform. The Council of Trent clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states. Meanwhile, the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of colonial expansion by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Throughout Europe, the division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of religious violence and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. Lutheranism spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, Livonia, and Scandinavia. Anglicanism was established in England in 1534. Calvinism and its varieties, such as Presbyterianism, were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France. Arminianism gained followers in the Netherlands and Frisia. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of conflicts in which religion played a key factor. The Thirty Years' War, the English Civil War, and the French Wars of Religion are prominent examples. These events intensified the Christian debate on persecution and toleration. In the revival of neoplatonism Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the Renaissance were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of Renaissance art. Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler, Isaac Newton and Robert Boyle. Post-Enlightenment in a 19th-century Kakure Kirishitan Japanese woodcut]] In the era known as the Great Divergence, when in the West, the Age of Enlightenment and the scientific revolution brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of skepticism and with certain modern political ideologies, such as versions of socialism and liberalism. Events ranged from mere anti-clericalism to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the dechristianization of France during the French Revolution, the Spanish Civil War, and certain Marxist movements, especially the Russian Revolution and the persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union under state atheism. Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of nation states after the Napoleonic era. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the University of Fribourg, looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church. The combined factors of the formation of nation states and ultramontanism, especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent, often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the First Vatican Council, and in Germany would lead directly to the Kulturkampf. of new pastors in Cameroon, 2014]] Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own, particularly in the Czech Republic and Estonia, while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the Global South and Third World countries. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and the Southern Hemisphere in general, with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of Arabs are Christians, most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon. Beliefs While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are differences of interpretations and opinions of the Bible and sacred traditions on which Christianity is based. Creeds }} icon depicting Emperor Constantine and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381]] Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. "Jesus is Lord" is the earliest creed of Christianity and continues to be used, as with the World Council of Churches. The Apostles' Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of Western Christian tradition, including the Latin Church of the Catholic Church, Lutheranism, Anglicanism, and Western Rite Orthodoxy. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Its points include: * Belief in God the Father, Jesus Christ as the Son of God, and the Holy Spirit * The death, descent into hell, resurrection and ascension of Christ * The holiness of the Church and the communion of saints * Christ's second coming, the Day of Judgement and salvation of the faithful The Nicene Creed was formulated, largely in response to Arianism, at the Councils of Nicaea and Constantinople in 325 and 381 respectively, and ratified as the universal creed of Christendom by the First Council of Ephesus in 431. The Chalcedonian Definition, or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, though rejected by the Oriental Orthodox, taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also perfectly united into one person. The Athanasian Creed, received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the Substance". Most Christians (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Protestant alike) accept the use of creeds and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above. Certain Evangelical Protestants, though not all of them, reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, and the Churches of Christ. Jesus ]] The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and the Messiah (Christ). Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus's coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life. While there have been many theological disputes over the nature of Jesus over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the New Testament, he rose from the dead, ascended to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father, and will ultimately return to fulfill the rest of the Messianic prophecy, including the resurrection of the dead, the Last Judgment, and the final establishment of the Kingdom of God. According to the canonical gospels of Matthew and Luke, Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Little of Jesus's childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the New Testament, because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds. Death and resurrection '', representing the death of Jesus on the Cross, painting by Diego Velázquez, ]] Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in history. Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based. According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later. The New Testament mentions several post-resurrection appearances of Jesus on different occasions to his twelve apostles and disciples, including "more than five hundred brethren at once", before Jesus's ascension to heaven. Jesus's death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during Holy Week, which includes Good Friday and Easter Sunday. The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in Christian theology, partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people eternal life. Christian churches accept and teach the New Testament account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus's followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the historical Jesus and the proclamation of the early church. Some liberal Christians do not accept a literal bodily resurrection, seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing myth. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious debates and interfaith dialogues. Paul the Apostle, an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless". Salvation '' by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529); Moses and Elijah point the sinner to Jesus for salvation.]] Paul the Apostle, like Jews and Roman pagans of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life. For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise" The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel, the "children of God", and were therefore no longer "in the flesh". In Protestant theology, Jesus' death is regarded as a substitutionary penalty carried by Jesus, for the debt that has to be paid by humankind when it broke God's moral law. Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are completely incapable of self-redemption, but that sanctifying grace is irresistible. In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Arminian Protestants believe that the exercise of free will is necessary to have faith in Jesus. Trinity is the belief that God is one God in three persons: the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit.]] Trinity refers to the teaching that the one God comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons: the Father, the Son (incarnate in Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the Godhead, although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God". They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the Old Testament, it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the New Testament and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times. However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the Trinity is depicted in art, the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a cruciform halo identifying Christ, and in depictions of the Garden of Eden, this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur. In some Early Christian sarcophagi, the Logos is distinguished with a beard, "which allows him to appear ancient, even pre-existent". The Trinity is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated the triune mystery-nature of God as a normative profession of faith. According to Roger E. Olson and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.<!-- ref supports entire paragraph --> According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see Perichoresis). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in Western Christian theology) from the Son. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three "persons" are each eternal and omnipotent. Other Christian religions including Unitarian Universalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormonism, do not share those views on the Trinity. The Greek word trias is trinitas}} is first seen in this sense in the works of Theophilus of Antioch; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom". The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent, trinitas, appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in Tertullian. In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of Origen. Trinitarianism Trinitarianism denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the Trinity. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate apprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of Tritheism), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father (Arianism). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three persons. Nontrinitarianism Nontrinitarianism (or antitrinitarianism) refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to disputes about Christology. Nontrinitarianism reappeared in the Gnosticism of the Cathars between the 11th and 13th centuries, among groups with Unitarian theology in the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century, in the 18th-century Enlightenment, among Restorationist groups arising during the Second Great Awakening of the 19th century, and most recently, in Oneness Pentecostal churches. Eschatology The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the Tribulation, death and the afterlife, (mainly for Evangelical groups) the Millennium and the following Rapture, the Second Coming of Jesus, Resurrection of the Dead, Heaven, (for liturgical branches) Purgatory, and Hell, the Last Judgment, the end of the world, and the New Heavens and New Earth. Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the end of time, after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be resurrected bodily from the dead for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the Kingdom of God in fulfillment of scriptural prophecies. Death and afterlife Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the general judgement at the resurrection of the dead as well as the belief (held by Catholics, Orthodox and most Protestants) in a judgment particular to the individual soul upon physical death. In the Catholic branch of Christianity, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of purgatory to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence. Those who have attained this goal are called saints (Latin sanctus, "holy"). Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to mortalism, the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to Annihilationism, the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view. Practices at a Catholic parish church in Woodside, New York City, U.S.]] and Conservative Anabaptist women, for modesty, wear cape dresses and head coverings, the latter of which is taught as a church ordinance.]] Depending on the specific denomination of Christianity, practices may include baptism, the Eucharist (Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), prayer (including the Lord's Prayer), confession, confirmation, burial rites, marriage rites and the religious education of children. Most denominations have ordained clergy who lead regular communal worship services. Communal worship Services of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as liturgy. Justin Martyr described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his First Apology () to Emperor Antoninus Pius, and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship: Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels. Instruction is given based on these readings, in the form of a sermon or homily. There are a variety of congregational prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. Psalms, hymns, worship songs, and other church music may be sung. Services can be varied for special events like significant feast days. '' (1495-1498). Mural, tempera on gesso, pitch and mastic, 700 x 880 cm (22.9 x 28.8 ft). In the Santa Maria delle Grazie Church, Milan, Italy, it is Leonardo da Vinci's dramatic interpretation of Jesus' last meal before death.]] Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of a meal. It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples bread, saying, "This is my body", and gave them wine saying, "This is my blood". In the early church, Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service. Some denominations such as Confessional Lutheran churches continue to practice 'closed communion'. They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics further restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of mortal sin. Many other churches, such as Anglican Communion and the Methodist Churches (such as the Free Methodist Church and United Methodist Church), practice 'open communion' since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate. Sacraments or ordinances Catholics, Eastern Christians, Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the liturgical year. The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of seasons, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colors of paraments and vestments for clergy, scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home. Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church, Symbols symbol, created by combining the Greek letters ΙΧΘΥΣ into a wheel, Ephesus, Asia Minor]] Most Christian denominations have not generally practiced aniconism, the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early Jewish Christians, invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry, avoided figures in their symbols. The cross, today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times. Tertullian, in his book De Corona, tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads. Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the crucifix did not appear in use until the 5th century. Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or Ichthys seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century. Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ichthys (fish) forming an acrostic for the Greek phrase Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ), (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith. the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Lutheran Church and the Catholic Church also practice infant baptism, usually by affusion, and using the Trinitarian formula. Anabaptist Christians practice believer's baptism, in which an adult chooses to receive the ordinance after making a decision to follow Jesus. Anabaptist denominations such as the Mennonites, Amish and Hutterites use pouring as the mode to administer believer's baptism, whereas Anabaptists of the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions baptize by immersion. Prayer In the Gospel of Saint Matthew, Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer, which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer. The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the Didache and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm. In the second century Apostolic Tradition, Hippolytus instructed Christians to pray at seven fixed prayer times: "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion". Prayer positions, including kneeling, standing, and prostrations have been used for these seven fixed prayer times since the days of the early Church. Breviaries such as the Shehimo and Agpeya are used by Oriental Orthodox Christians to pray these canonical hours while facing in the eastward direction of prayer. The Apostolic Tradition directed that the sign of the cross be used by Christians during the minor exorcism of baptism, during ablutions before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation. Intercessory prayer is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the Apostle Peter on behalf of sick persons and by prophets of the Old Testament in favor of other people. In the Epistle of James, no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet Elijah. The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying. The ancient church, in both Eastern and Western Christianity, developed a tradition of asking for the intercession of (deceased) saints, and this remains the practice of most Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Catholic, and some Lutheran and Anglican churches. Apart from certain sectors within the latter two denominations, other Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ. The reformer Huldrych Zwingli admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was idolatrous. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church: "Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God". The Book of Common Prayer in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms. Frequently in Western Christianity, when praying, the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal commendation ceremony. At other times the older orans posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in. Scriptures is the sacred book in Christianity.]] Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the biblical canon, the Old Testament and the New Testament, as the inspired word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in is theopneustos, which literally means "God-breathed". Some believe that divine inspiration makes present Bibles inerrant, while others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the King James Version. Another closely related view is biblical infallibility or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science. The canon of the Old Testament accepted by Protestant churches, which is only the Tanakh (the canon of the Hebrew Bible), is shorter than that accepted by the Orthodox and Catholic churches which also include the deuterocanonical books which appear in the Septuagint, the Orthodox canon being slightly larger than the Catholic; Protestants regard the latter as apocryphal, important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament. The New Testament, originally written in Koine Greek, contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all major churches. Some denominations have additional canonical holy scriptures beyond the Bible, including the standard works of the Latter Day Saints movement and Divine Principle in the Unification Church. Catholic interpretation viewed from the Tiber; the Vatican Hill in the back and Castel Sant'Angelo in Rome to the right. Both the basilica and the hill are part of the sovereign state of Vatican City, the Holy See of the Catholic Church.]] In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in Alexandria and Antioch. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by Origen, tended to read Scripture allegorically, while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called theoria) could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning. Catholic theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual. The literal sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The spiritual sense is further subdivided into: * The allegorical sense, which includes typology. An example would be the parting of the Red Sea being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism. * The moral sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching. * The anagogical sense, which applies to eschatology, eternity and the consummation of the world. Regarding exegesis, following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds: * The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the literal * That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held * That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church" and * That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome". Protestant interpretation Qualities of Scripture Many Protestant Christians, such as Lutherans and the Reformed, believe in the doctrine of sola scriptura—that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and revealed all truth necessary for salvation; other Protestant Christians, such as Methodists and Anglicans, affirm the doctrine of prima scriptura which teaches that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible. Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or "perspicuous"). Martin Luther believed that without God's help, Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness". John Calvin wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light". Related to this is "efficacy", that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and "sufficiency", that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life. Original intended meaning of Scripture Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the historical-grammatical method. The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in Biblical hermeneutics to find the intended original meaning in the text. This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations. The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture". Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics. Demographics With around 2.8 billion adherents according to a 2022 estimation by World History Encyclopedia, split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the world's largest religion. High birth rates and conversions in the global South were cited as the reasons for the Christian population growth. For the last hundred years, the Christian share has stood at around 33% of the world population. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Western Europe and North America. According to a 2015 Pew Research Center study, within the next four decades, Christianity will remain the largest religion; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. , the country with the largest Catholic population in the world As a percentage of Christians, the Catholic Church and Orthodoxy (both Eastern and Oriental) are declining in some parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while Protestants and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world. The so-called popular Protestantism is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world. Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity. Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics. And if in 2018, the U.N. projects that Africa's population will reach 4.5 billion by 2100 (not 2 billion as predicted in 2004), Catholicism will indeed grow, as will other religious groups. According to Pew Research Center, Africa is expected to be home to 1.1 billion African Christians by 2050. Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, Oceania, and Sub-Saharan Africa. However, it is declining in some areas including the northern and western United States, some areas in Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain, Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, Canada, and some parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the Christian emigration, and Macau). The total Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil and the southern United States, however, the percentage of the population identifying as Christian is in decline. Since the fall of communism, the proportion of Christians has been largely stable in Central Europe, except in the Czech Republic. On the other hand, Christianity is growing rapidly in both numbers and percentages in Eastern Europe, China, Latin America, Christianity remains the largest religion in Western Europe, where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian in 2018. A 2011 Pew Research Center survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians. From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported Evangelical Protestants grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of Islam. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey from the University of Melbourne, since the 1960s there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to the Evangelical and Pentecostal forms. A study conducted by St. Mary's University estimated about 10.2 million Muslim converts to Christianity in 2015; according to the study significant numbers of Muslim converts to Christianity can be found in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, and other countries), and Tunisia), According to scholar Juliette Koning and Heidi Dahles of there is a "rapid expansion" of Christianity in Singapore, China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Indonesia, Malaysia, and South Korea. Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea, In most countries in the developed world, church attendance among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades. Some sources view this as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions, while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general. Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion. According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of European Christians say they attend services once a month or more. Conversely, according to the World Values Survey, about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians, and about 90% of African Christians (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly. Christianity, in one form or another, is the sole state religion of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic), Costa Rica (Catholic), the Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran), England (Anglican), Greece (Greek Orthodox), Iceland (Lutheran), Liechtenstein (Catholic), Malta (Catholic), Monaco (Catholic), Norway (Lutheran), Samoa, Tonga (Methodist), Tuvalu (Reformed), and Vatican City (Catholic). There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an established church, still give official recognition and support to a specific Christian denomination. {| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center" style="margin: 1em auto" |+ Demographics of major traditions within Christianity (Pew Research Center, 2020 data) |- ! cyrus="col" | Tradition ! scope="col" | Followers ! scope="col" | % of the Christian population ! scope="col" | % of the world population ! scope="col" | Follower dynamics ! scope="col" | Dynamics in- and outside Christianity |- style="background: #FFFFBF" | Roman Catholic Church | 1,329,610,000 | 50.1 | 15.9 | Growing | Growing |- style="background: #cdaae6" | Protestantism | 900,640,000 | 36.7 | 11.6 | Growing | Growing |- style="background: #c4ada0" | Eastern Orthodox Church | 220,380,000 | 11.9 | 3.8 | Growing | Declining |- style="background: #b2dcd7" | Other Christianity | 28,430,000 | 1.3 | 0.4 | Growing | Growing |- ! Christianity ! 2,382,750,000 ! 100 ! 31.7 ! Growing ! Stable |} {| class"wikitable sortable" style"margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto" |+ Christians (self-described) by region |+ (Pew Research Center, 2010 data) |label1 = Catholic |value1 = 48.6 |label2 = Protestant |value2 = 39.8 |label3 = Orthodox |value3 = 11.1 |label4 = Other |value4 = 0.5}} Christianity can be taxonomically divided into six main groups: Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East, and Restorationism. A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between Eastern Christianity and Western Christianity, which has its origins in the East–West Schism (Great Schism) of the 11th century. Recently, neither Western nor Eastern World Christianity has also stood out, for example, in African-initiated churches. However, there are other present and historical Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories. There is a diversity of doctrines and liturgical practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary ecclesiologically in their views on a classification of Christian denominations. The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant, such as Lutheran and Anglican denominations. Catholic Church , the current leader of the Catholic Church]] The Catholic Church consists of those particular Churches, headed by bishops, in communion with the pope, the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and church governance. Like Eastern Orthodoxy, the Catholic Church, through apostolic succession, traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ. Catholics maintain that the "one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church" founded by Jesus subsists fully in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities and works towards reconciliation among all Christians. Of its seven sacraments, the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in the Mass. The church teaches that through consecration by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Catholic Church as Mother of God and Queen of Heaven, honoured in dogmas and devotions. Its teaching includes Divine Mercy, sanctification through faith and evangelization of the Gospel as well as Catholic social teaching, which emphasizes voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the corporal and spiritual works of mercy. The Catholic Church operates thousands of Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world. Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations. Canon law () is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the hierarchical authorities of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church. The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western legal system, and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West. while the distinctive traditions of Eastern Catholic canon law govern the 23 Eastern Catholic particular churches sui iuris. As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution, it has played a prominent role in the history and development of Western civilization. The 2,834 sees are grouped into 24 particular autonomous Churches (the largest of which being the Latin Church), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the liturgy and the administering of sacraments. With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian church and represents 50.1% Catholics live all over the world through missions, diaspora, and conversions. Eastern Orthodox Church in Istanbul: It has been the seat of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople whose leader is regarded as the primus inter pares in the Eastern Orthodox Church.|218x218px]] The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the patriarchal sees of the East, such as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through apostolic succession and has an episcopal structure, though the autonomy of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches. Eastern Orthodox theology is based on holy tradition which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the seven Ecumenical Councils, the Scriptures, and the teaching of the Church Fathers. The church teaches that it is the one, holy, catholic and apostolic church established by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles. It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition. Its patriarchates, reminiscent of the pentarchy, and other autocephalous and autonomous churches reflect a variety of hierarchical organisation. It recognizes seven major sacraments, of which the Eucharist is the principal one, celebrated liturgically in synaxis. The church teaches that through consecration invoked by a priest, the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The Virgin Mary is venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the Theotokos, meaning God-bearer, and is honoured in devotions. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 230 million adherents, although Protestants collectively outnumber them, substantially. As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the Eastern Orthodox Church has played a prominent role in the history and culture of Eastern and Southeastern Europe, the Caucasus, and the Near East. The majority of Eastern Orthodox Christians live mainly in Southeast and Eastern Europe, Cyprus, Georgia, and parts of the Caucasus region, Siberia, and the Russian Far East. Over half of Eastern Orthodox Christians follow the Russian Orthodox Church, while the vast majority live within Russia. There are also communities in the former Byzantine regions of Africa, the Eastern Mediterranean, and in the Middle East. Eastern Orthodox communities are also present in many other parts of the world, particularly North America, Western Europe, and Australia, formed through diaspora, conversions, and missionary activity. Oriental Orthodoxy in Addis Ababa, the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox; the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Churches]] The Oriental Orthodox Churches (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—Nicaea, Constantinople, and Ephesus—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the Council of Chalcedon and instead espouse a Miaphysite christology. The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: Syriac Orthodox, Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India), and Armenian Apostolic churches. These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically. These churches are generally not in communion with the Eastern Orthodox Church, with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion. Together, they have about 62 million members worldwide. An Eastern Christian body of autocephalous churches, its bishops are equal by virtue of episcopal ordination, and its doctrines can be summarized in that the churches recognize the validity of only the first three ecumenical councils. Some Oriental Orthodox Churches such as the Coptic Orthodox, Ethiopian Orthodox, Eritrean Orthodox, places a heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings than one might find in other Christian denominations, and its followers adhere to certain practices: following dietary rules that are similar to Jewish Kashrut, require that their male members undergo circumcision, and observes ritual purification. Church of the East , St. John the Arab, in the Assyrian village of Geramon in Hakkari, southeastern Turkey.]] The Church of the East, which was part of the Great Church, shared communion with those in the Roman Empire until the Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorius in 431. Continuing as a dhimmi community under the Rashidun Caliphate after the Muslim conquest of Persia (633–654), the Church of the East played a major role in the history of Christianity in Asia. Between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largest Christian denomination in terms of geographical extent. It established dioceses and communities stretching from the Mediterranean Sea and today's Iraq and Iran, to India (the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians of Kerala), the Mongol kingdoms in Central Asia, and China during the Tang dynasty (7th–9th centuries). In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church experienced a final period of expansion under the Mongol Empire, where influential Church of the East clergy sat in the Mongol court. The Assyrian Church of the East, with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent Eastern Christian denomination which claims continuity from the Church of the East—in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the Chaldean Catholic Church, an Eastern Catholic church in full communion with the Pope. It is an Eastern Christian church that follows the traditional christology and ecclesiology of the historical Church of the East. Largely aniconic and not in communion with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of Syriac Christianity, and uses the East Syriac Rite in its liturgy. ; an ancient Assyrian church located in the city of Urmia, Iran]] Its main spoken language is Syriac, a dialect of Eastern Aramaic, and the majority of its adherents are ethnic Assyrians, mostly living in Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey, India (Chaldean Syrian Church), and in the Assyrian diaspora. It is officially headquartered in the city of Erbil in northern Iraqi Kurdistan, and its original area also spreads into south-eastern Turkey and north-western Iran, corresponding to ancient Assyria. Its hierarchy is composed of metropolitan bishops and diocesan bishops, while lower clergy consists of priests and deacons, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Middle East, India, North America, Oceania, and Europe (including the Caucasus and Russia). The Ancient Church of the East distinguished itself from the Assyrian Church of the East in 1964. It is one of the Assyrian churches that claim continuity with the historical Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia. It is officially headquartered in the city of Baghdad, Iraq. Protestantism In 1521, the Edict of Worms condemned Martin Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas. This split within the Roman Catholic church is now called the Reformation. Prominent Reformers included Martin Luther, Huldrych Zwingli, and John Calvin. The 1529 Protestation at Speyer against being excommunicated gave this party the name Protestantism. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as Lutherans. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally and are referred to as the Reformed tradition. The Anglican churches descended from the Church of England and organized in the Anglican Communion. Some Lutherans identify as Evangelical Catholics and some but not all Anglicans consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic. Protestants have developed their own culture, with major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, and many other fields. Since the Anglican, Lutheran, and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated for the most part in cooperation with the government, these movements are termed the "Magisterial Reformation". On the other hand, groups such as the Anabaptists, who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the Radical Reformation, which though sometimes protected under Acts of Toleration, do not trace their history back to any state church. They are further distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers—credobaptism (Anabaptists include the Amish, Apostolic, Bruderhof, Mennonites, Hutterites, River Brethren and Schwarzenau Brethren groups.) The term Protestant also refers to any churches which formed later, with either the Magisterial or Radical traditions. In the 18th century, for example, Methodism grew out of Anglican minister John Wesley's evangelical revival movement. Several Pentecostal and non-denominational churches, which emphasize the cleansing power of the Holy Spirit, in turn grew out of Methodism. Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior", which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the New Birth, they often refer to themselves as being born-again. Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism by number of followers, although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination. The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e. Adventism, Anabaptism (Amish, Apostolic, Bruderhof, Hutterites, Mennonites, River Brethren, and Schwarzenau Brethren), Anglicanism, Baptists, Lutheranism, Methodism, Moravianism/Hussites, Pentecostalism, Plymouth Brethren, Quakerism, Reformed Christianity (Congregationalists, Continental Reformed, Reformed Anglicans, and Presbyterians), and Waldensianism are the main families of Protestantism. Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves as "Christians" or "born-again Christians". They typically distance themselves from the confessionalism and creedalism of other Christian communities by calling themselves "non-denominational" or "evangelical". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations. Restorationism and Oliver Cowdery receiving the Aaronic priesthood from John the Baptist. Latter Day Saints believe that the Priesthood ceased to exist after the death of the apostles and therefore needed to be restored.]] The Second Great Awakening, a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as restoring the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches. A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the Great Apostasy. In Asia, is a known Restorationist denomination that was established during the early 1900s. Other examples of Restorationist denominations include Irvingianism and Swedenborgianism. American Millennialism and Adventism, which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the Jehovah's Witnesses movement and, as a reaction specifically to William Miller, the Seventh-day Adventists. Others, including the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ), Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, Churches of Christ, and the Christian churches and churches of Christ, have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the Christadelphians and the previously mentioned Latter Day Saints movement. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly. Other in Cluj-Napoca]] Within Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom, Unitarian Churches emerged from the Reformed tradition in the 16th century; the Unitarian Church of Transylvania is an example of such a denomination that arose in this era. They adopted the Anabaptist doctrine of credobaptism. Various smaller Independent Catholic communities, such as the Old Catholic Church, include the word Catholic in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church but are no longer in full communion with the Holy See. Spiritual Christians, such as the Doukhobors and Molokans, broke from the Russian Orthodox Church and maintain close association with Mennonites and Quakers due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be peace churches due to their belief in pacifism. Messianic Judaism (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs. Esoteric Christians, such as The Christian Community, regard Christianity as a mystery religion and profess the existence and possession of certain esoteric doctrines or practices, hidden from the public and accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people. Nondenominational Christianity or non-denominational Christianity consists of churches which typically distance themselves from the confessionalism or creedalism of other Christian communities but many typically adhere to evangelical Christianity. Cultural influence The history of the Christendom spans about 1,700 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the arts, architecture, literature, science, philosophy, and technology. Since the spread of Christianity from the Levant to Europe and North Africa during the early Roman Empire, Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing Greek East and Latin West. Consequently, different versions of the Christian cultures arose with their own rites and practices, centered around the cities of Rome (Western Christianity) and Carthage, whose communities were called Western or Latin Christendom, and Constantinople (Eastern Christianity), Antioch (Syriac Christianity), Kerala (Indian Christianity) and Alexandria (Coptic Christianity), whose communities were called Eastern or Oriental Christendom. The Byzantine Empire was one of the peaks in Christian history and Eastern Christian civilization. With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible is one of the most influential works ever written. From practices of personal hygiene to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, toilet etiquette, letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more. Christians have made a myriad of contributions to human progress in a broad and diverse range of fields, including philosophy, science and technology, medicine, fine arts and architecture, politics, literatures, music, and business. According to 100 Years of Nobel Prizes a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of Nobel Prizes Laureates, have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. Outside the Western world, Christianity has had an influence on various cultures, such as in Africa, the Near East, Middle East, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent. Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world (particularly Jacobite and Nestorian Christians) contributed to the Arab Islamic civilization during the reign of the Ummayyads and the Abbasids, by translating works of Greek philosophers to Syriac and afterwards, to Arabic. They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine. Scholars and intellectuals agree Christians in the Middle East have made significant contributions to Arab and Islamic civilization since the introduction of Islam, and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the Mashriq, Turkey, and Iran. Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the Greek and Roman Empires, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe. Until the Age of Enlightenment, Jesuits in particular, have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the development of science. Some scholars state that Christianity contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution. Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of English Puritanism and German Pietism on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other. The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics (as the Protestant work ethic), architecture, literature, personal hygiene (ablution), and family life. Historically, extended families were the basic family unit in the Christian culture and countries. Cultural Christians are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, music, and so on related to the religion. Postchristianity'' is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly in Europe, Canada, Australia, and to a minor degree the Southern Cone, in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of postmodernism. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on values and world view in historically Christian societies. Christian leaders and congregations have had an influence on the broader environmental movement. Christian teachings relate to ecology, and draw on teachings of the Bible to promote the moral responsibility of humans to care for God’s creation. Christianity acknowledges the tension between humanity’s duty to care for God’s creation and the natural human inclination to resist God’s will. In recent decades, major Christian denominations have revisited their teachings and practices in response to the environmental crisis. There has been a rise in activity in Christian congregations to curb climate change, partly inspired by the advocacy of Pope Francis following his publication of the encyclical letter Laudato Si'-- On Care for Our Common Home. Organizations such as Green Christian, Laudato Si' Movement, and the Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development are a few examples of groups working in the Christian and ecology movement. These initiatives reflect how Christians, alongside other people of faith, are increasingly embracing ecological concerns, recognizing that the protection of the Earth is a spiritual imperative tied to faith and justice. Ecumenism of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Winona and Bishop Steven Delzer of Evangelical Lutheran Southeastern Minnesota Synod leading a Reformation Day service (2017)|229x229px]] Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways. One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the World Evangelical Alliance founded in 1846 in London or the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the National Council of Churches in Australia, which includes Catholics. and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches. The Christian Flag is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and Christendom. The ecumenical, monastic Taizé Community is notable for being composed of more than one hundred brothers from Protestant and Catholic traditions. The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in Taizé, Saône-et-Loire, France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation". Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their Great Schism in 1054; the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970; and some Lutheran and Catholic churches signing the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the World Methodist Council, representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration. Criticism, persecution, and apologetics Criticism in the place he was executed in Rome]] Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the Apostolic Age, with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the Pharisees and scribes (e.g., and ). In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g., that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life. Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, God in Judaism is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs. One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher Celsus, who wrote The True Word, a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society. By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were atheists and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies. The Neoplatonist philosopher Porphyry wrote the fifteen-volume Adversus Christianos as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of Plotinus. By the 12th century, the Mishneh Torah (i.e., Rabbi Moses Maimonides) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body. In the 19th century, Nietzsche began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life. In the 20th century, the philosopher Bertrand Russell expressed his criticism of Christianity in Why I Am Not a Christian, formulating his rejection of Christianity. Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. Jewish and Muslim theologians criticize the doctrine of the Trinity held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of monotheism. New Testament scholar Robert M. Price has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in The Christ Myth Theory and its problems. Persecution , . Many Christians were persecuted and killed during the Armenian genocide, Greek genocide, and Assyrian genocide.]] Christians are one of the most persecuted religious groups in the world, especially in the Middle-East, North Africa and South and East Asia. In 2017, Open Doors estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to "high, very high, or extreme persecution" with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians. In 2019, a report This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians. Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher Thomas Aquinas presented five arguments for God's existence in the Summa Theologica, while his Summa contra Gentiles was a major apologetic work. Another famous apologist, G. K. Chesterton, wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion. He pointed to the advance of Christian civilizations as proof of its practicality. The physicist and priest John Polkinghorne, in his Questions of Truth, discusses the subject of religion and science, a topic that other Christian apologists such as Ravi Zacharias, John Lennox, and William Lane Craig have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the inflationary Big Bang model is evidence for the existence of God. Creationist apologetics is apologetics that aims to defend creationism. See also * Outline of Christianity * Christian atheism * Christians of Saint John * Christianity and Islam * Christianity and Judaism * Christianity and politics * Christian mythology * Christianisation * One true church * Prophets in Christianity Notes }} References Bibliography * Bahnsen, Greg. [https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics (article 6)] . * Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.). The Essential Jesus. Pacific Press (2002). . * Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom and others. (ed.). World Christian Encyclopedia. Oxford University Press (2001). * Barry, John F. One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief. William H. Sadlier (2001). * Benton, John. Is Christianity True? Darlington, Eng.: Evangelical Press (1988). * Bettenson, Henry (ed.). Documents of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1943). * * * * * Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). . * Coffey, John. Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689. Pearson Education (2000). * Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (ed.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. Oxford University Press (1997). . * Deppermann, Klaus. Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation. . * Dilasser, Maurice. The Symbols of the Church. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999). * Duffy, Eamon. Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes. Yale University Press (1997). * * Esler, Philip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). * Farrar, F. W. ''[https://www.tentmaker.org/books/mercyandjudgment/mercy_and_judgment_ch1.html Mercy and Judgment. A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, "What Is Of Faith?"]. Macmillan, London/New York (1904). * Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David, eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press (1988). * Foutz, Scott. .<!-- ? --> * Fowler, Jeaneane D. World Religions: An Introduction for Students, Sussex Academic Press (1997). . * Fuller, Reginald H. The Foundations of New Testament Christology Scribners (1965). . * Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church, Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) * Funk, Robert. The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?. Polebridge Press (1998). . * Glenny, W. Edward. Typology: A Summary of the Present Evangelical Discussion. * * Hanegraaff, Hank. Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity. Thomas Nelson (2000). . * Harnack, Adolf von. [https://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma] (1894).<!-- ? --> * Hickman, Hoyt L. and others. Handbook of the Christian Year. Abingdon Press (1986). * Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. Geography of Religion. National Geographic Society (2004) * Kelly, J. N. D. Early Christian Doctrines.<!-- ? --> * Kelly, J. N. D. The Athanasian Creed. Harper & Row, New York (1964). * Kirsch, Jonathan. God Against the Gods.<!-- ? --> * Kreeft, Peter. Catholic Christianity. Ignatius Press (2001) * Letham, Robert. The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship. P & R Publishing (2005). . * Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today. Smyth & Helwys (2003). . * McLaughlin, R. Emmet, Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540, New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). . * MacCulloch, Diarmaid, The Reformation: A History. Viking Adult (2004). * MacCulloch, Diarmaid, A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. London, Allen Lane. 2009. * Marber, Peter. Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles. FT Press (2003). * Marthaler, Berard. Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues. Paulist Press (1994). * Mathison, Keith. The Shape of Sola Scriptura (2001).<!-- ? --> * McClintock, John, Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature. Harper & Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889) * McManners, John. Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity. Oxford University Press (1990). . * Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press (1993). . * . * Norman, Edward. The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History. University of California (2007) * Olson, Roger E., The Mosaic of Christian Belief. InterVarsity Press (2002). . * Orlandis, Jose, A Short History of the Catholic Church. Scepter Publishers (1993) * Otten, Herman J. Baal or God? Liberalism or Christianity, Fantasy vs. Truth: Beliefs and Practices of the Churches of the World Today.... Second ed. New Haven, Mo.: Lutheran News, 1988. * Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.) Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition. Yale University Press (2003). . * Putnam, Robert D. Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society. Oxford University Press (2002). * * Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, (1999). * Schama, Simon. A History of Britain. Hyperion (2000). . * Servetus, Michael. Restoration of Christianity. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007). * Simon, Edith. Great Ages of Man: The Reformation. Time-Life Books (1966). . * Spitz, Lewis. The Protestant Reformation. Concordia Publishing House (2003). . * Spurgeon, Charles. . * Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan. The Study of Anglicanism. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). . * Talbott, Thomas. (1995). * Ustorf, Werner. "A missiological postscript", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.). The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000. Cambridge University Press (2003). * Walsh, Chad. Campus Gods on Trial. Rev. and enl. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1962, t.p. 1964. xiv, [4], 154 p. * * * * * Further reading * * * * MacCulloch, Diarmaid. Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years (Viking; 2010) 1,161 pp.; survey by leading historian * * * * * Roper, J.C., Bp. (1923), et al.. Faith in God, in series, Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada, vol. 2. Toronto, Ont.: Musson Book Co. N.B''.: The series statement is given in the more extended form which appears on the book's front cover. * * * * * * * Wills, Garry, "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of David Bentley Hart, The New Testament: A Translation, Yale University Press, 577 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament. External links * [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity "Christianity"]. Encyclopædia Britannica * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/index.shtml Religion & Ethics – Christianity] A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the BBC Category:1st-century establishments Category:1st-century introductions Category:Abrahamic religions Category:Monotheistic religions Category:Western culture
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity
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Computing
Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and the development of both hardware and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science, information systems, information technology, and software engineering. The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before that, to human computers. History The history of computing is longer than the history of computing hardware and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before numeral systems. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the abacus, and it is thought to have been invented in Babylon circa between 2700 and 2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by C. E. Wynn-Williams. Claude Shannon's 1938 paper "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits" then introduced the idea of using electronics for Boolean algebraic operations. The concept of a field-effect transistor was proposed by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. John Bardeen and Walter Brattain, while working under William Shockley at Bell Labs, built the first working transistor, the point-contact transistor, in 1947. In 1953, the University of Manchester built the first transistorized computer, the Manchester Baby. However, early junction transistors were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications. In 1957, Frosch and Derick were able to manufacture the first silicon dioxide field effect transistors at Bell Labs, the first transistors in which drain and source were adjacent at the surface. Subsequently, a team demonstrated a working MOSFET at Bell Labs 1960. The MOSFET made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits, leading to what is known as the computer revolution or microcomputer revolution. Computer A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a set of instructions called a computer program. The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an algorithm. Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to the CPU type. The execution process carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the semantics of the instructions. Computer hardware Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the central processing unit, memory, and input/output. Computational logic and computer architecture are key topics in the field of computer hardware. Computer software Computer software, or just software, is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms, as well as its documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The term was coined to contrast with the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible. Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. System software System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes operating systems, utility software, device drivers, window systems, and firmware. Frequently used development tools such as compilers, linkers, and debuggers are classified as system software. System software and middleware manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software. Application software Application software, also known as an application or an app, is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include enterprise software, accounting software, office suites, graphics software, and media players. Many application programs deal principally with documents. Apps may be bundled with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user. Application software applies the power of a particular computing platform or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as Microsoft Office, are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a geography application for Windows or an Android application for education or Linux gaming. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as killer applications. Computer network A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow the sharing of resources and information. When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope. Communications protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for network programming. One well-known communications protocol is Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is ubiquitous in local area networks. Another common protocol is the Internet Protocol Suite, which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats. Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology, or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines. Internet The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web and the infrastructure to support email. Computer programming Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a programming language, which is an artificial language that is often more restrictive than natural languages, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine. Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development. However, the term programmer may apply to a range of program quality, from hacker to open source contributor to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the proof of concept to launch a new killer application. Computer programmer A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of computer programming or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst. A programmer's primary computer language (C, C++, Java, Lisp, Python, etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with Web. The term programmer can be used to refer to a software developer, software engineer, computer scientist, or software analyst. However, members of these professions typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming. Computer industry The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and computer networking infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including system administration and maintenance. The software industry includes businesses engaged in development, maintenance, and publication of software. The industry also includes software services, such as training, documentation, and consulting.Sub-disciplines of computing Computer engineering Computer engineering is a discipline that integrates several fields of electrical engineering and computer science required to develop computer hardware and software. Computer engineers usually have training in electronic engineering (or electrical engineering), software design, and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessors, personal computers, and supercomputers, to circuit design. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates. Software engineering Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software. It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 NATO Software Engineering Conference, and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived software crisis at the time. Software development, a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015. Computer science Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems. Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in computer systems, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as computational complexity theory, which studies fundamental properties of computational problems, are highly abstract, while others, such as computer graphics, emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, programming language theory studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of computer programming investigates the use of programming languages and complex systems. The field of human–computer interaction focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans. Cybersecurity The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes information and data privacy, preventing disruption of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data. Data science Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data. Data mining, big data, statistics, machine learning and deep learning are all interwoven with data science. Information systems Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute data. The ACM's Computing Careers describes IS as: The study of IS bridges business and computer science, using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes within a computer science discipline. The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society while IS emphasizes functionality over design. Information technology Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and telecommunications equipment to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several industries are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, e-commerce, and computer services.Research and emerging technologies DNA-based computing and quantum computing are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of quantum algorithms. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes DNA origami on photolithography and quantum antennae for transferring information between ion traps. By 2011, researchers had entangled 14 qubits. Fast digital circuits, including those based on Josephson junctions and rapid single flux quantum technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of nanoscale superconductors. Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects. IBM has created an integrated circuit with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP). One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs. Another field of research is spintronics. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup. Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine photonics and spintronics. There is also research ongoing on combining plasmonics, photonics, and electronics. Cloud computing Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of Software as a Service, Platforms as a Service, and Infrastructure as a Service, depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling. It allows individual users or small business to benefit from economies of scale. One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices. However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies. Quantum computing Quantum computing is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics. Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses qubits. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as quantum entanglement, and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations. Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in molecular modeling. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.See also * Artificial intelligence * Computational science * Computational thinking * Computer algebra * Confidential computing * Creative computing * Data-centric computing * Electronic data processing * Enthusiast computing * Index of history of computing articles * Instruction set architecture * Lehmer sieve * Liquid computing * List of computer term etymologies * Mobile computing * Outline of computers * Outline of computing * Scientific computing * Spatial computing * Ubiquitous computing * Unconventional computing * Urban computing * Virtual reality References External links *FOLDOC: the Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computing
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5215
Casino
, a popular casino on the Las Vegas Strip]] A casino is a facility for gambling. Casinos are often built near or combined with hotels, resorts, restaurants, retail shops, cruise ships, and other tourist attractions. Some casinos also host live entertainment, such as stand-up comedy, concerts, and sports. and usage Casino is of Italian origin; the root means a house. The term casino may mean a small country villa, summerhouse, or social club. During the 19th century, casino came to include other public buildings where pleasurable activities took place; such edifices were usually built on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo, and were used to host civic town functions, including dancing, gambling, music listening, and sports. Examples in Italy include Villa Farnese and Villa Giulia, and in the US the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island. In modern-day Italian, a is a brothel (also called , literally "closed house"), a mess (confusing situation), or a noisy environment; a gaming house is spelt , with an accent. Not all casinos are used for gaming. The Catalina Casino, on Santa Catalina Island, California, has never been used for traditional games of chance, which were already outlawed in California by the time it was built. The Copenhagen Casino was a Danish theatre which also held public meetings during the 1848 Revolution, which made Denmark a constitutional monarchy. In military and non-military usage, a (Spanish) or (German) is an officers' mess. History of gambling houses , photographed by C.S. Fly in ]] The precise origin of gambling is unknown. It is generally believed that gambling in some form or another has been seen in almost every society in history. From Ancient Mesopotamia, Greeks and Romans to Napoleon's France and Elizabethan England, much of history is filled with stories of entertainment based on games of chance. The first known European gambling house, not called a casino although meeting the modern definition, was the Ridotto, established in Venice, Italy, in 1638 by the Great Council of Venice to provide controlled gambling during the carnival season. It was closed in 1774 as the city government felt it was impoverishing the local gentry. In American history, early gambling establishments were known as saloons. The creation and importance of saloons was greatly influenced by four major cities: New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco. It was in the saloons that travelers could find people to talk to, drink with, and often gamble with. During the early 20th century in the US, gambling was outlawed by state legislation. However, in 1931, gambling was legalized throughout the state of Nevada, where the US's first legalized casinos were set up. In 1976 New Jersey allowed gambling in Atlantic City, now the US's second largest gambling city.Gambling in casinos s, a standard attraction of casinos, in Atlantic City, New Jersey]] Most jurisdictions worldwide have a minimum gambling age of 18 to 21. Customers gamble by playing games of chance, in some cases with an element of skill, such as craps, roulette, baccarat, blackjack, and video poker. Most games have mathematically determined odds that ensure the house has at all times an advantage over the players. This can be expressed more precisely by the notion of expected value, which is uniformly negative (from the player's perspective). This advantage is called the house edge. In games such as poker where players play against each other, the house takes a commission called the rake. Casinos sometimes give out complimentary items or comps to gamblers. Payout is the percentage of funds ("winnings") returned to players. Casinos in the United States say that a player staking money won from the casino is "playing with the house's money". Video lottery machines (slot machines) have become one of the most popular forms of gambling in casinos. investigative reports have started calling into question whether the modern-day slot-machine is addictive. Design Factors influencing gambling tendencies include sound, odour and lighting. Natasha Dow Schüll, an anthropologist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, highlights the decision of the audio directors at Silicon Gaming to make its slot machines resonate in "the universally pleasant tone of C, sampling existing casino soundscapes to create a sound that would please but not clash". Alan Hirsch, founder of the Smell & Taste Treatment and Research Foundation in Chicago, studied the impact of certain scents on gamblers, discerning that a pleasant albeit unidentifiable odor released by Las Vegas slot machines generated about 50% more in daily revenue. He suggested that the scent acted as an aphrodisiac, causing a more aggressive form of gambling. Markets The following lists major casino markets in the world with casino revenue of over US$1 billion as published in PricewaterhouseCoopers's report on the outlook for the global casino market: By region }} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! rowspan"2"|Rank !! rowspan"2"|Region!! colspan"3"|Revenue (US$M) |- !2009!!2010<br>Projected!!2011<br>Projected |- | 1 || United States||57,240||56,500||58,030 |- | 2 || Asia Pacific ||21,845||32,305||41,259 |- | 3 || Europe, Middle East, Africa||17,259||16,186||16,452 |- | 4 || Canada ||3,712||3,835||4,045 |- | 5 || Latin America ||425||528||594 |- | || Total||100,481||109,354||120,380 |} By market }} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! rowspan"2"|Rank !! rowspan"2"|Location !!rowspan"2"| No. of<br>casinos !! colspan"7"|Revenue (US$billion) |- !2009!!2010<br>projected!!2011<br>projected!!2019!!2020!!2021 |- | 1 || Macau || 33 ||14.95||22.44||28.38||29||7.57 ||10.86 |- | 2 || Las Vegas, Nevada || 122 || 10.25||9.95||10.30||11.96||7.8||13.4 |- | 3 || Singapore || 2 || 2.12 ||2.75||5.48||-||-||1.67 |- | 4 || France || 189 ||3.96||3.91||3.96||11.46||10.36||11.48 |- | 5 || Atlantic City, New Jersey || 12 ||3.94||3.55||3.33||3.29||2.65||4.73 |- | 6 || Australia || 11 ||2.70||2.77||2.85||6.6 ||-||- |- | 7 || South Korea || 17 ||2.40||2.43||2.51||8.2||-||- |- | 8 || Germany || 76 ||2.07||2.05||2.08||11.52||10.52||6.51 |- | 9 || South Africa || 36 ||1.84 ||1.78||2.01||1.78||1.89||1.34 |- | 10 || United Kingdom || 141 ||1.21||1.19||1.21||17.22||15.4||17.09 |- | 11 || Poland || 36 ||1.09||1.09||1.13||-||-||- |- | 12 || Niagara Falls, Ontario || 2 ||1.10||1.11||1.20||4.8||4.27||2.18 |} By company According to Bloomberg, accumulated revenue of the biggest casino operator companies worldwide amounted to almost US$55 billion in 2011. SJM Holdings Ltd. was the leading company in this field, earning $9.7 bn in 2011, followed by Las Vegas Sands Corp. at $7.4 bn. The third-biggest casino operator company (based on revenue) was Caesars Entertainment, with revenue of US$6.2 bn.Significant sitesWhile there are casinos in many places, a few places have become well known specifically for gambling. Perhaps the place almost defined by its casino is Monte Carlo, but other places are known as gambling centers.Monte Carlo, Monaco Monte Carlo Casino, located in Monte Carlo city, in Monaco, is a casino and a tourist attraction. Monte Carlo Casino has been depicted in many books, including Ben Mezrich's Busting Vegas, where a group of Massachusetts Institute of Technology students beat the casino out of nearly $1 million. This book is based on real people and events; however, many of those events are contested by main character Semyon Dukach. Monte Carlo Casino has also been featured in multiple James Bond novels and films. The casino is mentioned in the song "The Man Who Broke the Bank at Monte Carlo" as well as the film of the same name. Campione d'Italia Casinò di Campione is located in the tiny Italian enclave of Campione d'Italia, within Ticino, Switzerland. The casino was founded in 1917 as a site to gather information from foreign diplomats during the First World War. Today it is owned by the Italian government, and operated by the municipality. With gambling laws being less strict than in Italy and Switzerland, it is among the most popular gambling destination besides Monte Carlo. The income from the casino is sufficient for the operation of Campione without the imposition of taxes, or obtaining of other revenue. In 2007, the casino moved into new premises of more than , making it the largest casino in Europe. The new casino was built alongside the old one, which dated from 1933 and has since been demolished. Malta The archipelago of Malta is a particularly famous place for casinos, standing out mainly with the historic casino located at the princely residence of Dragonara. Dragonara Palace was built in 1870. Its name comes from the Dragonara Point, the peninsula where it is built. On 15 July 1964, the palace opened as a casino. Macau ]] The former Portuguese colony of Macau, a special administrative region of the People's Republic of China since 1999, is a popular destination for visitors who wish to gamble. This started in Portuguese times, when Macau was popular with visitors from nearby Hong Kong, where gambling was more closely regulated. The Venetian Macao is currently the largest casino in the world. Macau also surpassed Las Vegas as the largest gambling market in the world. United States in Las Vegas, the heart of the gambling industry in the United States]] With currently over 1,000 casinos, the United States has the largest number of casinos in the world. The number continues to grow steadily as more states seek to legalize casinos. 40 states now have some form of casino gambling. Interstate competition, such as gaining tourism, has been a driving factor to continuous legalization. Relatively small places such as Las Vegas are best known for gambling; larger cities such as Chicago are not defined by their casinos in spite of the large turnover. The Las Vegas Valley has the largest concentration of casinos in the United States. Based on revenue, Atlantic City, New Jersey, ranks second, and the Chicago region third. Top American casino markets by revenue (2022 annual revenues): # Las Vegas Strip $7.05 billion # Atlantic City $2.57 billion # Chicago region $2.01 billion # Baltimore–Washington Metropolitan Area $2.00 billion # Mississippi Gulf Coast $1.61 billion # New York City $1.46 billion # Philadelphia $1.40 billion # Detroit $1.29 billion # St. Louis $1.03 billion # Boulder Strip $967 million # Reno/Sparks $889 million # Kansas City $861 million # The Poconos $849 million # Lake Charles, Louisiana $843 million # Black Hawk/Central City $812 million # Downtown Las Vegas $731 million # Tunica/Lula $696 million # Cincinnati $655 million # Shreveport/Bossier City $646 million # Pittsburgh/Meadowlands $630 million The Nevada Gaming Control Board divides Clark County, which is coextensive with the Las Vegas metropolitan area, into seven market regions for reporting purposes. Native American gaming has been responsible for a rise in the number of casinos outside of Las Vegas and Atlantic City. Vietnam In Vietnam, the term "casinos" encompasses gambling activities within the country. Unofficially defined, a "casino" typically denotes a well-established and professional gambling establishment that is generally lawful but exclusively caters to foreign players. On the other hand, "gambling houses" or "gambling dens" are smaller, illicit gambling venues. As of 2022, Vietnam has 9 operating casinos, including: Đồ Sơn casino (Hải Phòng), Lợi Lai casino, Hoàng Gia casino (Quảng Ninh), Hồng Vận casino (Quảng Ninh), Lào Cai casino (Lào Cai), Silver Shores casino (Đà Nẵng), Hồ Tràm casino (Bà Rịa – Vũng Tàu), Nam Hội An casino (Quảng Nam), Phú Quốc casino in Kien Giang. In a survey conducted by the Vietnamese Institute for Sustainable Regional Development and released on September 30, 2015, it was found that 71% of the respondents held the belief that allowing Vietnamese individuals to access casinos would result in an increase in the number of players. Furthermore, 47.4% of the participants expressed the view that engaging in rewarding recreational activities has a positive impact on job opportunities for residents. Additionally, 46.2% of the respondents believed that such activities contribute positively to Vietnam's ability to attract investments. Security ]] Given the large amounts of currency handled within a casino, both patrons and staff may be tempted to cheat and steal, in collusion or independently; most casinos have security measures to prevent this. Security cameras located throughout the casino are the most basic measure. Modern casino security is usually divided between a physical security force and a specialized surveillance department. The physical security force usually patrols the casino and responds to calls for assistance and reports of suspicious or definite criminal activity. A specialized surveillance department operates the casino's closed-circuit-television system, known in the industry as the eye in the sky. Both of these specialized casino security departments work very closely with each other to ensure the safety of both guests and the casino's assets, and have been quite successful in preventing crime. Some casinos also have catwalks in the ceiling above the casino floor, which allow surveillance personnel to look directly down, through one way glass, on the activities at the tables and slot machines. When it opened in 1989, The Mirage was the first casino to use cameras full-time on all table games. In addition to cameras and other technological measures, casinos also enforce security through rules of conduct and behavior; for example, players at card games are required to keep the cards they are holding in their hands visible at all times. Business practices Over the past few decades, casinos have developed many different marketing techniques for attracting and maintaining loyal patrons. Many casinos use a loyalty rewards program used to track players' spending habits and target their patrons more effectively, by sending mailings with free slot play and other promotions. Casino Helsinki in Helsinki, Finland, for example, donates all of its profits to charity. Crime Casinos have been linked to organised crime, with early casinos in Las Vegas originally dominated by the American Mafia and in Macau by Triad syndicates. According to some police reports, local incidence of reported crime often doubles or triples within three years of a casino's opening. In a 2004 report by the US Department of Justice, researchers interviewed people who had been arrested in Las Vegas and Des Moines and found that the percentage of problem or pathological gamblers among the arrestees was three to five times higher than in the general population. It has been said that economic studies showing a positive relationship between casinos and crime usually fail to consider the visiting population: they count crimes committed by visitors but do not count visitors in the population measure, which overstates the crime rate. Part of the reason this methodology is used, despite the overstatement, is that reliable data on tourist count are often not available. Occupational health and safety Casinos are subject to specific regulations for worker safety, as casino employees are both at greater risk for cancers resulting from exposure to second-hand tobacco smoke and musculoskeletal injuries from repetitive motions while running table games over many hours. These are not the extent of the hazards casino workers may be exposed to, but every location is different. Most casinos do not meet the requirements for certain protective measures, such as protection against airborne metal dusts from coins or hearing protection against high noise levels, though these measures are still implemented when evaluated and determined necessary.Gallery<gallery class"center" widths"300" heights"150" mode="packed"> File:Casinò di Campione, night.jpg|altItaly's Casinò di Campione, near Lugano, is the largest casino in Europe|Italy's Casinò di Campione, near Lugano, is the largest casino in Europe.<ref name"economist.com"/> File:Leicester Square, London.jpg|The Empire at Leicester Square in London also includes a casino. File:Casino at RWS.jpg|Entrance to the casino at Resorts World Sentosa, Singapore File:Galaxy Macau Night.jpg|The Galaxy Macau at night in Cotai, Macau File:Wynn 2 (2).jpg|Wynn Las Vegas in Paradise, Nevada, United States File:Casino-Funchal.jpg|The Casino da Madeira in Funchal, Madeira, Portugal File:Mikonkatu 19.jpg|The Casino Helsinki at night in Helsinki, Finland File:The Parisian Macao at night.jpg|The Parisian Macao is a casino resort on the Cotai Strip in Cotai, Macau, which features a half-scale Eiffel Tower as one of its landmarks File:Marina Bay Sands in the evening - 20101120.jpg|View of the Marina Bay Sands in Marina Bay, Singapore File:Genting 01.jpg|The casino in Genting Highlands, Malaysia owned by Genting Group File:Wynn Palace Night 2016.jpg|Wynn Palace, a luxury integrated resort from developer Wynn Resorts, located in Macau, China File:Casino de Monte-Carlo.jpg|View of the Monte Carlo Casino, Monaco File:MGM COTAI Macau.jpg|MGM Cotai owned by MGM Resorts International, located in Cotai, Macau File:Borgata Slots, Atlantic City, Feb 2016.jpg|Slot machines at the Borgata Hotel Casino & Spa in Atlantic City, New Jersey, United States </gallery> See also * American Gaming Association * Black Book (gaming) * Casino hotel ** List of casino hotels * Casino token * European Gaming & Amusement Federation * Gambling in Macau * Gambling * Gaming in Mexico * Gambling in the United States * Gambling in Manila * Gaming Control Boards * Gaming law * Global Gaming Expo * List of casinos * Locals casino * Native American gaming * Online casino * Online gambling * Online poker * Sports betting References Further reading * Poley, Jared (2023). Luck, Leisure, and the Casino in Nineteenth-Century Europe: A Cultural History of Gambling. Cambridge University Press. External links <!--() | PLEASE BE CAUTIOUS IN ADDING MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA | | IS NOT A COLLECTION OF LINKS NOR SHOULD IT BE USED FOR ADVERTISING. | | | | Excessive or inappropriate links WILL BE DELETED. | | See Wikipedia:External links & Wikipedia:Spam for details. | | | | If there are already plentiful links, please propose additions or | | replacements on this article's discussion page. | ()-->
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casino
2025-04-05T18:27:06.255913
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Khmer language
/ <br /> / | image = PhiesaKhmae.svg | imagecaption = ('Khmer language') written in Khmer script | pronunciation = <br /> | states = | ethnicity = Khmer | speakers = L1: million | date = 2019 | ref = | speakers2 = L2: million (2024)<br/>Total: million (2019–2024) | speakers_label = Speakers | familycolor = Austroasiatic | fam1 = Austroasiatic | ancestor = Proto-Khmeric | ancestor2 = Old Khmer | ancestor3 = Middle Khmer | script = | nation = | minority = |}} | iso1 = km | iso1comment = Central Khmer | agency Royal Academy of Cambodia, National Council of Khmer Language | iso2 = khm | iso2comment = Central Khmer | lc1 = khm | ld1 = Khmer | lc2 = kxm | ld2 = Northern Khmer | lingua = 46-FBA-a | glotto = khme1253 | glottoname = Khmeric | glotto2 = cent1989 | glottoname2 = Central Khmer | mapscale = 1 | map = Austroasiatic-en.svg | mapcaption = }} Khmer ( ; , UNGEGN: ) is an Austroasiatic language spoken natively by the Khmer people. This language is an official language and national language of Cambodia. The language is also widely spoken by Khmer people in Eastern Thailand and Isan, Thailand, also in Southeast and Mekong Delta of Vietnam. Khmer has been influenced considerably by Sanskrit and Pali especially in the royal and religious registers, through Hinduism and Buddhism, due to Old Khmer being the language of the historical empires of Chenla and Angkor. The vast majority of Khmer speakers speak Central Khmer'', the dialect of the central plain where the Khmer are most heavily concentrated. Within Cambodia, regional accents exist in remote areas but these are regarded as varieties of Central Khmer. Two exceptions are the speech of the capital, Phnom Penh, and that of the Khmer Khe in Stung Treng province, both of which differ sufficiently enough from Central Khmer to be considered separate dialects of Khmer. Outside of Cambodia, three distinct dialects are spoken by ethnic Khmers native to areas that were historically part of the Khmer Empire. The Northern Khmer dialect is spoken by over a million Khmers in the southern regions of Northeast Thailand and is treated by some linguists as a separate language. Khmer Krom, or Southern Khmer, is the first language of the Khmer of Vietnam, while the Khmer living in the remote Cardamom Mountains speak a very conservative dialect that still displays features of the Middle Khmer language. Khmer is primarily an analytic, isolating language. There are no inflections, conjugations or case endings. Instead, particles and auxiliary words are used to indicate grammatical relationships. General word order is subject–verb–object, and modifiers follow the word they modify. Classifiers appear after numbers when used to count nouns, though not always so consistently as in languages like Chinese. In spoken Khmer, topic-comment structure is common, and the perceived social relation between participants determines which sets of vocabulary, such as pronouns and honorifics, are proper. Khmer differs from neighboring languages such as Burmese, Thai, Lao, and Vietnamese in that it is not a tonal language. Words are stressed on the final syllable, hence many words conform to the typical Mon–Khmer pattern of a stressed syllable preceded by a minor syllable. The language has been written in the Khmer script, an abugida descended from the Brahmi script via the southern Indian Pallava script, since at least the 7th century. The script's form and use has evolved over the centuries; its modern features include subscripted versions of consonants used to write clusters and a division of consonants into two series with different inherent vowels. Classification Khmer is a member of the Austroasiatic language family, the autochthonous family in an area that stretches from the Malay Peninsula through Southeast Asia to East India. Austroasiatic, which also includes Mon, Vietnamese and Munda, has been studied since 1856 and was first proposed as a language family in 1907. Despite the amount of research, there is still doubt about the internal relationship of the languages of Austroasiatic. Diffloth places Khmer in an eastern branch of the Mon-Khmer languages. In these classification schemes Khmer's closest genetic relatives are the Bahnaric and Pearic languages. More recent classifications doubt the validity of the Mon-Khmer sub-grouping and place the Khmer language as its own branch of Austroasiatic equidistant from the other 12 branches of the family. and 1.4 million in northeast Thailand (2006). Khmer dialects, although mutually intelligible, are sometimes quite marked. Notable variations are found in speakers from Phnom Penh (Cambodia's capital city), the rural Battambang area, the areas of Northeast Thailand adjacent to Cambodia such as Surin province, the Cardamom Mountains, and southern Vietnam. The dialects form a continuum running roughly north to south. Standard Cambodian Khmer is mutually intelligible with the others but a Khmer Krom speaker from Vietnam, for instance, may have great difficulty communicating with a Khmer native of Sisaket Province in Thailand. The following is a classification scheme showing the development of the modern Khmer dialects. * Middle Khmer ** Cardamom (Western) Khmer ** Central Khmer *** Surin (Northern) Khmer *** Standard Khmer and related dialects (including Khmer Krom) Standard Khmer, or Central Khmer, the language as taught in Cambodian schools and used by the media, is based on the dialect spoken throughout the Central Plain, This has resulted in a distinct accent influenced by the surrounding tonal languages Lao and Thai, lexical differences, and phonemic differences in both vowels and distribution of consonants. Syllable-final , which has become silent in other dialects of Khmer, is still pronounced in Northern Khmer. Some linguists classify Northern Khmer as a separate but closely related language rather than a dialect. Western Khmer, also called Cardamom Khmer or Chanthaburi Khmer, is spoken by a very small, isolated population in the Cardamom mountain range extending from western Cambodia into eastern Central Thailand. Although little studied, this variety is unique in that it maintains a definite system of vocal register that has all but disappeared in other dialects of modern Khmer. This alters the quality of any preceding consonant, causing a harder, more emphasized pronunciation. Another unique result is that the syllable is spoken with a low-rising or "dipping" tone much like the "hỏi" tone in Vietnamese. For example, some people pronounce ('fish') as : the is dropped and the vowel begins by dipping much lower in tone than standard speech and then rises, effectively doubling its length. Another example is the word ('study'), which is pronounced , with the uvular "r" and the same intonation described above. Consequently, very little research has been published regarding this dialect. It has been generally influenced by Vietnamese for three centuries and accordingly displays a pronounced accent, tendency toward monosyllabic words and lexical differences from Standard Khmer. Khmer Khe is spoken in the Se San, Srepok and Sekong river valleys of Sesan and Siem Pang districts in Stung Treng Province. Following the decline of Angkor, the Khmer abandoned their northern territories, which the Lao then settled. In the 17th century, Chey Chetha XI led a Khmer force into Stung Treng to retake the area. The Khmer Khe living in this area of Stung Treng in modern times are presumed to be the descendants of this group. Their dialect is thought to resemble that of pre-modern Siem Reap. Historical periods Linguistic study of the Khmer language divides its history into four periods, one of which, the Old Khmer period, is subdivided into pre-Angkorian and Angkorian. Pre-Angkorian Khmer is the Old Khmer language from 600 through 800 CE. Angkorian Khmer is the language as it was spoken in the Khmer Empire from the 9th century until the 13th century. The following centuries saw changes in morphology, phonology and lexicon. The language of this transition period, from about the 14th to 18th centuries, is referred to as Middle Khmer and saw borrowings from Thai in the literary register. Thailand, which had for centuries claimed suzerainty over Cambodia and controlled succession to the Cambodian throne, began losing its influence on the language. In 1887 Cambodia was fully integrated into French Indochina, which brought in a French-speaking aristocracy. This led to French becoming the language of higher education and the intellectual class. By 1907, the French had wrested over half of modern-day Cambodia, including the north and northwest where Thai had been the prestige language, back from Thai control and reintegrated it into the country. Opponents, led by Keng Vannsak, who embraced "total Khmerization" by denouncing the reversion to classical languages and favoring the use of contemporary colloquial Khmer for neologisms, and Ieu Koeus, who favored borrowing from Thai, were also influential. represented using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).Consonants{| class"wikitable" style="text-align:center;" ! colspan="2" | ! Labial ! Alveolar ! Palatal ! Velar ! Glottal |- ! colspan="2" | Nasal | <br />ម, ម៉ | <br />ន, ណ | <br />ញ, ញ៉ | <br />ង, ង៉ | |- ! rowspan="2" | Plosive ! | ()<br />ផ​, ភ, ព | ()<br />ថ, ឋ, ឍ, ធ | ()<br />ឆ, ឈ | ()<br />ក, គ, ខ, ឃ | rowspan="2"| <br />អ, អ៊ |- ! | ~ <br />ប, ប៊ | ~ <br />ដ, ឌ | | |- ! colspan="2" | Fricative | | <br />ស, ស៊ | ()<br />ច, ជ | | <br />ហ, ហ៊ |- ! rowspan="2" | Liquid ! | | <br />រ៉, រ | | | |- ! | | <br />ឡ, ល | | | |- ! colspan="2" | Approximant | ~ <br />វ៉, វ | | <br />យ៉, យ | | |} The voiceless plosives may occur with or without aspiration (as vs. , etc.); this difference is contrastive before a vowel. However, the aspirated sounds in that position may be analyzed as sequences of two phonemes: . This analysis is supported by the fact that infixes can be inserted between the stop and the aspiration; for example ('big') becomes ('size') with a nominalizing infix. When one of these plosives occurs initially before another consonant, aspiration is no longer contrastive and can be regarded as mere phonetic detail: slight aspiration is expected when the following consonant is not one of (or if the initial plosive is ). The voiced plosives are pronounced as implosives by most speakers, but this feature is weak in educated speech, where they become . In syllable-final position, and approach and respectively. The stops are unaspirated and have no audible release when occurring as syllable finals. The description below follows Huffman (1970). {| class"wikitable" styletext-align:center |+ Monophthongs of Khmer {| class"wikitable" styletext-align:center |+ Independent vowels of Khmer and (with aspirated consonants analyzed as two-consonant sequences) . There are 85 possible two-consonant clusters (including [pʰ] etc. analyzed as etc.). All the clusters are shown in the following table, phonetically, i.e. superscript can mark either contrastive or non-contrastive aspiration (see above). {| class="wikitable" ! | || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || t+h || k+h || t+r || k+r |- ! | || || - || - || - || - || - || || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || || || || |- ! | - || - || || || || - || - || - || - || || - || - || - || - || || - || - || || || || |- ! | - || - || || - || || - || - || - || - || || - || || - || - || || - || - || || || || |- ! | - || - || - || - || - || || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || - || || || || |- ! | - || - || - || - || || - || - || - || - || - || - || || - || - || || || - || - || || str- || skr- |- ! | || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || || - || || || || |- ! | || || - || - || - || || - || || - || - || || || - || - || - || - || || || || || |- ! | - || - || || || || - || - || - || || || - || || || || || - || - || || - || || |} Slight vowel epenthesis occurs in the clusters consisting of a plosive followed by , in those beginning , and in the cluster . A minor syllable (unstressed syllable preceding the main syllable of a word) has a structure of CV-, CrV-, CVN- or CrVN- (where C is a consonant, V a vowel, and N a nasal consonant). The vowels in such syllables are usually short; in conversation they may be reduced to , although in careful or formal speech, including on television and radio, they are clearly articulated. An example of such a word is mɔnuh, mɔnɨh, mĕəʾnuh ('person'), pronounced , or more casually .StressStress in Khmer falls on the final syllable of a word. Because of this predictable pattern, stress is non-phonemic in Khmer (it does not distinguish different meanings). Primary stress falls on the final syllable, with secondary stress on every second syllable from the end. Thus in a three-syllable word, the first syllable has secondary stress; in a four-syllable word, the second syllable has secondary stress; in a five-syllable word, the first and third syllables have secondary stress, and so on. Compounds, however, preserve the stress patterns of the constituent words. Thus , the name of a kind of cookie (literally 'bird's nest'), is pronounced , with secondary stress on the second rather than the first syllable, because it is composed of the words ('nest') and ('bird'). The intonation pattern of a typical Khmer declarative phrase is a steady rise throughout followed by an abrupt drop on the last syllable. Topic-Comment constructions are common and the language is generally head-initial (modifiers follow the words they modify). Some grammatical processes are still not fully understood by western scholars. For example, it is not clear if certain features of Khmer grammar, such as actor nominalization, should be treated as a morphological process or a purely syntactic device, Henri Maspero, an early scholar of Khmer, claimed the language had no parts of speech, John Haiman, on the other hand, identifies "a couple dozen" parts of speech in Khmer with the caveat that Khmer words have the freedom to perform a variety of syntactic functions depending on such factors as word order, relevant particles, location within a clause, intonation and context. Khmer morphology is evidence of a historical process through which the language was, at some point in the past, changed from being an agglutinative language to adopting an isolating typology. Affixed forms are lexicalized and cannot be used productively to form new words. Intensity is also expressed syntactically, similar to other languages of the region, by reduplication or with the use of intensifiers. Khmer verbs do not inflect at all; tense, aspect and mood can be expressed using auxiliary verbs, particles (such as , placed before a verb to express continuous aspect) and adverbs (such as "yesterday", "earlier", "tomorrow"), or may be understood from context. Serial verb construction is quite common. Khmer syntax is very analytic. Relationships between words and phrases are signified primarily by word order supplemented with auxiliary verbs and, particularly in formal and literary registers, grammatical marking particles. The topic and subject are noun phrases, predicates are verb phrases and another noun phrase acting as an object or verbal attribute often follows the predicate. Relative clauses can be introduced by ("that") but, similar to coordinate clauses, often simply follow the main clause. For example, both phrases below can mean "the hospital bed that has wheels". Ordinal numbers are formed by placing the particle before the corresponding cardinal number. Written left-to-right with vowel signs that can be placed after, before, above or below the consonant they follow, the Khmer script is similar in appearance and usage to Thai and Lao, both of which were based on the Khmer system. The Khmer script is also distantly related to the Mon–Burmese script. Consonant symbols in Khmer are divided into two groups, or series. The first series carries the inherent vowel while the second series carries the inherent vowel . The Khmer names of the series, ('voiceless') and ('voiced'), respectively, indicate that the second series consonants were used to represent the voiced phonemes of Old Khmer. As the voicing of stops was lost, however, the contrast shifted to the phonation of the attached vowels, which, in turn, evolved into a simple difference of vowel quality, often by diphthongization.<ref nameELL /> This process has resulted in the Khmer alphabet having two symbols for most consonant phonemes and each vowel symbol having two possible readings, depending on the series of the initial consonant:<ref name"HUFF" /> {| |- | + | = | | 'grandfather' |- | + | = | | 'duck' |} Examples The following text is from Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. {| class="wikitable" ! Khmer | |- ! UNGEGN<br />romanization | |- ! IPA<br />transcription | . |} See also * Hem Chieu * Khmer literature * Romanization of Khmer References and notes Further reading * Ferlus, Michel. (1992). Essai de phonétique historique du khmer (Du milieu du premier millénaire de notre ère à l'époque actuelle)", Mon-Khmer Studies XXI: 57–89) * Headley, Robert and others. (1977). Cambodian-English Dictionary. Washington, Catholic University Press. * Herington, Jennifer and Amy Ryan. (2013). [http://li.payap.ac.th/images/stories/survey/khmer_khes_report.pdf Sociolinguistic Survey of the Khmer Khe in Cambodia] . Chiang Mai: Linguistics Institute, Payap University. * Huffman, F. E., Promchan, C., & Lambert, C.-R. T. (1970). Modern spoken Cambodian. New Haven: Yale University Press. * Huffman, F. E., Lambert, C.-R. T., & Im Proum. (1970). Cambodian system of writing and beginning reader with drills and glossary. Yale linguistic series. New Haven: Yale University Press. * Jacob, Judith. (1966). 'Some features of Khmer versification', in C. E. Bazell, J. C. Catford, M. A. K. Halliday, and R. H. Robins, eds., In Memory of J. R Firth, 227–41. London: Longman. [Includes discussion of the two series of syllables and their places in Khmer shymes] * Jacob, Judith. (1974). A Concise Cambodian-English Dictionary. London, Oxford University Press. * Jacob, J. M. (1996). The traditional literature of Cambodia: a preliminary guide. London oriental series, v. 40. New York: Oxford University Press. * Jacob, J. M., & Smyth, D. (1993). Cambodian linguistics, literature and history: collected articles. London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. * Keesee, A. P. K. (1996). An English-spoken Khmer dictionary: with romanized writing system, usage, and idioms, and notes on Khmer speech and grammar. London: Kegan Paul International. * Meechan, M. (1992). Register in Khmer the laryngeal specification of pharyngeal expansion. Ottawa: National Library of Canada = Bibliothèque nationale du Canada. * Sak-Humphry, C. (2002). Communicating in Khmer: an interactive intermediate level Khmer course. Manoa, Hawai'i: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, School of Hawaiian, Asian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawai'i at Manoa. OCLC: 56840636 * Smyth, D. (1995). Colloquial Cambodian: a complete language course. London: Routledge. * Stewart, F., & May, S. (2004). In the shadow of Angkor: contemporary writing from Cambodia. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. * Tonkin, D. (1991). The Cambodian alphabet: how to write the Khmer language. Bangkok: Trasvin Publications. External links * [https://kheng.info/ Kheng.info]—An online audio dictionary for learning Khmer, with thousands of native speaker recordings and [http://kheng.info/word_segmentation/ text segmentation software]. * [http://sealang.net/mk/khmeric.htm SEAlang Project: Mon–Khmer languages. The Khmeric Branch] * Khmer Swadesh vocabulary list (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix]) * [https://code.google.com/p/khmer-dictionary-tools/ Dictionary and SpellChecker] open sourced and collaborative project based on Chuon Nath Khmer Dictionary * [https://sbbic.org/2010/07/15/how-to-install-khmer-unicode-on-windows-7/ How to install Khmer script on a Windows 7 computer] * [http://www.sbbic.org/lang/en-us/2010/03/27/how-to-install-khmer-unicode-on-your-windows-xp-computer How to install Khmer script on a Windows XP computer] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101230070221/http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?menu004&LangID75 Khmer] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20060720065425/http://www.pavelicpapers.com/documents/odpor/index.html UCLA Language Materials project] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110821053921/http://dict.ant.com.kh/dictionaries/ Online Khmer & English dictionary] * [http://dictionary.tovnah.com/ Khmer Online Dictionaries] <section begin"list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/><div style"display:none;"> NOUN:noun VERB:verb OBJ:object OM:object marker MARKER:marker REL:relative COHORT:cohortative DIR:directional COMPL:complement RESP:respectful </div><section end="list-of-glossing-abbreviations"/> Category:Languages attested from the 9th century Category:Analytic languages Category:Isolating languages Category:Languages of Cambodia Category:Languages of Thailand Category:Languages of Vietnam Category:Subject–verb–object languages
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khmer_language
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Central processing unit
: An Intel Core i9-14900KF]] of Intel's Xeon 3060, first manufactured in 2006]] A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor, or just processor, is the primary processor in a given computer. Its electronic circuitry executes instructions of a computer program, such as arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations. This role contrasts with that of external components, such as main memory and I/O circuitry, and specialized coprocessors such as graphics processing units (GPUs). The form, design, and implementation of CPUs have changed over time, but their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include the arithmetic–logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations, processor registers that supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that orchestrates the fetching (from memory), decoding and execution (of instructions) by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU, registers, and other components. Modern CPUs devote a lot of semiconductor area to caches and instruction-level parallelism to increase performance and to CPU modes to support operating systems and virtualization. Most modern CPUs are implemented on integrated circuit (IC) microprocessors, with one or more CPUs on a single IC chip. Microprocessor chips with multiple CPUs are called multi-core processors. The individual physical CPUs, called processor cores, can also be multithreaded to support CPU-level multithreading. such integrated devices are variously called microcontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). History , one of the first stored-program computers]] Early computers such as the ENIAC had to be physically rewired to perform different tasks, which caused these machines to be called "fixed-program computers". The "central processing unit" term has been in use since as early as 1955. Since the term "CPU" is generally defined as a device for software (computer program) execution, the earliest devices that could rightly be called CPUs came with the advent of the stored-program computer. The idea of a stored-program computer had already been present in the design of John Presper Eckert and John William Mauchly's ENIAC, but was initially omitted so that it could be finished sooner. On June 30, 1945, before ENIAC was made, mathematician John von Neumann distributed a paper entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. It was the outline of a stored-program computer that would eventually be completed in August 1949. EDVAC was designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations) of various types. Significantly, the programs written for EDVAC were to be stored in high-speed computer memory rather than specified by the physical wiring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of ENIAC, which was the considerable time and effort required to reconfigure the computer to perform a new task. With von Neumann's design, the program that EDVAC ran could be changed simply by changing the contents of the memory. EDVAC was not the first stored-program computer; the Manchester Baby, which was a small-scale experimental stored-program computer, ran its first program on 21 June 1948 and the Manchester Mark 1 ran its first program during the night of 16–17 June 1949. Early CPUs were custom designs used as part of a larger and sometimes distinctive computer. However, this method of designing custom CPUs for a particular application has largely given way to the development of multi-purpose processors produced in large quantities. This standardization began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers, and has rapidly accelerated with the popularization of the integrated circuit (IC). The IC has allowed increasingly complex CPUs to be designed and manufactured to tolerances on the order of nanometers. Both the miniaturization and standardization of CPUs have increased the presence of digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing machines. Modern microprocessors appear in electronic devices ranging from automobiles to cellphones, and sometimes even in toys. While von Neumann is most often credited with the design of the stored-program computer because of his design of EDVAC, and the design became known as the von Neumann architecture, others before him, such as Konrad Zuse, had suggested and implemented similar ideas. The so-called Harvard architecture of the Harvard Mark I, which was completed before EDVAC, also used a stored-program design using punched paper tape rather than electronic memory. The key difference between the von Neumann and Harvard architectures is that the latter separates the storage and treatment of CPU instructions and data, while the former uses the same memory space for both. Most modern CPUs are primarily von Neumann in design, but CPUs with the Harvard architecture are seen as well, especially in embedded applications; for instance, the Atmel AVR microcontrollers are Harvard-architecture processors. Relays and vacuum tubes (thermionic tubes) were commonly used as switching elements; a useful computer requires thousands or tens of thousands of switching devices. The overall speed of a system is dependent on the speed of the switches. Vacuum-tube computers such as EDVAC tended to average eight hours between failures, whereas relay computers—such as the slower but earlier Harvard Mark I—failed very rarely.Transistor CPUs The design complexity of CPUs increased as various technologies facilitated the building of smaller and more reliable electronic devices. The first such improvement came with the advent of the transistor. Transistorized CPUs during the 1950s and 1960s no longer had to be built out of bulky, unreliable, and fragile switching elements, like vacuum tubes and relays. With this improvement, more complex and reliable CPUs were built onto one or several printed circuit boards containing discrete (individual) components. In 1964, IBM introduced its IBM System/360 computer architecture that was used in a series of computers capable of running the same programs with different speeds and performances. This was significant at a time when most electronic computers were incompatible with one another, even those made by the same manufacturer. To facilitate this improvement, IBM used the concept of a microprogram (often called "microcode"), which still sees widespread use in modern CPUs. The System/360 architecture was so popular that it dominated the mainframe computer market for decades and left a legacy that is continued by similar modern computers like the IBM zSeries. In 1965, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) introduced another influential computer aimed at the scientific and research markets—the PDP-8. Transistor-based computers had several distinct advantages over their predecessors. Aside from facilitating increased reliability and lower power consumption, transistors also allowed CPUs to operate at much higher speeds because of the short switching time of a transistor in comparison to a tube or relay. The increased reliability and dramatically increased speed of the switching elements, which were almost exclusively transistors by this time; CPU clock rates in the tens of megahertz were easily obtained during this period. Additionally, while discrete transistor and IC CPUs were in heavy usage, new high-performance designs like single instruction, multiple data (SIMD) vector processors began to appear. These early experimental designs later gave rise to the era of specialized supercomputers like those made by Cray Inc and Fujitsu Ltd. CPUs based on these "building block" ICs are generally referred to as "small-scale integration" (SSI) devices. SSI ICs, such as the ones used in the Apollo Guidance Computer, usually contained up to a few dozen transistors. To build an entire CPU out of SSI ICs required thousands of individual chips, but still consumed much less space and power than earlier discrete transistor designs. IBM's System/370, follow-on to the System/360, used SSI ICs rather than Solid Logic Technology discrete-transistor modules. DEC's PDP-8/I and KI10 PDP-10 also switched from the individual transistors used by the PDP-8 and PDP-10 to SSI ICs, and their extremely popular PDP-11 line was originally built with SSI ICs, but was eventually implemented with LSI components once these became practical.Large-scale integration CPUsLee Boysel published influential articles, including a 1967 "manifesto", which described how to build the equivalent of a 32-bit mainframe computer from a relatively small number of large-scale integration circuits (LSI). The only way to build LSI chips, which are chips with a hundred or more gates, was to build them using a metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) semiconductor manufacturing process (either PMOS logic, NMOS logic, or CMOS logic). However, some companies continued to build processors out of bipolar transistor–transistor logic (TTL) chips because bipolar junction transistors were faster than MOS chips up until the 1970s (a few companies such as Datapoint continued to build processors out of TTL chips until the early 1980s). Following the development of silicon-gate MOS technology by Federico Faggin at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1968, MOS ICs largely replaced bipolar TTL as the standard chip technology in the late 1970s. As the microelectronic technology advanced, an increasing number of transistors were placed on ICs, decreasing the number of individual ICs needed for a complete CPU. MSI and LSI ICs increased transistor counts to hundreds, and then thousands. By 1968, the number of ICs required to build a complete CPU had been reduced to 24 ICs of eight different types, with each IC containing roughly 1000 MOSFETs. In stark contrast with its SSI and MSI predecessors, the first LSI implementation of the PDP-11 contained a CPU composed of only four LSI integrated circuits.Microprocessors Since microprocessors were first introduced they have almost completely overtaken all other central processing unit implementation methods. The first commercially available microprocessor, made in 1971, was the Intel 4004, and the first widely used microprocessor, made in 1974, was the Intel 8080. Mainframe and minicomputer manufacturers of the time launched proprietary IC development programs to upgrade their older computer architectures, and eventually produced instruction set compatible microprocessors that were backward-compatible with their older hardware and software. Combined with the advent and eventual success of the ubiquitous personal computer, the term CPU is now applied almost exclusively to microprocessors. Several CPUs (denoted cores) can be combined in a single processing chip. Previous generations of CPUs were implemented as discrete components and numerous small integrated circuits (ICs) on one or more circuit boards. Microprocessors, on the other hand, are CPUs manufactured on a very small number of ICs; usually just one. The overall smaller CPU size, as a result of being implemented on a single die, means faster switching time because of physical factors like decreased gate parasitic capacitance. This has allowed synchronous microprocessors to have clock rates ranging from tens of megahertz to several gigahertz. Additionally, the ability to construct exceedingly small transistors on an IC has increased the complexity and number of transistors in a single CPU many fold. This widely observed trend is described by Moore's law, which had proven to be a fairly accurate predictor of the growth of CPU (and other IC) complexity until 2016. While the complexity, size, construction and general form of CPUs have changed enormously since 1950, the basic design and function has not changed much at all. Almost all common CPUs today can be very accurately described as von Neumann stored-program machines. As Moore's law no longer holds, concerns have arisen about the limits of integrated circuit transistor technology. Extreme miniaturization of electronic gates is causing the effects of phenomena like electromigration and subthreshold leakage to become much more significant. These newer concerns are among the many factors causing researchers to investigate new methods of computing such as the quantum computer, as well as to expand the use of parallelism and other methods that extend the usefulness of the classical von Neumann model. Operation The fundamental operation of most CPUs, regardless of the physical form they take, is to execute a sequence of stored instructions that is called a program. The instructions to be executed are kept in some kind of computer memory. Nearly all CPUs follow the fetch, decode and execute steps in their operation, which are collectively known as the instruction cycle. After the execution of an instruction, the entire process repeats, with the next instruction cycle normally fetching the next-in-sequence instruction because of the incremented value in the program counter. If a jump instruction was executed, the program counter will be modified to contain the address of the instruction that was jumped to and program execution continues normally. In more complex CPUs, multiple instructions can be fetched, decoded and executed simultaneously. This section describes what is generally referred to as the "classic RISC pipeline", which is quite common among the simple CPUs used in many electronic devices (often called microcontrollers). It largely ignores the important role of CPU cache, and therefore the access stage of the pipeline. Some instructions manipulate the program counter rather than producing result data directly; such instructions are generally called "jumps" and facilitate program behavior like loops, conditional program execution (through the use of a conditional jump), and existence of functions. In some processors, some other instructions change the state of bits in a "flags" register. These flags can be used to influence how a program behaves, since they often indicate the outcome of various operations. For example, in such processors a "compare" instruction evaluates two values and sets or clears bits in the flags register to indicate which one is greater or whether they are equal; one of these flags could then be used by a later jump instruction to determine program flow. Fetch Fetch involves retrieving an instruction (which is represented by a number or sequence of numbers) from program memory. The instruction's location (address) in program memory is determined by the program counter (PC; called the "instruction pointer" in Intel x86 microprocessors), which stores a number that identifies the address of the next instruction to be fetched. After an instruction is fetched, the PC is incremented by the length of the instruction so that it will contain the address of the next instruction in the sequence. Often, the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. This issue is largely addressed in modern processors by caches and pipeline architectures (see below). Decode The instruction that the CPU fetches from memory determines what the CPU will do. In the decode step, performed by binary decoder circuitry known as the instruction decoder, the instruction is converted into signals that control other parts of the CPU. The way in which the instruction is interpreted is defined by the CPU's instruction set architecture (ISA). Often, one group of bits (that is, a "field") within the instruction, called the opcode, indicates which operation is to be performed, while the remaining fields usually provide supplemental information required for the operation, such as the operands. Those operands may be specified as a constant value (called an immediate value), or as the location of a value that may be a processor register or a memory address, as determined by some addressing mode. In some CPU designs, the instruction decoder is implemented as a hardwired, unchangeable binary decoder circuit. In others, a microprogram is used to translate instructions into sets of CPU configuration signals that are applied sequentially over multiple clock pulses. In some cases the memory that stores the microprogram is rewritable, making it possible to change the way in which the CPU decodes instructions. Execute After the fetch and decode steps, the execute step is performed. Depending on the CPU architecture, this may consist of a single action or a sequence of actions. During each action, control signals electrically enable or disable various parts of the CPU so they can perform all or part of the desired operation. The action is then completed, typically in response to a clock pulse. Very often the results are written to an internal CPU register for quick access by subsequent instructions. In other cases results may be written to slower, but less expensive and higher capacity main memory. For example, if an instruction that performs addition is to be executed, registers containing operands (numbers to be summed) are activated, as are the parts of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that perform addition. When the clock pulse occurs, the operands flow from the source registers into the ALU, and the sum appears at its output. On subsequent clock pulses, other components are enabled (and disabled) to move the output (the sum of the operation) to storage (e.g., a register or memory). If the resulting sum is too large (i.e., it is larger than the ALU's output word size), an arithmetic overflow flag will be set, influencing the next operation. Structure and implementation Hardwired into a CPU's circuitry is a set of basic operations it can perform, called an instruction set. Such operations may involve, for example, adding or subtracting two numbers, comparing two numbers, or jumping to a different part of a program. Each instruction is represented by a unique combination of bits, known as the machine language opcode. While processing an instruction, the CPU decodes the opcode (via a binary decoder) into control signals, which orchestrate the behavior of the CPU. A complete machine language instruction consists of an opcode and, in many cases, additional bits that specify arguments for the operation (for example, the numbers to be summed in the case of an addition operation). Going up the complexity scale, a machine language program is a collection of machine language instructions that the CPU executes. The actual mathematical operation for each instruction is performed by a combinational logic circuit within the CPU's processor known as the arithmetic–logic unit or ALU. In general, a CPU executes an instruction by fetching it from memory, using its ALU to perform an operation, and then storing the result to memory. Besides the instructions for integer mathematics and logic operations, various other machine instructions exist, such as those for loading data from memory and storing it back, branching operations, and mathematical operations on floating-point numbers performed by the CPU's floating-point unit (FPU).Control unit The control unit (CU) is a component of the CPU that directs the operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit and input and output devices how to respond to the instructions that have been sent to the processor. It directs the operation of the other units by providing timing and control signals. Most computer resources are managed by the CU. It directs the flow of data between the CPU and the other devices. John von Neumann included the control unit as part of the von Neumann architecture. In modern computer designs, the control unit is typically an internal part of the CPU with its overall role and operation unchanged since its introduction.Arithmetic logic unit The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit within the processor that performs integer arithmetic and bitwise logic operations. The inputs to the ALU are the data words to be operated on (called operands), status information from previous operations, and a code from the control unit indicating which operation to perform. Depending on the instruction being executed, the operands may come from internal CPU registers, external memory, or constants generated by the ALU itself. When all input signals have settled and propagated through the ALU circuitry, the result of the performed operation appears at the ALU's outputs. The result consists of both a data word, which may be stored in a register or memory, and status information that is typically stored in a special, internal CPU register reserved for this purpose. Modern CPUs typically contain more than one ALU to improve performance. Address generation unit The address generation unit (AGU), sometimes also called the address computation unit (ACU), is an execution unit inside the CPU that calculates addresses used by the CPU to access main memory. By having address calculations handled by separate circuitry that operates in parallel with the rest of the CPU, the number of CPU cycles required for executing various machine instructions can be reduced, bringing performance improvements. While performing various operations, CPUs need to calculate memory addresses required for fetching data from the memory; for example, in-memory positions of array elements must be calculated before the CPU can fetch the data from actual memory locations. Those address-generation calculations involve different integer arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, modulo operations, or bit shifts. Often, calculating a memory address involves more than one general-purpose machine instruction, which do not necessarily decode and execute quickly. By incorporating an AGU into a CPU design, together with introducing specialized instructions that use the AGU, various address-generation calculations can be offloaded from the rest of the CPU, and can often be executed quickly in a single CPU cycle. Capabilities of an AGU depend on a particular CPU and its architecture. Thus, some AGUs implement and expose more address-calculation operations, while some also include more advanced specialized instructions that can operate on multiple operands at a time. Some CPU architectures include multiple AGUs so more than one address-calculation operation can be executed simultaneously, which brings further performance improvements due to the superscalar nature of advanced CPU designs. For example, Intel incorporates multiple AGUs into its Sandy Bridge and Haswell microarchitectures, which increase bandwidth of the CPU memory subsystem by allowing multiple memory-access instructions to be executed in parallel. Memory management unit (MMU) Many microprocessors (in smartphones and desktop, laptop, server computers) have a memory management unit, translating logical addresses into physical RAM addresses, providing memory protection and paging abilities, useful for virtual memory. Simpler processors, especially microcontrollers, usually don't include an MMU. Cache A CPU cache is a hardware cache used by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer to reduce the average cost (time or energy) to access data from the main memory. A cache is a smaller, faster memory, closer to a processor core, which stores copies of the data from frequently used main memory locations. Most CPUs have different independent caches, including instruction and data caches, where the data cache is usually organized as a hierarchy of several cache levels (L1, L2, L3, L4, etc.). Each ascending cache level is typically slower but larger than the preceding level with L1 being the fastest and the closest to the CPU. All modern (fast) CPUs (with few specialized exceptions) have multiple levels of CPU caches. The first CPUs that used a cache had only one level of cache; unlike later level 1 caches, it was not split into L1d (for data) and L1i (for instructions). Almost all current CPUs with caches have a split L1 cache. They also have L2 caches and, for larger processors, L3 caches as well. The L2 cache is usually not split and acts as a common repository for the already split L1 cache. Every core of a multi-core processor has a dedicated L2 cache and is usually not shared between the cores. The L3 cache, and higher-level caches, are shared between the cores and are not split. An L4 cache is currently uncommon, and is generally on dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), rather than on static random-access memory (SRAM), on a separate die or chip. That was also the case historically with L1, while bigger chips have allowed integration of it and generally all cache levels, with the possible exception of the last level. Each extra level of cache tends to be bigger and is optimized differently. Other types of caches exist (that are not counted towards the "cache size" of the most important caches mentioned above), such as the translation lookaside buffer (TLB) that is part of the memory management unit (MMU) that most CPUs have. Caches are generally sized in powers of two: 2, 8, 16 etc. KiB or MiB (for larger non-L1) sizes, although the IBM z13 has a 96 KiB L1 instruction cache. Clock rate Most CPUs are synchronous circuits, which means they employ a clock signal to pace their sequential operations. The clock signal is produced by an external oscillator circuit that generates a consistent number of pulses each second in the form of a periodic square wave. The frequency of the clock pulses determines the rate at which a CPU executes instructions and, consequently, the faster the clock, the more instructions the CPU will execute each second. To ensure proper operation of the CPU, the clock period is longer than the maximum time needed for all signals to propagate (move) through the CPU. In setting the clock period to a value well above the worst-case propagation delay, it is possible to design the entire CPU and the way it moves data around the "edges" of the rising and falling clock signal. This has the advantage of simplifying the CPU significantly, both from a design perspective and a component-count perspective. However, it also carries the disadvantage that the entire CPU must wait on its slowest elements, even though some portions of it are much faster. This limitation has largely been compensated for by various methods of increasing CPU parallelism (see below). However, architectural improvements alone do not solve all of the drawbacks of globally synchronous CPUs. For example, a clock signal is subject to the delays of any other electrical signal. Higher clock rates in increasingly complex CPUs make it more difficult to keep the clock signal in phase (synchronized) throughout the entire unit. This has led many modern CPUs to require multiple identical clock signals to be provided to avoid delaying a single signal significantly enough to cause the CPU to malfunction. Another major issue, as clock rates increase dramatically, is the amount of heat that is dissipated by the CPU. The constantly changing clock causes many components to switch regardless of whether they are being used at that time. In general, a component that is switching uses more energy than an element in a static state. Therefore, as clock rate increases, so does energy consumption, causing the CPU to require more heat dissipation in the form of CPU cooling solutions. One method of dealing with the switching of unneeded components is called clock gating, which involves turning off the clock signal to unneeded components (effectively disabling them). However, this is often regarded as difficult to implement and therefore does not see common usage outside of very low-power designs. One notable recent CPU design that uses extensive clock gating is the IBM PowerPC-based Xenon used in the Xbox 360; this reduces the power requirements of the Xbox 360. Clockless CPUs Another method of addressing some of the problems with a global clock signal is the removal of the clock signal altogether. While removing the global clock signal makes the design process considerably more complex in many ways, asynchronous (or clockless) designs carry marked advantages in power consumption and heat dissipation in comparison with similar synchronous designs. While somewhat uncommon, entire asynchronous CPUs have been built without using a global clock signal. Two notable examples of this are the ARM compliant AMULET and the MIPS R3000 compatible MiniMIPS. Rather than totally removing the clock signal, some CPU designs allow certain portions of the device to be asynchronous, such as using asynchronous ALUs in conjunction with superscalar pipelining to achieve some arithmetic performance gains. While it is not altogether clear whether totally asynchronous designs can perform at a comparable or better level than their synchronous counterparts, it is evident that they do at least excel in simpler math operations. This, combined with their excellent power consumption and heat dissipation properties, makes them very suitable for embedded computers. Voltage regulator module Many modern CPUs have a die-integrated power managing module which regulates on-demand voltage supply to the CPU circuitry allowing it to keep balance between performance and power consumption. Integer range Every CPU represents numerical values in a specific way. For example, some early digital computers represented numbers as familiar decimal (base 10) numeral system values, and others have employed more unusual representations such as bi-quinary coded decimal (base 2-5) or ternary (base 3). Nearly all modern CPUs represent numbers in binary form, with each digit being represented by some two-valued physical quantity such as a "high" or "low" voltage. Related to numeric representation is the size and precision of integer numbers that a CPU can represent. In the case of a binary CPU, this is measured by the number of bits (significant digits of a binary encoded integer) that the CPU can process in one operation, which is commonly called word size, bit width, data path width, integer precision, or integer size. A CPU's integer size determines the range of integer values on which it can directly operate. For example, an 8-bit CPU can directly manipulate integers represented by eight bits, which have a range of 256 (2<sup>8</sup>) discrete integer values. Integer range can also affect the number of memory locations the CPU can directly address (an address is an integer value representing a specific memory location). For example, if a binary CPU uses 32 bits to represent a memory address then it can directly address 2<sup>32</sup> memory locations. To circumvent this limitation and for various other reasons, some CPUs use mechanisms (such as memory management or bank switching) that allow additional memory to be addressed. CPUs with larger word sizes require more circuitry and consequently are physically larger, cost more and consume more power (and therefore generate more heat). As a result, smaller 4- or 8-bit microcontrollers are commonly used in modern applications even though CPUs with much larger word sizes (such as 16, 32, 64, even 128-bit) are available. When higher performance is required, however, the benefits of a larger word size (larger data ranges and address spaces) may outweigh the disadvantages. A CPU can have internal data paths shorter than the word size to reduce size and cost. For example, even though the IBM System/360 instruction set architecture was a 32-bit instruction set, the System/360 Model 30 and Model 40 had 8-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required four cycles, one for each 8 bits of the operands, and, even though the Motorola 68000 series instruction set was a 32-bit instruction set, the Motorola 68000 and Motorola 68010 had 16-bit data paths in the arithmetic logical unit, so that a 32-bit add required two cycles. To gain some of the advantages afforded by both lower and higher bit lengths, many instruction sets have different bit widths for integer and floating-point data, allowing CPUs implementing that instruction set to have different bit widths for different portions of the device. For example, the IBM System/360 instruction set was primarily 32 bit, but supported 64-bit floating-point values to facilitate greater accuracy and range in floating-point numbers. Many later CPU designs use similar mixed bit width, especially when the processor is meant for general-purpose use where a reasonable balance of integer and floating-point capability is required. Parallelism The description of the basic operation of a CPU offered in the previous section describes the simplest form that a CPU can take. This type of CPU, usually referred to as subscalar, operates on and executes one instruction on one or two pieces of data at a time, that is less than one instruction per clock cycle (). This process gives rise to an inherent inefficiency in subscalar CPUs. Since only one instruction is executed at a time, the entire CPU must wait for that instruction to complete before proceeding to the next instruction. As a result, the subscalar CPU gets "hung up" on instructions which take more than one clock cycle to complete execution. Even adding a second execution unit (see below) does not improve performance much; rather than one pathway being hung up, now two pathways are hung up and the number of unused transistors is increased. This design, wherein the CPU's execution resources can operate on only one instruction at a time, can only possibly reach scalar performance (one instruction per clock cycle, ). However, the performance is nearly always subscalar (less than one instruction per clock cycle, ). Attempts to achieve scalar and better performance have resulted in a variety of design methodologies that cause the CPU to behave less linearly and more in parallel. When referring to parallelism in CPUs, two terms are generally used to classify these design techniques: * instruction-level parallelism (ILP), which seeks to increase the rate at which instructions are executed within a CPU (that is, to increase the use of on-die execution resources); * task-level parallelism (TLP), which purposes to increase the number of threads or processes that a CPU can execute simultaneously. Each methodology differs both in the ways in which they are implemented, as well as the relative effectiveness they afford in increasing the CPU's performance for an application. Instruction-level parallelism One of the simplest methods for increased parallelism is to begin the first steps of instruction fetching and decoding before the prior instruction finishes executing. This is a technique known as instruction pipelining, and is used in almost all modern general-purpose CPUs. Pipelining allows multiple instruction to be executed at a time by breaking the execution pathway into discrete stages. This separation can be compared to an assembly line, in which an instruction is made more complete at each stage until it exits the execution pipeline and is retired. Pipelining does, however, introduce the possibility for a situation where the result of the previous operation is needed to complete the next operation; a condition often termed data dependency conflict. Therefore, pipelined processors must check for these sorts of conditions and delay a portion of the pipeline if necessary. A pipelined processor can become very nearly scalar, inhibited only by pipeline stalls (an instruction spending more than one clock cycle in a stage). Improvements in instruction pipelining led to further decreases in the idle time of CPU components. Designs that are said to be superscalar include a long instruction pipeline and multiple identical execution units, such as load–store units, arithmetic–logic units, floating-point units and address generation units. In a superscalar pipeline, instructions are read and passed to a dispatcher, which decides whether or not the instructions can be executed in parallel (simultaneously). If so, they are dispatched to execution units, resulting in their simultaneous execution. In general, the number of instructions that a superscalar CPU will complete in a cycle is dependent on the number of instructions it is able to dispatch simultaneously to execution units. Most of the difficulty in the design of a superscalar CPU architecture lies in creating an effective dispatcher. The dispatcher needs to be able to quickly determine whether instructions can be executed in parallel, as well as dispatch them in such a way as to keep as many execution units busy as possible. This requires that the instruction pipeline is filled as often as possible and requires significant amounts of CPU cache. It also makes hazard-avoiding techniques like branch prediction, speculative execution, register renaming, out-of-order execution and transactional memory crucial to maintaining high levels of performance. By attempting to predict which branch (or path) a conditional instruction will take, the CPU can minimize the number of times that the entire pipeline must wait until a conditional instruction is completed. Speculative execution often provides modest performance increases by executing portions of code that may not be needed after a conditional operation completes. Out-of-order execution somewhat rearranges the order in which instructions are executed to reduce delays due to data dependencies. Also in case of single instruction stream, multiple data stream, a case when a lot of data from the same type has to be processed, modern processors can disable parts of the pipeline so that when a single instruction is executed many times, the CPU skips the fetch and decode phases and thus greatly increases performance on certain occasions, especially in highly monotonous program engines such as video creation software and photo processing. When a fraction of the CPU is superscalar, the part that is not suffers a performance penalty due to scheduling stalls. The Intel P5 Pentium had two superscalar ALUs which could accept one instruction per clock cycle each, but its FPU could not. Thus the P5 was integer superscalar but not floating point superscalar. Intel's successor to the P5 architecture, P6, added superscalar abilities to its floating-point features. Simple pipelining and superscalar design increase a CPU's ILP by allowing it to execute instructions at rates surpassing one instruction per clock cycle. Most modern CPU designs are at least somewhat superscalar, and nearly all general purpose CPUs designed in the last decade are superscalar. In later years some of the emphasis in designing high-ILP computers has been moved out of the CPU's hardware and into its software interface, or instruction set architecture (ISA). The strategy of the very long instruction word (VLIW) causes some ILP to become implied directly by the software, reducing the CPU's work in boosting ILP and thereby reducing design complexity. Task-level parallelism Another strategy of achieving performance is to execute multiple threads or processes in parallel. This area of research is known as parallel computing. In Flynn's taxonomy, this strategy is known as multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD). One technology used for this purpose is multiprocessing (MP). The initial type of this technology is known as symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), where a small number of CPUs share a coherent view of their memory system. In this scheme, each CPU has additional hardware to maintain a constantly up-to-date view of memory. By avoiding stale views of memory, the CPUs can cooperate on the same program and programs can migrate from one CPU to another. To increase the number of cooperating CPUs beyond a handful, schemes such as non-uniform memory access (NUMA) and directory-based coherence protocols were introduced in the 1990s. SMP systems are limited to a small number of CPUs while NUMA systems have been built with thousands of processors. Initially, multiprocessing was built using multiple discrete CPUs and boards to implement the interconnect between the processors. When the processors and their interconnect are all implemented on a single chip, the technology is known as chip-level multiprocessing (CMP) and the single chip as a multi-core processor. It was later recognized that finer-grain parallelism existed with a single program. A single program might have several threads (or functions) that could be executed separately or in parallel. Some of the earliest examples of this technology implemented input/output processing such as direct memory access as a separate thread from the computation thread. A more general approach to this technology was introduced in the 1970s when systems were designed to run multiple computation threads in parallel. This technology is known as multi-threading (MT). The approach is considered more cost-effective than multiprocessing, as only a small number of components within a CPU are replicated to support MT as opposed to the entire CPU in the case of MP. In MT, the execution units and the memory system including the caches are shared among multiple threads. The downside of MT is that the hardware support for multithreading is more visible to software than that of MP and thus supervisor software like operating systems have to undergo larger changes to support MT. One type of MT that was implemented is known as temporal multithreading, where one thread is executed until it is stalled waiting for data to return from external memory. In this scheme, the CPU would then quickly context switch to another thread which is ready to run, the switch often done in one CPU clock cycle, such as the UltraSPARC T1. Another type of MT is simultaneous multithreading, where instructions from multiple threads are executed in parallel within one CPU clock cycle. For several decades from the 1970s to early 2000s, the focus in designing high performance general purpose CPUs was largely on achieving high ILP through technologies such as pipelining, caches, superscalar execution, out-of-order execution, etc. This trend culminated in large, power-hungry CPUs such as the Intel Pentium 4. By the early 2000s, CPU designers were thwarted from achieving higher performance from ILP techniques due to the growing disparity between CPU operating frequencies and main memory operating frequencies as well as escalating CPU power dissipation owing to more esoteric ILP techniques. CPU designers then borrowed ideas from commercial computing markets such as transaction processing, where the aggregate performance of multiple programs, also known as throughput computing, was more important than the performance of a single thread or process. This reversal of emphasis is evidenced by the proliferation of dual and more core processor designs and notably, Intel's newer designs resembling its less superscalar P6 architecture. Late designs in several processor families feature chip-level multiprocessing, including the x86-64 Opteron and Athlon 64 X2, the SPARC UltraSPARC T1, IBM POWER4 and POWER5, as well as several video game console CPUs like the Xbox 360's triple-core PowerPC design, and the PlayStation 3's 7-core Cell microprocessor. Data parallelism A less common but increasingly important paradigm of processors (and indeed, computing in general) deals with data parallelism. The processors discussed earlier are all referred to as some type of scalar device. As the name implies, vector processors deal with multiple pieces of data in the context of one instruction. This contrasts with scalar processors, which deal with one piece of data for every instruction. Using Flynn's taxonomy, these two schemes of dealing with data are generally referred to as single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD) and single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD), respectively. The great utility in creating processors that deal with vectors of data lies in optimizing tasks that tend to require the same operation (for example, a sum or a dot product) to be performed on a large set of data. Some classic examples of these types of tasks include multimedia applications (images, video and sound), as well as many types of scientific and engineering tasks. Whereas a scalar processor must complete the entire process of fetching, decoding and executing each instruction and value in a set of data, a vector processor can perform a single operation on a comparatively large set of data with one instruction. This is only possible when the application tends to require many steps which apply one operation to a large set of data. Most early vector processors, such as the Cray-1, were associated almost exclusively with scientific research and cryptography applications. However, as multimedia has largely shifted to digital media, the need for some form of SIMD in general-purpose processors has become significant. Shortly after inclusion of floating-point units started to become commonplace in general-purpose processors, specifications for and implementations of SIMD execution units also began to appear for general-purpose processors in the mid-1990s. Some of these early SIMD specifications – like HP's Multimedia Acceleration eXtensions (MAX) and Intel's MMX – were integer-only. This proved to be a significant impediment for some software developers, since many of the applications that benefit from SIMD primarily deal with floating-point numbers. Progressively, developers refined and remade these early designs into some of the common modern SIMD specifications, which are usually associated with one instruction set architecture (ISA). Some notable modern examples include Intel's Streaming SIMD Extensions (SSE) and the PowerPC-related AltiVec (also known as VMX). Hardware performance counter Many modern architectures (including embedded ones) often include hardware performance counters (HPC), which enables low-level (instruction-level) collection, benchmarking, debugging or analysis of running software metrics. HPC may also be used to discover and analyze unusual or suspicious activity of the software, such as return-oriented programming (ROP) or sigreturn-oriented programming (SROP) exploits etc. This is usually done by software-security teams to assess and find malicious binary programs. Many major vendors (such as IBM, Intel, AMD, and Arm) provide software interfaces (usually written in C/C++) that can be used to collect data from the CPU's registers in order to get metrics. Operating system vendors also provide software like <code>perf</code> (Linux) to record, benchmark, or trace CPU events running kernels and applications. Hardware counters provide a low-overhead method for collecting comprehensive performance metrics related to a CPU's core elements (functional units, caches, main memory, etc.) – a significant advantage over software profilers. Additionally, they generally eliminate the need to modify the underlying source code of a program. Because hardware designs differ between architectures, the specific types and interpretations of hardware counters will also change.Privileged modes Most modern CPUs have privileged modes to support operating systems and virtualization. Cloud computing can use virtualization to provide virtual central processing units (vCPUs) for separate users. A host is the virtual equivalent of a physical machine, on which a virtual system is operating. When there are several physical machines operating in tandem and managed as a whole, the grouped computing and memory resources form a cluster. In some systems, it is possible to dynamically add and remove from a cluster. Resources available at a host and cluster level can be partitioned into resources pools with fine granularity.Performance The performance or speed of a processor depends on, among many other factors, the clock rate (generally given in multiples of hertz) and the instructions per clock (IPC), which together are the factors for the instructions per second (IPS) that the CPU can perform. Many reported IPS values have represented "peak" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches, whereas realistic workloads consist of a mix of instructions and applications, some of which take longer to execute than others. The performance of the memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in IPS calculations. Because of these problems, various standardized tests, often called "benchmarks" for this purpose such as SPECint have been developed to attempt to measure the real effective performance in commonly used applications. Processing performance of computers is increased by using multi-core processors, which essentially is plugging two or more individual processors (called cores in this sense) into one integrated circuit. Ideally, a dual core processor would be nearly twice as powerful as a single core processor. In practice, the performance gain is far smaller, only about 50%, due to imperfect software algorithms and implementation. Increasing the number of cores in a processor (i.e. dual-core, quad-core, etc.) increases the workload that can be handled. This means that the processor can now handle numerous asynchronous events, interrupts, etc. which can take a toll on the CPU when overwhelmed. These cores can be thought of as different floors in a processing plant, with each floor handling a different task. Sometimes, these cores will handle the same tasks as cores adjacent to them if a single core is not enough to handle the information. Multi-core CPUs enhance a computer's ability to run several tasks simultaneously by providing additional processing power. However, the increase in speed is not directly proportional to the number of cores added. This is because the cores need to interact through specific channels, and this inter-core communication consumes a portion of the available processing speed. Due to specific capabilities of modern CPUs, such as simultaneous multithreading and uncore, which involve sharing of actual CPU resources while aiming at increased utilization, monitoring performance levels and hardware use gradually became a more complex task. As a response, some CPUs implement additional hardware logic that monitors actual use of various parts of a CPU and provides various counters accessible to software; an example is Intel's Performance Counter Monitor technology. Overclocking Overclocking is a process of increasing the clock speed of a CPU (and other components) to increase the performance of the CPU. Overclocking might increase CPU temperature and cause it to overheat, so most users do not overclock and leave the clock speed unchanged. Some versions of components (such as Intel's U version of its CPUs or Nvidia's OG GPUs) do not allow overclocking. See also * Addressing mode * AMD Accelerated Processing Unit * Complex instruction set computer * Computer bus * Computer engineering * CPU core voltage * CPU socket * Data processing unit * Digital signal processor * Graphics processing unit * Comparison of instruction set architectures * Protection ring * Reduced instruction set computer * Stream processing * True Performance Index * Tensor Processing Unit * Wait state Notes References External links * . * [https://spectrum.ieee.org/25-microchips-that-shook-the-world 25 Microchips that shook the world] – an article by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Category:Digital electronics Category:Electronic design Category:Electronic design automation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_processing_unit
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Carnivora
Early Eocene – Holocene |image = <imagemap> File:Carnivora_portraits.jpg|300px rect 580 485 0 0 Cheetah rect 582 0 1191 485 Brown bear rect 0 486 577 972 Spotted hyena rect 581 487 1190 971 Wolf rect 0 975 577 1387 Binturong rect 582 974 1190 1388 Raccoon rect 0 1392 577 1805 Indian grey mongoose rect 581 1391 1188 1807 American mink rect 0 1811 577 2231 Fossa rect 581 1810 1190 2231 Walrus </imagemap> |image_upright = 1.15 |image_caption = Various carnivorans, with feliforms to the left, and caniforms to the right |display_parents = 2 |taxon = Carnivora |authority Bowdich, 1821 |subdivision_ranks = Suborders |subdivision = * Caniformia * Feliformia |synonyms |Carnaria |Carnassidentia |Carnivoramorphia |Carnivores |Carnivori |Carnivorida |Carnivoriformes |Carnivoripedida |Cynofeliformia |Cynofeloidea |Cynosia |Digitigrada |Digitigradae |Eucarnivora |Ferae |Neocarnivora |Plantigrada }} |range_map = Carnivora_Distribution.png |range_map_caption = The extant distribution and density of Carnivora species. }} Carnivora ( ) is an order of placental mammals specialized primarily in eating flesh, whose members are formally referred to as carnivorans. The order Carnivora is the sixth largest order of mammals, comprising at least 279 species on every major landmass and in a variety of habitats, ranging from the cold polar regions of Earth to the hyper-arid region of the Sahara Desert and the open seas. Carnivorans exhibit a wide array of body plans, varying greatly in size and shape. Carnivora are divided into two suborders, the Feliformia, containing the true felids and several animals; and the Caniformia, containing the true canids and many animals. The feliforms include the Felidae, Viverridae, hyena, and mongoose families, the majority of which live only in the Old World; cats are the only exception, occurring in the Old World and the New World, entering the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge. The caniforms include the Caninae, Procyonidae, bears, mustelids, skunks, and pinnipeds that occur worldwide with immense diversity in their morphology, diet, and behavior. Etymology The word Carnivora is derived from Latin carō (stem carn-) 'flesh' and vorāre 'to devour'.PhylogenyThe oldest known carnivoran line mammals (Carnivoramorpha) appeared in North America 6 million years after the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Within this group the carnivorans are placed in the clade Ferae. Ferae includes the closest extant relative of carnivorans, the pangolins, as well as several extinct groups of mostly Paleogene carnivorous placentals such as the creodonts, the arctocyonians, and mesonychians. The creodonts were originally thought of as the sister taxon to the carnivorans, perhaps even ancestral to, based on the presence of the carnassial teeth, but the nature of the carnassial teeth is different between the two groups. In carnivorans, the carnassials are positioned near the front of the molar row, while in the creodonts, they are positioned near the back of the molar row, and this suggests a separate evolutionary history and an order-level distinction. In addition, phylogenetic analysis suggests that creodonts are more closely related to pangolins while mesonychians might be the sister group to carnivorans and their stem-relatives. Carnivoramorpha as a whole first appeared in the Paleocene of North America about 60 million years ago. Crown carnivorans first appeared around 42 million years ago in the Middle Eocene. Their molecular phylogeny shows the extant Carnivora are a monophyletic group, the crown group of the Carnivoramorpha. From there carnivorans have split into two clades based on the composition of the bony structures that surround the middle ear of the skull, the cat-like feliforms and the dog-like caniforms. In feliforms, the auditory bullae are double-chambered, composed of two bones joined by a septum. Caniforms have single-chambered or partially divided auditory bullae, composed of a single bone. Initially, the early representatives of carnivorans were small as the creodonts (specifically, the oxyaenids) and mesonychians dominated the apex predator niches during the Eocene, but in the Oligocene, carnivorans became a dominant group of apex predators with the nimravids, and by the Miocene most of the extant carnivoran families have diversified and become the primary terrestrial predators in the Northern Hemisphere.Classification of the extant carnivorans In 1758, the Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus placed all carnivorans known at the time into the group Ferae (not to be confused with the modern concept of Ferae which also includes pangolins) in the tenth edition of his book Systema Naturae. He recognized six genera: Canis (canids and hyaenids), Phoca (pinnipeds), Felis (felids), Viverra (viverrids, herpestids, and mephitids), Mustela (non-badger mustelids), Ursus (ursids, large species of mustelids, and procyonids). It was not until 1821 that the English writer and traveler Thomas Edward Bowdich gave the group its modern and accepted name. Initially, the modern concept of Carnivora was divided into two suborders: the terrestrial Fissipedia and the marine Pinnipedia. Below is the classification of how the extant families were related to each other after American paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson in 1945: with pinnipeds being either more closely related to bears or to weasels. The small carnivoran families Viverridae, Procyonidae, and Mustelidae have been found to be polyphyletic: * Mongooses and a handful of Malagasy endemic species are found to be in a clade with hyenas, with the Malagasy species being in their own family Eupleridae. * The African palm civet is a basal cat-like carnivoran. * The linsang is more closely related to cats. * Pandas are not procyonids nor are they a natural grouping. The giant panda is a true bear while the red panda is a distinct family. * Skunks and stink badgers are placed in their own family, and are the sister group to a clade containing Ailuridae, Procyonidae and Mustelidae sensu stricto.) and fourth (2014) volumes of the Handbook of the Mammals of the World: {| class="wikitable" |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#c2c2a9"|Carnivora <small>Bowdich, 1821</small> |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#d9d9c1"|Feliformia <small>Kretzoi, 1945</small> |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Nandinioidea <small>Pocock, 1929</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Nandiniidae <small>Pocock, 1929</small> |African palm civet |Sub-Saharan Africa |1 |Nandinia binotata <small>(J. E. Gray, 1830)</small> | |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Feloidea <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Felidae <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |Cats (including domestic cats, tigers, leopards, jaguars, lions, cheetahs, ocelots, etc.) |Americas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Madagascar, Australasia and several islands) |37 |Felis catus <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> | |- |Prionodontidae <small>Horsfield, 1822</small> |Asiatic linsangs |Indomalayan realm |2 |Prionodon linsang <small>(Hardwicke, 1821)</small> | |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Viverroidea <small>J. E. Gray, 1821</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Viverridae <small>J. E. Gray, 1821</small> |Civets, genets, and oyans |Southern Europe, Indomalayan realm, and Africa (introduced to Madagascar) |34 |Viverra zibetha <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> | |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Herpestoidea <small>Bonaparte, 1845</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Hyaenidae <small>J. E. Gray, 1821</small> |Hyenas |Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indian subcontinent |4 |Hyaena hyaena <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small> | |- |Herpestidae <small>Bonaparte, 1845</small> |Mongooses |Iberian Peninsula, Africa, the Middle East, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the Indomalayan realm |34 |Herpestes ichneumon <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small> | |- |Eupleridae <small>Chenu, 1850</small> |Malagasy mongooses and civets |Madagascar |8 |Eupleres goudotii <small>Doyère, 1835</small> | |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#d9d9c1"|Caniformia <small>Kretzoi, 1945</small> |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Canoidea <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Canidae <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |Dogs (including domestic dogs, wolves, foxes, dingoes, jackals, coyotes, etc.) |Americas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Madagascar, Australasia and several islands) |35 |Canis familiaris <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> | |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Ursoidea <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Ursidae <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |Bears |Americas and Eurasia |8 |Ursus arctos <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> | |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Phocoidea <small>J. E. Gray, 1821</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Odobenidae <small>J. A. Allen, 1880</small> |Walruses |The North Pole in the Arctic Ocean and subarctic seas of the Northern Hemisphere |1 |Odobenus rosmarus <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small> | |- |Otariidae <small>J. E. Gray, 1825</small> |Eared seals |Subpolar, temperate, and equatorial waters throughout the Pacific and Southern Oceans and the southern Indian and Atlantic Oceans |15 |Otaria flavescens <small>(Shaw, 1800)</small> | |- |Phocidae <small>J. E. Gray, 1821</small> |Earless seals |The sea and Lake Baikal |18 |Phoca vitulina <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> | |- |colspan"100%" align"center" bgcolor="#ebebd2"|Musteloidea <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |- ! Family !! English name !! Distribution !! Number of extant species !! Type taxon !! Image figure |- |Mephitidae <small>Bonaparte, 1845</small> |Skunks and stink badgers |Americas, western Philippines, and Indonesia and Malaysia |12 |Mephitis mephitis <small>(Schreber, 1776)</small> | |- |Ailuridae <small>J. E. Gray, 1843</small> |Red panda |Eastern Himalayas and southwestern China |1 |Ailurus fulgens <small>F. Cuvier, 1825</small> | |- |Procyonidae <small>J. E. Gray, 1825</small> |Raccoons, olingos, ringtails, coatis, cacomistles, and kinkajous |Americas (introduced to Europe, the Caucasus, and Japan) |12 |Procyon lotor <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small> | |- |Mustelidae <small>G. Fischer de Waldheim, 1817</small> |Weasels, otters, wolverines, polecats, badgers, martens, and grisons |Americas, Africa, and Eurasia (introduced to Australasia and several islands) |57 |Mustela erminea <small>Linnaeus, 1758</small> | |- |} Anatomy Skull (Cryptoprocta ferox). Note the large and conical canine and carnassial teeth common in feliforms.]] The canine teeth are usually large, conical, thick and stress resistant. All of the terrestrial species of carnivorans have three incisors on each side of each jaw (the exception is the sea otter (Enhydra lutris) which only has two lower incisor teeth). The braincase is enlarged with the frontoparietal bone at the front. In most species, the eyes are at the front of the face. In caniforms, the rostrum is usually long with many teeth, while in feliforms it is shorter with fewer teeth. The carnassial teeth of feliforms are generally more sectional than those of caniforms. The turbinates are large and complex in comparison to other mammals, providing a large surface area for olfactory receptors. All species of carnivorans are quadrupedal and most have five digits on the front feet and four digits on the back feet. In terrestrial carnivorans, the feet have soft pads. The feet can either be digitigrade as seen in cats, hyenas, and dogs or plantigrade as seen in bears, skunks, raccoons, weasels, civets, and mongooses. In pinnipeds, the limbs have been modified into flippers., have pads on their feet.]] Unlike cetaceans and sirenians, which have fully functional tails to help them swim, pinnipeds use their limbs underwater to swim. Earless seals use their back flippers; sea lions and fur seals use their front flippers, and the walrus uses all of its limbs. As a result, pinnipeds have significantly shorter tails than other carnivorans. Aside from the pinnipeds, dogs, bears, hyenas, and cats all have distinct and recognizable appearances. Dogs are usually cursorial mammals and are gracile in appearance, often relying on their teeth to hold prey; bears are much larger and rely on their physical strength to forage for food. Compared to dogs and bears, cats have longer and stronger forelimbs armed with retractable claws to hold on to prey. Hyenas are dog-like feliforms that have sloping backs due to their front legs being longer than their hind legs. The raccoon family and red panda are small, bear-like carnivorans with long tails. The other small carnivoran families Nandiniidae, Prionodontidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae, Eupleridae, Mephitidae, and Mustelidae have through convergent evolution maintained the small, ancestral appearance of the miacoids, though there is some variation seen such as the robust and stout physicality of badgers and the wolverine (Gulo gulo). Male carnivorans will usually have bacula, which are absent in hyenas and binturongs. The length and density of the fur can vary depending on the environment that the species inhabits. In warm climate species, the fur is often short in length and lighter. In cold climate species, the fur is can be either dense or long, often with an oily substance that helps to retain heat. The pelage coloration differs between species, often including black, white, orange, yellow, red, and many shades of grey and brown. Some are striped, spotted, blotched, banded, or otherwise boldly patterned. There may be a correlation between habitat and color pattern; for example, spotted or banded species tend to be found in heavily forested environments.See also * Mammal classification * Carnivoraformes * List of carnivorans * List of carnivorans by population References External links * [http://brainmaps.org/index.php?pdatasets-species#carnivore High-Resolution Images of Carnivore Brains] Category:Mammal orders Category:Extant Lutetian first appearances Category:Taxa named by Thomas Edward Bowdich
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivora
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Colombia
Columbia|Colombo}} | conventional_long_name = Republic of Colombia | native_name = (Spanish) | image_flag = Flag of Colombia.svg | image_coat = Coat of arms of Colombia.svg | common_name = Colombia | national_motto | englishmotto = "Freedom and Order" | national_anthem <br />"National Anthem of the Republic of Colombia"<div style="padding-top:0.5em;"></div> | image_map = COL orthographic (San Andrés and Providencia special).svg | map_caption | capital = Bogotá | religion = | religion_ref | religion_year = 2022 | largest_city = capital | official_languages = Spanish | recognized_regional_languages Creole English (in San Andrés and Providencia)<br>64 other languages | ethnic_groups = }} | 6.84% Afro-Colombians | 4.31% Indigenous | 0.05% Raizal | 0.01% Palenquero | 0.01% Romani | 1.35% not stated }} | ethnic_groups_year 2018 census | demonym = Colombian | government_type = Unitary presidential republic | leader_title1 = President | leader_name1 = Gustavo Petro | leader_title2 = Vice President | leader_name2 = Francia Márquez | legislature = Congress | upper_house = Senate | lower_house = Chamber of Representatives | sovereignty_type = Independence | established_event1 = Declared | established_date1 = 20 July 1810 | established_event2 = Recognized | established_date2 = 7 August 1819 | established_event3 = Last unitisation | established_date3 = 5 August 1886 | established_event4 = Secession of Panama | established_date4 = 6 November 1903 | established_event5 = | established_date5 = 4 July 1991 | area_km2 = 1,141,748 | area_rank = 25th | area_sq_mi = 440,831 <!--Do not remove per Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers--> | percent_water 2.1 (as of 2015) | population_estimate 52,695,952 | population_estimate_year = 2024 | population_estimate_rank = 27th | population_density_km2 = 46.15 | population_density_rank = 174th | population_density_sq_mi = 119.54 <!--Do not remove per Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers--> | GDP_PPP $1.042 trillion | GDP_PPP_year = 2024 | GDP_PPP_rank = 32nd | GDP_PPP_per_capita $19,770 | HDI = 0.758 | HDI_year = 2022<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year--> | HDI_change = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady--> | HDI_ref | HDI_rank = 91st | currency = Colombian peso | currency_code = COP | time_zone = COT | utc_offset = −5 | date_format = DMY | drives_on = right | calling_code = +57 | cctld = .co | footnote_a = Although the Colombian Constitution specifies Spanish (Castellano) as the official language in all Colombian territory, other languages spoken in the country by ethnic groups – approximately 68 languages – each is also official in its territory. English is also official in the archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina. | footnote_b The official Colombian time is controlled and coordinated by the National Institute of Metrology. }} Colombia, , ; }} officially the Republic of Colombia,}}. IPA transcription of "República de Colombia": .}} is a country primarily located in South America with insular regions in North America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuela to the east and northeast, Brazil to the southeast, Peru and Ecuador to the south and southwest, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and Panama to the northwest. Colombia is divided into 32 departments. The Capital District of Bogotá is also the country's largest city hosting the main financial and cultural hub. Other major urban areas include Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Cúcuta, Ibagué, Villavicencio and Bucaramanga. It covers an area of 1,141,748 square kilometers (440,831 sq mi) and has a population of around 52 million. Its rich cultural heritage—including language, religion, cuisine, and art—reflects its history as a colony, fusing cultural elements brought by immigration from Europe and the Middle East, with those brought by the African diaspora, as well as with those of the various Indigenous civilizations that predate colonization. Spanish is the official language, although Creole, English and 64 other languages are recognized regionally. Colombia has been home to many indigenous peoples and cultures since at least 12,000 BCE. The Spanish first landed in La Guajira in 1499, and by the mid-16th century, they had colonized much of present-day Colombia, and established the New Kingdom of Granada, with Santa Fe de Bogotá as its capital. Independence from the Spanish Empire is considered to have been declared in 1810, with what is now Colombia emerging as the United Provinces of New Granada. After a brief Spanish reconquest, Colombian independence was secured and the period of Gran Colombia began in 1819. The new polity experimented with federalism as the Granadine Confederation (1858) and then the United States of Colombia (1863), before becoming a centralised republic—the current Republic of Colombia—in 1886. With the backing of the United States and France, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, resulting in Colombia's present borders. Beginning in the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict and political violence, both of which escalated in the 1990s. Since 2005, there has been significant improvement in security, stability, and rule of law, as well as unprecedented economic growth and development. Its diversified economy is the third-largest in South America, with macroeconomic stability and favorable long-term growth prospects. and a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Etymology The name "Colombia" is derived from the last name of the Italian navigator Christopher Columbus (, , ). It was conceived as a reference to all of the New World. The name was later adopted by the Republic of Colombia of 1819, formed from the territories of the old Viceroyalty of New Granada (modern-day Colombia, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, and northwest Brazil). When Venezuela, Ecuador, and Cundinamarca came to exist as independent states, the former Department of Cundinamarca adopted the name "Republic of New Granada". New Granada officially changed its name in 1858 to the Granadine Confederation. In 1863 the name was again changed, this time to United States of Colombia, before finally adopting its present name – the Republic of Colombia – in 1886. History Pre-Columbian<!--This is NOT a typo. Before Christopher Columbus, not before Colombia --> era Owing to its location, the present territory of Colombia was a corridor of early human civilization from Mesoamerica and the Caribbean to the Andes and Amazon basin. The oldest archaeological finds are from the Pubenza and El Totumo sites in the Magdalena Valley southwest of Bogotá. These sites date from the Paleoindian period (18,000–8000 BCE). At Puerto Hormiga and other sites, traces from the Archaic Period (~8000–2000 BCE) have been found. Vestiges indicate that there was also early occupation in the regions of El Abra and Tequendama in Cundinamarca. The oldest pottery discovered in the Americas, found in San Jacinto, dates to 5000–4000 BCE. Indigenous people inhabited the territory that is now Colombia by 12,500 BCE. Nomadic hunter-gatherer tribes at the El Abra, Tibitó and Tequendama sites near present-day Bogotá traded with one another and with other cultures from the Magdalena River Valley. A site including of pictographs that is under study at Serranía de la Lindosa was revealed in November 2020. Their age is suggested as being 12,500 years old (c. 10,480 B.C.) by the anthropologists working on the site, because of extinct fauna depicted. It was during the earliest known human occupation of the area. Between 5000 and 1000 BCE, hunter-gatherer tribes transitioned to agrarian societies; fixed settlements were established, and pottery appeared. Beginning in the 1st millennium BCE, groups of Amerindians including the Muisca, Zenú, Quimbaya, and Tairona developed the political system of cacicazgos with a pyramidal structure of power headed by caciques. The Muisca inhabited mainly the area of what is now the Departments of Boyacá and Cundinamarca high plateau (Altiplano Cundiboyacense) where they formed the Muisca Confederation. They farmed maize, potato, quinoa, and cotton, and traded gold, emeralds, blankets, ceramic handicrafts, coca and especially rock salt with neighboring nations. The Tairona inhabited northern Colombia in the isolated mountain range of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. The Quimbaya inhabited regions of the Cauca River Valley between the Western and Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes. Most of the Amerindians practiced agriculture and the social structure of each indigenous community was different. Some groups of indigenous people such as the Caribs lived in a state of permanent war, but others had less bellicose attitudes. During the 1200s, Malayo-Polynesians and Native Americans in Colombia made contact, thereby spreading Native American genetics from Precolonial Colombia to some Pacific Ocean islands. Colonial period , founder of Santa María la Antigua del Darién, the first stable European settlement on the continent]] Alonso de Ojeda (who had sailed with Columbus) reached the Guajira Peninsula in 1499. Spanish explorers, led by Rodrigo de Bastidas, made the first exploration of the Caribbean coast in 1500. Christopher Columbus navigated near the Caribbean in 1502. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa accompanied an expedition to the territory through the region of Gulf of Urabá and they founded the town of Santa María la Antigua del Darién in 1510, the first stable settlement on the continent. Santa Marta was founded in 1525, and Cartagena in 1533. Spanish conquistador Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada led an expedition to the interior in April 1536, and christened the districts through which he passed "New Kingdom of Granada". In August 1538, he provisionally founded its capital near the Muisca cacicazgo of Muyquytá, and named it "Santa Fe". The name soon acquired a suffix and was called Santa Fe de Bogotá. Two other notable journeys by early conquistadors to the interior took place in the same period. Sebastián de Belalcázar, conqueror of Quito, traveled north and founded Cali, in 1536, and Popayán, in 1537; from 1536 to 1539, German conquistador Nikolaus Federmann crossed the Llanos Orientales and went over the Cordillera Oriental in a search for El Dorado, the "city of gold". The legend and the gold would play a pivotal role in luring the Spanish and other Europeans to New Granada during the 16th and 17th centuries. The conquistadors made frequent alliances with the enemies of different indigenous communities. Indigenous allies were crucial to conquest, as well as to creating and maintaining empire. Indigenous peoples in Colombia experienced a decline in population due to conquest as well as Eurasian diseases, such as smallpox, to which they had no immunity. Regarding the land as deserted, the Spanish Crown sold properties to all persons interested in colonized territories, creating large farms and possession of mines. In the 16th century, the nautical science in Spain reached a great development thanks to numerous scientific figures of the Casa de Contratación and nautical science was an essential pillar of the Iberian expansion. In 1542, the region of New Granada, along with all other Spanish possessions in South America, became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima. In 1547, New Granada became a separate captaincy-general within the viceroyalty, with its capital at Santa Fe de Bogota. In 1549, the Royal Audiencia was created by a royal decree, and New Granada was ruled by the Royal Audience of Santa Fe de Bogotá, which at that time comprised the provinces of Santa Marta, Rio de San Juan, Popayán, Guayana and Cartagena. But important decisions were taken from the colony to Spain by the Council of the Indies. , a major Spanish victory in the War of Jenkins' Ear This system brought Africans to Colombia, although many spoke out against the institution. The indigenous peoples could not be enslaved because they were legally subjects of the Spanish Crown. To protect the indigenous peoples, several forms of land ownership and regulation were established by the Spanish colonial authorities: resguardos, encomiendas and haciendas. ]] The Viceroyalty of New Granada was established in 1717, then temporarily removed, and then re-established in 1739. Its capital was Santa Fé de Bogotá. This Viceroyalty included some other provinces of northwestern South America that had previously been under the jurisdiction of the Viceroyalties of New Spain or Peru and correspond mainly to today's Venezuela, Ecuador, and Panama. Bogotá became one of the principal administrative centers of the Spanish possessions in the New World, along with Lima and Mexico City, though it remained less developed compared to those two cities in several economic and logistical ways. Great Britain declared war on Spain in 1739, and the city of Cartagena quickly became a top target for the British. A massive British expeditionary force was dispatched to capture the city, but, after achieving initial inroads, devastating outbreaks of disease crippled their numbers, and the British were forced to withdraw. The battle became one of Spain's most decisive victories in the conflict, and secured Spanish dominance in the Caribbean until the Seven Years' War. The 18th-century priest, botanist, and mathematician José Celestino Mutis was delegated by Viceroy Antonio Caballero y Góngora to conduct an inventory of the nature of New Granada. Started in 1783, this became known as the Royal Botanical Expedition to New Granada. It classified plants and wildlife, and founded the first astronomical observatory in the city of Santa Fe de Bogotá. In July 1801 the Prussian scientist Alexander von Humboldt reached Santa Fe de Bogotá where he met with Mutis. In addition, historical figures in the process of independence in New Granada emerged from the expedition as the astronomer Francisco José de Caldas, the scientist Francisco Antonio Zea, the zoologist Jorge Tadeo Lozano and the painter Salvador Rizo. Independence Rebellions against Spanish rule had occurred in the empire since the advent of conquest and colonization, but most were either crushed or remained too weak to change the overall situation. The last one that sought outright independence from Spain sprang up around 1810 and culminated in the Colombian Declaration of Independence, issued on 20 July 1810, the day that is now celebrated as the nation's Independence Day. This movement followed the independence of Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti) in 1804, which provided some support to an eventual leader of this rebellion: Simón Bolívar. Francisco de Paula Santander also would play a decisive role. A movement was initiated by Antonio Nariño, who opposed Spanish centralism and led the opposition against the Viceroyalty. Cartagena became independent in November 1811. In 1811, the United Provinces of New Granada were proclaimed, headed by Camilo Torres Tenorio. The emergence of two distinct ideological currents among the patriots (federalism and centralism) gave rise to a period of instability called the Patria Boba. Shortly after the Napoleonic Wars ended, Ferdinand VII, recently restored to the throne in Spain, unexpectedly decided to send military forces to retake most of northern South America. The viceroyalty was restored under the command of Juan de Sámano, whose regime punished those who participated in the patriotic movements, ignoring the political nuances of the juntas. The retribution stoked renewed rebellion, which, combined with a weakened Spain, made possible a successful rebellion led by the Venezuelan-born Simón Bolívar, who finally proclaimed independence in 1819. The pro-Spanish resistance was defeated in 1822 in the present territory of Colombia and in 1823 in Venezuela. During the Independence War, between 250 and 400 thousand people (12–20% of the pre-war population) died. The territory of the Viceroyalty of New Granada became the Republic of Colombia, organized as a union of the current territories of Colombia, Panama, Ecuador, Venezuela, parts of Guyana and Brazil and north of Marañón River. The Congress of Cúcuta in 1821 adopted a constitution for the new Republic. Simón Bolívar became the first President of Colombia, and Francisco de Paula Santander was made Vice President. However, the new republic was unstable and the Gran Colombia ultimately collapsed. Modern Colombia comes from one of the countries that emerged after the dissolution of Gran Colombia, the other two being Ecuador and Venezuela. Colombia was the first constitutional government in South America, and the Liberal and Conservative parties, founded in 1848 and 1849, respectively, are two of the oldest surviving political parties in the Americas. Slavery was abolished in the country in 1851. Internal political and territorial divisions led to the dissolution of Gran Colombia in 1830. Internal divisions remained between the bipartisan political forces, occasionally igniting very bloody civil wars, the most significant being the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902), in which between 100 and 180 thousand Colombians lost their lives when the Liberal Party, supported by Venezuela, Ecuador, Nicaragua, and Guatemala rebelled against the Nationalist government and took control of Santander, ultimately being defeated in 1902 by nationalist forces. 20th century The United States of America's intentions to influence the area (especially the Panama Canal construction and control) led to the secession of the Department of Panama in 1903 and its political independence. The United States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of the canal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombia recognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson–Urrutia Treaty. Colombia and Peru went to war because of territory disputes far in the Amazon basin. The war ended with a peace deal brokered by the League of Nations. The League finally awarded the disputed area to Colombia in June 1934. in 1948]] Soon after, Colombia achieved some degree of political stability, which was interrupted by a bloody conflict that took place between the late 1940s and the early 1950s, a period known as La Violencia ("The Violence"). Its cause was mainly mounting tensions between the two leading political parties, which subsequently ignited after the assassination of the Liberal presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on 9 April 1948. The ensuing riots in Bogotá, known as El Bogotazo, spread throughout the country and claimed the lives of at least 180,000 Colombians. Colombia entered the Korean War when Laureano Gómez was elected president. It was the only Latin American country to join the war in a direct military role as an ally of the United States. Particularly important was the resistance of the Colombian troops at Old Baldy. The violence between the two political parties decreased first when Gustavo Rojas deposed the President of Colombia in a coup d'état and negotiated with the guerrillas, and then under the military junta of General Gabriel París. (1964–present)]] After Rojas' deposition, the Colombian Conservative Party and the Colombian Liberal Party agreed to create the National Front, a coalition that would jointly govern the country. Under the deal, the presidency would alternate between conservatives and liberals every 4 years for 16 years; the two parties would have parity in all other elective offices. The National Front ended "La Violencia", and National Front administrations attempted to institute far-reaching social and economic reforms in cooperation with the Alliance for Progress. Despite the progress in certain sectors, many social and political problems continued, and guerrilla groups were formally created such as the FARC, the ELN and the M-19 to fight the government and political apparatus. Since the 1960s, the country has suffered from an asymmetric low-intensity armed conflict between government forces, leftist guerrilla groups and right wing paramilitaries. The conflict escalated in the 1990s, mainly in remote rural areas. Since the beginning of the armed conflict, human rights defenders have fought for the respect for human rights, despite staggering opposition. Several guerrillas' organizations decided to demobilize after peace negotiations in 1989–1994. The United States has been heavily involved in the conflict since its beginnings, when in the early 1960s the U.S. government encouraged the Colombian military to attack leftist militias in rural Colombia. This was part of the U.S. fight against communism. Mercenaries and multinational corporations such as Chiquita Brands International are some of the international actors that have contributed to the violence of the conflict. Beginning in the mid-1970s Colombian drug cartels became major producers, processors and exporters of illegal drugs, primarily marijuana and cocaine. On 4 July 1991, a new Constitution was promulgated. The changes generated by the new constitution are viewed as positive by Colombian society.21st century signing a peace accord]] The administration of President Álvaro Uribe (2002–2010) adopted the democratic security policy which included an integrated counter-terrorism and counter-insurgency campaign. The government economic plan also promoted confidence in investors. As part of a controversial peace process, the AUC (right-wing paramilitaries) had ceased to function formally as an organization . In February 2008, millions of Colombians demonstrated against FARC and other outlawed groups. After peace negotiations in Cuba, the Colombian government of President Juan Manuel Santos and the guerrillas of the FARC-EP announced a final agreement to end the conflict. However, a referendum to ratify the deal was unsuccessful. Afterward, the Colombian government and the FARC signed a revised peace deal in November 2016, which the Colombian congress approved. In 2016, President Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. The Government began a process of attention and comprehensive reparation for victims of conflict. Colombia shows modest progress in the struggle to defend human rights, as expressed by HRW. A Special Jurisdiction of Peace has been created to investigate, clarify, prosecute and punish serious human rights violations and grave breaches of international humanitarian law which occurred during the armed conflict and to satisfy victims' right to justice. During his visit to Colombia, Pope Francis paid tribute to the victims of the conflict. , the country's first left-wing president]] In June 2018, Iván Duque, the candidate of the right-wing Democratic Center party, won the presidential election. On 7 August 2018, he was sworn in as the new President of Colombia to succeed Juan Manuel Santos. Colombia's relations with Venezuela have fluctuated due to ideological differences between the two governments. Colombia has offered humanitarian support with food and medicines to mitigate the shortage of supplies in Venezuela. Colombia's Foreign Ministry said that all efforts to resolve Venezuela's crisis should be peaceful. Colombia proposed the idea of the Sustainable Development Goals and a final document was adopted by the United Nations. In February 2019, Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro cut off diplomatic relations with Colombia after Colombian President Ivan Duque had helped Venezuelan opposition politicians deliver humanitarian aid to their country. Colombia recognized Venezuelan opposition leader Juan Guaidó as the country's legitimate president. In January 2020, Colombia rejected Maduro's proposal that the two countries restore diplomatic relations. Protests started on 28 April 2021 when the government proposed a tax bill that would greatly expand the range of the 19 percent value-added tax. The 19 June 2022 election run-off vote ended in a win for former guerrilla, Gustavo Petro, taking 50.47% of the vote compared to 47.27% for independent candidate Rodolfo Hernández. The single-term limit for the country's presidency prevented President Iván Duque from seeking re-election. On 7 August 2022, Petro was sworn in, becoming the country's first leftist president. Geography of Colombia]] The geography of Colombia is characterized by its six main natural regions that present their unique characteristics, from the Andes mountain range region; the Pacific Coastal region; the Caribbean coastal region; the Llanos (plains); the Amazon rainforest region; to the insular area, comprising islands in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It shares its maritime limits with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic. it established its maritime boundaries with neighboring countries through seven agreements on the Caribbean Sea and three on the Pacific Ocean. It lies between latitudes 12°N and 4°S and between longitudes 67° and 79°W. East of the Andes lies the savanna of the Llanos, part of the Orinoco River basin, and in the far southeast, the jungle of the Amazon rainforest. Together these lowlands make up over half Colombia's territory, but they contain less than 6% of the population. To the north the Caribbean coast, home to 21.9% of the population and the location of the major port cities of Barranquilla and Cartagena, generally consists of low-lying plains, but it also contains the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountain range, which includes the country's tallest peaks (Pico Cristóbal Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar), and the La Guajira Desert. By contrast the narrow and discontinuous Pacific coastal lowlands, backed by the Serranía de Baudó mountains, are sparsely populated and covered in dense vegetation. The principal Pacific port is Buenaventura. in the interior of Colombia the Andes are the prevailing geographical feature. Most of Colombia's population centers are located in these interior highlands. Beyond the Colombian Massif (in the southwestern departments of Cauca and Nariño), these are divided into three branches known as cordilleras (mountain ranges): the Cordillera Occidental, running adjacent to the Pacific coast and including the city of Cali; the Cordillera Central, running between the Cauca and Magdalena River valleys (to the west and east, respectively) and including the cities of Medellín, Manizales, Pereira, and Armenia; and the Cordillera Oriental, extending northeast to the Guajira Peninsula and including Bogotá, Bucaramanga, and Cúcuta. Climate ]] The climate of Colombia is characterized for being tropical presenting variations within six natural regions and depending on the altitude, temperature, humidity, winds and rainfall. Biodiversity and conservation Colombia is one of the megadiverse countries in biodiversity, ranking first in bird species. Colombia is the country with the planet's highest biodiversity, having the highest rate of species by area as well as the largest number of endemisms (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth live in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined. Colombia has 10% of the world's mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world. orchid Cattleya trianae, is named for Colombian botanist and physician José Jerónimo Triana.]] As for plants, the country has between 40,000 and 45,000 plant species, equivalent to 10 or 20% of total global species, which is even more remarkable given that Colombia is considered a country of intermediate size. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the world, lagging only after Brazil which is approximately 7 times bigger. Colombia has about 2,000 species of marine fish and is the second most diverse country in freshwater fish. It is also the country with the most endemic species of butterflies, is first in orchid species, and has approximately 7,000 species of beetles. Colombia is second in the number of amphibian species and is the third most diverse country in reptiles and palms. There are about 1,900 species of mollusks and according to estimates there are about 300,000 species of invertebrates in the country. In Colombia there are 32 terrestrial biomes and 314 types of ecosystems. Protected areas and the "National Park System" cover an area of about and account for 12.77% of the Colombian territory. Compared to neighboring countries, rates of deforestation in Colombia are still relatively low. Colombia had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 25th globally out of 172 countries. Colombia is the sixth country in the world by magnitude of total renewable freshwater supply, and still has large reserves of freshwater. Government and politics is the official home and principal workplace of the President of Colombia.]] The government of Colombia takes place within the framework of a presidential participatory democratic republic as established in the Constitution of 1991. As the head of the executive branch, the President of Colombia serves as both head of state and head of government, followed by the Vice President and the Council of Ministers. The president is elected by popular vote to serve a single four-year term (In 2015, Colombia's Congress approved the repeal of a 2004 constitutional amendment that changed the one-term limit for presidents to a two-term limit). At the provincial level executive power is vested in department governors, municipal mayors and local administrators for smaller administrative subdivisions, such as corregimientos or comunas. All regional elections are held one year and five months after the presidential election. , seat of the Congress]] The legislative branch of government is represented nationally by the Congress, a bicameral institution comprising a 166-seat Chamber of Representatives and a 102-seat Senate. The Senate is elected nationally and the Chamber of Representatives is elected in electoral districts. Members of both houses are elected to serve four-year terms two months before the president, also by popular vote. , seat and symbol of the Judiciary of Colombia]] The judicial branch is headed by four high courts, consisting of the Supreme Court which deals with penal and civil matters, the Council of State, which has special responsibility for administrative law and also provides legal advice to the executive, the Constitutional Court, responsible for assuring the integrity of the Colombian constitution, and the Superior Council of Judicature, responsible for auditing the judicial branch. Colombia operates a system of civil law, which since 1991 has been applied through an adversarial system. Despite a number of controversies, the democratic security policy has ensured that former President Álvaro Uribe remained popular among Colombian people, with his approval rating peaking at 76%, according to a poll in 2009. However, having served two terms, he was constitutionally barred from seeking re-election in 2010. In the run-off elections on 20 June 2010 the former Minister of Defense Juan Manuel Santos won with 69% of the vote against the second most popular candidate, Antanas Mockus. A second round was required since no candidate received over the 50% winning threshold of votes. Santos won re-election with nearly 51% of the vote in second-round elections on 15 June 2014, beating right-wing rival Óscar Iván Zuluaga, who won 45%. In 2018, Iván Duque won in the second round of the election with 54% of the vote, against 42% for his left-wing rival, Gustavo Petro. His term as Colombia's president ran for four years, beginning on 7 August 2018. In 2022, Colombia elected Gustavo Petro, who became its first leftist leader, and Francia Marquez, who was the first black person elected as vice president. Foreign affairs : Former President of Colombia, Juan Manuel Santos is second from the left.]] The foreign affairs of Colombia are headed by the President, as head of state, and managed by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Colombia has diplomatic missions in all continents. Colombia was one of the four founding members of the Pacific Alliance, which is a political, economic and co-operative integration mechanism that promotes the free circulation of goods, services, capital and persons between the members, as well as a common stock exchange and joint embassies in several countries. Colombia is also a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization of American States, the Organization of Ibero-American States, and the Andean Community of Nations. Colombia is a global partner of NATO and a major non-NATO ally of the United States. In 2016, 3.4% of the country's GDP went towards military expenditure, placing it 24th in the world. Colombia's armed forces are the largest in Latin America, and it is the second largest spender on its military after Brazil. In 2018, Colombia signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. The Colombian military is divided into three branches: the National Army of Colombia; the Colombian Aerospace Force; and the Colombian Navy. The National Police functions as a gendarmerie, operating independently from the military as the law enforcement agency for the entire country. Each of these operates with their own intelligence apparatus separate from the National Intelligence Directorate (DNI, in Spanish). The National Army is formed by divisions, brigades, special brigades, and special units, the Colombian Navy by the Naval Infantry, the Naval Force of the Caribbean, the Naval Force of the Pacific, the Naval Force of the South, the Naval Force of the East, Colombia Coast Guards, Naval Aviation, and the Specific Command of San Andres y Providencia and the Aerospace Force by 15 air units. Administrative divisions Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district, which is treated as a department (Bogotá also serves as the capital of the department of Cundinamarca). Departments are subdivided into municipalities, each of which is assigned a municipal seat, and municipalities are in turn subdivided into corregimientos in rural areas and into comunas in urban areas. Each department has a local government with a governor and assembly directly elected to four-year terms, and each municipality is headed by a mayor and council. There is a popularly elected local administrative board in each of the corregimientos or comunas. In addition to the capital, four other cities have been designated districts (in effect special municipalities), on the basis of special distinguishing features. These are Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta and Buenaventura. Some departments have local administrative subdivisions, where towns have a large concentration of population and municipalities are near each other (for example, in Antioquia and Cundinamarca). Where departments have a low population (for example Amazonas, Vaupés and Vichada), special administrative divisions are employed, such as "department corregimientos", which are a hybrid of a municipality and a corregimiento. The country's economic production is dominated by its strong domestic demand. Consumption expenditure by households is the largest component of GDP. Colombia's market economy grew steadily in the latter part of the 20th century, with gross domestic product (GDP) increasing at an average rate of over 4% per year between 1970 and 1998. The country suffered a recession in 1999 (the first full year of negative growth since the Great Depression), and the recovery was long and painful. However, growth reaching 7% in 2007, one of the highest in Latin America. According to International Monetary Fund estimates, in 2023, Colombia's GDP (PPP) was US$1 trillion, 32nd in the world and third in South America, after Brazil and Argentina. Total government expenditures account for 28% of the domestic economy. External debt equals 40% of gross domestic product. A strong fiscal climate was reaffirmed by a boost in bond ratings. Annual inflation closed 2017 at 4.09% YoY (vs. 5.75% YoY in 2016). The average national unemployment rate in 2017 was 9.4%, although the informality is the biggest problem facing the labour market (the income of formal workers climbed 24.8% in 5 years while labor incomes of informal workers rose only 9%). Colombia has free-trade zones (FTZ), such as Zona Franca del Pacifico, located in the Valle del Cauca, one of the most striking areas for foreign investment. The financial sector has grown favorably due to good liquidity in the economy, the growth of credit and the positive performance of the Colombian economy. The Colombian Stock Exchange through the Latin American Integrated Market (MILA) offers a regional market to trade equities. Colombia is now one of only three economies with a perfect score on the strength of legal rights index, according to the World Bank. Colombia is rich in natural resources, and it is heavily dependent on energy and mining exports. Colombia's main exports include mineral fuels, oils, distillation products, fruit and other agricultural products, sugars and sugar confectionery, food products, plastics, precious stones, metals, forest products, chemical goods, pharmaceuticals, vehicles, electronic products, electrical equipment, perfumery and cosmetics, machinery, manufactured articles, textile and fabrics, clothing and footwear, glass and glassware, furniture, prefabricated buildings, military products, home and office material, construction equipment, software, among others. Principal trading partners are the United States, China, the European Union and some Latin American countries. Non-traditional exports have boosted the growth of Colombian foreign sales as well as the diversification of destinations of export thanks to new free trade agreements. Recent economic growth has led to a considerable increase of new millionaires, including the new entrepreneurs, Colombians with a net worth exceeding US$1 billion. In 2017, however, the National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) reported that 26.9% of the population were living below the poverty line, of which 7.4% were in "extreme poverty". The multidimensional poverty rate stands at 17.0 percent of the population. The Government has also been developing a process of financial inclusion within the country's most vulnerable population. The contribution of tourism to GDP was US$5,880.3bn (2.0% of total GDP) in 2016. Tourism generated 556,135 jobs (2.5% of total employment) in 2016. Foreign tourist visits were predicted to have risen from 0.6 million in 2007 to 4 million in 2017. Agriculture and natural resources is an open-pit coal mine, the largest of its type, the largest in Latin America and the tenth biggest in the world.]] In agriculture, Colombia is one of the five largest producers in the world of coffee, avocado and palm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world of sugarcane, banana, pineapple and cocoa. The country also has considerable production of rice, potato and cassava. Although it is not the largest coffee producer in the world (Brazil claims that title), the country has been able to carry out, for decades, a global marketing campaign to add value to the country's product. Colombian palm oil production is one of the most sustainable on the planet, compared to the largest existing producers. Colombia is also among the 20 largest producers in the world of beef and chicken meat. Colombia is also the 2nd largest flower exporter in the world, after the Netherlands. Colombian agriculture emits 55% of Colombia's greenhouse gas emissions, mostly from deforestation, over-extensive cattle ranching, land grabbing, and illegal agriculture. Colombia is an important exporter of coal and petroleum – in 2020, more than 40% of the country's exports were based on these two products. In 2018 it was the 5th largest coal exporter in the world. In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, with 791 thousand barrels/day, exporting a good part of its production – the country was the 19th largest oil exporter in the world in 2020. In mining, Colombia is the world's largest producer of emerald, and in the production of gold, between 2006 and 2017, the country produced 15 tons per year until 2007, when its production increased significantly, beating the record of 66.1 tons extracted in 2012. In 2017, it extracted 52.2 tons. Currently, the country is among the 25 largest gold producers in the world.Energy and transportation ]] The electricity production in Colombia comes mainly from Renewable energy sources. 69.93% is obtained from the hydroelectric generation. Colombia's commitment to renewable energy was recognized in the 2014 Global Green Economy Index (GGEI), ranking among the top 10 nations in the world in terms of greening efficiency sectors. ]] Transportation in Colombia is regulated within the functions of the Ministry of Transport and entities such as the National Roads Institute (INVÍAS) responsible for the Highways in Colombia, the Aerocivil, responsible for civil aviation and airports, the National Infrastructure Agency, in charge of concessions through public–private partnerships, for the design, construction, maintenance, operation, and administration of the transport infrastructure, the General Maritime Directorate (Dimar) has the responsibility of coordinating maritime traffic control along with the Colombian Navy, among others, and under the supervision of the Superintendency of Ports and Transport. In 2021, Colombia had of roads, of which were paved. At the end of 2017, the country had around of duplicated highways. Rail transportation in Colombia is dedicated almost entirely to freight shipments and the railway network has a length of 1,700 km of potentially active rails. Colombia is a middle-income country. Science and technology is a Colombian Government agency that supports fundamental and applied research.]] Colombia has more than 3,950 research groups in science and technology. iNNpulsa, a government body that promotes entrepreneurship and innovation in the country, provides grants to startups, in addition to other services it and institutions provide. Colombia was ranked 61st in the Global Innovation Index in 2024. Co-working spaces have arisen to serve as communities for startups large and small. Organizations such as the Corporation for Biological Research (CIB) for the support of young people interested in scientific work has been successfully developed in Colombia. The International Center for Tropical Agriculture based in Colombia investigates the increasing challenge of global warming and food security. Important inventions related to medicine have been made in Colombia, such as the first external artificial pacemaker with internal electrodes, invented by the electrical engineer Jorge Reynolds Pombo, an invention of great importance for those who suffer from heart failure. Also invented in Colombia were the microkeratome and keratomileusis technique, which form the fundamental basis of what now is known as LASIK (one of the most important techniques for the correction of refractive errors of vision) and the Hakim valve for the treatment of hydrocephalus. Colombia has begun to innovate in military technology for its army and other armies of the world; especially in the design and creation of personal ballistic protection products, military hardware, military robots, bombs, simulators and radar. Some leading Colombian scientists are Joseph M. Tohme, researcher recognized for his work on the genetic diversity of food, Manuel Elkin Patarroyo who is known for his groundbreaking work on synthetic vaccines for malaria, Francisco Lopera who discovered the "Paisa Mutation" or a type of early-onset Alzheimer's, Rodolfo Llinás known for his study of the intrinsic neurons properties and the theory of a syndrome that had changed the way of understanding the functioning of the brain, Jairo Quiroga Puello recognized for his studies on the characterization of synthetic substances which can be used to fight fungus, tumors, tuberculosis and even some viruses and Ángela Restrepo who established accurate diagnoses and treatments to combat the effects of a disease caused by Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. Demographics of Colombia in 2013]] With an estimated 50 million people in 2020, Colombia is the third-most populous country in Latin America, after Brazil and Mexico. At the beginning of the 20th century, Colombia's population was approximately 4 million. Since the early 1970s Colombia has experienced steady declines in its fertility, mortality, and population growth rates. The population growth rate for 2016 is estimated to be 0.9%. About 26.8% of the population were 15 years old or younger, 65.7% were between 15 and 64 years old, and 7.4% were over 65 years old. The proportion of older persons in the total population has begun to increase substantially. Colombia is projected to have a population of 55.3 million by 2050. Estimates for the population of the area that is now Colombia range between 2.5 and 12 million people in 1500; estimates between the extremes include figures of 6 The population is concentrated in the Andean highlands and along the Caribbean coast, also the population densities are generally higher in the Andean region. The nine eastern lowland departments, comprising about 54% of Colombia's area, have less than 6% of the population. Traditionally a rural society, movement to urban areas was very heavy in the mid-20th century, and Colombia is now one of the most urbanized countries in Latin America. The urban population increased from 31% of the total in 1938 to nearly 60% in 1973, and by 2014 the figure stood at 76%. The population of Bogotá alone has increased from just over 300,000 in 1938 to approximately 8 million today. In total seventy-two cities now have populations of 100,000 or more (2015). Colombia has the world's largest populations of internally displaced persons (IDPs), estimated to be up to 4.9 million people. The life expectancy was 74.8 years in 2015, and infant mortality was 13.1 per thousand in 2016. In 2015, 94.58% of adults and 98.66% of youth are literate and the government spends about 4.49% of its GDP on education. Including Spanish, a total of 101 languages are listed for Colombia in the Ethnologue database. The specific number of spoken languages varies slightly since some authors consider as different languages what others consider to be varieties or dialects of the same language. Best estimates recorded 71 languages that are spoken in-country today – most of which belong to the Chibchan, Tucanoan, Bora–Witoto, Guajiboan, Arawakan, Cariban, Barbacoan, and Saliban language families. There are currently more than 850,000 speakers of native languages. Ethnic groups Colombia is ethnically diverse, its people descending from the original Native inhabitants, Spanish conquistadors, Africans originally brought to the country as slaves, and 20th-century immigrants from Europe and the Middle East, all contributing to a diverse cultural heritage. The demographic distribution reflects a pattern that is influenced by colonial history. Whites live all throughout the country, mainly in urban centers and the burgeoning highland and coastal cities. The populations of the major cities also include mestizos. Mestizo campesinos (people living in rural areas) also live in the Andean highlands where some Spanish conquerors mixed with the women of Amerindian chiefdoms. Mestizos include artisans and small tradesmen that have played a major part in the urban expansion of recent decades. The 2018 census reported that the "non-ethnic population", consisting of whites and mestizos (those of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry), constituted 87.6% of the national population. 6.7% is of African ancestry. Indigenous Amerindians constitute 4.3% of the population. Raizal people constitute 0.06% of the population. Palenquero people constitute 0.02% of the population. 0.01% of the population are Roma. A study by Latinobarómetro in 2023 estimates that 50.3% of the population are Mestizo, 26.4% are White, 9.5% are Indigenous, 9.0% are Black, 4.4% are Mulatto, and 0.4% are Asian, these estimates would equate to around 26 million people being Mestizo, 14 million being White, 5 million being Indigenous, 5 million being Black, 2 million being Mulatto, and 200k being Asian. (27% of the country's total) and are inhabited by more than 800,000 people. Some of the largest indigenous groups are the Wayuu, the Paez, the Pastos, the Emberá and the Zenú. The departments of La Guajira, Cauca, Nariño, Córdoba and Sucre have the largest indigenous populations. Sub-Saharan Africans were brought as slaves, mostly to the coastal lowlands, beginning early in the 16th century and continuing into the 19th century. Large Afro-Colombian communities are found today on the Pacific Coast. Numerous Jamaicans migrated mainly to the islands of San Andres and Providencia. A number of other Europeans and North Americans migrated to the country in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, including people from the former USSR during and after the Second World War. Many immigrant communities have settled on the Caribbean coast, in particular recent immigrants from the Middle East and Europe. Barranquilla (the largest city of the Colombian Caribbean) and other Caribbean cities have the largest populations of Lebanese, Palestinian, and other Levantines. There are also important communities of Romanis and Jews. In August 2019, Colombia offered citizenship to more than 24,000 children of Venezuelan refugees who were born in Colombia. Religion in the southern Colombian Department of Nariño]] The National Administrative Department of Statistics (DANE) does not collect religious statistics, and accurate reports are difficult to obtain. However, based on various studies and a survey, about 90% of the population adheres to Christianity, the majority of which (70.9%–79%) are Roman Catholic, while a significant minority (16.7%) adhere to Protestantism (primarily Evangelicalism). Some 4.7% of the population is atheist or agnostic, while 3.5% claim to believe in God but do not follow a specific religion. 1.8% of Colombians adhere to Jehovah's Witnesses and Adventism and less than 1% adhere to other religions, such as the Baháʼí Faith, Islam, Judaism, Buddhism, Mormonism, Hinduism, Indigenous religions, Hare Krishna movement, Rastafari movement, Eastern Orthodox Church, and spiritual studies. The remaining people either did not respond or replied that they did not know. In addition to the above statistics, 35.9% of Colombians reported that they did not practice their faith actively. 1,519,562 people in Colombia, or around 3% of the population reported following an Indigenous religion. While Colombia remains a mostly Roman Catholic country by baptism numbers, the 1991 Colombian constitution guarantees freedom of religion and all religious faiths and churches are equally free before the law. Health ranking of the best clinics and hospitals in Latin America. In 2017, the government declared a cancer research and treatment center as a Project of National Strategic Interest. A 2016 study conducted by América Economía magazine ranked 21 Colombian health care institutions among the top 44 in Latin America, amounting to 48 percent of the total. In 2022, 26 Colombian hospitals were among the 61 best in Latin America (42% total). Also in 2023, two Colombian hospitals were among the top 75 of the world. Education The educational experience of many Colombian children begins with attendance at a preschool academy until age five (Educación preescolar). Basic education (Educación básica) is compulsory by law. It has two stages: Primary basic education (Educación básica primaria) which goes from first to fifth grade – children from six to ten years old, and Secondary basic education (Educación básica secundaria), which goes from sixth to ninth grade. Basic education is followed by Middle vocational education (Educación media vocacional) that comprises the tenth and eleventh grades. It may have different vocational training modalities or specialties (academic, technical, business, and so on.) according to the curriculum adopted by each school. Bachilleres'' (high-school graduates) may enter into a professional undergraduate career program offered by a university; these programs last up to five years (or less for technical, technological and intermediate professional education, and post-graduate studies), even as much to six to seven years for some careers, such as medicine. In Colombia, there is not an institution such as college; students go directly into a career program at a university or any other educational institution to obtain a professional, technical or technological title. Once graduated from the university, people are granted a (professional, technical or technological) diploma and licensed (if required) to practice the career they have chosen. For some professional career programs, students are required to take the Saber-Pro test, in their final year of undergraduate academic education. Public spending on education as a proportion of gross domestic product in 2015 was 4.49%. This represented 15.05% of total government expenditure. The primary and secondary gross enrolment ratios stood at 113.56% and 98.09% respectively. School-life expectancy was 14.42 years. A total of 94.58% of the population aged 15 and older were recorded as literate, including 98.66% of those aged 15–24.Crime , displayed in Pereira. A subdivision of the National Police for the fight against organized crime and terrorist acts.]] Urbanization Colombia is a highly urbanized country with 77.1% of the population living in urban areas. The largest cities in the country are Bogotá, with 7,387,400 inhabitants, Medellín, with 2,382,399 inhabitants, Cali, with 2,172,527 inhabitants, and Barranquilla, with 1,205,284 inhabitants. Culture Colombia lies at the crossroads of Latin America and the broader American continent, and as such has been hit by a wide range of cultural influences. Native American, Spanish and other European, African, American, Caribbean, and Middle Eastern influences, as well as other Latin American cultural influences, are all present in Colombia's modern culture. Urban migration, industrialization, globalization, and other political, social and economic changes have also left an impression. Many national symbols, both objects and themes, have arisen from Colombia's diverse cultural traditions and aim to represent what Colombia, and the Colombian people, have in common. Cultural expressions in Colombia are promoted by the government through the Ministry of Culture. Literature prize winner Gabriel García Márquez]] Colombian literature dates back to pre-Columbian era; a notable example of the period is the epic poem known as the Legend of Yurupary. In Spanish colonial times, notable writers include Juan de Castellanos (Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias), Hernando Domínguez Camargo and his epic poem to San Ignacio de Loyola, Pedro Simón and Juan Rodríguez Freyle. Post-independence literature linked to Romanticism highlighted Antonio Nariño, José Fernández Madrid, Camilo Torres Tenorio and Francisco Antonio Zea. In the second half of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century the literary genre known as costumbrismo became popular; great writers of this period were Tomás Carrasquilla, Jorge Isaacs and Rafael Pombo (the latter of whom wrote notable works of children's literature). Within that period, authors such as José Asunción Silva, José Eustasio Rivera, León de Greiff, Porfirio Barba-Jacob and José María Vargas Vila developed the modernist movement. In 1872, Colombia established the Colombian Academy of Language, the first Spanish language academy in the Americas. Candelario Obeso wrote the groundbreaking Cantos Populares de mi Tierra (1877), the first book of poetry by an Afro-Colombian author. Between 1939 and 1940 seven books of poetry were published under the name Stone and Sky in the city of Bogotá that significantly influenced the country; they were edited by the poet Jorge Rojas. In the following decade, Gonzalo Arango founded the movement of "nothingness" in response to the violence of the time; he was influenced by nihilism, existentialism, and the thought of another great Colombian writer: Fernando González Ochoa. During the boom in Latin American literature, successful writers emerged, led by Nobel laureate Gabriel García Márquez and his magnum opus, One Hundred Years of Solitude, Eduardo Caballero Calderón, Manuel Mejía Vallejo, and Álvaro Mutis, a writer who was awarded the Cervantes Prize and the Prince of Asturias Award for Letters. Visual arts Colombian art has over 3,000 years of history. Colombian artists have captured the country's changing political and cultural backdrop using a range of styles and mediums. There is archeological evidence of ceramics being produced earlier in Colombia than anywhere else in the Americas, dating as early as 3,000 BCE. The earliest examples of gold craftsmanship have been attributed to the Tumaco people of the Pacific coast and date to around 325 BCE. Roughly between 200 BCE and 800 CE, the San Agustín culture, masters of stonecutting, entered its "classical period". They erected raised ceremonial centers, sarcophagi, and large stone monoliths depicting anthropomorphic and zoomorphic forms out of stone. Colombian art has followed the trends of the time, so during the 16th to 18th centuries, Spanish Catholicism had a huge influence on Colombian art, and the popular baroque style was replaced with rococo when the Bourbons ascended to the Spanish crown. During this era, in the Spanish colony, the most important Neogranadine (Colombian) painters were Gregorio Vásquez de Arce y Ceballos, Gaspar de Figueroa, Baltasar Vargas de Figueroa, Baltasar de Figueroa (the Elder), Antonio Acero de la Cruz and Joaquín Gutiérrez, of which their works are preserved. Also important was Alonso de Narváez who, although born in the Province of Seville, spent most of his life in colonial Colombia, also the Italian Angelino Medoro, lived in Colombia and Peru, and left works of art preserved in several churches in Tunja city. During the mid-19th century, one of the most remarkable painters was Ramón Torres Méndez, who produced a series of good quality paintings depicting the people and their customs of different Colombian regions. Also noteworthy in the 19th century were Andrés de Santa María, Pedro José Figueroa, Epifanio Garay, Mercedes Delgado Mallarino, José María Espinosa, Ricardo Acevedo Bernal, between many others. More recently, Colombian artists Pedro Nel Gómez and Santiago Martínez Delgado started the Colombian Murial Movement in the 1940s, featuring the neoclassical features of Art Deco. Since the 1950s, the Colombian art started to have a distinctive point of view, reinventing traditional elements under the concepts of the 20th century. Examples of this are the Greiff portraits by Ignacio Gómez Jaramillo, showing what the Colombian art could do with the new techniques applied to typical Colombian themes. Carlos Correa, with his paradigmatic "Naturaleza muerta en silencio" (silent dead nature), combines geometrical abstraction and cubism. Alejandro Obregón is often considered as the father of modern Colombian painting, and one of the most influential artist in this period, due to his originality, the painting of Colombian landscapes with symbolic and expressionist use of animals, (specially the Andean condor). Fernando Botero, Omar Rayo, Enrique Grau, Édgar Negret, David Manzur, Rodrigo Arenas Betancourt, Oscar Murillo, Doris Salcedo and Oscar Muñoz are some of the Colombian artists featured at the international level. The Colombian sculpture from the sixteenth to 18th centuries was mostly devoted to religious depictions of ecclesiastic art, strongly influenced by the Spanish schools of sacred sculpture. During the early period of the Colombian republic, the national artists were focused in the production of sculptural portraits of politicians and public figures, in a plain neoclassicist trend. During the 20th century, the Colombian sculpture began to develop a bold and innovative work with the aim of reaching a better understanding of national sensitivity. Colombian photography was marked by the arrival of the daguerreotype. Jean-Baptiste Louis Gros was who brought the daguerreotype process to Colombia in 1841. The Piloto public library has Latin America's largest archive of negatives, containing 1.7 million antique photographs covering Colombia 1848 until 2005. The Colombian press has promoted the work of the cartoonists. In recent decades, fanzines, internet and independent publishers have been fundamental to the growth of the comic in Colombia. Architecture Throughout the times, there have been a variety of architectural styles, from those of indigenous peoples to contemporary ones, passing through colonial (military and religious), Republican, transition and modern styles. ]] main plaza, Cauca Department]] , Boyacá Department]] Ancient habitation areas, longhouses, crop terraces, roads as the Inca road system, cemeteries, hypogeums and necropolises are all part of the architectural heritage of indigenous peoples. Some prominent indigenous structures are the preceramic and ceramic archaeological site of Tequendama, Tierradentro (a park that contains the largest concentration of pre-Columbian monumental shaft tombs with side chambers), the largest collection of religious monuments and megalithic sculptures in South America, located in San Agustín, Huila, Lost city (an archaeological site with a series of terraces carved into the mountainside, a net of tiled roads, and several circular plazas), and the large villages mainly built with stone, wood, cane, and mud. Architecture during the period of conquest and colonization is mainly derived of adapting European styles to local conditions, and Spanish influence, especially Andalusian and Extremaduran, can be easily seen. When Europeans founded cities two things were making simultaneously: the dimensioning of geometrical space (town square, street), and the location of a tangible point of orientation. The construction of forts was common throughout the Caribbean and in some cities of the interior, because of the dangers posed to Spanish colonial settlements from English, French and Dutch pirates and hostile indigenous groups. Churches, chapels, schools, and hospitals belonging to religious orders have a great urban influence. Baroque architecture is used in military buildings and public spaces. Marcelino Arroyo, Francisco José de Caldas and Domingo de Petrés were great representatives of neo-classical architecture. Wood was extensively used in doors, windows, railings, and ceilings during the colonization of Antioquia. The Caribbean architecture acquires a strong Arabic influence. The Teatro Colón in Bogotá is a lavish example of architecture from the 19th century. The quintas houses with innovations in the volumetric conception are some of the best examples of the Republican architecture; the Republican action in the city focused on the design of three types of spaces: parks with forests, small urban parks and avenues and the Gothic style was most commonly used for the design of churches. Deco style, modern neoclassicism, eclecticism folklorist and art deco ornamental resources significantly influenced the architecture of Colombia, especially during the transition period. Modernism contributed with new construction technologies and new materials (steel, reinforced concrete, glass and synthetic materials) and the topology architecture and lightened slabs system also have a great influence. The most influential architects of the modern movement were Rogelio Salmona and Fernando Martínez Sanabria. The contemporary architecture of Colombia is designed to give greater importance to the materials, this architecture takes into account the specific natural and artificial geographies and is also an architecture that appeals to the senses. The conservation of the architectural and urban heritage of Colombia has been promoted in recent years. Music Colombia has a vibrant collage of talent that touches a full spectrum of rhythms. It is known as the land of a thousand rhythms, at around 1,024 folk rhythms. Musicians, composers, music producers and singers from Colombia are recognized internationally such as Shakira, Juanes, Carlos Vives and others. Colombian music blends European-influenced guitar and song structure with large gaita flutes and percussion instruments from the indigenous population, while its percussion structure and dance forms come from Africa. Colombia has a diverse and dynamic musical environment. Guillermo Uribe Holguín, an important cultural figure in the National Symphony Orchestra of Colombia, Luis Antonio Calvo and Blas Emilio Atehortúa are some of the greatest exponents of the art music. The Bogotá Philharmonic Orchestra is one of the most active orchestras in Colombia. Caribbean music has many vibrant rhythms, such as cumbia (it is played by the maracas, the drums, the gaitas and guacharaca), porro (it is a monotonous but joyful rhythm), mapalé (with its fast rhythm and constant clapping) and the "vallenato", which originated in the northern part of the Caribbean coast (the rhythm is mainly played by the caja, the guacharaca, and accordion). The music from the Pacific coast, such as the currulao, is characterized by its strong use of drums (instruments such as the native marimba, the conunos, the bass drum, the side drum, and the cuatro guasas or tubular rattle). An important rhythm of the south region of the Pacific coast is the contradanza (it is used in dance shows due to the striking colours of the costumes). Marimba music, traditional chants and dances from the Colombia South Pacific region are on UNESCO's Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. of the Binomio de Oro de América band. The Vallenato, along with Cumbia, are the two most popular Colombian folk music genres heard in Latin America.]] Important musical rhythms of the Andean Region are the danza (dance of Andean folklore arising from the transformation of the European contredance), the bambuco (it is played with guitar, tiple and mandolin, the rhythm is danced by couples), the pasillo (a rhythm inspired by the Austrian waltz and the Colombian "danza", the lyrics have been composed by well-known poets), the guabina (the tiple, the bandola and the requinto are the basic instruments), the sanjuanero (it originated in Tolima and Huila Departments, the rhythm is joyful and fast). Apart from these traditional rhythms, salsa music has spread throughout the country, and the city of Cali is considered by many salsa singers to be 'The New Salsa Capital of the World'. The instruments that distinguish the music of the Eastern Plains are the harp, the cuatro (a type of four-stringed guitar) and maracas. Important rhythms of this region are the joropo (a fast rhythm and there is also tapping as a result of its flamenco ancestry) and the galeron (it is heard a lot while cowboys are working). The music of the Amazon region is strongly influenced by the indigenous religious practices. Some of the musical instruments used are the manguaré (a musical instrument of ceremonial type, consisting of a pair of large cylindrical drums), the quena (melodic instrument), the rondador, the congas, bells, and different types of flutes. The music of the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia and Santa Catalina is usually accompanied by a mandolin, a tub-bass, a jawbone, a guitar and maracas. Some popular archipelago rhythms are the Schottische, the Calypso, the Polka and the Mento. Popular culture is the oldest cinema event in Latin America. The central focus is on films from Ibero-America. Other important theater events are: The Festival of Puppet The Fanfare (Medellín), The Manizales Theater Festival, The Caribbean Theatre Festival (Santa Marta) and The Art Festival of Popular Culture "Cultural Invasion" (Bogotá). Although the Colombian cinema is young as an industry, more recently the film industry was growing with support from the Film Act passed in 2003. Many film festivals take place in Colombia, but the two most important are the Cartagena Film Festival, which is the oldest film festival in Latin America, and the Bogotá Film Festival. Some important national circulation newspapers are El Tiempo and El Espectador. Television in Colombia has two privately owned TV networks and three state-owned TV networks with national coverage, as well as six regional TV networks and dozens of local TV stations. Private channels, RCN and Caracol are the highest-rated. The regional channels and regional newspapers cover a department or more and its content is made in these particular areas. Colombia has three major national radio networks: Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, a state-run national radio; Caracol Radio and RCN Radio, privately owned networks with hundreds of affiliates. There are other national networks, including Cadena Super, Todelar, and Colmundo. Many hundreds of radio stations are registered with the Ministry of Information Technologies and Communications. Cuisine Colombia's varied cuisine is influenced by its diverse fauna and flora as well as the cultural traditions of the ethnic groups. Colombian dishes and ingredients vary widely by region. Some of the most common ingredients are: cereals such as rice and maize; tubers such as potato and cassava; assorted legumes; meats, including beef, chicken, pork and goat; fish; and seafood. Colombia cuisine also features a variety of tropical fruits such as cape gooseberry, feijoa, arazá, dragon fruit, mangostino, granadilla, papaya, guava, mora (blackberry), lulo, soursop and passionfruit. Colombia is one of the world's largest consumers of fruit juices. Among the most representative appetizers and soups are patacones (fried green plantains), sancocho de gallina (chicken soup with root vegetables) and ajiaco (potato and corn soup). Representative snacks and breads are pandebono, arepas (corn cakes), aborrajados (fried sweet plantains with cheese), torta de choclo, empanadas and almojábanas. Representative main courses are bandeja paisa, lechona tolimense, mamona, tamales and fish dishes (such as arroz de lisa), especially in coastal regions where kibbeh, suero, costeño cheese and carimañolas are also eaten. Representative side dishes are papas chorreadas (potatoes with cheese), remolachas rellenas con huevo duro (beets stuffed with hard-boiled egg) and arroz con coco (coconut rice). Representative desserts are buñuelos, natillas, Maria Luisa cake, bocadillo made of guayaba (guava jelly), cocadas (coconut balls), casquitos de guayaba (candied guava peels), torta de natas, obleas, flan de mango, roscón, milhoja, manjar blanco, dulce de feijoa, dulce de papayuela, torta de mojicón, and esponjado de curuba. Typical sauces (salsas) are hogao (tomato and onion sauce) and Colombian-style ají. But of all sports in Colombia, football is the most popular. Colombia was the champion of the 2001 Copa América, in which they set a new record of being undefeated, conceding no goals and winning each match. Colombia has been awarded "mover of the year" twice. Colombia is a hub for roller skaters. The national team is a perennial powerhouse at the World Roller Speed Skating Championships. Colombia has traditionally been very good in cycling and a large number of Colombian cyclists have triumphed in major competitions of cycling. Baseball is popular in cities like Cartagena and Barranquilla. Of those cities have come good players like: Orlando Cabrera, Édgar Rentería, who was champion of the World Series in 1997 and 2010 and others who have played in Major League Baseball. Colombia was world amateur champion in 1947 and 1965. Boxing is one of the sports that has produced more world champions for Colombia. Motorsports also occupies an important place in the sporting preferences of Colombians; Juan Pablo Montoya is a race car driver known for winning 7 Formula One events. Colombia also has excelled in sports such as BMX, judo, shooting sport, taekwondo, wrestling, high diving and athletics, also has a long tradition in weightlifting and bowling. See also * Index of Colombia-related articles * Outline of Colombia Notes References External links <!---- Please only list links of nation-wide relevance here. Consider adding other links to the "External links" section of the sub-articles listed. -----> General information * [https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombia Colombia] at Britannica.com * * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705055204/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/colombia.htm Colombia] at UCB Libraries GovPubs * [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/colombia/ Colombia]. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=CO Key Development Forecasts for Colombia] from International Futures * [http://www.investincolombia.com.co/ Official investment portal] * [http://www.colombia.travel/ Official Colombia Tourism Website] * [https://archive.today/20130801024443/http://www.spanishincolombia.gov.co/ Study Spanish in Colombia] * [http://www.dane.gov.co/ National Administrative Department of Statistics] Government * [https://web.archive.org/web/20180819182205/https://www.nomasfilas.gov.co/ Colombia Online Government website] Culture * [http://www.mincultura.gov.co/ Ministry of Culture] Geography * [http://www.parquesnacionales.gov.co/ National parks of Colombia] * }} Category:Andean Community Category:Constitutional republics Category:Countries in South America Category:Former Spanish colonies Category:Member states of the United Nations Category:OECD members Category:Republics Category:Spanish-speaking countries and territories Category:States and territories established in 1810
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia
2025-04-05T18:27:06.721504
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Citizen Kane
| starring = | music = Bernard Herrmann | cinematography = Gregg Toland | editing = Robert Wise | studio = | distributor = RKO Radio Pictures | released = | runtime 114 minutes<!--Theatrical runtime: 119:27--> | country = United States | language = English | budget $839,727 | gross $1.8 million }} Citizen Kane is a 1941 American drama film directed by, produced by and starring Orson Welles and co-written by Welles and Herman J. Mankiewicz. It was Welles's first feature film. Citizen Kane is frequently cited as the greatest film ever made. For 40 years (five decennial polls: 1962, 1972, 1982, 1992 and 2002), it stood at number one in the British Film Institute's Sight & Sound decennial poll of critics, and it topped the American Film Institute's 100 Years ... 100 Movies list in 1998, as well as its 2007 update. The film was nominated for Academy Awards in nine categories and it won for Best Writing (Original Screenplay) by Mankiewicz and Welles. Citizen Kane is praised for Gregg Toland's cinematography, Robert Wise's editing, Bernard Herrmann's score and its narrative structure, all of which have been considered innovative and precedent-setting. The quasi-biographical film examines the life and legacy of Charles Foster Kane, played by Welles, a composite character based on American media barons William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, Chicago tycoons Samuel Insull and Harold McCormick, as well as aspects of the screenwriters' own lives. Upon its release, Hearst prohibited any mention of the film in his newspapers. After the Broadway success of Welles's Mercury Theatre and the controversial 1938 radio broadcast "The War of the Worlds" on The Mercury Theatre on the Air, Welles was courted by Hollywood. He signed a contract with RKO Pictures in 1939. Although it was unusual for an untried director, he was given freedom to develop his own story, to use his own cast and crew, and to have final cut privilege. Following two abortive attempts to get a project off the ground, he wrote the screenplay for Citizen Kane with Herman J. Mankiewicz. Principal photography took place in 1940, the same year its innovative trailer was shown, and the film was released in 1941. Cecilia Ager, reviewing it in PM Magazine, wrote: “Seeing it, it’s as if you never really saw a movie before.” Although it was a critical success, Citizen Kane failed to recoup its costs at the box office. The film faded from view after its release, but it returned to public attention when it was praised by French critics such as André Bazin and re-released in 1956. In 1958, the film was voted number nine on the prestigious Brussels 12 list at the 1958 World Expo. The Library of Congress selected Citizen Kane as an inductee of the 1989 inaugural group of 25 films for preservation in the United States National Film Registry for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Roger Ebert wrote of it: <blockquote>Its surface is as much fun as any movie ever made. Its depths surpass understanding. I have analyzed it a shot at a time with more than 30 groups, and together we have seen, I believe, pretty much everything that is there on the screen. The more clearly I can see its physical manifestation, the more I am stirred by its mystery.</blockquote> Plot In a mansion called Xanadu, part of a vast palatial estate in Florida, the elderly Charles Foster Kane is on his deathbed. Holding a snow globe, he utters his last word, "Rosebud", and dies. A newsreel obituary tells the life story of Kane, an enormously wealthy newspaper publisher and industry magnate. Kane's death becomes sensational news around the world, and the newsreel's producer tasks reporter Jerry Thompson with discovering the meaning of "Rosebud". Thompson sets out to interview Kane's friends and associates. He tries to approach Kane's second wife, Susan Alexander Kane, now an alcoholic nightclub owner, but she refuses to talk to him. Thompson goes to the private archive of the late banker Walter Parks Thatcher. Through Thatcher's written memoirs, Thompson learns about Kane's rise from a Colorado boarding house and the decline of his fortune. In 1871, gold was discovered through a mining deed belonging to Kane's mother, Mary Kane. She hired Thatcher to establish a trust that would provide for Kane's education and assume guardianship of him. While the parents and Thatcher discussed arrangements inside the boarding house, the young Kane played happily with a sled in the snow outside. When Kane's parents introduced him to Thatcher and told him he would live with Thatcher, the boy struck Thatcher with his sled and attempted to run away. By the time Kane gained control of his trust at the age of 25, the mine's productivity and Thatcher's prudent investing had made Kane one of the richest men in the world. Kane took control of the New York Inquirer newspaper and embarked on a career of yellow journalism, publishing scandalous articles that attacked Thatcher's (and his own) business interests. Kane sold his newspaper empire to Thatcher after the 1929 stock market crash left him short of cash. Thompson interviews Kane's personal business manager, Mr. Bernstein. Bernstein recalls that Kane hired the best journalists available to build the Inquirers circulation. Kane rose to power by successfully manipulating public opinion regarding the Spanish–American War and marrying Emily Norton, the niece of the President of the United States. Thompson interviews Kane's estranged best friend, Jedediah Leland, in a retirement home. Leland says that Kane's marriage to Emily disintegrated over the years, and he began an affair with amateur singer Susan Alexander while running for Governor of New York. Both his wife and his political opponent discovered the affair, and the public scandal ended his political career. Kane married Susan and forced her into a humiliating career as an opera singer (for which she had neither the talent nor the ambition). Kane arranged for a large opera house to be built in Chicago for Susan to perform in. After Leland began to write a negative review of Susan's disastrous opera debut, Kane fired him but finished the negative review and printed it. Susan protested that she never wanted the opera career anyway, but Kane forced her to continue the season. Susan consents to an interview with Thompson and describes the aftermath of her opera career. She attempted suicide, and Kane finally allowed her to abandon singing. After many unhappy years living at Xanadu with Kane, the two had an argument that culminated in Kane slapping Susan. Susan decided to leave Kane. Kane's butler Raymond recounts that, after Susan moved out of Xanadu, Kane began violently destroying the contents of her former bedroom. When Kane discovered a snow globe, he calmed down and tearfully said "Rosebud". Thompson concludes that he cannot solve the mystery and that the meaning of Kane's last word will remain unknown. At Xanadu, Kane's belongings are cataloged or discarded by the mansion's staff. They find a sled, the one on which eight-year-old Kane was playing on the day that he was taken from his home in Colorado, and throw it into a furnace with other items. Unknown to the staff, the sled's trade name, printed on top, becomes visible through the flames: "Rosebud". Cast The beginning of the film's ending credits states that "Most of the principal actors in Citizen Kane are new to motion pictures. The Mercury Theatre is proud to introduce them." The cast is then listed in the following order, with Orson Welles' credit for playing Charles Foster Kane appearing last: Additionally, Charles Bennett appears as the entertainer at the head of the chorus line in the Inquirer party sequence, and cinematographer Gregg Toland makes a cameo appearance as an interviewer depicted in part of the News on the March newsreel. Actor Alan Ladd, still unknown at that time, makes a small appearance as a reporter smoking a pipe at the end of the film. Production Development " caught the attention of RKO studio chief George J. Schaefer]] Hollywood had shown interest in Welles as early as 1936. He turned down three scripts sent to him by Warner Bros. In 1937, he declined offers from David O. Selznick, who asked him to head his film company's story department, and William Wyler, who wanted him for a supporting role in Wuthering Heights. "Although the possibility of making huge amounts of money in Hollywood greatly attracted him," wrote biographer Frank Brady, "he was still totally, hopelessly, insanely in love with the theater, and it is there that he had every intention of remaining to make his mark." Following the 1938 "The War of the Worlds" broadcast of his CBS radio series The Mercury Theatre on the Air, Welles was lured to Hollywood with a remarkable contract. RKO Pictures studio head George J. Schaefer wanted to work with Welles after the notorious broadcast, believing that Welles had a gift for attracting mass attention. Welles was in financial trouble after failure of his plays Five Kings and The Green Goddess. At first he simply wanted to spend three months in Hollywood and earn enough money to pay his debts and fund his next theatrical season. Welles conceived the project with screenwriter Herman J. Mankiewicz, who was writing radio plays for Welles's CBS Radio series, The Campbell Playhouse. Taking these drafts, Welles drastically condensed and rearranged them, then added scenes of his own. The industry accused Welles of underplaying Mankiewicz's contribution to the script, but Welles countered the attacks by saying, "At the end, naturally, I was the one making the picture, after all—who had to make the decisions. I used what I wanted of Mank's and, rightly or wrongly, kept what I liked of my own." Before he signed the contract Mankiewicz was advised by his agents that all credit for his work belonged to Welles and the Mercury Theatre, the "author and creator". Mankiewicz also threatened to go to the Screen Writers Guild and claim full credit for writing the entire script by himself. Questions over the authorship of the Citizen Kane screenplay were revived in 1971 by influential film critic Pauline Kael, whose controversial 50,000-word essay "Raising Kane" was commissioned as an introduction to the shooting script in The Citizen Kane Book, The book-length essay first appeared in February 1971, in two consecutive issues of The New Yorker magazine. In the ensuing controversy, Welles was defended by colleagues, critics, biographers and scholars, but his reputation was damaged by its charges. Questions of authorship continued to come into sharper focus with Carringer's 1978 thoroughly researched essay, "The Scripts of Citizen Kane".}} Carringer studied the collection of script records—"almost a day-to-day record of the history of the scripting"—that was then still intact at RKO. He reviewed all seven drafts and concluded that "the full evidence reveals that Welles's contribution to the Citizen Kane script was not only substantial but definitive."Casting was an independent repertory theatre company founded by Orson Welles and John Houseman in 1937. The company produced theatrical presentations, radio programs, films, promptbooks and phonographic recordings.]] Citizen Kane was a rare film in that its principal roles were played by actors new to motion pictures. Ten were billed as Mercury Actors, members of the skilled repertory company assembled by Welles for the stage and radio performances of the Mercury Theatre, an independent theater company he founded with Houseman in 1937. "He loved to use the Mercury players," wrote biographer Charles Higham, "and consequently he launched several of them on movie careers." The film represents the feature film debuts of William Alland, Ray Collins, Joseph Cotten, Agnes Moorehead, Erskine Sanford, Everett Sloane, Paul Stewart and Welles himself. as Susan Alexander Kane. A discovery of Charlie Chaplin, Comingore was recommended to Welles by Chaplin, who then met Comingore at a party in Los Angeles and immediately cast her. Welles had met stage actress Ruth Warrick while visiting New York on a break from Hollywood and remembered her as a good fit for Emily Norton Kane, "He trained us for films at the same time that he was training himself," recalled Agnes Moorehead. "Orson believed in good acting, and he realized that rehearsals were needed to get the most from his actors. That was something new in Hollywood: nobody seemed interested in bringing in a group to rehearse before scenes were shot. But Orson knew it was necessary, and we rehearsed every sequence before it was shot." When The March of Time narrator Westbrook Van Voorhis asked for $25,000 to narrate the News on the March sequence, Alland demonstrated his ability to imitate Van Voorhis, and Welles cast him. and Jean Renoir. "As it turned out, the first day I ever walked onto a set was my first day as a director," Welles said. "I'd learned whatever I knew in the projection room—from Ford. After dinner every night for about a month, I'd run Stagecoach, often with some different technician or department head from the studio, and ask questions. 'How was this done?' 'Why was this done?' It was like going to school."]] On June 29, 1940—a Saturday morning when few inquisitive studio executives would be around—Welles began filming Citizen Kane.}}}} 's Oheka Castle that portrays the fictional Xanadu]] During production, the film was referred to as RKO 281. Most of the filming took place in what is now Stage 19 on the Paramount Pictures lot in Hollywood. There was some location filming at Balboa Park in San Diego and the San Diego Zoo. Photographs of German-Jewish investment banker Otto Hermann Kahn's real-life estate Oheka Castle were used to portray the fictional Xanadu. In the end of July, RKO approved the film and Welles was allowed to officially begin shooting, despite having already been filming "tests" for several weeks. Welles leaked stories to newspaper reporters that the "tests" had been so good that there was no need to re-shoot them. The first "official" scene to be shot was the breakfast montage sequence between Kane and his first wife Emily. To strategically save money and appease the RKO executives who opposed him, Welles rehearsed scenes extensively before actually shooting and filmed very few takes of each shot set-up. When "Rosebud" was burned, Welles choreographed the scene while he had composer Bernard Herrmann's cue playing on the set. Unlike Schaefer, many members of RKO's board of governors did not like Welles or the control that his contract gave him. Throughout production Welles had problems with these executives not respecting his contract's stipulation of non-interference and several spies arrived on set to report what they saw to the executives. When the executives would sometimes arrive on set unannounced the entire cast and crew would suddenly start playing softball until they left. Before official shooting began the executives intercepted all copies of the script and delayed their delivery to Welles. They had one copy sent to their office in New York, resulting in it being leaked to press. Arguments against the film's cinematic innovations were made as early as 1946 when French historian Georges Sadoul wrote, "The film is an encyclopedia of old techniques." He pointed out such examples as compositions that used both the foreground and the background in the films of Auguste and Louis Lumière, special effects used in the films of Georges Méliès, shots of the ceiling in Erich von Stroheim's Greed and newsreel montages in the films of Dziga Vertov. French film critic André Bazin defended the film, writing: "In this respect, the accusation of plagiarism could very well be extended to the film's use of panchromatic film or its exploitation of the properties of gelatinous silver halide." Bazin disagreed with Sadoul's comparison to Lumière's cinematography since Citizen Kane used more sophisticated lenses, but acknowledged that it had similarities to such previous works as The Power and the Glory. Bazin stated that "even if Welles did not invent the cinematic devices employed in Citizen Kane, one should nevertheless credit him with the invention of their meaning." Storytelling techniques Citizen Kane rejects the traditional linear, chronological narrative and tells Kane's story entirely in flashbacks using different points of view, many of them from Kane's aged and forgetful associates, the cinematic equivalent of the unreliable narrator in literature. Welles also dispenses with the idea of a single storyteller and uses multiple narrators to recount Kane's life, a technique not used previously in Hollywood films. The film depicts Kane as an enigma, a complicated man who leaves viewers with more questions than answers as to his character, such as the newsreel footage where he is attacked for being both a communist and a fascist. but no film was as immersed in it as Citizen Kane. Thompson the reporter acts as a surrogate for the audience, questioning Kane's associates and piecing together his life. where the foreground, background and everything in between are all in sharp focus. Cinematographer Toland did this through his experimentation with lenses and lighting. Toland described the achievement in an article for Theatre Arts magazine, made possible by the sensitivity of modern speed film: <blockquote>New developments in the science of motion picture photography are not abundant at this advanced stage of the game but periodically one is perfected to make this a greater art. Of these I am in an excellent position to discuss what is termed "Pan-focus", as I have been active for two years in its development and used it for the first time in Citizen Kane. Through its use, it is possible to photograph action from a range of eighteen inches from the camera lens to over two hundred feet away, with extreme foreground and background figures and action both recorded in sharp relief. Hitherto, the camera had to be focused either for a close or a distant shot, all efforts to encompass both at the same time resulting in one or the other being out of focus. This handicap necessitated the breaking up of a scene into long and short angles, with much consequent loss of realism. With pan-focus, the camera, like the human eye, sees an entire panorama at once, with everything clear and lifelike.</blockquote> Another unorthodox method used in the film was the low-angle shots facing upwards, thus allowing ceilings to be shown in the background of several scenes. Every set was built with a ceiling. He called Toland "the best director of photography that ever existed." Sound Citizen Kanes sound was recorded by Bailey Fesler and re-recorded in post-production by audio engineer James G. Stewart, and chose to create all of the sound effects for the film instead of using RKO's library of sound effects. The film's sound cost $16,996, but was originally budgeted at $7,288. Cedric Belfrage of The Clipper wrote "of all of the delectable flavours that linger on the palate after seeing Kane, the use of sound is the strongest." He had not been accepted into the union, which recognized him as only an apprentice, but RKO nevertheless used him to make up principal actors. "My sculptural techniques for the characters' aging were handled by adding pieces of white modeling clay, which matched the plaster, onto the surface of each bust," Seiderman told Norman Gambill. When Seiderman achieved the desired effect, he cast the clay pieces in a soft plastic material Ferguson also designed statues from Kane's collection with styles ranging from Greek to German Gothic. Some shots included rear screen projection in the background, such as Thompson's interview of Leland and some of the ocean backgrounds at Xanadu. The optical printer improved some of the deep focus shots. who had composed for Welles for his Mercury Theatre on the Air. and eschewed the typical Hollywood practice of scoring a film with virtually non-stop music. Instead Herrmann used what he later described as "radio scoring", musical cues typically 5–15 seconds in length that bridge the action or suggest a different emotional response. Herrmann realized that musicians slated to play his music were hired for individual unique sessions; there was no need to write for existing ensembles. This meant that he was free to score for unusual combinations of instruments, even instruments that are not commonly heard. In the opening sequence, for example, the tour of Kane's estate Xanadu, Herrmann introduces a recurring leitmotif played by low woodwinds, including a quartet of alto flutes. For Susan Alexander Kane's operatic sequence, Welles suggested that Herrmann compose a witty parody of a Mary Garden vehicle, an aria from Salammbô. Some incidental music came from other sources. Welles heard the tune used for the publisher's theme, "Oh, Mr. Kane", in Mexico. "In a Mizz", a 1939 jazz song by Charlie Barnet and Haven Johnson, bookends Thompson's second interview of Susan Alexander Kane. All of the music used in the newsreel came from the RKO music library, edited at Welles's request by the newsreel department to achieve what Herrmann called "their own crazy way of cutting". The News on the March theme that accompanies the newsreel titles is "Belgian March" by Anthony Collins, from the film Nurse Edith Cavell. Other examples are an excerpt from Alfred Newman's score for Gunga Din (the exploration of Xanadu), Roy Webb's theme for the film Reno (the growth of Kane's empire), and bits of Webb's score for Five Came Back (introducing Walter Parks Thatcher). Herrmann explained his use of motifs: <blockquote>I am not a great believer in the leitmotiv as a device for motion picture music—but in this film its use was practically imperative, because of the story itself and the manner in which it is unfolded. There are two main motifs. One—a simple four-note figure in the brass—is that of Kane's power. It is given out in the first two bars of the film. The second motif is that of Rosebud. Heard as a solo in the vibraphone, it first appears in the death scene at the very beginning of the picture. It is heard again and again throughout the film in various guises, and if followed closely, is a clue to the ultimate identity of Rosebud itself. The motif of power is also transformed, becoming a vigorous piece of ragtime, a hornpipe polka and, at the end of the picture, a commentary on Kane's life. Welles said that the idea for the breakfast scene "was stolen from The Long Christmas Dinner by Thornton Wilder ... a one-act play, which is a long Christmas dinner that takes you through something like 60 years of a family's life." and Houseman wrote that he and Mankiewicz also "grafted anecdotes from other giants of journalism, including Pulitzer, Northcliffe and Mank's first boss, Herbert Bayard Swope". He specifically acknowledged that aspects of Kane were drawn from the lives of two business tycoons familiar from his youth in Chicago—Samuel Insull and Harold Fowler McCormick. Welles denied that the character was based on Davies, whom he called "an extraordinary woman—nothing like the character Dorothy Comingore played in the movie." Gore Vidal has argued in the New York Review of Books that "Rosebud was what Hearst called his friend Marion Davies's clitoris". The News on the March sequence that begins the film satirizes the journalistic style of The March of Time, the news documentary and dramatization series presented in movie theaters by Time Inc. From 1935 to 1938 Welles was a member of the uncredited company of actors that presented the original radio version. Bernstein was named for Dr. Maurice Bernstein, appointed Welles's guardian; She wrote that the film reflects "the battle between intervention and isolationism" then being waged in the United States; the film was released six months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, while President Franklin D. Roosevelt was laboring to win public opinion for entering World War II. "In the rhetoric of Citizen Kane," Mulvey writes, "the destiny of isolationism is realised in metaphor: in Kane's own fate, dying wealthy and lonely, surrounded by the detritus of European culture and history." Media mogul Rupert Murdoch is sometimes labeled as a latter-day Citizen Kane. Comparisons have also been made between the career and character of Donald Trump and Charles Foster Kane. Citizen Kane is reported to be one of Trump's favorite films, and his biographer Tim O'Brien has said that Trump is fascinated by and identifies with Kane. Pre-release controversy To ensure that Hearst's life's influence on Citizen Kane was a secret, Welles limited access to dailies and managed the film's publicity. A December 1940 feature story in Stage magazine compared the film's narrative to Faust and made no mention of Hearst. Hearst began this ban by suppressing promotion of RKO's Kitty Foyle, Once RKO's legal team reassured Schaefer, the studio announced on January 21 that Kane would be released as scheduled, and with one of the largest promotional campaigns in the studio's history. Schaefer brought Welles to New York City for a private screening of the film with the New York corporate heads of the studios and their lawyers. At the time, it was almost unprecedented for a film trailer to not actually feature anything of the film itself; and while Citizen Kane is frequently cited as a groundbreaking, influential film, Simon Callow argues its trailer was no less original in its approach. Callow writes that it has "great playful charm ... it is a miniature documentary, almost an introduction to the cinema ... Teasing, charming, completely original, it is a sort of conjuring trick: Without his face appearing once on the screen, Welles entirely dominates its five [sic] minutes' duration." The Washington Post called it "one of the most important films in the history" of filmmaking. The Washington Evening Star said Welles was a genius who created "a superbly dramatic biography of another genius" and "a picture that is revolutionary". New York Daily News critic Kate Cameron called it "one of the most interesting and technically superior films that has ever come out of a Hollywood studio". New York World-Telegram critic William Boehnel said that the film was "staggering and belongs at once among the greatest screen achievements". Time magazine wrote that "it has found important new techniques in picture-making and story-telling." John O'Hara's Newsweek review called it the best picture he'd ever seen and said Welles was "the best actor in the history of acting." and Dilys Powell of The Sunday Times said the film's style was made "with the ease and boldness and resource of one who controls and is not controlled by his medium." Edward Tangye Lean of Horizon praised the film's technical style, calling it "perhaps a decade ahead of its contemporaries."}} Other reviews were mixed. Edwin Schallert of the Los Angeles Times said it was brilliant and skillful at times, but had an ending that "rather fizzled". The Chicago Tribune called the film interesting and different but "its sacrifice of simplicity to eccentricity robs it of distinction and general entertainment value". Otis Ferguson of The New Republic said it was "the boldest free-hand stroke in major screen production since Griffith and Bitzer were running wild to unshackle the camera", but also criticized its style, calling it a "retrogression in film technique" and stating that "it holds no great place" in film history. Ferguson reacted to some of the film's celebrated visual techniques by calling them "just willful dabbling" and "the old shell game." In a rare film review, filmmaker Erich von Stroheim criticized the film's story and non-linear structure, but praised the technical style and performances, and wrote "Whatever the truth may be about it, Citizen Kane is a great picture and will go down in screen history. More power to Welles!" Some prominent critics wrote negative reviews. None of them dismissed the film as being altogether bad, noting the film's undeniable technical effects, but they did find fault with the narrative. Eileen Creelman of The New York Sun called it "a cold picture, unemotional, a puzzle rather than a drama". The Argus Weekend Magazine critic Erle Cox called the film "amazing" but thought that Welles's break with Hollywood traditions was "overdone". Tatlers James Agate called it "the well-intentioned, muddled, amateurish thing one expects from high-brows"; he admitted that it was "a quite good film" but insisted that it "tries to run the psychological essay in harness with your detective thriller, and doesn't quite succeed." Other people who disliked the film were W. H. AudenReception from the publicThe film did well in cities and larger towns, but it fared poorly in more remote areas. RKO still had problems getting exhibitors to show the film. For example, one chain controlling more than 500 theaters got Welles's film as part of a package but refused to play it, reportedly out of fear of Hearst. The film earned $23,878 during its first week in New York. By the ninth week it only made $7,279. Overall it lost money in New York, Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco and Washington, D.C., but made a profit in Seattle. A college-town exhibitor reported, "I thought it was fine, as did the majority of people who attended the performances. However, there were some who either did not like it or did not get it. Business was just average." "Don't try to tell me Orson Welles isn't a genius; herein he has produced a mighty fine picture, and herewith he has established for me the lowest gross that I have ever, ever experienced. I would have sworn that such ridiculous receipts were utterly impossible. If you cater to film connoisseurs, this picture is made for you. But me, I hurt all over." Others were more blunt: "Nobody liked this and said so. We took in just enough to pay for it so considered ourselves very lucky." "One day after showing this we still feel hesitant about walking abroad without an escort. Half of the few dozen that paid to see this masterpiece walked out, and the other half remained only to think up new dirty cracks to cast in our direction on the way out." "High priced picture. But I made a little money on my help. They took off three days because they were afraid of being all alone in the theatre." "You can stand in front of a mirror and call yourself 'sucker' when you play this one. It does not have one redeeming feature. It will not draw; those that do come will not know what it is all about." A Minnesota exhibitor summed up the situation for rural areas: "My patrons still don't know what it was all about. Too long and too deep. No boxoffice value to small towns." Hearst's response Hearing about Citizen Kane enraged Hearst so much that he banned any advertising, reviewing, or mentioning of it in his papers, and had his journalists libel Welles. The Oscar-nominated documentary The Battle Over Citizen Kane lays the blame for the film's relative failure squarely at the feet of Hearst. The film did decent business at the box office; it went on to be the sixth highest grossing film in its year of release, a modest success its backers found acceptable. Nevertheless, the film's commercial performance fell short of its creators' expectations. Hearst's attacks against Welles went beyond attempting to suppress the film. Welles said that while he was on his post-filming lecture tour a police detective approached him at a restaurant and advised him not to go back to his hotel. A 14-year-old girl had reportedly been hidden in the closet of his room, and two photographers were waiting for him to walk in. Knowing he would be jailed after the resulting publicity, Welles did not return to the hotel but waited until the train left town the following morning. "But that wasn't Hearst," Welles said, "that was a hatchet man from the local Hearst paper who thought he would advance himself by doing it." produced for The Free Company radio series on CBS. Welles described his chance encounter with Hearst in an elevator at the Fairmont Hotel on the night Citizen Kane opened in San Francisco. Hearst and Welles's father were acquaintances, so Welles introduced himself and asked Hearst if he would like to come to the opening. Hearst did not respond. "As he was getting off at his floor, I said, 'Charles Foster Kane would have accepted.' No reply", recalled Welles. "And Kane would have, you know. That was his style—just as he finished Jed Leland's bad review of Susan as an opera singer." Despite Hearst's attempts to destroy the film, since 1941 references to his life and career have usually included a reference to Citizen Kane, such as the headline 'Son of Citizen Kane Dies' for the obituary of Hearst's son. In 2012, the Hearst estate agreed to screen the film at Hearst Castle in San Simeon, breaking Hearst's ban on the film. Re-evaluationModern critics have given Citizen Kane an even more positive response. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 99% of 125 critics gave the film a positive review, with an average rating of 9.70/10. In April 2021, it was noted that the addition of an 80-year-old negative review from the Chicago Tribune reduced the film's rating from 100% to 99% on the site; Citizen Kane held its 100% rating until early 2021. On Metacritic, however, the film still has a rare weighted average score of 100 out of 100 based on 19 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". The film was included by the Vatican in a list of important films compiled in 1995, under the category of "Art". The February 2020 issue of New York Magazine lists Citizen Kane as among "The Best Movies That Lost Best Picture at the Oscars." Accolades {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" |- ! Award ! Category ! Nominee(s) ! Result |- | rowspan"9"| Academy Awards | Outstanding Motion Picture | Mercury | |- | Best Director | rowspan="2"| Orson Welles | |- | Best Actor | |- | Best Original Screenplay | Herman J. Mankiewicz and Orson Welles | |- | Best Art Direction–Interior Decoration – Black-and-White | Perry Ferguson, Van Nest Polglase, Al Fields and Darrell Silvera | |- | Best Cinematography – Black-and-White | Gregg Toland | |- | Best Film Editing | Robert Wise | |- | Best Scoring of a Dramatic Picture | Bernard Herrmann | |- | Best Sound Recording | John Aalberg | |- | DVD Exclusive Awards | Best Audio Commentary | Roger Ebert | |- | rowspan"4"| National Board of Review Awards | colspan="2"| Best Film | |- | colspan="2"| Top Ten Films | |- | rowspan="2"| Best Acting | George Coulouris | |- | Orson Welles | |- | National Film Preservation Board | colspan="2"| National Film Registry | |- | rowspan"3"| New York Film Critics Circle Awards | colspan="2"| Best Film | |- | Best Director | rowspan="2"| Orson Welles | |- | Best Actor | |- | Online Film & Television Association Awards | colspan="2"| Hall of Fame – Motion Picture | |- | Online Film Critics Society Awards | colspan="2"| Best Overall DVD | |- | Satellite Awards | Best Classic DVD | ''Citizen Kane: Ultimate Collector's Edition | |- | Saturn Awards | Best DVD/Blu-Ray Special Edition Release | Citizen Kane: 70th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition | |- | Village Voice Film Poll | colspan="2"| Best Film of the Century | |} recognized both Welles and George Coulouris for their performances in Citizen Kane, which was also voted the best film of 1941.]] It was widely believed the film would win most of its Academy Award nominations, but it received only the award for Best Original Screenplay. Variety reported that block voting by screen extras deprived Citizen Kane of Best Picture and Best Actor, and similar prejudices were likely to have been responsible for the film receiving no technical awards.Legacy Citizen Kane'' was the only film made under Welles's original contract with RKO Pictures, which gave him complete creative control. Welles reluctantly signed a new and less favorable deal with RKO and lost the right to final cut, which later allowed RKO to modify and re-cut The Magnificent Ambersons over his objections. In the U.S., the film was initially neglected until it began appearing on television in the 1950s and was re-released in theaters. American film critic Andrew Sarris was significant in reviving its reputation, describing it as a profoundly influential American film. Over the decades, Citizen Kane has been consistently ranked highly in critical surveys and polls, often cited as the greatest film ever made.' Roger Ebert wrote: worldwide. In 1955, RKO sold the American television rights to its film library, including Citizen Kane, to C&C Television Corp. In 1960, television rights to the pre-1959 RKO's live-action library were acquired by United Artists. RKO kept the non-broadcast television rights to its library. In 1976, when home video was in its infancy, entrepreneur Snuff Garrett bought cassette rights to the RKO library for what United Press International termed "a pittance". In 1978 The Nostalgia Merchant released the film through Media Home Entertainment. By 1980 the 800-title library of The Nostalgia Merchant was earning $2.3 million a year. "Nobody wanted cassettes four years ago," Garrett told UPI. "It wasn't the first time people called me crazy. It was a hobby with me which became big business." RKO Home Video released the film on VHS and Betamax in 1985. On December 3, 1984, The Criterion Collection released the film as its first LaserDisc. It was made from a fine grain master positive provided by the UCLA Film and Television Archive. When told about the then-new concept of having an audio commentary on the disc, Welles was skeptical but said "theoretically, that's good for teaching movies, so long as they don't talk nonsense." Turner Broadcasting System acquired broadcast television rights to the RKO library in 1986 and the full worldwide rights to the library in 1987. The RKO Home Video unit was reorganized into Turner Home Entertainment that year. In 1991 Turner released a 50th Anniversary Edition on VHS and as a collector's edition that includes the film, the documentary Reflections On Citizen Kane, Harlan Lebo's 50th anniversary album, a poster and a copy of the original script. In 1996, Time Warner acquired Turner and Warner Home Video absorbed Turner Home Entertainment. In 2011, Time Warner's Warner Bros. unit had distribution rights for the film. In 2001, Warner Home Video released a 60th Anniversary Collectors Edition DVD. The two-disc DVD included feature-length commentaries by Roger Ebert and Peter Bogdanovich, as well as a second DVD with the feature-length documentary The Battle Over Citizen Kane (1999). It was simultaneously released on VHS. The DVD was criticized for being " bright, ; the dirt and grime had been cleared away, but so had a good deal of the texture, the depth, and the sense of film grain." In 2003, Welles's daughter Beatrice Welles sued Turner Entertainment, claiming the Welles estate is the legal copyright holder of the film. She claimed that Welles's deal to terminate his contracts with RKO meant that Turner's copyright of the film was null and void. She also claimed that the estate of Orson Welles was owed 20% of the film's profits if her copyright claim was not upheld. In 2007 she was allowed to proceed with the lawsuit, overturning the 2004 decision in favor of Turner Entertainment on the issue of video rights. In 2011, it was released on Blu-ray and DVD in a 70th Anniversary Edition. The San Francisco Chronicle called it "the Blu-ray release of the year." Supplements included everything available on the 2001 Warner Home Video release, including The Battle Over Citizen Kane DVD. A 70th Anniversary Ultimate Collector's Edition added a third DVD with RKO 281 (1999), an award-winning TV movie about the making of the film. Its packaging extras included a hardcover book and a folio containing mini reproductions of the original souvenir program, lobby cards, and production memos and correspondence. The transfer for the US releases were scanned as 4K resolution from three different 35mm prints and rectified the quality issues of the 2001 DVD. On August 11, 2021 Criterion announced their first 4K Ultra HD releases, a six-film slate, would include Citizen Kane. Criterion indicated each title was to be available in a combo pack including a 4K UHD disc of the feature film as well as the film and special features on the companion Blu-rays. Citizen Kane was released on November 23, 2021 by the collection as a 4K and 3-Blu-ray-disc package. However, the release was recalled because at the half-hour mark on the regular Blu-ray, the contrast fell sharply, which resulted in a much darker image than what was supposed to occur. However, this issue does not apply to the 4K version itself. Colorization controversy In the 1980s, Citizen Kane became a catalyst in the controversy over the colorization of black-and-white films. One proponent of film colorization was Ted Turner, whose Turner Entertainment Company owned the RKO library. A Turner Entertainment spokesperson initially stated that Citizen Kane would not be colorized, but in July 1988 Turner said, "Citizen Kane? I'm thinking of colorizing it." In early 1989 it was reported that two companies were producing color tests for Turner Entertainment. Criticism increased when filmmaker Henry Jaglom stated that shortly before his death Welles had implored him "don't let Ted Turner deface my movie with his crayons." In February 1989, Turner Entertainment President Roger Mayer announced that work to colorize the film had been stopped due to provisions in Welles's 1939 contract with RKO that "could be read to prohibit colorization without permission of the Welles estate." Mayer added that Welles's contract was "quite unusual" and "other contracts we have checked out are not like this at all." Turner had only colorized the final reel of the film before abandoning the project. In 1991 one minute of the colorized test footage was included in the BBC Arena documentary The Complete Citizen Kane. The colorization controversy was a factor in the passage of the National Film Preservation Act in 1988 which created the National Film Registry the following year. ABC News anchor Peter Jennings reported that "one major reason for doing this is to require people like the broadcaster Ted Turner, who's been adding color to some movies and re-editing others for television, to put notices on those versions saying that the movies have been altered".Bibliography * Bazin, André. The Technique of Citizen Kane. Paris, France: Les Temps modernes 2, number 17, 1947. pp. 943–949. * Biskind, Peter (ed.), Jaglom, Henry and Welles, Orson. My Lunches with Orson: Conversations between Henry Jaglom and Orson Welles. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2013. . * Bogdanovich, Peter and Welles, Orson. This is Orson Welles. HarperPerennial 1992. * Bogdanovich, Peter and Welles, Orson (uncredited). "The Kane Mutiny", in Esquire, October 1972.}}}} * Brady, Frank. Citizen Welles: A Biography of Orson Welles. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1989. . * Callow, Simon. Orson Welles: The Road to Xanadu. London: Jonathan Cape, 1995. * Carringer, Robert L. The Making of Citizen Kane. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1985. hardcover; 1996 revised and updated edition paperback * Carringer, Robert L. "The Scripts of Citizen Kane", in Critical Inquiry No. 5, 1978.}}}} * Cook, David A. A History of Narrative Film. W.W. Norton Company, 2004. * Gottesman, Ronald (ed.). Focus on Citizen Kane. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1976. * Gottesman, Ronald (ed.). Perspectives on Citizen Kane. New York: G. K. Hall & Co., 1996. * Heylin, Clinton. Despite the System: Orson Welles Versus the Hollywood Studios, Chicago Review Press, 2005. * Howard, James. The Complete Films of Orson Welles. New York: Carol Publishing Group, 1991. . * Kael, Pauline, Welles, Orson and Mankiewicz, Herman J. The Citizen Kane Book. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1971. * Leaming, Barbara. Orson Welles, A Biography. New York: Viking Press, 1985. . * Meryman, Richard. Mank: The Wit, World and Life of Herman Mankiewicz. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1978. . * Mulvey, Laura. Citizen Kane. London: British Film Institute, 1992. * Naremore, James (ed.). Orson Welles's Citizen Kane: A Casebook in Criticism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004. * Nasaw, David. The Chief: The Life of William Randolph Hearst. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000. * Rippy, Marguerite H. Orson Welles and the Unfinished RKO Projects: A Postmodern Perspective''. Southern Illinois University Press, Illinois, 2009. * Rosenbaum, Jonathan. "I Missed It at the Movies: Objections to 'Raising Kane'", in Film Comment, Spring 1972.}} * Stern, Sydney Ladensohn. The Brothers Mankiewicz: Hope, Heartbreak, and Hollywood Classics. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2019. See also *List of cult films Notes References External links Database * * * * * * * [https://data.cinemabelgica.be/film/36023 Citizen Kane] at [https://www.cinemabelgica.be/s/cinemabelgica/page/database Cinema Belgica] Other * [https://www.criterion.com/current/posts/7613-citizen-kane-the-once-and-future-kane "Citizen Kane: The Once and Future Kane"], essay by Bilge Ebiri on The Criterion Collection * [https://www.loc.gov/static/programs/national-film-preservation-board/documents/kane.pdf Citizen Kane essay] by Godfrey Cheshire on the National Film Registry website * Citizen Kane essay by Daniel Eagan in [https://books.google.com/books?id=deq3xI8OmCkC ''America's Film Legacy: The Authoritative Guide to the Landmark Movies in the National Film Registry], A&C Black, 2010 , pp. 735–737 * [http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/wellesbib.html#kane Citizen Kane'' bibliography] via the UC Berkeley Media Resources Center * [http://www.afi.com/100years/movies10.aspx The American Film Institute's "100 Greatest Movies" list] * [http://www.americanmusicpreservation.com/CitizenKanefilmscore.htm Citizen Kane and Bernard Herrmann's film score] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170103131720/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/kane2/ PBS: Citizen Kane] (Archived) * [http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090713051923/http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/45/kane.htm Bright Lights Film Journal Essay] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120711082553/http://rogerebert.suntimes.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=%2F19980524%2FREVIEWS08%2F401010334%2F1023 Roger Ebert: Citizen Kane] * [http://hem.bredband.net/b139242 The Unofficial Citizen Kane Page] * [https://entertainment.time.com/2005/02/12/all-time-100-movies/slide/citizen-kane-1941-2/ Time Magazine Top 100] * [http://www.filmsite.org/citi.html Greatest films] * [http://www.dvdjournal.com/reviews/c/citizenkane.shtml DVD review] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20120422005046/http://www.moviemoviesite.com/Films/1941/citizen_kane/secret_life/contents.htm "Scene-by-scene analysis"] at Movie Movie }} Category:1941 films Category:1940s American films Category:1940s English-language films Category:1941 directorial debut films Category:1941 drama films Category:American black-and-white films Category:American business films Category:American drama films Category:American nonlinear narrative films Category:Censorship in the Soviet Union Category:Films about Adolf Hitler Category:Cultural depictions of Neville Chamberlain Category:Drama films based on actual events Category:Expressionist films Category:Films à clef Category:Films about mass media owners Category:Films about media manipulation Category:Films about newspaper publishing Category:Films about opera Category:Films about tabloid journalism Category:Films about the mass media in the United States Category:Films directed by Orson Welles Category:Films scored by Bernard Herrmann Category:Films set in New York City Category:Films set in Florida Category:Films set in 1871 Category:Films set in 1898 Category:Films set in the 1900s Category:Films set in the 1910s Category:Films set in the 1920s Category:Films set in the 1930s Category:Films set in 1941 Category:Films set in country houses<!--Xanadu--> Category:Films set in libraries Category:Films shot in San Diego Category:Films whose writer won the Best Original Screenplay Academy Award Category:Films with screenplays by Herman J. Mankiewicz Category:Films with screenplays by Orson Welles Category:RKO Pictures films Category:Spanish–American War films Category:United States National Film Registry films Category:Works about William Randolph Hearst
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizen_Kane
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Code
}} In communications and information processing, code is a system of rules to convert information—such as a letter, word, sound, image, or gesture—into another form, sometimes shortened or secret, for communication through a communication channel or storage in a storage medium. An early example is an invention of language, which enabled a person, through speech, to communicate what they thought, saw, heard, or felt to others. But speech limits the range of communication to the distance a voice can carry and limits the audience to those present when the speech is uttered. The invention of writing, which converted spoken language into visual symbols, extended the range of communication across space and time. The process of encoding converts information from a source into symbols for communication or storage. Decoding is the reverse process, converting code symbols back into a form that the recipient understands, such as English or/and Spanish. One reason for coding is to enable communication in places where ordinary plain language, spoken or written, is difficult or impossible. For example, semaphore, where the configuration of flags held by a signaler or the arms of a semaphore tower encodes parts of the message, typically individual letters, and numbers. Another person standing a great distance away can interpret the flags and reproduce the words sent. Theory In information theory and computer science, a code is usually considered as an algorithm that uniquely represents symbols from some source alphabet, by encoded strings, which may be in some other target alphabet. An extension of the code for representing sequences of symbols over the source alphabet is obtained by concatenating the encoded strings. Before giving a mathematically precise definition, this is a brief example. The mapping :<math>C = \{\, a\mapsto 0, b\mapsto 01, c\mapsto 011\,\}</math> is a code, whose source alphabet is the set <math>\{a,b,c\}</math> and whose target alphabet is the set <math>\{0,1\}</math>. Using the extension of the code, the encoded string 0011001 can be grouped into codewords as 0 011 0 01, and these in turn can be decoded to the sequence of source symbols acab. Using terms from formal language theory, the precise mathematical definition of this concept is as follows: let S and T be two finite sets, called the source and target alphabets, respectively. A code <math>C:\, S \to T^*</math> is a total function mapping each symbol from S to a sequence of symbols over T. The extension <math>C'</math> of <math>C</math>, is a homomorphism of <math>S^*</math> into <math>T^*</math>, which naturally maps each sequence of source symbols to a sequence of target symbols. Variable-length codes In this section, we consider codes that encode each source (clear text) character by a code word from some dictionary, and concatenation of such code words give us an encoded string. Variable-length codes are especially useful when clear text characters have different probabilities; see also entropy encoding. A prefix code is a code with the "prefix property": there is no valid code word in the system that is a prefix (start) of any other valid code word in the set. Huffman coding is the most known algorithm for deriving prefix codes. Prefix codes are widely referred to as "Huffman codes" even when the code was not produced by a Huffman algorithm. Other examples of prefix codes are country calling codes, the country and publisher parts of ISBNs, and the Secondary Synchronization Codes used in the UMTS WCDMA 3G Wireless Standard. Kraft's inequality characterizes the sets of codeword lengths that are possible in a prefix code. Virtually any uniquely decodable one-to-many code, not necessarily a prefix one, must satisfy Kraft's inequality. Error-correcting codes Codes may also be used to represent data in a way more resistant to errors in transmission or storage. This so-called error-correcting code works by including carefully crafted redundancy with the stored (or transmitted) data. Examples include Hamming codes, Reed–Solomon, Reed–Muller, Walsh–Hadamard, Bose–Chaudhuri–Hochquenghem, Turbo, Golay, algebraic geometry codes, low-density parity-check codes, and space–time codes. Error detecting codes can be optimised to detect burst errors, or random errors. Examples Codes in communication used for brevity A cable code replaces words (e.g. ship or invoice) with shorter words, allowing the same information to be sent with fewer characters, more quickly, and less expensively. Codes can be used for brevity. When telegraph messages were the state of the art in rapid long-distance communication, elaborate systems of commercial codes that encoded complete phrases into single mouths (commonly five-minute groups) were developed, so that telegraphers became conversant with such "words" as BYOXO ("Are you trying to weasel out of our deal?"), LIOUY ("Why do you not answer my question?"), BMULD ("You're a skunk!"), or AYYLU ("Not clearly coded, repeat more clearly."). Code words were chosen for various reasons: length, pronounceability, etc. Meanings were chosen to fit perceived needs: commercial negotiations, military terms for military codes, diplomatic terms for diplomatic codes, any and all of the preceding for espionage codes. Codebooks and codebook publishers proliferated, including one run as a front for the American Black Chamber run by Herbert Yardley between the First and Second World Wars. The purpose of most of these codes was to save on cable costs. The use of data coding for data compression predates the computer era; an early example is the telegraph Morse code where more-frequently used characters have shorter representations. Techniques such as Huffman coding are now used by computer-based algorithms to compress large data files into a more compact form for storage or transmission. Character encodings Character encodings are representations of textual data. A given character encoding may be associated with a specific character set (the collection of characters which it can represent), though some character sets have multiple character encodings and vice versa. Character encodings may be broadly grouped according to the number of bytes required to represent a single character: there are single-byte encodings, multibyte (also called wide) encodings, and variable-width (also called variable-length) encodings. The earliest character encodings were single-byte, the best-known example of which is ASCII. ASCII remains in use today, for example in HTTP headers. However, single-byte encodings cannot model character sets with more than 256 characters. Scripts that require large character sets such as Chinese, Japanese and Korean must be represented with multibyte encodings. Early multibyte encodings were fixed-length, meaning that although each character was represented by more than one byte, all characters used the same number of bytes ("word length"), making them suitable for decoding with a lookup table. The final group, variable-width encodings, is a subset of multibyte encodings. These use more complex encoding and decoding logic to efficiently represent large character sets while keeping the representations of more commonly used characters shorter or maintaining backward compatibility properties. This group includes UTF-8, an encoding of the Unicode character set; UTF-8 is the most common encoding of text media on the Internet. Genetic code Biological organisms contain genetic material that is used to control their function and development. This is DNA, which contains units named genes from which messenger RNA is derived. This in turn produces proteins through a genetic code in which a series of triplets (codons) of four possible nucleotides can be translated into one of twenty possible amino acids. A sequence of codons results in a corresponding sequence of amino acids that form a protein molecule; a type of codon called a stop codon signals the end of the sequence. Gödel code In mathematics, a Gödel code is the basis for the proof of Gödel's incompleteness theorem. Here, the idea is to map mathematical notation to a natural number (using a Gödel numbering). Other There are codes using colors, like traffic lights, the color code employed to mark the nominal value of the electrical resistors or that of the trashcans devoted to specific types of garbage (paper, glass, organic, etc.). In marketing, coupon codes can be used for a financial discount or rebate when purchasing a product from a (usual internet) retailer. In military environments, specific sounds with the cornet are used for different uses: to mark some moments of the day, to command the infantry on the battlefield, etc. Communication systems for sensory impairments, such as sign language for deaf people and braille for blind people, are based on movement or tactile codes. Musical scores are the most common way to encode music. Specific games have their own code systems to record the matches, e.g. chess notation. Cryptography In the history of cryptography, codes were once common for ensuring the confidentiality of communications, although ciphers are now used instead. Secret codes intended to obscure the real messages, ranging from serious (mainly espionage in military, diplomacy, business, etc.) to trivial (romance, games) can be any kind of imaginative encoding: flowers, game cards, clothes, fans, hats, melodies, birds, etc., in which the sole requirement is the pre-agreement on the meaning by both the sender and the receiver. Other examples Other examples of encoding include: *Encoding (in cognition) - a basic perceptual process of interpreting incoming stimuli; technically speaking, it is a complex, multi-stage process of converting relatively objective sensory input (e.g., light, sound) into a subjectively meaningful experience. *A content format - a specific encoding format for converting a specific type of data to information. *Text encoding uses a markup language to tag the structure and other features of a text to facilitate processing by computers. (See also Text Encoding Initiative.) *Semantics encoding of formal language A informal language B is a method of representing all terms (e.g. programs or descriptions) of language A using language B. *Data compression transforms a signal into a code optimized for transmission or storage, generally done with a codec. *Neural encoding - the way in which information is represented in neurons. *Memory encoding - the process of converting sensations into memories. *Television encoding: NTSC, PAL and SECAM Other examples of decoding include: * Decoding (computer science) * Decoding methods, methods in communication theory for decoding codewords sent over a noisy channel * Digital signal processing, the study of signals in a digital representation and the processing methods of these signals * Digital-to-analog converter, the use of analog circuit for decoding operations * Word decoding, the use of phonics to decipher print patterns and translate them into the sounds of language Codes and acronyms Acronyms and abbreviations can be considered codes, and in a sense, all languages and writing systems are codes for human thought. International Air Transport Association airport codes are three-letter codes used to designate airports and used for bag tags. Station codes are similarly used on railways but are usually national, so the same code can be used for different stations if they are in different countries. Occasionally, a code word achieves an independent existence (and meaning) while the original equivalent phrase is forgotten or at least no longer has the precise meaning attributed to the code word. For example, '30' was widely used in journalism to mean "end of story", and has been used in other contexts to signify "the end". See also * ADDML * Asemic writing * Cipher * Code (semiotics) * Cultural code * Equipment codes * Quantum error correction * Semiotics * Universal language References * Further reading* Category:Signal processing
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code
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5228
Cheirogaleidae
| synonyms = * Microcebina <small>Gray, 1870</small> * Cheirogalina <small>Gray, 1872</small> | synonyms_ref }} The Cheirogaleidae are the family of strepsirrhine primates containing the various dwarf and mouse lemurs. Like all other lemurs, cheirogaleids live exclusively on the island of Madagascar. Characteristics Cheirogaleids are smaller than the other lemurs and, in fact, they are the smallest primates. They have soft, long fur, colored grey-brown to reddish on top, with a generally brighter underbelly. Typically, they have small ears, large, close-set eyes, and long hind legs. Like all strepsirrhines, they have fine claws at the second toe of the hind legs. They grow to a size of only 13 to 28 cm, with a tail that is very long, sometimes up to one and a half times as long as the body. They weigh no more than 500 grams, with some species weighing as little as 60 grams. Dwarf and mouse lemurs are nocturnal and arboreal. They are excellent climbers and can also jump far, using their long tails for balance. When on the ground (a rare occurrence), they move by hopping on their hind legs. They spend the day in tree hollows or leaf nests. Cheirogaleids are typically solitary, but sometimes live together in pairs. Their eyes possess a tapetum lucidum, a light-reflecting layer that improves their night vision. Some species, such as the lesser dwarf lemur, store fat at the hind legs and the base of the tail, and hibernate. Unlike lemurids, they have long upper incisors, although they do have the comb-like teeth typical of all strepsirhines. They have the dental formula: Cheirogaleids are omnivores, eating fruits, flowers and leaves (and sometimes nectar), as well as insects, spiders, and small vertebrates. * Infraorder Lemuriformes ** Family Cheirogaleidae *** Genus Cheirogaleus: dwarf lemurs **** Montagne d'Ambre dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus andysabini **** Furry-eared dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus crossleyi **** Groves' dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus grovesi **** Lavasoa dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus lavasoensis **** Greater dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus major **** Fat-tailed dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus medius **** Lesser iron-gray dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus minusculus **** Ankarana dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus shethi **** Sibree's dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus sibreei **** Thomas' dwarf lemur, Cheirogaleus thomasi *** Genus Microcebus: mouse lemurs **** Boraha mouse lemur Microcebus boraha **** Gerp's mouse lemur. Microcebus gerpi **** Reddish-gray mouse lemur, Microcebus griseorufus **** Jolly's mouse lemur, Microcebus jollyae **** Jonah's mouse lemur, Microcebus jonahi **** Goodman's mouse lemur, Microcebus lehilahytsara **** MacArthur's mouse lemur, Microcebus macarthurii **** Claire's mouse lemur, Microcebus mamiratra, **** Northern rufous mouse lemur, Microcebus tavaratra *** Genus Mirza: giant mouse lemurs **** Coquerel's giant mouse lemur or Coquerel's dwarf lemur, Mirza coquereli **** Northern giant mouse lemur, Mirza zaza *** Genus Allocebus **** Hairy-eared dwarf lemur, Allocebus trichotis *** Genus Phaner: fork-marked lemurs **** Masoala fork-marked lemur, Phaner furcifer **** Pale fork-marked lemur, Phaner pallescens **** Pariente's fork-marked lemur, Phaner parienti **** Amber Mountain fork-marked lemur, Phaner electromontis Footnotes *According to the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the correct name for this family should be Microcebidae, but the name Cheirogaleidae has been retained for stability.<ref name="1997McKenna" /> *In 2008, 7 new species of Microcebus were formally recognized,<ref nameMittermeier2008/> but Microcebus lokobensis (Lokobe mouse lemur) was not among the additions, even though it was described in 2006. Therefore, its status as a species is still questionable.References Category:Lemurs Category:Primate families Category:Taxa named by John Edward Gray Category:Taxa described in 1873
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheirogaleidae
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Callitrichidae
The Callitrichidae (also called Arctopitheci or Hapalidae) are a family of New World monkeys, including marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins. At times, this group of animals has been regarded as a subfamily, called the Callitrichinae, of the family Cebidae. This taxon was traditionally thought to be a primitive lineage, from which all the larger-bodied platyrrhines evolved. However, some works argue that callitrichids are actually a dwarfed lineage. Ancestral stem-callitrichids likely were "normal-sized" ceboids that were dwarfed through evolutionary time. This may exemplify a rare example of insular dwarfing in a mainland context, with the "islands" being formed by biogeographic barriers during arid climatic periods when forest distribution became patchy, and/or by the extensive river networks in the Amazon Basin. Callitrichids typically live in small, territorial groups of about five or six animals. Their social organization is unique among primates, and is called a "cooperative polyandrous group". This communal breeding system involves groups of multiple males and females, but only one female is reproductively active. Females mate with more than one male and each shares the responsibility of carrying the offspring. <!-- Original text on social structure, not originally references inline. Material needs to be reconciled with what is directly above. --> <!-- Studies in captivity, and the first field studies, suggested that the breeding group was invariably a single monogamous pair; subsequent field work on brown-mantled tamarins (Saguinus fuscicollis) has shown that many of the groups involve multiple males, and polyandry seems to be the more common arrangement, though monogamous pairs do occur, and rarely does polygyny. In polyandrous groups, both (or all) the mature males regularly copulate with the female, and all contribute equally to parental care. It is now thought that this flexible system, with a tendency towards polyandry, may be the typical mating system among callitrichids; though, until field studies on more species have been completed, any generalisation must be tentative. --> They are the only primate group that regularly produces twins, which constitute over 80% of births in species that have been studied. Unlike other male primates, male callitrichids generally provide as much parental care as females. Parental duties may include carrying, protecting, feeding, comforting, and even engaging in play behavior with offspring. In some cases, such as in the cotton-top tamarin (Saguinus oedipus), males, particularly those that are paternal, even show a greater involvement in caregiving than females. The typical social structure seems to constitute a breeding group, with several of their previous offspring living in the group and providing significant help in rearing the young.Species and subspecies list (Saguinus imperator)]] Taxa included in the Callitrichidae are: *Family Callitrichidae ** Genus Saguinus *** Subgenus Saguinus **** Red-handed tamarin, Saguinus midas **** Western black tamarin, Saguinus niger **** Eastern black-handed tamarin, Saguinus ursulus **** Pied tamarin, Saguinus bicolor **** Martins's tamarin, Saguinus martinsi ***** Saguinus martinsi martinsi ***** Saguinus martinsi ochraceus **** White-footed tamarin, Saguinus leucopus **** Cottontop tamarin, Saguinus oedipus **** Geoffroy's tamarin, Saguinus geoffroyi *** Subgenus Tamarinus **** Moustached tamarin, Saguinus mystax ***** Spix's moustached tamarin, Saguinus mystax mystax ***** Red-capped moustached tamarin, Saguinus mystax pileatus ***** White-rump moustached tamarin, Saguinus mystax pluto **** White-lipped tamarin, Saguinus labiatus ***** Geoffroy's red-bellied tamarin, Saguinus labiatus labiatus ***** Gray's red-bellied tamarin, Saguinus labiatus rufiventer ***** Thomas's red-bellied tamarin, Saguinus labiatus thomasi **** Emperor tamarin, Saguinus imperator ***** Black-chinned emperor tamarin, Saguinus imperator imperator ***** Bearded emperor tamarin, Saguinus imperator subgrisescens **** Mottle-faced tamarin, Saguinus inustus ** Genus Leontocebus *** Black-mantled tamarin, Leontocebus nigricollis **** Spix's black-mantle tamarin, Leontocebus nigricollis nigricollis **** Graells's tamarin, Leontocebus nigricollis graellsi **** Hernández-Camacho's black-mantle tamarin, Leontocebus nigricollis hernandezi *** Brown-mantled tamarin, Leontocebus fuscicollis **** Avila Pires' saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus fuscicollis avilapiresi **** Spix's saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus fuscicollis fuscicollis **** Mura's saddleback tamarin, Leontocebus fuscicollis mura **** Lako's saddleback tamarin, Leontocebus fuscicollis primitivus *** Andean saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus leucogenys *** Lesson's saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus fuscus *** Cruz Lima's saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus cruzlimai *** Weddell's saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus weddelli **** Weddell's tamarin, Leontocebus weddelli weddelli **** Crandall's saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus weddelli crandalli **** White-mantled tamarin, Leontocebus weddelli melanoleucus *** Golden-mantled tamarin, Leontocebus tripartitus *** Illiger's saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus illigeri *** Red-mantled saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus lagonotus *** Geoffroy's saddle-back tamarin, Leontocebus nigrifrons ** Genus Leontopithecus *** Golden lion tamarin, Leontopithecus rosalia *** Golden-headed lion tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysomelas *** Black lion tamarin, Leontopithecus chrysopygus *** Superagui lion tamarin, Leontopithecus caissara ** Genus Patasola *** Patasola magdalenae ** Genus Micodon *** Micodon kiotensis ** Genus Callimico *** Goeldi's marmoset, Callimico goeldii ** Genus Mico *** Silvery marmoset, Mico argentatus *** Roosmalens' dwarf marmoset, Mico humilis *** White marmoset, Mico leucippe *** Black-tailed marmoset, Mico melanurus *** Schneider's marmoset, Mico schneideri *** Hershkovitz's marmoset, Mico intermedia *** Emilia's marmoset, Mico emiliae *** Black-headed marmoset, Mico nigriceps *** Marca's marmoset, Mico marcai *** Santarem marmoset, Mico humeralifer *** Gold-and-white marmoset, Mico chrysoleucos *** Maués marmoset, Mico mauesi *** Sateré marmoset, Mico saterei *** Rio Acarí marmoset, Mico acariensis *** Rondon's marmoset, Mico rondoni *** Munduruku marmoset, Mico munduruku ** Genus Cebuella *** Western pygmy marmoset, Cebuella pygmaea *** Eastern pygmy marmoset, Cebuella niveiventris ** Genus Callithrix *** Common marmoset, Callithrix jacchus *** Black-tufted marmoset, Callithrix penicillata *** Wied's marmoset, Callithrix kuhlii *** White-headed marmoset, Callithrix geoffroyi *** Buffy-tufted marmoset, Callithrix aurita *** Buffy-headed marmoset, Callithrix flaviceps References Category:Primate families Category:Primates of South America Category:Taxa named by Oldfield Thomas Category:Taxa described in 1903
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callitrichidae
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Cebidae
The Cebidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. Extant members are the capuchin and squirrel monkeys. Classification Previously, New World monkeys were divided between Callitrichidae and this family. For a few recent years, marmosets, tamarins, and lion tamarins were placed as a subfamily (Callitrichinae) in Cebidae, while moving other genera from Cebidae into the families Aotidae, Pitheciidae and Atelidae.<ref namemsw3/> The most recent classification of New World monkeys again splits the callitrichids off, leaving only the capuchins and squirrel monkeys in this family.<ref nameSAP/> (Cebus albifrons)]] ; * Subfamily Cebinae (capuchin monkeys) ** Genus Cebus (gracile capuchin monkeys) *** Colombian white-faced capuchin or Colombian white-headed capuchin, Cebus capucinus *** Panamanian white-faced capuchin or Panamanian white-headed capuchin, Cebus imitator *** Marañón white-fronted capuchin, Cebus yuracus *** Shock-headed capuchin, Cebus cuscinus *** Spix's white-fronted capuchin, Cebus unicolor *** Humboldt's white-fronted capuchin, Cebus albifrons *** Guianan weeper capuchin, Cebus olivaceus *** Chestnut capuchin, Cebus castaneus *** Ka'apor capuchin, Cebus kaapori *** Venezuelan brown capuchin, Cebus brunneus *** Sierra de Perijá white-fronted capuchin, Cebus leucocephalus *** Río Cesar white-fronted capuchin, Cebus cesare *** Varied white-fronted capuchin, Cebus versicolor *** Santa Marta white-fronted capuchin, Cebus malitiosus *** Ecuadorian white-fronted capuchin, Cebus aequatorialis ** Genus Sapajus (robust capuchin monkeys) *** Tufted capuchin, Sapajus apella *** Blond capuchin, Sapajus flavius *** Black-striped capuchin, Sapajus libidinosus *** Azaras's capuchin, Sapajus cay *** Black capuchin, Sapajus nigritus *** Crested capuchin, Sapajus robustus *** Golden-bellied capuchin, Sapajus xanthosternos * Subfamily Saimiriinae (squirrel monkeys) ** Genus Saimiri *** Bare-eared squirrel monkey, Saimiri ustus *** Black squirrel monkey, Saimiri vanzolinii *** Black-capped squirrel monkey, Saimiri boliviensis *** Central American squirrel monkey, Saimiri oerstedi *** Guianan squirrel monkey, Saimiri sciureus *** Humboldt's squirrel monkey, Saimiri cassiquiarensis *** Collins' squirrel monkey, Saimiri collinsi Extinct taxa *Genus Panamacebus **Panamacebus transitus *Subfamily Cebinae **Genus Acrecebus ***Acrecebus fraileyi **Genus Killikaike ***Killikaike blakei **Genus Dolichocebus ***Dolichocebus gaimanensis *Subfamily Saimiriinae **Genus Saimiri ***Saimiri fieldsi ***Saimiri annectens **Genus Patasola ***Patasola magdalenae References Category:New World monkeys Category:Primate families Category:Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte Category:Taxa described in 1831
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cebidae
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Chondrichthyes
Early Silurian (Aeronian) - Present | image = Chondrichthyes.jpg | image_caption = Example of cartilaginous fishes: Elasmobranchii at the top of the image and Holocephali at the bottom of the image. | display_parents = 3 | taxon = Chondrichthyes | authority = Huxley, 1880 | subdivision_ranks = Living subclasses and orders | subdivision = * Subclass Elasmobranchii ** Superorder Selachimorpha *** Order Carcharhiniformes *** Order Lamniformes *** Order Orectolobiformes *** Order Heterodontiformes *** Order Squaliformes *** Order Squatiniformes *** Order Pristiophoriformes *** Order Hexanchiformes ** Superorder Batoidea *** Order Myliobatiformes *** Order Rajiformes *** Order Rhinopristiformes *** Order Torpediniformes * Subclass Holocephali ** Superorder Holocephalimorpha *** Order Chimaeriformes * Incertae sedis **†Bandringa **†Delphyodontos **†Listracanthidae ** †Mcmurdodontidae ** †Nanocetorhinus ** †Plesioselachus ** †Psammodontiformes ** †Xiphodolamia }} Chondrichthyes (; ()|cartilage|| ()|fish}}) is a class of jawed fish that contains the cartilaginous fish or chondrichthyans, which all have skeletons primarily composed of cartilage. They can be contrasted with the Osteichthyes or bony fish, which have skeletons primarily composed of bone tissue. Chondrichthyes are aquatic vertebrates with paired fins, paired nares, placoid scales, conus arteriosus in the heart, and a lack of opercula and swim bladders. Within the infraphylum Gnathostomata, cartilaginous fishes are distinct from all other jawed vertebrates. The class is divided into two subclasses: Elasmobranchii (sharks, rays, skates and sawfish) and Holocephali (chimaeras, sometimes called ghost sharks, which are sometimes separated into their own class). Extant chondrichthyans range in size from the finless sleeper ray to the over whale shark. Anatomy Skeleton The skeleton is cartilaginous. The notochord is gradually replaced by a vertebral column during development, except in Holocephali, where the notochord stays intact. In some deepwater sharks, the column is reduced. As they do not have bone marrow, red blood cells are produced in the spleen and the epigonal organ (special tissue around the gonads, which is also thought to play a role in the immune system). They are also produced in the Leydig's organ, which is only found in certain cartilaginous fishes. The subclass Holocephali, which is a very specialized group, lacks both the Leydig's and epigonal organs. Appendages Apart from electric rays, which have a thick and flabby body, with soft, loose skin, chondrichthyans have tough skin covered with dermal teeth (again, Holocephali is an exception, as the teeth are lost in adults, only kept on the clasping organ seen on the caudal ventral surface of the male), also called placoid scales (or dermal denticles), making it feel like sandpaper. In most species, all dermal denticles are oriented in one direction, making the skin feel very smooth if rubbed in one direction and very rough if rubbed in the other. Originally, the pectoral and pelvic girdles, which do not contain any dermal elements, did not connect. In later forms, each pair of fins became ventrally connected in the middle when scapulocoracoid and puboischiadic bars evolved. In rays, the pectoral fins are connected to the head and are very flexible. One of the primary characteristics present in most sharks is the heterocercal tail, which aids in locomotion.Body covering Chondrichthyans have tooth-like scales called dermal denticles or placoid scales. Denticles usually provide protection, and in most cases, streamlining. Mucous glands exist in some species, as well. It is assumed that their oral teeth evolved from dermal denticles that migrated into the mouth, but it could be the other way around, as the teleost bony fish Denticeps clupeoides has most of its head covered by dermal teeth (as does, probably, Atherion elymus, another bony fish). This is most likely a secondary evolved characteristic, which means there is not necessarily a connection between the teeth and the original dermal scales. The old placoderms did not have teeth at all, but had sharp bony plates in their mouth. Thus, it is unknown whether the dermal or oral teeth evolved first. It has even been suggested that the original bony plates of all vertebrates are now gone and that the present scales are just modified teeth, even if both the teeth and body armor had a common origin a long time ago. However, there is currently no evidence of this.Respiratory system All chondrichthyans breathe through five to seven pairs of gills, depending on the species. In general, pelagic species must keep swimming to keep oxygenated water moving through their gills, whilst demersal species can actively pump water in through their spiracles and out through their gills. However, this is only a general rule and many species differ. A spiracle is a small hole found behind each eye. These can be tiny and circular, such as found on the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum), to extended and slit-like, such as found on the wobbegongs (Orectolobidae). Many larger, pelagic species, such as the mackerel sharks (Lamnidae) and the thresher sharks (Alopiidae), no longer possess them. Nervous system end of the skate is to the right.]] In chondrichthyans, the nervous system is composed of a small brain, 8–10 pairs of cranial nerves, and a spinal cord with spinal nerves. They have several sensory organs which provide information to be processed. Ampullae of Lorenzini are a network of small jelly filled pores called electroreceptors which help the fish sense electric fields in water. This aids in finding prey, navigation, and sensing temperature. The lateral line system has modified epithelial cells located externally which sense motion, vibration, and pressure in the water around them. Most species have large well-developed eyes. Also, they have very powerful nostrils and olfactory organs. Their inner ears consist of 3 large semicircular canals which aid in balance and orientation. Their sound detecting apparatus has limited range and is typically more powerful at lower frequencies. Some species have electric organs which can be used for defense and predation. They have relatively simple brains with the forebrain not greatly enlarged. The structure and formation of myelin in their nervous systems are nearly identical to that of tetrapods, which has led evolutionary biologists to believe that Chondrichthyes were a cornerstone group in the evolutionary timeline of myelin development.Immune systemLike all other jawed vertebrates, members of Chondrichthyes have an adaptive immune system.Reproduction Fertilization is internal. Development is usually live birth (ovoviviparous species) but can be through eggs (oviparous). Some rare species are viviparous. There is no parental care after birth; however, some chondrichthyans do guard their eggs. Capture-induced premature birth and abortion (collectively called capture-induced parturition) occurs frequently in sharks/rays when fished. Capture-induced parturition is often mistaken for natural birth by recreational fishers and is rarely considered in commercial fisheries management despite being shown to occur in at least 12% of live bearing sharks and rays (88 species to date). |- ! Holocephali | | Holocephali (complete-heads) is a subclass of which the order Chimaeriformes is the only surviving group. This group includes the rat fishes (e.g., Chimaera), rabbit-fishes (e.g., Hydrolagus) and elephant-fishes (Callorhynchus). Today, they preserve some features of elasmobranch life in Paleaozoic times, though in other respects they are aberrant. They live close to the bottom and feed on molluscs and other invertebrates. The tail is long and thin and they move by sweeping movements of the large pectoral fins. There is an erectile spine in front of the dorsal fin, sometimes poisonous. There is no stomach (that is, the gut is simplified and the 'stomach' is merged with the intestine), and the mouth is a small aperture surrounded by lips, giving the head a parrot-like appearance. The fossil record of the Holocephali starts in the Devonian period. The record is extensive, but most fossils are teeth, and the body forms of numerous species are not known, or at best poorly understood. |} {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=13 | Extant orders of cartilaginous fishes |- ! rowspan=2 | Group ! rowspan=2 | Order ! rowspan=2 | Image ! rowspan=2 | Common name ! rowspan=2 | Authority ! rowspan=2 | Families ! rowspan=2 | Genera ! colspan=4 | Species ! rowspan=2 | Note |- ! Total ! ! ! |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(110,110,170)" rowspan4 | <span style"color:white;">Galean<br />sharks</span> | aligncenter style"background:rgb(140,140,190)" | <span style="color:white;">Carcharhiniformes</span> | | align=center | ground<br />sharks | align=center | <small>Compagno, 1977</small> | align=center | 8 | align=center | 51 | align=center | >270 | align=center | 7 | align=center | 10 | align=center | 21 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(125,125,180)" | <span style="color:white;">Heterodontiformes</span> | | align=center | bullhead<br />sharks | align=center | <small>L. S. Berg, 1940</small> | align=center | 1 | align=center | 1 | align=center | 9 | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(140,140,190)" | <span style="color:white;">Lamniformes</span> | | align=center | mackerel<br />sharks | align=center | <small>L. S. Berg, 1958</small> | align=center | 7<br /><small>+2 extinct</small> | align=center | 10 | align=center | 16 | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | 10 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(125,125,180)" | <span style="color:white;">Orectolobiformes</span> | | align=center | carpet<br />sharks | align=center | <small>Applegate, 1972</small> | align=center | 7 | align=center | 13 | align=center | 43 | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | 7 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(110,110,170)" rowspan4 | <span style"color:white;">Squalomorph<br />sharks</span> | aligncenter style"background:rgb(140,140,190)" | <span style="color:white;">Hexanchiformes</span> | | align=center | frilled<br />and<br />cow sharks | align=center | <small>de Buen, 1926</small> | align=center | 2<br /><small>+3 extinct</small> | align=center | 4<br /><small>+11 extinct</small> | align=center | 7<br /><small>+33 extinct</small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(125,125,180)" | <span style="color:white;">Pristiophoriformes</span> | | align=center | sawsharks | align=center | <small>L. S. Berg, 1958</small> | align=center | 1 | align=center | 2 | align=center | 6 | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(140,140,190)" | <span style="color:white;">Squaliformes</span> | | align=center | dogfish<br />sharks | align=center | <small>Goodrich, 1909</small> | align=center | 7 | align=center | 23 | align=center | 126 | align=center | 1 | align=center | | align=center | 6 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(125,125,180)" | <span style="color:white;">Squatiniformes</span> | | align=center | angel<br />sharks | align=center | <small>Buen, 1926</small> | align=center | 1 | align=center | 1 | align=center | 24 | align=center | 3 | align=center | 4 | align=center | 5 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(110,110,170)" rowspan4 | <span style"color:white;">Rays</span> | aligncenter style"background:rgb(140,140,190)" | <span style="color:white;">Myliobatiformes</span> | | align=center | stingrays<br />and<br />relatives | align=center | <small>Compagno, 1973</small> | align=center | 10 | align=center | 29 | align=center | 223 | align=center | 1 | align=center | 16 | align=center | 33 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(125,125,180)" | <span style="color:white;">Rhinopristiformes</span> | | align=center | sawfishes | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | 1 | align=center | 2 | align=center | 5–7 | align=center | 5–7 | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(140,140,190)" | <span style="color:white;">Rajiformes</span> | | align=center | skates<br />and<br />guitarfishes | align=center | <small>L. S. Berg, 1940</small> | align=center | 5 | align=center | 36 | align=center | >270 | align=center | 4 | align=center | 12 | align=center | 26 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(125,125,180)" | <span style="color:white;">Torpediniformes</span> | | align=center | electric<br />rays | align=center | <small>de Buen, 1926</small> | align=center | 2 | align=center | 12 | align=center | 69 | align=center | 2 | align=center | | align=center | 9 | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(110,110,170)" rowspan1 | <span style"color:white;">Holocephali</span> | aligncenter style"background:rgb(140,140,190)" | <span style="color:white;">Chimaeriformes</span> | | align=center | chimaera | align=center | <small>Obruchev, 1953</small> | align=center | 3<br /><small>+2 extinct</small> | align=center | 6<br /><small>+3 extinct</small> | align=center | 39<br /><small>+17 extinct</small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |} {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" ! width450px | Taxonomy according to Leonard Compagno, 2005 with additions from |- | *†Order Mongolepidiformes <small>Karatajüte-Talimaa & Novitskaya, 1990</small> *†Order Omalodontiformes <small>Turner, 1997</small> *†Order Coronodontiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> *†Order Symmoriiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> *Subclass Holocephali **†Superorder Paraselachimorpha ***†Order Desmiodontiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> ***†Order Polysentoriformes <small>Cappetta, 1993</small> ***†Order Orodontiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> ***†Order Petalodontiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> ***†Order Helodontiformes <small>Patterson, 1965</small> ***†Order Iniopterygiformes <small>Zanger, 1973</small> ***†Order Debeeriiformes <small>Grogan & Lund, 2000</small> ***†Order Eugeneodontiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> **Superorder Holocephalimorpha <small></small> ***†Order Psammodontiformes* <small>Obruchev, 1953</small> ***†Order Copodontiformes <small>Obručhev, 1953</small> ***†Order Squalorajiformes <small></small> ***†Order Chondrenchelyiformes <small>Moy-Thomas, 1939</small> ***†Order Menaspiformes <small></small> ***†Order Cochliodontiformes <small>Obručhev, 1953</small> ***Order Chimaeriformes <small>Berg, 1940 sensu Obručhev, 1953</small> (chimaeras) *Subclass Elasmobranchii **†Plesioselachus <small></small> **†Order Antarctilamniformes <small>Ginter, Liao & Valenzuela-Rios, 2008</small> **†Order Elegestolepidiformes <small>Andreev et al., 2016</small> **†Order Lugalepidida <small>Karatajute-Talimaa, 1997</small> **†Order Squatinactiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> **†Order Protacrodontiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> **†Infraclass Cladoselachimorpha <small></small> ***†Order Cladoselachiformes <small>Dean, 1909</small> **†Infraclass Xenacanthimorpha <small>Berg, 1940</small> ***†Order Bransonelliformes <small>Hampe & Ivanov, 2007</small> ***†Order Xenacanthiformes <small>Berg, 1940</small> **Infraclass Euselachii (sharks and rays) ***†Order Altholepidiformes <small>Andreev et al., 2015</small> ***†Order Polymerolepidiformes <small></small> ***†Order Ptychodontiformes <small></small> ***†Order Ctenacanthiformes <small>Zangerl, 1981</small> ***†Division Hybodonta ****†Order Hybodontiformes <small>Owen, 1846</small> ***Division Neoselachii <small>Compagno, 1977</small> ****Subdivision Selachii (modern sharks) *****Superorder Galeomorphi <small>Compagno, 1977</small> ******Order Heterodontiformes (bullhead sharks) ******Order Orectolobiformes (carpet sharks) ******Order Lamniformes (mackerel sharks) ******Order Carcharhiniformes (ground sharks) *****Superorder Squalomorphi ******Order Chlamydoselachiformes ******Order Hexanchiformes (frilled and cow sharks) ******Order Squaliformes (dogfish sharks) ******†Order Protospinaciformes ******†Order Synechodontiformes ******Order Squatiniformes (angel sharks) ******Order Pristiophoriformes (sawsharks) ****Subdivision Batoidea *****Order Torpediniformes (electric rays) *****Order Pristiformes (sawfishes) *****Order Rajiformes (skates and guitarfishes) *****Order Myliobatiformes (stingrays and relatives) <small>* position uncertain</small> |- |} Evolution Cartilaginous fish are considered to have evolved from acanthodians. The discovery of Entelognathus and several examinations of acanthodian characteristics indicate that bony fish evolved directly from placoderm like ancestors, while acanthodians represent a paraphyletic assemblage leading to Chondrichthyes. Some characteristics previously thought to be exclusive to acanthodians are also present in basal cartilaginous fish. In particular, new phylogenetic studies find cartilaginous fish to be well nested among acanthodians, with Doliodus and Tamiobatis being the closest relatives to Chondrichthyes. Recent studies vindicate this, as Doliodus had a mosaic of chondrichthyan and acanthodian traits. Dating back to the Middle and Late Ordovician Period, many isolated scales, made of dentine and bone, have a structure and growth form that is chondrichthyan-like. They may be the remains of stem-chondrichthyans, but their classification remains uncertain. The earliest unequivocal fossils of acanthodian-grade cartilaginous fishes are Qianodus and Fanjingshania from the early Silurian (Aeronian) of Guizhou, China around 439 million years ago, which are also the oldest unambiguous remains of any jawed vertebrates. Shenacanthus vermiformis, which lived 436 million years ago, had thoracic armour plates resembling those of placoderms. By the start of the Early Devonian, 419 million years ago, jawed fishes had divided into three distinct groups: the now extinct placoderms (a paraphyletic assemblage of ancient armoured fishes), the bony fishes, and the clade that includes spiny sharks and early cartilaginous fish. The modern bony fishes, class Osteichthyes, appeared in the late Silurian or early Devonian, about 416 million years ago. The first abundant genus of shark, Cladoselache, appeared in the oceans during the Devonian Period. The first cartilaginous fishes evolved from Doliodus-like spiny shark ancestors. {| class="wikitable" |- ! colspan=10 | Extinct orders of cartilaginous fishes |- ! Group ! Order ! Image ! Common name ! Authority ! Families ! Genera ! Species ! Note |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(150,80,150)" rowspan13 | <span style"color:white;">Holocephali</span> | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Orodontiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Petalodontiformes</span> | | align=center | Petalodonts | align=center | <small></small>Zangerl, 1981 | align=center | 4 | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | Members of the holocephali, some genera resembled parrot fish, but some members of the Janassidae resembled skates. |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Helodontiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Iniopterygiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | Members of the holocephali that resembled flying fish, are often characterized by large eyes, large upturned pectoral fins, and club-like tails. |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Debeeriiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Symmoriida</span> | | align=center | Symmoriids | align=center | <small></small>Zangerl, 1981 (sensu Maisey, 2007) | align=center | 4 | align=center | | align=center | | valigntop | Members of the holocephali, they were heavily sexually dimorphic. |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Eugeneodontida</span> | | align=center | Eugeneodonts | align=center | <small></small>Eugeneodontida <small></small><small>Zangerl, 1981</small> | align=center | 4 | align=center | | align=center | | valigntop | Members of the holocephali, they are characterized by large tooth whorls in their jaws. |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Psammodonti-<br />formes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | Position uncertain |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Copodontiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Squalorajiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Chondrenchelyi-<br />formes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Menaspiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Cochliodontiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(150,80,150)" rowspan1 | <span style"color:white;">Squalomorph<br />sharks</span> | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Protospinaci-<br />formes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(150,80,150)" rowspan6 | <span style"color:white;">Other</span> | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Squatinactiformes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small>Cappetta et al., 1993 | align=center | 1 | align=center | 1 | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Protacrodonti-<br />formes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small> | align=center | | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Cladoselachi-<br />formes</span> | | align=center | | align=center | <small></small>Dean, 1894 | align=center | 1 | align=center | 2 | align=center | | valign=top | Holocephalans, and potential members of the symmoriida. |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Xenacanthiformes</span> | | align=center | Xenacanths | align=center | <small></small>Glikman, 1964 | align=center | 4 | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | Eel-like elasmobranchs that were some of the top freshwater predators of the late Paleozoic. |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(180,120,180)" | <span style="color:white;">†Ctenacanthi-<br />formes</span> | | align=center | Ctenacanths | align=center | <small></small>Glikman, 1964 | align=center | 2 | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | Shark-like elasmobranchs characterized by their robust heads and large dorsal fin spines. |- | aligncenter style"background:rgb(165,100,165)" | <span style="color:white;">†Hybodontiformes</span> | | align=center | Hybodonts | align=center | <small></small>Patterson, 1966 | align=center | 5 | align=center | | align=center | | valign=top | Shark-like elasmobranchs distinguished by their conical tooth shape, and the presence of a spine on each of their two dorsal fins. |} Taxonomy Subphylum Vertebrata └─Infraphylum Gnathostomata ├─Placodermi — extinct (armored gnathostomes) └Eugnathostomata (true jawed vertebrates) ├─Acanthodii (stem cartilaginous fish) └─Chondrichthyes (true cartilaginous fish) ├─Holocephali (chimaeras + several extinct clades) └Elasmobranchii (shark and rays) ├─Selachii (true sharks) └─Batoidea (rays and relatives) *Note: Lines show evolutionary relationships. See also * List of cartilaginous fish * Cartilaginous versus bony fishes * Largest cartilaginous fishes * Important Shark and Ray Areas (ISRA) * Threatened rays * Threatened sharks * Placodermi References <!------------------------------------------------------------ This article uses list-defined references in conjunction with the and templates to keep the body text clean. Please follow existing examples within the text and refer to the following documentation pages if needed: List-defined references: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:LDR Template : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:R Template : http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Sfn See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a discussion of different citation methods and how to generate footnotes using the --> }} Further reading * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040817003309/http://www.fmnh.helsinki.fi/users/haaramo/Metazoa/Deuterostoma/Chordata/Chondrichthyes/Chondrichthyes.htm#Elasmobranchii Taxonomy of Chondrichthyes] * [http://www.morphbank.net/Browse/ByImage/?tsn=159785 Images of many sharks, skates and rays on Morphbank] Category:Fish classes Category:Pridoli first appearances Category:Extant Silurian first appearances
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chondrichthyes
2025-04-05T18:27:07.131791
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Carl Linnaeus
| birth_place = Råshult, Sweden | death_date | death_place = Hammarby, Sweden | resting_place = Uppsala Cathedral | resting_place_coordinates | spouse = | children = 7 | fields = | workplaces = Uppsala University | alma_mater = | thesis_title = Dissertatio medica inauguralis in qua exhibetur hypothesis nova de febrium intermittentium causa | thesis_url https://books.google.com/books?idK8NkAAAAcAAJ&printsec=frontcover | thesis_year = 1735 | notable_students = | known_for = | awards = ForMemRS (1753); Golden Knight of the Pole Star (Sweden) | author_abbrev_bot = L. | author_abbrev_zoo = Linnaeus | signature = Linne autograph.png.svg | signature_alt = Carl v. Linné }} Carl Linnaeus ; .}} (23 May 1707.}} was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy". Many of his writings were in Latin; his name is rendered in Latin as and, after his 1761 ennoblement, as . Linnaeus was the son of a curate and was born in Råshult, in the countryside of Småland, southern Sweden. He received most of his higher education at Uppsala University and began giving lectures in botany there in 1730. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published the first edition of his in the Netherlands. He then returned to Sweden where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on several journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants and animals. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, while publishing several volumes. By the time of his death in 1778, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. Philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message: "Tell him I know no greater man on Earth." Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote: "With the exception of William Shakespeare and Baruch Spinoza, I know no one among the no longer living who has influenced me more strongly." Linnaeus has been called (Prince of Botanists) and "The Pliny of the North". He is also considered one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation L. is used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for a species' name. In zoology, the abbreviation Linnaeus is generally used; the abbreviations L., Linnæus, and Linné are also used. In older publications, the abbreviation "Linn." is found. Linnaeus's remains constitute the type specimen for the species Homo sapiens following the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the sole specimen that he is known to have examined was himself.Early lifeChildhood ]] Linnaeus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus (Nils) Ingemarsson (who later adopted the family name Linnaeus) and Christina Brodersonia. His siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus (who would eventually succeed their father as rector of Stenbrohult and write a manual on beekeeping), and Emerentia Linnæa. His father taught him Latin as a small child. One of a long line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister, and the curate of the small village of Stenbrohult in Småland. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius. A year after Linnaeus's birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curate's house. Even in his early years, Linnaeus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which immediately calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus and told him their names. Soon Linnaeus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants. Carl's father was the first in his ancestry to adopt a permanent surname. Before that, ancestors had used the patronymic naming system of Scandinavian countries: his father was named Ingemarsson after his father Ingemar Bengtsson. When Nils was admitted to the Lund University, he had to take on a family name. He adopted the Latinate name Linnæus after a giant linden tree (or lime tree), in Swedish, that grew on the family homestead. This name was spelled with the æ ligature. When Carl was born, he was named Carl Linnæus, with his father's family name. The son also always spelled it with the æ ligature, both in handwritten documents and in publications. Carl's patronymic would have been Nilsson, as in Carl Nilsson Linnæus. Early education Linnaeus's father began teaching him basic Latin, religion, and geography at an early age. When Linnaeus was seven, Nils decided to hire a tutor for him. The parents picked Johan Telander, a son of a local yeoman. Linnaeus did not like him, writing in his autobiography that Telander "was better calculated to extinguish a child's talents than develop them". Two years after his tutoring had begun, he was sent to the Lower Grammar School at Växjö in 1717. Linnaeus rarely studied, often going to the countryside to look for plants. At some point, his father went to visit him and, after hearing critical assessments by his preceptors, he decided to put the youth as an apprentice to some honest cobbler. He reached the last year of the Lower School when he was fifteen, which was taught by the headmaster, Daniel Lannerus, who was interested in botany. Lannerus noticed Linnaeus's interest in botany and gave him the run of his garden. He also introduced him to Johan Rothman, the state doctor of Småland and a teacher at Katedralskolan (a gymnasium) in Växjö. Also a botanist, Rothman broadened Linnaeus's interest in botany and helped him develop an interest in medicine. By the age of 17, Linnaeus had become well acquainted with the existing botanical literature. He remarks in his journal that he "read day and night, knowing like the back of my hand, Arvidh Månsson's Rydaholm Book of Herbs, Tillandz's Flora Åboensis, Palmberg's Serta Florea Suecana, Bromelii's Chloros Gothica and Rudbeckii's Hortus Upsaliensis". Linnaeus entered the Växjö Katedralskola in 1724, where he studied mainly Greek, Hebrew, theology, and mathematics, a curriculum designed for boys preparing for the priesthood. In the last year at the gymnasium, Linnaeus's father visited to ask the professors how his son's studies were progressing; to his dismay, most said that the boy would never become a scholar. Rothman believed otherwise, suggesting Linnaeus could have a future in medicine. The doctor offered to have Linnaeus live with his family in Växjö and to teach him physiology and botany. Nils accepted this offer.University studies Lund , by Ansgar Almquist]] Rothman showed Linnaeus that botany was a serious subject. He taught Linnaeus to classify plants according to Tournefort's system. Linnaeus was also taught about the sexual reproduction of plants, according to Sébastien Vaillant. He was registered as , the Latin form of his full name, which he also used later for his Latin publications. In his spare time, Linnaeus explored the flora of Skåne, together with students sharing the same interests. Uppsala depicted in (1729)]] In August 1728, Linnaeus decided to attend Uppsala University on the advice of Rothman, who believed it would be a better choice if Linnaeus wanted to study both medicine and botany. Rothman based this recommendation on the two professors who taught at the medical faculty at Uppsala: Olof Rudbeck the Younger and Lars Roberg. Although Rudbeck and Roberg had undoubtedly been good professors, by then they were older and not so interested in teaching. Rudbeck no longer gave public lectures, and had others stand in for him. The botany, zoology, pharmacology and anatomy lectures were not in their best state. In Uppsala, Linnaeus met a new benefactor, Olof Celsius, who was a professor of theology and an amateur botanist. He received Linnaeus into his home and allowed him use of his library, which was one of the richest botanical libraries in Sweden. In 1729, Linnaeus wrote a thesis, on plant sexual reproduction. This attracted the attention of Rudbeck; in May 1730, he selected Linnaeus to give lectures at the University although the young man was only a second-year student. His lectures were popular, and Linnaeus often addressed an audience of 300 people. In June, Linnaeus moved from Celsius's house to Rudbeck's to become the tutor of the three youngest of his 24 children. His friendship with Celsius did not wane and they continued their botanical expeditions. Over that winter, Linnaeus began to doubt Tournefort's system of classification and decided to create one of his own. His plan was to divide the plants by the number of stamens and pistils. He began writing several books, which would later result in, for example, and . He also produced a book on the plants grown in the Uppsala Botanical Garden, . Rudbeck's former assistant, Nils Rosén, returned to the University in March 1731 with a degree in medicine. Rosén started giving anatomy lectures and tried to take over Linnaeus's botany lectures, but Rudbeck prevented that. Until December, Rosén tutored Linnaeus privately in medicine. In December, Linnaeus had a "disagreement" with Rudbeck's wife and had to move out of his mentor's house; his relationship with Rudbeck did not appear to suffer. That Christmas, Linnaeus returned home to Stenbrohult to visit his parents for the first time in about three years. His mother had disapproved of his failing to become a priest, but she was pleased to learn he was teaching at the University.Expedition to Lapland During a visit with his parents, Linnaeus told them about his plan to travel to Lapland; Rudbeck had made the journey in 1695, but the detailed results of his exploration were lost in a fire seven years afterwards. Linnaeus's hope was to find new plants, animals and possibly valuable minerals. He was also curious about the customs of the native Sami people, reindeer-herding nomads who wandered Scandinavia's vast tundras. In April 1732, Linnaeus was awarded a grant from the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala for his journey. of Lapland, holding the twinflower, later known as Linnaea borealis, that became his personal emblem. Martin Hoffman, 1737.]] Linnaeus began his expedition from Uppsala on 12 May 1732, just before he turned 25. He travelled on foot and horse, bringing with him his journal, botanical and ornithological manuscripts and sheets of paper for pressing plants. Near Gävle he found great quantities of Campanula serpyllifolia, later known as Linnaea borealis, the twinflower that would become his favourite. He sometimes dismounted on the way to examine a flower or rock and was particularly interested in mosses and lichens, the latter a main part of the diet of the reindeer, a common and economically important animal in Lapland. Linnaeus travelled clockwise around the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, making major inland incursions from Umeå, Luleå and Tornio. He returned from his six-month-long, over expedition in October, having gathered and observed many plants, birds and rocks. Although Lapland was a region with limited biodiversity, Linnaeus described about 100 previously unidentified plants. These became the basis of his book . However, on the expedition to Lapland, Linnaeus used Latin names to describe organisms because he had not yet developed the binomial system. It was during this expedition that Linnaeus had a flash of insight regarding the classification of mammals. Upon observing the lower jawbone of a horse at the side of a road he was travelling, Linnaeus remarked: "If I only knew how many teeth and of what kind every animal had, how many teats and where they were placed, I should perhaps be able to work out a perfectly natural system for the arrangement of all quadrupeds." In 1734, Linnaeus led a small group of students to Dalarna. Funded by the Governor of Dalarna, the expedition was to catalogue known natural resources and discover new ones, but also to gather intelligence on Norwegian mining activities at Røros. In April 1735, at the suggestion of Sohlberg's father, Linnaeus and Sohlberg set out for the Dutch Republic, where Linnaeus intended to study medicine at the University of Harderwijk while tutoring Sohlberg in exchange for an annual salary. At the time, it was common for Swedes to pursue doctoral degrees in the Netherlands, then a highly revered place to study natural history. On the way, the pair stopped in Hamburg, where they met the mayor, who proudly showed them a supposed wonder of nature in his possession: the taxidermied remains of a seven-headed hydra. Linnaeus quickly discovered the specimen was a fake, cobbled together from the jaws and paws of weasels and the skins of snakes. The provenance of the hydra suggested to Linnaeus that it had been manufactured by monks to represent the Beast of Revelation. Even at the risk of incurring the mayor's wrath, Linnaeus made his observations public, dashing the mayor's dreams of selling the hydra for an enormous sum. Linnaeus and Sohlberg were forced to flee from Hamburg. Linnaeus began working towards his degree as soon as he reached Harderwijk, a university known for awarding degrees in as little as a week. in which he laid out his hypothesis that malaria arose only in areas with clay-rich soils. Although he failed to identify the true source of disease transmission, (i.e., the Anopheles mosquito), he did correctly predict that Artemisia annua (wormwood) would become a source of antimalarial medications. That summer Linnaeus reunited with Peter Artedi, a friend from Uppsala with whom he had once made a pact that should either of the two predecease the other, the survivor would finish the decedent's work. Ten weeks later, Artedi drowned in the canals of Amsterdam, leaving behind an unfinished manuscript on the classification of fish. Publishing of One of the first scientists Linnaeus met in the Netherlands was Johan Frederik Gronovius, to whom Linnaeus showed one of the several manuscripts he had brought with him from Sweden. The manuscript described a new system for classifying plants. When Gronovius saw it, he was very impressed, and offered to help pay for the printing. With an additional monetary contribution by the Scottish doctor Isaac Lawson, the manuscript was published as (1735). Linnaeus became acquainted with one of the most respected physicians and botanists in the Netherlands, Herman Boerhaave, who tried to convince Linnaeus to make a career there. Boerhaave offered him a journey to South Africa and America, but Linnaeus declined, stating he would not stand the heat. Instead, Boerhaave convinced Linnaeus that he should visit the botanist Johannes Burman. After his visit, Burman, impressed with his guest's knowledge, decided Linnaeus should stay with him during the winter. During his stay, Linnaeus helped Burman with his . Burman also helped Linnaeus with the books on which he was working: and .George Clifford, Philip Miller, and Johann Jacob Dillenius|image1 Hortus Cliffortianus folia simpl.png|alt1Folia Simplicia|width1107|image2Hortus Cliffortianus folia compos.png|alt2Folia Composita et Folia Determinata|width2106}} In August 1735, during Linnaeus's stay with Burman, he met George Clifford III, a director of the Dutch East India Company and the owner of a rich botanical garden at the estate of Hartekamp in Heemstede. Clifford was very impressed with Linnaeus's ability to classify plants, and invited him to become his physician and superintendent of his garden. Linnaeus had already agreed to stay with Burman over the winter, and could thus not accept immediately. However, Clifford offered to compensate Burman by offering him a copy of Sir Hans Sloane's Natural History of Jamaica, a rare book, if he let Linnaeus stay with him, and Burman accepted. On 24 September 1735, Linnaeus moved to Hartekamp to become personal physician to Clifford, and curator of Clifford's herbarium. He was paid 1,000 florins a year, with free board and lodging. Though the agreement was only for a winter of that year, Linnaeus practically stayed there until 1738. It was here that he wrote a book Hortus Cliffortianus, in the preface of which he described his experience as "the happiest time of my life". (A portion of Hartekamp was declared as public garden in April 1956 by the Heemstede local authority, and was named "Linnaeushof". It eventually became, as it is claimed, the biggest playground in Europe.) In July 1736, Linnaeus travelled to England, at Clifford's expense. He went to London to visit Sir Hans Sloane, a collector of natural history, and to see his cabinet, as well as to visit the Chelsea Physic Garden and its keeper, Philip Miller. He taught Miller about his new system of subdividing plants, as described in . At first, Miller was reluctant to use the new binomial nomenclature, preferring instead the classifications of Joseph Pitton de Tournefort and John Ray. Nevertheless, Linnaeus applauded Miller's Gardeners Dictionary. The conservative Miller actually retained in his dictionary a number of pre-Linnaean binomial signifiers discarded by Linnaeus but which have been retained by modern botanists. He only fully changed to the Linnaean system in the edition of The Gardeners Dictionary of 1768. Miller ultimately was impressed, and from then on started to arrange the garden according to Linnaeus's system. Linnaeus also travelled to Oxford University to visit the botanist Johann Jacob Dillenius. He failed to make Dillenius publicly fully accept his new classification system, though the two men remained in correspondence for many years afterwards. Linnaeus dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as "opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non-vidit". Linnaeus would later name a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour. He then returned to Hartekamp, bringing with him many specimens of rare plants. The next year, 1737, he published , in which he described 935 genera of plants, and shortly thereafter he supplemented it with , with another sixty (sexaginta) genera. His work at Hartekamp led to another book, , a catalogue of the botanical holdings in the herbarium and botanical garden of Hartekamp. He wrote it in nine months (completed in July 1737), but it was not published until 1738. Linnaeus stayed with Clifford at Hartekamp until 18 October 1737 (new style), when he left the house to return to Sweden. Illness and the kindness of Dutch friends obliged him to stay some months longer in Holland. In May 1738, he set out for Sweden again. On the way home, he stayed in Paris for about a month, visiting botanists such as Antoine de Jussieu. After his return, Linnaeus never again left Sweden.Return to SwedenWhen Linnaeus returned to Sweden on 28 June 1738, he went to Falun, where he entered into an engagement to Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Three months later, he moved to Stockholm to find employment as a physician, and thus to make it possible to support a family. Once again, Linnaeus found a patron; he became acquainted with Count Carl Gustav Tessin, who helped him get work as a physician at the Admiralty. During this time in Stockholm, Linnaeus helped found the Royal Swedish Academy of Science; he became the first Praeses of the academy by drawing of lots. Because his finances had improved and were now sufficient to support a family, he received permission to marry his fiancée, Sara Elisabeth Moræa. Their wedding was held 26 June 1739. Seventeen months later, Sara gave birth to their first son, Carl. Two years later, a daughter, Elisabeth Christina, was born, and the subsequent year Sara gave birth to Sara Magdalena, who died when 15 days old. Sara and Linnaeus would later have four other children: Lovisa, Sara Christina, Johannes and Sophia. ]] In May 1741, Linnaeus was appointed Professor of Medicine at Uppsala University, first with responsibility for medicine-related matters. Soon, he changed place with the other Professor of Medicine, Nils Rosén, and thus was responsible for the Botanical Garden (which he would thoroughly reconstruct and expand), botany and natural history, instead. In October that same year, his wife and nine-month-old son followed him to live in Uppsala. Öland and Gotland Ten days after he was appointed professor, he undertook an expedition to the island provinces of Öland and Gotland with six students from the university to look for plants useful in medicine. They stayed on Öland until 21 June, then sailed to Visby in Gotland. Linnaeus and the students stayed on Gotland for about a month, and then returned to Uppsala. During this expedition, they found 100 previously unrecorded plants. The observations from the expedition were later published in , written in Swedish. Like , it contained both zoological and botanical observations, as well as observations concerning the culture in Öland and Gotland. During the summer of 1745, Linnaeus published two more books: and . was a strictly botanical book, while was zoological. Anders Celsius had created the temperature scale named after him in 1742. Celsius's scale was originally inverted compared to the way it is used today, with water boiling at 0 °C and freezing at 100 °C. Linnaeus was the one who inverted the scale to its present usage, in 1745.VästergötlandIn the summer of 1746, Linnaeus was once again commissioned by the Government to carry out an expedition, this time to the Swedish province of Västergötland. He set out from Uppsala on 12 June and returned on 11 August. On the expedition his primary companion was Erik Gustaf Lidbeck, a student who had accompanied him on his previous journey. Linnaeus described his findings from the expedition in the book , published the next year. After he returned from the journey, the Government decided Linnaeus should take on another expedition to the southernmost province Scania. This journey was postponed, as Linnaeus felt too busy. The same year he was elected member of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Scania In the spring of 1749, Linnaeus could finally journey to Scania, again commissioned by the government. With him he brought his student Olof Söderberg. On the way to Scania, he made his last visit to his brothers and sisters in Stenbrohult since his father had died the previous year. The expedition was similar to the previous journeys in most aspects, but this time he was also ordered to find the best place to grow walnut and Swedish whitebeam trees; these trees were used by the military to make rifles. While there, they also visited the Ramlösa mineral spa, where he remarked on the quality of its ferruginous water. The journey was successful, and Linnaeus's observations were published the next year in . Rector of Uppsala University in Uppsala]] In 1750, Linnaeus became rector of Uppsala University, starting a period where natural sciences were esteemed. His lectures were normally very popular and were often held in the Botanical Garden. He tried to teach the students to think for themselves and not trust anybody, not even him. Even more popular than the lectures were the botanical excursions made every Saturday during summer, where Linnaeus and his students explored the flora and fauna in the vicinity of Uppsala. Philosophia Botanica Linnaeus published Philosophia Botanica in 1751. The book contained a complete survey of the taxonomy system he had been using in his earlier works. It also contained information of how to keep a journal on travels and how to maintain a botanical garden. Nutrix Noverca During Linnaeus's time it was normal for upper class women to have wet nurses for their babies. Linnaeus joined an ongoing campaign to end this practice in Sweden and promote breast-feeding by mothers. In 1752 Linnaeus published a thesis along with Frederick Lindberg, a physician student, based on their experiences. In the tradition of the period, this dissertation was essentially an idea of the presiding reviewer (prases) expounded upon by the student. Linnaeus's dissertation was translated into French by J. E. Gilibert in 1770 as . Linnaeus suggested that children might absorb the personality of their wet nurse through the milk. He admired the child care practices of the Lapps and pointed out how healthy their babies were compared to those of Europeans who employed wet nurses. He compared the behaviour of wild animals and pointed out how none of them denied their newborns their breastmilk. Species Plantarum Linnaeus published Species Plantarum, the work which is now internationally accepted as the starting point of modern botanical nomenclature, in 1753. The first volume was issued on 24 May, the second volume followed on 16 August of the same year. The book contained 1,200 pages and was published in two volumes; it described over 7,300 species. The same year the king dubbed him knight of the Order of the Polar Star, the first civilian in Sweden to become a knight in this order. He was then seldom seen not wearing the order's insignia. Ennoblement ]] Linnaeus felt Uppsala was too noisy and unhealthy, so he bought two farms in 1758: Hammarby and Sävja. The next year, he bought a neighbouring farm, Edeby. He spent the summers with his family at Hammarby; initially it only had a small one-storey house, but in 1762 a new, larger main building was added. In Hammarby, Linnaeus made a garden where he could grow plants that could not be grown in the Botanical Garden in Uppsala. He began constructing a museum on a hill behind Hammarby in 1766, where he moved his library and collection of plants. A fire that destroyed about one third of Uppsala and had threatened his residence there necessitated the move. Since the initial release of in 1735, the book had been expanded and reprinted several times; the tenth edition was released in 1758. This edition established itself as the starting point for zoological nomenclature, the equivalent of . The Swedish King Adolf Frederick granted Linnaeus nobility in 1757, but he was not ennobled until 1761. With his ennoblement, he took the name Carl von Linné (Latinised as ), 'Linné' being a shortened and gallicised version of 'Linnæus', and the German nobiliary particle 'von' signifying his ennoblement. Linnaeus inscribed this personal motto in books that were given to him by friends. After his ennoblement, Linnaeus continued teaching and writing. In total, he presided at 186 PhD ceremonies, with many of the dissertations written by himself. His reputation had spread over the world, and he corresponded with many different people. For example, Catherine II of Russia sent him seeds from her country. He also corresponded with Giovanni Antonio Scopoli, "the Linnaeus of the Austrian Empire", who was a doctor and a botanist in Idrija, Duchy of Carniola (nowadays Slovenia). Scopoli communicated all of his research, findings, and descriptions (for example of the olm and the dormouse, two little animals hitherto unknown to Linnaeus). Linnaeus greatly respected Scopoli and showed great interest in his work. He named a solanaceous genus, Scopolia, the source of scopolamine, after him, but because of the great distance between them, they never met.Final years of him and his son Carl Linnaeus the Younger]] Linnaeus was relieved of his duties in the Royal Swedish Academy of Science in 1763, but continued his work there as usual for more than ten years after. He stepped down as rector at Uppsala University in December 1772, mostly due to his declining health. Linnaeus's last years were troubled by illness. He had had a disease called the Uppsala fever in 1764, but survived due to the care of Rosén. He developed sciatica in 1773, and the next year, he had a stroke which partially paralysed him. He had a second stroke in 1776, losing the use of his right side and leaving him bereft of his memory; while still able to admire his own writings, he could not recognise himself as their author. In December 1777, he had another stroke which greatly weakened him, and eventually led to his death on 10 January 1778 in Hammarby. His library and collections were left to his widow Sara and their children. Joseph Banks, an eminent botanist, wished to purchase the collection, but his son Carl refused the offer and instead moved the collection to Uppsala. In 1783 Carl died and Sara inherited the collection, having outlived both her husband and son. She tried to sell it to Banks, but he was no longer interested; instead an acquaintance of his agreed to buy the collection. The acquaintance was a 24-year-old medical student, James Edward Smith, who bought the whole collection: 14,000 plants, 3,198 insects, 1,564 shells, about 3,000 letters and 1,600 books. Smith founded the Linnean Society of London five years later. The von Linné name ended with his son Carl, who never married. There are over two hundred descendants of Linnaeus through two of his daughters. To most of the apostles he gave instructions of what to look for on their journeys. Abroad, the apostles collected and organised new plants, animals and minerals according to Linnaeus's system. Most of them also gave some of their collection to Linnaeus when their journey was finished. Thanks to these students, the Linnaean system of taxonomy spread through the world without Linnaeus ever having to travel outside Sweden after his return from Holland. The British botanist William T. Stearn notes, without Linnaeus's new system, it would not have been possible for the apostles to collect and organise so many new specimens. Many of the apostles died during their expeditions.Early expeditionsChristopher Tärnström, the first apostle and a 43-year-old pastor with a wife and children, made his journey in 1746. He boarded a Swedish East India Company ship headed for China. Tärnström never reached his destination, dying of a tropical fever on Côn Sơn Island the same year. Tärnström's widow blamed Linnaeus for making her children fatherless, causing Linnaeus to prefer sending out younger, unmarried students after Tärnström. Six other apostles later died on their expeditions, including Pehr Forsskål and Pehr Löfling. Cook expeditions and Japan (far left) with Joseph Banks (left, sitting) accompanied James Cook (centre) on his journey to Australia.]] Daniel Solander was living in Linnaeus's house during his time as a student in Uppsala. Linnaeus was very fond of him, promising Solander his eldest daughter's hand in marriage. On Linnaeus's recommendation, Solander travelled to England in 1760, where he met the English botanist Joseph Banks. With Banks, Solander joined James Cook on his expedition to Oceania on the Endeavour in 1768–71. Solander was not the only apostle to journey with James Cook; Anders Sparrman followed on the Resolution in 1772–75 bound for, among other places, Oceania and South America. Sparrman made many other expeditions, one of them to South Africa. Perhaps the most famous and successful apostle was Carl Peter Thunberg, who embarked on a nine-year expedition in 1770. He stayed in South Africa for three years, then travelled to Japan. All foreigners in Japan were forced to stay on the island of Dejima outside Nagasaki, so it was thus hard for Thunberg to study the flora. He did, however, manage to persuade some of the translators to bring him different plants, and he also found plants in the gardens of Dejima. He returned to Sweden in 1779, one year after Linnaeus's death. Major publications Systema Naturae (1758)]] The first edition of was printed in the Netherlands in 1735. It was a twelve-page work. By the time it reached its 10th edition in 1758, it classified 4,400 species of animals and 7,700 species of plants. People from all over the world sent their specimens to Linnaeus to be included. By the time he started work on the 12th edition, Linnaeus needed a new invention—the index card—to track classifications. In Systema Naturae, the unwieldy names mostly used at the time, such as "", were supplemented with concise and now familiar "binomials", composed of the generic name, followed by a specific epithet—in the case given, Physalis angulata. These binomials could serve as a label to refer to the species. Higher taxa were constructed and arranged in a simple and orderly manner. Although the system, now known as binomial nomenclature, was partially developed by the Bauhin brothers (see Gaspard Bauhin and Johann Bauhin) almost 200 years earlier, Linnaeus was the first to use it consistently throughout the work, including in monospecific genera, and may be said to have popularised it within the scientific community. After the decline in Linnaeus's health in the early 1770s, publication of editions of Systema Naturae went in two different directions. Another Swedish scientist, Johan Andreas Murray, issued the Regnum Vegetabile section separately in 1774 as the Systema Vegetabilium, rather confusingly labelled the 13th edition. Meanwhile, a 13th edition of the entire Systema appeared in parts between 1788 and 1793 under the editorship of Johann Friedrich Gmelin. It was through the Systema Vegetabilium that Linnaeus's work became widely known in England, following its translation from the Latin by the Lichfield Botanical Society as A System of Vegetables (1783–1785). Orbis eruditi judicium de Caroli Linnaei MD scriptis ('Opinion of the learned world on the writings of Carl Linnaeus, Doctor') Published in 1740, this small octavo-sized pamphlet was presented to the State Library of New South Wales by the Linnean Society of NSW in 2018. This is considered among the rarest of all the writings of Linnaeus, and crucial to his career, securing him his appointment to a professorship of medicine at Uppsala University. From this position he laid the groundwork for his radical new theory of classifying and naming organisms for which he was considered the founder of modern taxonomy. (or, more fully, ) was first published in 1753, as a two-volume work. Its prime importance is perhaps that it is the primary starting point of plant nomenclature as it exists today. In it Linnaeus divided the plant Kingdom into 24 classes. One, Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns). (1751) was a summary of Linnaeus's thinking on plant classification and nomenclature, and an elaboration of the work he had previously published in (1736) and (1737). Other publications forming part of his plan to reform the foundations of botany include his and : all were printed in Holland (as were (1737) and (1735)), the Philosophia being simultaneously released in Stockholm. Collections (1899), outside the Palm House at Sefton Park in Liverpool]] At the end of his lifetime the Linnean collection in Uppsala was considered one of the finest collections of natural history objects in Sweden. Next to his own collection he had also built up a museum for the university of Uppsala, which was supplied by material donated by Carl Gyllenborg (in 1744–1745), crown-prince Adolf Fredrik (in 1745), Erik Petreus (in 1746), Claes Grill (in 1746), Magnus Lagerström (in 1748 and 1750) and Jonas Alströmer (in 1749). The relation between the museum and the private collection was not formalised and the steady flow of material from Linnean pupils were incorporated to the private collection rather than to the museum. Linnaeus felt his work was reflecting the harmony of nature and he said in 1754 "the earth is then nothing else but a museum of the all-wise creator's masterpieces, divided into three chambers". He had turned his own estate into a microcosm of that 'world museum'. In April 1766 parts of the town were destroyed by a fire and the Linnean private collection was subsequently moved to a barn outside the town, and shortly afterwards to a single-room stone building close to his country house at Hammarby near Uppsala. This resulted in a physical separation between the two collections; the museum collection remained in the botanical garden of the university. Some material which needed special care (alcohol specimens) or ample storage space was moved from the private collection to the museum. In Hammarby the Linnean private collections suffered seriously from damp and the depredations by mice and insects. Carl von Linné's son (Carl Linnaeus) inherited the collections in 1778 and retained them until his own death in 1783. Shortly after Carl von Linné's death his son confirmed that mice had caused "horrible damage" to the plants and that also moths and mould had caused considerable damage. He tried to rescue them from the neglect they had suffered during his father's later years, and also added further specimens. This last activity however reduced rather than augmented the scientific value of the original material. In 1784 the young medical student James Edward Smith purchased the entire specimen collection, library, manuscripts, and correspondence of Carl Linnaeus from his widow and daughter and transferred the collections to London. Not all material in Linné's private collection was transported to England. Thirty-three fish specimens preserved in alcohol were not sent and were later lost. In London Smith tended to neglect the zoological parts of the collection; he added some specimens and also gave some specimens away. Over the following centuries the Linnean collection in London suffered enormously at the hands of scientists who studied the collection, and in the process disturbed the original arrangement and labels, added specimens that did not belong to the original series and withdrew precious original type material. During the 18th century expansion of natural history knowledge, Linnaeus also developed what became known as the Linnaean taxonomy; the system of scientific classification now widely used in the biological sciences. A previous zoologist Rumphius (1627–1702) had more or less approximated the Linnaean system and his material contributed to the later development of the binomial scientific classification by Linnaeus. The Linnaean system classified nature within a nested hierarchy, starting with three kingdoms. Kingdoms were divided into classes and they, in turn, into orders, and thence into genera (singular: genus), which were divided into species (singular: species). Below the rank of species he sometimes recognised taxa of a lower (unnamed) rank; these have since acquired standardised names such as variety in botany and subspecies in zoology. Modern taxonomy includes a rank of family between order and genus and a rank of phylum between kingdom and class that were not present in Linnaeus's original system. Linnaeus's groupings were based upon shared physical characteristics, and not based upon differences. While the underlying details concerning what are considered to be scientifically valid "observable characteristics" have changed with expanding knowledge (for example, DNA sequencing, unavailable in Linnaeus's time, has proven to be a tool of considerable utility for classifying living organisms and establishing their evolutionary relationships), the fundamental principle remains sound. Human taxonomy Linnaeus's system of taxonomy was especially noted as the first to include humans (Homo) taxonomically grouped with apes (Simia), under the header of Anthropomorpha. German biologist Ernst Haeckel speaking in 1907 noted this as the "most important sign of Linnaeus's genius". Linnaeus classified humans among the primates beginning with the first edition of . During his time at Hartekamp, he had the opportunity to examine several monkeys and noted similarities between them and man. He pointed out both species basically have the same anatomy; except for speech, he found no other differences. Thus he placed man and monkeys under the same category, Anthropomorpha, meaning "manlike". This classification received criticism from other biologists such as Johan Gottschalk Wallerius, Jacob Theodor Klein and Johann Georg Gmelin on the ground that it is illogical to describe man as human-like. In a letter to Gmelin from 1747, Linnaeus replied: <!--Please don't edit the translation without leaving a comment on the talk page. --> with a division between Homo and Simia]] The theological concerns were twofold: first, putting man at the same level as monkeys or apes would lower the spiritually higher position that man was assumed to have in the great chain of being, and second, because the Bible says man was created in the image of God (theomorphism), if monkeys/apes and humans were not distinctly and separately designed, that would mean monkeys and apes were created in the image of God as well. This was something many could not accept. The conflict between world views that was caused by asserting man was a type of animal would simmer for a century until the much greater, and still ongoing, creation–evolution controversy began in earnest with the publication of On the Origin of Species by Charles Darwin in 1859. After such criticism, Linnaeus felt he needed to explain himself more clearly. The 10th edition of introduced new terms, including Mammalia and Primates, the latter of which would replace Anthropomorpha as well as giving humans the full binomial Homo sapiens. The new classification received less criticism, but many natural historians still believed he had demoted humans from their former place of ruling over nature and not being a part of it. Linnaeus believed that man biologically belongs to the animal kingdom and had to be included in it. In his book '', he said, "One should not vent one's wrath on animals, Theology decree that man has a soul and that the animals are mere 'automata mechanica', but I believe they would be better advised that animals have a soul and that the difference is of nobility." vol. 6 (1763).</ref><br />1. Troglodyta Bontii, 2. Lucifer Aldrovandi, 3. Satyrus Tulpii, 4. Pygmaeus Edwardi]] Linnaeus added a second species to the genus Homo in based on a figure and description by Jacobus Bontius from a 1658 publication: Homo troglodytes ("caveman") and published a third in 1771: Homo lar. Swedish historian Gunnar Broberg states that the new human species Linnaeus described were actually simians or native people clad in skins to frighten colonial settlers, whose appearance had been exaggerated in accounts to Linnaeus. For Homo troglodytes Linnaeus asked the Swedish East India Company to search for one, but they did not find any signs of its existence. Homo lar has since been reclassified as Hylobates lar, the lar gibbon. In the first edition of '', Linnaeus subdivided the human species into four varieties: "Europæus albesc[ens]" (whitish European), "Americanus rubesc[ens]" (reddish American), "Asiaticus fuscus" (tawny Asian) and "Africanus nigr[iculus]" (blackish African). In the tenth edition of Systema Naturae he further detailed phenotypical characteristics for each variety, based on the concept of the four temperaments from classical antiquity, and changed the description of Asians' skin tone to "luridus" (yellow). While Linnaeus believed that these varieties resulted from environmental differences between the four known continents, the Linnean Society acknowledges that his categorization's focus on skin color and later inclusion of cultural and behavioral traits cemented colonial stereotypes and provided the foundations for scientific racism. Additionally, Linnaeus created a wastebasket taxon "monstrosus" for "wild and monstrous humans, unknown groups, and more or less abnormal people". In 1959, W. T. Stearn designated Linnaeus to be the lectotype of H. sapiens.Influences and economic beliefsLinnaeus's applied science was inspired not only by the instrumental utilitarianism general to the early Enlightenment, but also by his adherence to the older economic doctrine of Cameralism. Additionally, Linnaeus was a state interventionist. He supported tariffs, levies, export bounties, quotas, embargoes, navigation acts, subsidised investment capital, ceilings on wages, cash grants, state-licensed producer monopolies, and cartels.Commemoration ]] Anniversaries of Linnaeus's birth, especially in centennial years, have been marked by major celebrations. Linnaeus has appeared on numerous Swedish postage stamps and banknotes. Other things named after Linnaeus include the twinflower genus Linnaea, Linnaeosicyos (a monotypic genus in the family Cucurbitaceae), the crater Linné on the Earth's moon, a street in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the cobalt sulfide mineral Linnaeite. Commentary Linnaeus wrote a description of himself in his autobiography Egenhändiga anteckningar af Carl Linnæus om sig sjelf: med anmärkningar och tillägg, which was published by his student Adam Afzelius in 1823: Andrew Dickson White wrote in A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom (1896): The mathematical PageRank algorithm, applied to 24 multilingual Wikipedia editions in 2014, published in PLOS ONE in 2015, placed Carl Linnaeus at the top historical figure, above Jesus, Aristotle, Napoleon, and Adolf Hitler (in that order). In the 21st century, Linnæus's taxonomy of human "races" has been criticized. Some claim that Linnæus was one of the forebears of the modern pseudoscientific notion of scientific racism, while others hold the view that while his classification was stereotyped, it did not imply that certain human "races" were superior to others. Standard author abbreviation Selected publications by Linnaeus * * * * Linnaeus, Carl 1846 Fauna svecica. Sistens Animalia Sveciae Regni: Quadrupedia, Aves, Amphibia, Pisces, Insecta, Vermes, distributae per classes & ordines, genera & species. C. Wishoff & G.J. Wishoff, Lugdnuni Batavorum. * }} * see also Species Plantarum * * * * * See also * Linnaeus's flower clock * Johann Bartsch, colleague * Centuria Insectorum References Notes CitationsSources * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Further reading * 512 pages. Original book: 516 pages.<br>Review: * * * * * * * * * External links Biographies * [http://www.linnaeus.uu.se/online/index-en.html Biography] at the Department of Systematic Botany, University of Uppsala * [http://linnean.org/index.php?id=47 Biography] at The Linnean Society of London * [http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/linnaeus.html Biography] from the University of California Museum of Paleontology * A four-minute [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gb_IO-SzLgk biographical video] from the London Natural History Museum on YouTube * [http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections/tl-2/browse.cfm?vol=3#page/87 Biography] from Taxonomic Literature, 2nd Edition. 1976–2009. Resources * * * [http://www.linnean.org/ The Linnean Society of London] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20181215174247/http://www.linnaeus.info/ The Linnaeus Apostles] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100403064506/http://www.linnean-online.org/ The Linnean Collections] * [http://linnaeus.c18.net/ The Linnean Correspondence] * [http://goran.waldeck.se/Ento3E.htm Linnaeus's Disciples and Apostles] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100616073944/http://huntbot.andrew.cmu.edu/HIBD/Departments/Library/LinnaeanDiss.shtml The Linnaean Dissertations] * [http://linnaeus.nrm.se/botany/fbo/welcome.html.en Linnean Herbarium] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20160912071812/http://www.linnaeus2007.se/ The Linnaeus Tercentenary] * [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/creator/825 Works by Carl von Linné] at the Biodiversity Heritage Library * [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-32889 Digital edition: "Critica Botanica"] by the University and State Library Düsseldorf * [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-32631 Digital edition: "Classes plantarum seu systemata plantarum"] by the University and State Library Düsseldorf * [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/19512 Oratio de telluris habitabilis incremento] (1744) – full digital facsimile from Linda Hall Library * The [http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v446/n7133/index.html 15 March 2007 issue] of Nature featured a picture of Linnaeus on the cover with the heading "Linnaeus's Legacy" and devoted a substantial portion to items related to Linnaeus and Linnaean taxonomy. Category:1707 births Category:1778 deaths Category:18th-century lexicographers Category:18th-century Swedish male writers Category:18th-century Swedish botanists Linne, Carl von Category:18th-century Swedish physicians Category:18th-century Swedish writers Category:18th-century Swedish zoologists Category:18th-century writers in Latin Category:Academic staff of Uppsala University Category:Age of Liberty people Category:Botanical nomenclature Category:Botanists active in Europe Category:Botanists with author abbreviations Category:Burials at Uppsala Cathedral Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Historical definitions of race Category:Knights of the Order of the Polar Star Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences Category:People from Älmhult Municipality Category:Swedish pteridologists Category:Swedish arachnologists Category:Swedish autobiographers Category:Swedish biologists Category:Swedish bryologists Category:Swedish entomologists Category:Swedish expatriates in the Dutch Republic Category:Swedish Lutherans Category:Swedish mammalogists Category:Swedish mycologists Category:Swedish ornithologists Category:Swedish phycologists Category:Swedish taxonomists Category:Taxon authorities of Hypericum species Category:Terminologists Category:University of Harderwijk alumni Category:Uppsala University alumni
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus
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Coast
}} of New Zealand]] ]] coast, Serra de Tramuntana (Balearic Islands)]] , Salento, Apulia, Italy]] A coast (coastline, shoreline, seashore) is the land next to the sea or the line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake. Coasts are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape and by aquatic erosion, such as that caused by waves. The geological composition of rock and soil dictates the type of shore that is created. Earth has about of coastline. Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of biodiversity. On land, they harbor ecosystems, such as freshwater or estuarine wetlands, that are important for birds and other terrestrial animals. In wave-protected areas, coasts harbor salt marshes, mangroves, and seagrasses, all of which can provide nursery habitat for finfish, shellfish, and other aquatic animals. Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of sessile animals (e.g. mussels, starfish, barnacles) and various kinds of seaweeds. In physical oceanography, a shore is the wider fringe that is geologically modified by the action of the body of water past and present, and the beach is at the edge of the shore, including the intertidal zone where there is one. Along tropical coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, coral reefs can often be found at depths of . According to an atlas prepared by the United Nations, about 44% of the human population lives within of the sea . Due to its importance in society and its high population concentrations, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many ecosystem services to humankind. For example, important human activities happen in port cities. Coastal fisheries (commercial, recreational, and subsistence) and aquaculture are major economic activities and create jobs, livelihoods, and protein for the majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like beaches and seaside resorts generate large revenues through tourism. Marine coastal ecosystems can also provide protection against sea level rise and tsunamis. In many countries, mangroves are the primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. charcoal) and building material. Coastal ecosystems like mangroves and seagrasses have a much higher capacity for carbon sequestration than many terrestrial ecosystems, and as such can play a critical role in the near-future to help mitigate climate change effects by uptake of atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide. However, the economic importance of coasts makes many of these communities vulnerable to climate change, which causes increases in extreme weather and sea level rise, as well as related issues like coastal erosion, saltwater intrusion, and coastal flooding. Other coastal issues, such as marine pollution, marine debris, coastal development, and marine ecosystem destruction, further complicate the human uses of the coast and threaten coastal ecosystems. Likewise, the United Nations has declared 2021–2030 the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration, but restoration of coastal ecosystems has received insufficient attention. Since coasts are constantly changing, a coastline's exact perimeter cannot be determined; this measurement challenge is called the coastline paradox. The term coastal zone is used to refer to a region where interactions of sea and land processes occur. Both the terms coast and coastal are often used to describe a geographic location or region located on a coastline (e.g., New Zealand's West Coast, or the East, West, and Gulf Coast of the United States.) Coasts with a narrow continental shelf that are close to the open ocean are called pelagic coast, while other coasts are more sheltered coast in a gulf or bay. A shore, on the other hand, may refer to parts of land adjoining any large body of water, including oceans (sea shore) and lakes (lake shore). Size has the longest coastline in Africa.]] The Earth has approximately of coastline. Coastal habitats, which extend to the margins of the continental shelves, make up about 7 percent of the Earth's oceans, but at least 85% of commercially harvested fish depend on coastal environments during at least part of their life cycle. about 2.86% of exclusive economic zones were part of marine protected areas. The definition of coasts varies. Marine scientists think of the "wet" (aquatic or intertidal) vegetated habitats as being coastal ecosystems (including seagrass, salt marsh etc.) whilst some terrestrial scientists might only think of coastal ecosystems as purely terrestrial plants that live close to the seashore (see also estuaries and coastal ecosystems). While there is general agreement in the scientific community regarding the definition of coast, in the political sphere, the delineation of the extents of a coast differ according to jurisdiction. Government authorities in various countries may define coast differently for economic and social policy reasons. Challenges of precisely measuring the coastline Formation , west coast of Portugal]] , Italy. Budelli beach is famous for the color of its sand, which is pink due to the presence of fragments of a microorganism called Miniacina miniacea.]] Tides often determine the range over which sediment is deposited or eroded. Areas with high tidal ranges allow waves to reach farther up the shore, and areas with lower tidal ranges produce deposition at a smaller elevation interval. The tidal range is influenced by the size and shape of the coastline. Tides do not typically cause erosion by themselves; however, tidal bores can erode as the waves surge up the river estuaries from the ocean. Geologists classify coasts on the basis of tidal range into macrotidal coasts with a tidal range greater than ; mesotidal coasts with a tidal range of ; and microtidal coasts with a tidal range of less than . The distinction between macrotidal and mesotidal coasts is more important. Macrotidal coasts lack barrier islands and lagoons, and are characterized by funnel-shaped estuaries containing sand ridges aligned with tidal currents. Wave action is much more important for determining bedforms of sediments deposited along mesotidal and microtidal coasts than in macrotidal coasts. Waves erode coastline as they break on shore releasing their energy; the larger the wave the more energy it releases and the more sediment it moves. Coastlines with longer shores have more room for the waves to disperse their energy, while coasts with cliffs and short shore faces give little room for the wave energy to be dispersed. In these areas, the wave energy breaking against the cliffs is higher, and air and water are compressed into cracks in the rock, forcing the rock apart, breaking it down. Sediment deposited by waves comes from eroded cliff faces and is moved along the coastline by the waves. This forms an abrasion or cliffed coast. Sediment deposited by rivers is the dominant influence on the amount of sediment located in the case of coastlines that have estuaries. Today, riverine deposition at the coast is often blocked by dams and other human regulatory devices, which remove the sediment from the stream by causing it to be deposited inland. Coral reefs are a provider of sediment for coastlines of tropical islands. Like the ocean which shapes them, coasts are a dynamic environment with constant change. The Earth's natural processes, particularly sea level rises, waves and various weather phenomena, have resulted in the erosion, accretion and reshaping of coasts as well as flooding and creation of continental shelves and drowned river valleys (rias). Importance for humans and ecosystems Human settlements More and more of the world's people live in coastal regions. According to a United Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea. and is listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. </gallery> Ecosystem services Types Emergent coastline According to one principle of classification, an emergent coastline is a coastline that has experienced a fall in sea level, because of either a global sea-level change, or local uplift. Emergent coastlines are identifiable by the coastal landforms, which are above the high tide mark, such as raised beaches. In contrast, a submergent coastline is one where the sea level has risen, due to a global sea-level change, local subsidence, or isostatic rebound. Submergent coastlines are identifiable by their submerged, or "drowned" landforms, such as rias (drowned valleys) and fjords Concordant coastline According to the second principle of classification, a concordant coastline is a coastline where bands of different rock types run parallel to the shore. These rock types are usually of varying resistance, so the coastline forms distinctive landforms, such as coves. Discordant coastlines feature distinctive landforms because the rocks are eroded by the ocean waves. The less resistant rocks erode faster, creating inlets or bay; the more resistant rocks erode more slowly, remaining as headlands or outcroppings. High and low energy coasts <!--target for redirect High energy coast, High energy underwater environment, Low energy coast --> Parts of a coastline can be categorised as high energy coast or low energy coast. The distinguishing characteristics of a high energy coast are that the average wave energy is relatively high so that erosion of small grained material tends to exceed deposition, and consequently landforms like cliffs, headlands and wave-cut terraces develop. ultimately derived from Latin ("riverbank"). It came to be applied as a proper name to the coast of the Ligurian Sea, in the form riviera ligure, then shortened to riviera. Historically, the Ligurian Riviera extended from Capo Corvo (Punta Bianca) south of Genoa, north and west into what is now French territory past Monaco and sometimes as far as Marseille. Today, this coast is divided into the Italian Riviera and the French Riviera, although the French use the term "Riviera" to refer to the Italian Riviera and call the French portion the "Côte d'Azur". The term is used in a different manner when describing legal and economic boundaries, such as territorial waters and international waters, or when describing the geography of coastal landforms or the ecological systems operating through the continental shelf (marine coastal ecosystems). The dynamic fluid nature of the ocean means that all components of the whole ocean system are ultimately connected, although certain regional classifications are useful and relevant. The waters of the continental shelves represent such a region. The term "coastal waters" has been used in a wide variety of different ways in different contexts. In European Union environmental management it extends from the coast to just a few nautical miles while in the United States the US EPA considers this region to extend much further offshore. "Coastal waters" has specific meanings in the context of commercial coastal shipping, and somewhat different meanings in the context of naval littoral warfare. Oceanographers and marine biologists have yet other takes. Coastal waters have a wide range of marine habitats from enclosed estuaries to the open waters of the continental shelf. Similarly, the term littoral zone has no single definition. It is the part of a sea, lake, or river that is close to the shore. In coastal environments, the littoral zone extends from the high water mark, which is rarely inundated, to shoreline areas that are permanently submerged. Coastal waters can be threatened by coastal eutrophication and harmful algal blooms. In geology The identification of bodies of rock formed from sediments deposited in shoreline and nearshore environments (shoreline and nearshore facies) is extremely important to geologists. These provide vital clues for reconstructing the geography of ancient continents (paleogeography). The locations of these beds show the extent of ancient seas at particular points in geological time, and provide clues to the magnitudes of tides in the distant past. Sediments deposited in the shoreface are preserved as lenses of sandstone in which the upper part of the sandstone is coarser than the lower part (a coarsening upwards sequence). Geologists refer to these are parasequences. Each records an episode of retreat of the ocean from the shoreline over a period of 10,000 to 1,000,000 years. These often show laminations reflecting various kinds of tidal cycles. }} Further reading *External links * [https://www.whoi.edu/ Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution] - organization dedicated to ocean research, exploration, and education Category:Coastal and oceanic landforms Category:Coastal geography Category:Oceanographical terminology Category:Articles containing video clips
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coast
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Catatonia
{{Infobox medical condition (new) | name = Catatonia | synonyms = Catatonic syndrome | image = Сatatonic stupor3.jpg | caption = A patient in catatonic stupor, 1914 | field = Psychiatry, neurology | complications Physical trauma, malignant catatonia (autonomic instability, life-threatening), dehydration, pneumonia, pressure ulcers due to immobility, muscle contractions, deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmonary embolism (PE) People with catatonia exhibit abnormal movement and behaviors, which vary from person to person and may fluctuate in intensity within a single episode. They may be nearly motionless for days on end or perform repetitive purposeless movements. People may exhibit very different sets of behaviors and both still be diagnosed with catatonia. Treatment with benzodiazepines or ECT are most effective and lead to remission of symptoms in most cases. Catatonia has historically been related to schizophrenia (catatonic schizophrenia), but is most often seen in mood disorders. It diagnoses catatonia in someone who has three different symptoms associated with catatonia at one time. These symptoms are called stupor, catalepsy, waxy flexibility, mutism, negativism, posturing, mannerisms, stereotypies, psychomotor agitation, grimacing, echolalia, and echopraxia. It divides catatonia into three groups based on the underlying cause: catatonia associated with another mental disorder, catatonia induced by psychoactive substance, and secondary catatonia. The DSM-5 is the most common manual used by mental health professionals in the United States to define and diagnose different mental illnesses. The DSM-5 defines catatonia as “a syndrome characterized by lack of movement and communication, along with three or more of the following 12 behaviors; stupor, catalepsy, waxy flexibility, mutism, negativism, posturing, mannerism, stereotypy, agitation, grimacing, echolalia, or echopraxia.” As a syndrome, catatonia can only occur in people with an existing illness. The DSM-5 divides catatonia into 3 diagnoses. The most common of the three diagnoses is Catatonia Associated with Another Mental Disorder. Around 20% of cases are caused by an underlying medical condition, and known as Catatonic Disorder Due to Another Medical Condition. When the underlying condition is unknown it is considered Unspecified Catatonia.Signs and symptomsAs discussed previously, the ICD-11 and DSM-5 both require 3 or more of the symptoms defined in the table below in order to diagnose catatonia. However, each person can have a different set of symptoms that may worsen, improve, and change in appearance throughout a single episode. Symptoms may develop over hours or days to weeks. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Symptom !Definition |- |Stupor |A marked lack of psychomotor activity; the individual appears immobile and unresponsive |- |Catalepsy |Passive induction of a posture held against gravity |- |Waxy Flexibility |Slight resistance to positioning by the examiner, allowing limbs to remain in imposed positions |- |Mutism |Lack of verbal response despite apparent alertness |- |Negativism |Resistance or no response to external instructions or stimuli |- |Posturing |Voluntary assumption of inappropriate or bizarre postures |- |Mannerism |Odd, exaggerated movements or behaviors |- |Stereotypy |Repetitive, non-goal-directed movements or gestures |- |Agitation |Restlessness or excessive motor activity without external stimulus |- |Grimacing |Facial contortions or expressions unrelated to emotional context |- |Echolalia |Mimicking or repeating another person's speech |- |Echopraxia |Mimicking or imitating another person's movements |} Because most patients with catatonia have an underlying psychiatric illness, the majority will present with worsening depression, mania, or psychosis followed by catatonia symptoms. Subtypes There are several subtypes of catatonia which are used currently: stuporous catatonia, excited catatonia, malignant catatonia, and periodic catatonia. Subtypes are defined by the group of symptoms and associated features that a person is experiencing or displaying. Notably, while catatonia can be divided into various subtypes, the appearance of catatonia is often dynamic and the same individual may have different subtypes at different times. Stuporous catatonia: This form of catatonia is characterized by immobility, mutism, and a lack of response to the world around them. Malignant catatonia: This form of catatonia is life-threatening. It is characterized by fever, dramatic and rapid changes in blood pressure, increased heart rate and respiratory rate, and excessive sweating. autism spectrum disorders, ADHD, and post-traumatic stress disorder. In autism, people tend to present with catatonia during periods of regression. Psychodynamic theorists have interpreted catatonia as a defense against the potentially destructive consequences of responsibility, and the passivity of the disorder provides relief. Medical conditions Catatonia is also seen in many medical disorders, including encephalitis, meningitis, autoimmune disorders, focal neurological lesions (including strokes), alcohol withdrawal, abrupt or overly rapid benzodiazepine withdrawal, cerebrovascular disease, neoplasms, head injury, Similarly, there are several case reports suggesting that people have experienced catatonia after a stroke, with some people having catatonia-associated symptoms that were unexplainable by their stroke itself, and which improved after treatment with benzodiazepines. Parkinson's disease can cause catatonia for some people by impairing their ability to produce and secrete dopamine, a neurotransmitter which is thought to contribute to motor dysfunction in people with catatonia. Metabolic and endocrine disorders Abnormal thyroid function can cause catatonia when the thyroid overproduces or underproduces thyroid hormones. This is thought to occur due to thyroid hormones impact on metabolism including in the cells of the nervous system. Abnormal electrolyte levels have also been shown to cause catatonia in rare cases. Most notably, low levels of sodium in the blood can cause catatonia in some people. Autoimmune disorders As discussed previously, anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is a form of autoimmune encephalitis which can cause catatonia. Additionally, autoimmune diseases that are not exclusively neurological can cause neurological and psychiatric symptoms including catatonia. For instance, systemic lupus erythematosus can cause catatonia and is thought to do by causing inflammation in the blood vessels of the brain or possibly by the body's own antibodies damaging neurons. Infectious diseases Certain types of infections are known to cause catatonia either through directly impairing brain function or by making a person more likely to contract diseases that impair brain function. HIV and AIDS can cause catatonia, most likely by predisposing one to infections in the brain, including different types of viral encephalitis. Borrelia burgdorferi causes Lyme disease, which has been shown to cause catatonia by infecting the brain and causing encephalitis. Pharmacological causes Use of NMDA receptor antagonists including ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP) can lead to catatonia-like states. Information about these effects has improved scientific understanding of the role of glutamate in catatonia. High dose and chronic use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines can lead to cases of catatonia, typically associated with psychosis. This is thought to be due to changes in the function of circuits of the brain associated with dopamine release. Pathogenesis The mechanisms in the brain that cause catatonia are poorly understood. Currently, there are two main categories of explanations for what may be happening in the brain to cause catatonia. The first is that there is disruption of normal neurotransmitter production or release in certain areas of the brain preventing normal function of those areas of the brain, leading to behavioral and motor symptoms associated with catatonia. The second claims that disruption of communication between different areas of the brain causes catatonia. Neurotransmitters The neurotransmitters that are most strongly associated with catatonia are GABA, dopamine, and glutamate. GABA is the main inhibitory neurotransmitter of the brain, meaning that it slows down the activity of the systems of the brain it acts on. In catatonia, people have low levels of GABA which causes them to be overly activated, especially in the areas of the brain that cause inhibition. This is thought to cause the behavioral symptoms associated with catatonia including withdrawal. Dopamine can increase or decrease the activity of the area of the brain it acts on depending on where in the brain it is. Dopamine is lower than normal in people with catatonia, which is thought to cause many of the motor symptoms, because dopamine is the main neurotransmitter which activates the parts of the brain responsible for movement. Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter, meaning that it increases the activity of the areas of the brain it acts on. Notably, glutamate increases tells the neuron it acts on to fire, by binding to the NMDA receptor. People with anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis can develop catatonia because their own antibodies attack the NMDA receptor, which reduces the ability of the brain to activate different areas of the brain using glutamate. Neurological pathways Several pathways in the brain have been studied which seem to contribute to catatonia when they are not functioning properly. However, these studies were unable to determine if the abnormalities they observed were the cause of catatonia or if the catatonia caused the abnormalities. Furthermore, it has also been hypothesized that pathways that connect the basal ganglia with the cortex and thalamus is involved in the development of catatonia.DiagnosisThere is not yet a definitive consensus regarding diagnostic criteria of catatonia. In the fifth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5, 2013) and the eleventh edition of the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11, 2022), the classification is more homogeneous than in earlier editions. Prominent researchers in the field have other suggestions for diagnostic criteria. Still, diagnosing catatonia can be challenging. Evidence suggests that there is as high as a 15-day average delay to diagnosis for people with catatonia. DSM-5 classification The DSM-5 does not classify catatonia as an independent disorder, but rather it classifies it as catatonia associated with another mental disorder, due to another medical condition, or as unspecified catatonia. Catatonia is diagnosed by the presence of three or more of the following 12 psychomotor symptoms in association with a mental disorder, medical condition, or unspecified: ICD-11 classification In the ICD-11, catatonia is defined as a syndrome of primarily psychomotor disturbances that is characterized by the simultaneous occurrence of several symptoms such as stupor, catalepsy, waxy flexibility, mutism, negativism, posturing, mannerisms, stereotypies, psychomotor agitation, grimacing, echolalia, and echopraxia. Catatonia may occur in the context of specific mental disorders, including mood disorders, schizophrenia or other primary psychotic disorders, and neurodevelopmental disorders, and may be induced by psychoactive substances, including medications. Catatonia may also be caused by a medical condition not classified under mental, behavioral, or neurodevelopmental disorders. Assessment/physical Catatonia is often overlooked and under-diagnosed. The most commonly used scale is the Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale (BFCRS) (external link is provided below). The scale is composed of 23 items with the first 14 items being used as the screening tool. If 2 of the 14 are positive, this prompts for further evaluation and completion of the remaining 9 items. A diagnosis can be supported by the lorazepam challenge or the zolpidem challenge. While proven useful in the past, barbiturates are no longer commonly used in psychiatry; thus the option of either benzodiazepines or ECT. Laboratory findings Certain lab findings are common with malignant catatonia that are uncommon in other forms of catatonia. These lab findings include: leukocytosis, elevated creatine kinase, low serum iron. The signs and symptoms of malignant catatonia overlap significantly with neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS). Therefore, the results of laboratory tests need to be considered in the context of clinical history, review of medications, and physical exam findings. Differential diagnosis The differential diagnosis of catatonia is extensive as signs and symptoms of catatonia may overlap significantly with those of other conditions. Therefore, a careful and detailed history, medication review, and physical exam are key to diagnosing catatonia and differentiating it from other conditions. Furthermore, some of these conditions can themselves lead to catatonia. The differential diagnosis is as follows: * Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) and catatonia are both life-threatening conditions that share many of the same characteristics including fever, autonomic instability, rigidity, and delirium. Lab values of low serum iron, elevated creatine kinase, and white blood cell count are also shared by the two disorders, further complicating the diagnosis. There are features of malignant catatonia (posturing, impulsivity, etc.) that are absent from NMS and the lab results are not as consistent in malignant catatonia as they are in NMS. Some experts consider NMS to be a drug-induced condition associated with antipsychotics, particularly first generation antipsychotics, Therefore, discontinuing antipsychotics and starting benzodiazepines is a treatment for this condition, and similarly it is helpful in catatonia as well. * Anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis is an autoimmune disorder characterized by neuropsychiatric features and the presence of IgG antibodies. The presentation of anti-NMDA encephalitis has been categorized into 5 phases: prodromal phase, psychotic phase, unresponsive phase, hyperkinetic phase, and recovery phase. The psychotic phase progresses into the unresponsive phase characterized by mutism, decreased motor activity, and catatonia. * Malignant hyperthermia and malignant catatonia share features of autonomic instability, hyperthermia, and rigidity. However, malignant hyperthermia is a hereditary disorder of skeletal muscle that makes these patients susceptible to exposure to halogenated anesthetics and/or depolarizing muscle relaxants like succinylcholine. Malignant hyperthermia most commonly occurs in the intraoperative or postoperative periods. Other signs and symptoms of malignant hyperthermia include metabolic and respiratory acidosis, hyperkalemia, and cardiac arrhythmias. * Akinetic mutism is a neurological disorder characterized by a decrease in goal-directed behavior and motivation; however, the patient has an intact level of consciousness. Patients may present with apathy, and may seem indifferent to pain, hunger, or thirst. Akinetic mutism has been associated with structural damage in a variety of brain areas. Akinetic mutism and catatonia may both manifest with immobility, mutism, and waxy flexibility. Differentiating both disorders is the fact that akinetic mutism does not present with echolalia, echopraxia, or posturing. Furthermore, it is not responsive to benzodiazepines as is the case for catatonia. * Selective mutism has an anxious etiology but has also been associated with personality disorders. Patients with this disorder fail to speak with some individuals but will speak with others. Likewise, they may refuse to speak in certain situations; for example, a child who refuses to speak at school but is conversational at home. This disorder is distinguished from catatonia by the absence of any other signs/symptoms. * Nonconvulsive status epilepticus is seizure activity with no accompanying tonic-clonic movements. It can present with stupor, similar to catatonia, and they both respond to benzodiazepines. Nonconvulsive status epilepticus is diagnosed by the presence of seizure activity seen on electroencephalogram (EEG). Catatonia, on the other hand, is associated with normal EEG or diffuse slowing. * Delirium is characterized by fluctuating disturbed perception and consciousness in the ill individual. It has hypoactive and hyperactive or mixed forms. People with hyperactive delirium present similarly to those with excited catatonia and have symptoms of restlessness, agitation, and aggression. Those with hypoactive delirium present with similarly to stuporous catatonia, withdrawn and quiet. However, catatonia also includes other distinguishing features including posturing and rigidity as well as a positive response to benzodiazepines. * Patients with locked-in syndrome present with immobility and mutism; however, unlike patients with catatonia who are unmotivated to communicate, patients with locked-in syndrome try to communicate with eye movements and blinking. Furthermore, locked-in syndrome is caused by damage to the brainstem. * Stiff-person syndrome and catatonia are similar in that they may both present with rigidity, autonomic instability, and a positive response to benzodiazepines. However, stiff-person syndrome may be associated with anti-glutamic acid decarboxylase (anti-GAD) antibodies and other catatonic signs such as mutism and posturing are not part of the syndrome. * Untreated late-stage Parkinson's disease may present similarly to stuporous catatonia with symptoms of immobility, rigidity, and difficulty speaking. Further complicating the diagnosis is the fact that many patients with Parkinson's disease will have major depressive disorder, which may be the underlying cause of catatonia. Parkinson's disease can be distinguished from catatonia by a positive response to levodopa. Catatonia, on the other hand, will show a positive response to benzodiazepines. * Extrapyramidal side effects of antipsychotic medication, especially dystonia and akathisia, can be difficult to distinguish from catatonic symptoms, or may confound them in the psychiatric setting. Extrapyramidal motor disorders usually do not involve social symptoms like negativism, while individuals with catatonic excitement typically do not have the physically painful compulsion to move that is seen in akathisia. * Certain stimming behaviors and stress responses in individuals with autism spectrum disorders can present similarly to catatonia. In autism spectrum disorders, chronic catatonia is distinguished by a lasting deterioration of adaptive skills from the background of pre-existing autistic symptomatology that cannot be easily explained. Acute catatonia is usually clearly distinguishable from autistic symptoms. * The diagnostic entities of obsessional slowness and psychogenic parkinsonism show overlapping features with catatonia, such as motor slowness, gegenhalten (oppositional paratonia), mannerisms, and reduced or absent speech. However, psychogenic parkinsonism involves tremor which is unusual in catatonia. Obsessional slowness is a controversial diagnosis, with presentations ranging from severe but common manifestations of obsessive compulsive disorder to catatonia. * Down Syndrome Disintegrative Disorder (or Down Syndrome Regression Disorder, DSDD / DSRD) is a chronic condition characterized by loss of previously acquired adaptive, cognitive and social functioning occurring in persons with Down Syndrome, usually during adolescence or early adulthood. The clinical picture is variable, but often includes catatonic signs, which is why it was called "catatonic psychosis" in initial reports in 1946. DSDD seems to phenotypically overlap with obsessional slowness (see above) and catatonia-like regression occurring in ASD. Treatment Treating catatonia effectively requires treating the catatonia itself, treating the underlying condition, and helping them with their basic needs, like eating, drinking, and staying clean and safe, while they are withdrawn and incapable of caring for themselves. Catatonia-specific treatments The specifics of treating catatonia itself can vary from region to region, hospital to hospital, and individual to individual, but typically involves the use of benzodiazepines. In fact, in some cases it is unclear whether a person has catatonia or another condition which may present similarly. In these cases a "benzodiazepine challenge" is often done. During a "benzodiazepine challenge" a healthcare provider will give a moderate dose of a benzodiazepine to the patient and monitor them. If a person has catatonia they will often have improvements in their symptoms within 15 to 30 minutes. If the person does not improve within 30 minutes they are given a second dose and the process is repeated once more. If the person responds to either of the doses then they can be given benzodiazepines at a consistent dose and timing until their catatonia resolves. Depending on the person, a person may need to reduce their dosing slowly over time in order to prevent reoccurrence of their symptoms. ECT is also commonly used to treat catatonia in people who do not improve with medication alone or whose symptoms reoccur whenever the dose of medications are reduced. ECT is usually administered with multiple sessions per week over two to four weeks. ECT has a success rate of 80% to 100%. ECT is effective for all subtypes of catatonia, however people who have catatonia with an underlying neurological condition show less improvement with ECT treatment. when first-line treatment options fail, NMDA antagonists such as amantadine or memantine may be used. Amantadine may have an increased incidence of tolerance with prolonged use and can cause psychosis, due to its additional effects on the dopamine system. Memantine has a more targeted pharmacological profile for the glutamate system, reduced incidence of psychosis and may therefore be preferred for individuals who cannot tolerate amantadine. Topiramate is another treatment option for resistant catatonia; it produces its therapeutic effects by producing glutamate antagonism via modulation of AMPA receptors. Non-specific aspects of treatment Treating the underlying condition There are many medications that are known to cause catatonia in some people including steroids, stimulants, anticonvulsants, neuroleptics or dopamine blockers. Complications Patients may experience several complications from being in a catatonic state. The nature of these complications will depend on the type of catatonia being experienced by the patient. For example, patients presenting with withdrawn catatonia may have refusal to eat which will in turn lead to malnutrition and dehydration. Catatonia is under-recognized because the features are often mistaken for other disorders including delirium or the negative symptoms of schizophrenia. The prevalence has been reported to be as high as 10% in those with acute psychiatric illnesses, and 9–30% in the setting of inpatient psychiatric care. Catatonia can occur at any age, but is most commonly seen in adolescence or young adulthood or in older adults with existing medical conditions. It occurs in males and females in approximately equal numbers. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Underlying condition !Proportion of catatonia cases |- |Mood disorders |20–40% |- |Major depressive disorder |15–20% |- |Bipolar disorder |15–20% |- |Psychotic disorders |20–30% |- |Schizophrenia |10–15% |- |Schizoaffective disorder |5–10% |- |Autism spectrum disorder |5–10% |- |Medical conditions |~20% |} History Ancient history There have been reports of stupor-like and catatonia-like states in people throughout the history of psychiatry. In ancient Greece, the first physician to document stupor-like or catatonia-like states was Hippocrates, in his Aphorisms. He never defined the syndrome, but seemingly observed these states in people he was treating for melancholia. In ancient China, the first descriptions of people that appear in the Huangdi Neijing (The Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon), the book which forms the basis of Traditional Chinese Medicine. It is thought to have been compiled by many people over the course of centuries during the Warring States Period (475-221 BCE) and the early Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE). Modern history The term “catatonia” was first used by German psychiatrist Karl Ludwig Kahlbaum in 1874, in his book Die Katatonie oder das Spannungsirresein, which translates to "Catatonia or Tension Insanity". He viewed catatonia as its own illness, which would get worse over time in stages of mania, depression, and psychosis leading to dementia. This work heavily influenced another German psychiatrist, Emil Kraeplin, who was the first to classify catatonia as a syndrome. Kraeplin associated catatonia with a psychotic disorder called dementia praecox, which is no longer used as a diagnosis, but heavily informed the development of the concept of schizophrenia. Kraeplin's work influenced two other notable German psychiatrists, Karl Leonhard and Max Fink, and their colleagues to expand the concept of catatonia as a syndrome which could occur in the setting of many mental illnesses, not just psychotic disorders. They also laid the groundwork to describe different subtypes of catatonia still used today, including Stuporous Catatonia, Excited Catatonia, Malignant Catatonia, and Periodic Catatonia. Additionally, Leonhard and his colleagues categorized catatonia as either systematic or unsystematic, based on whether or not symptoms happened according to consistent and predictable patterns. These ways of thinking shaped the way that psychologists and psychiatrists thought of catatonia well into the 20th century. In fact, catatonia was a subtype of schizophrenia as recently as the DSM-III, and was not revised to be able to be applied to mood disorders until 1994 with the release of the DSM-IV. In the latter half of the 20th century, clinicians observed that catatonia occurred in various psychiatric and medical conditions, not exclusively in schizophrenia. Max Fink and colleagues advocated for recognizing catatonia as an independent syndrome, highlighting its frequent association with mood disorders and responsiveness to treatments like benzodiazepines and ECT. Society and culture Popular conceptions and origins Catatonia, historically misunderstood, has been subject to shifting perceptions in society. As discussed previously, since the 19th century it was often linked exclusively to schizophrenia, perpetuating misconceptions. These historical misunderstandings have shaped the public opinions on catatonia. This has contributed to a lack of understanding about catatonia and its broader association with other mental disorders and medical conditions. Popular culture and media have played a significant role in shaping societal perceptions of catatonia. In many cases, media portrayals reduce it to a stereotypical "frozen state," similar to a coma, failing to capture the complexity of symptoms like stupor, agitation, and mutism. Such oversimplifications contribute to public misperceptions and get in the way of people receiving the care they need. See also * Acquiescence * Akinetic mutism * Autistic catatonia * Awakenings (1990 biopic about catatonic patients, based on Oliver Sacks's book of the same name) * Blank expression * Botulism * Clouding of consciousness * Disorganized schizophrenia * Homecoming (features catatonia as a main plot point) * Karolina Olsson * Oneiroid syndrome * Paranoid schizophrenia * Persistent vegetative state * Resignation syndrome * Sensory overload * Tonic immobility * Sleep paralysis References External links * [https://web.archive.org/web/20171013152335/http://ccpweb.wustl.edu/pdfs/2013barchcatatonia.pdf Catatonia in DSM-5] * [http://www.minddisorders.com/Br-Del/Catatonic-disorders.html Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders — Catatonic Disorders] * [https://archive.org/details/schizophreniacatatonictype "Schizophrenia: Catatonic Type"] video by Heinz Edgar Lehmann, 1952 * [https://www.mdcalc.com/bush-francis-catatonia-rating-scale Bush-Francis Catatonia Rating Scale] , | ICD10 = | ICD9 = | MeshID = D002389 | SNOMED CT = 247917007 }} Category:Mood disorders Category:Symptoms of schizophrenia Category:Psychopathological syndromes
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catatonia
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Cipher
thumb|Edward Larsson's rune cipher resembling that found on the Kensington Runestone. Also includes runically unrelated blackletter writing style and pigpen cipher. In cryptography, a cipher (or cypher) is an algorithm for performing encryption or decryption—a series of well-defined steps that can be followed as a procedure. An alternative, less common term is encipherment. To encipher or encode is to convert information into cipher or code. In common parlance, "cipher" is synonymous with "code", as they are both a set of steps that encrypt a message; however, the concepts are distinct in cryptography, especially classical cryptography. Codes generally substitute different length strings of characters in the output, while ciphers generally substitute the same number of characters as are input. A code maps one meaning with another. Words and phrases can be coded as letters or numbers. Codes typically have direct meaning from input to key. Codes primarily function to save time. Ciphers are algorithmic. The given input must follow the cipher's process to be solved. Ciphers are commonly used to encrypt written information. Codes operated by substituting according to a large codebook which linked a random string of characters or numbers to a word or phrase. For example, "UQJHSE" could be the code for "Proceed to the following coordinates." When using a cipher the original information is known as plaintext, and the encrypted form as ciphertext. The ciphertext message contains all the information of the plaintext message, but is not in a format readable by a human or computer without the proper mechanism to decrypt it. The operation of a cipher usually depends on a piece of auxiliary information, called a key (or, in traditional NSA parlance, a cryptovariable). The encrypting procedure is varied depending on the key, which changes the detailed operation of the algorithm. A key must be selected before using a cipher to encrypt a message. Without knowledge of the key, it should be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to decrypt the resulting ciphertext into readable plaintext. Most modern ciphers can be categorized in several ways: By whether they work on blocks of symbols usually of a fixed size (block ciphers), or on a continuous stream of symbols (stream ciphers). By whether the same key is used for both encryption and decryption (symmetric key algorithms), or if a different key is used for each (asymmetric key algorithms). If the algorithm is symmetric, the key must be known to the recipient and sender and to no one else. If the algorithm is an asymmetric one, the enciphering key is different from, but closely related to, the deciphering key. If one key cannot be deduced from the other, the asymmetric key algorithm has the public/private key property and one of the keys may be made public without loss of confidentiality. Etymology Originating from the Arabic word for zero صفر (ṣifr), the word "cipher" spread to Europe as part of the Arabic numeral system during the Middle Ages. The Roman numeral system lacked the concept of zero, and this limited advances in mathematics. In this transition, the word was adopted into Medieval Latin as cifra, and then into Middle French as cifre. This eventually led to the English word cipher (minority spelling cypher). One theory for how the term came to refer to encoding is that the concept of zero was confusing to Europeans, and so the term came to refer to a message or communication that was not easily understood. The term cipher was later also used to refer to any Arabic digit, or to calculation using them, so encoding text in the form of Arabic numerals is literally converting the text to "ciphers". Versus codes In casual contexts, "code" and "cipher" can typically be used interchangeably; however, the technical usages of the words refer to different concepts. Codes contain meaning; words and phrases are assigned to numbers or symbols, creating a shorter message. An example of this is the commercial telegraph code which was used to shorten long telegraph messages which resulted from entering into commercial contracts using exchanges of telegrams. Another example is given by whole word ciphers, which allow the user to replace an entire word with a symbol or character, much like the way written Japanese utilizes Kanji (meaning Chinese characters in Japanese) characters to supplement the native Japanese characters representing syllables. An example using English language with Kanji could be to replace "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog" by "The quick brown 狐 jumps 上 the lazy 犬". Stenographers sometimes use specific symbols to abbreviate whole words. Ciphers, on the other hand, work at a lower level: the level of individual letters, small groups of letters, or, in modern schemes, individual bits and blocks of bits. Some systems used both codes and ciphers in one system, using superencipherment to increase the security. In some cases the terms codes and ciphers are used synonymously with substitution and transposition, respectively. Historically, cryptography was split into a dichotomy of codes and ciphers, while coding had its own terminology analogous to that of ciphers: "encoding, codetext, decoding" and so on. However, codes have a variety of drawbacks, including susceptibility to cryptanalysis and the difficulty of managing a cumbersome codebook. Because of this, codes have fallen into disuse in modern cryptography, and ciphers are the dominant technique. Types There are a variety of different types of encryption. Algorithms used earlier in the history of cryptography are substantially different from modern methods, and modern ciphers can be classified according to how they operate and whether they use one or two keys. Historical thumb|Visual representation of how Caesar's Cipher works. The Caesar Cipher is one of the earliest known cryptographic systems. Julius Caesar used a cipher that shifts the letters in the alphabet in place by three and wrapping the remaining letters to the front to write to Marcus Tullius Cicero in approximately 50 BC. Historical pen and paper ciphers used in the past are sometimes known as classical ciphers. They include simple substitution ciphers (such as ROT13) and transposition ciphers (such as a Rail Fence Cipher). For example, "GOOD DOG" can be encrypted as "PLLX XLP" where "L" substitutes for "O", "P" for "G", and "X" for "D" in the message. Transposition of the letters "GOOD DOG" can result in "DGOGDOO". These simple ciphers and examples are easy to crack, even without plaintext-ciphertext pairs. In the 1640s, the Parliamentarian commander, Edward Montagu, 2nd Earl of Manchester, developed ciphers to send coded messages to his allies during the English Civil War. The English theologian John Wilkins published a book in 1641 titled "Mercury, or The Secret and Swift Messenger" and described a musical cipher wherein letters of the alphabet were substituted for music notes. This species of melodic cipher was depicted in greater detail by author Abraham Rees in his book Cyclopædia (1778). Simple ciphers were replaced by polyalphabetic substitution ciphers (such as the Vigenère) which changed the substitution alphabet for every letter. For example, "GOOD DOG" can be encrypted as "PLSX TWF" where "L", "S", and "W" substitute for "O". With even a small amount of known or estimated plaintext, simple polyalphabetic substitution ciphers and letter transposition ciphers designed for pen and paper encryption are easy to crack. It is possible to create a secure pen and paper cipher based on a one-time pad, but these have other disadvantages. During the early twentieth century, electro-mechanical machines were invented to do encryption and decryption using transposition, polyalphabetic substitution, and a kind of "additive" substitution. In rotor machines, several rotor disks provided polyalphabetic substitution, while plug boards provided another substitution. Keys were easily changed by changing the rotor disks and the plugboard wires. Although these encryption methods were more complex than previous schemes and required machines to encrypt and decrypt, other machines such as the British Bombe were invented to crack these encryption methods. Modern Modern encryption methods can be divided by two criteria: by type of key used, and by type of input data. By type of key used ciphers are divided into: symmetric key algorithms (Private-key cryptography), where one same key is used for encryption and decryption, and thumbasymmetric key algorithms (Public-key cryptography), where two different keys are used for encryption and decryption. In a symmetric key algorithm (e.g., DES and AES), the sender and receiver must have a shared key set up in advance and kept secret from all other parties; the sender uses this key for encryption, and the receiver uses the same key for decryption. The design of AES (Advanced Encryption System) was beneficial because it aimed to overcome the flaws in the design of the DES (Data encryption standard). AES's designer's claim that the common means of modern cipher cryptanalytic attacks are ineffective against AES due to its design structure.[12] Ciphers can be distinguished into two types by the type of input data: block ciphers, which encrypt block of data of fixed size, and stream ciphers, which encrypt continuous streams of data. Key size and vulnerability In a pure mathematical attack, (i.e., lacking any other information to help break a cipher) two factors above all count: Computational power available, i.e., the computing power which can be brought to bear on the problem. It is important to note that average performance/capacity of a single computer is not the only factor to consider. An adversary can use multiple computers at once, for instance, to increase the speed of exhaustive search for a key (i.e., "brute force" attack) substantially. Key size, i.e., the size of key used to encrypt a message. As the key size increases, so does the complexity of exhaustive search to the point where it becomes impractical to crack encryption directly. Since the desired effect is computational difficulty, in theory one would choose an algorithm and desired difficulty level, thus decide the key length accordingly. Claude Shannon proved, using information theory considerations, that any theoretically unbreakable cipher must have keys which are at least as long as the plaintext, and used only once: one-time pad. See also Autokey cipher Cover-coding Encryption software List of ciphertexts Steganography Telegraph code Notes References External links Kish cypher Category:Cryptography *
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cipher
2025-04-05T18:27:07.457893
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Country music
}} | regional_scenes = | local_scenes = | other_topics = | current_year = yes }} Country (also called country and western) is a music genre originating in the southern regions of the United States, both the American South and the Southwest. First produced in the 1920s, country music is primarily focused on singing stories about working-class and blue-collar American life. Country music is known for its ballads and dance tunes (i.e., "honky-tonk music") with simple form, folk lyrics, and harmonies generally accompanied by instruments such as banjos, fiddles, harmonicas, and many types of guitar (including acoustic, electric, steel, and resonator guitars). Though it is primarily rooted in various forms of American folk music, such as old-time music and Appalachian music, many other traditions, including Mexican, Irish, and Hawaiian music, have had a formative influence on the genre. Blues modes from blues music have been used extensively throughout its history as well. Once called "hillbilly music", the term country music gained popularity in the 1940s. The genre came to encompass western music, which evolved parallel to hillbilly music from similar roots, in the mid-20th century. Contemporary styles of western music include Texas country, red dirt, and Hispano- and Mexican American-led Tejano and New Mexico music, which still exists alongside longstanding indigenous traditions. In 2009, in the United States, country music was the most-listened-to rush-hour radio genre during the evening commute, and second-most popular in the morning commute. Origins The main components of the modern country music style date back to music traditions throughout the Southern United States and Southwestern United States, while its place in American popular music was established in the 1920s during the early days of music recording. According to country historian Bill C. Malone, country music was "introduced to the world as a Southern phenomenon." Migration into the southern Appalachian Mountains, of the Southeastern United States, brought the folk music and instruments of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin along with it for nearly 300 years, which developed into Appalachian music. As the country expanded westward, the Mississippi River and Louisiana became a crossroads for country music, giving rise to Cajun music. In the Southwestern United States, it was the Rocky Mountains, American frontier, and Rio Grande that acted as a similar backdrop for Native American, Mexican, and cowboy ballads, which resulted in New Mexico music and the development of western music, and it is directly related to Red Dirt, Texas country, and Tejano music styles. In the Asia-Pacific, the steel guitar sound of country music has its provenance in the music of Hawaii. Role of East Tennessee The U.S. Congress has formally recognized Bristol, Tennessee, as the "Birthplace of Country Music", based on the historic Bristol recording sessions of 1927. Since 2014, the city has been home to the Birthplace of Country Music Museum. Historians have also noted the influence of the less-known Johnson City sessions of 1928 and 1929, and the Knoxville sessions of 1929 and 1930. In addition, the Mountain City Fiddlers Convention, held in 1925, helped to inspire modern country music. Before these, pioneer settlers, in the Great Smoky Mountains region, had developed a rich musical heritage.GenerationsThe first generation emerged in the 1920s, with Atlanta's music scene playing a major role in launching country's earliest recording artists. James Gideon "Gid" Tanner (1885–1960) was an American old-time fiddler and one of the earliest stars of what would come to be known as country music. His band, the Skillet Lickers, was one of the most innovative and influential string bands of the 1920s and 1930s. Its most notable members were Clayton McMichen (fiddle and vocal), Dan Hornsby (vocals), Riley Puckett (guitar and vocal) and Robert Lee Sweat (guitar). New York City record label Okeh Records began issuing hillbilly music records by Fiddlin' John Carson as early as 1923, followed by Columbia Records (series 15000D "Old Familiar Tunes") (Samantha Bumgarner) in 1924, and RCA Victor Records in 1927 with the first famous pioneers of the genre Jimmie Rodgers, who is widely considered the "Father of Country Music", and the first family of country music the Carter Family. Many "hillbilly" musicians recorded blues songs throughout the 1920s. During the second generation (1930s–1940s), radio became a popular source of entertainment, and "barn dance" shows featuring country music were started all over the South, as far north as Chicago, and as far west as California. The most important was the Grand Ole Opry, aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day. During the 1930s and 1940s, cowboy songs, or western music, which had been recorded since the 1920s, were popularized by films made in Hollywood, many featuring Gene Autry, who was known as king of the "singing cowboys," and Hank Williams. Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a "hot string band," and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns. His mix of country and jazz, which started out as dance hall music, would become known as western swing. Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band, in 1938. Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939, shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall, when Johnny Barfield recorded "Boogie Woogie". The third generation (1950s–1960s) started at the end of World War II with "mountaineer" string band music known as bluegrass, which emerged when Bill Monroe, along with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, were introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry. Gospel music remained a popular component of country music. The Native American, Hispano, and American frontier music of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico, became popular among poor communities in New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas; the basic ensemble consisted of classical guitar, bass guitar, dobro or steel guitar, though some larger ensembles featured electric guitars, trumpets, keyboards (especially the honky-tonk piano, a type of tack piano), banjos, and drums. By the early 1950s it blended with rock and roll, becoming the rockabilly sound produced by Sam Phillips, Norman Petty, and Bob Keane. Musicians like Elvis Presley, Buddy Holly, Jerry Lee Lewis, Ritchie Valens, Carl Perkins, Roy Orbison, and Johnny Cash emerged as enduring representatives of the style. Beginning in the mid-1950s, and reaching its peak during the early 1960s, the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville, Tennessee; Patsy Cline and Jim Reeves were two of the most broadly popular Nashville sound artists, and their deaths in separate plane crashes in the early 1960s were a factor in the genre's decline. Starting in the 1950s to the mid-1960s, western singer-songwriters such as Marty Robbins rose in prominence as did others, throughout western music traditions, like New Mexico music's Al Hurricane. The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres. In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the "old values" of rock n' roll. At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music. What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock. Fourth generation (1970s–1980s) music included outlaw country with roots in the Bakersfield sound, and country pop with roots in the countrypolitan, folk music and soft rock. Between 1972 and 1975 singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles. By the mid-1970s, Texas country and Tejano music gained popularity with performers like Freddie Fender. During the early 1980s country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts. In 1980 a style of "neocountry disco music" was popularized. During the mid-1980s a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts in favor of more traditional "back-to-basics" production. During the fifth generation (the 1990s), neotraditionalists and stadium country acts prospered. The sixth generation (2000s–present) has seen a certain amount of diversification in regard to country music styles. It has also, however, seen a shift into patriotism and conservative politics since 9/11, though such themes are less prevalent in more modern trends. The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s. Most of the best-selling country songs of this era were those by Lady A, Florida Georgia Line, Carrie Underwood, and Taylor Swift. History First generation (1920s) was the first country star to have a major hit record]] The first commercial recordings of what was considered instrumental music in the traditional country style were "Arkansas Traveler" and "Turkey in the Straw" by fiddlers Henry Gilliland & A.C. (Eck) Robertson on June 30, 1922, for Victor Records and released in April 1923. Columbia Records began issuing records with "hillbilly" music (series 15000D "Old Familiar Tunes") as early as 1924. Vernon Dalhart was the first country singer to have a nationwide hit in May 1924 with "Wreck of the Old 97". The flip side of the record was "Lonesome Road Blues", which also became very popular. In April 1924, "Aunt" Samantha Bumgarner and Eva Davis became the first female musicians to record and release country songs. The record 129-D produced by Columbia features Samantha playing fiddle and singing Big-Eyed Rabbit while Eva Davis plays banjo. The other side features Eva Davis playing banjo while singing Wild Bill Jones. Many of the early country musicians, such as the yodeler Cliff Carlisle, recorded blues songs into the 1930s. Other important early recording artists were Riley Puckett, Don Richardson, Fiddlin' John Carson, Uncle Dave Macon, Al Hopkins, Ernest V. Stoneman, Blind Alfred Reed, Charlie Poole and the North Carolina Ramblers and the Skillet Lickers. The steel guitar entered country music as early as 1922, when Jimmie Tarlton met famed Hawaiian guitarist Frank Ferera on the West Coast. Jimmie Rodgers and the Carter Family are widely considered to be important early country musicians. From Scott County, Virginia, the Carters had learned sight reading of hymnals and sheet music using solfege. Their songs were first captured at a historic recording session in Bristol, Tennessee, on August 1, 1927, where Ralph Peer was the talent scout and sound recordist. A scene in the movie O Brother, Where Art Thou? depicts a similar occurrence in the same timeframe. Rodgers fused hillbilly country, gospel, jazz, blues, pop, cowboy, and folk, and many of his best songs were his compositions, including "Blue Yodel", which sold over a million records and established Rodgers as the premier singer of early country music. Beginning in 1927, and for the next 17 years, the Carters recorded some 300 old-time ballads, traditional tunes, country songs and gospel hymns, all representative of America's southeastern folklore and heritage. Maybelle Carter went on to continue the family tradition with her daughters as The Carter Sisters; her daughter June would marry (in succession) Carl Smith, Rip Nix and Johnny Cash, having children with each who would also become country singers. Second generation (1930s–1940s) ]] Record sales declined during the Great Depression. However, radio became a popular source of entertainment, and "barn dance" shows featuring country music were started by radio stations all over the South, as far north as Chicago, and as far west as California. The most important was the Grand Ole Opry, aired starting in 1925 by WSM in Nashville and continuing to the present day. Some of the early stars on the Opry were Uncle Dave Macon, Roy Acuff and African American harmonica player DeFord Bailey. WSM's 50,000-watt signal (in 1934) could often be heard across the country. Many musicians performed and recorded songs in any number of styles. Moon Mullican, for example, played western swing but also recorded songs that can be called rockabilly. Between 1947 and 1949, country crooner Eddy Arnold placed eight songs in the top 10. From 1945 to 1955 Jenny Lou Carson was one of the most prolific songwriters in country music. Singing cowboys and western swing and Gail Davis, 1948]] In the 1930s and 1940s, cowboy songs, or western music, which had been recorded since the 1920s, were popularized by films made in Hollywood. Some of the popular singing cowboys from the era were Gene Autry, the Sons of the Pioneers, and Roy Rogers. Country music and western music were frequently played together on the same radio stations, hence the term country and western music, despite country and western being two distinct genres. Cowgirls contributed to the sound in various family groups. Patsy Montana opened the door for female artists with her history-making song "I Want To Be a Cowboy's Sweetheart". This would begin a movement toward opportunities for women to have successful solo careers. Bob Wills was another country musician from the Lower Great Plains who had become very popular as the leader of a "hot string band," and who also appeared in Hollywood westerns. His mix of country and jazz, which started out as dance hall music, would become known as western swing. Cliff Bruner, Moon Mullican, Milton Brown and Adolph Hofner were other early western swing pioneers. Spade Cooley and Tex Williams also had very popular bands and appeared in films. At its height, western swing rivaled the popularity of big band swing music. Changing instrumentation Drums were scorned by early country musicians as being "too loud" and "not pure", but by 1935 western swing big band leader Bob Wills had added drums to the Texas Playboys. In the mid-1940s, the Grand Ole Opry did not want the Playboys' drummer to appear on stage. Although drums were commonly used by rockabilly groups by 1955, the less-conservative-than-the-Grand-Ole-Opry Louisiana Hayride kept its infrequently used drummer backstage as late as 1956. By the early 1960s, however, it was rare for a country band not to have a drummer. Bob Wills was one of the first country musicians known to have added an electric guitar to his band, in 1938. Hillbilly boogie Country musicians began recording boogie in 1939, shortly after it had been played at Carnegie Hall, when Johnny Barfield recorded "Boogie Woogie". The trickle of what was initially called hillbilly boogie, or okie boogie (later to be renamed country boogie), became a flood beginning in late 1945. One notable release from this period was the Delmore Brothers' "Freight Train Boogie", considered to be part of the combined evolution of country music and blues towards rockabilly. In 1948, Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith achieved top ten US country chart success with his MGM Records recordings of "Guitar Boogie" and "Banjo Boogie", with the former crossing over to the US pop charts. Other country boogie artists included Moon Mullican, Merrill Moore and Tennessee Ernie Ford. The hillbilly boogie period lasted into the 1950s and remains one of many subgenres of country into the 21st century. Bluegrass, folk and gospel By the end of World War II, "mountaineer" string band music known as bluegrass had emerged when Bill Monroe joined with Lester Flatt and Earl Scruggs, introduced by Roy Acuff at the Grand Ole Opry. That was the ordination of bluegrass music and how Bill Monroe came to be known as the "Father of Bluegrass." Gospel music, too, remained a popular component of bluegrass and other sorts of country music. Red Foley, the biggest country star following World War II, had one of the first million-selling gospel hits ("Peace in the Valley") and also sang boogie, blues and rockabilly. In the post-war period, country music was called "folk" in the trades, and "hillbilly" within the industry. In 1944, Billboard replaced the term "hillbilly" with "folk songs and blues," and switched to "country and western" in 1949. Honky tonk ]] Another type of stripped-down and raw music with a variety of moods and a basic ensemble of guitar, bass, dobro or steel guitar (and later) drums became popular, especially among rural residents in the three states of Texhomex, those being Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico. It became known as honky tonk and had its roots in western swing and the ranchera music of Mexico and the border states, particularly New Mexico and Texas, together with the blues of the American South. Bob Wills and His Texas Playboys personified this music which has been described as "a little bit of this, and a little bit of that, a little bit of black and a little bit of white ... just loud enough to keep you from thinking too much and to go right on ordering the whiskey." East Texan Al Dexter had a hit with "Honky Tonk Blues", and seven years later "Pistol Packin' Mama". These "honky tonk" songs were associated with barrooms, and was performed by the likes of Ernest Tubb, Kitty Wells (the first major female country solo singer), Ted Daffan, Floyd Tillman, the Maddox Brothers and Rose, Lefty Frizzell and Hank Williams; the music of these artists would later be called "traditional" country. Williams' influence in particular would prove to be enormous, inspiring many of the pioneers of rock and roll, such as Elvis Presley, Jerry Lee Lewis, Chuck Berry and Ike Turner, while providing a framework for emerging honky tonk talents like George Jones. Webb Pierce was the top-charting country artist of the 1950s, with 13 of his singles spending 113 weeks at number one. He charted 48 singles during the decade; 31 reached the top ten and 26 reached the top four. Third generation (1950s–1960s) ]] By the early 1950s, a blend of western swing, country boogie, and honky tonk was played by most country bands, a mixture which followed in the footsteps of Gene Autry, Lydia Mendoza, Roy Rogers, and Patsy Montana. Western music, influenced by the cowboy ballads, New Mexico, Texas country and Tejano music rhythms of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico, reached its peak in popularity in the late 1950s, most notably with the song "El Paso", first recorded by Marty Robbins in September 1959. Western music's influence would continue to grow within the country music sphere, western musicians like Michael Martin Murphey, New Mexico music artists Al Hurricane and Antonia Apodaca, Tejano music performer Little Joe, and even folk revivalist John Denver, all first rose to prominence during this time. This western music influence largely kept the music of the folk revival and folk rock from influencing the country music genre much, despite the similarity in instrumentation and origins (see, for instance, the Byrds' negative reception during their appearance on the Grand Ole Opry). The main concern was largely political: most folk revival was largely driven by progressive activists, a stark contrast to the culturally conservative audiences of country music. John Denver was perhaps the only musician to have major success in both the country and folk revival genres throughout his career, later only a handful of artists like Burl Ives and Canadian musician Gordon Lightfoot successfully made the crossover to country after folk revival fell out of fashion. During the mid-1950s a new style of country music became popular, eventually to be referred to as rockabilly. in 1958 ]] In 1953, the first all-country radio station was established in Lubbock, Texas. The music of the 1960s and 1970s targeted the American working class, and truckers in particular. As country radio became more popular, trucking songs like the 1963 hit song Six Days on the Road by Dave Dudley began to make up their own subgenre of country. These revamped songs sought to portray American truckers as a "new folk hero", marking a significant shift in sound from earlier country music. The song was written by actual truckers and contained numerous references to the trucker culture of the time like "ICC" for Interstate Commerce Commission and "little white pills" as a reference to amphetamines. Starday Records in Nashville followed up on Dudley's initial success with the release of Give Me 40 Acres by the Willis Brothers. 1956 could be called the year of rockabilly in country music. Rockabilly was an early form of rock and roll, an upbeat combination of blues and country music. The number two, three and four songs on ''Billboard's'' charts for that year were Elvis Presley, "Heartbreak Hotel"; Johnny Cash, "I Walk the Line"; and Carl Perkins, "Blue Suede Shoes". Reflecting this success, George Jones released a rockabilly record that year under the pseudonym "Thumper Jones", wanting to capitalize on the popularity of rockabilly without alienating his traditional country base. Cash and Presley placed songs in the top 5 in 1958 with No. 3 "Guess Things Happen That Way/Come In, Stranger" by Cash, and No. 5 by Presley "Don't/I Beg of You." Presley acknowledged the influence of rhythm and blues artists and his style, saying "The colored folk been singin' and playin' it just the way I'm doin' it now, man for more years than I know." Within a few years, many rockabilly musicians returned to a more mainstream style or had defined their own unique style. Country music gained national television exposure through Ozark Jubilee on ABC-TV and radio from 1955 to 1960 from Springfield, Missouri. The program showcased top stars including several rockabilly artists, some from the Ozarks. As Webb Pierce put it in 1956, "Once upon a time, it was almost impossible to sell country music in a place like New York City. Nowadays, television takes us everywhere, and country music records and sheet music sell as well in large cities as anywhere else." The Country Music Association was founded in 1958, in part because numerous country musicians were appalled by the increased influence of rock and roll on country music. The Nashville and countrypolitan sounds ]] Beginning in the mid-1950s, and reaching its peak during the early 1960s, the Nashville sound turned country music into a multimillion-dollar industry centered in Nashville, Tennessee. Under the direction of producers such as Chet Atkins, Bill Porter, Paul Cohen, Owen Bradley, Bob Ferguson, and later Billy Sherrill, the sound brought country music to a diverse audience and helped revive country as it emerged from a commercially fallow period. This subgenre was notable for borrowing from 1950s pop stylings: a prominent and smooth vocal, backed by a string section (violins and other orchestral strings) and vocal chorus. Instrumental soloing was de-emphasized in favor of trademark "licks". Leading artists in this genre included Jim Reeves, Skeeter Davis, Connie Smith, the Browns, Patsy Cline, and Eddy Arnold. The "slip note" piano style of session musician Floyd Cramer was an important component of this style. The Nashville Sound collapsed in mainstream popularity in 1964, a victim of both the British Invasion and the deaths of Reeves and Cline in separate airplane crashes. By the mid-1960s, the genre had developed into countrypolitan. Countrypolitan was aimed straight at mainstream markets, and it sold well throughout the later 1960s into the early 1970s. Top artists included Tammy Wynette, Lynn Anderson and Charlie Rich, as well as such former "hard country" artists as Ray Price and Marty Robbins. Despite the appeal of the Nashville sound, many traditional country artists emerged during this period and dominated the genre: Loretta Lynn, Merle Haggard, Buck Owens, Porter Wagoner, George Jones, and Sonny James among them.Country-soul crossover In 1962, Ray Charles surprised the pop world by turning his attention to country and western music, topping the charts and rating number three for the year on ''Billboard's'' pop chart with the "I Can't Stop Loving You" single, and recording the landmark album Modern Sounds in Country and Western Music. Bakersfield sound in a 1975 publicity photo for Capitol Records]] Another subgenre of country music grew out of hardcore honky tonk with elements of western swing and originated north-northwest of Los Angeles in Bakersfield, California, where many "Okies" and other Dust Bowl migrants had settled. Influenced by one-time West Coast residents Bob Wills and Lefty Frizzell, by 1966 it was known as the Bakersfield sound. It relied on electric instruments and amplification, in particular the Telecaster electric guitar, more than other subgenres of the country music of the era, and it can be described as having a sharp, hard, driving, no-frills, edgy flavor—hard guitars and honky-tonk harmonies. Ken Nelson, who had produced Owens and Haggard and Rose Maddox became interested in the trucking song subgenre following the success of Six Days on the Road and asked Red Simpson to record an album of trucking songs. Haggard's White Line Fever was also part of the trucking subgenre. Even today, cowboy and frontier values continue to play a role in the larger country music, with western wear, cowboy boots, and cowboy hats continues to be in fashion for country artists. West of the Mississippi River, many of these western genres continue to flourish, including the Red Dirt of Oklahoma, New Mexico music of New Mexico, and both Texas country music and Tejano music of Texas. During the 1950s until the early 1970s, the latter part of the western heyday in country music, many of these genres featured popular artists that continue to influence both their distinctive genres and larger country music. Red Dirt featured Bob Childers and Steve Ripley; for New Mexico music Al Hurricane, Al Hurricane Jr., and Antonia Apodaca; and within the Texas scenes Willie Nelson, Freddie Fender, Johnny Rodriguez, and Little Joe. As Outlaw country music emerged as subgenre in its own right, Red Dirt, New Mexico, Texas country, and Tejano grew in popularity as a part of the Outlaw country movement. Originating in the bars, fiestas, and honky-tonks of Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Texas, their music supplemented outlaw country's singer-songwriter tradition as well as 21st-century rock-inspired alternative country and hip hop-inspired country rap artists. <gallery mode"packed" heights"175"> File:Cowboy-Boots-And-Hat.png|Example of cowboy hat and cowboy boots, two prominent components of country music fashion File:Atypicalwesternshirt.svg|Western wear shirt design, with snap fasteners File:Eakins, Cowboy Singing 1890.jpg|Painting of a cowboy singing by Thomas Eakins (1890) File:Freddy Fender singing in 1977.jpg|Freddy Fender performing Tejano music after The Johnny Cash Show in Nashville, Tennessee (1977) File:Bob&RDR07.jpg|Bob Childers performing Red dirt in Okemah, Oklahoma (2001) File:Al Hurricane and Al Hurricane, Jr. performing at the San Felipe De Neri 2014 fiestas.jpg|Al Hurricane and Al Hurricane Jr. performing New Mexico music at a fiesta in Old Town Albuquerque (2014) </gallery> Fourth generation (1970s–1980s) Outlaw movement (1974)]] Outlaw country was derived from the traditional western, including Red Dirt, New Mexico, Texas country, Tejano, and honky-tonk musical styles of the late 1950s and 1960s. Songs such as the 1963 Johnny Cash popularized "Ring of Fire" show clear influences from the likes of Al Hurricane and Little Joe, this influence just happened to culminate with artists such as Ray Price (whose band, the "Cherokee Cowboys", included Willie Nelson and Roger Miller) and mixed with the anger of an alienated subculture of the nation during the period, a collection of musicians that came to be known as the outlaw movement revolutionized the genre of country music in the early 1970s. "After I left Nashville (the early 70s), I wanted to relax and play the music that I wanted to play, and just stay around Texas, maybe Oklahoma. Waylon and I had that outlaw image going, and when it caught on at colleges and we started selling records, we were O.K. The whole outlaw thing, it had nothing to do with the music, it was something that got written in an article, and the young people said, 'Well, that's pretty cool.' And started listening." (Willie Nelson) The term outlaw country is traditionally associated with Willie Nelson, Jerry Jeff Walker, Hank Williams, Jr., Merle Haggard, Waylon Jennings and Joe Ely. It was encapsulated in the 1976 album Wanted! The Outlaws. Though the outlaw movement as a cultural fad had died down after the late 1970s (with Jennings noting in 1978 that it had gotten out of hand and led to real-life legal scrutiny), many western and outlaw country music artists maintained their popularity during the 1980s by forming supergroups, such as The Highwaymen, Texas Tornados, and Bandido.Country pop (1975)]] Country pop or soft pop, with roots in the countrypolitan sound, folk music, and soft rock, is a subgenre that first emerged in the 1970s. Although the term first referred to country music songs and artists that crossed over to top 40 radio, country pop acts are now more likely to cross over to adult contemporary music. It started with pop music singers like Glen Campbell, Bobbie Gentry, John Denver, Olivia Newton-John, Anne Murray, B. J. Thomas, the Bellamy Brothers, and Linda Ronstadt having hits on the country charts. Between 1972 and 1975, singer/guitarist John Denver released a series of hugely successful songs blending country and folk-rock musical styles ("Rocky Mountain High", "Sunshine on My Shoulders", "Annie's Song", "Thank God I'm a Country Boy", and "I'm Sorry"), and was named Country Music Entertainer of the Year in 1975. The year before, Olivia Newton-John, an Australian pop singer, won the "Best Female Country Vocal Performance" as well as the Country Music Association's most coveted award for females, "Female Vocalist of the Year". In response George Jones, Tammy Wynette, Jean Shepard and other traditional Nashville country artists dissatisfied with the new trend formed the short-lived "Association of Country Entertainers" in 1974; the ACE soon unraveled in the wake of Jones and Wynette's bitter divorce and Shepard's realization that most others in the industry lacked her passion for the movement. ]] During the mid-1970s, Dolly Parton, a successful mainstream country artist since the late 1960s, mounted a high-profile campaign to cross over to pop music, culminating in her 1977 hit "Here You Come Again", which topped the U.S. country singles chart, and also reached No. 3 on the pop singles charts. Parton's male counterpart, Kenny Rogers, came from the opposite direction, aiming his music at the country charts, after a successful career in pop, rock and folk music with the First Edition, achieving success the same year with "Lucille", which topped the country charts and reached No. 5 on the U.S. pop singles charts, as well as reaching Number 1 on the British all-genre chart. Parton and Rogers would both continue to have success on both country and pop charts simultaneously, well into the 1980s. Country music propelled Kenny Rogers’ career, making him a three-time Grammy Award winner and six-time Country Music Association Awards winner. Having sold more than 50 million albums in the US, one of his Song "The Gambler," inspired several TV films, with Rogers as the main character. Artists like Crystal Gayle, Ronnie Milsap and Barbara Mandrell would also find success on the pop charts with their records. In 1975, author Paul Hemphill stated in the Saturday Evening Post, "Country music isn't really country anymore; it is a hybrid of nearly every form of popular music in America." in 2004]] During the early 1980s, country artists continued to see their records perform well on the pop charts. Willie Nelson and Juice Newton each had two songs in the top 5 of the Billboard Hot 100 in the early eighties: Nelson charted "Always on My Mind" (#5, 1982) and "To All the Girls I've Loved Before" (#5, 1984, a duet with Julio Iglesias), and Newton achieved success with "Queen of Hearts" (#2, 1981) and "Angel of the Morning" (#4, 1981). Four country songs topped the Billboard Hot 100 in the 1980s: "Lady" by Kenny Rogers, from the late fall of 1980; "9 to 5" by Dolly Parton, "I Love a Rainy Night" by Eddie Rabbitt (these two back-to-back at the top in early 1981); and "Islands in the Stream", a duet by Dolly Parton and Kenny Rogers in 1983, a pop-country crossover hit written by Barry, Robin, and Maurice Gibb of the Bee Gees. Newton's "Queen of Hearts" almost reached No. 1, but was kept out of the spot by the pop ballad juggernaut "Endless Love" by Diana Ross and Lionel Richie. The move of country music toward neotraditional styles led to a marked decline in country/pop crossovers in the late 1980s, and only one song in that period—Roy Orbison's "You Got It", from 1989—made the top 10 of both the Billboard Hot Country Singles" and Hot 100 charts, due largely to a revival of interest in Orbison after his sudden death. The only song with substantial country airplay to reach number one on the pop charts in the late 1980s was "At This Moment" by Billy Vera and the Beaters, an R&B song with slide guitar embellishment that appeared at number 42 on the country charts from minor crossover airplay. The record-setting, multi-platinum group Alabama was named Artist of the Decade for the 1980s by the Academy of Country Music.Country rock in 2008]] Country rock is a genre that started in the 1960s but became prominent in the 1970s. The late 1960s in American music produced a unique blend as a result of traditionalist backlash within separate genres. In the aftermath of the British Invasion, many desired a return to the "old values" of rock n' roll. At the same time there was a lack of enthusiasm in the country sector for Nashville-produced music. What resulted was a crossbred genre known as country rock. Early innovators in this new style of music in the 1960s and 1970s included Bob Dylan, who was the first to revert to country music with his 1967 album John Wesley Harding (and even more so with that album's follow-up, Nashville Skyline), followed by Gene Clark, Clark's former band the Byrds (with Gram Parsons on Sweetheart of the Rodeo) and its spin-off the Flying Burrito Brothers (also featuring Gram Parsons), guitarist Clarence White, Michael Nesmith (the Monkees and the First National Band), the Grateful Dead, Neil Young, Commander Cody, the Allman Brothers Band, Charlie Daniels, the Marshall Tucker Band, Poco, Buffalo Springfield, Stephen Stills' band Manassas and Eagles, among many, even the former folk music duo Ian & Sylvia, who formed Great Speckled Bird in 1969. The Eagles would become the most successful of these country rock acts, and their compilation album Their Greatest Hits (1971–1975) remains the second-best-selling album in the US with 29 million copies sold. The Rolling Stones also got into the act with songs like "Dead Flowers"; the original recording of "Honky Tonk Women" was performed in a country style, but it was subsequently re-recorded in a hard rock style for the single version, and the band's preferred country version was later released on the album Let It Bleed, under the title "Country Honk". often considered one of the pioneers of country rock.]] Described by AllMusic as the "father of country-rock", Gram Parsons' work in the early 1970s was acclaimed for its purity and for his appreciation for aspects of traditional country music. Though his career was cut tragically short by his 1973 death, his legacy was carried on by his protégé and duet partner Emmylou Harris; Harris would release her debut solo in 1975, an amalgamation of country, rock and roll, folk, blues and pop. Subsequent to the initial blending of the two polar opposite genres, other offspring soon resulted, including Southern rock, heartland rock and in more recent years, alternative country. In the decades that followed, artists such as Juice Newton, Alabama, Hank Williams, Jr. (and, to an even greater extent, Hank Williams III), Gary Allan, Shania Twain, Brooks & Dunn, Faith Hill, Garth Brooks, Dwight Yoakam, Steve Earle, Dolly Parton, Rosanne Cash and Linda Ronstadt moved country further towards rock influence.NeocountryIn 1980, a style of "neocountry disco music" was popularized by the film Urban Cowboy. It was during this time that a glut of pop-country crossover artists began appearing on the country charts: former pop stars Bill Medley (of the Righteous Brothers), "England Dan" Seals (of England Dan and John Ford Coley), Tom Jones, and Merrill Osmond (both alone and with some of his brothers; his younger sister Marie Osmond was already an established country star) all recorded significant country hits in the early 1980s. Sales in record stores rocketed to $250 million in 1981; by 1984, 900 radio stations began programming country or neocountry pop full-time. As with most sudden trends, however, by 1984 sales had dropped below 1979 figures. and is a fusion of honky-tonk, country rock and the Bakersfield sound. It has the tempo of country rock and the emotion of honky-tonk, Truck-driving country songs often deal with the profession of trucking and love.Neotraditionalist movement , a pioneer of the neotraditionalist movement and dubbed the "King of Country,"]] During the mid-1980s, a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts, in favor of more, traditional, "back-to-basics" production. Many of the artists during the latter half of the 1980s drew on traditional honky-tonk, bluegrass, folk and western swing. Artists who typified this sound included Travis Tritt, Reba McEntire, George Strait, Keith Whitley, Alan Jackson, John Anderson, Patty Loveless, Kathy Mattea, Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, Clint Black, Ricky Skaggs, and the Judds. Fifth generation (1990s) ]] Country music was aided by the U.S. Federal Communications Commission's (FCC) Docket 80–90, which led to a significant expansion of FM radio in the 1980s by adding numerous higher-fidelity FM signals to rural and suburban areas. At this point, country music was mainly heard on rural AM radio stations; the expansion of FM was particularly helpful to country music, which migrated to FM from the AM band as AM became overcome by talk radio (the country music stations that stayed on AM developed the classic country format for the AM audience). At the same time, beautiful music stations already in rural areas began abandoning the format (leading to its effective demise) to adopt country music as well. This wider availability of country music led to producers seeking to polish their product for a wider audience. In 1990, Billboard, which had published a country music chart since the 1940s, changed the methodology it used to compile the chart: singles sales were removed from the methodology, and only airplay on country radio determined a song's place on the chart. In the 1990s, country music became a worldwide phenomenon thanks to Garth Brooks, who enjoyed one of the most successful careers in popular music history, breaking records for both sales and concert attendance throughout the decade. The RIAA has certified his recordings at a combined (128× platinum), denoting roughly 113 million U.S. shipments. Other artists who experienced success during this time included Clint Black, John Michael Montgomery, Tracy Lawrence, Tim McGraw, Kenny Chesney, Travis Tritt, Alan Jackson and the newly formed duo of Brooks & Dunn; George Strait, whose career began in the 1980s, also continued to have widespread success in this decade and beyond. Toby Keith began his career as a more pop-oriented country singer in the 1990s, evolving into an outlaw persona in the early 2000s with Pull My Chain and its follow-up, Unleashed. Success of female artists ]] Female artists such as Reba McEntire, Patty Loveless, Faith Hill, Martina McBride, Deana Carter, LeAnn Rimes, Mindy McCready, Pam Tillis, Lorrie Morgan, Shania Twain, and Mary Chapin Carpenter all released platinum-selling albums in the 1990s. The Dixie Chicks became one of the most popular country bands in the 1990s and early 2000s. Their 1998 debut album Wide Open Spaces went on to become certified 12× platinum while their 1999 album Fly went on to become 10× platinum. After their third album, Home, was released in 2003, the band made political news in part because of lead singer Natalie Maines's comments disparaging then-President George W. Bush while the band was overseas (Maines stated that she and her bandmates were ashamed to be from the same state as Bush, who had just commenced the Iraq War a few days prior). The comments caused a rift between the band and the country music scene, and the band's fourth (and most recent) album, 2006's Taking the Long Way, took a more rock-oriented direction; the album was commercially successful overall among non-country audiences but largely ignored among country audiences. After Taking the Long Way, the band broke up for a decade (with two of its members continuing as the Court Yard Hounds) before reuniting in 2016 and releasing new material in 2020. performing during her Up! Tour in 2004]] Canadian artist Shania Twain became the best selling female country artist of the decade. This was primarily due to the success of her breakthrough sophomore 1995 album, The Woman in Me, which was certified 12× platinum sold over 20 million copies worldwide and its follow-up, 1997's Come On Over, which was certified 20× platinum and sold over 40 million copies. The album became a major worldwide phenomenon and became one of the world's best selling albums for three years (1998, 1999 and 2000); it also went on to become the best selling country album of all time. Unlike the majority of her contemporaries, Twain enjoyed large international success that had been seen by very few country artists, before or after her. Critics have noted that Twain enjoyed much of her success due to breaking free of traditional country stereotypes and for incorporating elements of rock and pop into her music. In 2002, she released her successful fourth studio album, titled Up!, which was certified 11× platinum and sold over 15 million copies worldwide. Shania Twain has been nominated eighteen times for Grammy Awards and won five Grammys. [] She was the best-paid country music star in 2016 according to Forbes, with a net worth of $27.5 million. []Twain has been credited with breaking international boundaries for country music, as well as inspiring many country artists to incorporate different genres into their music in order to attract a wider audience. She is also credited with changing the way in which many female country performers would market themselves, as unlike many before her she used fashion and her sex appeal to get rid of the stereotypical 'honky-tonk' image the majority of country singers had in order to distinguish herself from many female country artists of the time.Line dancing revivalIn the early-mid-1990s, country western music was influenced by the popularity of line dancing. This influence was so great that Chet Atkins was quoted as saying, "The music has gotten pretty bad, I think. It's all that damn line dancing." By the end of the decade, however, at least one line dance choreographer complained that good country line dance music was no longer being released. In contrast, artists such as Don Williams and George Jones who had more or less had consistent chart success through the 1970s and 1980s suddenly had their fortunes fall rapidly around 1991 when the new chart rules took effect.Alternative country performing in Ireland in 2007]] Country influences combined with Punk rock and alternative rock to forge the "cowpunk" scene in Southern California during the 1980s, which included bands such as the Long Ryders, Lone Justice and the Beat Farmers, as well as the established punk group X, whose music had begun to include country and rockabilly influences. Simultaneously, a generation of diverse country artists outside of California emerged that rejected the perceived cultural and musical conservatism associated with Nashville's mainstream country musicians in favor of more countercultural outlaw country and the folk singer-songwriter traditions of artists such as Woody Guthrie, Gram Parsons and Bob Dylan. Artists from outside California who were associated with early alternative country included singer-songwriters such as Lucinda Williams, Lyle Lovett and Steve Earle, the Nashville country rock band Jason and the Scorchers, the Providence "cowboy pop" band Rubber Rodeo, and the British post-punk band the Mekons. Earle, in particular, was noted for his popularity with both country and college rock audiences: He promoted his 1986 debut album Guitar Town with a tour that saw him open for both country singer Dwight Yoakam and alternative rock band the Replacements. Yoakam also cultivated a fanbase spanning multiple genres through his stripped-down honky-tonk influenced sound, association with the cowpunk scene, and performances at Los Angeles punk rock clubs. These early styles had coalesced into a genre by the time the Illinois group Uncle Tupelo released their influential debut album No Depression in 1990. The album is widely credited as being the first "alternative country" album, and inspired the name of No Depression magazine, which exclusively covered the new genre. Alt-country, in various iterations overlapped with other genres, including Red Dirt country music (Cross Canadian Ragweed), jam bands (My Morning Jacket and the String Cheese Incident), and indie folk (the Avett Brothers). Despite the genre's growing popularity in the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s, alternative country and neo-traditionalist artists saw minimal support from country radio in those decades, despite strong sales and critical acclaim for albums such as the soundtrack to the 2000 film O Brother, Where Art Thou?. In 1987, the Beat Farmers gained airplay on country music stations with their song "Make It Last", but the single was pulled from the format when station programmers decreed the band's music was too rock-oriented for their audience. However, some alt-country songs have been crossover hits to mainstream country radio in cover versions by established artists on the format; Lucinda Williams' "Passionate Kisses" was a hit for Mary Chapin Carpenter in 1993, Ryan Adams' "When the Stars Go Blue" was a hit for Tim McGraw in 2007, and Old Crow Medicine Show's "Wagon Wheel" was a hit for Darius Rucker (member of Hootie & The Blowfish) in 2013. In the 2010s, the alt-country genre saw an increase in its critical and commercial popularity, owing to the success of artists such as the Civil Wars, Chris Stapleton, Sturgill Simpson, Jason Isbell, Lydia Loveless and Margo Price. In 2019, Kacey Musgraves – a country artist who had gained a following with indie rock fans and music critics despite minimal airplay on country radio – won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for her album Golden Hour.Sixth generation (2000s–present) ]] The sixth generation of country music continued to be influenced by other genres such as pop, rock, and R&B. Richard Marx crossed over with his Days in Avalon album, which features five country songs and several singers and musicians. Alison Krauss sang background vocals to Marx's single "Straight from My Heart." Also, Bon Jovi had a hit single, "Who Says You Can't Go Home", with Jennifer Nettles of Sugarland. Kid Rock's collaboration with Sheryl Crow, "Picture," was a major crossover hit in 2001 and began Kid Rock's transition from hard rock to a country-rock hybrid that would later produce another major crossover hit, 2008's "All Summer Long." (Crow, whose music had often incorporated country elements, would also officially cross over into country with her hit "Easy" from her debut country album Feels like Home). Darius Rucker, frontman for the 1990s pop-rock band Hootie & the Blowfish, began a country solo career in the late 2000s, one that to date has produced five albums and several hits on both the country charts and the Billboard Hot 100. Singer-songwriter Unknown Hinson became famous for his appearance in the Charlotte television show Wild, Wild, South, after which Hinson started his own band and toured in southern states. Other rock stars who featured a country song on their albums were Don Henley (who released Cass County in 2015, an album which featured collaborations with numerous country artists) and Poison. The back half of the 2010–2020 decade saw an increasing number of mainstream country acts collaborate with pop and R&B acts; many of these songs achieved commercial success by appealing to fans across multiple genres; examples include collaborations between Kane Brown and Marshmello and Maren Morris and Zedd. There has also been interest from pop singers in country music, including Beyoncé, Lady Gaga, Alicia Keys, Gwen Stefani, Justin Timberlake, Justin Bieber and Pink. Supporting this movement is the new generation of contemporary pop-country, including Taylor Swift, Miranda Lambert, Carrie Underwood, Kacey Musgraves, Miley Cyrus, Billy Ray Cyrus, Sam Hunt, Chris Young, With her first single, "Inside Your Heaven", Underwood became the only solo country artist to have a number 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the 2000–2009 decade and also broke Billboard chart history as the first country music artist ever to debut at No. 1 on the Hot 100. Underwood's debut album, Some Hearts, became the best-selling solo female debut album in country music history, the fastest-selling debut country album in the history of the SoundScan era and the best-selling country album of the last 10 years, being ranked by Billboard as the number 1 Country Album of the 2000–2009 decade. She has also become the female country artist with the most number one hits on the Billboard Hot Country Songs chart in the Nielsen SoundScan era (1991–present), having 14 #1s and breaking her own Guinness Book record of ten. In 2007, Underwood won the Grammy Award for Best New Artist, becoming only the second Country artist in history (and the first in a decade) to win it. She also made history by becoming the seventh woman to win Entertainer of the Year at the Academy of Country Music Awards, and the first woman in history to win the award twice, as well as twice consecutively. Time has listed Underwood as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. In 2016, Underwood topped the Country Airplay chart for the 15th time, becoming the female artist with the most number ones on that chart. in 2019]] Carrie Underwood was only one of several country stars produced by a television series in the 2000s. In addition to Underwood, American Idol launched the careers of Kellie Pickler, Josh Gracin, Bucky Covington, Kristy Lee Cook, Danny Gokey, Lauren Alaina and Scotty McCreery (as well as that of occasional country singer Kelly Clarkson) in the decade, and would continue to launch country careers in the 2010s. The series Nashville Star, while not nearly as successful as Idol, did manage to bring Miranda Lambert, Kacey Musgraves and Chris Young to mainstream success, also launching the careers of lower-profile musicians such as Buddy Jewell, Sean Patrick McGraw, and Canadian musician George Canyon. Can You Duet? produced the duos Steel Magnolia and Joey + Rory. Teen sitcoms also have influenced modern country music; in 2008, actress Jennette McCurdy (best known as the sidekick Sam on the teen sitcom iCarly) released her first single, "So Close", following that with the single "Generation Love" in 2011. Another teen sitcom star, Miley Cyrus (of Disney Channel's Hannah Montana), also had a crossover hit in the late 2000s with "The Climb" and another with a duet with her father, Billy Ray Cyrus, with "Ready, Set, Don't Go." Jana Kramer, an actress in the teen drama One Tree Hill, released a country album in 2012 that has produced two hit singles as of 2013. Actresses Hayden Panettiere and Connie Britton began recording country songs as part of their roles in the TV shows Nashville and Pretty Little Liars star Lucy Hale released her debut album Road Between in 2014. In 2010, the group Lady Antebellum won five Grammys, including the coveted Song of the Year and Record of the Year for "Need You Now". A large number of duos and vocal groups emerged on the charts in the 2010s, many of which feature close harmony in the lead vocals. In addition to Lady A, groups such as Little Big Town, the Band Perry, Gloriana, Thompson Square, Eli Young Band, Zac Brown Band and British duo the Shires have emerged to occupy a large share of mainstream success alongside solo singers such as Kacey Musgraves and Miranda Lambert. at the 2019 American Music Awards]] One of the most commercially successful country artists of the late 2000s and early 2010s has been singer-songwriter Taylor Swift. Swift first became widely known in 2006 when her debut single, "Tim McGraw", was released when Swift was only 16 years old. In 2006, Swift released her self-titled debut studio album, which spent 275 weeks on Billboard 200, one of the longest runs of any album on that chart. In 2008, Taylor Swift released her second studio album, Fearless, which made her the second longest number-one charted on Billboard 200 and the second best-selling album (just behind Adele's 21) within the past 5 years. At the 2010 Grammys, Taylor Swift was 20 and won Album of the Year for Fearless, which made her the youngest artist to win this award. Swift has received fourteen Grammys already. Buoyed by her teen idol status among girls and a change in the methodology of compiling the Billboard charts to favor pop-crossover songs, Swift's 2012 single "We Are Never Ever Getting Back Together" spent the most weeks at the top of Billboard's Hot 100 chart and Hot Country Songs chart of any song in nearly five decades. The song's long run at the top of the chart was somewhat controversial, as the song is largely a pop song without much country influence and its success on the charts was driven by a change to the chart's criteria to include airplay on non-country radio stations, prompting disputes over what constitutes a country song; many of Swift's later releases, such as album 1989 (2014), Reputation (2017), and Lover (2019) were released solely to pop audiences. Swift returned to country music in her recent folk-inspired releases, Folklore (2020) and Evermore (2020), with songs like "Betty" and "No Body, No Crime". Modern variations Influence of rock, pop and hip-hop became one of the most successful male artists.]] In the mid to late 2010s, country music began to increasingly sound more like the style of modern-day Pop music, with more simple and repetitive lyrics, more electronic-based instrumentation, and experimentation with "talk-singing" and rap, pop-country pulled farther away from the traditional sounds of country music and received criticisms from country music purists while gaining in popularity with mainstream audiences. The topics addressed have also changed, turning controversial such as acceptance of the LGBT community, safe sex, recreational marijuana use, and questioning religious sentiment. Influences also come from some pop artists' interest in the country genre, including Justin Timberlake with the album Man of the Woods, Beyoncé's song "Daddy Lessons" from Lemonade, Kelly Clarkson, Bruno Mars, Lady Gaga, Alicia Keys, and Pink. The influence of rock music in country has become more overt during the late 2000s and early 2010s as artists like Eric Church, Jason Aldean, and Brantley Gilbert have had success; Aaron Lewis, former frontman for the rock group Staind, had a moderately successful entry into country music in 2011 and 2012, as did Dallas Smith, former frontman of the band Default. Maren Morris success collaboration "The Middle" with EDM producer Zedd is considered one of the representations of the fusion of electro-pop with country music. Lil Nas X song "Old Town Road" spent 19 weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart, becoming the longest-running number-one song since the chart debuted in 1958, winning Billboard Music Awards, MTV Video Music Awards and Grammy Award. Sam Hunt "Leave the Night On" peaked concurrently on the Hot Country Songs and Country Airplay charts, making Hunt the first country artist in 22 years, since Billy Ray Cyrus, to reach the top of three country charts simultaneously in the Nielsen SoundScan-era. With the fusion genre of "country trap"—a fusion of country/western themes to a hip hop beat, but usually with fully sung lyrics—emerging in the late 2010s, line dancing country had a minor revival, examples of the phenomenon include "The Git Up" by Blanco Brown. Blanco Brown has gone on to make more traditional country soul songs such as "I Need Love" and a rendition of "Don't Take the Girl" with Tim McGraw, and collaborations like "Just the Way" with Parmalee. Another country trap artist known as Breland has seen success with "My Truck, "Throw It Back" with Keith Urban, and "Praise the Lord" featuring Thomas Rhett. Emo rap musician Sueco, released a cowpunk song in collaboration is country musician Warren Zeiders titled "Ride It Hard". Bro country whose hit song "Cruise" drew attention to the bro-country genre]] In the early 2010s, "bro-country", a genre noted primarily for its themes on drinking and partying, girls, and pickup trucks became particularly popular. Notable artists associated with this genre are Luke Bryan, Jason Aldean, Blake Shelton, Jake Owen and Florida Georgia Line whose song "Cruise" became the best-selling country song of all time. Research in the mid-2010s suggested that about 45 percent of country's best-selling songs could be considered bro-country, with the top two artists being Luke Bryan and Florida Georgia Line. Albums by bro-country singers also sold very well—in 2013, Luke Bryan's Crash My Party was the third best-selling of all albums in the United States, with Florida Georgia Line's ''Here's to the Good Times'' at sixth, and Blake Shelton's Based on a True Story at ninth. It is also thought that the popularity of bro-country helped country music to surpass classic rock as the most popular genre in the American country in 2012. opening up a divide between the older generation of country singers and the younger bro country singers that was described as "civil war" by musicians, critics, and journalists." In 2014, Maddie & Tae's "Girl in a Country Song", addressing many of the controversial bro-country themes, peaked at number one on the Billboard Country Airplay chart. Bluegrass and Americana in 2008]] Bluegrass is a genre that contain songs about going through hard times, country loving, and telling stories. Its history can be traced back to the 1600s. During this time, many people were coming to America from Ireland, Scotland and England. Those people brought the first version of Bluegrass to the Americas. After several years of bluegrass' development, Bill Monroe became the "father" of bluegrass. Other sources argue that The Monroe Brothers were the first stars of bluegrass. Newer artists like Billy Strings, the Grascals, Molly Tuttle, Tyler Childers and the Infamous Stringdusters have been increasing the popularity of this genre, alongside some of the genres more established stars who still remain popular including Rhonda Vincent, Alison Krauss and Union Station, Ricky Skaggs and Del McCoury. The genre has developed in the Northern Kentucky and Cincinnati area. Other artists include New South (band), Doc Watson, Osborne Brothers, and many others. In an effort to combat the over-reliance of mainstream country music on pop-infused artists, the sister genre of Americana began to gain popularity and increase in prominence, receiving eight Grammy categories of its own in 2009. Though Americana music gained popularity in 2009, the first Americana singer was likely Hank Williams in the 1950s. Americana music incorporates elements of country music, bluegrass, folk, blues, gospel, rhythm and blues, roots rock and southern soul and is overseen by the Americana Music Association and the Americana Music Honors & Awards. As a result of an increasingly pop-leaning mainstream, many more traditional-sounding artists such as Tyler Childers, Zach Bryan and Old Crow Medicine Show began to associate themselves more with Americana and the alternative country scene where their sound was more celebrated. Similarly, many established country acts who no longer received commercial airplay, including Emmylou Harris and Lyle Lovett, began to flourish again. Contemporary country and western revival became one of the most controversial figures in contemporary country music.]] During the mid-1980s, a group of new artists began to emerge who rejected the more polished country-pop sound that had been prominent on radio and the charts, in favor of more, traditional, "back-to-basics" production. Many of the artists during the latter half of the 1980s drew on traditional honky-tonk, bluegrass, folk and western swing. Artists who typified this sound included Travis Tritt, Reba McEntire, George Strait, Keith Whitley, Alan Jackson, John Anderson, Patty Loveless, Kathy Mattea, Randy Travis, Dwight Yoakam, Clint Black, Ricky Skaggs, and the Judds. Beginning in 1989, a confluence of events brought an unprecedented commercial boom to country music. New marketing strategies were used to engage fans, powered by technology that more accurately tracked the popularity of country music, and boosted by a political and economic climate that focused attention on the genre. Garth Brooks ("Friends in Low Places") in particular attracted fans with his fusion of neotraditionalist country and stadium rock. Other artists such as Brooks and Dunn ("Boot Scootin' Boogie") also combined conventional country with slick, rock elements, while Lorrie Morgan, Mary Chapin Carpenter, and Kathy Mattea updated neotraditionalist styles. , one of the most popular neotraditional honky-tonk bands]] Roots of conservative country was Lee Greenwood's "God Bless the USA". The September 11 attacks of 2001 and the economic recession helped move country music back into the spotlight. Many country artists, such as Alan Jackson with his ballad on terrorist attacks, "Where Were You (When the World Stopped Turning)", wrote songs that celebrated the military, highlighted the gospel, and emphasized home and family values over wealth. Alt-Country singer Ryan Adams song "New York, New York" pays tribute to New York City, and its popular music video (which was shot 4 days before the attacks) shows Adams playing in front of the Manhattan skyline, Along with several shots of the city. In contrast, more rock-oriented country singers took more direct aim at the attacks' perpetrators; Toby Keith's "Courtesy of the Red, White and Blue (The Angry American)" threatened to "a boot in" the posterior of the enemy, while Charlie Daniels's "This Ain't No Rag, It's a Flag" promised to "hunt" the perpetrators "down like a mad dog hound." These songs gained such recognition that it put country music back into popular culture. Darryl Worley recorded "Have You Forgotten" also. There have been numerous patriotic country songs throughout the years. country duo known for their empowering songs and witty commentary on the gender stereotypes in country music.]] Some modern artists that primarily or entirely produce country pop music include Kacey Musgraves, Maren Morris, Kelsea Ballerini, Sam Hunt, Kane Brown, Chris Lane, and Dan + Shay. The singers who are part of this country movement are also defined as "Nashville's new generation of country". Although the changes made by the new generation, it has been recognized by major music awards associations and successes in Billboard and international charts. Golden Hour by Kacey Musgraves won album of the year at 61st Annual Grammy Awards, Academy of Country Music Awards, Country Music Association Awards, although it has received criticism from some traditional country music fans. International Australia singing in Sydney in 2008]] Australian country music has a long tradition. Influenced by US country music, it has developed a distinct style, shaped by British and Irish folk ballads and Australian bush balladeers like Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson. Country instruments, including the guitar, banjo, fiddle and harmonica, create the distinctive sound of country music in Australia and accompany songs with strong storyline and memorable chorus. Folk songs sung in Australia between the 1780s and 1920s, based around such themes as the struggle against government tyranny, or the lives of bushrangers, swagmen, drovers, stockmen and shearers, continue to influence the genre. This strain of Australian country, with lyrics focusing on Australian subjects, is generally known as "bush music" or "bush band music". "Waltzing Matilda", often regarded as Australia's unofficial national anthem, is a quintessential Australian country song, influenced more by British and Irish folk ballads than by US country and western music. The lyrics were composed by the poet Banjo Paterson in 1895. Other popular songs from this tradition include "The Wild Colonial Boy", "Click Go the Shears", "The Queensland Drover" and "The Dying Stockman". Later themes which endure to the present include the experiences of war, of droughts and flooding rains, of Aboriginality and of the railways and trucking routes which link Australia's vast distances. arguably one of the most successful Australian female country singers.]] Pioneers of a more Americanised popular country music in Australia included Tex Morton (known as "The Father of Australian Country Music") in the 1930s. Author Andrew Smith delivers a through research and engaged view of Tex Morton's life and his impact on the country music scene in Australia in the 1930s and 1940s. Other early stars included Buddy Williams, Shirley Thoms and Smoky Dawson. Buddy Williams (1918–1986) was the first Australian-born to record country music in Australia in the late 1930s and was the pioneer of a distinctly Australian style of country music called the bush ballad that others such as Slim Dusty would make popular in later years. During the Second World War, many of Buddy Williams recording sessions were done whilst on leave from the Army. At the end of the war, Williams would go on to operate some of the largest travelling tent rodeo shows Australia has ever seen. In 1952, Dawson began a radio show and went on to national stardom as a singing cowboy of radio, TV and film. Slim Dusty (1927–2003) was known as the "King of Australian Country Music" and helped to popularise the Australian bush ballad. His successful career spanned almost six decades, and his 1957 hit "A Pub with No Beer" was the biggest-selling record by an Australian to that time, and with over seven million record sales in Australia he is the most successful artist in Australian musical history. Dusty recorded and released his one-hundredth album in the year 2000 and was given the honour of singing "Waltzing Matilda" in the closing ceremony of the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games. Dusty's wife Joy McKean penned several of his most popular songs. Chad Morgan, who began recording in the 1950s, has represented a vaudeville style of comic Australian country; Frank Ifield achieved considerable success in the early 1960s, especially in the UK Singles Charts and Reg Lindsay was one of the first Australians to perform at Nashville's Grand Ole Opry in 1974. Eric Bogle's 1972 folk lament to the Gallipoli Campaign "And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda" recalled the British and Irish origins of Australian folk-country. Singer-songwriter Paul Kelly, whose music style straddles folk, rock and country, is often described as the poet laureate of Australian music. in 2007]] By the 1990s, country music had attained crossover success in the pop charts, with artists like James Blundell and James Reyne singing "Way Out West", and country star Kasey Chambers winning the ARIA Award for Best Female Artist in three years (2000, 2002 and 2004), tying with pop stars Wendy Matthews and Sia for the most wins in that category. Furthermore, Chambers has gone on to win nine ARIA Awards for Best Country Album and, in 2018, became the youngest artist to ever be inducted into the ARIA Hall of Fame. The crossover influence of Australian country is also evident in the music of successful contemporary bands the Waifs and the John Butler Trio. Nick Cave has been heavily influenced by the country artist Johnny Cash. In 2000, Cash, covered Cave's "The Mercy Seat" on the album American III: Solitary Man, seemingly repaying Cave for the compliment he paid by covering Cash's "The Singer" (originally "The Folk Singer") on his Kicking Against the Pricks album. Subsequently, Cave cut a duet with Cash on a version of Hank Williams' "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" for Cash's American IV: The Man Comes Around album (2002). celebrated for her heartfelt songwriting and authentic storytelling.]] Popular contemporary performers of Australian country music include John Williamson (who wrote the iconic "True Blue"), Lee Kernaghan (whose hits include "Boys from the Bush" and "The Outback Club"), Gina Jeffreys, Forever Road and Sara Storer. In the U.S., Olivia Newton-John, Sherrié Austin and Keith Urban have attained great success. During her time as a country singer in the 1970s, Newton-John became the first (and to date only) non-US winner of the Country Music Association Award for Female Vocalist of the Year which many considered a controversial decision by the CMA; after starring in the rock-and-roll musical film Grease in 1978, Newton-John (mirroring the character she played in the film) shifted to pop music in the 1980s. Urban is arguably considered the most successful international Australian country star, winning nine CMA Awards, including three Male Vocalist of the Year wins and two wins of the CMA's top honour Entertainer of the Year. Pop star Kylie Minogue found success with her 2018 country pop album Golden which she recorded in Nashville reaching number one in Scotland, the UK and her native Australia. Country music has been a particularly popular form of musical expression among Indigenous Australians. Troy Cassar-Daley is among Australia's successful contemporary indigenous performers, and Kev Carmody and Archie Roach employ a combination of folk-rock and country music to sing about Aboriginal rights issues. The Tamworth Country Music Festival began in 1973 and now attracts up to 100,000 visitors annually. Held in Tamworth, New South Wales (country music capital of Australia), it celebrates the culture and heritage of Australian country music. During the festival the CMAA holds the Country Music Awards of Australia ceremony awarding the Golden Guitar trophies. Other significant country music festivals include the Whittlesea Country Music Festival (near Melbourne) and the Mildura Country Music Festival for "independent" performers during October, and the Canberra Country Music Festival held in the national capital during November. Country HQ showcases new talent on the rise in the country music scene down under. CMC (the Country Music Channel), a 24‑hour music channel dedicated to non-stop country music, can be viewed on pay TV and features once a year the Golden Guitar Awards, CMAs and CCMAs alongside international shows such as The Wilkinsons, The Road Hammers, and Country Music Across America. Canada Outside of the United States, Canada has the largest country music fan and artist base, something that is to be expected given the two countries' proximity and cultural parallels. Mainstream country music is culturally ingrained in the prairie provinces, the British Columbia Interior, Northern Ontario, and in Atlantic Canada. Celtic traditional music developed in Atlantic Canada in the form of Scottish, Acadian and Irish folk music popular amongst Irish, French and Scottish immigrants to Canada's Atlantic Provinces (Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island). Furthermore, she is the only woman to have three consecutive albums be certified Diamond. Mexico and Latin America ]] Country music artists from the U.S. have seen crossover with Latin American audiences, particularly in Mexico. Country music artists from throughout the U.S. have recorded renditions of Mexican folk songs, including "El Rey" which was performed on George Strait's Twang album and during Al Hurricane's tribute concert. American Latin pop crossover musicians, like Lorenzo Antonio's "Ranchera Jam" have also combined Mexican songs with country songs in a New Mexico music style. While Tejano and New Mexico music is typically thought of as being Spanish language, the genres have also had charting musicians focused on English language music. During the 1970s, singer-songwriter Freddy Fender had two #1 country music singles, that were popular throughout North America, with "Before the Next Teardrop Falls" and "Wasted Days and Wasted Nights". Notable songs which have been influenced by Hispanic and Latin culture as performed by US country music artists include Marty Robbins' "El Paso" trilogy, Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard covering the Townes Van Zandt song "Pancho and Lefty", "Toes" by Zac Brown Band, and "Sangria" by Blake Shelton. ]] Regional Mexican is a radio format featuring many of Mexico's versions of country music. It includes a number of different styles, usually named after their region of origin. One specific song style, the Canción Ranchera, or simply Ranchera, literally meaning "ranch song", found its origins in the Mexican countryside and was first popularized with Mariachi. It has since also become popular with Grupero, Banda, Norteño, Tierra Caliente, Duranguense and other regional Mexican styles. The Corrido, a different song style with a similar history, is also performed in many other regional styles, and is most related to the western style of the United States and Canada. Other song styles performed in regional Mexican music include Ballads, Cumbias, Boleros, among others. Country en Español (Country in Spanish) is also popular in Mexico. Some Mexican artists began performing country songs in Spanish during the 1970s, and the genre became prominent mainly in the northern regions of the country during the 1980s. A Country en Español popularity boom also reached the central regions of Mexico during the 1990s. For most of its history, Country en Español mainly resembled Neotraditional country. However, in more modern times, some artists have incorporated influences from other country music subgenres. In Argentina, on the last weekend of September, the yearly San Pedro Country Music Festival takes place in the town of San Pedro, Buenos Aires. The festival features bands from different places in Argentina, as well as international artists from Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, Peru and the U.S. United Kingdom had a country hit with "It's a Heartache"]] Country music is popular in the United Kingdom, although somewhat less so than in other English-speaking countries. There are some British country music acts and publications. Although radio stations devoted to country are among the most popular in other Anglophone nations, none of the top ten most-listened-to stations in the UK are country stations, and national broadcaster BBC Radio does not offer a full-time country station (BBC Radio 2 Country, a "pop-up" station, operated four days each year between 2015 and 2017). The BBC does offer a country show on BBC Radio 2 each week hosted by Bob Harris. The most successful British country music act of the 21st century are Ward Thomas and the Shires. In 2015, the Shires' album Brave, became the first UK country act ever to chart in the Top 10 of the UK Albums Chart and they became the first UK country act to receive an award from the American Country Music Association. In 2016, Ward Thomas then became the first UK country act to hit number 1 in the UK Albums Chart with their album Cartwheels. had hits with country songs]] There is the C2C: Country to Country festival held every year, and for many years there was a festival at Wembley Arena, which was broadcast on the BBC, the International Festivals of Country Music, promoted by Mervyn Conn, held at the venue between 1969 and 1991. The shows were later taken into Europe, and featured such stars as Johnny Cash, Dolly Parton, Tammy Wynette, David Allan Coe, Emmylou Harris, Boxcar Willie, Johnny Russell and Jerry Lee Lewis. A handful of country musicians had even greater success in mainstream British music than they did in the U.S., despite a certain amount of disdain from the music press. Britain's largest music festival Glastonbury has featured major US country acts in recent years, such as Kenny Rogers in 2013 and Dolly Parton in 2014. a British-born Irish country music singer based in the UK and Ireland.]] From within the UK, few country musicians achieved widespread mainstream success. Many British singers who performed the occasional country songs are of other genres. Tom Jones, by this point near the end of his peak success as a pop singer, had a string of country hits in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The Bee Gees had some fleeting success in the genre, with one country hit as artists ("Rest Your Love on Me") and a major hit as songwriters ("Islands in the Stream"); Barry Gibb, the band's usual lead singer and last surviving member, acknowledged that country music was a major influence on the band's style. Singer Engelbert Humperdinck, while charting only once in the U.S. country top 40 with "After the Lovin'", achieved widespread success on both the U.S. and British pop charts with his covers of Nashville country ballads such as "Release Me", "Am I That Easy to Forget" and "There Goes My Everything". Welsh singer Bonnie Tyler initially started her career making country records, and in 1978 her single "It's a Heartache" reached number four on the UK Singles Chart. In 2013, Tyler returned to her roots, blending the country elements of her early work with the rock of her successful material on her album Rocks and Honey which featured a duet with Vince Gill. The songwriting tandem of Roger Cook and Roger Greenaway wrote a number of country hits, in addition to their widespread success in pop songwriting; Cook is notable for being the only Briton to be inducted into the Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame. A niche country subgenre popular in the West Country is Scrumpy and Western, which consists mostly of novelty songs and comedy music recorded there (its name comes from scrumpy, an alcoholic beverage). A primarily local interest, the largest Scrumpy and Western hit in the UK and Ireland was "The Combine Harvester", which pioneered the genre and reached number one in both the UK and Ireland; Fred Wedlock had a number-six hit in 1981 with "The Oldest Swinger in Town". In 1975, comedian Billy Connolly topped the UK Singles Chart with "D.I.V.O.R.C.E.", a parody of the Tammy Wynette song "D-I-V-O-R-C-E". [https://britishcountrymusicfestival.com The British Country Music Festival] is an annual three-day festival held in the seaside resort of Blackpool. It uniquely promotes artists from the United Kingdom and Ireland to celebrate the impact that Celtic and British settlers to America had on the origins of country music. Past headline artists have included Amy Wadge, Ward Thomas, Tom Odell, Nathan Carter, Lisa McHugh, Catherine McGrath, Wildwood Kin, The Wandering Hearts and Henry Priestman.Ireland ]] In Ireland, Country and Irish is a music genre that combines traditional Irish folk music with US country music. Television channel TG4 began a quest for Ireland's next country star called Glór Tíre, translated as "Country Voice". It is now in its sixth season and is one of TG4's most-watched TV shows. Over the past ten years, country and gospel recording artist James Kilbane has reached multi-platinum success with his mix of Christian and traditional country influenced albums. James Kilbane like many other Irish artists is today working closer with Nashville. Daniel O'Donnell achieved international success with his brand of music crossing country, Irish folk and European easy listening, earning a strong following among older women both in the British Isles and in North America. A recent success in the Irish arena has been Crystal Swing. Japan and Asia ]] In Japan, country and western music first developed a following before World War II, but many Japanese became exposed to it after the war due to the Far East Network. One of the first Japanese western acts was Biji Kuroda & The Chuck Wagon Boys, other vintage artists include Jimmie Tokita and His Mountain Playboys, The Blue Rangers, Wagon Aces, and Tomi Fujiyama. In India, there is an annual concert festival called "Blazing Guitars" held in Chennai brings together Anglo-Indian musicians from all over the country (including some who have emigrated to places like Australia). The year 2003 brought home-grown Indian, Bobby Cash to the forefront of the country music culture in India when he became India's first international country music artist to chart singles in Australia. In the Philippines, country music has found their way into Cordilleran way of life, which often compares the Igorot lifestyle to that of US cowboys. The Philippines was once a US Commonwealth from 1900 to 1946, and country music began to be exported to the islands in the early 20th centurty. Baguio City has an FM station that caters to country music, DZWR 99.9 Country, which is part of the Catholic Media Network. Bombo Radyo Baguio has a segment on its Sunday slot for Igorot, Ilocano and country music. And as of recently, DWUB occasionally plays country music. Many country music musicians tour the Philippines. Original Pinoy Music has influences from country. Other international country music ]] Tom Roland, from the Country Music Association International, explains country music's global popularity: "In this respect, at least, Country Music listeners around the globe have something in common with those in the United States. In Germany, for instance, Rohrbach identifies three general groups that gravitate to the genre: people intrigued with the US cowboy icon, middle-aged fans who seek an alternative to harder rock music and younger listeners drawn to the pop-influenced sound that underscores many current Country hits." Johnny Cash, Emmylou Harris, Keith Urban, and Dwight Yoakam have also made numerous international tours. The Country Music Association undertakes various initiatives to promote country music internationally. The band was formed in 2007 in Tehran, and during this time they have been trying to introduce and popularize country music in Iran by releasing two studio albums and performing live at concerts, despite the difficulties that the Islamic regime in Iran makes for bands that are active in the western music field. Musician Toby Keith performed alongside Saudi Arabian folk musician Rabeh Sager in 2017. This concert was similar to the performances of Jazz ambassadors that performed distinctively American style music internationally.Continental Europe country rock band, performing at the Helsinki Festival's open-air concert in Kaivopuisto in 1974. Seppo Sillanpää (violin) on the left and Olli Haavisto (guitar) on the right.]] In Sweden, Rednex rose to stardom combining country music with electro-pop in the 1990s. In 1994, the group had a worldwide hit with their version of the traditional Southern tune "Cotton-Eyed Joe". Artists popularizing more traditional country music in Sweden have been Ann-Louise Hanson, Hasse Andersson, Kikki Danielsson, Elisabeth Andreassen and Jill Johnson. In Poland an international country music festival, known as Piknik Country, has been organised in Mrągowo in Masuria since 1983. The number of country music artists in France has increased. Some of the most important are Liane Edwards, Annabel, Rockie Mountains, Tahiana, and Lili West. French rock and roll singer Eddy Mitchell is also inspired by Americana and country music. In the Netherlands there are many artists producing popular country and Americana music, which is mostly in the English language, as well as Dutch country and country-like music in the Dutch language. The latter is mainly popular on the countrysides in the northern and eastern parts of the Netherlands and is less associated with its US brethren, although it sounds sometimes very similar. Well-known popular artists mainly performing in English are Waylon, Danny Vera, Ilse DeLange, Douwe Bob and Henk Wijngaard. Norway had a significant country scene from the late 1970s to the late 2000s, with bands and artists including Hellbillies, Bjøro Håland, Terje Tysland, Vassendgutane, Øystein Sunde, and Rotlaus. The scene and its concerts were considered mostly a rural scene, such that most bands sang in dialects, but occasional songs made it to national fame even in the larger cities. The songs occasionally used inspirations from rock music, Norwegian folk music, and polka, but remained recognisable as country music. Performers and shows US cable television Several US television networks are at least partly devoted to the genre: Country Music Television (CMT) (the first channel devoted to country music) and CMT Music (both owned by Paramount Global), RFD-TV and The Cowboy Channel (both owned by Rural Media Group), Heartland (owned by Get After It Media), Circle Country (a joint venture of the Grand Ole Opry and Gray Television), The Country Network (owned by TCN Country, LLC), and Country Music Channel (the country-oriented sister channel of California Music Channel). The Nashville Network (TNN) was launched in 1983 as a channel devoted to country music, and later added sports and outdoor lifestyle programming. It actually launched just two days after CMT. In 2000, after TNN and CMT fell under the same corporate ownership, TNN was stripped of its country format and rebranded as The National Network, then Spike TV in 2003, Spike in 2006, and finally Paramount Network in 2018. TNN was later revived from 2012 to 2013 after Jim Owens Entertainment (the company responsible for prominent TNN hosts Crook & Chase) acquired the trademark and licensed it to Luken Communications; that channel renamed itself Heartland after Luken was embroiled in an unrelated dispute that left the company bankrupt. Great American Country (GAC) was launched in 1995, also as a country music-oriented channel that would later add lifestyle programming pertaining to the American Heartland and South. In Spring 2021, GAC's then-owner, Discovery, Inc. divested the network to GAC Media, which also acquired the equestrian network Ride TV. Later, in the summer of that year, GAC Media relaunched Great American Country as GAC Family, a family-oriented general entertainment network, while Ride TV was relaunched as GAC Living, a network devoted to programming pertaining to lifestyles of the American South. The GAC acronym which once stood for "Great American Country" now stands for "Great American Channels". Canadian television Only one television channel was dedicated to country music in Canada: CMT owned by Corus Entertainment (90%) and Viacom (10%). However, the lifting of strict genre licensing restrictions saw the network remove the last of its music programming at the end of August 2017 for a schedule of generic off-network family sitcoms, Cancom-compliant lifestyle programming, and reality programming. In the past, the current-day Cottage Life network saw some country focus as Country Canada and later, CBC Country Canada before that network drifted into an alternate network for overflow CBC content as Bold. Stingray Music continues to maintain several country music audio-only channels on cable radio. In the past, country music had an extensive presence, especially on the Canadian national broadcaster, CBC Television. The show ''Don Messer's Jubilee'' significantly affected country music in Canada; for instance, it was the program that launched Anne Murray's career. Gordie Tapp's Country Hoedown and its successor, The Tommy Hunter Show, ran for a combined 36 years on the CBC, from 1956 to 1992; in its last nine years on air, the U.S. cable network TNN carried Hunter's show. Australian cable television The only network dedicated to country music in Australia was the Country Music Channel owned by Foxtel. It ceased operations in June 2020 and was replaced by CMT (owned by Network 10 parent company Paramount Networks UK & Australia). British digital television One music video channel is dedicated to country music in the United Kingdom: Music & Memories, owned by Canis Media. Music & Memories, formerly known as Keep it Country and Spotlight, features a mix of country-western, pop oldies and Celtic folk music. Festivals Culture Race in modern country music has been praised for breaking barriers as a Black woman.]] The history of country music is complex, and the genre draws from influences from both African and European musical traditions. Despite this multicultural origin, country music is today largely associated with white Americans. This has been attributed to the efforts to segregate the music industry by record labels, beginning in the 1920s. However, because country music is a wide genre, subgenres including Indian and Hispanic country, have existed since the early 1970s. Furthermore, one of the first artists to perform at the Grand Ole Opry, a famous country music show, was DeFord Bailey, who was African-American. African-American rapper Lil Nas X, whose breakout song Old Town Road, a mixture of country and rap, has achieved widespread success. His aforementioned song topped the Billboard Hot Country Songs list, before controversially being removed, sparking a debate around whether the removal was racially motivated. Billboard denied these allegations, stating that the decision was purely based on musical composition. The close association of conservative values and contemporary country music began as a counter-reaction to the anti-war movement of the 1960s. Prior to this, virtually all country music, up until that point referred to as hillbilly music, lacked specific political alignment, and was instead focused on everyday problems and angst of the working class. performing at The Iron Horse in Northampton, Massachusetts, June 2013]] Black country-music artist Mickey Guyton had been included among the nominees for the 2021 award. Guyton has expressed bewilderment that, despite substantial coverage by online platforms like Spotify and Apple Music, her music, like that of Valerie June, another black musician who embraces aspects of country in her Appalachian- and Gospel-tinged work and who has been embraced by international music audiences, is still effectively ignored by American broadcast country-music radio. Guyton's 2021 album Remember Her Name in part references the case of black health-care professional Breonna Taylor, who was killed in her home by police. In 2023, "Try That in a Small Town" by Jason Aldean became the subject of widespread controversy and media attention following the release of its music video. Tennessee state representative Justin Jones referred to the song as a "heinous vile racist song" which attempts to normalize "racist, violence, vigilantism and white nationalism". Others understood the lyrics to be supportive of lynchings and sundown towns. Aldean himself responded to the criticism by stating that the song at no point made any references to race, nor did he believe that such interpretations were accurate. In 2024, Beyoncé published her country music-inspired eighth studio album Cowboy Carter, a project conceptualized as a journey through a reinvention of Americana, spotlighting the overlooked contributions of Black pioneers to American musical and cultural history. The album had a cultural and commercial impact on black country artists, being praised by critics and artists belonging to the music genre.See also * American Country Countdown Awards * Canadian Country Music Association * CMT Music Awards * Country (identity) * Country and Irish * Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum * Country-western dance * Culture of the Southern United States * Music genre * List of country music performers * List of RPM number-one country singles * Music of the United States * Pop music * Western Music Association References Further reading * * * * * * * Thomas S. Johnson (1981) "That Ain't Country: The Distinctiveness of Commercial Western Music" JEMF Quarterly. Vol. 17, No. 62. Summer, 1981. pp 75–84. * * * Bill Legere (1977). Record Collectors Guide of Country LPs. Limited ed. Mississauga, Ont.: W.J. Legere. 269, 25, 29, 2 p., thrice perforated and looseleaf. Without ISBN * Bill Legere ([1977]). E[lectrical] T[anscription]s: Transcription Library of Bill Legere. Mississauga, Ont.: B. Legere. 3 vols., each of which is thrice perforated and looseleaf. N.B.: Vol. 1–2, Country Artists—vol. 2, Pop Artists. Without ISBN * * * Diane Pecknold (ed.) Hidden in the Mix: The African American Presence in Country Music. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2013. * * External links <!-- Please do not add any links to this list without suggesting them on the talk page first. --> * [http://www.cmaworld.com/ The Country Music Association – Nashville, Tennessee(CMA)] * [http://www.westernmusic.com/ Western Music Association (WMA)] * [https://web.archive.org/web/19991209185931/http://www.countrymusichalloffame.com/ Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum – Nashville, Tennessee] * [http://www.opry.com/ Grand Ole Opry – Nashville, Tennessee] * [http://www.irishcountry.ie/ Irish country music] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20200728224643/http://www.cmfio.com/ Country Music Festivals Ontario Website] * [http://www.nashvillesongwritersfoundation.com/ Nashville Songwriters Hall of Fame Foundation] * [https://content.time.com/time/archive/collections/0,21428,c_country_music,00.shtml TIME Archive] of country music's progression * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100617221420/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~MA98/molinaro/alt.country/thesis-cover.html Xroad.virginia.edu], alt country from American Studies at the University of Virginia * [http://www.country.dj/ Largest collection of online Country music radio stations] * [https://anchor.fm/larry-w-jones Kingwood Kowboy's History Of Country Music] * [https://country-music-archive.com A Treasure Trove for Country Music Collectors. The British Archive of Country Music Records, BACM, is dedicated to the preservation of traditional country music] 2021 Category:1920s in music Category:1930s in music Category:1940s in music Category:1950s in music Category:1960s in music Category:1970s in music Category:1980s in music Category:1990s in music Category:2000s in music Category:2010s in music Category:2020s in music Category:American styles of music Category:Culture of the Southern United States Category:Radio formats
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_music
2025-04-05T18:27:07.562471