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4419
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Breast reconstruction
|
Breast reconstruction is the surgical process of rebuilding the shape and look of a breast, most commonly in women who have had surgery to treat breast cancer. It involves using autologous tissue, prosthetic implants, or a combination of both with the goal of reconstructing a natural-looking breast. This process often also includes the rebuilding of the nipple and areola, known as nipple-areola complex (NAC) reconstruction, as one of the final stages.
Generally, the aesthetic appearance is acceptable to the woman, but the reconstructed area is commonly completely numb afterwards, which results in loss of sexual function as well as the ability to perceive pain caused by burns and other injuries. Timing Breast reconstruction can be performed either immediately following the mastectomy or as a separate procedure at a later date, known as immediate reconstruction and delayed reconstruction, respectively. The decision of when breast reconstruction will take place is patient-specific and based on many different factors. Breast reconstruction is a large undertaking that usually requires multiple operations. These subsequent surgeries may be spread out over weeks or months. Immediate reconstruction Breast reconstruction is termed "immediate" when it takes place during the same procedure as the mastectomy. Within the United States, approximately 35% of women who have undergone a total mastectomy for breast cancer will choose to pursue immediate breast reconstruction. One of the inherent advantages of immediate reconstruction is the potential for a single-stage procedure. This also means that the cost of immediate reconstruction is often far less to the patient. It can also reduce hospital costs by having fewer procedures and requiring a shorter length of the stay as an inpatient. Patients expected to receive radiation therapy as part of their adjuvant treatment are also commonly considered for delayed autologous reconstruction due to significantly higher complication rates with tissue expander-implant techniques in those patients.
Implant-based reconstruction may be one- or two-staged. In one-stage reconstruction, a permanent implant is inserted at the time of mastectomy. During two-stage reconstruction, the surgeon will insert a tissue expander underneath the pectoralis major muscle of the chest wall at the time of mastectomy. This temporary silastic implant is used to hold tension on the mastectomy flaps. In doing so, the tissue expander prevents the breast tissue from contracting and allows for use of a larger implant later on compared to what would be safe at the time of the mastectomy.
Although in the past, prosthetic implants were placed directly under the skin, this method has fallen out of favor because of the greater risk of complications, including visible rippling of the implant and capsular contracture. This prepectoral space has recently, however, come back into practice, with comparable rates of post-operative complications and implant loss to submuscular placement. Both delayed and direct-to-implant reconstruction in this plane has been shown to be favourable.
Of note, a Cochrane review published in 2016 concluded that implants for use in breast reconstructive surgery have not been adequately studied in good quality clinical trials. "These days - even after a few million women have had breasts reconstructed – surgeons cannot inform women about the risks and complications of different implant-based breast reconstructive options on the basis of results derived from Randomized Controlled Trials."
Flap-based reconstruction
Flap-based reconstruction uses tissue from other parts of the patient's body (i.e., autologous tissue) such as the back, buttocks, thigh or abdomen. In surgery, a "flap" is any type of tissue that is lifted from a donor site and moved to a recipient site using its own blood supply. Usually, the blood supply is a named vessel. Flap-based reconstruction may be performed either by leaving the donor tissue connected to the original site (also known as a pedicle flap) to retain its blood supply (where the vessels are tunneled beneath the skin surface to the new site) or by cutting the donor tissue's vessels and surgically reconnecting them to a new blood supply at the recipient site (also known as a free flap or free tissue transfer). The latissimus dorsi is a prime example of such a flap since it can remain attached to its primary blood source which preserves the skins functioning, and is associated with better outcomes in comparison to other muscle and skin donor sites.
One option for breast reconstruction involves using the latissimus dorsi muscle as the donor tissue.
Another possible donor site for breast reconstruction is the abdomen. The purpose of perforator flaps (DIEP, SIEA, SGAP, IGAP) is to provide sufficient skin and fat for an aesthetic reconstruction while minimizing post-operative complications from harvesting the underlying muscles. DIEP reconstruction generally produces the best outcome for most women. See free flap breast reconstruction for more information.
Mold-assisted reconstruction is a potential adjunctive process to help in flap-based reconstruction. By using a laser and 3D printer, a patient-specific silicone mold can be used as an aid during surgery, used as a guide for orienting and shaping the flap to improve accuracy and symmetry.
Adjunctive procedures
To restore the appearance of the pre-operative breast, there are a few options regarding the nipple-areolar complex (NAC):
* A nipple prosthesis can be used to restore the appearance of the reconstructed breast. Impressions can be made and photographs can be used to accurately replace the nipple lost with some types of mastectomies. This can be instrumental in restoring the psychological well-being of the breast cancer survivor. The same process can be used to replicate the remaining nipple in cases of a single mastectomy. Ideally, a prosthesis is made around the time of the mastectomy and it can be used just weeks after the surgery.
* Nipple-areolar complex reconstruction can also be performed surgically. Within the first year following breast reconstruction, flaps can undergo contraction and decrease in size by up to 50%. One of the benefits of this procedure is that the color and texture of the NAC is identical to that of the opposite breast.
*The nipple and areolar region may be tattooed later.
When looking at the entire process of breast reconstruction, patients typically report that NAC reconstruction is the least satisfying step. The risk of dysfunction is higher among women who have breast reconstruction surgery.
Some methods have specific side effects. The transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap method results in weakness and loss of flexibility in the abdominal wall. Reconstruction with implants have a higher risk of long-term pain. served as the stimulus in the United States for the 1998 Women's Health and Cancer Rights Act, which mandated that health care payer cover breast and nipple reconstruction, contralateral procedures to achieve symmetry, and treatment for the sequelae of mastectomy. This was followed in 2001 by additional legislation imposing penalties on noncompliant insurers. Similar provisions for coverage exist in most countries worldwide through national health care programs. See also
* Flat closure after mastectomy
* Breast implant
* Breast lift
* Breast reduction plasty
* Free flap breast reconstruction
* Nipple prosthesis
References
External links
*
*
*
*
Category:Breast surgery
Category:Tattooing and medicine
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast_reconstruction
|
2025-04-05T18:26:49.637812
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4424
|
Bob Diamond
|
Bobby or Bob Diamond may refer to:
People
Bob Diamond (actor) (1943–2019), American actor and lawyer, also known as Bobby Diamond and Robert Diamond
Bob Diamond (banker) (born 1951), Anglo-American business executive
Bob Diamond (engineer) (1959–2021), American trolley advocate responsible for rediscovery of the Atlantic Avenue Tunnel in Brooklyn in 1980
Fictional characters
Bob Diamond (comics), Marvel Comics character since 1974
Bob Diamond, played by Rip Torn in 1991 American film Defending Your Life
See also
Bobby Dimond (1930–2020), Australian rugby league footballer
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Diamond
|
2025-04-05T18:26:49.638723
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4425
|
Brooklyn Historic Railway Association
|
}}
The Brooklyn Historic Railway Association (BHRA) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization with a shop, trolley barn and offices located in Red Hook, Brooklyn, New York, on the historic Beard Street Piers (c. 1870). BHRA had a fleet of 16 trolleys (15 PCC trolleys and a leased 1897 trolley car from the Oslo Trams, in Oslo, Norway).
History of project
The BHRA's origin began with the rediscovery of the Cobble Hill Tunnel by the late Bob Diamond in 1980. BHRA was formed in 1982 to restore the historic tunnel. The Atlantic Avenue Tunnel (constructed in 1844) is the world's oldest subway tunnel. BHRA successfully filed and received designation for the tunnel on the National Register of Historic Places.
The BHRA received funding and permission from the city to construct a light rail route in Red Hook. However, the project was hampered due to the New York City Department of Transportation (DOT) withdrawing its support from the project. The DOT identified several potential improvements which did not include a streetcar, however, that would improve access and mobility for neighborhood residents. Construction was stopped on a 7-block extension to the line due to the removal and scrapping of rails, ties, and other items of railroad equipment by the DOT, which were stored on land that was slated for the Fairway supermarket project.
On June 30, 2003, BHRA was ordered to remove and fill in all trolley tracks on public streets by the DOT. The DOT revoked consent for the project to proceed or exist on city streets. Shortly thereafter, BHRA completely ceased operation. All the PCC trolleys except for No. 3303 were removed from Brooklyn.
The BHRA ran organized tours of the Cobble Hill Tunnel from time to time, but all tours are currently suspended.
Bob Diamond died on 21 August 2021, with his death confirmed by articles in the New York Times, New York Daily News and Brooklyn Eagle newspapers.
See also
* Cobble Hill Tunnel
* Brooklyn–Queens Connector
References
External links
*
*[http://forgotten-ny.com/2010/09/red-hook-trolleys/ Forgotten New York]
Category:Streetcar lines in Brooklyn
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn_Historic_Railway_Association
|
2025-04-05T18:26:49.641001
|
4427
|
Β-Lactam
|
thumb|120px|right|2-Azetidinone, the simplest β-lactam
A β-lactam (beta-lactam) ring is a four-membered lactam. A lactam is a cyclic amide, and beta-lactams are named so because the nitrogen atom is attached to the β-carbon atom relative to the carbonyl. The simplest β-lactam possible is 2-azetidinone. β-lactams are significant structural units of medicines as manifested in many β-lactam antibiotics. Up to 1970, most β-lactam research was concerned with the penicillin and cephalosporin groups, but since then, a wide variety of structures have been described.
Clinical significance
thumb|180px|Penicillin core structure
The β-lactam ring is part of the core structure of several antibiotic families, the principal ones being the penicillins, cephalosporins, carbapenems, and monobactams, which are, therefore, also called β-lactam antibiotics. Nearly all of these antibiotics work by inhibiting bacterial cell wall biosynthesis. This has a lethal effect on bacteria, although any given bacteria population will typically contain a subgroup that is resistant to β-lactam antibiotics. Bacterial resistance occurs as a result of the expression of one of many genes for the production of β-lactamases, a class of enzymes that break open the β-lactam ring. More than 1,800 different β-lactamase enzymes have been documented in various species of bacteria. These enzymes vary widely in their chemical structure and catalytic efficiencies. When bacterial populations have these resistant subgroups, treatment with β-lactam can result in the resistant strain becoming more prevalent and therefore more virulent. β-lactam derived antibiotics can be considered one of the most important antibiotic classes but prone to clinical resistance. β-lactam exhibits its antibiotic properties by imitating the naturally occurring d-Ala-d-Ala substrate for the group of enzymes known as penicillin binding proteins (PBP), which have as function to cross-link the peptidoglycan part of the cell wall of the bacteria.
The β-lactam ring is also found in some other drugs such as the cholesterol absorption inhibitor drug ezetimibe.
Synthesis
The first synthetic β-lactam was prepared by Hermann Staudinger in 1907 by reaction of the Schiff base of aniline and benzaldehyde with diphenylketene in a [2+2] cycloaddition (Ph indicates a phenyl functional group):
Image:StaudingerLactam.svg
Many methods have been developed for the synthesis of β-lactams.
The Breckpot β-lactam synthesis produces substituted β-lactams by the cyclization of beta amino acid esters by use of a Grignard reagent. Mukaiyama's reagent is also used in modified Breckpot synthesis. Monobactams have h values between 0.05 and 0.10 angstroms (Å). Cephems have h values in of 0.20–0.25 Å. Penams have values in the range 0.40–0.50 Å, while carbapenems and clavams have values of 0.50–0.60 Å, being the most reactive of the β-lactams toward hydrolysis.
See also
Azetidine
Lactone
References
External links
Synthesis of β-lactams
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Β-Lactam
|
2025-04-05T18:26:49.648669
|
4429
|
Prince-Bishopric of Brandenburg
|
|conventional_long_name = Prince-Bishopric of Brandenburg
|common_name = Bishopric of Brandenburg
|era = Middle Ages
|status = Imperial Estate
|status_text = State of the Holy Roman Empire
|empire = Holy Roman Empire
|government_type = Elective monarchy, ruled by the bishop holding the see, elected by the cathedral chapter or, exceptionally, appointed by the Pope, or ruled by a regent
|year_start = 1165
|year_end = 1571
|life_span = 1165–1598
|event_start = Territorial reign est.
|date_start |event1
|date_event1 |event2 De facto supremacy of Electoral Brandenburg
|date_event2 = 1373
|event3 = Electors privileged to choose candidates for the see
|date_event3 = 1447
|event4 |date_event4
|event_end = Secularised as part of Electoral Brandenburg
|date_end |event_pre Diocese founded and restored
|date_pre = 948<br>1161
|event_post = Legal dissolution
|date_post = 1598
|p1 = Northern March
|s1 = Margraviate of Brandenburg
|flag_s1 = Pabellon de Brandeburgo (c. 1684).svg
|image_coat = Wappen Bistum Brandenburg.png
|image_map = Karte des Hochstifts Brandenburg.svg
|image_map_caption = Episcopal territories, about 1535
|capital = Brandenburg an der Havel<br>Ziesar (residence)
|common_languages = Brandenburgisch, Polabian
|religion = Catholic until the 1530s, then Lutheran
|currency = rixdollar
|<!--- Titles and names of the first and last leaders and their deputies --->
|leader1 = Prince-Bishop Sigfrid I
|leader2 = Prince-Bishop Stephan
|leader3 = Regent John George
|leader4 = Regent Joachim Frederick
|year_leader1 = 1173–1179
|year_leader2 = 1421–1459
|year_leader3 = 1560–1569
|year_leader4 = 1569–1571
|title_leader = Prince-Bishop, or Regent
|representative1 = <!--- Name of representative of head of state (eg. colonial governor) --->
|representative2 |representative3
|representative4 |year_representative1 <!--- Years served --->
|year_representative2 |year_representative3
|year_representative4 |title_representative <!--- Default: "Governor"--->
|deputy1 = <!--- Name of prime minister --->
|deputy2 |deputy3
|deputy4 |year_deputy1 <!--- Years served --->
|year_deputy2 |year_deputy3
|year_deputy4 |title_deputy
|
|legislature |house1 <!--- Name of first chamber --->
|type_house1 = <!--- Default: "Upper house"--->
|house2 = <!--- Name of second chamber --->
|type_house2 = <!--- Default: "Lower house"--->
|
|<!--- Area and population of a given year --->
|stat_year1 = <!--- year of the statistic, specify either area, population or both --->
|stat_area1 = <!--- area in square kílometres (w/o commas or spaces), area in square miles is calculated --->
|stat_pop1 = <!--- population (w/o commas or spaces), population density is calculated if area is also given --->
|stat_year2 |stat_area2
|stat_pop2 |stat_year3
|stat_area3 |stat_pop3
|stat_year4 |stat_area4
|stat_pop4 |stat_year5
|stat_area5 |stat_pop5
|footnotes = <!--- Accepts wikilinks --->
}}
The Prince-Bishopric of Brandenburg () was an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire from the 12th century until it was secularized during the second half of the 16th century. It should not be confused with the larger Diocese of Brandenburg () established by King Otto I of Germany in 948, in the territory of the Marca Geronis (Saxon Eastern March) east of the Elbe river. The diocese, over which the prince-bishop exercised only spiritual authority, was a suffragan diocese of the Archdiocese of Magdeburg, its seat was Brandenburg an der Havel.
History
The Prince-Bishopric of Brandenburg was an imperial estate of the Holy Roman Empire for some time, probably starting about 1161/1165. However, the Brandenburg bishops never managed to gain control over a significant territory, being overshadowed by the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which was originally seated in the same city. Chapter and cathedral, surrounded by further ecclesiastical institutions, were located on the Dominsel (Cathedral Island), which formed a prince-episcopal cathedral immunity district (Domfreiheit), distinct from the city of Brandenburg. Only in 1929 the - meanwhile former - immunity district was incorporated into the city itself.
As rulers of imperial immediacy, regnant in a, however, dispersed territory partitioned into the four bailiwicks () of Brandenburg/Havel, Ketzin, Teltow and Ziesar. The prince-bishops from the early 14th century onwards resided in their fortress in Ziesar on the road to Magdeburg. The last actual bishop was Matthias von Jagow (d. 1544), who took the side of the Protestant Reformation, married, and in every way furthered the undertakings of the Hohenzollern elector Joachim II.
There were two more nominal bishops, but on the petition of the latter of these, the electoral prince John George of Brandenburg appointed in 1560, the secularisation of the bishopric was undertaken and finally accomplished in 1571, in spite of legal proceedings to reassert the imperial immediacy of the prince-bishopric within the Empire and so to likewise preserve the diocese, which dragged on into the 17th century.
Prince-bishops
Catholics
* 1138–1160: Wiggar
* 1160–1173: Wilman
* 1173–1179: Sigfried I
* 1179–1190: Baldran
* 1190–1192: Alexius
* 1192–1205: Norbert
* 1205–1216: Baldwin
* 1216–1220: Siegfried II
* 1221–1222: Ludolf von Schanebeck, claimant, but not enthroned
* 1221–1222: Wichmann von Arnstein, counter-claimant, also not enthroned
* 1222–1241: Gernot
* 1241–1251:
* 1251–1261: Otto von Mehringen
* 1261–1278: Heinrich I von Osthenen (or Ostheeren)
* 1278–1287: Gebhard
* 1287–1290: Heidenreich
* 1290–1291: Richard, refused the appointment
* 1291–1296: Dietrich, not enthroned
* 1296–1302: Vollrad von Krempa
* 1303–1316: Friedrich von Plötzkau
* 1316–1324: Johann I von Tuchen
* 1324–1327: Heinrich II Count of Barby, not enthroned
* 1327–1347: Ludwig Schenk von Reindorf (or Neuendorf)
* 1347–1365: Dietrich II Kothe
* 1366–1393: Dietrich III von der Schulenburg
* 1393–1406: Heinrich III von Bodendiek (or Bodendieck)
* 1406–1414: Henning von Bredow
* 1414: Friedrich von Grafeneck, Prince-Bishop of Augsburg 1413–1414
* 1415–1420: Johann von Waldow, Bishop of Lebus 1420–1423
* 1420: Friedrich von Grafeneck, again
* 1421–1459: Stephan Bodecker
* 1459–1472: Dietrich IV von Stechow
* 1472–1485: Arnold von Burgsdorff
* 1485–1507: Joachim I von Bredow
* 1507–1520: Hieronymus Schulz (or Scultetus), Bishop of Havelberg 1521–1522
* 1520–1526: Dietrich V von Hardenberg
Lutherans
* 1526–1544: Matthias von Jagow
* 1544–1546: Sede vacante
* 1546–1560: Joachim of Münsterberg-Oels
* 1560–1569/71: John George of Brandenburg, regent (Verweser)
* 1569/71: Joachim Frederick of Brandenburg
Secularized and merged into Brandenburg.
References
*
Brandenburg Diocese
Brandenburg Bishopric
Brandenburg
Category:Former states and territories of Brandenburg
Category:Brandenburg an der Havel
Category:12th-century establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince-Bishopric_of_Brandenburg
|
2025-04-05T18:26:49.654274
|
4430
|
BASE jumping
|
, Istanbul]]
BASE jumping () is the recreational sport of jumping from fixed objects, using a parachute to descend to the ground. BASE is an acronym that stands for four categories of fixed objects from which one can jump: buildings, antennas (referring to radio masts), spans (bridges) and earth (cliffs). Participants jump from a fixed object such as a cliff and after an optional freefall delay deploy a parachute to slow their descent and land. A popular form of BASE jumping is wingsuit BASE jumping.
In contrast to other forms of parachuting, such as skydiving from airplanes, BASE jumps are performed from fixed objects that are generally at much lower altitudes, and BASE jumpers only carry one parachute.
BASE jumping is significantly more hazardous than other forms of parachuting and is widely considered to be one of the most dangerous extreme sports.
History
Precursors
Fausto Veranzio is widely believed to have been the first person to build and test a parachute, by jumping from St Mark's Campanile in Venice in 1617 when he was more than 65 years old. However these and other sporadic incidents were one-time experiments, not the actual systematic pursuit of a new form of parachuting.
Birth of B.A.S.E. jumping
There are precursors to the sport dating back hundreds of years. In 1966 Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert jumped from El Capitan in Yosemite National Park. The acronym B.A.S.E. (now more commonly BASE) was later coined by filmmaker Carl Boenish, his wife Jean Boenish, Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield. Carl Boenish was an important catalyst behind modern BASE jumping and in 1978 he filmed jumps from El Capitan made using ram-air parachutes and the freefall tracking technique. While BASE jumps had been made prior to that time, the El Capitan activity was the effective birth of what is now called BASE jumping.
After 1978 the filmed jumps from El Capitan were repeated, not as an actual publicity exercise or as a movie stunt but as a true recreational activity. It was this that popularized BASE jumping more widely among parachutists. Carl Boenish continued to publish films and informational magazines on BASE jumping until his death in 1984 after a BASE jump off the Troll Wall. By this time the concept had spread among skydivers worldwide, with hundreds of participants making fixed-object jumps.
During the early eighties nearly all BASE jumps were made using standard skydiving equipment, including two parachutes (main and reserve), and deployment components. Later on, specialized equipment and techniques were developed specifically for the unique needs of BASE jumping.
Nowadays, recognizing the sport's growing appeal and the potential for high-impact marketing, companies such as Red Bull have stepped in to sponsor athletes, further elevating the sport's profile. BASE numbers
BASE numbers are awarded to those who have made at least one jump from each of the four categories (buildings, antennae, spans and earth). When Phil Smith and Phil Mayfield jumped together from a Houston skyscraper on 18 January 1981, they became the first to attain the exclusive BASE numbers (BASE #1 and #2, respectively), having already jumped from an antenna, spans, and earthen objects. Jean and Carl Boenish qualified for BASE numbers 3 and 4 soon after. A separate "award" was soon enacted for Night BASE jumping when Mayfield completed each category at night, becoming Night BASE #1, with Smith qualifying a few weeks later.
Upon completing a jump from all of the four object categories, a jumper may choose to apply for a "BASE number", awarded sequentially. The 1000th application for a BASE number was filed in March 2005 and BASE #1000 was awarded to Matt "Harley" Moilanen of Grand Rapids, Michigan. , over 2,000 BASE numbers have been issued.
Equipment
In the early days of BASE jumping, people used modified skydiving gear, such as by removing the deployment bag and slider, stowing the lines in a tail pocket, and fitting a large pilot chute. However, modified skydiving gear is then prone to kinds of malfunction that are rare in normal skydiving (such as "line-overs" and broken lines). Modern purpose-built BASE jumping equipment is considered to be much safer and more reliable.
Parachute
The biggest difference in gear is that skydivers jump with both a main and a reserve parachute, while BASE jumpers carry only one parachute. BASE jumping parachutes are larger than skydiving parachutes and are typically flown with a wing loading of around . Vents are one element that make a parachute suitable for BASE jumping. BASE jumpers often use extra large pilot chutes to compensate for lower airspeed parachute deployments. On jumps from lower altitudes, the slider is removed for faster parachute opening.
Harness and container
BASE jumpers use a single-parachute harness and container system. Since there is only a single parachute, BASE jumping containers are mechanically much simpler than skydiving containers. This simplicity contributes to the safety and reliability of BASE jumping gear by eliminating many malfunctions that can occur with more complicated skydiving equipment. Since there is no reserve parachute, there is little need to cut-away their parachute, and many BASE harnesses do not contain a 3-ring release system. A modern ultralight BASE system including parachute, container, and harness can weigh as little as .
Clothing
When jumping from high mountains, BASE jumpers will often use special clothing to improve control and flight characteristics in the air. Wingsuit flying has become a popular form of BASE jumping in recent years, that allows jumpers to glide over long horizontal distances. Tracking suits inflate like wingsuits to give additional lift to jumpers, but maintain separation of arms and legs to allow for greater mobility and safety.
Technique
BASE jumps can be broadly classified into low jumps and high jumps. The primary distinguishing characteristic of low BASE jumps versus high BASE jumps is the use of a slider reefing device to control the opening speed of the parachute, and whether the jumper falls long enough to reach terminal velocity.
Low BASE jumps
Low BASE jumps are those where the jumper does not reach terminal velocity. Sometimes referred to as "slider down" jumps because they are typically performed without a slider reefing device on the parachute. The lack of a slider enables the parachute to open more quickly. Other techniques for low BASE jumps include the use of a static line, direct bag, or P.C.A. (pilot chute assist). These devices form an attachment between the parachute and the jump platform, which stretches out the parachute and suspension lines as the jumper falls, before separating and allowing the parachute to inflate. This enables the very lowest jumps—below to be made. It is common in the UK to jump from around the mark, due to the number of low cliffs at this height. Base jumpers have been known to jump from objects as low as , which leaves little to no canopy time and requires an immediate flare to land safely.
High BASE jumps
Many BASE jumpers are motivated to make jumps from higher objects involving free fall. High BASE jumps are those which are high enough for the jumper to reach terminal velocity. High BASE jumps are often called "slider up" jumps due to the use of a slider reefing device.
High BASE jumps present different hazards than low BASE jumps. With greater height and airspeed, jumpers can fly away from the cliff during freefall, allowing them to deploy their parachute far away from the cliff they jumped from and significantly reduce the chance of object striking. However, high BASE jumps also present new hazards such as complications resulting from the use of a wingsuit.
Tandem BASE jumps
Tandem BASE jumping is when a skilled pilot jumps with a passenger attached to their front. It is similar to skydiving and is offered in the US and many other countries. Tandem BASE is becoming a more accessible and legal form of BASE jumping.
Records
; Lowest
: Go Fast Basejumper Johan Vervoort jumps from the 24 meters tall observation tower in the town of Herentals the exit point was 2 meters below the top of the tower, making the jump 22 meters high.
; Biggest
: Guinness World Records first listed a BASE jumping record with Carl Boenish's 1984 leap from Trollveggen (Troll Wall) in Norway. It was described as the highest BASE jump. The jump was made two days before Boenish's death at the same site.
; Highest altitude
: On August 26, 1992, Australians Nic Feteris and Glenn Singleman made a BASE jump from an altitude of jump off Great Trango Towers Pakistan. It was the world's highest BASE jump off the earth at the time.
On May 23, 2006, Australians Glenn Singleman and Heather Swan made a BASE jump from an altitude of off Meru Peak in Northern India. They jumped in wingsuits.
On May 5, 2013, Russian Valery Rozov jumped off Changtse (the northern peak of the Mount Everest massif) from a height of . Using a specially-developed wingsuit, he glided down to the Rongbuk glacier more than 1,000 meters below, setting a new world record for highest altitude base jump. He had previously jumped off mountains in Asia, Antarctica and South America in 2004, 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2012.
On October 5, 2016, Rozov broke his own record for highest altitude BASE jump when he leapt from a height of from Cho Oyu, the sixth-highest mountain in the world, landing on a glacier approximately two minutes later at an altitude of around . He later died while attempting another high-altitude BASE jump in Nepal in 2017.
; Other
: Other records include Captain Daniel G. Schilling setting the Guinness World Record for the most BASE jumps in a twenty-four-hour period. Schilling jumped off the Perrine Bridge in Twin Falls, Idaho, a record 201 times on July 8, 2006. In 2018 at Eikesdalen, Norway a world record was set with 69 BASE jumpers jumping from the cliff Katthammaren. Competitions BASE competitions have been held since the early 1980s, with accurate landings or free-fall aerobatics used as the judging criteria. Recent years have seen a formal competition held at the high Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, judged on landing accuracy. In 2012 the World Wingsuit League held their first wingsuit BASE jumping competition in China.Notable jumps* February 2, 1912, Frederick R. Law parachuted from the top of the torch of the Statue of Liberty, above the ground.
* February 4, 1912, Franz Reichelt, tailor, jumped from the first deck of the Eiffel Tower testing his invention, the coat parachute, and died when he hit the ground. It was his first-ever attempt with the parachute and both the authorities and the spectators believed he intended to test it using a dummy.
* In 1913, it is claimed that Štefan Banič successfully jumped from a 15-story building to demonstrate his parachute design.
* In 1913, Russian student Vladimir Ossovski (Владимир Оссовский), from the Saint-Petersburg Conservatory, jumped from the 53-meter high bridge over the river Seine in Rouen (France), using the parachute RK-1, invented a year before that by Gleb Kotelnikov (1872–1944). Ossovski planned to jump from the Eiffel Tower too, but the Parisian authorities did not allow it.
* In 1965, Erich Felbermayr from Wels jumped from the Kleine Zinne / Cima piccola di Lavaredo in the Dolomites.
* In 1966, Michael Pelkey and Brian Schubert jumped from El Capitan in the Yosemite Valley.
* On November 9, 1975, the first person to parachute off the CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, was Bill Eustace, a member of the tower's construction crew. He was fired.
* On July 22, 1975, Owen J. Quinn parachuted from the North Tower of the World Trade Center to publicize the plight of the poor.
* In 1976, Rick Sylvester skied off Canada's Mount Asgard for the ski chase sequence of the James Bond movie The Spy Who Loved Me, giving the wider world its first look at BASE jumping.
* In 1979, Santee, California skydiver Roger Worthington completed one of the first "Span" jumps when he successfully parachuted off of the newly constructed Pine Valley Creek Bridge (A.K.A. Nello Irwin Greer Memorial Bridge) on Interstate 8 in San Diego County. Upon take off he held a red smoke flare in each hand. When interviewed afterward he claimed to know of no other "bridge jumpers" in the country.
* On February 22, 1982, Wayne Allwood, an Australian skydiving accuracy champion, parachuted from a helicopter over the Sydney CBD and landed on the small top area of Sydney's Centrepoint Tower, approximately }} above the ground. Upon landing, Allwood discarded and secured his parachute, then used a full-sized reserve parachute to BASE jump into Hyde Park below.
* In 1986, Welshman Eric Jones became the first person to BASE jump from the Eiger.
* On October 22, 1999, Jan Davis died while attempting a BASE jump from El Capitan in Yosemite Valley. Davis' jump was part of an organized act of civil disobedience protesting the NPS air delivery regulations (36 CFR 2.17(a)), which make BASE jumping illegal in national park areas.
* In 2000, Hannes Arch and Ueli Gegenschatz were the first to BASE jump from the 1800-metre-high north face of the Eiger.
* In 2005, Karina Hollekim became the first woman to perform a ski-BASE.
* In 2009, three women—29-year-old Australian Livia Dickie, 28-year-old Venezuelan Ana Isabel Dao, and 32-year-old Norwegian Anniken Binz—BASE jumped from Angel Falls, the highest waterfall in the world.
* In September 2013, three men parachuted off the then-under-construction One World Trade Center in New York City. Footage of their jump was recorded using head cams and can be seen on YouTube. In March 2014, the three jumpers turned themselves in. They were sentenced to community service and a fine.
Comparison with skydiving
BASE jumps are typically performed from much lower altitudes than in skydiving. Skydivers are required to deploy their main parachute above altitude. BASE jumps are frequently made from less than . A BASE jump from a object is only about 5.6 seconds from the ground if the jumper remains in free fall. Standard skydiving parachute systems are not designed for this situation, so BASE jumpers use specially designed harnesses and parachute systems.
Many BASE jumps, particularly in the UK are made from around due to the number of low cliffs at this height. Jumpers will use a static line method to ensure their canopy is extracted as they jump, as at this height, it is too low to freefall.
BASE jumps generally entail slower airspeeds than typical skydives (due to the limited altitude), a BASE jumper does not always reach terminal velocity. Skydivers use the airflow to stabilize their position. BASE jumpers, falling at lower speeds, have less aerodynamic control. The attitude of the body at the moment of jumping determines the stability of flight in the first few seconds, before sufficient airspeed has built up to enable aerodynamic stability. On low BASE jumps, parachute deployment takes place during this early phase of flight. If the parachute is deployed while the jumper is unstable, there is a high risk of entanglement or malfunction. The jumper may also not be facing the right direction. Such an off-heading opening is not as problematic in skydiving, but an off-heading opening that results in object strike has caused many serious injuries and deaths in BASE jumping.
BASE jumps are more hazardous than skydives primarily due to proximity to the object serving as the jump platform. BASE jumping frequently occurs in mountainous terrain, often having much smaller areas in which to land in comparison to a typical skydiving dropzone. BASE jumping is significantly more dangerous than similar sports such as skydiving from aircraft. There is no record of the U.S. National Parks granting a permit for BASE jumping, with the sole exception of a permit granted for the annual Bridge Day event in New River Gorge National Park. Other U.S. public land, including land controlled by the Bureau of Land Management, does not ban BASE jumping, and there are numerous jumpable objects on BLM land.
The legal position is different at other sites and in other countries. For example, in Norway's Lysefjord (from the mountain Kjerag), BASE jumpers are made welcome. Many sites in the European Alps, near Chamonix and on the Eiger, are also open to jumpers. Some other Norwegian places, like the Troll Wall, are banned because of dangerous rescue missions in the past.
Safety
Recent statistics reflect improved safety of the activity. The 2024 Bridge Day Event which saw the participation of 325 BASE jumpers completing 755 BASE jumps resulted in zero jumper injuries, in contrast to two non-jumper related medical transports from the same event. And in the year 2023 the United States saw zero BASE fatalities. A study of BASE jumping fatalities estimated that the overall annual fatality risk in 2002 was one fatality per 60 participants. A study of 20,850 BASE jumps from the Kjerag Massif in Norway reported nine fatalities over the 11-year period from 1995 to 2005, or one in every 2,317 jumps. However, at that site, one in every 254 jumps over that period resulted in a nonfatal accident.
References
Further reading
* [http://base-book.com/ The Great Book of BASE]. BirdBrain Publishing. July 2010.
* "[https://books.google.com/books?id3iwEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA178 The Ground's the Limit]". Texas Monthly. December 1981.
External links
* [https://archive.today/20130118061503/http://bjsportmed.com/cgi/content/abstract/42/6/431 Parachuting from fixed objects: descriptive study of 106 fatal events in BASE jumping 1981–2006]
* [http://www.tmba.tv/broadcastanimation/stunt-junkies/wingsuit-base-jump/ Luigi Cani base jumps off a cliff]
* [http://www.espn.com/espn/eticket/story?pagebasejump&redirectedtrue A Sport to Die For] ESPN, Michael Abrams
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140529085749/http://surfandshare.com/worlds-first-base-jumping-dog-plunge-sky-name-whisper/ First Dog Ever To BaseJump]
* [http://www.basejumping.co.uk BASE Jumping adventures in the UK & Europe during the late 1980s, 1990s & early 2000s by Doug Blane]
* [http://www.basejumper.com/ Resources for Base Jumping]
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Beauty
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style rose window in Notre-Dame de Paris. In Gothic architecture, light was considered "the source and actual essence of all that is beautiful".]]
Beauty is commonly described as a feature of objects that makes them pleasurable to perceive. Such objects include landscapes, sunsets, humans and works of art. Beauty, art and taste are the main subjects of aesthetics, one of the fields of study within philosophy. As a positive aesthetic value, it is contrasted with ugliness as its negative counterpart.
One difficulty in understanding beauty is that it has both objective and subjective aspects: it is seen as a property of things but also as depending on the emotional response of observers. Because of its subjective side, beauty is said to be "in the eye of the beholder". It has been argued that the ability on the side of the subject needed to perceive and judge beauty, sometimes referred to as the "sense of taste", can be trained and that the verdicts of experts coincide in the long run. This suggests the standards of validity of judgments of beauty are intersubjective, i.e. dependent on a group of judges, rather than fully subjective or objective.
Conceptions of beauty aim to capture what is essential to all beautiful things. Classical conceptions define beauty in terms of the relation between the beautiful object as a whole and its parts: the parts should stand in the right proportion to each other and thus compose an integrated harmonious whole. Hedonist conceptions see a necessary connection between pleasure and beauty, e.g. that for an object to be beautiful is for it to cause disinterested pleasure. Other conceptions include defining beautiful objects in terms of their value, of a loving attitude toward them or of their function.
Overview
Beauty, together with art and taste, is the main subject of aesthetics, one of the major branches of philosophy. Beauty is usually categorized as an aesthetic property besides other properties, like grace, elegance or the sublime. As a positive aesthetic value, beauty is contrasted with ugliness as its negative counterpart. Beauty is often listed as one of the three fundamental concepts of human understanding besides truth and goodness.
Objectivists or realists see beauty as an objective or mind-independent feature of beautiful things, which is denied by subjectivists. David Hume, for example, suggests that this faculty can be trained and that the verdicts of experts coincide in the long run. and free beauty (pulchritudo vaga). A thing has adherent beauty if its beauty depends on the conception or function of this thing, unlike free or absolute beauty. or a photograph which is beautiful, because it depicts a beautiful building but that lacks beauty generally speaking because of its low quality.
Objectivism and subjectivism
Judgments of beauty seem to occupy an intermediary position between objective judgments, e.g. concerning the mass and shape of a grapefruit, and subjective likes, e.g. concerning whether the grapefruit tastes good. The subjective side, on the other hand, is expressed in sayings like "beauty is in the eye of the beholder". Subjectivism, on the other hand, denies the mind-independent existence of beauty. This account is sometimes labeled as "aesthetic hedonism" in order to distinguish it from other forms of hedonism. An influential articulation of this position comes from Thomas Aquinas, who treats beauty as "that which pleases in the very apprehension of it". Immanuel Kant explains this pleasure through a harmonious interplay between the faculties of understanding and imagination. But beauty can involve mixed pleasure, for example, in the case of a beautifully tragic story, which is why mixed pleasure is usually allowed in hedonist conceptions of beauty. In 1871, functionalist Charles Darwin explained beauty as result of accumulative sexual selection in "The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex". The Koine Greek word for beautiful was ὡραῖος, hōraios, an adjective etymologically coming from the word ὥρα, hōra, meaning "hour". In Koine Greek, beauty was thus associated with "being of one's hour". Thus, a ripe fruit (of its time) was considered beautiful, whereas a young woman trying to appear older or an older woman trying to appear younger would not be considered beautiful. In Attic Greek, hōraios had many meanings, including "youthful" and "ripe old age".
Beauty for ancient thinkers existed both in form, which is the material world as it is, and as embodied in the spirit, which is the world of mental formations. Ancient Greek architecture is based on this view of symmetry and proportion.
Pre-Socratic
In one fragment of Heraclitus's writings (Fragment 106) he mentions beauty, this reads: "To God all things are beautiful, good, right..." The earliest Western theory of beauty can be found in the works of early Greek philosophers from the pre-Socratic period, such as Pythagoras, who conceived of beauty as useful for a moral education of the soul. They saw a strong connection between mathematics and beauty. In particular, they noted that objects proportioned according to the golden ratio seemed more attractive.
Classical period
The classical concept of beauty is one that exhibits perfect proportion (Wolfflin). In this context, the concept belonged often within the discipline of mathematics.
The writing of Xenophon shows a conversation between Socrates and Aristippus. Socrates discerned differences in the conception of the beautiful, for example, in inanimate objects, the effectiveness of execution of design was a deciding factor on the perception of beauty in something.
Beauty is a subject of Plato in his work Symposium. In the work, the high priestess Diotima describes how beauty moves out from a core singular appreciation of the body to outer appreciations via loved ones, to the world in its state of culture and society (Wright). In the final state, auto to kalon and truth are united as one. The work toward the end provides a description of beauty in a negative sense. and identifies Alcibiades as beautiful in Parmenides. He considered beauty to be the Idea (Form) above all other Ideas. Platonic thought synthesized beauty with the divine. Scruton (cited: Konstan) states Plato states of the idea of beauty, of it (the idea), being something inviting desirousness (cf. seducing), and, promotes an intellectual renunciation (cf. denouncing) of desire. For Alexander Nehamas, it is only the locating of desire to which the sense of beauty exists, in the considerations of Plato.
Aristotle defines beauty in Metaphysics as having order, symmetry and definiteness which the mathematical sciences exhibit to a special degree.RomanIn De Natura Deorum, Cicero wrote: "the splendour and beauty of creation", in respect to this, and all the facets of reality resulting from creation, he postulated these to be a reason to see the existence of a God as creator.
Western Middle Ages
In the Middle Ages, Catholic philosophers like Thomas Aquinas included beauty among the transcendental attributes of being. In his Summa Theologica, Aquinas described the three conditions of beauty as: integritas (wholeness), consonantia (harmony and proportion), and claritas (a radiance and clarity that makes the form of a thing apparent to the mind).
In the Gothic Architecture of the High and Late Middle Ages, light was considered the most beautiful revelation of God, which was heralded in design. Examples are the stained glass of Gothic Cathedrals including Notre-Dame de Paris and Chartres Cathedral.
St. Augustine said of beauty "Beauty is indeed a good gift of God; but that the good may not think it a great good, God dispenses it even to the wicked."
Renaissance
Classical philosophy and sculptures of men and women produced according to the Greek philosophers' tenets of ideal human beauty were rediscovered in Renaissance Europe, leading to a re-adoption of what became known as a "classical ideal". In terms of female human beauty, a woman whose appearance conforms to these tenets is still called a "classical beauty" or said to possess a "classical beauty", whilst the foundations laid by Greek and Roman artists have also supplied the standard for male beauty and female beauty in western civilization as seen, for example, in the Winged Victory of Samothrace. During the Gothic era, the classical aesthetical canon of beauty was rejected as sinful. Later, Renaissance and Humanist thinkers rejected this view, and considered beauty to be the product of rational order and harmonious proportions. Renaissance artists and architects (such as Giorgio Vasari in his "Lives of Artists") criticised the Gothic period as irrational and barbarian. This point of view of Gothic art lasted until Romanticism, in the 19th century. Vasari aligned himself to the classical notion and thought of beauty as defined as arising from proportion and order. The goddess Venus (Aphrodite) is the classical personification of beauty.]]
The Age of Reason saw a rise in an interest in beauty as a philosophical subject. For example, Scottish philosopher Francis Hutcheson argued that beauty is "unity in variety and variety in unity". He wrote that beauty was neither purely subjective nor purely objective—it could be understood not as "any Quality suppos'd to be in the Object, which should of itself be beautiful, without relation to any Mind which perceives it: For Beauty, like other Names of sensible Ideas, properly denotes the Perception of some mind; ... however we generally imagine that there is something in the Object just like our Perception."
Immanuel Kant believed that there could be no "universal criterion of the beautiful" and that the experience of beauty is subjective, but that an object is judged to be beautiful when it seems to display "purposiveness"; that is, when its form is perceived to have the character of a thing designed according to some principle and fitted for a purpose. He distinguished "free beauty" from "merely adherent beauty", explaining that "the first presupposes no concept of what the object ought to be; the second does presuppose such a concept and the perfection of the object in accordance therewith." By this definition, free beauty is found in seashells and wordless music; adherent beauty in buildings and the human body. The concept of the sublime, as explicated by Burke and Kant, suggested viewing Gothic art and architecture, though not in accordance with the classical standard of beauty, as sublime.
The 20th century saw an increasing rejection of beauty by artists and philosophers alike, culminating in postmodernism's anti-aesthetics. This is despite beauty being a central concern of one of postmodernism's main influences, Friedrich Nietzsche, who argued that the Will to Power was the Will to Beauty.
In the aftermath of postmodernism's rejection of beauty, thinkers have returned to beauty as an important value. American analytic philosopher Guy Sircello proposed his New Theory of Beauty as an effort to reaffirm the status of beauty as an important philosophical concept. He rejected the subjectivism of Kant and sought to identify the properties inherent in an object that make it beautiful. He called qualities such as vividness, boldness, and subtlety "properties of qualitative degree" (PQDs) and stated that a PQD makes an object beautiful if it is not—and does not create the appearance of—"a property of deficiency, lack, or defect"; and if the PQD is strongly present in the object.
Elaine Scarry argues that beauty is related to justice.
Beauty is also studied by psychologists and neuroscientists in the field of experimental aesthetics and neuroesthetics respectively. Psychological theories see beauty as a form of pleasure. Correlational findings support the view that more beautiful objects are also more pleasing. Some studies suggest that higher experienced beauty is associated with activity in the medial orbitofrontal cortex. This approach of localizing the processing of beauty in one brain region has received criticism within the field.
Philosopher and novelist Umberto Eco wrote On Beauty: A History of a Western Idea (2004) and On Ugliness (2007). The narrator of his novel The Name of the Rose follows Aquinas in declaring: "three things concur in creating beauty: first of all integrity or perfection, and for this reason, we consider ugly all incomplete things; then proper proportion or consonance; and finally clarity and light", before going on to say "the sight of the beautiful implies peace". Mike Phillips has described Umberto Eco's On Beauty as "incoherent" and criticized him for focusing only on Western European history and devoting none of his book to Eastern European, Asian, or African history.Chinese philosophyChinese philosophy has traditionally not made a separate discipline of the philosophy of beauty. Confucius identified beauty with goodness, and considered a virtuous personality to be the greatest of beauties: In his philosophy, "a neighborhood with a ren man in it is a beautiful neighborhood." Confucius's student Zeng Shen expressed a similar idea: "few men could see the beauty in some one whom they dislike."Human attributes
, 14th century BC]]
The word "beauty" is often used as a countable noun to describe a beautiful woman.
The characterization of a person as "beautiful", whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of inner beauty, which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, politeness, charisma, integrity, congruence and elegance, and outer beauty (i.e. physical attractiveness) which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic basis.
Standards of beauty have changed over time, based on changing cultural values. Historically, paintings show a wide range of different standards for beauty.
A strong indicator of physical beauty is "averageness". When images of human faces are averaged together to form a composite image, they become progressively closer to the "ideal" image and are perceived as more attractive. This was first noticed in 1883, when Francis Galton overlaid photographic composite images of the faces of vegetarians and criminals to see if there was a typical facial appearance for each. When doing this, he noticed that the composite images were more attractive as compared to any of the individual images. Researchers have replicated the result under more controlled conditions and found that the computer-generated, mathematical average of a series of faces is rated more favorably than individual faces. It is argued that it is evolutionarily advantageous that sexual creatures are attracted to mates who possess predominantly common or average features, because it suggests the absence of genetic or acquired defects.
Since the 1970s there has been increasing evidence that a preference for beautiful faces emerges early in infancy, and is probably innate,
and that the rules by which attractiveness is established are similar across different genders and cultures.
A feature of beautiful women which has been explored by researchers is a waist–hip ratio of approximately 0.70. As of 2004, physiologists had shown that women with hourglass figures were more fertile than other women because of higher levels of certain female hormones, a fact that may subconsciously condition males choosing mates. In 2008, other commentators have suggested that this preference may not be universal. For instance, in some non-Western cultures in which women have to do work such as finding food, men tend to have preferences for higher waist-hip ratios.
Exposure to the thin ideal in mass media, such as fashion magazines, directly correlates with body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and the development of eating disorders among female viewers. Further, the widening gap between individual body sizes and societal ideals continues to breed anxiety among young girls as they grow, highlighting the dangerous nature of beauty standards in society. Western conceptcomplexion wafers" decried blotches, moles, pimples, freckles, and "all female irregularities". Arsenic was known to be poisonous during the Victorian era.]]
A study using Chinese immigrants and Hispanic, Black and White American citizens found that their ideals of female beauty were not significantly different. Participants in the study rated Asian and Latina women as more attractive than White and Black women, and it was found that Asian and Latina women had more of the attributes that were considered attractive for women. Exposure to Western media did not influence or improve the Asian men's ratings of White women.
One study found that East Asian women in the United States are closer to the ideal figure promoted in Western media, and that East Asian women conform to both Western and Eastern influences in the United States. East Asian men were found to be more impacted by Western beauty ideals then East Asian women, in the United States. East Asian men felt as though their bodies were not large enough and therefore deviated from the Western norm. East Asian men and white Western women were found to have the highest levels of body dissatisfaction in the United States. A study of African American and South Asian women found that some had internalized a white beauty ideal that placed light skin and straight hair at the top.
Eurocentric standards for men include tallness, leanness, and muscularity, which have been idolized through American media, such as in Hollywood films and magazine covers.
In of the United States, African Americans have historically been subjected to beauty ideals that often do not reflect their own appearance, which can lead to issues of low self-esteem. African-American philosopher Cornel West elaborates that, "much of black self-hatred and self-contempt has to do with the refusal of many black Americans to love their own black bodies-especially their black noses, hips, lips, and hair." According to Patton (2006), the stereotype of African-American women's inferiority (relative to other races of women) maintains a system of oppression based on race and gender that operates to the detriment of women of all races, and also black men. In the 1960s, the black is beautiful cultural movement sought to dispel the notion of a Eurocentric concept of beauty.
Much criticism has been directed at models of beauty which depend solely upon Western ideals of beauty, as seen, for example, in the Barbie franchise. Criticisms of Barbie are often centered around concerns that children consider Barbie a role model of beauty and will attempt to emulate her. One of the most common criticisms of Barbie is that she promotes an unrealistic idea of body image for a young woman, leading to a risk that girls who attempt to emulate her will become anorexic.
As of 1998, these criticisms of the lack of diversity in such franchises as the Barbie model of beauty in Western culture, had led to a dialogue to create non-exclusive models of Western ideals in body type for young girls who do not match the thinness ideal that Barbie represents. Mattel responded to these criticisms.
In East Asian cultures, familial pressures and cultural norms shape beauty ideals. A 2017 experimental study concluded that Asian cultural idealization of "fragile" girls was impacting Asian American women's lifestyle, eating, and appearance choices.Effects on societyResearchers have found that good-looking students get higher grades from their teachers than students with an ordinary appearance. Some studies using mock criminal trials have shown that physically attractive "defendants" are less likely to be convicted—and if convicted are likely to receive lighter sentences—than less attractive ones (although the opposite effect was observed when the alleged crime was swindling, perhaps because jurors perceived the defendant's attractiveness as facilitating the crime). Studies among teens and young adults, such as those of psychiatrist and self-help author Eva Ritvo show that skin conditions have a profound effect on social behavior and opportunity.
How much money a person earns may also be influenced by physical beauty. One study found that people low in physical attractiveness earn 5 to 10 percent less than ordinary-looking people, who in turn earn 3 to 8 percent less than those who are considered good-looking. In the market for loans, the least attractive people are less likely to get approvals, although they are less likely to default. In the marriage market, women's looks are at a premium, but men's looks do not matter much. The impact of physical attractiveness on earnings varies across races, with the largest beauty wage gap among black women and black men.
Conversely, being very unattractive increases the individual's propensity for criminal activity for a number of crimes ranging from burglary to theft to selling illicit drugs.
Discrimination against others based on their appearance is known as lookism.
See also
* Adornment
* Aesthetics
* Beauty pageant
* Body modification
* Feminine beauty ideal
* Glamour (presentation)
* Masculine beauty ideal
* Mathematical beauty
* Processing fluency theory of aesthetic pleasure
* Unattractiveness
* Cosmetics
Notes
ReferencesFurther reading*
* Liebelt, C. (2022), [https://doi.org/10.1002/fea2.12076 Beauty: What Makes Us Dream, What Haunts Us]. Feminist Anthropology.
External links
*
*
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/history/inourtime/inourtime_20050519.shtml BBC Radio 4's In Our Time programme on Beauty] (requires RealAudio)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050305091132/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-28 Dictionary of the History of Ideas:] Theories of Beauty to the Mid-Nineteenth Century
* [http://www.uni-regensburg.de/Fakultaeten/phil_Fak_II/Psychologie/Psy_II/beautycheck/english/prototypen/prototypen.htm beautycheck.de/english] Regensburg University – Characteristics of beautiful faces
* [http://www.terraingallery.org/IsBeauty.html Eli Siegel's "Is Beauty the Making One of Opposites?"]
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/53033 Art and love in Renaissance Italy ], Issued in connection with an exhibition held Nov. 11, 2008-Feb. 16, 2009, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (see Belle: Picturing Beautiful Women; pages 246–254).
* [https://books.google.com/books?idpFEII68kmVsC&dqThales+philosophy+on++beauty&pg=PA356 Plato - Symposium] in S. Marc Cohen, Patricia Curd, C. D. C. Reeve (ed.)
Category:Aesthetic beauty
Category:Concepts in aesthetics
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Category:Physical attractiveness
Category:Metaphysical properties
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Brownian motion
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on an Ag(111) surface]]
of the Brownian motion of a large particle, analogous to a dust particle, that collides with a large set of smaller particles, analogous to molecules of a gas, which move with different velocities in different random directions.]]
Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a medium (a liquid or a gas). The traditional mathematical formulation of Brownian motion is that of the Wiener process, which is often called Brownian motion, even in mathematical sources.
This motion pattern typically consists of random fluctuations in a particle's position inside a fluid sub-domain, followed by a relocation to another sub-domain. Each relocation is followed by more fluctuations within the new closed volume. This pattern describes a fluid at thermal equilibrium, defined by a given temperature. Within such a fluid, there exists no preferential direction of flow (as in transport phenomena). More specifically, the fluid's overall linear and angular momenta remain null over time. The kinetic energies of the molecular Brownian motions, together with those of molecular rotations and vibrations, sum up to the caloric component of a fluid's internal energy (the equipartition theorem).
This motion is named after the Scottish botanist Robert Brown, who first described the phenomenon in 1827, while looking through a microscope at pollen of the plant Clarkia pulchella immersed in water. In 1900, the French mathematician Louis Bachelier modeled the stochastic process now called Brownian motion in his doctoral thesis, The Theory of Speculation (Théorie de la spéculation), prepared under the supervision of Henri Poincaré. Then, in 1905, theoretical physicist Albert Einstein published a paper where he modeled the motion of the pollen particles as being moved by individual water molecules, making one of his first major scientific contributions.
The direction of the force of atomic bombardment is constantly changing, and at different times the particle is hit more on one side than another, leading to the seemingly random nature of the motion. This explanation of Brownian motion served as convincing evidence that atoms and molecules exist and was further verified experimentally by Jean Perrin in 1908. Perrin was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1926 "for his work on the discontinuous structure of matter".
The many-body interactions that yield the Brownian pattern cannot be solved by a model accounting for every involved molecule. Consequently, only probabilistic models applied to molecular populations can be employed to describe it. Two such models of the statistical mechanics, due to Einstein and Smoluchowski, are presented below. Another, pure probabilistic class of models is the class of the stochastic process models. There exist sequences of both simpler and more complicated stochastic processes which converge (in the limit) to Brownian motion (see random walk and Donsker's theorem).
History
, Les Atomes, three tracings of the motion of colloidal particles of radius 0.53 μm, as seen under the microscope, are displayed. Successive positions every 30 seconds are joined by straight line segments (the mesh size is 3.2 μm).]]
The Roman philosopher-poet Lucretius' scientific poem On the Nature of Things () has a remarkable description of the motion of dust particles in verses 113–140 from Book II. He uses this as a proof of the existence of atoms:
Although the mingling, tumbling motion of dust particles is caused largely by air currents, the glittering, jiggling motion of small dust particles is caused chiefly by true Brownian dynamics; Lucretius "perfectly describes and explains the Brownian movement by a wrong example".
While Jan Ingenhousz described the irregular motion of coal dust particles on the surface of alcohol in 1785, the discovery of this phenomenon is often credited to the botanist Robert Brown in 1827. Brown was studying pollen grains of the plant Clarkia pulchella suspended in water under a microscope when he observed minute particles, ejected by the pollen grains, executing a jittery motion. By repeating the experiment with particles of inorganic matter he was able to rule out that the motion was life-related, although its origin was yet to be explained.
The first person to describe the mathematics behind Brownian motion was Thorvald N. Thiele in a paper on the method of least squares published in 1880. This was followed independently by Louis Bachelier in 1900 in his PhD thesis "The theory of speculation", in which he presented a stochastic analysis of the stock and option markets. The Brownian model of financial markets is often cited, but Benoit Mandelbrot rejected its applicability to stock price movements in part because these are discontinuous.
Albert Einstein (in one of his 1905 papers) and Marian Smoluchowski (1906) brought the solution of the problem to the attention of physicists, and presented it as a way to indirectly confirm the existence of atoms and molecules. Their equations describing Brownian motion were subsequently verified by the experimental work of Jean Baptiste Perrin in 1908.
The instantaneous velocity of the Brownian motion can be defined as , when , where is the momentum relaxation time.
In 2010, the instantaneous velocity of a Brownian particle (a glass microsphere trapped in air with optical tweezers) was measured successfully. The velocity data verified the Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution, and the equipartition theorem for a Brownian particle.
Statistical mechanics theories
Einstein's theory
There are two parts to Einstein's theory: the first part consists in the formulation of a diffusion equation for Brownian particles, in which the diffusion coefficient is related to the mean squared displacement of a Brownian particle, while the second part consists in relating the diffusion coefficient to measurable physical quantities. In this way Einstein was able to determine the size of atoms, and how many atoms there are in a mole, or the molecular weight in grams, of a gas. In accordance to Avogadro's law, this volume is the same for all ideal gases, which is 22.414 liters at standard temperature and pressure. The number of atoms contained in this volume is referred to as the Avogadro number, and the determination of this number is tantamount to the knowledge of the mass of an atom, since the latter is obtained by dividing the molar mass of the gas by the Avogadro constant.
, indicating that all the particles are located at the origin at time t = 0. As t increases, the distribution flattens (though remains bell-shaped), and ultimately becomes uniform in the limit that time goes to infinity.]]
The first part of Einstein's argument was to determine how far a Brownian particle travels in a given time interval.
The second part of Einstein's theory relates the diffusion constant to physically measurable quantities, such as the mean squared displacement of a particle in a given time interval. This result enables the experimental determination of the Avogadro number and therefore the size of molecules. Einstein analyzed a dynamic equilibrium being established between opposing forces. The beauty of his argument is that the final result does not depend upon which forces are involved in setting up the dynamic equilibrium.
In his original treatment, Einstein considered an osmotic pressure experiment, but the same conclusion can be reached in other ways.
Consider, for instance, particles suspended in a viscous fluid in a gravitational field. Gravity tends to make the particles settle, whereas diffusion acts to homogenize them, driving them into regions of smaller concentration. Under the action of gravity, a particle acquires a downward speed of , where is the mass of the particle, is the acceleration due to gravity, and is the particle's mobility in the fluid. George Stokes had shown that the mobility for a spherical particle with radius is <math>\mu = \tfrac{1}{6\pi\eta r}</math>, where is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. In a state of dynamic equilibrium, and under the hypothesis of isothermal fluid, the particles are distributed according to the barometric distribution
<math display"block">\rho \rho_o \, \exp\left({-\frac{m g h}{k_\text{B} T}}\right),</math>
where is the difference in density of particles separated by a height difference, of <math>h = z - z_o</math>, is the Boltzmann constant (the ratio of the universal gas constant, , to the Avogadro constant, }}), and is the absolute temperature.
examined the equilibrium (barometric distribution) of granules (0.6 microns) of gamboge, a viscous substance, under the microscope. The granules move against gravity to regions of lower concentration. The relative change in density observed in 10 microns of suspension is equivalent to that occurring in 6 km of air.]]
Dynamic equilibrium is established because the more that particles are pulled down by gravity, the greater the tendency for the particles to migrate to regions of lower concentration. The flux is given by Fick's law,
<math display"block">J -D \frac{d\rho}{dh},</math>
where . Introducing the formula for , we find that
<math display"block">v \frac{D m g}{k_\text{B} T}.</math>
In a state of dynamical equilibrium, this speed must also be equal to . Both expressions for are proportional to , reflecting that the derivation is independent of the type of forces considered. Similarly, one can derive an equivalent formula for identical charged particles of charge in a uniform electric field of magnitude , where is replaced with the electrostatic force . Equating these two expressions yields the Einstein relation for the diffusivity, independent of or or other such forces:
<math display"block"> \frac{\mathbb{E}{\left[x^2\right]}}{2t} D \mu k_\text{B} T \frac{\mu R T}{N_\text{A}} = \frac{RT}{6\pi\eta r N_\text{A}}.</math>
Here the first equality follows from the first part of Einstein's theory, the third equality follows from the definition of the Boltzmann constant as }}, and the fourth equality follows from Stokes's formula for the mobility. By measuring the mean squared displacement over a time interval along with the universal gas constant , the temperature , the viscosity , and the particle radius , the Avogadro constant }} can be determined.
The type of dynamical equilibrium proposed by Einstein was not new. It had been pointed out previously by J. J. Thomson in his series of lectures at Yale University in May 1903 that the dynamic equilibrium between the velocity generated by a concentration gradient given by Fick's law and the velocity due to the variation of the partial pressure caused when ions are set in motion "gives us a method of determining Avogadro's constant which is independent of any hypothesis as to the shape or size of molecules, or of the way in which they act upon each other". in which he expressed the diffusion coefficient as the ratio of the osmotic pressure to the ratio of the frictional force and the velocity to which it gives rise. The former was equated to the law of van 't Hoff while the latter was given by Stokes's law. He writes <math>k' p_o/k</math> for the diffusion coefficient , where <math>p_o</math> is the osmotic pressure and is the ratio of the frictional force to the molecular viscosity which he assumes is given by Stokes's formula for the viscosity. Introducing the ideal gas law per unit volume for the osmotic pressure, the formula becomes identical to that of Einstein's. The use of Stokes's law in Nernst's case, as well as in Einstein and Smoluchowski, is not strictly applicable since it does not apply to the case where the radius of the sphere is small in comparison with the mean free path.
At first, the predictions of Einstein's formula were seemingly refuted by a series of experiments by Svedberg in 1906 and 1907, which gave displacements of the particles as 4 to 6 times the predicted value, and by Henri in 1908 who found displacements 3 times greater than Einstein's formula predicted. But Einstein's predictions were finally confirmed in a series of experiments carried out by Chaudesaigues in 1908 and Perrin in 1909. The confirmation of Einstein's theory constituted empirical progress for the kinetic theory of heat. In essence, Einstein showed that the motion can be predicted directly from the kinetic model of thermal equilibrium. The importance of the theory lay in the fact that it confirmed the kinetic theory's account of the second law of thermodynamics as being an essentially statistical law.
Smoluchowski model
Smoluchowski's theory of Brownian motion starts from the same premise as that of Einstein and derives the same probability distribution for the displacement of a Brownian particle along the in time . He therefore gets the same expression for the mean squared displacement: {{nowrap|<math>\mathbb{E}{\left[(\Delta x)^2\right]}</math>.}} However, when he relates it to a particle of mass moving at a velocity which is the result of a frictional force governed by Stokes's law, he finds
<math display"block">\mathbb{E}{\left[(\Delta x)^2\right]} 2Dt
t \frac{32}{81} \frac{mu^2}{\pi \mu a} t\frac{64}{27} \frac{\frac{1}{2}mu^2}{3 \pi \mu a},</math>
where is the viscosity coefficient, and is the radius of the particle. Associating the kinetic energy <math>mu^2/2</math> with the thermal energy , the expression for the mean squared displacement is times that found by Einstein. The fraction 27/64 was commented on by Arnold Sommerfeld in his necrology on Smoluchowski: "The numerical coefficient of Einstein, which differs from Smoluchowski by 27/64 can only be put in doubt."
Smoluchowski attempts to answer the question of why a Brownian particle should be displaced by bombardments of smaller particles when the probabilities for striking it in the forward and rear directions are equal.
If the probability of gains and losses follows a binomial distribution,
<math display"block">P_{m,n} \binom{n}{m} 2^{-n},</math>
with equal probabilities of 1/2, the mean total gain is
<math display"block">\mathbb{E}{\left[2m-n\right]} \sum_{m\frac{n}{2}}^n (2m-n)P_{m,n}\frac{n n!}{2^{n+1} \left [ \left (\frac{n}{2} \right )! \right ]^2}.</math>
If is large enough so that Stirling's approximation can be used in the form
<math display="block">n!\approx\left(\frac{n}{e}\right)^n\sqrt{2\pi n},</math>
then the expected total gain will be
<math display="block">\mathbb{E}{\left[2m - n\right]} \approx \sqrt{\frac{n}{2\pi}},</math>
showing that it increases as the square root of the total population.
Suppose that a Brownian particle of mass is surrounded by lighter particles of mass which are traveling at a speed . Then, reasons Smoluchowski, in any collision between a surrounding and Brownian particles, the velocity transmitted to the latter will be . This ratio is of the order of . But we also have to take into consideration that in a gas there will be more than 10<sup>16</sup> collisions in a second, and even greater in a liquid where we expect that there will be 10<sup>20</sup> collision in one second. Some of these collisions will tend to accelerate the Brownian particle; others will tend to decelerate it. If there is a mean excess of one kind of collision or the other to be of the order of 10<sup>8</sup> to 10<sup>10</sup> collisions in one second, then velocity of the Brownian particle may be anywhere between . Thus, even though there are equal probabilities for forward and backward collisions there will be a net tendency to keep the Brownian particle in motion, just as the ballot theorem predicts.
These orders of magnitude are not exact because they don't take into consideration the velocity of the Brownian particle, , which depends on the collisions that tend to accelerate and decelerate it. The larger is, the greater will be the collisions that will retard it so that the velocity of a Brownian particle can never increase without limit. Could such a process occur, it would be tantamount to a perpetual motion of the second type. And since equipartition of energy applies, the kinetic energy of the Brownian particle, will be equal, on the average, to the kinetic energy of the surrounding fluid particle,
In 1906 Smoluchowski published a one-dimensional model to describe a particle undergoing Brownian motion. The model assumes collisions with where is the test particle's mass and the mass of one of the individual particles composing the fluid. It is assumed that the particle collisions are confined to one dimension and that it is equally probable for the test particle to be hit from the left as from the right. It is also assumed that every collision always imparts the same magnitude of . If is the number of collisions from the right and the number of collisions from the left then after collisions the particle's velocity will have changed by . The multiplicity is then simply given by:
<math display"block"> \binom{N}{N_\text{R}} \frac{N!}{N_\text{R}!(N - N_\text{R})!}</math>
and the total number of possible states is given by . Therefore, the probability of the particle being hit from the right times is:
<math display"block">P_N(N_\text{R}) \frac{N!}{2^N N_\text{R}!(N-N_\text{R})!}</math>
As a result of its simplicity, Smoluchowski's 1D model can only qualitatively describe Brownian motion. For a realistic particle undergoing Brownian motion in a fluid, many of the assumptions don't apply. For example, the assumption that on average occurs an equal number of collisions from the right as from the left falls apart once the particle is in motion. Also, there would be a distribution of different possible s instead of always just one in a realistic situation.
Langevin equation
The diffusion equation yields an approximation of the time evolution of the probability density function associated with the position of the particle going under a Brownian movement under the physical definition. The approximation is valid on short timescales.
The time evolution of the position of the Brownian particle over all time scales described using the Langevin equation, an equation that involves a random force field representing the effect of the thermal fluctuations of the solvent on the particle. The rms velocity of the massive object, of mass , is related to the rms velocity <math>v_\star</math> of the background stars by
<math display="block"> MV^2 \approx m v_\star^2 </math>
where <math>m \ll M</math> is the mass of the background stars. The gravitational force from the massive object causes nearby stars to move faster than they otherwise would, increasing both <math>v_\star</math> and .
Mathematics
on a torus. In the scaling limit, random walk approaches the Wiener process according to Donsker's theorem.]]
In mathematics, Brownian motion is described by the Wiener process, a continuous-time stochastic process named in honor of Norbert Wiener. It is one of the best known Lévy processes (càdlàg stochastic processes with stationary independent increments) and occurs frequently in pure and applied mathematics, economics and physics.
The Wiener process is characterized by four facts:
#
# is almost surely continuous
# has independent increments
# <math>W_t-W_s\sim \mathcal{N}(0,t-s)</math>
<math>\mathcal{N}(\mu, \sigma^2)</math> denotes the normal distribution with expected value and variance . The condition that it has independent increments means that if <math>0 \leq s_1 < t_1 \leq s_2 < t_2</math> then <math>W_{t_1}-W_{s_1}</math> and <math>W_{t_2}-W_{s_2}</math> are independent random variables. In addition, for some filtration {{nowrap|<math>\mathcal{F}_t</math>,}} <math>W_t</math> is <math>\mathcal{F}_t</math> measurable for all
An alternative characterisation of the Wiener process is the so-called Lévy characterisation that says that the Wiener process is an almost surely continuous martingale with and quadratic variation
A third characterisation is that the Wiener process has a spectral representation as a sine series whose coefficients are independent <math>\mathcal{N}(0, 1)</math> random variables. This representation can be obtained using the Kosambi–Karhunen–Loève theorem.
The Wiener process can be constructed as the scaling limit of a random walk, or other discrete-time stochastic processes with stationary independent increments. This is known as Donsker's theorem. Like the random walk, the Wiener process is recurrent in one or two dimensions (meaning that it returns almost surely to any fixed neighborhood of the origin infinitely often) whereas it is not recurrent in dimensions three and higher. Unlike the random walk, it is scale invariant.
A d-dimensional Gaussian free field has been described as "a d-dimensional-time analog of Brownian motion."
Statistics
The Brownian motion can be modeled by a random walk.
In the general case, Brownian motion is a Markov process and described by stochastic integral equations.Lévy characterisation
The French mathematician Paul Lévy proved the following theorem, which gives a necessary and sufficient condition for a continuous -valued stochastic process to actually be -dimensional Brownian motion. Hence, Lévy's condition can actually be used as an alternative definition of Brownian motion.
Let be a continuous stochastic process on a probability space taking values in . Then the following are equivalent:
# is a Brownian motion with respect to , i.e., the law of with respect to is the same as the law of an -dimensional Brownian motion, i.e., the push-forward measure is classical Wiener measure on ; R<sup>n</sup>)}}.
# both
## is a martingale with respect to (and its own natural filtration); and
## for all , is a martingale with respect to (and its own natural filtration), where denotes the Kronecker delta.
Spectral content
The spectral content of a stochastic process <math>X_t</math> can be found from the power spectral density, formally defined as
<math display"block">S(\omega)\lim_{T\to\infty}\frac{1}{T}\mathbb{E}\left\{ \left|\int^T_0 e^{i \omega t} X_t dt \right|^2\right\}, </math>
where <math>\mathbb{E}</math> stands for the expected value. The power spectral density of Brownian motion is found to be
<math display"block">S_{BM}(\omega) \frac{4 D}{\omega^2}.</math>
where is the diffusion coefficient of . For naturally occurring signals, the spectral content can be found from the power spectral density of a single realization, with finite available time, i.e.,
<math display"block">S^{(1)}(\omega,T) \frac{1}{T}\left|\int^T_0 e^{i \omega t}X_t dt\right|^2 ,</math>
which for an individual realization of a Brownian motion trajectory, it is found to have expected value <math>\mu_{BM}(\omega,T)</math>
<math display"block">\mu_\text{BM}(\omega,T) \frac{4 D}{\omega^2} \left[1 - \frac{\sin\left(\omega T\right)}{\omega T}\right]</math>
and variance <math>\sigma_\text{BM}^2(\omega,T)</math><ref name="Krapf-2018" />
<math display"block">\sigma_S^2(f,T) \mathbb{E}\left\{\left(S^{(j)}_T(f)\right)^2\right\}-\mu_S^2(f,T)
=\frac{20 D^2}{f^4}\left[
1-\Big(6-\cos\left(f T\right)\Big) \frac{2\sin\left(f T\right)}{5fT}
+\frac{\Big(17-\cos\left(2fT\right) - 16\cos\left(f T\right)\Big)}{10 f^2 T^2}
\right].</math>
For sufficiently long realization times, the expected value of the power spectrum of a single trajectory converges to the formally defined power spectral density but its coefficient of variation <math>\gamma \sigma / \mu</math> tends to {{nowrap|<math>\sqrt{5}/2</math>.}} This implies the distribution of <math>S^{(1)}(\omega,T)</math> is broad even in the infinite time limit.Riemannian manifold
The infinitesimal generator (and hence characteristic operator) of a Brownian motion on is easily calculated to be Δ}}, where denotes the Laplace operator. In image processing and computer vision, the Laplacian operator has been used for various tasks such as blob and edge detection. This observation is useful in defining Brownian motion on an -dimensional Riemannian manifold : a Brownian motion on is defined to be a diffusion on whose characteristic operator <math>\mathcal{A}</math> in local coordinates , , is given by Δ<sub>LB</sub>}}, where is the Laplace–Beltrami operator given in local coordinates by
<math display"block">\Delta_{\mathrm{LB}} \frac{1}{\sqrt{\det(g)}} \sum_{i1}^m \frac{\partial}{\partial x_i} \left(\sqrt{\det(g)} \sum_{j1}^m g^{ij} \frac{\partial}{\partial x_j} \right),</math>
where in the sense of the inverse of a square matrix.
Narrow escape
The narrow escape problem is a ubiquitous problem in biology, biophysics and cellular biology which has the following formulation: a Brownian particle (ion, molecule, or protein) is confined to a bounded domain (a compartment or a cell) by a reflecting boundary, except for a small window through which it can escape. The narrow escape problem is that of calculating the mean escape time. This time diverges as the window shrinks, thus rendering the calculation a singular perturbation problem.
See also
* Brownian bridge: a Brownian motion that is required to "bridge" specified values at specified times
* Brownian covariance
* Brownian dynamics
* Brownian motor
* Brownian noise
* Brownian ratchet
* Brownian surface
* Brownian tree
* Brownian web
* Rotational Brownian motion
* Diffusion equation
* Geometric Brownian motion
* Itô diffusion: a generalisation of Brownian motion
* Langevin equation
* Lévy arcsine law
* Local time (mathematics)
* Many-body problem
* Marangoni effect
* Nanoparticle tracking analysis
* Narrow escape problem
* Osmosis
* Random walk
* Schramm–Loewner evolution
* Single particle trajectories
* Single particle tracking
* Statistical mechanics
* Stochastic Eulerian Lagrangian methods : simulation methods for the Brownian motion of spatially extended structures and hydrodynamic coupling.
* Stokesian dynamics
* Surface diffusion: a type of constrained Brownian motion.
* Thermal equilibrium
* Thermodynamic equilibrium
* Tyndall effect: a phenomenon where particles are involved; used to differentiate between the different types of mixtures.
* Ultramicroscope
References
Further reading
* Also includes a subsequent defense by Brown of his original observations, Additional remarks on active molecules.
*
*
*
*
*
*
* Lucretius, On The Nature of Things, translated by William Ellery Leonard. ([http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=785 on-line version], from Project Gutenberg. See the heading 'Atomic Motions'; this translation differs slightly from the one quoted).
* Nelson, Edward, (1967). Dynamical Theories of Brownian Motion. [https://web.math.princeton.edu/~nelson/books/bmotion.pdf (PDF version of this out-of-print book, from the author's webpage.)] This is primarily a mathematical work, but the first four chapters discuss the history of the topic, in the era from Brown to Einstein.
*
*
** See also Perrin's book "Les Atomes" (1914).
*
*
* Theile, T. N.
** Danish version: "Om Anvendelse af mindste Kvadraters Methode i nogle Tilfælde, hvor en Komplikation af visse Slags uensartede tilfældige Fejlkilder giver Fejlene en 'systematisk' Karakter".
** French version: "Sur la compensation de quelques erreurs quasi-systématiques par la méthodes de moindre carrés" published simultaneously in Vidensk. Selsk. Skr. 5. Rk., naturvid. og mat. Afd., 12:381–408, 1880.
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20010222031055/http://www.bun.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~suchii/einsteinBM.html Einstein on Brownian Motion]
* [http://physerver.hamilton.edu/Research/Brownian/index.html Discusses history, botany and physics of Brown's original observations, with videos]
* [http://www.gizmag.com/einsteins-prediction-finally-witnessed/16212/ "Einstein's prediction finally witnessed one century later"] : a test to observe the velocity of Brownian motion
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20220331054344/https://demos.smu.ca/demos/thermo/90-brownian-motion Large-Scale Brownian Motion Demonstration]
Category:Statistical mechanics
Category:Wiener process
Category:Fractals
Category:Colloidal chemistry
Category:Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)
Category:Albert Einstein
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Lévy processes
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| image8 = Barcelona,_Spain_(51225532527).jpg
| caption8 = La Barceloneta
| image9 = Casa_Milà,_general_view.jpg
| caption9 = Casa Milà
}}
| image_flag = Flag of Barcelona.svg
| flag_alt | image_shield Coat of Arms of Barcelona.svg
| shield_alt | nicknames <br><br> "Comital City" or "City of Counts" <br><br> <br>'Head and Hearth of Catalonia'
<br><br> Abbreviation(s): <br> Barna, BCN
| motto | pushpin_map Spain Catalonia#Spain#Europe
| pushpin_label = Barcelona
| image_map |zoom4|typepoint|titleBarcelona|markercity|type2shape|stroke-width22|stroke-color2#808080|text=Interactive map of Barcelona.}}
| map_caption = Location of Barcelona
| coordinates
| coordinates_footnotes | subdivision_type Country
| subdivision_name = Spain
| subdivision_type1 = Autonomous community
| subdivision_type2 = Province
| subdivision_type3 = Comarca
| subdivision_name1 = Catalonia
| subdivision_name2 = Barcelona
| subdivision_name3 = Barcelonès
| established_title | established_date
| parts_type = Districts
| parts_style = coll
| parts =
| p1 = Ciutat Vella
| government_type = Ajuntament
| governing_body = City Council of Barcelona
| leader_party = PSC–PSOE
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name Jaume Collboni
| total_type = City
| unit_pref | area_footnotes
| area_total_km2 = 101.4
| area_urban_km2 | elevation_footnotes (AMSL)
| elevation_m = 12
| population_as_of =
| population_footnotes =
| population_total =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_urban 4840000
| population_metro 5474482
| demographics2_title1 = Metro
| demographics2_info1 = €159.8 billion (2020)
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 080xx <!-- 08001–08080 -->
| area_code = +34 (E) 93 (B)
| area_code_type = Area code
| blank_name_sec1 = INE code
| blank_info_sec1 = 08 0193
| blank1_name_sec1 = City budget
| blank1_info_sec1 €3.6 billion
| blank_name_sec2 =
| blank_info_sec2 = Catalan and Spanish
| blank1_name_sec2 = Main festivity
| blank1_info_sec2 = La Mercè
| website =
| p2 = Eixample
| p3 = Gràcia
| p4 = Horta-Guinardó
| p5 = Les Corts
| p6 = Nou Barris
| p7 = Sant Andreu
| p8 = Sants–Montjuïc
| p9 = Sarrià-Sant Gervasi
| p10 = Sant Martí
| blank2_name_sec2 = Patron saint
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| module | footnotes
}}
Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within city limits, its urban area extends to numerous neighbouring municipalities within the province of Barcelona and is home to around 5.3 million people, In the Middle Ages, Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. After joining with the Kingdom of Aragon to form the confederation of the Crown of Aragon, Barcelona, which continued to be the capital of the Principality of Catalonia, became the most important city in the Crown of Aragon and the main economic and administrative centre of the Crown, only to be overtaken by Valencia, wrested from Moorish control by the Catalans, shortly before the dynastic union between the Crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon in 1492. Barcelona became the centre of Catalan separatism, briefly becoming part of France during the 17th century Reapers' War and again in 1812 until 1814 under Napoleon. It was the capital of Revolutionary Catalonia during the Spanish Revolution of 1936, and the seat of government of the Second Spanish Republic later in the Spanish Civil War, until its capture by the fascists in 1939. After the Spanish transition to democracy in the 1970s, Barcelona once again became the capital of an autonomous Catalonia.
Barcelona has a rich cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre and a major tourist destination. Particularly renowned are the architectural works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner, which have been designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The city is home to two of the most prestigious universities in Spain: the University of Barcelona and Pompeu Fabra University. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean are located in Barcelona. The city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions. In addition, many international sport tournaments have been played here.
Barcelona is a major cultural, economic, and financial centre in southwestern Europe, as well as the main biotech hub in Spain. As a leading world city, Barcelona's influence in global socio-economic affairs qualifies it for global city status (Beta +).
Barcelona is a transport hub, with the Port of Barcelona being one of Europe's principal seaports and busiest European passenger port, an international airport, Barcelona–El Prat Airport, which handles over 50-million passengers per year, an extensive motorway network, and a high-speed rail line with a link to France and the rest of Europe.
Names
The name Barcelona comes from the ancient Iberian Baŕkeno, attested in an ancient coin inscription found on the right side of the coin in Iberian script as , in Ancient Greek sources as , Barkinṓn; and in Latin as Barcino, Barcilonum and Barcenona.
Other sources suggest that the city may have been named after the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca, who was supposed to have founded the city in the 3rd century BC, but there is no evidence its name in antiquity, Barcino, was connected with the Barcid family of Hamilcar. During the Middle Ages, the city was variously known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelonaa, and Barchenona.
An abbreviated form sometimes used by locals for the city is Barna. Barça is only applied to the local football club FC Barcelona, not to the city. Another common abbreviation is 'BCN', which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport.
The city is referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan and Ciudad Condal in Spanish (i.e., "Comital City" or "City of Counts"), owing to its past as the seat of the Count of Barcelona.
History
Legendary founding
The origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear. The ruins of an early settlement have been found, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. In Greek mythology, the founding of Barcelona had been attributed to the mythological Hercules. Punic Barcelona According to tradition, Barcelona was founded by Punic (Phoenician) settlers, who had trading posts along the Catalonian coast. In particular, some historians attribute the foundation of the city directly to the historical Carthaginian general, Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal, who supposedly named the city Barcino after his family in the 3rd century BC, but this theory has been questioned. Roman Barcelona
In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum (Roman military camp) centred on the "Mons Taber", a little hill near the Generalitat (Catalan Government) and city hall buildings. The Roman Forum, at the crossing of the Cardo Maximus and Decumanus Maximus, was approximately placed where current Plaça de Sant Jaume is. Thus, the political centre of the city, Catalonia, and its domains has remained in the same place for over 2,000 years.
Under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia, or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. Pomponius Mela mentions it among the small towns of the district, probably as it was eclipsed by its neighbour Tarraco (modern Tarragona), but it may be gathered from later writers that it gradually grew in wealth and consequence, favoured as it was with a beautiful situation and an excellent harbour. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens. The city minted its own coins; some from the era of Galba survive.
Important Roman vestiges are displayed in Plaça del Rei underground, as a part of the Barcelona City History Museum (MUHBA); the typically Roman grid plan is still visible today in the layout of the historical centre, the Barri Gòtic (Gothic Quarter). Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have been incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, Catedral Basílica Metropolitana de Barcelona, is also sometimes called La Seu, which simply means cathedral (and see, among other things) in Catalan. It is said to have been founded in 343.
Medieval Barcelona
The city was conquered by the Visigoths in the early 5th century, becoming for a few years the capital of all Hispania. After being conquered by the Umayyads in the early 8th century, it was conquered after a siege in 801 by Charlemagne's son Louis, who made Barcelona the seat of the Carolingian "Hispanic March" (Marca Hispanica), a buffer zone ruled by the Count of Barcelona.
The Counts of Barcelona became increasingly independent and expanded their territory to include much of modern Catalonia, although in 985, Barcelona was sacked by the army of Almanzor. The sack was so traumatic that most of Barcelona's population was either killed or enslaved. In 1137, Aragon and the County of Barcelona merged in dynastic union by the marriage of Ramon Berenguer IV and Petronilla of Aragon, their titles finally borne by only one person when their son Alfonso II of Aragon ascended to the throne in 1162. His territories were later to be known as the Crown of Aragon, which conquered many overseas possessions and ruled the western Mediterranean Sea with outlying territories in Naples and Sicily and as far as Athens in the 13th century.
Barcelona also had a substantial Jewish community at the time, then the largest Jewish community in the Crown of Aragon. Called "[https://www.barcelona.cat/museuhistoria/en/itineraris/el-call-de-barcelona the Call]," for the many small streets that defined the area, it later became enclosed. Montjuïc or Montjuich, in medieval Latin and Catalan, meaning "Jewish Mountain" and the birthplace of the city, is the site of a medieval Jewish cemetery, Jews continued to live in Barcelona until the Massacre of 1391 diminished their numbers. The Spanish Inquisition forced the remaining Jews who refused to convert to Christianity to be burned at the stake, or sell their property and leave.
Barcelona was the leading slave trade centre of the Crown of Aragon up until the 15th century, when it was eclipsed by Valencia. It initially fed from eastern and Balkan slave stock later drawing from a Maghribian and, ultimately, Subsaharan pool of slaves.
The Bank or Taula de canvi de Barcelona, often viewed as the oldest public bank in Europe, was established by the city magistrates in 1401. It originated from necessities of the state, as did the Bank of Venice (1402) and the Bank of Genoa (1407).
Barcelona under the Spanish monarchy
]]
In the beginning of the Early Modern period, Barcelona lost political primacy, but the economy managed to achieve a balance between production capacity and imports.
In the context of the wider early recovery of Catalonia from the 17th-century crisis in the second half of the century, increasing maritime activity since 1675 doubled traffic in the port of Barcelona compared to figures from the beginning of the 17th century.
In the late 17th and early 18th century, Barcelona repeatedly endured the effects of war, including the 1691 bombing, the sieges of 1697, 1704, 1705, 1706, and the 1713 blockade and ensuing 1714 siege and assault.
In the 18th century, the population grew from 30,000 to about 100,000 inhabitants, as the city became one of the key mercantile centres in the Western Mediterranean, with inland influence up to Zaragoza, and to the south up to Alicante. A fortress was built at Montjuïc that overlooked the harbour.
Much of Barcelona was negatively affected by the Napoleonic wars, but the start of industrialization saw the fortunes of the province improve.
Transforming the city
In the mid-1850s, Barcelona was struggling with population density as it became an industrial, port city and European capital. The city's density was at 856 people per hectare, more than double that of Paris. Mortality rates were on the rise and any outbreaks of disease would devastate the population. To solve the issue, a civil engineer named Ildefons Cerdà proposed a plan for a new district known as the Eixample. The citizens of Barcelona had begun to demolish the medieval wall surrounding and constricting the city. Cerdà thought it best to transform the land outside the walls into an area characterized by a scientific approach to urbanization. His proposal consisted of a grid of streets to unite the old city and surrounding villages. There would also be wide streets to allow people to breathe clean air, gardens in the centre of each street block, integration of rich and poor giving both groups access to the same services, and smooth-flowing traffic. Urban quality, egalitarianism, hygiene, sunlight, and efficiency were all major keys for Cerdà's vision. Not everything he imagined would be realized within the Eixample district, but the iconic octagonal superblocks with chamfered corners for better visibility are his direct brainchild and remain immensely helpful even 170 years later. The district and its ideals were not appreciated at the time. The city council awarded the design of the extension plan to another architect. The Spanish government was the one to step in and impose Cerdà's plan, laying the groundwork for many more tensions between the Spanish and Catalan administrations. Regardless, some of the upper class citizens of Barcelona were excited by the new plan and began a race to build "the biggest, tallest, most attractive house" in the district. Their interest and money fueled the rich diversity that we now see in the district's architecture. In the end, Cerdà's ideas would have a lasting impact on Barcelona's development, earning it international recognition for its highly efficient approach to urban planning and design.
The Spanish Civil War and the Franco period
'' by Gerda Taro, Somorrostro beach (1936)]]
from November 1937 until January 1939. During that Spanish Civil War period, both Barcelona and Madrid were still under the rule of the republic. In the image Azaña and Negrín on the city outskirts.]]
During the Spanish Civil War, the city, and Catalonia in general, were resolutely Republican. Many enterprises and public services were collectivized by the CNT and UGT unions. As the power of the Republican government and the Generalitat diminished, much of the city was under the effective control of anarchist groups. The anarchists lost control of the city to their own allies, the Communists and official government troops, after the street fighting of the Barcelona May Days. The fall of the city on 26 January 1939, caused a mass exodus of civilians who fled to the French border. The resistance of Barcelona to Franco's ''coup d'état'' was to have lasting effects after the defeat of the Republican government. The autonomous institutions of Catalonia were abolished, and the use of the Catalan language in public life was suppressed. Barcelona remained the second largest city in Spain, at the heart of a region which was relatively industrialized and prosperous, despite the devastation of the civil war. The result was a large-scale immigration from poorer regions of Spain (particularly Andalusia, Murcia and Galicia), which in turn led to rapid urbanization.
Late twentieth century
In 1992, Barcelona hosted the Summer Olympics. The after-effects of this are credited with driving major changes in what had, up until then, been a largely industrial city. As part of the preparation for the games, industrial buildings along the sea-front were demolished and of beach were created. New construction increased the road capacity of the city by 17%, the sewage handling capacity by 27% and the amount of new green areas and beaches by 78%. Between 1990 and 2004, the number of hotel rooms in the city doubled. Perhaps more importantly, the outside perception of the city was changed making, by 2012, Barcelona the 12th most popular city destination in the world and the 5th amongst European cities. Recent history
The death of Franco in 1975 brought on a period of democratization throughout Spain. Pressure for change was particularly strong in Barcelona, which considered that it had been punished during nearly forty years of Francoism for its support of the Republican government. Massive, but peaceful, demonstrations on 11 September 1977 assembled over a million people in the streets of Barcelona to call for the restoration of Catalan autonomy. It was granted less than a month later.
The development of Barcelona was promoted by two events in 1986: Spanish accession to the European Community, and particularly Barcelona's designation as host city of the 1992 Summer Olympics. The process of urban regeneration has been rapid, and accompanied by a greatly increased international reputation of the city as a tourist destination. The increased cost of housing has led to a slight decline (−16.6%) in the population over the last two decades of the 20th century as many families move out into the suburbs. This decline has been reversed since 2001, as a new wave of immigration (particularly from Latin America and from Morocco) has gathered pace.
In 1987, an ETA car bombing at Hipercor killed 21 people. On 17 August 2017, a van was driven into pedestrians on La Rambla, killing 14 and injuring at least 100, one of whom later died. Other attacks took place elsewhere in Catalonia. The Prime Minister of Spain, Mariano Rajoy, called the attack in Barcelona a jihadist attack. Amaq News Agency attributed indirect responsibility for the attack to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). During the 2010s, Barcelona became the focus city for the ongoing Catalan independence movement, its consequent standoff between the regional and national government and later protests.
In July 2023, Barcelona was announced as the UNESCO-UIA World Capital of Architecture for the 2024–2026 term. This means it will be the hub for discussion around global challenges including culture, heritage, urban planning and architecture. In addition to being the capital through 2026, it will also host the UIA World Congress of Architects for that year. The honour is befitting of Barcelona, as its history is peppered with architectural achievement and various iconic styles and influences. From its ancient Roman roots, to the Gothic and Modernisme movements, Barcelona has thrived through the way it ties together architecture and culture.
Geography
Location
's Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission]]
Barcelona is located on the northeast coast of the Iberian Peninsula, facing the Mediterranean Sea, on a plain approximately wide limited by the mountain range of Collserola, the Llobregat river to the southwest and the Besòs river to the north. This plain covers an area of , are occupied by the city itself. It is south of the Pyrenees and the Catalan border with France.
Tibidabo, high, offers striking views over the city and is topped by the Torre de Collserola, a telecommunications tower that is visible from most of the city. Barcelona is peppered with small hills, most of them urbanized, that gave their name to the neighbourhoods built upon them, such as Carmel (), Putxet (es) () and Rovira (). The escarpment of Montjuïc (), situated to the southeast, overlooks the harbour and is topped by Montjuïc Castle, a fortress built in the 17–18th centuries to control the city as a replacement for the Ciutadella. Today, the fortress is a museum and Montjuïc is home to several sporting and cultural venues, as well as Barcelona's biggest park and gardens.
The city borders on the municipalities of Santa Coloma de Gramenet and Sant Adrià de Besòs to the north; the Mediterranean Sea to the east; El Prat de Llobregat and L'Hospitalet de Llobregat to the south; and Sant Feliu de Llobregat, Sant Just Desvern, Esplugues de Llobregat, Sant Cugat del Vallès, and Montcada i Reixac to the west. The municipality includes two small sparsely-inhabited exclaves to the north-west.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification, Barcelona has a hot summer Mediterranean climate (Csa), with mild winters and warm to hot summers, while the rainiest seasons are autumn and spring. The rainfall pattern is characterized by a short (3 months) dry season in summer, as well as less winter rainfall than in a typical Mediterranean climate. However, both June and August are wetter than February, which is unusual for the Mediterranean climate. This subtype, labelled as "Portuguese" by the French geographer George Viers after the climate classification of Emmanuel de Martonne and found in the NW Mediterranean area (e.g. Marseille), can be seen as transitional to the humid subtropical climate (Cfa) found in inland areas.
Barcelona is densely populated, thus heavily influenced by the urban heat island effect. Areas outside of the urbanized districts can have as much as 2 °C of difference in temperatures throughout the year. Its average annual temperature is during the day and at night. The average annual temperature of the sea is about . In the coldest month, January, the temperature typically ranges from during the day, at night and the average sea temperature is . In the warmest month, August, the typical temperature ranges from during the day, about at night and the average sea temperature is .
Barcelona averages 78 rainy days per year (≥ 1 mm), and annual average relative humidity is 72%, ranging from 69% in July to 75% in October. Rainfall totals are highest in late summer and autumn (September–November) and lowest in early and mid-summer (June–August), with a secondary winter minimum (February–March). Sunshine duration is 2,524 hours per year, from 138 (average 4.5 hours of sunshine a day) in December to 310 (average 10 hours of sunshine a day) in July.
from the city centre (1924-present extremes)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan record high C = 23.8
| Feb record high C = 24.5
| Mar record high C = 27.5
| Apr record high C = 26.5
| May record high C = 32.0
| Jun record high C = 35.0
| Jul record high C = 36.0
| Aug record high C = 37.4
| Sep record high C = 34.0
| Oct record high C = 30.4
| Nov record high C = 27.0
| Dec record high C = 27.0
| year record high C | Jan high C 14.0
| Feb high C = 14.5
| Mar high C = 16.4
| Apr high C = 18.5
| May high C = 21.7
| Jun high C = 25.5
| Jul high C = 28.3
| Aug high C = 28.9
| Sep high C = 26.0
| Oct high C = 22.3
| Nov high C = 17.6
| Dec high C = 14.5
| year high C | Jan mean C 9.7
| Feb mean C = 10.2
| Mar mean C = 12.3
| Apr mean C = 14.5
| May mean C = 17.8
| Jun mean C = 21.7
| Jul mean C = 24.5
| Aug mean C = 25.1
| Sep mean C = 22.1
| Oct mean C = 18.3
| Nov mean C = 13.3
| Dec mean C = 10.4
| year mean C | Jan low C 5.5
| Feb low C = 5.9
| Mar low C = 8.1
| Apr low C = 10.4
| May low C = 13.8
| Jun low C = 17.9
| Jul low C = 20.8
| Aug low C = 21.3
| Sep low C = 18.0
| Oct low C = 14.3
| Nov low C = 9.1
| Dec low C = 6.2
| year low C | Jan record low C -7.2
| Feb record low C = -6.6
| Mar record low C = -1.4
| Apr record low C = 0.1
| May record low C = 3.0
| Jun record low C = 7.8
| Jul record low C = 11.4
| Aug record low C = 9.5
| Sep record low C = 7.6
| Oct record low C = 3.8
| Nov record low C = -1.4
| Dec record low C = -8.0
| year record low C | precipitation colour green
| Jan precipitation mm = 41.3
| Feb precipitation mm = 30.1
| Mar precipitation mm = 41.7
| Apr precipitation mm = 47.3
| May precipitation mm = 41.9
| Jun precipitation mm = 26.3
| Jul precipitation mm = 27.3
| Aug precipitation mm = 51.2
| Sep precipitation mm = 86.1
| Oct precipitation mm = 82.1
| Nov precipitation mm = 45.5
| Dec precipitation mm = 37.3
| year precipitation mm | Jan precipitation days 4.2
| Feb precipitation days = 3.4
| Mar precipitation days = 4.4
| Apr precipitation days = 5.6
| May precipitation days = 4.6
| Jun precipitation days = 3.1
| Jul precipitation days = 2.1
| Aug precipitation days = 4.2
| Sep precipitation days = 6.0
| Oct precipitation days = 6.4
| Nov precipitation days = 4.6
| Dec precipitation days = 3.9
| year precipitation days | unit precipitation days 1 mm
| Jan snow days = 0
| Feb snow days = 0.2
| Mar snow days = 0.1
| Apr snow days = 0
| May snow days = 0
| Jun snow days = 0
| Jul snow days = 0
| Aug snow days = 0
| Sep snow days = 0
| Oct snow days = 0
| Nov snow days = 0.1
| Dec snow days = 0
| year snow days | Jan humidity 68
| Feb humidity = 67
| Mar humidity = 68
| Apr humidity = 68
| May humidity = 67
| Jun humidity = 65
| Jul humidity = 65
| Aug humidity = 66
| Sep humidity = 68
| Oct humidity = 72
| Nov humidity = 69
| Dec humidity = 69
| year humidity | Jan sun 136
| Feb sun = 164
| Mar sun = 214
| Apr sun = 228
| May sun = 257
| Jun sun = 267
| Jul sun = 298
| Aug sun = 273
| Sep sun = 222
| Oct sun = 177
| Nov sun = 135
| Dec sun = 118
| year sun | Jan percentsun 46
| Feb percentsun = 54
| Mar percentsun = 57
| Apr percentsun = 57
| May percentsun = 57
| Jun percentsun = 59
| Jul percentsun = 65
| Aug percentsun = 64
| Sep percentsun = 60
| Oct percentsun = 51
| Nov percentsun = 46
| Dec percentsun = 41
| year percentsun | source 1 Agencia Estatal de Meteorología
| source =
}}
Demographics population pyramid in 2022]]According to Barcelona's City Council, the city's population was 1,608,746 people, on a land area of . It is the main component of an administrative area of Greater Barcelona, with a population of 3,218,071 in an area of (density 5,060 inhabitants/km<sup>2</sup>). The population of the urban area was 4,840,000.
In 1900, Barcelona had a population of 533,000,
Languages spoken
Spanish is the most spoken language in Barcelona (according to the linguistic census held by the Government of Catalonia in 2013) and it is understood almost universally. Catalan is also very commonly spoken in the city: it is understood by 95% of the population, while 72.3% can speak it, 79% can read it, and 53% can write it. Knowledge of Catalan has increased significantly in recent decades thanks to a language immersion educational system.
After Catalan and Spanish, the most spoken languages in Barcelona are those from North Africa, such as Amazigh and Arabic, followed by Bengali, Urdu, Panjabi, Mandarin Chinese, Romanian, English, Russian and Quechua, according to data collected by the University of Barcelona.
Population density
at the background]]
Barcelona is one of the most densely populated cities in Europe. For the year 2008 the city council calculated the population to 1,621,090 living in the 102.2 km<sup>2</sup> sized municipality, giving the city an average population density of 15,926 inhabitants per square kilometre with Eixample being the most populated district.
In the case of Barcelona though, the land distribution is extremely uneven. Half of the municipality or 50.2 km<sup>2</sup>, all of it located on the municipal edge is made up of the ten least densely populated neighbourhoods containing less than 10% of the city's population, the uninhabited Zona Franca industrial area and Montjuïc forest park. Leaving the remaining 90% or slightly below 1.5 million inhabitants living on the remaining at an average density close to 28,500 inhabitants per square kilometre.
Migration
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Largest groups of foreign residents in Barcelona
|-
!Nationality || Population<br>
|-
|Italy || 36,276
|-
|China || 21,658
|-
|Pakistan || 20,643
|-
|France || 16,940
|-
|Morocco || 14,418
|-
|Colombia || 12,290
|-
|Honduras || 11,744
|-
|Peru || 10,558
|-
|Venezuela || 10,185
|-
|Philippines || 9,439
|}
In 2016, about 59% of the inhabitants of the city were born in Catalonia and 18.5% coming from the rest of the country. In addition to that, 22.5% of the population was born outside of Spain, a proportion which has more than doubled since 2001 and more than quintupled since 1996 when it was 8.6% and 3.9% respectively.
There exists a relatively large Pakistani community in Barcelona with up to twenty thousand nationals. The community consists of significantly more men than women. Many of the Pakistanis are living in Ciutat Vella. First Pakistani migrants came in the 1970s, with increasing numbers in the 1990s.
Other significant migrant groups come from Asia as from China and the Philippines. Religion
]]
In 2007, most of the inhabitants stated they are Roman Catholic (208 churches). In a 2011 survey conducted by InfoCatólica, 49.5% of Barcelona residents of all ages identified themselves as Catholic. This was the first time that more than half of respondents did not identify themselves as Catholic Christians.
The province has the largest Muslim community in Spain, 322,698 people in Barcelona province are of Muslim religion. A considerable number of Muslims live in Barcelona due to immigration (169 locations, mostly professed by Moroccans in Spain). There are also a number of other groups, including Evangelical (71 locations, mostly professed by Roma), Jehovah's Witnesses (21 Kingdom Halls), Buddhists (13 locations), and Eastern Orthodox. Economy General information
and the 22@Barcelona business and innovation district]]
The Barcelona metropolitan area comprises over 66% of the people of Catalonia, one of the richer regions in Europe and the fourth richest region per capita in Spain, with a GDP per capita amounting to €28,400 (16% more than the EU average). The greater Barcelona metropolitan area had a GDP amounting to $177 billion (equivalent to $34,821 in per capita terms, 44% more than the EU average), making it the 4th most economically powerful city by gross GDP in the European Union, and 35th in the world in 2009. Barcelona city had a very high GDP of €80,894 per head in 2004, according to Eurostat. Furthermore, Barcelona was Europe's fourth best business city and fastest improving European city, with growth improved by 17% per year .
Barcelona was the 24th most "livable city" in the world in 2015 according to lifestyle magazine Monocle. Similarly, according to Innovation Analysts 2thinknow, Barcelona occupies 13th place in the world on Innovation Cities™ Global Index. At the same time it is according to the Global Wealth and Lifestyle Report 2020 one of the most affordable cities in the world for a luxury lifestyle.
Barcelona has a long-standing mercantile tradition. Less well known is that the city industrialized early, taking off in 1833, when Catalonia's already sophisticated textile industry began to use steam power. It became the first and most important industrial city in the Mediterranean basin. Since then, manufacturing has played a large role in its history.
Borsa de Barcelona (Barcelona Stock Exchange) is the main stock exchange in the northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula.
Barcelona was recognized as the Southern European City of the Future for 2014/15, based on its economic potential, by FDi Magazine in their bi-annual rankings. Trade fair and exhibitions
It also has several congress halls, notably Fira de Barcelona – the second largest trade fair and exhibition centre in Europe, that host a quickly growing number of national and international events each year (at present above 50). The total exhibition floor space of Fira de Barcelona venues is , not counting Gran Via centre on the Plaza de Europa. However, the Eurozone crisis and deep cuts in business travel affected the council's positioning of the city as a convention centre.
An important business centre, the World Trade Center Barcelona, is located in Barcelona's Port Vell harbour.
The city is known for hosting well as world-class conferences and expositions, including the 1888 Exposición Universal de Barcelona, the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition (Expo 1929), the 2004 Universal Forum of Cultures and the 2004 World Urban Forum.
Tourism
]]
Barcelona was the 20th-most-visited city in the world by international visitors and the fifth most visited city in Europe after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome, with 5.5 million international visitors in 2011. By 2015, both Prague and Milan had more international visitors. With its popular tree-lined pedestrian street, Les Rambles (Las Ramblas), Barcelona is ranked the most popular city to visit in Spain.
Barcelona is an internationally renowned tourist destination, with numerous recreational areas, one of the best beaches in the world, mild and warm climate, historical monuments, including eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 519 hotels including 35 five-star hotels, and developed tourist infrastructure.
Due to its large influx of tourists each year, Barcelona, like many other tourism capitals, has to deal with pickpockets, with wallets and passports being commonly stolen items. Despite its moderate pickpocket rate, Barcelona is considered one of the safest cities in terms of security and personal safety, mainly because of a sophisticated policing strategy that has dropped crime by 32% in just over three years and has led it to be considered the 15th safest city in the world by Business Insider in 2016.
While tourism produces economic benefits, according to one report, the city is "overrun [by] hordes of tourists". In early 2017, over 150,000 protesters warned that tourism is destabilizing the city. Slogans included "Tourists go home", "Barcelona is not for sale" and "We will not be driven out". By then, the number of visitors had increased from 1.7 million in 1990 to 32 million in a city with a population of 1.62 million, increasing the cost of rental housing for residents and overcrowding the public places. While tourists spent an estimated €30 billion in 2017, they are viewed by some as a threat to Barcelona's identity.
A May 2017 article in the British online daily The Independent included Barcelona among the "Eight Places That Hate Tourists the Most" and included a comment from Mayor Ada Colau, "We don't want the city to become a cheap souvenir shop", citing Venice as an example. One industry insider, Justin Francis, founder of the Responsible Travel agency, stated that steps must be taken to limit the number of visitors that are causing an "overtourism crisis" in several major European cities. "Ultimately, residents must be prioritised over tourists for housing, infrastructure and access to services because they have a long-term stake in the city's success", he said. "Managing tourism more responsibly can help", Francis later told a journalist, "but some destinations may just have too many tourists, and Barcelona may be a case of that". Manufacturing sector Industry generates 21% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) of the region, with the energy, chemical and metallurgy industries accounting for 47% of industrial production. The Barcelona metropolitan area had 67% of the total number of industrial establishments in Catalonia as of 1997.
Barcelona has long been an important European automobile manufacturing centre. Formerly there were automobile factories of AFA, Abadal, Actividades Industriales, Alvarez, America, Artés de Arcos, Balandrás, Baradat-Esteve, Biscúter, J. Castro, Clúa, David, Delfín, Díaz y Grilló, Ebro trucks, , Elizalde, Automóviles España, Eucort, Fenix, Fábrica Hispano, Auto Academia Garriga, Fábrica Española de Automóviles Hebe, Hispano-Suiza, Huracán Motors, Talleres Hereter, Junior SL, Kapi, La Cuadra, M.A., Automóviles Matas, Motores y Motos, Nacional Custals, National Pescara, Nacional RG, Nacional Rubi, Nacional Sitjes, Automóviles Nike, Orix, Otro Ford, Patria, Pegaso, PTV, Ricart, Ricart-España, Industrias Salvador, Siata Española, Stevenson, Romagosa y Compañía, Garaje Storm, Talleres Hereter, Trimak, Automóviles Victoria, Manufacturas Mecánicas Aleu.
Today, the headquarters and a large factory of SEAT (the largest Spanish automobile manufacturer) are in one of its suburbs. There is also a Nissan factory in the logistics and industrial area of the city. The factory of Derbi, a large manufacturer of motorcycles, scooters and mopeds, also lies near the city.
As in other modern cities, the manufacturing sector has long since been overtaken by the services sector, though it remains very important. The region's leading industries are textiles, chemical, pharmaceutical, motor, electronic, printing, logistics, publishing, in telecommunications industry and culture the notable Mobile World Congress, and information technology services.
Fashion
fashion show of 2011]]
The traditional importance of textiles is reflected in Barcelona's drive to become a major fashion centre. There have been many attempts to launch Barcelona as a fashion capital, notably Gaudi Home.
Beginning in the summer of 2000, the city hosted the Bread & Butter urban fashion fair until 2009, when its organizers announced that it would be returning to Berlin. This was a hard blow for the city as the fair brought €100 m to the city in just three days.
From 2009, The Brandery, an urban fashion show, was held in Barcelona twice a year until 2012. According to the Global Language Monitor's annual ranking of the world's top fifty fashion capitals Barcelona was named as the seventh most important fashion capital of the world right after Milan and before Berlin in 2015.
Government and administrative divisions
]]
As the capital of the autonomous community of Catalonia, Barcelona is the seat of the Catalan government, known as the Generalitat de Catalunya; of particular note are the executive branch, the parliament, and the High Court of Justice of Catalonia. The city is also the capital of the Province of Barcelona and the Barcelonès comarca (district).
Barcelona is governed by a city council formed by 41 city councillors, elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage. As one of the two biggest cities in Spain, Barcelona is subject to a special law articulated through the Carta Municipal (Municipal Law). A first version of this law was passed in 1960 and amended later, but the current version was approved in March 2006. According to this law, Barcelona's city council is organized in two levels: a political one, with elected city councillors, and one executive, which administers the programs and executes the decisions taken on the political level. This law also gives the local government a special relationship with the central government and it also gives the mayor wider prerogatives by the means of municipal executive commissions. It expands the powers of the city council in areas like telecommunications, city traffic, road safety and public safety. It also gives a special economic regime to the city's treasury and it gives the council a veto in matters that will be decided by the central government, but that will need a favourable report from the council. The plenary, formed by the 41 city councillors, has advisory, planning, regulatory, and fiscal executive functions. The six Commissions del Consell Municipal (City council commissions) have executive and controlling functions in the field of their jurisdiction. They are composed by a number of councillors proportional to the number of councillors each political party has in the plenary. The city council has jurisdiction in the fields of city planning, transportation, municipal taxes, public highways security through the Guàrdia Urbana (the municipal police), city maintenance, gardens, parks and environment, facilities (like schools, nurseries, sports centres, libraries, and so on), culture, sports, youth and social welfare. Some of these competencies are not exclusive, but shared with the Generalitat de Catalunya or the central Spanish government. In some fields with shared responsibility (such as public health, education or social services), there is a shared Agency or Consortium between the city and the Generalitat to plan and manage services.
The executive branch is led by a Chief Municipal Executive Officer which answers to the Mayor. It is made up of departments which are legally part of the city council and by separate legal entities of two types: autonomous public departments and public enterprises.
The seat of the city council is on the Plaça de Sant Jaume, opposite the seat of Generalitat de Catalunya. Since the coming of the Spanish democracy, Barcelona had been governed by the PSC, first with an absolute majority and later in coalition with ERC and ICV. After the May 2007 election, the ERC did not renew the coalition agreement and the PSC governed in a minority coalition with ICV as the junior partner.
After 32 years, on 22 May 2011, CiU gained a plurality of seats at the municipal election, gaining 15 seats to the PSC's 11. The PP hold 8 seats, ICV 5 and ERC 2.
Districts
Since 1987, the city has been divided into 10 administrative districts (districtes in Catalan, distritos in Spanish):
*Ciutat Vella
*Eixample
*Sants-Montjuïc
*Les Corts
*Sarrià-Sant Gervasi
*Gràcia
*Horta-Guinardó
*Nou Barris
*Sant Andreu
*Sant Martí
The districts are based mostly on historical divisions, and several are former towns annexed by the city of Barcelona in the 18th and 19th centuries that still maintain their own distinct character. Each district has its own council led by a city councillor. The composition of each district council depends on the number of votes each political party had in that district, so a district can be led by a councillor from a different party than the executive council.
Education
]]
]]
Barcelona has a well-developed higher education system of public universities. Most prominent among these are the University of Barcelona (established in 1450) and the more modern Pompeu Fabra University. Barcelona is also home to the Polytechnic University of Catalonia, and in the private sector the EADA Business School (founded in 1957), which became the first Barcelona institution to run manager training programmes for the business community. IESE Business School, as well as the largest private educational institution, the Ramon Llull University, which encompasses schools and institutes such as the ESADE Business School. The Autonomous University of Barcelona, another public university, is located in Bellaterra, a town in the Metropolitan Area. Toulouse Business School and the Open University of Catalonia (a private Internet-centred open university) are also based in Barcelona.
The city has a network of public schools, from nurseries to high schools, under the responsibility of a consortium led by city council (though the curriculum is the responsibility of the Generalitat de Catalunya). There are also many private schools, some of them Roman Catholic. Most such schools receive a public subsidy on a per-student basis, are subject to inspection by the public authorities, and are required to follow the same curricular guidelines as public schools, though they charge tuition. Known as escoles concertades, they are distinct from schools whose funding is entirely private (escoles privades).
The language of instruction at public schools and escoles concertades is Catalan, as stipulated by the 2009 Catalan Education Act. Spanish may be used as a language of instruction by teachers of Spanish literature or language, and foreign languages by teachers of those languages. An experimental partial immersion programme adopted by some schools allows for the teaching of a foreign language (English, generally) across the curriculum, though this is limited to a maximum of 30% of the school day. No public school or escola concertada in Barcelona may offer 50% or full immersion programmes in a foreign language, nor does any public school or escola concertada offer International Baccalaureate programmes.
Culture
Barcelona's cultural roots go back 2000 years. Since the arrival of democracy, the Catalan language (very much repressed during the dictatorship of Franco) has been promoted, both by recovering works from the past and by stimulating the creation of new works. Barcelona is designated as a world-class city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network. It has also been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network as a City of Literature since 2015. Entertainment and performing arts
opera house]]
Barcelona has many venues for live music and theatre, including the world-renowned Gran Teatre del Liceu opera house, the Teatre Nacional de Catalunya, the Teatre Lliure and the Palau de la Música Catalana concert hall. Barcelona also is home to the Barcelona Symphony and Catalonia National Orchestra (Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona i Nacional de Catalunya, usually known as OBC), the largest symphonic orchestra in Catalonia. In 1999, the OBC inaugurated its new venue in the brand-new Auditorium (L'Auditori). It performs around 75 concerts per season and its current director is Eiji Oue. It is home to the Barcelona Guitar Orchestra, directed by Sergi Vicente. The major thoroughfare of La Rambla is home to mime artists and street performers. Yearly, two major pop music festivals take place in the city, the Sónar Festival and the Primavera Sound Festival. The city also has a thriving alternative music scene, with groups such as The Pinker Tones receiving international attention. Barcelona is an international hub of highly active and diverse nightlife with bars, dance bars and nightclubs staying open well past midnight.
Media
El Periódico de Catalunya, La Vanguardia and Ara are Barcelona's three major daily newspapers (the first two with Catalan and Spanish editions, Ara only in Catalan) while Sport and El Mundo Deportivo (both in Spanish) are the city's two major sports daily newspapers, published by the same companies. The city is also served by a number of smaller publications such as Ara and El Punt Avui (in Catalan), by nationwide newspapers with special Barcelona editions such as El País (in Spanish, with an online version in Catalan) and El Mundo (in Spanish), and by several free newspapers like 20 minutos and Què (all bilingual).
Barcelona's oldest and main online newspaper VilaWeb is also the oldest one in Europe (with Catalan and English editions).
Several major FM stations include Catalunya Ràdio, RAC 1, RAC 105 and Cadena SER. Barcelona also has a local TV station, Betevé, owned by city council. The headquarters of Televisió de Catalunya, Catalonia's public network, are located in Sant Joan Despí, in Barcelona's metropolitan area.
Sports
(Barcelona Olympic Stadium) built for the 1936 Summer Olympics named ''People's Olympiad'', main stadium of 1992 Summer Olympics]]
, the largest stadium in Europe]]
Barcelona has a long sporting tradition and hosted the highly successful 1992 Summer Olympics as well as several matches during the 1982 FIFA World Cup (at the two stadiums). It has hosted about 30 sports events of international significance. FC Barcelona is a sports club best known worldwide for its football team, one of the largest and the wealthiest in the world. It has 74 national trophies (while finishing 46 times as runners-up) and 17 continental prizes (with being runners-up 11 times), including five UEFA Champions League trophies out of eight finals and three FIFA Club World Cup wins out of four finals. The club won six trophies in a calendar year in 2009, becoming one of only 2 male football teams in the world to win the coveted sextuple, apart from FC Bayern Munich in 2020. FC Barcelona also has professional teams in other sports like FC Barcelona Regal (basketball), FC Barcelona Handbol (handball), FC Barcelona Hoquei (roller hockey), FC Barcelona Ice Hockey (ice hockey), FC Barcelona Futsal (futsal) and FC Barcelona Rugby (rugby union), all at one point winners of the highest national or European competitions. The club's museum is the second most visited in Catalonia. The matches against cross-town rivals RCD Espanyol are of particular interest, but there are other Barcelonan football clubs in lower categories, like CE Europa and UE Sant Andreu. FC Barcelona's basketball team has a noted rivalry in the Liga ACB with nearby Joventut Badalona.
(St. George's sporting arena) and Montjuïc Communications Tower]]
Barcelona has three UEFA elite stadiums: FC Barcelona's Camp Nou, the largest stadium in Europe with a capacity of 99,354; the publicly owned Estadi Olímpic Lluís Companys, with a capacity of 55,926; used for the 1992 Olympics; and Estadi Cornellà-El Prat, with a capacity of 40,500. Furthermore, the city has several smaller stadiums such as Mini Estadi (also owned by FC Barcelona) with a capacity of 15,000, Camp Municipal Narcís Sala with a capacity of 6,563 and Nou Sardenya with a capacity of 7,000. The city has a further three multifunctional venues for sports and concerts: the Palau Sant Jordi with a capacity of 12,000 to 24,000 (depending on use), the Palau Blaugrana with a capacity of 7,500, and the Palau dels Esports de Barcelona with a capacity of 3,500.
Barcelona was the host city for the 2013 World Aquatics Championships, which were held at the Palau San Jordi.
/Circuit de Barcelona, race track of Formula 1 and MotoGP on the suburb of Barcelona]]
Several road running competitions are organized year-round in Barcelona: the Barcelona Marathon every March with over 10,000 participants in 2010, the Cursa de Bombers in April, the Cursa de El Corte Inglés in May (with about 60,000 participants each year), the Cursa de la Mercè, the Cursa Jean Bouin, the Milla Sagrada Família and the San Silvestre. There is also the Ultratrail Collserola which passes through the Collserola forest. The Open Seat Godó, a 50-year-old ATP World Tour 500 Series tennis tournament, is held annually in the facilities of the Real Club de Tenis Barcelona. Each year on Christmas Day, a 200-meter swimming race across the Old Port of Barcelona takes place. Near Barcelona, in Montmeló, the 107,000 capacity Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya racetrack hosts the Formula One Spanish Grand Prix, the Catalan motorcycle Grand Prix, the Spanish GT Championship and races in the GP2 Series. Skateboarding and cycling are also very popular in Barcelona; in and around the city there are dozens of kilometers of bicycle paths. Squatter movement Barcelona is also home to numerous social centres and illegal squats that effectively form a shadow society mainly made up of the unemployed, immigrants, dropouts, anarchists, anti-authoritarians and autonomists. Peter Gelderloos estimates that there around 200 squatted buildings and 40 social centres across the city with thousands of inhabitants, making it one of the largest squatter movements in the world. He notes that they pirate electricity, internet and water allowing them to live on less than one euro a day. He argues that these squats embrace an anarcho-communist and anti-work philosophy, often freely fixing up new houses, cleaning, patching roofs, installing windows, toilets, showers, lights and kitchens. In the wake of austerity, the squats have provided a number of social services to the surrounding residents, including bicycle repair workshops, carpentry workshops, self-defense classes, free libraries, community gardens, free meals, computer labs, language classes, theatre groups, free medical care and legal support services. The squats help elderly residents avoid eviction and organize various protests throughout Barcelona. Notable squats include Can Vies and Can Masdeu.
Transport
Airports
as seen from the air]]
Barcelona is served by Barcelona-El Prat Airport, about south-west of the centre of Barcelona. It is the second-largest airport in Spain, and the largest on the Mediterranean coast, which handled more than 50.17 million passengers in 2018, showing an annual upward trend. It is a main hub for Vueling Airlines and Ryanair, and also a focus for Iberia and Air Europa. The airport mainly serves domestic and European destinations, although some airlines offer destinations in Latin America, Asia and the United States. The airport is connected to the city by highway, metro (Airport T1 and Airport T2 stations), commuter train (Barcelona Airport railway station) and scheduled bus service. A new terminal (T1) has been built, and entered service on 17 June 2009.
Some low-cost airlines, also use Girona-Costa Brava Airport, about to the north, Reus Airport, to the south, or Lleida-Alguaire Airport, about to the west, of the city. Sabadell Airport is a smaller airport in the nearby town of Sabadell, devoted to pilot training, aerotaxi and private flights.
Seaport
]]
The Port of Barcelona has a 2000-year-old history and a great contemporary commercial importance. It is Europe's ninth largest container port, with a trade volume of 1.72 million TEU's in 2013. The port is managed by the Port Authority of Barcelona. Its are divided into three zones: Port Vell (the old port), the commercial port and the logistics port (Barcelona Free Port). The port is undergoing an enlargement that will double its size thanks to diverting the mouth of the Llobregat river to the south.
in winter]]
The Barcelona harbour is the leading European cruiser port and a very important Mediterranean turnaround base. In 2013, 3.6 million pleasure cruise passengers used the Port of Barcelona.
Metro and regional rail
Barcelona is served by an extensive local public transport network that includes a metro system, a bus network, a regional railway system, trams, funiculars, rack railways, a Gondola lift and aerial cable cars. These networks and lines are run by a number of different operators but they are integrated into a coordinated fare system, administered by the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità (ATM). The system is divided into fare zones (1 to 6) and various Integrated Travel Cards are available.
The Barcelona Metro network comprises twelve lines, identified by an "L" followed by the line number as well as by individual colours. The Metro largely runs underground; eight Metro lines are operated on dedicated track by the Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB), whilst four lines are operated by the (FGC) and some of them share tracks with RENFE commuter lines.
In addition to the city Metro, several regional rail lines operated by RENFE's Rodalies de Catalunya run across the city, providing connections to outlying towns in the surrounding region.
Tram
The city's two modern tram systems, Trambaix and Trambesòs, are operated by TRAMMET. A heritage tram line, the Tramvia Blau, also operates between the metro Line 7 and the Funicular del Tibidabo. Funicular and cable car Barcelona's metro and rail system is supplemented by several aerial cable cars, funiculars and rack railways that provide connections to mountain-top stations. FGC operates the Funicular de Tibidabo up the hill of Tibidabo and the Funicular de Vallvidrera (FGC), while TMB runs the Funicular de Montjuïc up Montjuïc. The city has two aerial cable cars: the Montjuïc Cable Car, which serves Montjuïc castle, and the Port Vell Aerial Tramway that runs via Torre Jaume I and Torre Sant Sebastià over the port. Bus
Buses in Barcelona are a major form of public transport, with extensive local, interurban and night bus networks. Most local services are operated by the TMB, although some other services are operated by a number of private companies, albeit still within the ATM fare structure. There are 21 night lines, 19 of them go through Plaça de Catalunya, where you can change to other lines. The frequency is 15/20 minutes between 22:20 and 06:00. A separate private bus line, known as Aerobús, links the airport with the city centre, with its own fare structure.
The Estació del Nord (Northern Station), a former railway station which was renovated for the 1992 Olympic Games, now serves as the terminus for long-distance and regional bus services.
Taxi
Barcelona has a metered taxi fleet governed by the Institut Metropolità del Taxi (Metropolitan Taxi Institute), composed of more than 10,000 cars. Most of the licences are in the hands of self-employed drivers. With their black and yellow livery, Barcelona's taxis are easily spotted, and can be caught from one of many taxi ranks, hailed on street, called by telephone or via app.
On 22 March 2007, Barcelona's City Council started the Bicing service, a bicycle service understood as a public transport. Once the user has their user card, they can take a bicycle from any of the more than 400 stations spread around the city and use it anywhere the urban area of the city, and then leave it at another station. The service has been a success, with 50,000 subscribed users in three months.
Roads and highways
in Barcelona]]
Barcelona lies on three international routes, including European route E15 that follows the Mediterranean coast, European route E90 to Madrid and Lisbon, and European route E09 to Paris. It is also served by a comprehensive network of motorways and highways throughout the metropolitan area, including A-2, A-7/AP-7, C-16, C-17, C-31, C-32, C-33, C-60.
The city is circled by three half ring roads or bypasses, Ronda de Dalt (B-20) (on the mountain side), Ronda del Litoral (B-10) (along the coast) and Ronda del Mig (separated into two parts: Travessera de Dalt in the north and the Gran Via de Carles III), two partially covered fast highways with several exits that bypass the city.
The city's main arteries include Diagonal Avenue, which crosses it diagonally, Meridiana Avenue which leads to Glòries and connects with Diagonal Avenue and Gran Via de les Corts Catalanes, which crosses the city from east to west, passing through its centre. The famous boulevard of La Rambla, whilst no longer an important vehicular route, remains an important pedestrian route.
Main sights
church, designed by Gaudí]]
]]
The Barri Gòtic (Catalan for "Gothic Quarter") is the centre of the old city of Barcelona. Many of the buildings date from medieval times, some from as far back as the Roman settlement of Barcelona. Catalan modernista architecture (related to the movement known as Art Nouveau in the rest of Europe) developed between 1885 and 1950 and left an important legacy in Barcelona. Several of these buildings are World Heritage Sites. Especially remarkable is the work of architect Antoni Gaudí, which can be seen throughout the city. His best-known work is the immense but still unfinished church of the Sagrada Família, which has been under construction since 1882 and is still financed by private donations. , completion is planned for 2026.
Barcelona was also home to Mies van der Rohe's Barcelona Pavilion. Designed in 1929 for the International Exposition for Germany, it was an iconic building that came to symbolize modern architecture as the embodiment of van der Rohe's aphorisms "less is more" and "God is in the details". The Barcelona pavilion was intended as a temporary structure and was torn down in 1930 less than a year after it was constructed. A modern re-creation by Spanish architects now stands in Barcelona, however, constructed in 1986.
Barcelona won the 1999 RIBA Royal Gold Medal for its architecture, the first (and , only) time that the winner has been a city rather than an individual architect. Barcelona is the home of many points of interest declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO: Historic buildings and monuments
]]
]]
*Minor basilica of Sagrada Família, the symbol of Barcelona.
*Palau de la Música Catalana and Hospital de Sant Pau, designed by Lluís Domènech i Montaner, included in the UNESCO Heritage List in 1997.
*Works by Antoni Gaudí, including Park Güell, Palau Güell, Casa Milà (La Pedrera), Casa Vicens, Sagrada Família (Nativity façade and crypt), Casa Batlló, crypt in Church of Colònia Güell. The first three works were inscribed as a World Heritage Site in 1984. The other four were added as extensions to the site in 2005.
*The Cathedral of the Holy Cross and St. Eulalia (Gothic)
*Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Mar
*Gothic basilica of Santa Maria del Pi
*Romanesque church of Sant Pau del Camp
*Palau Reial Major, medieval residence of the sovereign Counts of Barcelona, later Kings of Aragon
*The Royal Shipyard (gothic)
*Monastery of Pedralbes (gothic)
*The Columbus Monument
*The Arc de Triomf, a triumphal arch built for entrance to 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition.
*Expiatory church of the Sacred Heart of Jesus on the summit of Tibidabo.
*The Historic Building of the University of Barcelona
Museums
stands out for its collection of Romanesque painting.]]
]]
Barcelona has a great number of museums, which cover different areas and eras. The National Museum of Art of Catalonia possesses a well-known collection of Romanesque art, while the Barcelona Museum of Contemporary Art focuses on post-1945 Catalan and Spanish art. The Fundació Joan Miró, Picasso Museum, and Fundació Antoni Tàpies hold important collections of these world-renowned artists, as well as the Can Framis Museum, focused on post-1960 Catalan Art owned by Fundació Vila Casas. Several museums cover the fields of history and archaeology, like the Barcelona City History Museum (MUHBA), the Museum of the History of Catalonia, the Archeology Museum of Catalonia, the Maritime Museum of Barcelona, the Music Museum of Barcelona and the privately owned Egyptian Museum of Barcelona. The Erotic museum of Barcelona is among the most peculiar ones, while CosmoCaixa is a science museum that received the European Museum of the Year Award in 2006.
The Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona was founded in 1882 under the name of "Museo Martorell de Arqueología y Ciencias Naturales" (Spanish for "Martorell Museum of Archaeology and Natural Sciences"). In 2011 the Museum of Natural Sciences ended up with a merge of five institutions: the Museum of Natural Sciences of Barcelona (the main site, at the Forum Building), the Martorell Museum (the historical seat of the Museum, opened to the public from 1924 to 2010 as a geology museum), the Laboratori de Natura'', at the Castle of the Three Dragons (from 1920 to 2010: the Zoology Museum), the Historical Botanical Garden of Barcelona, founded 1930, and the Botanical garden of Barcelona, founded 1999. Those two gardens are a part of the Botanical Institute of Barcelona too.
The FC Barcelona Museum is the third most popular tourist attraction in Catalonia, with 1,51 million visitors in 2013.
Parks
]]
north of La Barceloneta]]
Barcelona contains sixty municipal parks, twelve of which are historic, five of which are thematic (botanical), forty-five of which are urban, and six of which are forest. They range from vest-pocket parks to large recreation areas. The urban parks alone cover 10% of the city (). with a proportion of of park area per inhabitant.
Of Barcelona's parks, Montjuïc is the largest, with 203 ha located on the mountain of the same name, and includes the Botanical Garden of Barcelona, the Mossèn Costa i Llobera Gardens, and more. Also, within the city lies Tibidabo Amusement Park, a smaller amusement park in Plaza del Tibidabo, with the Muntanya Russa amusement ride. Beaches
]]
Barcelona beach was listed as number one in a list of the top ten city beaches in the world according to National Geographic and Discovery Channel. Barcelona contains seven beaches, totalling of coastline. Sant Sebastià, Barceloneta and Somorrostro beaches, both in length,
* Antwerp, Belgium (1997)
* Athens, Greece (1999)
* Boston, United States (1983)
* Busan, South Korea (1983)
* Cologne, Germany (1984)
* Dublin, Ireland (1998)
* Gaza City, Palestine (1998)
* Havana, Cuba (1993)
* Istanbul, Turkey (1997)
* Kobe, Japan (1993)
* Monterrey, Mexico (1977)
* Montevideo, Uruguay (1985)
* Montpellier, France (1963)
* Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1972)
* San Francisco, United States (2010)
* São Paulo, Brazil (1985)
* Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (2000)
* Shanghai, China (2001)
* Tunis, Tunisia (1969)
* Valparaíso, Chile (2001)
;Suspended twin towns / sister cities agreements
* Saint Petersburg, Russia (1985, suspended in 2022)
* Tel Aviv, Israel (1998, suspended in 2023 until Israel agrees to a ceasefire in Gaza) Partnership and friendship Barcelona also cooperates with:<ref nametwins/>
* Amman, Jordan
* Guangzhou, China
* Isfahan, Iran
* Kyoto, Japan
* Lampedusa, Italy
* Lesbos, Greece
* Maputo, Mozambique
* New York City, United States
* Ningbo, China
* Paris, France
* Rosario, Argentina
* Saïda, Algeria
* Seoul, South Korea
* Tétouan, Morocco
* Turin, Italy
Notable people
See also
*Outline of Barcelona
*Architecture of Barcelona
*Urban planning of Barcelona
*Street names in Barcelona
*List of markets in Barcelona
*List of tallest buildings in Barcelona
*Parks and gardens of Barcelona
*Public art in Barcelona
*Mobile World Congress
*OPENCities
References
Citations
Sources
*
*
*Busquets, Joan. Barcelona: The Urban Evolution of a Compact City (Harvard UP, 2006) 468 pp.
*Marshall, Tim, ed. Transforming Barcelona (Routledge, 2004), 267 pp.
*Ramon Resina, Joan. ''Barcelona's Vocation of Modernity: Rise and Decline of an Urban Image'' (Stanford UP, 2008). 272 pp.
External links
*[http://www.barcelona.cat/en/ Official website of Barcelona]
*[http://www.spain.info/en/que-quieres/ciudades-pueblos/grandes-ciudades/barcelona.html Official website of Barcelona in Spain's national tourism portal]
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Category:1st-century BC establishments in Spain
Category:Coloniae (Roman)
Category:Establishments in Spain in the Roman era
Category:Mediterranean port cities and towns in Spain
Category:Populated places in Barcelonès
Category:Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal
Category:Roman sites in Spain
Category:Roman towns and cities in Spain
Category:Populated places established in the 1st century BC
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Bandy
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<br /> England
| contact = Limited<br />(Shouldering allowed but body checking illegal)
| team = 11 field players
| category =
| equipment =
| venue =
| olympic = - Demonstration 1952<br /> - (recognized as a sport by the IOC in 2001)
| paralympic = No
| IWGA = No
}}
Bandy is a winter sport and ball sport played by two teams wearing ice skates on a large ice surface (either indoors or outdoors) while using sticks to direct a ball into the opposing team's goal. The sport also has organized league play and fans in other countries, including Finland, Norway, and Kazakhstan. The premier international bandy competition for men is the Bandy World Championship and for women it is the Women's Bandy World Championship.
Organized bandy started in the late 19th century; however, until 1955, there was no established international governing body for the sport. The international governing body for bandy today is the Federation of International Bandy (FIB) which formed in February 1955. In 2001, bandy was recognized as a sport by the International Olympic Committee (IOC). Both traditional eleven-a-side bandy and rink bandy (which is played on a smaller rink) are recognized by the IOC. Based on the number of participating athletes, the FIB has claimed bandy is the world's second-most participated winter sport after ice hockey, but it is not recorded how many of these participants are male and how many are female.History
's 1565 The Hunters in the Snow ]]
with a bandy stick in 1889]]
Background
The earliest origin of the sport is debated. Though many Russians see their old countrymen as the creators of the sport – reflected by the unofficial title for bandy, "Russian hockey" (русский хоккей) – Russia, Sweden, medieval Iceland, the Netherlands, England, and Wales each had pastimes, such as bando, which can be seen as forerunners of bandy. The mid-eighteenth-century Devonshire Dialogue collection lists Bandy as "a game, like that of Golf, in which the adverse parties endeavour to beat a ball (generally a knob or gnarl from the trunk of a tree,) opposite ways... the stick with which the game is played is crook'd at the end".
The sport's first published set of organized rules was codified in 1882 by Charles Goodman Tebbutt of the Bury Fen Bandy Club. When the international federation was founded in 1955, it came about after a compromise between Russian and English rules, in which more of the English rules prevailed.
Since association football was already popular in England, the codified bandy rules took after much of the football rules. Like association football, games are normally two 45 minute halves and there are 11 players per side. Players sticks are curved like large field hockey sticks and the bandy ball is roughly the size of a tennis ball with a cork core and hard plastic coating. Bandy balls were originally usually red but are now either orange or more commonly cerise.
Early days
Bandy as an ice skating sport first developed in Britain. It developed as a winter sport in the Fens of East Anglia. Large expanses of ice would form on the flooded meadows or shallow washes in cold winters where fen skating, which has been a tradition dating back to at least medieval times, took place. Bandy's early recorded modernization period can be traced back to 1813.
to far right]]
Members of the Bury Fen Bandy Club published rules of the game in 1882, and introduced it into other European countries. A variety of stick and ball games involving ice skating were introduced to North America by the 1800s but failed to organize and develop popular rules codes. However, these stick and ball games became one of the eventual antecedents of the modern sport of ice hockey, whose first rules were codified in Canada in 1875, almost a decade before the rules of modern bandy were established in Britain.
The first international bandy match took place in 1891 between Bury Fen and the Haarlemsche Hockey & Bandy Club from the Netherlands (a club which after a couple of club fusions now is named HC Bloemendaal). The same year, the National Bandy Association was established as a governing body for the sport in England. probably as it was considered an ice variant of field hockey.
An early maker of bandy sticks was the firm of Gray's, Cambridge. One such stick, now in the collections of the Museum of Cambridge, has a length of rope twisted round the handle to rescue any player who might fall through the ice, as the game was played on frozen lakes back then. An 1899 photo of two players demonstrating the game shows the sticks being held single-handed.
Historically, bandy was a popular sport in some central and western European countries until the First World War, and from 1901 to 1926 it was played in the Scandinavian Nordic Games, the first international multi-sport event focused on winter sports.Etymology
featuring bandy ( , "ball hockey")]]
The sport's English name comes from the verb "to bandy", from the Middle French ("to strike back and forth"), and originally referred to a seventeenth-century Irish game similar to field hockey. The curved stick was also called a "bandy". The etymological connection to the similarly named Welsh hockey game of bando is not clear.
An old name for bandy is hockey on the ice; in the first rule books from England at the turn of the century 1900, the sport is literally called "bandy or hockey on the ice". Since the early 20th century, the term bandy is usually preferred to prevent confusion with ice hockey.
The sport is known as bandy in many languages, with a few exceptions. In Russia, bandy is called "Russian hockey" () or more frequently, and officially, "hockey with a ball" () while ice hockey is called "hockey with a puck" () or more frequently just "hockey". If the context makes it clear that bandy is the subject, it as well can be called just "hockey". In Belarusian, Ukrainian and Bulgarian it is also called "hockey with a ball" (, and respectively). In Slovak "bandy hockey" () is the name. In Armenian, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Mongol and Uzbek, bandy is known as "ball hockey" (, , , and respectively). In Finnish the two sports are distinguished as "ice ball" () and "ice puck" (), as well as in Hungarian (), although in Hungarian it is more often called "bandy" nowadays. In Estonian and Lithuanian bandy is also called "ice ball" (; ). In Mandarin Chinese it is "bandy ball" (). In Scottish Gaelic the name is "ice shinty" (). In old times shinty or shinney were also sometimes used in English for bandy.
Historical relationship with other sports
Bandy and association football
With association football and hockey on ice or bandy both being popular sports in parts of Europe around 1900, bandy was highly influenced by football and taking after its main rules: having a field approximately the same size, having the same number of players on each team and having the same game time (2×45 minutes). It is natural that bandy got the nickname 'winter football'. As bandy in a way can be seen as a precursor to ice hockey, bandy has influenced the development and history of ice hockey, mainly in European and former Soviet countries. While modern ice hockey was created in Canada, a variety of games which bore a closer resemblance to bandy were initially played there after British soldiers introduced the game of bandy in the late 19th century. At the same time as modern ice hockey rules were formalized in British North America (present-day Canada), bandy rules were decided upon in Europe. A cross between English and Russian bandy rules eventually developed with the football-inspired English rules (cf the passage above about bandy and Association football) becoming dominant, together with the Russian low-border along most of the two sidelines, an addition to the sport which has maintained its presence since the 1950s.
Before Canadians introduced ice hockey into Europe in the early 20th century, "hockey" was another name for bandy, and still is in parts of Russia and Kazakhstan.
Both bandy and ice hockey were played in Europe during the 20th century, especially in Sweden, Finland, and Norway. Ice hockey became more popular than bandy in most of Europe, mostly because it had become an Olympic sport, while bandy had not. Athletes in Europe who had played bandy switched to ice hockey in the 1920s to compete in the Olympics. The smaller ice fields needed for ice hockey also made its rinks easier to maintain, especially in countries with short winters. On the other hand, ice hockey was not played in the Soviet Union until the 1950s, when the USSR wanted to compete internationally. The typical European style of ice hockey, with flowing, less physical play, represents a heritage of bandy.Modern developmentFirst national bandy leagueThe first national bandy league in modern history was started in Sweden in 1902. Bandy appeared as a sport in all eight editions of the Nordic Games from 1901 to 1926.European Bandy Championships
Some sources describe a 1913 European Bandy Championships as having been held in February 1913, in St. Moritz, Switzerland, at the same time as the bandy tournament at the 1913 Nordic Games. However, this European Championship tournament likely never happened, or is a conflation of titles, since no contemporary sources have been found. Still, in 2014, a Four Nation Bandy tournament was held in Davos, Switzerland, as a centenary celebration of the alleged 1913 European Bandy Championships.
Highest altitude
The highest altitude where bandy has been played is in Khorugh, the capital of the Tajik autonomous province of Gorno-Badakhshan. Khorugh is situated above sea level in the Pamir Mountains.
World Championships and Russian performance
Since the 1950s, when the Soviet Union ended its isolation and started to take part in international sports events, there has been a reason to play world championships. The International Bandy Federation was founded in 1955 and the first world championships were played in 1957 with the Soviet Union and then Russia (as its successor country in 1993) almost consistently in a top position in the sport of bandy alongside Sweden. Finland has won once, in 2004.
In a similar fashion, Russia, along with Sweden, has emerged as one of the two dominant women's bandy nations internationally in the Women's Bandy World Championship.
Women's bandy
Women's bandy uses the exact same rules as men, but the women's game is played separately. Women have been playing bandy since the sport was originally developed. Although there were several attempts in the early part of the 19th century to organize bandy leagues for women's teams, regular leagues only started in the 1970s in Sweden and Finland and then later in the 1980s in Norway and the Soviet Union.Bandy moving indoorsStarting in the 1980s and increasingly since the turn of the millennium, more and more indoor arenas for bandy have been built (often as joint arenas to be used also for football or speed skating). The use of indoor arenas makes the effects of the weather on a game virtually insignificant, something which earlier always have been a factor to consider for the teams and the audiences. However, unlike some other sports, bandy is still the same game with the same rules indoors or outdoors and no changes are made to the rules depending on whether there's a roof overhead or not. Many games, even in the highest leagues, are still played outdoors. In Sweden there are more indoor arenas than in all other countries combined.OverviewBandy is played on ice, using a single round bandy ball. Two teams of 11 players each compete to get the ball into the other team's goal using bandy sticks, thereby scoring a goal. The team that has scored more goals at the end of the game is the winner. If both teams have scored an equal number of goals, then, with some exceptions, the game is a draw. The offside rule, which in general is similar to the one used in football, is also employed. All free strokes are "direct" and allow a goal to be scored without another player touching the ball. A primary rule is that players (other than the goalkeepers) may not intentionally touch the ball with their heads, hands or arms during play. Although players usually use their sticks to move the ball around, they may use any part of their bodies other than their heads, hands or arms and may use their skates in a limited manner.
The rules do not specify any player positions other than goalkeeper,
Though there are a variety of positions in which the outfield (non-goalkeeper) players are strategically placed by a coach, these positions are not defined or required by the rules of the game.
Duration and tie-breaking measures
A standard adult bandy match consists of two periods of 45 minutes each, known as halves. Each half runs continuously, meaning the clock is not stopped when the ball is out of play; the referee can, however, make allowance for time lost through significant stoppages as described below. There is usually a 15-minute half-time break. The end of the match is known as full-time.
Bandy field
A bandy field is by , a total of , or about the same size as a football pitch and considerably larger than an ice hockey rink, which is by . Along the sidelines a high border (vant, sarg, wand, wall) is placed to prevent the ball from leaving the ice. It should not be attached to the ice, to glide upon collisions, and should end away from the corners.
Centered at each shortline is a wide and high goal cage and in front of the cage is a half-circular penalty area with a radius. A penalty spot is located in front of the goal and there are two free-stroke spots at the penalty area line, each surrounded by a circle.
A centre spot with a circle of radius denotes the center of the field. A centre-line is drawn through the centre spot parallel with the shortlines.
At each of the corners, a radius quarter-circle is drawn, and a dotted line is painted parallel to the shortline and away from it without extending into the penalty area. The dotted line can be replaced with a long line starting at the edge of the penalty area and extending towards the sideline, from the shortline. The name of the federation was changed to the present one in 2001 after the International Olympic Committee approved it as a so-called "recognized sport". The abbreviation "IBF" was at the time already used by another recognized sports federation, and IOC considers it important that the official abbreviations of sports federations are unique, so that the federations are not mistaken for one another.
In 2004, FIB was fully accepted by IOC. FIB is now a member of Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations.
World Championships
in the men's World Championships 2012]]
and 2017. Blue means Division A countries, red Division B countries as of the 2017 tournament and green the other FIB members. Latvia, which was relegated from Division A in 2016, made a late cancellation in 2017.]]
Men
The Bandy World Championship for men is arranged by the FIB and was first held in 1957. It was held every two years starting in 1961, and every year since 2003.
Currently, the record number of countries participating in the World Championships is twenty (2019). Since the number of countries playing bandy is not large, every country which can set up a team is welcome to take part in the World Championship. The quality of the teams varies; however, with only six nations, Sweden, the Soviet Union, Russia, Finland, Norway, and Kazakhstan, having won medals (allowing for the fact that Russia's team took over from the Soviet Union in 1993). Finland won the 2004 world championship in Västerås, Sweden, while all other championships have been won by Sweden, the Soviet Union and Russia.
The Soviet Union won all championships until 1981, when Sweden managed to break the streak of eleven straight gold medals. Sweden won again in the next tournament in 1983, but Soviet again seized the victory in 1985. The Soviet Union also won at its last two appearances, and then Sweden won in 1993, 1995 and 1997. Russia, having taken over after the Soviet Union, and Sweden have kept on winning all championships between them except for 2004, when Finland managed to claim the win.
In 2020, the B division of the World Championship was played, but the A division – which was to be played about a month later – was first postponed a couple of times due to the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and later moved to the next year as the pandemic did not end. The championship tournament could however not be played in 2021 either. In 2022, the championship was finally to be held, but since it was scheduled to be played in Russia, many national federations said they did not want to participate because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and it was cancelled by the FIB since this meant there would have been too few competing teams.
Women
in Lappeenranta]]
The first World Championship for women took place in February 2004 in Lappeenranta, Finland. Sweden won the championship without conceding a goal. In the 2014 women's World Championship Russia won for the first time, defeating Sweden, making it the first time Sweden did not win the world title. In 2016 Sweden took the title back.
The 2018 women's tournament was played in a country situated completely in Asia for the first time, when it was hosted in Chengde, China. It was the same for the men's tournament that same year (the area north and west of the Ural River is located in Europe, thus Kazakhstan, which had hosted a world championship before, is a transcontinental country), when Harbin hosted the 2018 Division B tournament.
The 2020 championship saw China withdraw its participation due to the COVID-19 pandemic, but the tournament was held in Norway in February and the pandemic had not yet reached Europe. In 2022 when the championship was played in Sweden, China did not yet return, while Russia and Ukraine both withdrew because of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Youth
There are also Youth Bandy World Championships in different age groups for boys and young men and in one age group for girls. The oldest group is the under 23 championship, Bandy World Championship Y-23.
Olympic Movement
During most of the 20th century, a host nation for Olympic Games had the right to arrange demonstration games for almost any sport of its own choosing. In 1952, the Winter Olympic Games were arranged in Oslo, Norway, and the Norwegians presented bandy as a demonstration sport. The tournament of bandy at the 1952 Winter Olympics was played by three countries, Norway, Finland and Sweden. This is the only time bandy has been played at Olympic Games.
Bandy was officially recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) under the Association of IOC Recognised International Sports Federations (ARISF) in 2004, and was played as a demonstration sport at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo. However, it has yet to officially be played at the Olympics.
According to the FIB, bandy is the world's second-most participated winter sport after ice hockey based on the number of participating athletes.
In addition, the Olympic Charter requires a sport to be widely practiced by men in at least 75 countries and on four continents, and by women in no fewer than 40 countries and on three continents in order to be accepted.
FIB president Boris Skrynnik lobbied for bandy to be included in the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, given Russia's prominence in the sport. Members of the Chinese Olympic Committee were present at the 2017 world championships to meet with Skrynnik about the possibility of considering the sport for the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing. However, in 2018 it was announced no new sports would be added for 2022.
Asian Winter Games
at Medeu between Kazakhstan and Mongolia]]
At the 2011 Asian Winter Games, open to members of the Olympic Council of Asia, men's bandy was included for the first time. Three teams contested the inaugural competition, and Kazakhstan won the gold medal. The President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, attended the final.
There was no bandy competition at the next Games, the 2017 Asian Winter Games held in Japan.
Winter Universiade/Winter World University Games
Bandy made its debut at the Winter Universiade during the 2019 Games in Krasonyarsk, Russia. Originally a six-team tournament for men and a four-team tournament for women were planned to be held. However, later China withdrew from the men's tournament and was supposed to be replaced by Belarus. Since that did not happen either, participating teams among women were Russia, Sweden, Norway and the United States, while among men Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Kazakhstan.
In 2019, the International University Sports Federation expected bandy to be a part of the 2023 Winter World University Games (Winter World University Games being the new name of the Winter Universiade) too, however, this did not turn out to be so, as the hosts in Lake Placid, USA, did not included it in its schedules and no bandy teams were invited to the games.World CupThe World Championships should not be confused with the annual Bandy World Cup competitions. The World Cup is for club teams.Men
The Bandy World Cup for men in Ljusdal, Sweden, has been played annually since the 1970s and is the biggest bandy tournament for elite-level club teams. It is played indoors in Sandviken since 2009 because Ljusdal has no indoor arena. It is expected to return to Ljusdal once an indoor arena has been built. World Cup matches are played day and night, and the tournament is played in four days in late October. The teams participating are mostly, and some years exclusively, from Sweden and Russia, which has the two best leagues in the world.
The COVID-19 pandemic led to the Cup being cancelled in 2020 and 2021.
Women
There is also a club competition for women's bandy teams called Bandy World Cup Women. Its inaugural year was in 2007.
European Cup
The European Cup was first played in 1974 and was a competition featuring the national men's champion team from any European country which had a national bandy championship. This meant, at the time, that only four teams competed every year, which were the men's champions from Finland, Norway, the Soviet Union, and Sweden. After the Soviet Union had been dissolved in 1991, the Russian champions took part instead. The cup is not formally defunct, but the last installment was played in 2009.
4 Nations Tournament
The Federation of International Bandy usually arranges a four nations tournament every year between national teams from Norway, Finland, Russia and Sweden. The 2022 tournament was originally set for 21–23 January, but was cancelled after the Swedish Bandy Association announced they would not be hosting it for that season.
Rossiya Tournament (Russian Government Cup)
During the period 1972–1990, the Rossiya Tournament was held semi-annually for national teams in the years when there was no world championship. This tournament was always played in the Soviet Union and arranged by the newspaper Sovetskaya Rossiya. It was affectionately called "the small world championship". From 1992 the tournament was renamed Russian Government Cup. The last instalment was played in 2012.
Overview of international competitions
There are several existing international bandy competitions with events varying based upon age, competitive level, and sex.
Senior
{|classwikitable style"text-align:center; font-size:90%;"
|-
!colspan4 width:5%" style"background:silver; |Senior competition (adult)
|-
!Sex
!width1% rowspan7 bgcolor=ffffff|
!Event
!Age
|-
|rowspan2 stylebackground:#CEE0F2|Men's competition
|style=background:#CEE0F2|Bandy World Championship<br />(international)
|style=background:#CEE0F2|Men's International<br />(adult)
|-
|style=background:#CEE0F2|Bandy World Cup<br />(club)
|style=background:#CEE0F2|Men's Club<br />(adult)
|-
|rowspan4 stylebackground:pink|Women's competition
|style=background:pink|Women's Bandy World Championship<br />(international)
|style=background:pink|Women's International<br />(adult)
|-
|style=background:pink|Bandy World Cup Women<br />(club)
|style=background:pink|Women's Club<br />(adult)
|-
|-
|}
Junior
{|classwikitable style"text-align:center; font-size:90%;"
|-
!colspan4 width:5%" style"background:silver; |Youth and Under 23 competition (youth/young adult)
|-
!Sex
!width1% rowspan7 bgcolor=ffffff|
!Event
!Age
|-
|-
|rowspan5 stylebackground:#CEE0F2|Youth Bandy World Championship <br /> Young men's competition
|-style=background:#CEE0F2
| World Championship Y15
|Boys under 15
|-
|-style=background:#CEE0F2
|World Championship Y17
|Boys under 17
|-
|-style=background:#CEE0F2
|World Championship Y19
|Boys under 19
|-
|-style=background:#CEE0F2
|World Championship Y21/Y23
|Young men under 23
|-
|rowspan1 stylebackground:pink|Youth Bandy World Championship <br /> Young women's competition
|style=background:pink|Bandy World Championship G-17<br />a.k.a. F17 WC
|style=background:pink|Girls under 17
|}
Variants of bandy and sports developed from bandy
7-a-side bandy
Varieties of bandy exist, utilising the same rules only with slight differences, like seven-a-side bandy with regulation sized goal cages but without corner strokes and often on a smaller sized rink. Seven-a-side bandy was popular in central Europe and in England in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, while eleven-a-side bandy was preferred in the Nordic countries and in Russia. Seven-a-side bandy rules were applied at the Davos Cup in 2016.
Rink bandy
Rink bandy is a bandy variant played on an ice hockey-size rink. It was originally conceived as a way of practicing bandy in the summertime, when there were no bandy sized indoor rinks but ice hockey rinks had started to be built indoors. Rink bandy is played by basically the same rules as regular bandy but on a playing surface the size of an ice hockey rink with ice hockey goal cages and six players on each team (or five in the case of the USA Rink Bandy League).
There have been international competitions for rink bandy played by the best bandy players in the 1980s and 1990s, both for club teams and for national teams, there were world championships in rink bandy in those days and the Hofors World Cup for clubs was played annually from 1984 to 1998. When more indoor bandy rinks have been built, rink bandy has more become a sport for lower league teams and recreational play.
Rink bandy was played in the 2012 European Company Sports Games program.
Some member nations of the Federation of International Bandy, which is the international governing body for rink bandy as well as bandy, do not have regulation sized bandy surfaces which are larger than the more common ice hockey ice rink and therefore only play rink bandy at home; this includes most of the World Championships Group B participants.
Short bandy
In Czechia, the national federation has developed its own version of rink bandy with somewhat different rules, which is meant to help the players transition to playing on a full-sized bandy rink. This is called short bandy.
Czechia has been playing in the World Championship since 2016. As a way of preparing as well as possible for international matches, the Czechs have invented modified rules for games on ice hockey rinks, a variety called short bandy, which differs from rink bandy. The Czech (former rink bandy) national league is now called Liga českého národního bandy.EstoniaBandy as an organized sport was played in Estonia in the 1910s to 1930s and the country had a national championship for some years. The national team played friendlies against Finland in the 1920s and 1930s. The sport was played sporadically during the Soviet occupation 1944–1991. It has since then become more organized again, partly through exchange with Finnish clubs and enthusiasts. As of 2018, Estonia takes part in both the Bandy World Championship for men, and the Women's Bandy World Championship.Finland
Bandy as an organized sport was introduced to Finland from Russia in the 1890s. Finland has been playing bandy friendlies against Sweden and Estonia since its independence in 1917.
The first men's Finnish national championships were held in 1908 and was the first national Finnish championship held in any team sport. National champions have been named every year except for three years in the first half of the 20th century when Finland was at war. The top national league is called Bandyliiga and is semi-professional. The best players turn fully professional by being recruited by clubs in Sweden or Russia. As of the 2020–21 season, Bandyliiga consisted of the following teams: Akilles, Botnia-69, HIFK, JPS, Kampparit, Narukerä, OLS, Veiterä and WP 35.
Finland was an original member of the Federation of International Bandy and is the only country besides Russia/Soviet Union and Sweden to have won a Bandy World Championship, which it did in 2004.
The Federation of International Bandy (FIB) is planning for a major premiere for indoor bandy in Finland in 2023 with the venue taking place at an indoor arena in Lappeenranta. When the arena is ready, an international inauguration is to take place with a 4-nation bandy tournament. Participants will include teams from Russia, Sweden, Norway and Finland. The tournament is scheduled for 20–22 January 2023.
Germany
between LSC and Berliner Schlittschuh-Klub 1909]]
Bandy was played in Germany in the early 20th century, including by Crown Prince Wilhelm, but the interest died out in favour of ice hockey. The Leipziger Sportclub, which arguably had the best team, was also the last club to give bandy up. The sport was reintroduced to Germany in the 2010s, with the German Bandy Federation being founded in 2013. Germany has been participating in the Bandy World Championship, a competition for male competitors, since 2014.India
Bandy is being played in northern parts of India close to the Himalayas, where there is usually cold weather and snow in the winter time. A national championship is contested every year, but India has yet to send a national team to the World Championships or any other international competition.
Kazakhstan
, captain of the Kazakhstan national bandy team|thumb]]
Bandy has a long history in many parts of Kazakhstan and it used to be one of the most popular sports in Soviet times. However, after independence it suffered a rapid decline in popularity and only remained in Oral (often called by the Russian name, "Uralsk"), where the country's only professional club Akzhaiyk is located. They presently compete in the Russian second tier division, the Russian Bandy Supreme League.
Recently bandy has started to gain popularity again outside of Oral, most notably in Petropavl and Khromtau. Those were for example the three Kazakh cities which had players in the team at the Youth-17, Youth Bandy World Championship for boys in 2016. The capital Astana has hosted national youth championships in rink bandy as well as championships in traditional eleven-a-side bandy.
In recent years the former capital Almaty has hosted both the Asian Winter Games (with bandy on the program) as well as the Bandy World Championship for men in which Kazakhstan finished 3rd. Plans are being made to reinvigorate the bandy section of the club Dynamo Almaty, who won the Soviet Championships in 1977 and 1990 as well as the European Cup in 1978. Almaty is also the home of the headquarters of the Asian Bandy Federation. Since bandy began regaining popularity and acceptance, the state has begun supporting bandy. Medeu in Almaty is the only arena with artificial ice. A second arena in Almaty was built for the World Championship 2012, but it was taken down afterwards. Stadion Yunost in Oral was supposed to get artificial ice for the 2017–18 season. It got delayed but in 2018 it was officially ready for use.
Mongolia
The national team took a silver medal at the 2011 Asian Winter Games, which led to being chosen as the best Mongolian sport team of 2011. Mongolia was proud to win the bronze medal of the B division at the 2017 Bandy World Championship after which the President of Mongolia, Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj, held a reception for the team.
Netherlands
introduced bandy to the Netherlands.]]
Bandy as an organized sport was introduced to the Netherlands in the 1890s by Pim Mulier and the sport became popular. However, in the 1920s, the interest turned to ice hockey, but in contrast to other countries in central and western Europe, the sport has been continuously played in the Netherlands and since the 1970s, the country has become a member of FIB and games have been more formalised again. The national team started to compete at the WCS in 1991. However, without a proper venue, only rink bandy is played within the country. The national governing body is the Bandy Bond Nederland.
Norway
celebrating the bronze medal in WCS 2006]]
Bandy as an organized sport was introduced to Norway in the 1910s. The Swedes contributed largely and clubs sprang up around the capital of Kristiania (present day Oslo). Oslo, including neighbouring towns, is in the twenty-first century still the region where bandy enjoys most popularity in Norway.
In 1912 the Norwegians played their first National Championship, which was played annually up to 1940. During World War II, when Norway was occupied by Germany, illegal bandy was played in hidden places in forests, on ponds and lakes. In 1943, 1944 and 1945, illegal championships were held. In 1946 legal play resumed and still goes on in form of the Norwegian Bandy Premier League (Eliteserien). After World War II the number of teams rose, as well as attendance which regularly were in the thousands, but mild winters in the 1970s and 1980s shrunk the league, and in 2003 only five clubs (teams) fought out the 1st division with low attendance numbers and little media coverage. As of 2021 there are 10 teams in the Norwegian Bandy Premier League.
Norway's best result in the World Championship is a second place in 1965.
Norwegian Championship
The Norwegian bandy champion is decided each year by a play-off among the best teams in the Norwegian Bandy Premier League. The first Norwegian bandy champions was decided in 1912 and the championship has been held almost every year since. Until 1928, the championship was played as 7-a-side bandy.
Russia
in Arkhangelsk]]
In Russia bandy is known as hockey with a ball or simply Russian hockey. A similar game became popular among the Russian nobility in the early 1700s, with the imperial court of Peter the Great playing a predecessor of modern bandy on Saint Petersburg's frozen Neva river. Russians initially played this game using ordinary footwear with sticks made out of juniper wood, but it wasn't until later that ice skates were introduced. Bandy did not become popular among the masses throughout the Russian Empire until the second half of the 19th century. The predecessor of the current Russian Bandy Federation was founded in 1898. Bandy is considered a national sport in Russia and is the only discipline to have official support of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Traditionally the Russians used a longer skate blade than other nations, giving them the advantage of skating faster. However, they would find it more difficult to turn quickly. A bandy skate has a longer blade than an ice hockey skate, and the "Russian skate" is even longer.
Though bandy was still played in the Soviet Union after the Russian Revolution, they did not partake in any international games for many decades. While agreements had previously been made to play friendlies against Sweden in the late 1940s, these plans had not come to fruition. The bandy event at the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo, Norway where men's bandy featured as a demonstration sport, was played without any Soviet team. However, the Soviets reconsidered their position following this competition.
When the Federation of International Bandy was formed in 1955, with the Soviet Union as one of its founding members, the Russians largely adopted the international rules of the game developed in England in the 19th century, with one notable exception. The other countries adopted the border which until then had only been used in Russia.
Since the 1950s, when the Soviet Union ended its isolation and started to take part in international sports events, the Soviet Union and then Russia (as its successor country in 1991) has consistently held a top position in the sport of bandy, both as a founding nation of the International Federation in 1955, and fielding the most successful team in the Bandy World Championship, the premiere international competition for men, (when counting the previous Soviet Union team and Russia together).
The men's Russian professional bandy league is called the Russian Bandy Super League. The Russian Bandy Supreme League is the second tier of men's Russian bandy, below the Russian Bandy Super League. In Sweden, the Elitserien (literally, the "Elite League") is the highest bandy league in the country for men, while Bandyallsvenskan is the second division. In Finland, the highest bandy league for men is the Bandyliiga.
In a similar fashion, Russia, along with Sweden, has emerged as one of the two dominant women's bandy nations internationally, regularly placing first or second at the premier international bandy competition for women, the Women's Bandy World Championship.
After the victory in the 2016 World Championship, the fourth in a row, President Vladimir Putin received four players of the national team, Head Coach and Vice-President of the Russian Bandy Federation Sergey Myaus, the Russian Bandy Federation as well as Federation of International Bandy President Boris Skrynnik in The Kremlin. He talked, among other things, about the need to give more support to Russian bandy. It was the first time a head of state had accepted a meeting to talk about Russian bandy. Attending the meeting were also Minister of Sport, Tourism and Youth policy Vitaly Mutko and presidential adviser Igor Levitin. The month after, Igor Levitin held a follow-up meeting.
Russian Championship
The men's Russian professional bandy league is called the Russian Bandy Super League. The Russian Bandy Supreme League is the second tier of men's Russian bandy, below the Russian Bandy Super League.
The Russian Bandy Super League is the top tier of the Russian bandy league system. It is professional and played every year. The winner in the final becomes Russian champion. It is considered a continuation of the Soviet Union championship, which was played annually until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Russian Cup
The Russian Cup has been played annually most years since 1937, originally called the Soviet Cup.
Sweden
introduced bandy to Sweden.]]
Bandy as an organized sport was introduced to Sweden in 1895. The Swedish royal family, noblemen and diplomats were among the first players. While the original inspiration mainly came from England, there also were early exchanges with Germany and Russia. Bandy was taken up as one of the sports at the international Nordic Games held in Sweden semi-annually from 1901. Swedish championships for men have been played annually since 1907 and Sweden was the first country to have an annual bandy league.
In the 1920s students played the game, then it spread across the country and became a largely middle-class sport. The games could attract huge crowds of spectators in those days. After Slottsbrons IF won the Swedish championship in 1934 it became popular amongst workers in many smaller industrial towns and villages. Where there was a bandy club the local factory corporation also usually sponsored the club to mutual benefit as a successful team led to good PR for the company. Bandy remains the main sport in many of these places.
Bandy in Sweden is famous for its "culture" where both playing bandy and being a spectator requires great fortitude and dedication. A "" is the classic accessory for spectating and is typically made of brown leather, well worn, and contains a warm drink in a thermos and/or a bottle of liquor. Bandy is most often played at outdoor arenas during winter time, so the need for spectators to carry flasks or thermoses of 'warming' liquid like glögg is a natural effect. With the sport moving indoors in recent decades and the arenas urging for non-alcoholic policies for the audiences, this tradition has partly changed, though not without opposition.
in Uppsala, Sweden]]
raises the Swedish Championship trophy for women after their victory against Skutskär in 2020.]]
A notable tradition is "annandagsbandy", bandy games played on Saint Stephen's Day (annandagen ’the second day [of Christmas]’), which for many Swedes is an important Christmas season tradition and always draws bigger crowds than usual. Games traditionally begin at 1:15 pm.Swedish Championship
In Sweden, the Elitserien (literally, the "Elite League") is the highest bandy league in the country for men, while Bandyallsvenskan is the second division. The Elite League is the top tier of Swedish bandy and is fully professional. At the end of the season, a play-off is made to make out the two teams playing the final match for the Swedish Championship. The Final is played every year on the third Saturday of March. From 1991 to 2012, it was played at Studenternas Idrottsplats in Uppsala, often drawing crowds in excess of 20,000. One reason the play-off match was set in Uppsala is because of IFK Uppsala's success at the beginning of the 20th century. IFK Uppsala won 11 titles in the Swedish Championships between 1907 and 1920, which made them the most successful bandy club in the entire country (now, however, the record is held by Västerås SK). A contributing factor was also the poor quality of the ice at Söderstadion, where the finals were held from 1967 to 1989.
In 2013 and 2014 the final was played indoors in Friends Arena, the national stadium for football in Solna, Stockholm, with a retractable roof and a capacity of 50,000. The first final at Friends Arena in 2013 drew a record crowd of 38,474 when Hammarby IF Bandy, after ending up in second place in six finals during the 2000s, won their second title. Due to declining attendance from 2015 through 2017 Tele2 Arena in southern Stockholm was chosen as a new venue. However, the new indoor venue failed to attract much more than half of the total capacity. In May 2017 it was announced that the finals will again be held at Studenternas IP in Uppsala from 2018 through at least 2021.
Svenska Cupen (The Swedish Cup)
The Svenska Cupen (), Svenska Cupen i bandy, takes place exclusively in Sweden. It is a single-elimination tournament competition in Swedish bandy and the second-most prominent bandy competition which is open only to domestic Swedish teams, after the national championship. Its inaugural year was 2005. The first women's competition was played in 2019.SwitzerlandIn the late nineteenth and early 20th century, Switzerland had become a popular place for winter vacations and people went there from all over Europe. Winter sports like skiing, sledding and bandy was played in Geneva and other towns. Students from Oxford and Cambridge went to Switzerland to play each other – the predecessor of the recurring Ice Hockey Varsity Match was a bandy match played in St. Moritz in 1885. This popularity for Swiss venues of winter sport may have been a reason, the European Championship was held there in 1913.
Bandy has mainly been played as a recreational sport in Switzerland in the 2000s and 2010s. A Swiss men's national team was finally started up in 2017 and a Swiss women's national team made its international début in the 2018 Women's Bandy World Championship.
Ukraine
Bandy was played in Ukraine when it was part of the Soviet Union. After independence in 1991, it took some years before organized bandy formed again, but Ukrainian champions have been named annually since 2012.
United Kingdom
, an English bandy team in 1913]]
The first recorded games of what may be considered bandy on ice took place in The Fens during the great frost of 1813–1814, although it is probable that the game had already been played there in the previous century. Bury Fen Bandy Club from Bluntisham-cum-Earith, near St Ives, was the most successful team, said to have remained unbeaten for a hundred years until the winter of 1890–1891. Charles Goodman Tebbutt of the Bury Fen Bandy Club was responsible for the first published rules of bandy in 1882, and also for introducing the game into the Netherlands and Sweden, as well as elsewhere in England where it became popular with cricket, rowing, and hockey clubs. Tebbutt's homemade bandy stick can be seen in the Norris Museum in St Ives.
The first Ice Hockey Varsity Matches between Oxford University and Cambridge University were played to bandy rules, even if it was called hockey on the ice at the time.
It is sometimes claimed that a national team for England won the European Bandy Championships in 1913, but that tournament likely never took place. While bandy is often thought to have been a popular sport in England in the decades around 1900, few records seem to have been kept.
A statue of a bandy player, designed by Peter Baker, was erected at the village pond of Earith to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the first documented game in 2013.
In March 2004, Norwegian ex-player Edgar Malman invited two big clubs to play a rink bandy exhibition game in Streatham, London. Russian Champions and World Cup Winner Vodnik met Swedish Champions Edsbyns IF in a match that ended 10–10. In 2010 England became a Federation of International Bandy member. The national federation is based in Cambridgeshire, the historical heartland.
The England Bandy Federation, was set up on 2 January 2017 at a meeting held in the historic old skaters public house, the Lamb and Flag in Welney in Norfolk, England, replacing the Bandy Federation of England which had been founded in 2010 but had had dwindling activity. In September 2017, the federation decided to widen its territory to all of the United Kingdom and changed its name to Great Britain Bandy Association. Great Britain entered a national team in the 2019 World Championships Group B in January and undefeated up to the final, won the silver medal in their final match against Estonia. They were set to return to the 2020 World Championships, but were refused visas to Russia. Since then they have not participated. However, the comeback will come in 2025.
In 2022, Great Britain premiered its national women's bandy team at the 2022 Women's Bandy World Championship.
United States
Bandy in its original, informal manner disappeared from the North American continent entirely once it and elements from the early game had become absorbed into a new sport of ice hockey. While ice hockey was growing and organizing in the United States, bandy was doing the same, but only in Europe and Scandinavia. It would not arrive in its organized format in the United States until the 1970s, after its promotion by Russians, Swedes and Finns in an exchange with softball, a sport which was promoted by Americans during the same time in the Soviet Union, Sweden and Finland. A key-person in the establishment of the sport in America was Bob Kojetin of Minnesota Softball. The sport is centered in Minnesota, with very few teams based elsewhere. The United States national bandy team has participated in the Bandy World Championships since 1985 and is also regularly playing friendly matches against Canada. The leading organization for bandy in the US is USA Bandy. The US has a men's national bandy team and a women's national bandy team.
The first bandy game in the US was played in December 1979 at the Lewis Park Bandy Rink in Edina, Minnesota. It was a friendly game between the Swedish junior national team and Swedish club team Brobergs IF.
United States bandy championships have been played annually since the early 1980s, but the sport is not widely covered by American sports media. The championship trophy is called the Gunnar Cup, named after Gunnar Fast, a Swedish army captain who helped introduce bandy to the United States around 1980.
Playing surfaces
While North American ice hockey rinks can be used for playing the bandy variant of rink bandy, places where the traditional game of bandy can be played require a larger sized playing surface, a bandy field, and are almost non-existent in North America. Minnesota is home to the only regulation sized bandy "rink" in North America, the Guidant John Rose Minnesota Oval, commonly referred to as, "The Oval", and is also the largest outdoor refrigerated skating rink in North America. The rink is 10,219 square meters with more than 800 tons of refrigeration and 135 km of pipes underneath the ice. The ice can be maintained in temperatures up to +10 degrees Celsius. The Oval can hold up to 300 spectators and has hosted World Cup Speedskating, the 2016 Women's Bandy World Championship, and Aggressive Skating/Biking competitions. The Oval is used mostly for inline hockey during the summer.
National bandy federations
The following associations are the governing bodies for bandy in different countries and are member organizations of the Federation of International Bandy.
* Belarus – Беларуская федэрацыя хакея з мячaм (Belarusian Bandy Federation)
* Canada – Canada Bandy
* People's Republic of China – China Bandy Federation
* Colombia – Colombia Federation of Skating Sports
* Czech Republic – Czech Association of Bandy
* Estonia – Eesti Jääpalliliit (Estonian Bandy Association)
* Finland – Finland's Bandy Association
* Germany – German Bandy Federation
* Hungary – Hungarian Bandy Federation
* India – Bandy Federation of India
* Italy – Federazione Italiana Bandy
* Japan – Japan Bandy Federation
* Kazakhstan – Kazakhstan Bandy Federation
* Kyrgyzstan – Bandy Federation of Kyrgyzstan
* Latvia – Latvijas Bendija Federācija
* Mongolia – Bandy Federation of Mongolia
* Netherlands – Bandy Bond Nederland.
* Norway – Norges Bandyforbund
* Russia – Федерация хоккея с мячом России (Russian Bandy Federation)
* Somalia – Somali National Bandy Association
* Sweden – Svenska Bandyförbundet
* Switzerland – Federation of Swiss Bandy
* Ukraine – Українськa Федерація хокею з м'ячем та рінк-бенді (Ukrainian Bandy and Rink bandy Federation)
* United Kingdom – Great Britain Bandy Association
* United States – American Bandy Association
See also
* Bandy World Championship
* Women's Bandy World Championship
* Rink bandy
* Bando
* Rinkball
* Pond hockey
* Ice hockey
* Ringette
References
Bibliography
* The Earl of Suffolk and Berkshire Hedley Park and Aflalo, F.G. Bandy (includes definition and rules), pp. 71–72, 1897. Published by Lawrence & Bullen, Ltd., 16 Henrietta St., Covent Garden, London.
External links
* – history and rules of bandy
* [http://www.worldbandy.com/ Federation of International Bandy]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184905/http://www.bandysidan.nu/links/?sprak=eng Bandysidan links] – one of the most extensive link directories about bandy
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/29/sports/olympics/29bandy.html Klein, Jeff Z. "It's Not Hockey, It's Bandy", The New York Times, Friday, 29 January 2010.]
* [http://www.goalwire.com/en/statistics_and_tables/bandy/ Goalwire statistics for bandy]
*
Category:Ball games
Category:Former Winter Olympic sports
Category:Ice skating sports
Category:Sports originating in England
Category:Sports originating in Russia
Category:Team sports
Category:Stick sports
Category:Variations of hockey
Category:1875 introductions
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Bob Frankston
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| birth_place = Brooklyn, New York, U.S.
| alma_mater = Massachusetts Institute of Technology (SB, MEng)
| known_for = Co-creator of VisiCalc
}}
Robert M. Frankston (born June 14, 1949) is an American software engineer and businessman who co-created, with Dan Bricklin, the VisiCalc spreadsheet program. Frankston is also the co-founder of Software Arts.Early life and educationFrankston was born and raised in Brooklyn, New York. He graduated from Stuyvesant High School in New York City in 1966. He earned a S.B degree in computer science and mathematics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, followed by a Master of Engineering degree in computer science, also from MIT.CareerFollowing his work with Dan Bricklin, Frankston later worked at Lotus Development Corporation and Microsoft.
Frankston became an outspoken advocate for reducing the role of telecommunications companies in the evolution of the Internet, particularly with respect to broadband and mobile communications. He coined the term "Regulatorium" to describe what he considers collusion between telecommunication companies and their regulators that prevents change.
Awards and recognition
*Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery (1994) "for the invention of VisiCalc, a new metaphor for data manipulation that galvanized the personal computing industry"
* MIT William L. Stewart Award for co-founding the M.I.T. Student Information Processing Board (SIPB).
* The Association for Computing Machinery Software System Award (1985)
* The MIT LCS Industrial Achievement Award
* The Washington Award (2001) from the Western Society of Engineers (with Bricklin)
* In 2004, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for advancing the utility of personal computers by developing the VisiCalc electronic spreadsheet."ReferencesExternal links
*[http://www.frankston.com Bob Frankston's site/blog]
*[http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?articlearticles/archive/r0605/29r05/29r05.asp&guid Biographical article] from Smart Computing
*
Category:Stuyvesant High School alumni
Category:1949 births
Category:Living people
Category:Businesspeople from Brooklyn
Category:1994 fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Category:People from Arlington, Massachusetts
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Frankston
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Booker Prize
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| country | location Somerset House, Strand, London, England
| year =
| year2 | website
| imagesize = 150px
}}
The Booker Prize, formerly the Booker Prize for Fiction (1969–2001) and the Man Booker Prize (2002–2019), is a prestigious literary award conferred each year for the best single work of sustained fiction written in the English language, which was published in the United Kingdom or Ireland. The winner of the Booker Prize receives , as well as international publicity that usually leads to a significant sales boost. When the prize was created, only novels written by Commonwealth, Irish, and South African (and later Zimbabwean) citizens were eligible to receive the prize; in 2014, eligibility was widened to any English-language novel—a change that proved controversial.
A five-person panel consisting of authors, publishers and journalists, as well as politicians, actors, artists and musicians, is appointed by the Booker Prize Foundation each year to choose the winning book.
A high-profile literary award in British culture, the Booker Prize is greeted with anticipation and fanfare around the world. Literary critics have noted that it is a mark of distinction for authors to be selected for inclusion in the shortlist or to be nominated for the "longlist".History and administrationThe prize was established as the "Booker Prize for Fiction" after the company Booker, McConnell Ltd began sponsoring the event in 1969; it became commonly known as the "Booker Prize" or the "Booker". Jock Campbell, Charles Tyrrell and Tom Maschler were instrumental in establishing the prize.
When administration of the prize was transferred to the Booker Prize Foundation in 2002, the title sponsor became the investment company Man Group, which opted to retain "Booker" as part of the official title of the prize. The foundation is an independent registered charity funded by the entire profits of Booker Prize Trading Ltd, of which it is the sole shareholder. The prize money awarded with the Booker Prize was originally £5,000. It doubled in 1978 to £10,000 and was subsequently raised to £50,000 in 2002 under the sponsorship of the Man Group, making it one of the world's richest literary prizes. Each of the shortlisted authors receives £2,500 and a specially bound edition of their book. and the design was revived for the 2023 prize.
1969–1979
The first winner of the Booker Prize was P. H. Newby in 1969 for his novel Something to Answer For. W. L. Webb, The Guardians Literary Editor, was chair of the inaugural set of judges, which included Rebecca West, Stephen Spender, Frank Kermode and David Farrer.
In 1970, the prize's second year, Bernice Rubens became the first woman to win the Booker Prize, for The Elected Member.
The rules of the Booker changed in 1971; previously, it had been given retrospectively, to books published in the year prior to each award. In 1971, eligibility was changed to make the year of a novel's publication the same as the year of the award, which was made in November; in effect, this meant that books published in 1970 were not considered for the Booker in either year. Forty years later, the Booker Prize Foundation announced in January 2010 the creation of a special award called the "Lost Man Booker Prize", with the winner chosen from a longlist of 22 novels published in 1970. The prize was won by J. G. Farrell for Troubles, though the author had died in 1979.
In 1972, winning writer John Berger, known for his Marxist worldview, protested during his acceptance speech against Booker McConnell. He blamed Booker's 130 years of sugar production in the Caribbean for the region's modern poverty. Berger donated half of his £5,000 prize to the British Black Panther movement, because it had a socialist and revolutionary perspective in agreement with his own.1980–1999In 1980, Anthony Burgess, writer of Earthly Powers, refused to attend the ceremony unless it was confirmed to him in advance whether he had won.
Alice Munro's The Beggar Maid was shortlisted in 1980, and remains the only short-story collection to be shortlisted.
In 1981, nominee John Banville wrote a letter to The Guardian requesting that the prize be given to him so that he could use the money to buy every copy of the longlisted books in Ireland and donate them to libraries, "thus ensuring that the books not only are bought but also read – surely a unique occurrence".
Judging for the 1983 award produced a draw between J. M. Coetzee's Life & Times of Michael K and Salman Rushdie's Shame, leaving chair of judges Fay Weldon to choose between the two. According to Stephen Moss in The Guardian, "Her arm was bent and she chose Rushdie", only to change her mind as the result was being phoned through.
In 1992, the jury split the prize between Michael Ondaatje's The English Patient and Barry Unsworth's Sacred Hunger. This prompted the foundation to draw up a rule that made it mandatory for the appointed jury to make the award to just a single author/book.
The choice of James Kelman's book How Late It Was, How Late as 1994 Booker Prize winner proved to be one of the most controversial in the award's history. Rabbi Julia Neuberger, one of the judges, declared it "a disgrace" and left the event, later deeming the book to be "crap"; WHSmith's marketing manager called the award "an embarrassment to the whole book trade"; Waterstones in Glasgow sold a mere 13 copies of Kelman's book the following week. In 1994, The Guardians literary editor Richard Gott, citing the lack of objective criteria and the exclusion of American authors, described the prize as "a significant and dangerous iceberg in the sea of British culture that serves as a symbol of its current malaise".
In 1996, A. L. Kennedy served as a judge; in 2001, she called the prize "a pile of crooked nonsense" with the winner determined by "who knows who, who's sleeping with who, who's selling drugs to who, who's married to who, whose turn it is".2000–2019Before 2001, each year's longlist of nominees was not publicly revealed. From 2001, the longlisted novels started to be published each year, and in 2007 the number of nominees was capped at 12 or 13 each year. Carey was the first of four writers to have won the Booker Prize twice, the others being J. M. Coetzee, Hilary Mantel, and Margaret Atwood.
The Booker Prize created a permanent home for the archives from 1968 to present at Oxford Brookes University Library. The Archive, which encompasses the administrative history of the Prize from 1968 to date, collects together a diverse range of material, including correspondence, publicity material, copies of both the Longlists and the Shortlists, minutes of meetings, photographs and material relating to the awards dinner (letters of invitation, guest lists, seating plans). Embargoes of ten or twenty years apply to certain categories of material; examples include all material relating to the judging process and the Longlist prior to 2002.
Between 2005 and 2008, the Booker Prize alternated between writers from Ireland and India. "Outsider" John Banville began this trend in 2005 when his novel The Sea was selected as a surprise winner: Boyd Tonkin, literary editor of The Independent, famously condemned it as "possibly the most perverse decision in the history of the award" and rival novelist Tibor Fischer poured scorn on Banville's victory. Kiran Desai of India won in 2006. Anne Enright's 2007 victory came about due to a jury split over Ian McEwan's novel On Chesil Beach. The following year it was India's turn again, with Aravind Adiga narrowly defeating Enright's fellow Irishman Sebastian Barry.
Historically, the winner of the Booker Prize was required to be a citizen of the Commonwealth of Nations, the Republic of Ireland, or Zimbabwe. It was announced on 18 September 2013 that future Booker Prize awards would consider authors from anywhere in the world, so long as their work was in English and published in the United Kingdom or Ireland. This change proved controversial in literary circles. Former winner A. S. Byatt and former judge John Mullan said the prize risked diluting its identity, whereas former judge A. L. Kennedy welcomed the change. Following this expansion, the first winner not from the Commonwealth, Ireland, or Zimbabwe was American Paul Beatty in 2016. Another American, George Saunders, won the following year. In 2018, publishers sought to reverse the change, arguing that the inclusion of American writers would lead to homogenisation, reducing diversity and opportunities everywhere, including in America, to learn about "great books that haven't already been widely heralded". A new sponsor, Crankstart – a charitable foundation run by Sir Michael Moritz and his wife, Harriet Heyman – then announced it would sponsor the award for five years, with the option to renew for another five years. The award title was changed to simply "The Booker Prize".
In 2019, despite having been unequivocally warned against doing so, the foundation's jury – under the chair Peter Florence – split the prize, awarding it to two authors, in breach of a rule established in 1993. Florence justified the decision, saying: "We came down to a discussion with the director of the Booker Prize about the rules. And we were told quite firmly that the rules state that you can only have one winner ... and as we have managed the jury all the way through on the principle of consensus, our consensus was that it was our decision to flout the rules and divide this year's prize to celebrate two winners." The two were British writer Bernardine Evaristo for her novel Girl, Woman, Other and Canadian writer Margaret Atwood for The Testaments. Evaristo's win marked the first time the Booker had been awarded to a black woman, while Atwood's win, at 79, made her the oldest winner. Atwood had also previously won the prize in 2000.
2020–present
In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the annual award ceremony was replaced with a livestream from the Roundhouse in London, without the shortlisted authors in attendance. The winner was Douglas Stuart for his debut novel Shuggie Bain, which had been rejected by more than 30 publishers.
2021's small-scale ceremony, once again impacted by COVID-19, saw South African writer Damon Galgut, who had been shortlisted in 2003 and 2010, win the prize for The Promise.
2022 saw a re-imagined winner ceremony at the Roundhouse, hosted by comedian Sophie Duker and featuring a keynote speech by singer Dua Lipa. The prize was won by Sri Lankan author Shehan Karunatilaka for his second novel, The Seven Moons of Maali Almeida.
In 2023, for the first time, the shortlist featured three writers named Paul (Paul Lynch, Paul Murray and Paul Harding). The prize was won by Irish writer Paul Lynch for his novel Prophet Song. In the media, reaction was mixed. In The Guardian, Justine Jordan wrote that "This is a novel written to jolt the reader awake to truths we mostly cannot bear to admit", while in The Telegraph, Cal Revely-Calder wrote that Prophet Song is "political fiction at its laziest" and "the weak link in a strong shortlist".
The 2024 prize was won by Samantha Harvey for Orbital, the first book set in space to win the prize and, at 136 pages, the second shortest book to win the Booker after Penelope Fitzgerald's Offshore. Harvey was also the first woman to win the Booker since 2019. Since winning the Booker, Orbital became a UK bestseller, selling over 20,000 print copies in the UK in the week following its win, making it the fastest selling winner of the Booker Prize since records began.
John Sutherland, who was a judge for the 1999 prize, was reported as saying in 2001:
Judging
The selection process for the winner of the prize commences with the appointment of a panel of five judges, which changes each year. Gaby Wood, the chief executive of the Booker Prize Foundation, chooses the judges in consultation with an advisory committee made up of senior figures from the UK publishing industry. On rare occasions a judge may be selected a second time. Judges are selected from amongst leading literary critics, writers, academics and leading public figures.
Unlike some other literary prizes, each judge is expected to read all of the books that have been submitted. (In 2023, the judges read 163 books over seven months.) After doing so, they select a longlist of 12 or 13 titles (the "Booker Dozen"), before each reading those books for a second time. They then select a shortlist of six titles, and read the six books a third time before selecting a winner.
The Booker judging process and the very concept of a "best book" being chosen by a small number of literary insiders is controversial for many. The Guardian introduced the "Not the Booker Prize" voted for by readers partly as a reaction to this.
Author Amit Chaudhuri wrote: "The idea that a 'book of the year' can be assessed annually by a bunch of people – judges who have to read almost a book a day – is absurd, as is the idea that this is any way of honouring a writer."
The author Julian Barnes once dismissed the prize as "posh bingo" for the apparently arbitrary way winners are selected. On winning the prize in 2011 he joked that he had revised his opinion, telling reporters that he had realised "the judges are the wisest heads in literary Christendom".
For many years, the winner was announced at a formal, black-tie dinner in London's Guildhall in early October. However, in 2020, with COVID-19 pandemic restrictions in place, the winner ceremony was broadcast in November from the Roundhouse, in partnership with the BBC. The ceremony returned to the Roundhouse for a more casual in-person ceremony in 2022, before moving to Old Billingsgate in London in 2023 and 2024.
Winners
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
! Year
! Author
! Title
! Genre(s)
! Country
|-
! 1969
| P. H. Newby
| Something to Answer For
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1970
| Bernice Rubens
| The Elected Member
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1971
| V. S. Naipaul
| In a Free State
| Literary fiction
| <br />
|-
! 1972
| John Berger
| G.
| Experimental literature
|
|-
! 1973
| J. G. Farrell
| The Siege of Krishnapur
| Literary fiction
| <br />
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1974
| Nadine Gordimer
| The Conservationist
| Literary fiction
|
|-
| Stanley Middleton
| Holiday
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1975
| Ruth Prawer Jhabvala
| Heat and Dust
| Historical fiction
| <br />
|-
! 1976
| David Storey
| Saville
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1977
| Paul Scott
| Staying On
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1978
| Iris Murdoch
| The Sea, the Sea
| Philosophical novel
| <br />
|-
! 1979
| Penelope Fitzgerald
| Offshore
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1980
| William Golding
| Rites of Passage
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1981
| Salman Rushdie
| ''Midnight's Children
| Magic realism
|
|-
! 1982
| Thomas Keneally
| Schindler's Ark
| Biographical novel
|
|-
! 1983
| J. M. Coetzee
| Life & Times of Michael K
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1984
| Anita Brookner
| Hotel du Lac
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1985
| Keri Hulme
| The Bone People
| Mystery novel
|
|-
! 1986
| Kingsley Amis
| The Old Devils
| Comic novel
|
|-
! 1987
| Penelope Lively
| Moon Tiger
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1988
| Peter Carey
| Oscar and Lucinda
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 1989
| Kazuo Ishiguro
| The Remains of the Day
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 1990
| A. S. Byatt
| Possession
| Historiographic metafiction
|
|-
! 1991
| Ben Okri
| The Famished Road
| Magic realism
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | 1992
| Michael Ondaatje
| The English Patient
| Historiographic metafiction
| <br />
|-
| Barry Unsworth
| Sacred Hunger''
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 1993
| Roddy Doyle
| Paddy Clarke Ha Ha Ha
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1994
| James Kelman
| How Late It Was, How Late
| Stream of consciousness
|
|-
! 1995
| Pat Barker
| The Ghost Road
| War novel
|
|-
! 1996
| Graham Swift
| Last Orders
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1997
| Arundhati Roy
| The God of Small Things
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1998
| Ian McEwan
| Amsterdam
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 1999
| J. M. Coetzee
| Disgrace
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 2000
| Margaret Atwood
| The Blind Assassin
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 2001
| Peter Carey
| True History of the Kelly Gang
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 2002
| Yann Martel
| Life of Pi
| Fantasy and adventure fiction
|
|-
! 2003
| DBC Pierre
| Vernon God Little
| Black comedy
|
|-
! 2004
| Alan Hollinghurst
| The Line of Beauty
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 2005
| John Banville
| The Sea
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 2006
| Kiran Desai
| The Inheritance of Loss
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 2007
| Anne Enright
| The Gathering
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 2008
| Aravind Adiga
| The White Tiger
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 2009
| Hilary Mantel
| Wolf Hall
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 2010
| Howard Jacobson
| The Finkler Question
| Comic novel
|
|-
! 2011
| Julian Barnes
| The Sense of an Ending
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! 2012
| Hilary Mantel
| Bring Up the Bodies
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 2013
| Eleanor Catton
| The Luminaries
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 2014
| Richard Flanagan
| The Narrow Road to the Deep North
| Historical fiction
|
|-
! 2015
| Marlon James
| A Brief History of Seven Killings
| Historical/experimental novel
|
|-
! 2016
| Paul Beatty
| The Sellout
| Satire
|
|-
! 2017
| George Saunders
| Lincoln in the Bardo
| Historical/experimental novel
|
|-
! 2018
| Anna Burns
| Milkman
| Literary fiction
|
|-
! rowspan="2" |2019
| Margaret Atwood
| The Testaments
| Literary fiction
|
|-
| Bernardine Evaristo
| Girl, Woman, Other
| Experimental literature
|
|-
! 2020
| Douglas Stuart
| Shuggie Bain
| Literary fiction
| <br />
|-
! 2021
| Damon Galgut
| The Promise
| Literary fiction
|
|-
!2022
| Shehan Karunatilaka
|The Seven Moons of Maali Almeida
|Fantasy
|
|-
!2023
|Paul Lynch
|Prophet Song
| Dystopian novel
|
|-
!2024
|Samantha Harvey
|Orbital
|Literary fiction
|
|}
Special awards
In 1971, the nature of the prize was changed so that it was awarded to novels published in that year instead of in the previous year; therefore, no novel published in 1970 could win the Booker Prize. This was rectified in 2010 by the awarding of the "Lost Man Booker Prize" to J. G. Farrell's Troubles.
In 1993, a special Booker of Bookers prize was awarded to mark the prize's 25th anniversary. Three previous judges of the award, Malcolm Bradbury, David Holloway and W. L. Webb, met and chose Salman Rushdie's ''Midnight's Children, the 1981 winner, as "the best novel out of all the winners".
In 2006, the Man Booker Prize set up a "Best of Beryl" prize, for the author Beryl Bainbridge, who had been nominated five times and yet failed to win once. The prize is said to count as a Booker Prize. The nominees were An Awfully Big Adventure, Every Man for Himself, The Bottle Factory Outing, The Dressmaker and Master Georgie'', which won.
Similarly, The Best of the Booker was awarded in 2008 to celebrate the prize's 40th anniversary. A shortlist of six winners was chosen — Rushdie's ''Midnight's Children'', Coetzee' Disgrace, Carey's Oscar and Lucinda, Gordimer's The Conservationist, Farrell's The Siege of Krishnapur, and Barker's The Ghost Road — and the decision was left to a public vote; the winner was again ''Midnight's Children''.
In 2018, to celebrate the 50th anniversary, the Golden Man Booker was awarded. One book from each decade was selected by a panel of judges: Naipaul's In a Free State (the 1971 winner), Lively's Moon Tiger (1987), Ondaatje's The English Patient (1992), Mantel's Wolf Hall (2009) and Saunders' Lincoln in the Bardo (2017). The winner, by popular vote, was The English Patient.
Nomination
Since 2014, each publisher's imprint may submit a number of titles based on their longlisting history (previously they could submit two). Non-longlisted publishers can submit one title, publishers with one or two longlisted books in the previous five years can submit two, publishers with three or four longlisted books are allowed three submissions, and publishers with five or more longlisted books can have four submissions.
In addition, previous winners of the prize are automatically considered if they enter new titles. Books may also be called in: publishers can make written representations to the judges to consider titles in addition to those already entered. In the 21st century the average number of books considered by the judges has been approximately 130.
See also
<!---♦♦♦ Please keep the list in alphabetical order ♦♦♦--->
* Baillie Gifford Prize (formerly the Samuel Johnson Prize)
* Commonwealth Writers Prize
* Costa Book Awards
* German Book Prize (Deutscher Buchpreis)
* Giller Prize (known as the Scotiabank Giller Prize from 2005–2023)
* Governor General's Awards
* Grand Prix of Literary Associations
* Miles Franklin Award
* Prix Goncourt
* Russian Booker Prize
* List of British literary awards
* List of literary awards
References
Further reading
*
*
*
External links
* (The Booker Prize)
* (Booker Prize Foundation)
* [https://www.brookes.ac.uk/library/collections/special-collections/publishing-and-literary-prizes/booker-prize-archive The Booker Prize Archive] at Oxford Brookes University
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929040559/http://www.turbobooksnob.com/ A primer on the Man Booker Prize and critical review of literature]
Category:1968 establishments in the United Kingdom
Category:Awards established in 1968
Category:Booker authors' division
Category:British fiction awards
Category:English-language literary awards
Category:Oxford Brookes University
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Book of Joel
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The Book of Joel (Hebrew: ספר יוֹאֵל Sefer Yo'él) is a Jewish prophetic text containing a series of "divine announcements". The first line attributes authorship to "Joel the son of Pethuel". It forms part of the Book of the twelve minor prophets or the Nevi'im ("Prophets") in the Hebrew Bible, and is a book in its own right in the Christian Old Testament where it has three chapters. In the New Testament, his prophecy of the outpouring of God's Holy Spirit upon all people was notably quoted by Saint Peter in his Pentecost sermon.
The Book of Joel’s frequent allusions to earlier Hebrew Bible texts and signs of literary development suggest a late origin and its potential to have been a unifying piece within the prophetic canon.
Surviving early manuscripts
thumb |Leningrad Codex (1008 CE) contains the complete copy of Book of Joel in Hebrew.
The original text was written in Hebrew language.
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895 CE), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q78 (4QXIIc; 75–50 BCE) with extant verses 1:10–20, 2:1, 2:8–23, and 3:6–21; and 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 25 BCE) with extant verses 1:12–14, 2:2–13, 3:4–9, 3:11–14, 3:17, 3:19–2; Schøyen MS 4612/1 (DSS F.117; DSS F.Joel1; 50–68 CE) with extant verses 3:1–4); and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75–100 CE) with extant verses 2:20, 2:26–27, 2:28–32, and 3:1–16.
Promise of future blessings (2:18–32 or 2:18–3:5).
Banishment of the locusts and restoration of agricultural productivity as a divine response to national penitence (2:18–27).
Future prophetic gifts to all of God's people, and the safety of God's people in the face of cosmic cataclysm (2:28–32 or 3:1–5).
Coming judgment on the Kingdom of Judah's enemies: the Philistines, the Kingdom of Edom, and the Kingdom of Egypt (3:1–21 or 4:1–21).
Chapters
thumb|Book of Joel in Latin translation in a French manuscript of the 13th century
The Book of Joel's division into chapters and verses differs widely between editions of the Bible; some editions have three chapters, others four. Translations with four chapters include the Jewish Publication Society's version of the Hebrew Bible (1917), the Jerusalem Bible (1966), New American Bible (Revised Edition, 1970), Complete Jewish Bible (1998), and Tree of Life Version (2015).
In the 1611 King James Bible, the Book of Joel is formed by three chapters: the second one has 32 verses, and it is equivalent to the union of the chapter 2 (with 27 verses) and chapter 3 (with 5 verses) of other editions of the Bible.
The differences of the divisions are as follows:
English/Greek Hebrew Joel 1 Joel 1 Joel 2:1–27 Joel 2 Joel 2:28–32 Joel 3 Joel 3 Joel 4
Date
As there are no explicit references in the book to datable persons or events, scholars have assigned a wide range of dates to the book. The main positions are:
Ninth century BC, particularly in the reign of Joash – a position especially popular among nineteenth-century scholars (making Joel one of the earliest writing prophets). The enemies mentioned – Philistines, Phoenicians, Egypt and Edom – are consistent with this date.
Early eighth century BC, during the reign of Uzziah (contemporary with Hosea, Amos, and Jonah)
c. 630–587 BC, in the last decades of the kingdom of Judah (contemporary with Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Habakkuk)
c. 520–500 BC, contemporary with the return of the exiles and the careers of Zechariah and Haggai.
The decades around 400 BC, during the Persian period (making him one of the latest writing prophets), or around 350 BC. This is supported by the apparent mention of the 587 BC destruction of Jerusalem as a past event in 3:1 and 3:17, and the mention of Greeks in 3:6.
Evidence produced for these positions includes allusions in the book to the wider world, similarities with other prophets, and linguistic details. Some commentators, such as John Calvin, attach no great importance to the precise dating.
History of interpretation
thumb|150px|Joel (watercolor circa 1896–1902 by James Tissot)
The Masoretic text places Joel between Hosea and Amos (the order inherited by the Tanakh and Old Testament), while the Septuagint order is Hosea–Amos–Micah–Joel–Obadiah–Jonah. The Hebrew text of Joel seems to have suffered little from scribal transmission, but is at a few points supplemented by the Septuagint, Syriac, and Vulgate versions, or by conjectural emendation. While the book purports to describe a plague of locusts, some ancient Jewish opinion saw the locusts as allegorical interpretations of Israel's enemies. This allegorical interpretation was applied to the church by many church fathers. Calvin took a literal interpretation of chapter 1, but allegorical view of chapter 2, a position echoed by some modern interpreters. Most modern interpreters, however, see Joel speaking of a literal locust plague given a prophetic or apocalyptic interpretation.
The traditional ascription of the whole book to the prophet Joel was challenged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries by a theory of a three-stage process of composition: 1:1–2:27 were from the hand of Joel, and dealt with a contemporary issue; 2:28–3:21/3:1–4:21 were ascribed to a continuator with an apocalyptic outlook. Mentions in the first half of the book to the day of the Lord were also ascribed to this continuator. 3:4–8/4:4–8 could be seen as even later. Details of exact ascriptions differed between scholars.
This splitting of the book's composition began to be challenged in the mid-twentieth century, with scholars defending the unity of the book, the plausibility of the prophet combining a contemporary and apocalyptic outlook, and later additions by the prophet. The authenticity of 3:4–8 has presented more challenges, although a number of scholars still defend it.
Biblical quotes and allusions
thumb|Russian icon of the prophet Joel (Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, c. 1700–1725)
There are many parallels of language between Joel and other Old Testament prophets. They may represent Joel's literary use of other prophets, or vice versa.
In the New Testament, his prophecy of the outpouring of God's Holy Spirit upon all people was notably quoted by Saint Peter in his Pentecost sermon.
Joel 3:10 / 4:10 is a variation of Isaiah 2:4 and Micah 4:3's prophecy, "They will beat their swords into plowshares and their spears into pruning hooks", instead commanding, "Beat your plowshares into swords and your pruning hooks into spears."
The table below represents some of the more explicit quotes and allusions between specific passages in Joel and passages from the Old and New Testaments.
Joel Old Testament New Testament 1:6, 2:2–10Revelation 9:3, 7–91:15Isaiah 13:6Ezekiel 30:2–32:1Zephaniah 1:14–162:1–2Amos 5:18, 202:11Malachi 3:22:14Jonah 3:92:20–21Psalm 126:2–32:27Isaiah 45:5Ezekiel 36:112:28–32/3:1–5Acts 2:16–212:31/3:4Malachi 3:23/4:52:32/3:5Obadiah 17Romans 10:133:1/4:1Psalm 126:13:10/4:10Isaiah 2:4Micah 4:33:16/4:16Amos 1:23:17/4:17Obadiah 173:18/4:18Amos 9:13
Liturgical usage
Plange quasi virgo (Lament like a virgin), the third responsory for Holy Saturday, is loosely based on verses from the Book of Joel: the title comes from Joel 1:8.
See also
Joel 2:25 International
References
Works cited
Further reading
See also works on the Minor Prophets as a whole.
Achtemeier, Elizabeth. Minor Prophets I. New International Biblical Commentary. (Hendrickson, 1999)
Ahlström, Gösta W. Joel and the Temple Cult of Jerusalem. Supplements to Vetus Testamentum 21. (Brill, 1971)
Allen, Leslie C. The Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah & Micah. New International Commentary on the Old Testament. (Eerdmans, 1976)
Anders, Max E. & Butler, Trent C. Hosea–Micah. Holman Old Testament Commentary. (B&H Publishing, 2005)
Assis, Elie. Joel: A Prophet Between Calamity and Hope (LHBOTS, 581), New York: Bloomsbury, 2013
Baker, David W. Joel, Obadiah, Malachi. NIV Application Commentary. (Zondervan, 2006)
Barton, John. Joel & Obadiah: a Commentary. Old Testament Library. (Westminster John Knox, 2001)
Birch, Bruce C. Hosea, Joel & Amos. Westminster Bible Companion. (Westminster John Knox, 1997)
Busenitz, Irvin A. Commentary on Joel and Obadiah. Mentor Commentary. (Mentor, 2003)
Calvin, John. Joel, Amos, Obadiah. Calvin's Bible Commentaries. (Forgotten Books, 2007)
Coggins, Richard. Joel and Amos. New Century Bible Commentary. (Sheffield Academic Press, 2000)
Crenshaw, James L. Joel: a New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. The Anchor Bible. (Yale University Press, 1995)
Finley, Thomas J. Joel, Amos, Obadiah: an Exegetical Commentary. (Biblical Studies Press, 2003)
Gæbelein, Frank E. (ed) Daniel and the Minor Prophets. The Expositor's Bible Commentary, Volume 7. (Zondervan, 1985)
Garrett, Duane A. Hosea, Joel. The New American Commentary. (B&H Publishing, 1997)
Hubbard, David Allen. Joel and Amos: an Introduction and Commentary. Tyndale Old Testament Commentary. (Inter-Varsity Press, 1990)
Limburg, James. Hosea–Micah. Interpretation – a Bible Commentary for Teaching & Preaching. (Westminster John Knox, 1988)
Mason, Rex. Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Joel. Old Testament Guides. (JSOT Press, 1994)
McQueen, Larry R.M. Joel and the Spirit: the Cry of a Prophetic Hermeneutic. (CTP, 2009)
Ogden, Graham S. & Deutsch, Richard R. A Promise of Hope – a Call to Obedience: a Commentary on the Books of Joel & Malachi. International Theological Commentary (Eerdmans/ Hansel, 1987)
Ogilvie, John Lloyd. Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah. Communicator's Commentary 20. (Word, 1990)
Price, Walter K. The Prophet Joel and the Day of the Lord. (Moody, 1976)
Prior, David. The Message of Joel, Micah, and Habakkuk: Listening to the Voice of God. The Bible Speaks Today. (Inter-Varsity Press, 1999)
Pohlig, James N. An Exegetical Summary of Joel. (SIL International, 2003)
Roberts, Matis (ed). Trei asar : The Twelve Prophets: a New Translation with a Commentary Anthologized from Talmudic, Midrashic, and Rabbinic Sources. Vol. 1: Hosea. Joel. Amos. Obadiah. (Mesorah, 1995)
Robertson, O. Palmer. Prophet of the Coming Day of the Lord: the Message of Joel. Welwyn Commentary. (Evangelical Press, 1995)
Simkins, Ronald. Yahweh's Activity in History and Nature in the Book of Joel. Ancient Near Eastern Texts & Studies 10 (Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1991)
Simundson, Daniel J. Hosea–Micah. Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries. (Abingdon, 2005)
Stuart, Douglas. Hosea–Jonah. Word Biblical Commentary 31. (Word, 1987)
Sweeney, Marvin A. The Twelve Prophets, Vol. 1: Hosea–Jonah. Berit Olam – Studies in Hebrew Narrative & Poetry. (Liturgical Press, 2000)
Wolff, Hans Walter. A Commentary on the Books of the Prophets Joel & Amos. Hermeneia – a Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible. (Augsburg Fortress, 1977)
External links
Jewish Encyclopedia: Book of Joel
Catholic Encyclopedia: Joel
Jewish translations:
Yoel – Joel (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Christian translations:
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV)
Joel at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version)
Joel at BibleGateway (New International Version and others)
Joel at BlueLetter Bible (King James Version and others, plus commentaries)
Various versions
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Book of Hosea
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The Book of Hosea (|Sēfer Hōšēaʿ}}) is collected as one of the twelve minor prophets of the Nevi'im ("Prophets") in the Tanakh, and as a book in its own right in the Christian Old Testament where it has fourteen chapters. According to the traditional order of most Hebrew Bibles, it is the first of the Twelve.
Set around the fall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, the Book of Hosea denounces the worship of gods other than Yahweh (the God of Israel), metaphorically comparing Israel's abandonment of Yahweh to a woman being unfaithful to her husband. According to the book's narrative, the relationship between Hosea and his unfaithful wife Gomer is comparable to the relationship between Yahweh and his unfaithful people Israel: this text "for the first time" describes the latter relationship in terms of a marriage. The eventual reconciliation of Hosea and Gomer is treated as a hopeful metaphor for the eventual reconciliation between Yahweh and Israel.
Redaction-critical studies of Hosea since the 1980s have increasingly emphasized the theological and literary unity created by editors, though scholars differ significantly in their interpretations of the redaction process, stages, and the extent of the eighth-century prophet’s original contributions. Ehud Ben Zvi’s interpretation of Hosea as a product of Persian period literati constructing didactic prophetic readings has spurred much debate.
Hosea is the source of the phrase "reap the whirlwind", which has passed into common usage in English and other languages.
Background and content
'', by Duccio di Buoninsegna, in the Siena Cathedral ()]]
and Gomer from the Bible Historiale, 1372.]]
Hosea prophesied during a dark and melancholic era of Israel's history, the period of the Northern Kingdom's decline and fall in the 8th century BC. According to the book, the apostasy of the people was rampant, having turned away from God in order to serve both the calves of Jeroboam and Baal, a Canaanite god.
The Book of Hosea says that, during Hosea's lifetime, the kings of the Northern Kingdom, their aristocratic supporters, and the priests had led the people away from the Law of God, as given in the Pentateuch. It says that they forsook the worship of God; they worshiped other gods, especially Baal, the Canaanite storm god, and Asherah, a Canaanite fertility goddess. Other sins followed, says the Book, including homicide, perjury, theft, and sexual sin. Hosea declares that unless they repent of these sins, God will allow their nation to be destroyed, and the people will be taken into captivity by Assyria, the greatest nation of the time.
The prophecy of Hosea centers on God's unending love towards a sinful Israel. In this text, God's agony is expressed over his betrayal by Israel. Stephen Cook asserts that the prophetic efforts of this book can be summed up in this passage "I have been the Lord your God ever since the land of Egypt; you know no god but me, and besides me there is no savior". Hosea's job was to speak these words during a time when they had been essentially forgotten. which is a metaphor for the relationship between God and Israel.
* Chapter 3: Hosea's marriage is described autobiographically ("Then the said to me"): this is possibly a marriage to different women.
* Chapters 4–14:9/14:10: Oracle judging Israel, Ephraim in particular, for not living up to the covenant.
No further breakdown of ideas is clear in 4–14:9/14:10. Following this, the prophecy is made that someday this will all be changed, and that God will have pity on Israel.
Chapter two describes a divorce. This divorce seems to be the end of the covenant between God and the Northern Kingdom. However, it is probable that this was again a symbolic act, in which Hosea divorced Gomer for infidelity, and used the occasion to preach the message of God's rejection of the Northern Kingdom. He ends this prophecy with the declaration that God will one day renew the covenant, and will take Israel back in love.
In chapter three, at God's command, Hosea seeks out Gomer once more. Either she has sold herself into slavery for debt, or she is with a lover who demands money in order to give her up, because Hosea has to buy her back. He takes her home, but refrains from sexual intimacy with her for many days, to symbolize the fact that Israel will be without a king for many years, but that God will take Israel back, even at a cost to himself.
Chapters 4–14 spell out the allegory at length. Chapters 1–3 speaks of Hosea's family, and the issues with Gomer. Chapters 4–10 contain a series of oracles, or prophetic sermons, showing exactly why God is rejecting the Northern Kingdom (what the grounds are for the divorce). Chapter 11 is God's lament over the necessity of giving up the Northern Kingdom, which is a large part of the people of Israel, whom God loves. God promises not to give them up entirely. Then, in Chapter 12, the prophet pleads for Israel's repentance. Chapter 13 foretells the destruction of the kingdom at the hands of Assyria, because there has been no repentance. In Chapter 14, the prophet urges Israel to seek forgiveness, and promises its restoration, while urging the utmost fidelity to God.
The capital of the Northern Kingdom fell in 722 BC. All the members of the upper classes and many of the ordinary people were taken captive and carried off to live as prisoners of war.
A summary of Hosea's story
First, Hosea was directed by God to marry a promiscuous woman of ill-repute, and he did so. Marriage here is symbolic of the covenantal relationship between God and Israel. However, Israel has been unfaithful to God by following other gods and breaking the commandments which are the terms of the covenant, hence Israel is symbolized by a harlot who violates the obligations of marriage to her husband.
Second, Hosea and his wife, Gomer, have a son. God commands that the son be named Jezreel. This name refers to a valley in which much blood had been shed in Israel's history, especially by the kings of the Northern Kingdom. The naming of this son was to stand as a prophecy against the reigning house of the Northern Kingdom, that they would pay for that bloodshed. Jezreel's name means "God sows".
Third, the couple have a daughter. God commands that she be named Lo-ruhamah, meaning "unloved", "pity" or "pitied on" to show Israel that, although God will still have pity on the Southern Kingdom, God will no longer have pity on the Northern Kingdom; its destruction is imminent. In the NIV translation, the omitting of the word "him" leads to speculation as to whether Lo-Ruhamah was the daughter of Hosea or one of Gomer's lovers. James Mays, however, says that the failure to mention Hosea's paternity is "hardly an implication" of Gomer's adultery.
Fourth, a son is born to Gomer. It is questionable whether this child was Hosea's, for God commands that his name be Lo-ammi, meaning "not my people". The child bore this name of shame to show that the Northern Kingdom would also be shamed, for its people would no longer be known as God's people. In other words, the Northern Kingdom had been rejected by God.
Usage in the New Testament
Matthew 2:13 cites Hosea's prophecy in Hosea 11:1 that God would call His Son out of Egypt as foretelling the flight into Egypt and return to Israel of Joseph, Mary, and the infant Jesus.
In Luke 23:30, Jesus referenced Hosea 10:8 when he said "Then they will begin to say to the mountains 'Cover us" and to the hills, 'Fall on us'.'. The quote is also echoed in Revelation 6:16.
Interpretation and context
In Hosea 2, the woman in the marriage metaphor could be Hosea's wife Gomer, or could be referring to the nation of Israel, invoking the metaphor of Israel as God's bride. The woman is not portrayed in a positive light. This is reflected throughout the beginning of Hosea 2: "I will strip her naked and expose her as in the day she was born"; "Upon her children I will have no pity, because they are children of whoredom"; "For she said, I will go after my lovers...".
Biblical scholar Ehud Ben Zvi reminds readers of the socio-historical context in which Hosea was composed. In his article "Observations on the marital metaphor of YHWH and Israel in its ancient Israelite context: general considerations and particular images in Hosea 1.2", Ben Zvi describes the role of the Gomer in the marriage metaphor as one of the "central attributes of the ideological image of a human marriage that was shared by the male authorship and the primary and intended male readership as building blocks for their imagining of the relationship."
Tristanne J. Connolly makes a similar observation, stating that the husband-wife motif reflects marriage as it was understood at the time. Connolly also suggests that in context the marriage metaphor was necessary in that it truly exemplified the unequal interaction between God and the people of Israel. Biblical scholar Michael D. Coogan describes the importance of understanding the covenant in relation to interpreting Hosea. According to Coogan, Hosea falls within a unique genre called "covenant lawsuit", where God accuses Israel of breaking their previously made agreement. God's disappointment with Israel is therefore expressed through the broken marriage covenant made between husband and wife.
Brad E. Kelle refers to "many scholars" finding references to cultic sexual practices in the worship of Baal, in Hosea 2, to be evidence of an historical situation in which Israelites were either giving up Yahweh worship for Baal, or blending the two, Hosea's references to sexual acts being metaphors for Israelite 'apostasy'.
Hosea 13:1–3 describes how the Israelites are abandoning Yahweh for the worship of Baal, and accuses them of making or using molten images for 'idol' worship. Chief among these was the image of the bull at the northern shrine of Bethel, which by the time of Hosea was being worshipped as an image of Baal.Theological contribution Hosea is a prophet whom God uses to portray a message of repentance to God's people. Through Hosea's marriage to Gomer, God shows his great love for his great people, comparing himself to a husband whose wife has committed adultery, using this image as a metaphor for the covenant between God and Israel. God's love was "misunderstood" by his people.See also
* Redeeming Love
* Redeeming Love (2022 film)
* Reap the whirlwind [https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sow_the_wind,_reap_the_whirlwind|Reap the whirlwind (phrase)](phrase)
Notes
References
External links
*Jewish translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15758 Hoshea – Hosea (Judaica Press)] translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
*Christian translations:
**[http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Hosea+1 Online Bible at GospelHall.org]
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20050206120712/http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/28_hosea.htm Hosea at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120121113045/http://www.wlsessays.net/files/HankeHosea.pdf Isagogical Study of the Book of Hosea by: Paul R. Hanke]
* [http://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/reconsidering-the-date-and-provenance-of-the-book-of-hosea-9780567657176/#sthash.g6VxOzBa.dpuf Reconsidering the date and provenance of the Book of Hosea by: James M. Bos]
*
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Book of Obadiah
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The Book of Obadiah is a book of the Bible whose authorship is attributed to Obadiah. Obadiah is one of the Twelve Minor Prophets in the final section of Nevi'im, the second main division of the Hebrew Bible. The text consists of a single chapter, divided into 21 verses with 440 Hebrew words, making it the shortest book in the Tanakh (The Hebrew Bible), though there are three shorter New Testament epistles in Greek (Philemon with 335 words, 2 John with 245 words, and 3 John with 219 words). The Book of Obadiah is a prophecy concerning the divine judgment of Edom and the restoration of Israel.
The majority of scholars date the Book of Obadiah to shortly after the fall of Jerusalem in 587 BC.
As part of the recent Persian turn in Minor Prophets scholarship, the Book of Obadiah is considered to have been shaped by the conflicts between Yehud and the Edomites in the fifth and fourth centuries BCE and to have evolved through a process of redaction.
Content
thumb|Fresco from St Mary's Church, Bergen, with a quote from Obadiah 17: "Upon Mount Zion there will be deliverance."
The Book of Obadiah is based on a prophetic vision concerning the fall of Edom, a mountain-dwelling nation whose founding father was Esau. Obadiah describes an encounter with Yahweh, who addresses Edom's arrogance and charges them for their "violence against your brother Jacob".
Throughout most of the history of Judah, Edom was controlled absolutely from Jerusalem as a vassal state. Obadiah said that the high elevation of their dwelling place in the mountains of Seir had gone to their head, and they had puffed themselves up in pride. "'Though you soar like the eagle and make your nest among the stars, from there I will bring you down,' declares the ".
In the Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC), Nebuchadnezzar II sacked Jerusalem, carted away the King of Judah, and installed a puppet ruler. The Edomites helped the Babylonians loot the city. Obadiah, writing this prophecy around 590 BCE, suggests the Edomites should have remembered that blood was thicker than water. "On the day you stood aloof while strangers carried off his wealth and foreigners entered his gates and cast lots for Jerusalem, you were like one of them... You should not march through the gates of my people in the day of their disaster, nor gloat over them in their calamity in the day of their disaster, nor seize their wealth in the day of their disaster."
Obadiah said in judgment that Yahweh would wipe out the house of Esau forever, and not even a remnant would remain. The Edomites' land would be possessed by the lands of the south and they would cease to exist as a people. The Day of the Lord was at hand for all nations, and one day, the children of Israel would return victorious from their exile and possess the land of Edom, the fields of Ephraim, the land of Gilead, the lowland of Philistia, and the fields of Samaria.
Scholarly issues
Dating Obadiah
The date of composition is disputed and is difficult to determine due to the lack of personal information about Obadiah, his family, and his historical milieu: the date must therefore be determined based on the prophecy itself. Edom is to be destroyed due to its lack of defense for its brother nation, Israel, when it was under attack. There are two major historical contexts within which the Edomites could have committed such an act. These are during 853–841 BCE when Jerusalem was invaded by Philistines and Arabs during the reign of Jehoram of Judah (recorded in 2 Kings and 2 Chronicles in the Christian Old Testament) and 607–586 BCE when Jerusalem was attacked by Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon, which led to the Babylonian exile of Israel (recorded in Psalm 137). The earlier period would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet Elijah.
The later date would place Obadiah as a contemporary of the prophet Jeremiah. A sixth-century date for Obadiah is a "near consensus" position among scholars. contains parallels to the Book of Jeremiah . The passage in the Book of Jeremiah dates from the fourth year of the reign of Jehoiakim (604 BCE), and therefore seems to refer to the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar II (586 BCE). It is more likely that Obadiah and the Book of Jeremiah together were drawing on a common source presently unknown to us rather than Jeremiah drawing on previous writings of Obadiah as his source. There is also much material found in which Jeremiah does not quote, and which, had he had it laid out before him, would have suited his purpose admirably.
Sepharad
The term "Sepharad" mentioned in the 20th verse of Obadiah comes from the Hebrew word for Spain.
Scriptural parallels
The exact expression "the Day of the Lord", from , has been used by other authors throughout the Old and New Testaments, as follows:
Old Testament
Isaiah 2, 13, 34, 58, Jeremiah , Lamentations , Ezekiel , Joel 1, 2, 3, Amos , , Zephaniah 1, 2, Zechariah , Malachi 4:5
New Testament
1 Thessalonians 5:2, , Acts 2:20, ,
For other parallels, compare with .
See also
Teman, mentioned in verse 9
References
External links
Masoretic text from Mechon Mamre
Translations:
Jewish translations:
Ovadiah (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] from Chabad.org
Christian translations:
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (KJV ESV Darby BBE)
Obadiah at The Great Books (New Revised Standard Version)
Commentary:
Ovadiah (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] from Chabad.org
Obadiah, from John Gill's Exposition of the Entire Bible.
Obadiah, from the United Church of God, an International Association Bible Reading Program – This Hebrew scholar provides extensive background information as well as verse-by-verse exposition]
Kretzmann's Popular Commentary of the Bible (navigate to Obadiah using the menu on the left)
Obadiah: The Lord Will Have His Day by Jonathan Kuske
Obadiah: an Introduction by Jim West
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Book of Jonah
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The Book of Jonah is one of the twelve minor prophets of the Nevi'im ("Prophets") in the Hebrew Bible, and an individual book in the Christian Old Testament where it has four chapters. The book tells of a Hebrew prophet named Jonah, son of Amittai, who is sent by God to prophesy the destruction of Nineveh, but attempts to escape his divine mission.
The story has a long interpretive history and has become well known through popular children's stories. In Judaism, it is the Haftarah portion read during the afternoon of Yom Kippur to instill reflection on God's willingness to forgive those who repent, and it remains a popular story among Christians. The story is also retold in the Quran.
Mainstream Bible scholars generally regard the story of the Book of Jonah as fictional, and often at least partially satirical. Most scholars consider the Book of Jonah to have been composed long after the events it describes due to its use of words and motifs exclusive to postexilic Aramaic sources.DateThe prophet Jonah (Hebrew: יוֹנָה, Yonā) is mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25, which places Jonah's life during the reign of Jeroboam II, King of Israel, (786–746 BC), but the book of Jonah itself does not name a king or give any other details that would give the story a firm date. Most scholars consider the Book of Jonah to have been composed long after the events it describes due to its use of words and motifs exclusive to postexilic Aramaic sources. A later date is sometimes proposed, with Katherine Dell arguing for the Hellenistic period (332–167 BC).
Evangelical Assyriologist Donald Wiseman takes issue with the idea that the story is late (or a parable). Among other arguments he mentions that the "Legends of Agade" (see Sargon of Akkad and Rabisu) date to the time of the Old Babylonian Empire, though later versions "usually taken as a late composition, propagandistic fairy tale or historical romance can now, on the basis of new discoveries of earlier sources, be shown to be based on a serious and reliable historical record". Narrative Unlike the other Minor Prophets, the book of Jonah is almost entirely narrative with the exception of the psalm in the second chapter. The actual prophetic word against Nineveh is given only in passing through the narrative. The story of Jonah has a setting, characters, a plot, and themes; it also relies heavily on such literary devices as irony.
Chapter and verse divisions
The original text was written in Hebrew language. Chapters 1 and 2 are divided differently in the Hebrew and English versions: verse 2:1 in the Hebrew version is equivalent to Jonah 1:17 in the English version.
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Outline
An outline of the book of Jonah:
# Jonah flees his mission (chapters 1–2)
## Jonah's disobedience, and its consequences (1:1–17)
## Jonah's deliverance and thanksgiving (2:2–9)
# Jonah fulfills his mission (chapters 3–4)
## Jonah's obedience and Nineveh's repentance (3:1–10)
## Jonah's displeasure at the Lord's salvation. However, Jonah instead attempts to run from God by going to Jaffa and sailing to Tarshish. A huge storm arises and the sailors, realizing that it is no ordinary storm, cast lots and discover that Jonah is to blame. Jonah admits this and states that if he is thrown overboard, the storm will cease. The sailors refuse to do this and continue rowing, but all their efforts fail and they are eventually forced to throw Jonah overboard. As a result, the storm calms and the sailors then offer sacrifices to God. Jonah is miraculously saved by being swallowed by a "great fish", in whose belly he spends three days and three nights.
While inside the great fish, Jonah prays to God in thanksgiving and commits to paying what he has vowed. Jonah's prayer has been compared with some of the Psalms, and with the Song of Hannah in 1 Samuel 2:1-10.
God then commands the fish to vomit Jonah out.
In chapter 3, God once again commands Jonah to travel to Nineveh and to prophesy to its inhabitants. This time he obeys God's command, and goes into the city, crying, "In forty days Nineveh shall be overthrown." After Jonah has walked across Nineveh, the people of Nineveh begin to believe his word and proclaim a fast. The king of Nineveh then puts on sackcloth and sits in ashes, making a proclamation which decrees fasting, the wearing of sackcloth, prayer, and repentance. God sees their repentant hearts and spares the city at that time. The entire city is humbled and broken, with the people (and even the animals) in sackcloth and ashes.
In chapter 4, displeased by the Ninevites' repentance, Jonah refers to his earlier flight to Tarshish while asserting that, since God is merciful, it was inevitable that God would turn from the threatened calamities. He then leaves the city on its eastern side, and makes himself a shelter, waiting to see whether or not the city will be destroyed. God causes a plant, in Hebrew a , also called a gourd in the King James Version, to grow over Jonah's shelter to give him some shade from the sun. Later, God causes a worm to bite the plant's root and it withers. Jonah, now being exposed to the full force of the sun, becomes faint and pleads for God to kill him. In response, God offers Jonah one final rebuke:
said, "You had pity over the kikayon, for which you had not labored, nor made grow, which was in a night, and was lost in a night;
and I should not have pity over the great city of Nineveh, within which are more than twelve myriads of man, whom do not know between their right and their left, and much livestock?"|Book of Jonah, <!-- This translation is not from the KJV. It is not clear which English translation refers to the plant as "the kikayon"-->}}
The book ends abruptly at this point. Interpretive history Early Jewish interpretationFragments of the book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, most of which follow the Masoretic Text closely and with Mur XII reproducing a large portion of the text. As for the non-canonical writings, the majority of references to biblical texts were made as appeals to authority. The Book of Jonah appears to have served less purpose in the Qumran community than other texts, as the writings make no references to it.Late Jewish interpretationThe 18th century Lithuanian master scholar and kabbalist, Elijah of Vilna, known as the Vilna Gaon, authored a commentary on the biblical Book of Jonah as an allegory of reincarnation.Early Christian interpretationNew Testament
allegory. From a 15th-century Biblia pauperum.]]
The earliest Christian interpretations of Jonah are found in the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke. Both Matthew and Luke record a tradition of Jesus' interpretation of the Book of Jonah (notably, Matthew includes two very similar traditions in chapters 12 and 16).
As with most Old Testament interpretations found in the New Testament, the interpretation ascribed to Jesus is primarily typological. Jonah becomes a "type" for Jesus. Jonah spent three days in the belly of the fish; Jesus will spend three days in the tomb. Here, Jesus plays on the imagery of Sheol found in Jonah's prayer. While Jonah metaphorically declared, "Out of the belly of Sheol I cried," Jesus will literally be in the belly of Sheol. Finally, Jesus compares his generation to the people of Nineveh. Jesus fulfills his role as a type of Jonah, however his generation fails to fulfill its role as a type of Nineveh. Nineveh repented, but Jesus' generation, which has seen and heard one even greater than Jonah, fails to repent. Through his typological interpretation of the Book of Jonah, Jesus has weighed his generation and found it wanting.
Augustine of Hippo
The debate over the credibility of the miracle of Jonah is not simply a modern one. The credibility of a human being surviving in the belly of a great fish has long been questioned. In , Augustine of Hippo wrote to Deogratias concerning the challenge of some to the miracle recorded in the Book of Jonah. He writes:
Augustine responds that if one is to question one miracle, then one should question all miracles as well (section 31). Nevertheless, despite his apologetic, Augustine views the story of Jonah as a figure for Christ. For example, he writes: "As, therefore, Jonah passed from the ship to the belly of the whale, so Christ passed from the cross to the sepulchre, or into the abyss of death. And as Jonah suffered this for the sake of those who were endangered by the storm, so Christ suffered for the sake of those who are tossed on the waves of this world." Augustine credits his allegorical interpretation to the interpretation of Christ himself (Matthew 12:39–40), and he allows for other interpretations as long as they are in line with Christ's.
Medieval commentary tradition
The Ordinary Gloss, or , was the most important Christian commentary on the Bible in the later Middle Ages. Ryan McDermott comments that "The Gloss on Jonah relies almost exclusively on Jerome's commentary on Jonah (), so its Latin often has a tone of urbane classicism. But the Gloss also chops up, compresses, and rearranges Jerome with a carnivalesque glee and scholastic directness that renders the Latin authentically medieval." "The Ordinary Gloss on Jonah" has been translated into English and printed in a format that emulates the first printing of the Gloss.
The relationship between Jonah and his fellow Jews is ambivalent, and complicated by the Gloss's tendency to read Jonah as an allegorical prefiguration of Jesus Christ. While some glosses in isolation seem crudely supersessionist ("The foreskin believes while the circumcision remains unfaithful"), the prevailing allegorical tendency is to attribute Jonah's recalcitrance to his abiding love for his own people and his insistence that God's promises to Israel not be overridden by a lenient policy toward the Ninevites. For the glossator, Jonah's pro-Israel motivations correspond to Christ's demurral in the Garden of Gethsemane ("My Father, if it be possible, let this chalice pass from me") and the Gospel of Matthew's and Paul's insistence that "salvation is from the Jews" (John 4:22). While in the Gloss the plot of Jonah prefigures how God will extend salvation to the nations, it also makes abundantly clear—as some medieval commentaries on the Gospel of John do not—that Jonah and Jesus are Jews, and that they make decisions of salvation-historical consequence as Jews.ModernIn Jungian analysis, the belly of the whale can be seen as a symbolic death and rebirth, which is also an important stage in comparative mythologist Joseph Campbell's "hero's journey".
NCSY Director of Education David Bashevkin sees Jonah as a thoughtful prophet who comes to religion out of a search for theological truth and is constantly disappointed by those who come to religion to provide mere comfort in the face of adversity inherent to the human condition. "If religion is only a blanket to provide warmth from the cold, harsh realities of life," Bashevkin imagines Jonah asking, "did concerns of theological truth and creed even matter?" The lesson taught by the episode of the tree at the end of the book is that comfort is a deep human need that religion provides, but that this need not obscure the role of God.
Jonah and the "big fish"
]]
The Hebrew text of Jonah reads (, ), literally meaning "great fish". The Septuagint translated this into Greek as (), "huge whale/sea monster"; and in Greek mythology the term was closely associated with sea monsters. Saint Jerome later translated the Greek phrase as in his Latin Vulgate, and as in Matthew. At some point, became synonymous with whale (cf. cetyl alcohol, which is alcohol derived from whales). In his 1534 translation, William Tyndale translated the phrase in Jonah 2:1 as "greate fyshe", and he translated the word (Greek) or (Latin) in Matthew as "whale". based on the emblematic trope of a fast-growing vine present in Persian narratives, and popularized in fables such as The Gourd and the Palm-tree during the Renaissance, for example by Andrea Alciato.
St. Jerome differed from St. Augustine in his Latin translation of the plant known in Hebrew as (), using (from the Greek, meaning "ivy") over the more common Latin , "gourd," from which the English word gourd (Old French , ) is derived. The Renaissance humanist artist Albrecht Dürer memorialized Jerome's decision to use an analogical type of Christ's "I am the Vine, you are the branches" in his woodcut Saint Jerome in His Study.
Surviving ancient manuscripts
as a part of Codex Gigas, made around 13th century.]]
Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008).
Fragments of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls (cumulatively covering the whole book), including 4Q82 (4QXII<sup>g</sup>; 25 BCE) with extant verses 1:1‑9, 2:3‑11, 3:1, 3:3, and 4:5‑11; and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75–100 CE) with extant verses 1:14‑16, 2:1‑7; 3:2‑5, 3:7‑10; 4:1‑2, and 4:5.
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (B; <math> \mathfrak{G}</math><sup>B</sup>; 4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (S; BHK: <math> \mathfrak{G}</math><sup>S</sup>; 4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (A; <math> \mathfrak{G}</math><sup>A</sup>; 5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (Q; <math> \mathfrak{G}</math><sup>Q</sup>; 6th century).
Fragments containing parts of this book in Greek were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q76 (4QXII<sup>a</sup>; 150–125 BCE) with extant verses 1:1–5, 1:7–10, 1:15–17 (1:17 2:1 in Hebrew Bible), 2:6 (verses 2:1,7 in Masoretic Text), and 3:2;<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/> 4Q81 (4QXII<sup>f</sup>; 175–50 BCE) with extant verses 1:6–8, 1:10–16;<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/> 4Q82 (4QXII<sup>g</sup>; 25 BCE) with extant verses 1:1–9, 2:2–10 (verses 2:3–11 in Masoretic Text), 3:1–3, and 4:5–11;<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/> and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75–100 CE) with extant verses 1:1–17 (1:1–16, 2:1 in Hebrew Bible), 2:1–10 (verses 2:1–11 in Masoretic Text), 3:1–10, and 4:1–11.,<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/> and Naḥal Ḥever (8ḤevXII<sup>gr</sup>; 1st century CE) with extant verses 2:1–6 (verses 2:1–7 in Masoretic Text), 3:2–5, 3:7–10, 4:1–2, and 4:5.<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/>
See also
* Jonah the son of Amittai
* Jaffa
* Nineveh
* Tarshish
Notes
References
Bibliography
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External links
* An English translation of the most important medieval Christian commentary on Jonah, [http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/18871/ "The Ordinary Gloss on Jonah," PMLA 128.2 (2013): 424–38].
* A brief introduction to [http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/FM.Wacome.Jonah.pdf Jonah]
* Various versions
*The Religion of Islam (2009), [https://www.islamreligion.com/articles/2548/prophet-jonah/ Prophet Jonah]
*[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt1701.htm Jonah 1 Hebrew with Parallel English]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20101119003358/http://latinvulgate.com/lv/verse.aspx?t0&b37&c=1 Jonah 1 English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate]
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Book of Micah
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The Book of Micah is the sixth of the twelve minor prophets in the Hebrew Bible. The book has seven chapters. Ostensibly, it records the sayings of Micah, whose name is Mikayahu (), meaning "Who is like Yahweh?", an 8th-century BCE prophet from the village of Moresheth in Judah (Hebrew name from the opening verse: מיכה המרשתי).
The book has three major divisions, chapters 1–2, 3–5 and 6–7, each introduced by the word "Hear", with a pattern of alternating announcements of doom and expressions of hope within each division. Micah reproaches unjust leaders, defends the rights of the poor against the rich and powerful; while looking forward to a world at peace centered on Zion under the leadership of a new Davidic monarch.
While the book is relatively short, it includes lament (1:8–16; 7:8–10), theophany (1.3–4), a hymnic prayer of petition and confidence (7:14–20), and the "covenant lawsuit" (6:1–8), a distinct genre in which Yahweh (God) sues Israel for breach of contract of the Mosaic covenant.
The formation of the Book of Micah is debated, with a consensus that its final stage occurred during the Persian period or Hellenistic period, but uncertainty remains about whether it was formed at the time or merely finalized.
Setting
warriors armed with slings from the palace of Sennacherib, 7th century BCE]]
The opening verse identifies the prophet as "Micah of Moresheth" (a town in southern Judah), and states that he lived during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, roughly 750–700 BCE. On Tiglath-Pileser's death Israel rebelled, resulting in an Assyrian counter-attack and the destruction of the capital, Samaria, in 721 after a three-year siege.
Some, but not all, scholars accept that only chapters 1–3 contain material from the late 8th-century BCE prophet Micah. The first stage was the collection and arrangement of some spoken sayings of the historical Micah (the material in chapters 1–3), in which the prophet attacks those who build estates through oppression and depicts the Assyrian invasion of Judah as Yahweh's punishment on the kingdom's corrupt rulers, including a prophecy that the Temple will be destroyed.
The prophecy was not fulfilled in Micah's time, but a hundred years later when Judah was facing a similar crisis with the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Micah's prophecies were reworked and expanded to reflect the new situation. Still later, after Jerusalem fell to the Neo-Babylonian Empire, the book was revised and expanded further to reflect the circumstances of the late exilic and post-exilic community.
Surviving early manuscripts
The oldest surviving manuscripts were made hundreds of years after the period or periods of authorship. The earliest surviving Masoretic Text versions include the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Since 1947, the current text of the Aleppo Codex is missing Micah 1:1 to 5:1.
Fragments containing parts of this book in the original Biblical Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q82 (25 BCE); and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (75–100 CE). Some fragments containing parts of this book in Greek were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, that is, Naḥal Ḥever 8Ḥev1 (late 1st century BCE).
* Judgment against the nations and their leaders
* Restoration of Zion (chapters 4–5, which belong together despite their possibly unclear connection,
* God's lawsuit against Israel and expression of hope (chapters 6–7, also probably exilic and post-exilic).
* 1.1 Superscription
* 1.2–2.11 Oracles of judgment
* 2.12–13 Oracles of restoration
* 3.1–12 Oracles of judgment
* 4.1–5.15 Oracles of restoration
* 6.1–7.6 Oracles of judgment
* 7.7–20 Oracles of restoration
Verse numbering
There is a difference in verse numbering between English Bibles and Hebrew texts, with Micah 4:14 in Hebrew texts being Micah 5:1 in English Bibles, and the Hebrew 5:1 etc. being numbered 5:2 etc. in English Bibles. This article generally follows the common numbering in Christian English Bible versions.
Subsections
* The Heading: As is typical of prophetic books, an anonymous editor or scribe has supplied the name of the prophet, an indication of his time of activity, and an identification of his speech as the "word of Yahweh", a generic term carrying a claim to prophetic legitimacy and authority. Samaria and Jerusalem are given prominence as the foci of the prophet's attention. Unlike prophets such as Isaiah and Hosea, no record of his father's name has been retained.
* Judgment against Samaria (1:2–7): Drawing upon ancient traditions for depicting a theophany, the prophet depicts the coming of Yahweh to punish the city, whose sins are idolatry and the abuse of the poor.
* Threats against the prophet (2:6–11): The prophet is warned not to prophesy. He answers that the rulers are harming God's people, and want to listen only to those who advocate the virtues of wine.
*Prophets for Profit (3:5-8): those condemned by Micah are explicitly called "prophets", while he appears to distance himself from personally being called a prophet.
*A concluding judgment (3:9-12) drawing together chapters 2–3. Zion (meaning the Temple) will be rebuilt, but by God, and based not on violence and corruption but on the desire to learn God's laws, beat swords to ploughshares and live in peace.
)]]
* Further promises to Zion (4:6–7): This is another later passage, promising Zion that she will once more enjoy her former independence and power. Although Micah 4:9 has asked "is there no king" in Zion, this chapter predicts that the coming Messiah will emerge from Bethlehem, the traditional home of the Davidic monarchy, to restore Israel. Assyria will invade (some translations prefer "if the Assyrians invade"), but she will be stricken, and Israel's punishment will lead to the punishment of the nations. Williamson treats Micah 4:8-5:6 as one unit, with "a clear and balanced structure".
* Torah Liturgy (6:6–8): Micah speaks on behalf of the community asking what they should do in order to get back on God's good side. Micah then responds by saying that God requires only "to do justice, and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with your God", thus declaring that the burnt offering of both animals and humans (which may have been practiced in Judah under Kings Ahaz and Manasseh) is not necessary for God.
* The City as a Cheat (6:9–16): The city is reprimanded for its dishonest trade practices.
* Lament (7:1–7): The first passage in the book in the first person: whether it comes from Micah himself is disputed. Honesty and decency have vanished, families are filled with strife. The Jerusalem Bible suggests that verse 7, For my part, I look to Yahweh ... may have been the conclusion of the original book, before additional poems on Israel's restoration were added.
* A song of fallen Jerusalem (7:8–10): The first person voice continues, but now it is the city who speaks. She recognises that her destruction is deserved punishment from God. The recognition gives grounds for hope that God is still with her.
*A hymn of praise for the incomparable God (7:18-20): the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine in the United States notes that these final verses "contain a hymn of praise for the incomparable God, who pardons sin and delights in mercy".
Themes
Micah addresses the future of Judah/Israel after the Babylonian exile. Like Isaiah, the book has a vision of the punishment of Israel and creation of a "remnant", followed by world peace centered on Zion under the leadership of a new Davidic monarch; the people should do justice, turn to Yahweh, and await the end of their punishment. However, whereas Isaiah sees Jacob/Israel joining "the nations" under Yahweh's rule, Micah looks forward to Israel ruling over the nations. Insofar as Micah appears to draw on and rework parts of Isaiah, it seems designed at least partly to provide a counterpoint to that book.
*John's Gospel has a possible allusion to the identification of the mysterious "him" that God causes to see marvels or marvelous things:
}}
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See also
* Zion
Notes
References
Bibliography
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* Further reading
* "Book of Micah." The Anchor Bible Dictionary. Vol. 4, Editor-in-Chief: Freedman, David N. Doubleday; New York. 1992.
* "Book of Micah." International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. General Editor: Bromley, G.W. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.; Grand Rapids, MI. 1986.
* [http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/download_group10629_id317189.pdf “ Book of Micah”] Forward Movement Publications, Cincinnati, OH, 2007
* Holy Bible: The New Oxford Annotated Bible. Coogan; Oxford University Press, 2007.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Hailey, Homer. (1973). A Commentary on the Minor Prophets. Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.
* Maxey, Al. The Minor Prophets: Micah. (n.d.). 20 Paragraphs. Retrieved October 4, 2005, from [http://www.zianet.com/maxey/Proph11.htm Micah]
* McKeating, Henry Engel. (1971). The Books of Amos, Hosea, and Micah. New York: the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press.
* Pusey, E.B. (1963). The Minor Prophets: A Commentary (Vol. II). Grand Rapids: Baker Book House.
* Wood, Joyce Rilett. (2000). "Speech and action in Micah's prophecy". Catholic Biblical Quarterly, no. 4(62), 49 paragraphs. Retrieved September 30, 2005, from OCLC (FirstSearch) database [http://newfirstsearch.oclc.org FirstSearch Login Screen]
External links
* Jewish translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15763 Michah – Micah (Judaica Press)] translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
* Christian translations:
** [http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Micah+1 Online Bible at GospelHall.org] (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
** [http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?book_id40&version31 BibleGateway.com] (New International Version)
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20050204033155/http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/33_micah.htm Micah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
* Various versions
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Book of Nahum
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The Book of Nahum is the seventh book of the 12 minor prophets of the Hebrew Bible. The book has three chapters. It is attributed to the prophet Nahum. The most general historical setting of Nahum as a prophet was 663 BC to 612 BC, while the historical setting that produced the book of Nahum is debated, with proposed timeframes ranging from shortly after the fall of Thebes in 663 BC to the Maccabean period around 175-165 BC. Another view, held by the ancient historian Josephus, proposes that the book of Nahum was from the reign of Jotham. This identification is supported by both the Greek Septuagint and the Latin Vulgate, both of which refer to Thebes in the present tense rather than the past tense. Its principal theme is the destruction of the Assyrian city of Nineveh.
Background
Scholars with a preference for Hebrew manuscripts place the writing of the book after the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal's Sack of Thebes in 663 B.C. This view is the current majority opinion because the city of Thebes is referred to in the past tense in the Masoretic Text of Nahum 3:8-10. However, both the Septuagint and Vulgate refer to the city in the present tense, and the former opinion held by scholars was that Nahum lived about a century earlier, before both the captivity of the ten lost tribes and the Sack of Thebes.
The first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus places Nahum's life during the reign of Jotham. This view was also held by the Catholic scholar Thomas Worthington in his notes for the original Douay-Rheims Bible, writing: "Nahum prophesied about 50 years after Jonah ... 135 before the destruction of Niniveh." In this view, rather than Ashurbanipal, Nahum's prophecy would have been directed at Tiglath-Pileser III, who revitalized the Neo-Assyrian Empire into a world power again and conquered most of the Levant, defeating and subjugating previously influential kingdoms, including Aram-Damascus. Tiglath-Pileser was contemporary with the reign of Jotham.
Some scholars hold that "the book of the vision" was written at the time of the fall of Nineveh, possibly around 615 BC, before the downfall of Assyria. The oracles must be dated after the Assyrian destruction of Thebes, Egypt in 663 BC, as this event is mentioned in Nahum 3:8.
Author
Little is known about Nahum's personal history. His name means "comfort", and he came from the town of Elkosh or Alqosh (Nahum 1:1), which scholars have attempted to identify with several cities, including the modern `Alqush of Assyria and Capernaum of northern Galilee. He was a very nationalistic Hebrew, and lived among the Elkoshites in peace.
Historical context
thumb|Simplified plan of ancient Nineveh, showing city wall and location of gateways.
The subject of Nahum's prophecy is the approaching complete and final destruction of Nineveh, which was the capital of the great and flourishing Assyrian empire at that time. Ashurbanipal was at the height of his glory. Nineveh was a city of vast extent, and was then the center of the civilization and commerce of the world, according to Nahum a "bloody city all full of lies and robbery", a reference to the Neo-Assyrian Empire's military campaigns and demand of tribute and plunder from conquered cities.
Jonah had already uttered his message of warning, and Nahum was followed by Zephaniah, who also predicted the destruction of the city.
Nineveh was destroyed apparently by fire around 625 BC, and the Assyrian empire came to an end, an event which changed the face of Asia. Archaeological digs have uncovered the splendor of Nineveh in its zenith under Sennacherib (705–681 BC), Esarhaddon (681–669 BC), and Ashurbanipal (669–633 BC). Massive walls were eight miles in circumference. It had a water aqueduct, palaces and a library with 20,000 clay tablets, including accounts of a creation in Enuma Elish and a flood in the Epic of Gilgamesh.
The Babylonian chronicle of the fall of Nineveh tells the story of the end of Nineveh. Nabopolassar of Babylon joined forces with Cyaxares, king of the Medes, and laid siege for three months.
Assyria lasted a few more years after the loss of its fortress, but attempts by Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II to rally the Assyrians failed due to opposition from king Josiah of Judah, and it seemed to be all over by 609 BC.
Overview
250px|thumb|The whole Book of Nahum in Latin as a part of Codex Gigas, made around the 13th century.
Beyond its superscription, Nahum 1:1, the Book of Nahum consists of two parts: a prelude in chapter one, followed by chapters two and three, which describe the fall of Nineveh, which later took place in 612 BC. Davidson notes that there are two parts to the superscription:
The burden of Nineveh, or "an oracle against Nineveh", probably an editorial addition, and
The book of the vision of Nahum the Elkoshite, which "may ... have come from the hand of the prophet himself".
Nineveh is compared to Thebes, the Egyptian city that Assyria itself had destroyed in 663 BC. 4Q82 (4QXIIg; 1st century BC). and Wadi Murabba'at MurXII (1st century AD). One might even say that the book of Nahum is "a celebration of the fall of Assyria". of the Assyrians." and how God dealt with those Assyrians in punishment according to "their cruelty".
The nature of God
From its opening, Nahum affirms God to be slow to anger, but that God will by no means ignore the guilty; God will bring his vengeance and wrath to pass. God is presented as a God who will punish evil, but will protect those who trust in Him. The opening passage states: "God is jealous, and the LORD revengeth; the LORD revengeth, and is furious; the LORD will take vengeance on his adversaries, and he reserveth wrath for his enemies. The LORD is slow to anger, and great in power, and will not at all acquit the wicked".
"The LORD is slow to anger and Quick to love; the LORD will not leave the guilty unpunished."
"The LORD is good, a refuge in times of trouble. He cares for those who trust in him."
Importance
God's judgement on Nineveh is "all because of the wanton lust of a harlot, alluring, the mistress of sorceries, who enslaved nations by her prostitution and peoples by her witchcraft." Infidelity, according to the prophets, related to spiritual unfaithfulness. For example: "the land is guilty of the vilest adultery in departing from the LORD." John of Patmos used a similar analogy in Revelation chapter 17.
The prophecy of Nahum was referenced in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit. In Tobit 14:4 (NRSV) a dying Tobit says to his son Tobias and Tobias' sons:
[My son] hurry off to Media, for I believe the word of God that Nahum spoke about Nineveh, that all these things will take place and overtake Assyria and Nineveh. Indeed, everything that was spoken by the prophets of Israel, whom God sent, will occur.
However, some versions, such as the King James Version, refer to the prophet Jonah instead.
See also
References
Sources
External links
Unique Pictures Of Nahum Tomb By Kobi Arami
Jewish translations:
Nachum – Nahum (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Christian translations:
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
BibleGateway
Nahum – King James Version
Various versions
Commentary
This article also contains a section on the Book of Nahum.
Category:7th-century BC books
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Book of Haggai
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The Book of Haggai (; ) is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, and is the third-to-last of the Twelve Minor Prophets. It is a short book, consisting of only two chapters. The historical setting dates around 520 BC, before the Temple had been rebuilt. The original text was written in Biblical Hebrew.
Authorship
The Book of Haggai is named after the prophet Haggai whose prophecies are recorded in the book. The authorship of the book is uncertain. Some presume that Haggai wrote the book himself but he is repeatedly referred to in the third person which makes it unlikely that he wrote the text: it is more probable that the book was written by a disciple of Haggai who sought to preserve the content of Haggai's spoken prophecies.
There is no biographical information given about the prophet in the Book of Haggai. Haggai's name is derived from the Hebrew verbal root hgg, which means "to make a pilgrimage". W. Sibley Towner suggests that Haggai's name might come "from his single-minded effort to bring about the reconstruction of that destination of ancient Judean pilgrims, the Temple in Jerusalem".
Date
The Book of Haggai records events in 520 BC, some 18 years after Cyrus had conquered Babylon and issued a decree in 538 BC, allowing the captive Judahites to return to Judea. Cyrus saw the restoration of the temple as necessary for the restoration of religious practices and a sense of peoplehood, after the long exile. The precise date of the written text is uncertain but most likely dates to within a generation of Haggai himself. Other scholars consider the book to be completed around 417 BC, arguing that it did not refer to Darius the Great (Darius I), but to Darius II (424-405 BC). Early surviving manuscripts Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Biblical Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments of the Hebrew text of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q77 (4QXII<sup>b</sup>; 150–125 BCE) 4Q80 (4QXII<sup>e</sup>; 75–50 BCE);
##Future Splendor of the temple ( )
See also
*Darius I
*Joshua the High Priest, son of Jehozadak
*Old Testament messianic prophecies quoted in the New Testament
Notes
References
Works cited
*
*
*
External links
*Jewish translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=15767 Chaggai – Haggai (Judaica Press)] translation with Rashi's commentary at Chabad.org
*Christian translations:
**[http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Haggai+1 Online Bible at GospelHall.org] (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
* Various versions
Category:6th-century BC books
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The Book of Malachi (Hebrew: , ) is the last book of the Neviim contained in the Tanakh, canonically the last of the Twelve Minor Prophets. In most Christian orderings, the grouping of the prophetic books is the last section of the Old Testament, making Malachi the last book before the New Testament. The book has four chapters.
The author may or may not have been identified by the title Malachi. Its title has frequently been understood as a proper name, although its Hebrew meaning is simply "My Messenger" (the Septuagint reads "his messenger") and would not have been a proper name at the time of its writing. "Malachi" is often assumed to be a pseudonym used by the real writer so he would not face retribution for his prophecies. Jewish tradition states that the book was written by Ezra the scribe.
Most scholars regard the book as the result of multiple stages of redaction; most of its text originated in the Persian period, with the oldest stratum from around 500 BCE and redactions into the Hellenistic period.Oldest surviving manuscripts
as a part of Codex Gigas, made around the 13th century]]
The original manuscript of this book is lost, as are many centuries worth of copies. The oldest surviving manuscripts containing some or all of this book in Hebrew are in the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), and Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this book were also found among Dead Sea Scrolls 4Q76 (150–125 BCE) and 4Q78 (75–50 BCE).
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BCE. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century). The Catholic priest and historian Jerome suggests that this may be because Ezra is seen as an intermediary between the prophets and the "great synagogue." According to Josephus, Ezra died and was buried "in a magnificent manner in Jerusalem". If the tradition that Ezra wrote under the name "Malachi" is correct, then he was probably buried in the Tomb of the Prophets, the traditional resting place of Malachi, Haggai, and Zechariah.
The name "Malachi" occurs in the superscription at 1:1 and in 3:1, although most consider it unlikely that the word refers to the same character in both of these references. According to the editors of the 1897 Easton's Bible Dictionary, some scholars believe the name "Malachi" is not a proper noun but rather an abbreviation of "messenger of Yah". This reading could be based on Malachi 3:1, "Behold, I will send my messenger...", if "my messenger" is taken literally as the name Malachi. Julius Wellhausen, Abraham Kuenen, and Wilhelm Gustav Hermann Nowack argue that Malachi 1:1 is a late addition, pointing to Zechariah 9:1 and 12:1. Another interpretation of the authorship comes from the Septuagint superscription, , which can be read as either "by the hand of his messenger" or as "by the hand of his angel". The "angel" reading found an echo among the ancient Church Fathers and ecclesiastical writers, and even gave rise to the "strangest fancies", especially among the disciples of Origen.PeriodThere are very few historical details in the Book of Malachi. The greatest clue as to its dating may lie in the fact that the Persian-era term for governor () is used in 1:8. This points to a post-exilic (that is, after 538 BCE) date of composition both because of the use of the Persian period term and because Judah had a king before the exile. Since, in the same verse, the temple has been rebuilt, the book must also be later than 515 BCE. Malachi was apparently known to the author of the Book of Sirach early in the second century BCE. Because of the development of themes in the book of Malachi, most scholars assign it to a position after the Book of Haggai and the Book of Zechariah, close to the time when Ezra and Nehemiah
Aim
The Book of Malachi was written to correct what the author saw as the lax religious and social behavior of the Israelites – particularly the priests – in post-exilic Jerusalem. Although the prophets urged the people of Judah and Israel to see their exile as punishment for failing to uphold their covenant with God, it was not long after they had been restored to the land and to Temple worship that the people's commitment to their God began, once again, to wane. It was in this context that the prophet commonly referred to as Malachi delivered his prophecy.
In 1:2, Malachi has the people of Israel question God's love for them. This introduction to the book illustrates the severity of the situation which Malachi addresses. The graveness of the situation is also indicated by the dialectical style with which Malachi confronts his audience. Malachi proceeds to accuse his audience of failing to respect God as God deserves. One way in which this disrespect is made manifest is through the substandard sacrifices which Malachi claims are being offered by the priests. While God demands animals that are "without blemish" (Leviticus 1:3, NRSV), the priests, who were "to determine whether the animal was acceptable" (Mason 143), were offering blind, lame and sick animals for sacrifice because they thought nobody would notice.
In 2:1, Malachi states Yahweh Sabaoth is sending a curse on the priests who have not honored him with appropriate animal sacrifices: "Now, watch how I am going to paralyze your arm and throw dung in your face--the dung from your very solemnities--and sweep you away with it. Then you shall learn that it is I who have given you this warning of my intention to abolish my covenant with Levi, says Yahweh Sabaoth."
In 2:10, Malachi addresses the issue of divorce. On this topic, Malachi deals with divorce both as a social problem ("Why then are we faithless to one another ... ?" 2:10) and as a religious problem ("Judah ... has married the daughter of a foreign god" 2:11). In contrast to the Book of Ezra, Malachi urges each to remain steadfast to the wife of his youth.
Malachi also criticizes his audience for questioning God's justice. He reminds them that God is just, exhorting them to be faithful as they await that justice. Malachi quickly goes on to point out that the people have not been faithful. In fact, the people are not giving God all that God deserves. Just as the priests have been offering unacceptable sacrifices, so the people have been neglecting to offer their full tithe to God.
Interpretations
The book of Malachi is divided into three chapters in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint and four chapters in the Latin Vulgate. The fourth chapter in the Vulgate consists of the remainder of the third chapter starting at verse 3:19.
Christianity
The New Revised Standard Version of the Bible supplies headings for the book as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verse/Chapter Headings in the NRSV
! Verse Reference !! Heading </tr>
| 1:1 || (Superscription) </tr>
| 1:2–2:9 || Israel Preferred to Edom </tr>
| 2:10–17 || The Covenant Profaned by Judah </tr>
| 3:1–7 || The Coming Messenger </tr>
| 3:8–18 || Do Not Rob God </tr>
| 4:1–5 (3:19–24 in Hebrew) || The Great Day of the Lord </tr>
|}
The majority of scholars consider the book to be made up of six distinct oracles. According to this scheme, the book of Malachi consists of a series of disputes between Yahweh and the various groups within the Israelite community. In the course of the book's three or four chapters, Yahweh is vindicated while those who do not adhere to the law of Moses are condemned. Some scholars have suggested that the book, as a whole, is structured along the lines of a judicial trial, a suzerain treaty or a covenant—one of the major themes throughout the Hebrew Scriptures. Implicit in the prophet's condemnation of Israel's religious practices is a call to keep Yahweh's statutes.
The Book of Malachi draws upon various themes found in other books of the Bible. Malachi appeals to the rivalry between Jacob and Esau and of Yahweh's preference for Jacob contained in Book of Genesis 25–28. Malachi reminds his audience that, as descendants of Jacob (Israel), they have been and continue to be favoured by God as God's chosen people. In the second dispute, Malachi draws upon the Levitical Code (e.g. Leviticus 1:3) in condemning the priest for offering unacceptable sacrifices.
In the third dispute (concerning divorce), the author of the Book of Malachi likely intends his argument to be understood on two levels. Malachi appears to be attacking either the practice of divorcing Jewish wives in favour of foreign ones (a practice which Ezra vehemently condemns) or, alternatively, Malachi could be condemning the practice of divorcing foreign wives in favour of Jewish wives (a practice which Ezra promoted). Malachi appears adamant that nationality is not a valid reason to terminate a marriage, "For I hate divorce, says the Lord . . ." (2:16).
In many places throughout the Hebrew Scriptures – particularly the Book of Hosea – Israel is figured as Yahweh's wife or bride. Malachi's discussion of divorce may also be understood to conform to this metaphor. Malachi could very well be urging his audience not to break faith with Yahweh (the God of Israel) by adopting new gods or idols. It is quite likely that, since the people of Judah were questioning Yahweh's love and justice (1:2, 2:17), they might be tempted to adopt foreign gods. William LaSor suggests that, because the restoration to the land of Judah had not resulted in anything like the prophesied splendor of the messianic age which had been prophesied, the people were becoming quite disillusioned with their religion.
]]
Indeed, the fourth dispute asserts that judgment is coming in the form of a messenger who "is like refiner's fire and like fullers' soap . . ." (3:2).
Following this, the prophet provides another example of wrongdoing in the fifth dispute – that is, failing to offer full tithes. In this discussion, Malachi has Yahweh request the people to "Bring the full tithe . . . [and] see if I will not open the windows of heaven for you and pour down on you an overflowing blessing" (3:10). This request offers the opportunity for the people to amend their ways. It also stresses that keeping the Lord's statutes will not only allow the people to avoid God's wrath, but will also lead to God's blessing. (It is this portion of Malachi which is used as support for the view that tithing is required of Christians.)
In the sixth dispute, the people of Israel illustrate the extent of their disillusionment. Malachi has them say "'It is vain to serve God . . . Now we count the arrogant happy; evildoers not only prosper, but when they put God to the test they escape'" (3:14–15). Once again, Malachi has Yahweh assure the people that the wicked will be punished and the faithful will be rewarded.
In the light of what Malachi understands to be an imminent judgment, he exhorts his audience to "Remember the teaching of my servant Moses, that statutes and ordinances that I commanded him at Horeb for all Israel" (4:4; 3:22, MT). Before the Day of the Lord, Malachi declares that Elijah (who "ascended in a whirlwind into heaven . . . [,]" 2 Kings 2:11) will return to earth in order that people might follow in God's ways.
Primarily because of its messianic promise, the Book of Malachi is frequently referred to in the Christian New Testament. What follows is a brief comparison between the Book of Malachi and the New Testament texts which refer to it (as suggested in Hill 84–88).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Use of the book of Malachi in the New Testament (NRSV)
|-
! Malachi !! New Testament
|-
| "Yet I have loved Jacob but I have hated Esau" (1:2–3)|| "'I have loved Jacob, but I have hated Esau.'" (Romans 9:13)
|-
| "And if I am a master, where is the respect due me?" (1:6) || "Why do you call me "Lord, Lord,' and do not do what I tell you?" (Luke 6:46)
|-
| "the table of YHWH" (1:7,12) || "the table of the Lord" (1 Corinthians 10:21)
|-
| "For from the rising of the sun to its setting my name is great among the nations," (1:11) || "so that the name of our Lord Jesus may be glorified in you" (2 Thessalonians 1:12)
|-
| || "Lord, who will not fear and glorify your name?" (Revelation 15:4)
|-
| "For the lips of a priest should guard knowledge, and people should seek instruction from his mouth, for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts. But you have turned aside from the way; you have caused many to stumble by your instruction; you have corrupted the covenant of Levi, says the Lord of hosts," (2:7–8) || "therefore, do whatever they teach you and follow it; but do not do as they do, for they do not practice what they teach" (Matthew 23:3)
|-
| "Have we not all one father?" (2:10) || "yet for us there is one God, the Father" (1 Corinthians 8:6)
|-
| "See, I am sending my messenger to prepare the way before me" (3:1) || "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way" (Mark 1:2)
|-
| || "See, I am sending my messenger ahead of you, who will prepare your way before you" (Matthew 11:10†, Luke 7:27)
|-
| "But who can endure the day of his coming, and who can stand when he appears?" (3:2) || "for the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to stand?" (Revelation 6:17)
|-
| "and he will purify the descendants of Levi and refine them like gold and silver" (3:3) || "so that the genuineness of your faith . . . being more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire . . ." (1 Peter 1:7)
|-
| "against those who oppress the hired workers in their wages" (3:5) || "Listen! The wages of the laborers who mowed your fields, which you kept back by fraud" (James 5:4)
|-
| "For I, Jehovah, change not;" (3:6) || "Jesus Christ is the same yesterday and today and forever." (Hebrews 13:8)
|-
| "Return to me, and I will return to you," (3:7) || "Draw near to God, and he will draw near to you" (James 4:8)
|-
| "But for you who revere my name the sun of righteousness shall rise," (4:2) || "By the tender mercy of our God, the dawn from on high will break upon us," (Luke 1:78)
|-
| "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come." (4:5) || "he is Elijah who is to come." (Matthew 11:14)
|-
| || "Elijah has already come," (Matthew 17:12)
|-
| || "Elijah has come," (Mark 9:13)
|-
| "Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and terrible day of Jehovah come. And he shall turn the heart of the fathers to the children, and the heart of the children to their fathers; lest I come and smite the earth with a curse." (4:5–6) || "With the spirit and power of Elijah he will go before him, to turn the hearts of parents to their children, and the disobedient to the wisdom of the righteous," (Luke 1:17)
|}
Although many Christians believe that the messianic prophecies of the Book of Malachi have been fulfilled in the life of Jesus, most Jews continue to await the coming of the prophet Elijah who will prepare the way for the Lord.
References
Bibliography
* Hill, Andrew E. Malachi: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. The Anchor Bible Volume 25D. Toronto: Doubleday, 1998.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* Mason, Rex. The Books of Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The Cambridge Bible Commentary on the New English Bible. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1977.
* Singer, Isidore & Adolf Guttmacher. "Book of Malachi." [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/ JewishEncyclopedia.com]. 2002.
* Van Hoonacker, A. "Malachias (Malachi)." Catholic Encyclopedia. Transcribed by Thomas J. Bress. 2003.
External links
* [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMalachi%201&versionNABRE New American Bible]
* [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMalachi+1&versionKJ21 21st Century KJV]
* [https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchMalachi+1&versionNIRV NIRV]
* [https://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16219 Malachi at Chabad.org]
** Various versions
Category:Texts assigned to Ezra
Category:6th-century BC books
Category:5th-century BC books
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The Book of Zechariah is a Jewish text attributed to Zechariah, a Hebrew prophet of the late 6th century BC. In the Hebrew Bible, the text is included as part of the Twelve Minor Prophets, itself a part of the second division of that work. In the Christian Old Testament, the Book of Zechariah is considered to be a separate book and consists of fourteen chapters.
Historical context
One of the three prophets from the post-exilic period, Zechariah's prophecies took place during the reign of Darius the Great. Chapters 1–8 of the book are contemporary with the prophecies of Haggai, while chapters 9–14 (often termed Second Zechariah) are thought to have been written much later—in the 5th century, during the late Persian or early Ptolemaic period. Scholars believe that Ezekiel, with his blending of ceremony and vision, heavily influenced the visionary works of Zechariah 1–8.
During the exile, a significant portion of the population of the Kingdom of Judah was taken to Babylon, where the prophets told them to make their homes, suggesting they would spend a long time there. Cyrus the Great conquered the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 539 BC. The following year, he released the Edict of Cyrus, which marked the beginning of the first return to Judah under Sheshbazzar.
Darius acceded to the throne in 522 BC. He divided the many regions of the empire into provinces, each of which was overseen by a governor. Zerubbabel was appointed by Darius as governor over Judah (now redesignated the province of Yehud Medinata of the Persian Empire). Under the reign of Darius, Zechariah also emerged, focusing his prophecies on the rebuilding of the Temple. Unlike the Babylonians, the Persian Empire went to great lengths to keep cordial relations between vassal and lord. The rebuilding of the Temple was encouraged by the Persian monarchs in hopes that it would stabilize the local population. This policy was good politics on the part of the Persians, and the Jews viewed it as a blessing from God.
Prophet
The name "Zechariah" means "God remembered." Not much is known about Zechariah's life other than what may be inferred from the book. It has been speculated that his grandfather Iddo was the head of a priestly family who returned with Zerubbabel and that Zechariah may have been a priest as well as a prophet. This is supported by Zechariah's interest in the Temple and the priesthood, and from Iddo's preaching in the Books of Chronicles.
Authorship
thumb|Greek manuscript of Zechariah from c. 50 BCE–50 CE (Nahal Hever)
Most modern scholars believe the Book of Zechariah was written by at least two different people. Zechariah 1–8, sometimes referred to as First Zechariah, was written in the 6th century BC and contains oracles from the historical prophet Zechariah, who lived in the Achaemenid Empire during the kingdom of Darius the Great. Zechariah 9–14, often called Second Zechariah, contains within the text no datable references to specific events or individuals, but most scholars give the text a date in the 5th century BC. Second Zechariah, in the opinion of some scholars, appears to make use of the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, the Deuteronomistic history, and the themes from First Zechariah. This has led some to believe that the writer(s) or editor(s) of Second Zechariah may have been a disciple of the prophet Zechariah. There are some scholars who go even further and divide Second Zechariah into Second Zechariah (9–11) and Third Zechariah (12–14) since each begins with a heading oracle.
Composition
thumb|250px|Zechariah's vision of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, engraving by Gustave Doré.
The return from exile is the theological premise of the prophet's visions in chapters 1–6. Chapters 7–8 address the quality of life God wants his renewed people to enjoy, containing many encouraging promises to them. Chapters 9–14 comprise two "oracles" of the future.
Chapters 1 to 6
The book begins with a preface in verses 1:1-6, which recalls the role of the "former prophets" in calling Israel in times past to repentance. Then follows a series of eight visions succeeding one another in one night, which may be regarded as a symbolical history of Israel, intended to furnish consolation to the returned exiles and to stir up hope in their minds. These visions include seeing four horses, four horns and four craftsmen, a man with a measuring line, Joshua the High Priest, a gold lampstand and two olive trees, a flying scroll and a woman in a basket, and four chariots. The symbolic action, the crowning of Joshua, describes how the kingdoms of the world become the kingdom of God's Messiah.
The German commentators Carl Friedrich Keil and Franz Delitzsch enumerate seven visions, arguing that the visions conventionally numbered as the sixth and the seventh are better treated as a single vision.
Chapters 7 and 8
Two years after the initial visions, chapters 7 and 8 are delivered. They are an answer to the question whether the days of mourning for the destruction of the city should be kept any longer. The answer is addressed to the entire people, assuring them of God's presence and blessing.
Chapters 9 to 14
This section consists of two "oracles" or "burdens": the opening words of both chapter 9 and chapter 12 (and also the first chapter of Malachi) announce "The burden of the word of the Lord".
The first oracle (Zechariah 9–11) gives an outline of the course of God's providential dealings with his people down to the time of the coming of the Messiah, although the opening "burden" is addressed to the foreign nations.
Katrina Larkin argues that there is a unity across these six chapters established by a series of short "linking passages" at 9:9-10, 10:1-2, 11:1-3, 11:17 and 13:7-9". She refers to these passages as compact and metrical, addressed directly to their audience, which contain material linking with both the previous and the subsequent text. Ultimately, YHWH plans to live again with his people in Jerusalem. He will save them from their enemies and cleanse them from sin. However, God requires repentance, a turning away from sin towards faith in him.
Zechariah's concern for purity is apparent in the temple, priesthood, and all areas of life as the prophecy gradually eliminates the governor's influence in favour of the high priest, and the sanctuary becomes ever more clearly the centre of messianic fulfillment. The prominence of prophecy is quite apparent in Zechariah, but it is also true that Zechariah (along with Haggai) allows prophecy to yield to the priesthood; this is particularly apparent in comparing Zechariah to Third Isaiah (chapters 55–66 of the Book of Isaiah), whose author was active sometime after the first return from exile.
Most Christian commentators read the series of predictions in chapters 7 to 14 as Messianic prophecies, either directly or indirectly. These chapters helped the writers of the Gospels understand Jesus's suffering, death, and resurrection, which they quoted as they wrote of Jesus's final days. Much of the Book of Revelation, which narrates the denouement of history, is also colored by images in Zechariah.
Apocalyptic literature
Chapters 9–14 of the Book of Zechariah are an early example of apocalyptic literature. Although not as fully developed as the apocalyptic visions described in the Book of Daniel, the "oracles", as they are titled in these chapters, contain apocalyptic elements. One theme these oracles contain is descriptions of the Day of the Lord, when "the Lord will go forth and fight against those nations as when he fights on a day of battle". These chapters also contain "pessimism about the present, but optimism for the future based on the expectation of an ultimate divine victory and the subsequent transformation of the cosmos".
The final portion in Zechariah states that on the Day of the Lord, "there shall be no more the Canaanite in the house of the ", proclaiming the need for purity in the Temple, which would come when God judged at the end of time. The Hebrew word , often translated as "Canaanite", is alternatively translated as "trader" or "trafficker", as in other translations.
Notes
References
Dempster, Stephen G., Dominion And Dynasty: A Theology Of The Hebrew Bible. Illinois: Intervarsity Press, 2003.
Guthrie, Donald (ed.), New Bible Commentary. [3d ed., completely rev. and reset]. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1970, .
Stuhlmueller, Carroll, Haggai and Zechariah: Rebuilding With Hope. Edinburgh: The Handsel Press Ltd., 1988. .
The Student Bible, NIV. Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House, 1992. .
External links
Translations
Zechariah (Judaica Press) translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
Online Bible at GospelHall.org (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
Various versions
Category:6th-century BC books
Category:5th-century BC books
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(AD. 1008) contains the complete text of the Book of Zephaniah in Hebrew.]]
The Book of Zephaniah (, Ṣəfanyā; sometimes Latinized as Sophonias) is the ninth of the Twelve Minor Prophets of the Old Testament and Tanakh, preceded in all traditions by the Book of Habakkuk and followed by the Book of Haggai. The book has three chapters. Zephaniah is a male given name which is usually interpreted to mean "Yahweh has hidden/protected", or "Yahweh hides". The church father Jerome of Stridon interpreted Zephaniah's name to mean "the watchman of the Lord". The original text of the prophecy was written in Biblical Hebrew.
Scholars propose various dates of composition; Zephaniah 2’s oracles may have a seventh century BCE date with the book possibly growing out from that core, while the number of intertextual references suggests an exilic or later composition and editing.
Authorship and date
, with part of the Book of Zephaniah (Latin Sophonias)]]
The book's superscription attributes its authorship to "Zephaniah son of Cushi son of Gedaliah son of Amariah son of Hezekiah, in the days of King Josiah son of Amon of Judah". All that is known of Zephaniah comes from within the text.
The name "Cushi," Zephaniah's father, means "Cushite" or "Ethiopian", and the text of Zephaniah mentions the sin and restoration of Cushim. While some have concluded from this that Zephaniah was dark-skinned or African, Ehud Ben Zvi maintains that, based on the context, "Cushi" must be understood as a personal name rather than an indicator of nationality. Abraham ibn Ezra interpreted the name Hezekiah in the superscription as King Hezekiah of Judah, though that is not a claim advanced in the text of Zephaniah.
As with many of the other prophets, there is no external evidence to directly associate composition of the book with a prophet by the name of Zephaniah. Some scholars, such as Kent Harold Richards and Jason DeRouchie, consider the words in Zephaniah to reflect a time early in the reign of King Josiah (640–609 BC) before his reforms of 622 BC took full effect, in which case the prophet may have been born during the reign of Manasseh (698/687–642 BC). Others argue that some portion of the book is postmonarchic, that is, dating to later than 586 BC when the Kingdom of Judah fell in the Siege of Jerusalem. Some who consider the book to have largely been written by a historical Zephaniah have suggested that he may have been a disciple of the prophet Isaiah, because of the two books' similar focus on rampant corruption and injustice in Judah. The Jerusalem Bible links Zephaniah 2:11 and 3:9-10 with the Book of Consolation (Isaiah 40-55). Purpose If Zephaniah was largely composed during the monarchic period, then its composition was occasioned by Judah's refusal to obey its covenant obligations toward Yahweh despite having seen northern Israel's exile a generation or two previously, an exile which the Judahite literary tradition attributed to Yahweh's anger aroused by Israel's disobedience to the covenant. In this historical context, Zephaniah urges Judah to obedience to Yahweh, saying that "perhaps" he will forgive them if they do.
Themes
The HarperCollins Study Bible supplies headings for sections within the book as follows:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Verse and chapter headings in the HCSB
! Verse (NRSV) !! Heading </tr>
| 1:1 || (Superscription) </tr>
| 1:2–13 || The Coming Judgment on Judah </tr>
| 1:14–18 || The Great Day of the Lord </tr>
| 2:1–15 || Judgment on Israel's Enemies </tr>
| 3:1–7 || The Wickedness of Jerusalem </tr>
| 3:8–13 || Punishment and Conversion of the Nations </tr>
| 3:14–20 || Song of Joy </tr>
|}
More consistently than any other prophetic book, Zephaniah focuses on "the day of the Lord", developing this tradition from its first appearance in Amos. The day of the Lord tradition also appears in Isaiah, Ezekiel, Obadiah, Joel, and Malachi.
The book begins by describing Yahweh's judgement. With a triple repetition of "I will sweep away" in Zephaniah 1:2–3, Zephaniah emphasizes the totality of the destruction, as the number three often signifies perfection in the Bible. The order of creatures in Zephaniah 1:2 ("humans and animals ... the birds ... the fish") is the opposite of the creation order in Genesis 1:1–28, signifying an undoing of creation. This is also signified by the way that "from the face of the earth" forms an inclusio around Zephaniah 1:2-3, hearkening back to how the phrase is used in the Genesis flood narrative in Genesis 6:7, Genesis 7:4, and Genesis 8:8, where it also connotes an undoing of creation.
As is common in prophetic literature in the Bible, a "remnant" survives Yahweh's judgement, by humbly seeking refuge in Yahweh. The book concludes with an announcement of hope and joy, as Yahweh "bursts forth in joyful divine celebration" over his people.
Later influence
Because of its hopeful tone of the gathering and restoration of exiles, has been included in Jewish liturgy.
Zephaniah served as a major inspiration for the medieval Catholic hymn "Dies Irae," whose title and opening words are from the Vulgate translation of .Surviving early manuscripts
The original manuscript of this book has been lost. Some early manuscripts containing the text of this book in Hebrew are of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes the Codex Cairensis (895), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q77 (4QXII<sup>b</sup>; 150–125 BCE), 4Q78 (4QXII<sup>c</sup>; 75–50 BCE),<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/> and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE).<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/>
There is also a translation into Koine Greek known as the Septuagint, made in the last few centuries BC. Extant ancient manuscripts of the Septuagint version include Codex Vaticanus (4th century), Codex Sinaiticus (4th century), Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) and Codex Marchalianus (6th century). Some fragments containing parts of the Septuagint version of this book were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, i.e., Naḥal Ḥever (1st century CE).<ref namethewaytoyahuweh/>References Sources *
* |title The Jewish Study Bible |url https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195297515 |url-access registration |year 2004 |publisher Oxford University Press |place New York |editor-last1 Berlin |editor-first1 Adele |editor1-link Adele Berlin |editor-last2 Brettler |editor-first2 Marc Zvi |editor2-link Marc Zvi Brettler |editor-last3 Fishbane |editor-first3 Michael |editor3-link Michael Fishbane |isbn = 978-0-19529751-5}}
* |title NIV Zondervan Study Bible |year 2015 |publisher Zondervan |place Grand Rapids |editor-last1 Carson |editor-first1 D. A. |editor1-link D. A. Carson |editor-last2 Hess |editor-first2 Richard S. |editor2-link Richard Hess |editor-last3 Alexander
|editor-first3 T. D. |editor-last4 Moo |editor-first4 Douglas J. |editor4-link Douglas J. Moo |editor-last5 Naselli |editor-first5 Andrew David |isbn = 978-0-31043833-5}}
* |title ESV Study Bible |title-link ESV Study Bible |year 2008 |publisher Crossway |place Wheaton |editor-last1 Grudem |editor-first1 Wayne |editor1-link Wayne Grudem |editor-last2 Dennis |editor-first2 Lane T.|editor-last3 Packer |editor-first3 J. I. |editor3-link J. I. Packer |editor-last4 Collins |editor-first4 C. John |editor4-link C. John Collins |editor-last5 Schreiner |editor-first5 Thomas R. |editor5-link Thomas R. Schreiner |editor-last6 Taylor |editor-first6 Justin |isbn = 978-1-43350241-5}}
*
*
* Further reading
* Berlin, Adele. Zephaniah: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary. The Anchor Bible Volume 25A. Toronto: Doubleday, 1994.
* Easton's Bible Dictionary, 1897.
* Transcribed by Thomas M. Barrett. 2003.
* Hirsch, Emil G. & Ira Maurice Price. "[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15242-zephaniah Zephaniah]", JewishEncyclopedia.com. 2002.
* LaSor, William Sanford et al. Old Testament Survey: the Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans, 1996.
* O. Palmer Robertson. The Books of Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah (New International Commentary on the Old Testament, 1990)
* Sweeney, Marvin A. Zephaniah: A Commentary. Ed. Paul D. Hanson. Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 2003.
External links
* [http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid106&letterZ Zephaniah at JewishEncyclopedia.com]
Translations
*Jewish translations:
** [http://www.chabad.org/library/archive/LibraryArchive2.asp?AID=15766 Tzefaniah – Zephaniah (Judaica Press)] translation [with Rashi's commentary] at Chabad.org
*Christian translations:
**[http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Zephaniah+1 Online Bible at GospelHall.org] (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
** [http://bible.crosswalk.com/OnlineStudyBible/bible.cgi?passage=zep+1 Zephaniah at CrossWalk.com] (various versions)
** [https://web.archive.org/web/20050305095310/http://www.anova.org/sev/htm/hb/36_zephaniah.htm Zephaniah at The Great Books] (New Revised Standard Version)
** Zephaniah at Wikisource (Authorized King James Version)
*Non-affiliated translations:
** [https://theheavenlyfire.weebly.com/uploads/3/0/3/1/30313305/thf-zephaniah-2.0.pdf The Heavenly Fire: Zephaniah] (PDF) (Creative Commons translation with in-depth introduction and extensive translation notes)
* Various versions
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Book of Habakkuk
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The Book of Habakkuk is the eighth book of the 12 minor prophets of the Bible. The book has three chapters. It is attributed to the prophet Habakkuk. Due to the limited historical data, scholars have proposed a broad range of dates for the composition of the book; many agree that the period during Jehoiakim’s reign (609–597 BCE) aligns well with the context described in Habakkuk. It is an important text in Judaism, and passages from the book are quoted by authors of the New Testament, and its message has inspired modern Christian hymn writers.
Of the three chapters in the book, the first two are a dialogue between Yahweh and the prophet. A verse in chapter 2 stating that "the just shall live by his faith" plays an important role in Christian thought. It is used in the Epistle to the Romans, Epistle to the Galatians, and the Epistle to the Hebrews as the starting point of the concept of faith. A copy of these two chapters is included in the Habakkuk Commentary, found among the Dead Sea Scrolls. Chapter 3 is now recognized as a liturgical piece. It is debated whether chapter 3 and the first two chapters were written by the same author.
Background
The prophet Habakkuk is generally believed to have written his book in the mid-to-late 7th century BC. It is likely that it was written shortly after the Fall of Nineveh (in 612 BC) and before the Babylonian capture of Jerusalem (in 586 BC).
Author
Habakkuk identifies himself as a prophet in the opening verse. Due to the liturgical nature of the book of Habakkuk, there have been some scholars who think that the author may have been a temple prophet. Temple prophets are described in 1 Chronicles 25:1 as using lyres, harps and cymbals. Some feel that this is echoed in Habakkuk 3:19b, and that Habakkuk may have been a Levite and singer in the Temple.
There is no biographical information on the prophet Habakkuk. The only canonical information that exists comes from the book that is named for him. His name comes either from the Hebrew word חבק (ḥavaq) meaning "embrace" or else from an Akkadian word hambakuku for a kind of plant.
Although his name does not appear in any other part of the Jewish Bible, Rabbinic tradition holds Habakkuk to be the Shunammite woman's son, who was restored to life by Elisha in 2 Kings 4:16. The prophet Habakkuk is also mentioned in the narrative of Bel and the Dragon, part of the deuterocanonical additions to Daniel in a late section of that book. In the superscription of the Old Greek version, Habakkuk is called the son of Joshua of the tribe of Levi. In this book Habakkuk is lifted by an angel to Babylon to provide Daniel with some food while he is in the lion's den.
Historical context
c. 600 BC]]
It is unknown when Habakkuk lived and preached, but the reference to the rise and advance of the Chaldeans in 1:6–11 places him in the middle to last quarter of the 7th century BC. One possible period might be during the reign of Jehoiakim, from 609 to 598 BC. The reasoning for this date is that it is during his reign that the Neo-Babylonian Empire of the Chaldeans was growing in power. The Babylonians marched against Jerusalem in 598 BC. Jehoiakim died while the Babylonians were marching towards Jerusalem and Jehoiakim's eighteen-year-old son Jehoiachin assumed the throne. Upon the Babylonians' arrival, Jehoiachin and his advisors surrendered Jerusalem after a short time. With the transition of rulers and the young age and inexperience of Jehoiachin, they were not able to stand against Chaldean forces. There is a sense of an intimate knowledge of the Babylonian brutality in 1:12–17.
Overview
The book of Habakkuk is a book of the Tanakh (the Old Testament) and stands eighth in a section known as the 12 Minor Prophets in the Masoretic and Greek texts. In the Masoretic listing, it follows Nahum and precedes Zephaniah, who are considered to be his contemporaries.
The book consists of three chapters and the book is neatly divided into three different genres:
* A discussion between God and Habakkuk
* An oracle of woe
* A psalm, "Habakkuk's song".
Themes
and God; Illuminated Bible from the 1220s, National Library of Portugal]]
The major theme of Habakkuk is trying to grow from a faith of perplexity and doubt to the height of absolute trust in God. Habakkuk addresses his concerns over the fact that God will use the Babylonian empire to execute judgment on Judah for their sins.
Habakkuk openly questions the wisdom of God. In the first part of the first chapter, the Prophet sees the injustice among his people and asks why God does not take action. "Yahweh, how long will I cry, and you will not hear? I cry out to you “Violence!” and will you not save?" – (Habakkuk 1:2)
In the middle part of Chapter 1, God explains that he will send the Chaldeans (also known as the Babylonians) to punish his people. In 1:5: "Look among the nations, watch, and wonder marvelously; for I am working a work in your days, which you will not believe though it is told you." In 1:6: "For, behold, I raise up the Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation, that march through the breadth of the earth, to possess dwelling places that are not theirs."
One of the "Eighteen Emendations to the Hebrew Scriptures" appears at 1:12. According to the professional Jewish scribes, the Sopherim, the text of 1:12 was changed from "You [God] do not die" to "We shall not die". The Sopherim considered it disrespectful to say to God, "You do not die."
In the final part of the first chapter, the prophet expresses shock at God's choice of instrument for judgment, in 1:13: "You who have purer eyes than to see evil, and who cannot look on perversity, why do you tolerate those who deal treacherously, and keep silent when the wicked swallows up the man who is more righteous than he[...]?"
Finally, in Chapter 3, Habakkuk expresses his ultimate faith in God, even if he does not fully understand: "For though the fig tree doesn’t flourish, nor fruit be in the vines; the labor of the olive fails, the fields yield no food; the flocks are cut off from the fold, and there is no herd in the stalls: 3:18 yet I will rejoice in Yahweh. I will be joyful in the God of my salvation!" and of the Masoretic Text tradition, which includes Codex Cairensis (895 CE), the Petersburg Codex of the Prophets (916), Aleppo Codex (10th century), Codex Leningradensis (1008). Fragments containing parts of this book in Hebrew were found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, including 4Q82 (4QXII<sup>g</sup>; 25 BCE) with extant verses 4?; and Wadi Murabba'at Minor Prophets (Mur88; MurXIIProph; 75-100 CE) with extant verses 1:3–13, 1:15, 2:2–3, 2:5–11, 2:18–20, and 3:1–19. and with texts found in the Book of Daniel. However, the fact that the third chapter is written in a different style, as a liturgical piece, does not necessarily mean that Habakkuk was not also its author.
Qumran community
A commentary on the first two chapters of the book was found among the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran. The omission of chapter 3 from the version within the Dead Sea Scrolls has been attributed to incompatibilities with the theology of the Qumran sect.Habakkuk 2:4
: "the righteous will live by his faith."]]
The Talmud (Makkot 24a) mentions that various Biblical figures grouped the 613 commandments into categories that encapsulated all of the 613. At the end of this discussion, the Talmud concludes, "Habakkuk came and established [the 613 mitzvoth] upon one, as it is stated: 'But the righteous person shall live by his faith' (Habakkuk 2:4)".
Habakkuk 2:4 is well known in Christianity. In the New International Version of the bible it reads:
:See, the enemy is puffed up; his desires are not upright
::but the righteous person will live by his faithfulness.
Although the second half of this passage is only three words in the original Hebrew,}} it is quoted three times in the New Testament. Paul the Apostle quotes it once in his Epistle to the Romans, and again in his Epistle to the Galatians; its third use is in the Epistle to the Hebrews. It became one of the most important of the verses that were used as foundations of the doctrines of the Protestant reformation.
The word "emunah" is not translated as "belief" other than in Habakkuk 2:4, Clendenen, E. Ray defended the translation of the word as "faith" on the basis of the context of the verse, arguing that it refers to Genesis 15:6, which used the word "he’ĕmin" 'believed' of which "’ĕmȗnāh" is derived from, he also argued that the Essenes in the Qumran community likely understood the verse as referring to faith in the Teacher of Righteousness instead of faithfulness.
Martin Luther believed that Habakkuk 2:4 taught the doctrine of faith alone, commenting on the verse "For this is a general saying applicable to all of God's words. These must be believed, whether spoken at the beginning, middle, or end of the world".
Rashi interpreted the verse to be about Jeconiah.
The Targum interpreted the verse as "The wicked think that all these things are not so, but the righteous live by the truth of them".
Pseudo-Ignatius understood the verse to be about faith.Habakkuk 2:6-20: the taunting riddleThe melitzah ḥidah, or the taunting riddle, is the oracle revealed to Habakkuk the prophet. It is a mashal, which is a proverb and a parable. It is also known as a witty satire, a mocking and an enigma. The riddle is 15 verses long, from verse 6 to verse 20, and is divided into five woes which consist of three verses each.
Hebrew Text
The following table shows the Hebrew text of Habakkuk 2:6-20 with vowels alongside an English translation based upon the JPS 1917 translation (now in the public domain).
{| class="wikitable"
!Verse
!Hebrew text
!English translation (JPS 1917)
|-
| align="center" | 6
| align="right" |
|Shall not all these take up a parable against him, And a taunting riddle against him, And say: ‘Woe to him that increaseth that which is not his! How long? and that ladeth himself with many pledges!
|-
| align="center" | 7
| align="right" |
|Shall they not rise up suddenly that shall exact interest of thee, And awake that shall violently shake thee, And thou shalt be for booties unto them?
|-
| align="center" | 8
| align="right" | }
|Because thou hast spoiled many nations, All the remnant of the peoples shall spoil thee; Because of men's blood, and for the violence done to the land, To the city and to all that dwell therein.
|-
| align="center" | 9
| align="right" |
|Woe to him that gaineth evil gains for his house, That he may set his nest on high, That he may be delivered from the power of evil!
|-
| align="center" | 10
| align="right" |
|Thou hast devised shame to thy house, By cutting off many peoples, And hast forfeited thy life.
|-
| align="center" | 11
| align="right" | }
|For the stone shall cry out of the wall, And the beam out of the timber shall answer it.
|-
| align="center" | 12
| align="right" |
|Woe to him that buildeth a town with blood, And establisheth a city by iniquity!
|-
| align="center" | 13
| align="right" |
|Behold, is it not of the LORD of hosts That the peoples labour for the fire, And the nations weary themselves for vanity?
|-
| align="center" | 14
| align="right" | }
|For the earth shall be filled With the knowledge of the glory of the LORD, As the waters cover the sea.
|-
| align="center" | 15
| align="right" |
|Woe unto him that giveth his neighbour drink, That puttest thy venom thereto, and makest him drunken also, That thou mayest look on their nakedness!
|-
| align="center" | 16
| align="right" |
|Thou art filled with shame instead of glory, Drink thou also, and be uncovered; The cup of the LORD’S right hand shall be turned unto thee, And filthiness shall be upon thy glory.
|-
| align="center" | 17
| align="right" |
|For the violence done to Lebanon shall cover thee, And the destruction of the beasts, which made them afraid; Because of men's blood, and for the violence done to the land, To the city and to all that dwell therein.
|-
| align="center" | 18
| align="right" | }
|What profiteth the graven image, That the maker thereof hath graven it, Even the molten image, and the teacher of lies; That the maker of his work trusteth therein, To make dumb idols?
|-
| align="center" | 19
| align="right" |
|Woe unto him that saith to the wood: ‘Awake’, To the dumb stone: ‘Arise! ’ Can this teach? Behold, it is overlaid with gold and silver, And there is no breath at all in the midst of it.
|-
| align="center" | 20
| align="right" | }
|But the LORD is in His holy temple; Let all the earth keep silence before Him.
|}
Habakkuk 3:1
:A prayer of Habakkuk the prophet, according to Shigionoth.
This verse is a heading for the final chapter. The exact meaning of "Shigionoth" is not known. The New Living Translation treats the word as an addition in the Hebrew text which "probably" indicates the prayer's musical setting, and the Jerusalem Bible suggests that the prayer adopts "the tone as for dirges".
Musical uses
Modern Christian hymns have been inspired by the words of the prophet Habakkuk:
*the Christian hymn "The Lord is in His Holy Temple", written in 1900 by William J. Kirkpatrick, is based on Habakkuk 2:20.
*the fourth verse of William Cowper's hymn "Sometimes a Light Surprises", written in 1779, quotes Habakkuk 3:17–18:
}}
Irish composer Charles Villiers Stanford set slightly revised portions of text from the first and second chapters of Habakkuk in his choral composition for choir, soprano and tenor soloist and organ, "For Lo, I Raise Up".
Notes
Citations References
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External links
Historic manuscripts
* [http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/habakkuk The Commentary on Habakkuk Scroll], The Digital Dead Sea Scrolls, hosted by the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.
Jewish translations
* [http://www.chabad.org/library/bible_cdo/aid/16197 Chavakuk – Habakkuk (Judaica Press)] translation [with Rashi's commentary] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20070923011058/http://www.chabad.org/default.asp Chabad.org]
Christian translations
*[http://www.gospelhall.org/bible/bible.php?passage=Habakkuk+1 Online Bible at GospelHall.org] (ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
* Various versions
Further information
* [http://www.powerofchange.org/s/habakkuk_intro.pdf A Brief Introduction to The Prophecy of Habakkuk for Contemporary Readers] (Christian Perspective)
* [http://www.ibs.org/niv/studybible/habakkuk.php Introduction to the book of Habakkuk] from the NIV Study Bible
* [http://www.vts.edu/ftpimages/95/download/FM.Hobbins.Habakkuk.pdf Introduction to the Book of Habakkuk]Forward Movement Publications
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Backward compatibility
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thumb|The Wii features backward compatibility with its predecessor, the GameCube, having the ability to run its discs and use its controllers and memory cards. Later versions of the system removed the controller and memory card slots, effectively removing this feature, but the motherboard still has the pads for them and can be soldered back in.
In telecommunications and computing, backward compatibility (or backwards compatibility) is a property of an operating system, software, real-world product, or technology that allows for interoperability with an older legacy system, or with input designed for such a system.
Modifying a system in a way that does not allow backward compatibility is sometimes called "breaking" backward compatibility. Such breaking usually incurs various types of costs, such as switching cost.
A complementary concept is forward compatibility; a design that is forward-compatible usually has a roadmap for compatibility with future standards and products.
Usage
In hardware
A simple example of both backward and forward compatibility is the introduction of FM radio in stereo. FM radio was initially mono, with only one audio channel represented by one signal. With the introduction of two-channel stereo FM radio, many listeners had only mono FM receivers. Forward compatibility for mono receivers with stereo signals was achieved by sending the sum of both left and right audio channels in one signal and the difference in another signal. That allows mono FM receivers to receive and decode the sum signal while ignoring the difference signal, which is necessary only for separating the audio channels. Stereo FM receivers can receive a mono signal and decode it without the need for a second signal, and they can separate a sum signal to left and right channels if both sum and difference signals are received. Without the requirement for backward compatibility, a simpler method could have been chosen.
Full backward compatibility is particularly important in computer instruction set architectures, two of the most successful being the IBM 360/370/390/Zseries families of mainframes, and the Intel x86 family of microprocessors.
IBM announced the first 360 models in 1964 and has continued to update the series ever since, with migration over the decades from 32-bit register/24-bit addresses to 64-bit registers and addresses.
Intel announced the first Intel 8086/8088 processors in 1978, again with migrations over the decades from 16-bit to 64-bit. (The 8086/8088, in turn, were designed with easy machine-translatability of programs written for its predecessor in mind, although they were not instruction-set compatible with the 8-bit Intel 8080 processor of 1974. The Zilog Z80, however, was fully backward compatible with the Intel 8080.)
Fully backward compatible processors can process the same binary executable software instructions as their predecessors, allowing the use of a newer processor without having to acquire new applications or operating systems. Similarly, the success of the Wi-Fi digital communication standard is attributed to its broad forward and backward compatibility; it became more popular than other standards that were not backward compatible.
In software
In software development, backward compatibility is a general notion of interoperation between software pieces that will not produce any errors when its functionality is invoked via API. The software is considered stable when its API that is used to invoke functions is stable across different versions.
In compilers, backward compatibility may refer to the ability of a compiler for a newer version of the language to accept source code of programs or data that worked under the previous version.
A data format is said to be backward compatible when a newer version of the program can open it without errors just like its predecessor.
Tradeoffs
Benefits
There are several incentives for a company to implement backward compatibility. Backward compatibility can be used to preserve older software that would have otherwise been lost when a manufacturer decides to stop supporting older hardware. Classic video games are a common example used when discussing the value of supporting older software. The cultural impact of video games is a large part of their continued success, and some believe ignoring backward compatibility would cause these titles to disappear. Backward compatibility also acts as a selling point for new hardware, as an existing player base can more affordably upgrade to subsequent generations of a console. This also helps to make up for lack of titles at the launch of new systems, as users can pull from the previous console's library of games while developers transition to the new hardware. Moreover, studies in the mid-1990s found that even consumers who never play older games after purchasing a new system consider backward compatibility a highly desirable feature, valuing the mere ability to continue to play an existing collection of games even if they choose never to do so. Backward compatibility with the original PlayStation (PS) software discs and peripherals is considered to have been a key selling point for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) during its early months on the market.
Despite not being included at launch, Microsoft slowly incorporated backward compatibility for select titles on the Xbox One several years into its product life cycle. Players have racked up over a billion hours with backward-compatible games on Xbox, and the newest generation of consoles such as PlayStation 5 and Xbox Series X/S also support this feature. A large part of the success and implementation of this feature is that the hardware within newer generation consoles is both powerful and similar enough to legacy systems that older titles can be broken down and re-configured to run on the Xbox One. This program has proven incredibly popular with Xbox players and goes against the recent trend of studio-made remasters of classic titles, creating what some believe to be an important shift in console makers' strategies.
It is possible to bypass some of these hardware costs. For instance, earlier PlayStation 2 (PS2) systems used the core of the original PlayStation (PS1) CPU as a dual-purpose processor, either as the main CPU for PS1 mode or upclocking itself to offload I/O in PS2 mode. This coprocessor was replaced with a PowerPC-based processor in later systems to serve the same functions, emulating the PS1 CPU core. Such an approach can backfire, though, as was the case of the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES). It opted for the more peculiar 65C816 CPU over the more popular 16-bit microprocessors on the basis that it would allow for easy backwards compatibility with the original Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), but ultimately did not proved to be workable once the rest of the Super NES's architecture was designed.
See also
References
External links
Category:Interoperability
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backward_compatibility
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Bacterial conjugation
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Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. This takes place through a pilus. It is a parasexual mode of reproduction in bacteria.
thumb|upright=1.35|Escherichia coli conjugating using F-pili. These long and robust extracellular appendages serve as physical conduits to translocate DNA.
It is a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer as are transformation and transduction although these two other mechanisms do not involve cell-to-cell contact.
Classical E. coli bacterial conjugation is often regarded as the bacterial equivalent of sexual reproduction or mating, since it involves the exchange of genetic material. However, it is not sexual reproduction, since no exchange of gamete occurs, and indeed no generation of a new organism: instead, an existing organism is transformed. During classical E. coli conjugation, the donor cell provides a conjugative or mobilizable genetic element that is most often a plasmid or transposon. Most conjugative plasmids have systems ensuring that the recipient cell does not already contain a similar element.
The genetic information transferred is often beneficial to the recipient. Benefits may include antibiotic resistance, xenobiotic tolerance or the ability to use new metabolites. and in Mycobacterium smegmatis by distributive conjugal transfer differ from the better studied classical E. coli conjugation in that these cases involve substantial blending of the parental genomes.
History
The process was discovered by Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum in 1946.
Mechanism
right|thumb|350px|Schematic drawing of bacterial conjugation.
Conjugation diagram
Donor cell produces pilus.
Pilus attaches to recipient cell and brings the two cells together.
The mobile plasmid is nicked and a single strand of DNA is then transferred to the recipient cell.
Both cells synthesize a complementary strand to produce a double stranded circular plasmid and also reproduce pili; both cells are now viable donor for the F-factor. Several proteins coded for in the tra or trb locus seem to open a channel between the bacteria and it is thought that the traD enzyme, located at the base of the pilus, initiates membrane fusion.
When conjugation is initiated by a signal, the relaxase enzyme creates a nick in one of the strands of the conjugative plasmid at the oriT. Relaxase may work alone, or in a complex of over a dozen proteins known collectively as a relaxosome. In the F-plasmid system, the relaxase enzyme is called TraI and the relaxosome consists of TraI, TraY, TraM and the integrated host factor IHF. The nicked strand, or T-strand, is then unwound from the unbroken strand and transferred to the recipient cell in a 5'-terminus to 3'-terminus direction. The remaining strand is replicated either independent of conjugative action (vegetative replication beginning at the oriV) or in concert with conjugation (conjugative replication similar to the rolling circle replication of lambda phage). Conjugative replication may require a second nick before successful transfer can occur. A recent report claims to have inhibited conjugation with chemicals that mimic an intermediate step of this second nicking event.
thumb|1.The insertion sequences (yellow) on both the F factor plasmid and the chromosome have similar sequences, allowing the F factor to insert itself into the genome of the cell. This is called homologous recombination and creates an Hfr (high frequency of recombination) cell.
2.The Hfr cell forms a pilus and attaches to a recipient F- cell.
3.A nick in one strand of the Hfr cell's chromosome is created.
4.DNA begins to be transferred from the Hfr cell to the recipient cell while the second strand of its chromosome is being replicated.
5.The pilus detaches from the recipient cell and retracts. The Hfr cell ideally wants to transfer its entire genome to the recipient cell. However, due to its large size and inability to keep in contact with the recipient cell, it is not able to do so.
6.a. The F- cell remains F- because the entire F factor sequence was not received. Since no homologous recombination occurred, the DNA that was transferred is degraded by enzymes.
b. In very rare cases, the F factor will be completely transferred and the F- cell will become an Hfr cell.
Spontaneous zygogenesis in E. coli
In addition to classical bacterial conjugation described above for E. coli, a form of conjugation referred to as spontaneous zygogenesis (Z-mating for short) is observed in certain strains of E. coli. However, unlike in bacteria, where conjugation apparatus typically mediates the transfer of mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids or transposons, the conjugative machinery of hyperthermophilic archaea, called Ced (Crenarchaeal system for exchange of DNA) and Ted (Thermoproteales system for exchange of DNA), For example, the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium and the root-tumor inducing (Ri) plasmid of A. rhizogenes contain genes that are capable of transferring to plant cells. The expression of these genes effectively transforms the plant cells into opine-producing factories. Opines are used by the bacteria as sources of nitrogen and energy. Infected cells form crown gall or root tumors. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.
The Ti and Ri plasmids can also be transferred between bacteria using a system (the tra, or transfer, operon) that is different and independent of the system used for inter-kingdom transfer (the vir, or virulence, operon). Such transfers create virulent strains from previously avirulent strains.
Genetic engineering applications
Conjugation is a convenient means for transferring genetic material to a variety of targets. In laboratories, successful transfers have been reported from bacteria to yeast, plants, mammalian cells, diatoms and isolated mammalian mitochondria. Conjugation has advantages over other forms of genetic transfer including minimal disruption of the target's cellular envelope and the ability to transfer relatively large amounts of genetic material (see the above discussion of E. coli chromosome transfer). In plant engineering, Agrobacterium-like conjugation complements other standard vehicles such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). While TMV is capable of infecting many plant families these are primarily herbaceous dicots. Agrobacterium-like conjugation is also primarily used for dicots, but monocot recipients are not uncommon.
See also
Sexual conjugation in algae and ciliates
Transfection
Triparental mating
Zygotic induction
References
External links
Bacterial conjugation (a Flash animation)
Category:Antimicrobial resistance
Category:Bacteriology
Category:Biotechnology
Category:Modification of genetic information
Category:Molecular biology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_conjugation
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Galjoen
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The galjoen, black bream, or blackfish (Dichistius capensis) is a species of marine fish found only along the coast of South Africa, Namibia and Angola. Galjoen is the national fish of South Africa. The lips are thick, with strong curved incisors at the front of the mouth, with smaller teeth behind the front incisors.
Conservation status
According to the South African Association for Marine Biological Research, the population of the galoen is depleted at less than 20% of its optimal size; the existing stock is maintained due to natural refuges and no-take MPAs.
In the 2018 National Biodiversity Assessment by SANBI, it is listed as Near Threatened. It is listed on the South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative List as a red-listed fish that cannot be sold nor bought; only recreational anglers with a permit may catch a minimum size of 35 cm with a limit of 2 a day.
As food
Due to their abundance in the shores off South Africa, galjoen is common in South African cuisine. A notable dish is the fish sprinkled with pepper and lemon — or alternatively with lemon, mayonnaise, and melted garlic butter — and served with fresh bread and apricot jam.
As the national fish of South Africa
Galjoen is the national fish of South Africa. The suggestion to make it the national fish came from Margaret Smith, the wife of ichthyologist J. L. B. Smith, to find a marine equivalent to the springbok.
Etymology
The scientific name of Coracinus capensis is a reference to its black colour when found in rocky areas, Coracinus meaning "raven" or "black coloured"; in sandy areas it gives off a silver-bronze colour.
References
Category:Dichistiidae
Category:National symbols of South Africa
Category:Taxa named by Georges Cuvier
Category:Fish described in 1831
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galjoen
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Blue crane
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| synonyms = * Anthropoides paradiseus <small>(Lichtenstein, 1793)</small>
* Ardea paradisea <small>Lichtenstein, AAH, 1793</small>
* Tetrapteryx capensis <small>Thunberg, 1818</small>
* Anthropoides stanleyanus <small>Vigors, 1826</small>
* Scops paradisea <small>Gray, GR, 1840</small>
* Geranus paradisea <small>Bonaparte, 1854</small>
* Grus caffra <small>Fritsch, 1868</small>
* Anthropoides paradisea <small>Dowsett and Forbes-Watson, 1993</small>
}}
The blue crane (Grus paradisea), also known as the Stanley crane and the paradise crane, is the national bird of South Africa. The species is listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN.
Description
]]
]]
The blue crane is a tall, ground-dwelling bird, but is fairly small by the standards of the crane family. It is tall, with a wingspan of and weighs . Among standard measurements, the wing chord measures , the exposed culmen measures and the tarsus measures . This crane is pale blue-gray in color becoming darker on the upper head, neck and nape. From the crown to the lores, the plumage is distinctly lighter, sometimes whitish. The bill is ochre to greyish, with a pink tinge. The long wingtip feathers which trail to the ground. The primaries are black to slate grey, with dark coverts and blackish on the secondaries. Unlike most cranes, it has a relatively large head and a proportionately thin neck. Juveniles are similar but slightly lighter, with tawny coloration on the head, and no long wing plumes.HabitatBlue cranes are birds of the dry grassy uplands, usually the pastured grasses of hills, valleys, and plains with a few scattered trees. They prefer areas in the nesting season that have access to both upland and wetland areas, though they feed almost entirely in dry areas. They are altitudinal migrants, generally nesting in the lower grasslands of an elevation of around 1,300 to 2,000 m and moving down to lower altitudes for winter.Movements and behaviour
Of the 15 species of crane, the blue crane has the most restricted distribution of all. Even species with lower population numbers now (such as Siberian or whooping cranes) are found over a considerable range in their migratory movements. The blue crane is migratory, primarily altitudinal, but details are little known.
The blue crane is partially social, less so during the breeding season. There is a strict hierarchy in groups, with the larger adult males being dominant. They overlap in range with three other crane species but interactions with these species and other "large wader" type birds are not known. They are aggressively protective of their nesting sites during the nesting season, even attacking innocent, non-predatory animals such as antelope, cattle, tortoises, plovers and the smallest of birds, such as sparrows. Humans are also attacked if they approach a nest too closely, with the aggressive male having torn clothes and drawn blood in such cases. Threats to their eggs and chicks include large savannah and white-throated monitor lizards, egg-eating snakes, foxes, jackals, birds-of-prey, meerkats, and mongoose.
Feeding
Blue cranes feed from the ground and appear to rarely feed near wetland areas. Most of their diet is comprised by grasses and sedges, with many types fed on based on their proximity to the nests. They are also regularly insectivorous, feeding on numerous, sizeable insects such as grasshoppers. Small animals such as crabs, snails, frogs, small lizards and snakes may supplement the diet, with such protein-rich food often being broken down and fed to the young.
Breeding
]]
The breeding period is highly seasonal, with eggs being recorded between October and March. Pair-formation amongst groups often starts in October, beginning with both potential parents running in circles with each other. The male then engages in a "dance" flings various objects in the air and then jumps. Eventually, a female from the group and the male appear to "select" each other and both engage in the dance of throwing objects and jumping. After the dance, mating commences in around two weeks.
In a great majority of known nests, two eggs are laid (rarely one or three). Both males and females will incubate, with the male often incubating at night and, during the day, defending the nest territory while the female incubates. The incubation stage lasts around 30 days. The young are able to walk after two days and can swim well shortly thereafter. They are fed primarily by their mothers, who regurgitates food into the mouths. The chicks fledge in the age of 3–5 months. The young continue to be tended to until the next breeding season, at which time they are chased off by their parents.
Decline
While it remains common in parts of its historic range, and approx. 26 000 individuals remain, it began a sudden population decline from around 1980 and is now classified as vulnerable.
In the last two decades, the blue crane has largely disappeared from the Eastern Cape, Lesotho, and Eswatini. The population in the northern Free State, Limpopo, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and North West Province has declined by up to 90%. The majority of the remaining population is in eastern and southern South Africa, with a small and separate population in the Etosha Pan of northern Namibia. Occasionally, isolated breeding pairs are found in five neighbouring countries.
The primary causes of the sudden decline of the blue crane are human population growth, the conversion of grasslands into commercial tree plantations, and poisoning: deliberate (to protect crops) or accidental (baits intended for other species, and as a side-effect of crop dusting).
The South African government has stepped up legal protection for the blue crane. Other conservation measures are focusing on research, habitat management, education, and recruiting the help of private landowners.
The blue crane is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
Since October 2021, the Blue Crane has been classified as Moderately Depleted by the IUCN.Cultural referencesThe blue crane is culturally significant to the Xhosa people, who call it indwe (flag). Traditionally, when a man distinguished himself in battle or otherwise, he was often decorated by a chief with blue crane feathers in a ceremony called ukundzabela. Men so honoured, who would wear the feathers sticking out of their hair, were known as men of (trouble)—the implication being that if trouble arose, they would reinstate peace and order.
It is also of significance to the Zulu people, whose kings and warriors wore a single or many feathers as a headdress.
Because of the association with warriors and heroism, the Isitwalandwe Medal was created to honour those who had "made an outstanding contribution and sacrifice to the liberation struggle", that is, those who resisted the apartheid regime in South Africa (1949–1991) in various ways. Isitwalandwe means "the one who wears the plumes of the rare bird", or blue crane.
Videos
<gallery>
File:Anthropoides paradisea1.ogg
File:Anthropoides paradisea2.ogg
File:Anthropoides paradisea3.ogg
</gallery>
References
External links
*
*[https://sabap2.birdmap.africa/docs/sabap1/208.pdf Species text for Blue Crane in The Atlas of Southern African Birds]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051118134345/http://www.savingcranes.org/species/blue.cfm International Crane Foundation's Blue Crane page]
*[https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/6/ Blue Crane (Anthropoides paradises)] from Cranes of the World by Paul Johnsgard
*[https://journals.uct.ac.za/index.php/BO/article/view/164 Are traditional healers contributing to the decline of Blue Cranes in Namibia?]
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Grus (genus)
Category:Birds of Southern Africa
Category:National symbols of South Africa
Category:Birds described in 1793
Category:Taxa named by Anton August Heinrich Lichtenstein
Category:Taxobox binomials not recognized by IUCN <!-- Grus paradisea -->
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_crane
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Babrak Karmal
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| term_start3 = 27 December 1979
| term_end3 = 11 June 1981
| birth_date
| birth_place = Kamari, Kabul Province, Kingdom of Afghanistan
| death_date
| death_place = Moscow, Russia
| resting_place = Hairatan, Afghanistan
| alma_mater = Kabul University<br/>Nejat School
| party = People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan
| occupation = Politician
| profession = Economist<br/>German translator
| native_name =
| native_name_lang = ps
| branch = Royal Afghan Army
| serviceyears = 1957–1959
| predecessor3 = Hafizullah Amin
| successor3 = Sultan Ali Keshtmand
| vicepresident1 = Assadullah Sarwari
| office1 = President of Afghanistan
| nationality = <!--Do not include per MOS:INFONAT-->
}}
Babrak Karmal (Persian/Pashto: ; born Sultan Hussein; 6 January 1929 – 1 or 3 December 1996) was an Afghan communist revolutionary and politician who was the leader of Afghanistan, serving in the post of general secretary of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan from 1979 to 1986.
Karmal attended Kabul University and developed openly leftist views there, having been introduced to Marxism by Mir Akbar Khyber during his imprisonment for activities deemed too radical by the government. He became a founding member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA) and eventually became the leader of the Parcham faction when the PDPA split in 1967, with their ideological nemesis being the Khalq faction. Karmal was elected to the Lower House after the 1965 parliamentary election, serving in parliament until losing his seat in the 1969 parliamentary election.
Under Karmal's leadership, the Parchamite PDPA participated in Mohammad Daoud Khan's rise to power in 1973, and his subsequent regime. While relations were good at the beginning, Daoud began a major purge of leftist influence in the mid-1970s. This in turn led to the reformation of the PDPA in 1977, and Karmal played a role in the 1978 Saur Revolution when the PDPA took power. Karmal was appointed Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, synonymous with vice head of state, in the communist government. The Parchamite faction found itself under significant pressure by the Khalqists soon after taking power. In June 1978, a PDPA Central Committee meeting voted in favor of giving the Khalqist faction exclusive control over PDPA policy. This decision was followed by a failed Parchamite coup, after which Hafizullah Amin, a Khalqist, initiated a purge against the Parchamites. Karmal survived this purge but was exiled to Prague and eventually dismissed from his post. Instead of returning to Kabul, he feared for his life and lived with his family in the forests protected by the Czechoslovak secret police StB. The Afghan secret police KHAD had allegedly sent members to Czechoslovakia to assassinate Karmal. In late 1979 he was brought to Moscow by the KGB and eventually, in December 1979, the Soviet Union intervened in Afghanistan (with the consent of Amin's government) to stabilize the country. The Soviet troops staged a coup and assassinated Amin, replacing him with Karmal.
Karmal was promoted to Chairman of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers in December 1979. He remained in the latter office until 1981, when he was succeeded by Sultan Ali Keshtmand. Throughout his term, Karmal worked to establish a support base for the PDPA by introducing several reforms. Among these were the "Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan", introducing a general amnesty for those people imprisoned during Nur Mohammad Taraki's and Amin's rule. He also replaced the red Khalqist flag with a more traditional one. These policies failed to increase the PDPA's legitimacy in the eyes of the Afghan people and the Afghan mujahidin rebels, and he was widely seen as a Soviet puppet amongst the populace. These policy failures, and the stalemate that ensued after the Soviet intervention, led the Soviet leadership to become highly critical of Karmal's leadership. Under Mikhail Gorbachev, the Soviet Union deposed Karmal in 1986 and replaced him with Mohammad Najibullah. After losing power, he was exiled to Moscow. It was Anahita Ratebzad who persuaded Najibullah to allow Babrak Karmal to return to Afghanistan in 1991, where Karmal became an associate of Abdul Rashid Dostum and possibly helped remove the Najibullah government from power in 1992. He eventually left Afghanistan again for Moscow. In 1996, Karmal died from liver cancer.Early life and careerKarmal was born Sultan Hussein|groupnote}} on 6 January 1929 in Kamari, a village in Kabul. He was the son of Muhammad Hussein, a dagar jenral (lieutenant general, three-star rank) in the Afghan Army and former governor of the province of Paktia and Herat provinces, and was the first of six siblings. His family was one of the wealthier families in Kabul. His ethnic background was publicly disputed, with some sources claiming he was Pashtun and that he was Tajik. Throughout his tenure in the Afghan Parliament, Karmal strategically sowed confusion by alternately identifying himself as Pashtun and Tajik, demonstrating a deliberate avoidance of strict ethnic categorization. Karmal's ethnicity was a subject of persistent dispute, with conflicting claims made by Pashtun sympathizers and affiliates asserting that he belonged to the Mullahkhel Kakar or Khilji tribe of Khost and Paktia as a Pashtun, while Tajik sympathizers and affiliates insisted that he was a Tajik. Although Karmal was only Pashtun Mullahkhel by maternal lineage which itself was Persianised.), Nur Ahmed Nur and Fezanul Haq Fezan. No Khalqists were elected; however, Amin was 50 votes short of being elected. The Parchamite victory may be explained by the simple fact that Karmal could contribute financially to the PDPA electoral campaign. Karmal became a leading figure within the student movement in the 1960s, electing Mohammad Hashim Maiwandwal as Prime Minister after a student demonstration (called for by Karmal) concluded with three deaths under the former leadership. In 1966 inside parliament, Karmal was physically assaulted by an Islamist MP, Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi.
In 1967, the PDPA unofficially split into two formal parties, one Khalqist and one Parchamist. The dissolution of the PDPA was initiated by the closing down of the Khalqist newspaper, Khalq. Karmal criticised the Khalq for being too communist, and believed that its leadership should have hidden its Marxist orientation instead of promoting it. According to the official version of events, the majority of the PDPA Central Committee rejected Karmal's criticism. The vote was a close one, and it is reported that Taraki expanded the Central Committee to win the vote; this plan resulted in eight of the new members becoming politically unaligned with and one switching to the Parchamite side. Karmal and half the PDPA Central Committee left the PDPA to establish a Parchamite-led PDPA. Officially the split was caused by ideological differences, but the party may have divided between the different leadership styles and plans of Taraki versus Karmal. Taraki wanted to model the party after Leninist norms while Karmal wanted to establish a democratic front. Other differences were socioeconomic. The majority of Khalqists came from rural areas; hence they were poorer, and were of Pashtun origin. The Parchamites were urban, richer, and spoke Dari more often than not. The Khalqists accused the Parchamites of having a connection with the monarchy, and because of it, referred to the Parchamite PDPA as the "Royal Communist Party". Both Karmal and Amin retained their seats in the lower house of parliament in the 1969 parliamentary election.
The Daoud era
Mohammed Daoud Khan, in collaboration with the Parchamite PDPA and radical military officers, overthrew the monarchy and instituted the Republic of Afghanistan in 1973. After Daoud's seizure of power, an American embassy cable stated that the new government had established a Soviet-style Central Committee, in which Karmal and Mir Akbar Khyber were given leading positions. Most ministries were given to Parchamites; Hassan Sharq became Deputy Prime Minister, Major Faiz Mohammad became Minister of Internal Affairs and Niamatullah Pazhwak became Minister of Education. The Parchamites took control over the ministries of finance, agriculture, communications and border affairs. The new government quickly suppressed the opposition, and secured their power base. At first, the National Front government between Daoud and the Parchamites seemed to work. By 1975, Daoud had strengthened his position by enhancing the executive, legislative and judicial powers of the Presidency. To the dismay of the Parchamites, all parties other than the National Revolutionary Party (NRP, established by Daoud) were made illegal.
Shortly after the ban on opposition to the NRP, Daoud began a massive purge of Parchamites in government. Mohammad lost his position as interior minister, Abdul Qadir was demoted, and Karmal was put under government surveillance. To mitigate Daoud's suddenly anti-communist directives, the Soviet Union reestablished the PDPA; Taraki was elected its General Secretary and Karmal, Second Secretary. While the Saur Revolution (literally the April Revolution) was planned for August, the assassination of Khyber led to a chain of events which ended with the communists seizing power. Karmal, when taking power in 1979, accused Amin of ordering the assassination of Khyber.Taraki–Amin ruleTaraki was appointed Chairman of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council and Chairman of the Council of Ministers, retaining his post as PDPA general secretary. Taraki initially formed a government which consisted of both Khalqists and Parchamites; Karmal became Deputy Chairman of the Revolutionary Council, while Amin became Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers.Mohammad Aslam Watanjar became Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers. The two Parchamites Abdul Qadir and Mohammad Rafi, became Minister of Defence and Minister of Public Works, respectively. The appointment of Amin, Karmal and Watanjar led to splits within the Council of Ministers: the Khalqists answered to Amin; Karmal led the civilian Parchamites; and the military officers (who were Parchamites) were answerable to Watanjar (a Khalqist). The first conflict arose when the Khalqists wanted to give PDPA Central Committee membership to military officers who had participated in the Saur Revolution; Karmal opposed such a move but was overruled. A PDPA Politburo meeting voted in favour of giving Central Committee membership to the officers.
On 27 June, three months after the Saur Revolution, Amin outmaneuvered the Parchamites at a Central Committee meeting, giving the Khalqists exclusive right over formulating and deciding policy. A purge against the Parchamites was initiated by Amin and supported by Taraki on 1 July 1979. Karmal, fearing for his safety, went into hiding in one of his Soviet friends' homes. Karmal tried to contact Alexander Puzanov, the Soviet ambassador to Afghanistan, to talk about the situation. Puzanov refused, and revealed Karmal's location to Amin. The Soviets probably saved Karmal's life by sending him to the Socialist Republic of Czechoslovakia. In exile, Karmal established a network with the remaining Parchamites in government. A coup to overthrow Amin was planned for 4 September 1979. Its leading members in Afghanistan were Qadir and the Army Chief of Staff General Shahpur Ahmedzai. The coup was planned for the Festival of Eid, in anticipation of relaxed military vigilance. The conspiracy failed when the Afghan ambassador to India told the Afghan leadership about the plan. Another purge was initiated, and Parchamite ambassadors were recalled. Few returned to Afghanistan; Karmal and Mohammad Najibullah stayed in their respective countries. The Soviets decided that Amin should be removed to make way for a Karmal-Taraki coalition government. However Amin managed to order the arrest and later the murder of Taraki.
Amin was informed of the Soviet decision to intervene in Afghanistan and was initially supportive, but was assassinated. Under the command of the Soviets, Karmal ascended to power. On 27 December 1979, Karmal's pre-recorded speech to the Afghan people was broadcast via Radio Kabul from Tashkent in the Uzbek SSR (the radio wavelength was changed to that of Kabul), saying: "Today the torture machine of Amin has been smashed, his accomplices – the primitive executioners, usurpers and murderers of tens of thousand of our fellow countrymen – fathers, mothers, sisters, brothers, sons and daughters, children and old people ..." Karmal was not in Kabul when the speech was broadcast; he was in Bagram, protected by the KGB.
That evening Yuri Andropov, the KGB Chairman, congratulated Karmal on his rise to the Chairmanship of the Presidium of the Revolutionary Council, some time before Karmal received an official appointment. Karmal returned to Kabul on 28 December. He travelled alongside a Soviet military column. For the next few days Karmal lived in a villa on the outskirts of Kabul under the protection of the KGB. On 1 January 1980 Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and Alexei Kosygin, the Soviet Chairman of the Council of Ministers, congratulated Karmal on his "election" as leader.
Leadership
Domestic policies
Karmal's ascension was quickly troubled as he was effectively installed by the invading Soviet Union, delegitimizing him. Unrest in the country quickly escalated, and in Kabul two major uprisings, on 3 Hoot (22 February) and the months long students' protests were early signs of trouble. Karmal would also arrest Major Saddiq Alamyar in 1980, the commander of the 444th Commando Battalion, who committed the Kerala massacre while Afghanistan was still under the leadership of the Khalq. Other perpetrators were also arrested, such as other commandos and soldiers in the 11th Division of the Afghan Army. Alamyar remained in jail for a decade, even after Karmal was removed from his post as president.
The "Fundamental Principles" and amnesty
When he came to power, Karmal promised an end to executions, the establishment of democratic institutions and free elections, the creation of a constitution, and legalization of alternative political parties. Prisoners incarcerated under the two previous governments would be freed in a general amnesty (which occurred on 6 January). He promised the creation of a coalition government which would not espouse socialism. At the same time, he told the Afghan people that he had negotiated with the Soviet Union to give economic, military and political assistance. The mistrust most Afghans felt towards the government was a problem for Karmal. Many still remembered he had said he would protect private capital in 1978—a promise later proven to be a lie.
Karmal's three most important promises were the general amnesty of prisoners, the promulgation of the Fundamental Principles of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan and the adoption of a new flag containing the traditional black, red and green (the flag of Taraki and Amin was red). His government granted concessions to religious leaders and the restoration of confiscated property. Some property, which was confiscated during earlier land reforms, was also partially restored. All these measures, with the exception of the general amnesty of prisoners, were introduced gradually. Of 2,700 prisoners, 2,600 were released from prison; 600 of these were Parchamites. The general amnesty was greatly publicized by the government. While the event was hailed with enthusiasm by some, many others greeted the event with disdain, since their loved ones or associates had died during earlier purges. Amin had planned to introduce a general amnesty on 1 January 1980, to coincide with the PDPA's sixteenth anniversary.
Work on the Fundamental Principles had started under Amin: it guaranteed democratic rights such as freedom of speech, the right to security and life, the right to peaceful association, the right to demonstrate and the right that "no one would be accused of crime but in accord with the provisions of law" and that the accused had the right to a fair trial. The Fundamental Principles envisaged a democratic state led by the PDPA, the only party then permitted by law. The Revolutionary Council, the organ of supreme power, would convene twice every year. The Revolutionary Council in turn elected a Presidium which would take decisions on behalf of the Revolutionary Council when it was not in session. The Presidium consisted mostly of PDPA Politburo members. The state would safeguard three kinds of property: state, cooperative and private property. The Fundamental Principles said that the state had the right to change the Afghan economy from an economy where man was exploited to an economy where man was free. Another clause stated that the state had the right to take "families, both parents and children, under its supervision." While it looked democratic at the outset, the Fundamental Principles was based on contradictions.
The Fundamental Principles led to the establishment of two important state organs: the Special Revolutionary Court, a specialized court for crimes against national security and territorial integrity, and the Institute for Legal and Scientific Research and Legislative Affairs, the supreme legislative organ of state, This body could amend and draft laws, and introduce regulations and decrees on behalf of the government. The introduction of more Soviet-style institutions led the Afghan people to distrust the communist government even more.
The Fundamental Principles constitution came into power on 22 April 1980.
Dividing power: Khalq–Parcham
With Karmal's ascension to power, Parchamites began to "settle old scores". Revolutionary Troikas were created to arrest, sentence and execute people. Amin's guard were the first victims of the terror which ensued. Those commanders who had stayed loyal to Amin were arrested, filling the prisons. The Soviets protested, and Karmal replied, "As long as you keep my hands bound and do not let me deal with the Khalq faction there will be no unity in the PDPA and the government cannot become strong ... They tortured and killed us. They still hate us! They are the enemies of the party ..." Amin's daughter, along with her baby, was imprisoned for twelve years, until Mohammad Najibullah, then leader of the PDPA, released her. When Karmal took power, leading posts in the Party and Government bureaucracy were taken over by Parchamites. The Khalq faction was removed from power, and only technocrats, opportunists and individuals which the Soviets trusted would be appointed to the higher echelons of government. Khalqists remained in control of the Ministry of Interior, but Parchamites were given control over KHAD and the secret police. The Parchamites and the Khalqists controlled an equal share of the military. Two out of Karmal's three Council of Ministers deputy chairmen were Khalqists. Khalqists controlled the Ministry of Communications and the interior ministry. Parchamites, on the other hand, controlled the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Defence. In addition to the changes in government, the Parchamites held clear majority in the PDPA Central Committee. Only one Khalqi, Saleh Mohammad Zeary, was a member of the PDPA Secretariat during Karmal's rule.
Over 14 and 15 March 1982 the PDPA held a party conference at the Kabul Polytechnic Institute instead of a party congress, since a party congress would have given the Khalq faction a majority and could have led to a Khalqist takeover of the PDPA. The rules of holding a party conference were different, and the Parchamites had a three-fifths majority. This infuriated several Khalqists; the threat of expulsion did not lessen their anger. The conference was not successful, but it was portrayed as such by the official media. The conference broke up after one and a half days of a 3-day long program, because of the inter-party struggle for power between the Khalqists and the Parchamites. A "program of action" was introduced, and party rules were given minor changes. As an explanation of the low party membership, the official media also made it seem hard to become a member of the party.
PDPA base
{| class"wikitable collapsible collapsed" width60% style="float:right; margin:0 15px;"
!colspan"9" | Karmal cabinet (1979–1981)
|-
!Office
!Incumbent
!Took office
!Left office
|-
|Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers
|Assadullah Sarwari
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Planning
|Sultan Ali Keshtmand
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of National Defence
|Muhammad Rafie
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Interior
|Sayed Mohammad Gulabzoy
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Foreign Affairs
|Shah Muhammad Dost
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Education
|Anahita Ratebzad
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Finance
|Abdul Wakil
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Transport
|Sherjan Mazduryar
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Border and Tribes
|Faiz Muhammad
|28 December 1979
|14 September 1980
|-
|Minister of Trade
|Muhammad Khan Jalalar
|28 December 1979
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Communications
|Muhammad Aslam Watanjar
|10 January 1980
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Mines, Industries
|Muhammad Isma'il Danesh
|10 January 1980
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Water, Power
|Raz Muhammad Paktin
|10 January 1980
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Higher Education
|Guldad
|10 January 1980
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Health
|Nazar Muhammad
|10 January 1980
|11 June 1981
|-
|Minister of Agriculture, Land Reform
|Fazl Rahim Mohmand
|10 January 1980
|11 June 1981
|}
When Karmal took power, he began expanding the support base of the PDPA. Karmal tried to persuade certain groups, which had been referred to class enemies of the revolution during Taraki and Amin's rule, to support the PDPA. Karmal appointed several non-communists to top positions. Between March and May 1980, 78 out of the 191 people appointed to government posts were not members of the PDPA. Karmal reintroduced the old Afghan custom of having an Islamic invocation every time the government issued a proclamation. In his first live speech to the Afghan people, Karmal called for the establishment of the National Fatherland Front (NFF); the NFF's founding congress was held in June 1981. Unfortunately for Karmal, his policies did not lead to a notable increase in support for his regime, and it did not help Karmal that most Afghans saw the Soviet intervention as an invasion.
By 1981, the government gave up on political solutions to the conflict. At the fifth PDPA Central Committee plenum in June, Karmal resigned from his Council of Ministers chairmanship and was replaced by Sultan Ali Keshtmand, while Nur Ahmad Nur was given a bigger role in the Revolutionary Council. This was seen as "base broadening". The previous weight given to non-PDPA members in top positions ceased to be an important matter in the media by June 1981. This was significant, considering that up to five members of the Revolutionary Council were non-PDPA members. By the end of 1981, the previous contenders, who had been heavily presented in the media, were all gone; two were given ambassadorships, two ceased to be active in politics, and one continued as an advisor to the government. The other three changed sides, and began to work for the opposition.
The national policy of reconciliation continued: in January 1984 the land reform introduced by Taraki and Amin was drastically modified, the limits of landholdings were increased to win the support of middle class peasants, the literacy programme was continued, and concessions to women were made. In 1985 the Loya Jirga was reconvened. The 1985 Loya Jirga was followed by a tribal jirga in September. In 1986 Abdul Rahim Hatef, a non-PDPA member, was elected to the NFF chairmanship. During the 1985–86 elections it was said that 60 percent of the elected officials were non-PDPA members. By the end of Karmal's rule, several non-PDPA members had high-level government positions.Civil war and military
{| class"wikitable" width60% style="float:right; margin:0 15px;"
|+ Troop levels
!Soldiers!!As of
|-
|25,000
|1980
|-
|25–30,000
|1981
|-
|25–30,000
|1982
|-
|40,000
|1983
|-
|40,000
|1984
|-
|35–40,000
|1985
|}
In March 1979, the military budget was 6.4 million US$, which was 8.3 percent of the government budget, but only 2.2 of gross national product. After the Soviet intervention, the defence budget increased to 208 million US$ in 1980, and 325 million US$ by 1981. In 1982 it was reported that the government spent around 22 percent of total expenditure.
When the political solution failed (see "PDPA base" section), the Afghan government and the Soviet military decided to solve the conflict militarily. The change from a political to a military solution did not come suddenly. It began in January 1981, as Karmal doubled wages for military personnel, issued several promotions, and decorated one general and thirteen colonels. The draft age was lowered, the obligatory length of arms duty was extended and the age for reservists was increased to thirty-five years of age. In June 1981, Assadullah Sarwari lost his seat in the PDPA Politburo, replaced by Mohammad Aslam Watanjar, a former tank commander and Minister of Communications, Major General Mohammad Rafi was made Minister of Defence and Mohammad Najibullah appointed KHAD Chairman.
These measures were introduced due to the collapse of the army during the Soviet intervention. Before the intervention the army could field 100,000 troops, after the intervention only 25,000. Desertions were pandemic, and the recruitment campaigns for young people often drove them to the opposition. To better organize the military, seven military zones were established, each with its own Defence Council. The Defence Councils were established at the national, provincial and district level to empower the local PDPA. It is estimated that the Afghan government spent as much as 40 percent of government revenue on defense.
Karmal refused to recognize the rebels as genuine, saying in an interview:
Economy{| class"wikitable" width60% style"float:right; margin:0 15px;"
! colspan"2" width30%|Indicators
! width=1%| 1980
! width=1%| 1981
! width=1%| 1982
! width=1%| 1986
|-
!rowspan="3" | Expenditure
|Total (millions of afghanis)
|31,692
|40,751
|42,112
|88,700
|-
|Ordinary (in percent)
|62
|66
|69
|74
|-
|Development (in percent)
|38
|34
|31
|26
|-
!rowspan="5"|Sources of Finances
|Domestic revenue: excluding gas (in percent)
|50
|40
|37
|31
|-
|Sales of natural gas (in percent)
|33
|34
|34
|17
|-
|Foreign aid (in percent)
|28
|26
|28
|29
|-
|Rentier income (in percent)
|61
|59
|62
|48
|-
|Domestic borrowing (in percent)
|−11
|1
|0
|23
|}
During the civil war and the ensuing Soviet–Afghan War, most of the country's infrastructure was destroyed. Normal patterns of economic activity were disrupted. The Gross national product (GNP) fell substantially during Karmal's rule because of the conflict; trade and transport was disrupted with loss of labor and capital. In 1981 the Afghan GDP stood at 154.3 billion Afghan afghanis, a drop from 159.7 billion in 1978. GNP per capita decreased from 7,370 in 1978 to 6,852 in 1981. The dominant form of economic activity was in the agricultural sector. Agriculture accounted for 63 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in 1981; 56 percent of the labor force was working in agriculture in 1982. Industry accounted for 21 percent of GDP in 1982, and employed 10 percent of the labor force. All industrial enterprises were government-owned. The service sector, the smallest of the three, accounted for 10 percent of GDP in 1981, and employed an estimated one-third of the labour force. The balance of payments, which had grown in the pre-communist administration of Muhammad Daoud Khan, decreased, turning negative by 1982 at 70.3 million $US. The only economic activity which grew substantially during Karmal's rule was export and import.
Foreign policy
Karmal observed in early 1983 that without Soviet intervention, "It is unknown what the destiny of the Afghan Revolution would be ... We are realists and we clearly realize that in store for us yet lie trials and deprivations, losses and difficulties." Two weeks before this statement Sultan Ali Keshtmand, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers, lamented the fact that half the schools and three-quarters of communications had been destroyed since 1979. The Soviet Union rejected several Western-made peace plans, such as the Carrington Plan, since they did not take into consideration the PDPA government. Most Western peace plans had been made in collaboration with the Afghan opposition forces. At the 26th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) Leonid Brezhnev, the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee, stated;
The stance of the Pakistani government was clear, demanding complete Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and the establishment of a non-PDPA government. Karmal, summarizing his discussions with Iran and Pakistan, said "Iran and Pakistan have so far not opted for concrete and constructive positions." During Karmal's rule Afghan–Pakistani relations remained hostile; the Soviet intervention in Afghanistan was the catalyst for the hostile relationship. The increasing numbers of Afghan refugees in Pakistan challenged the PDPA's legitimacy to rule.
The Soviet Union threatened in 1985 that it would support the Baloch separatist movement in Pakistan if the Pakistani government continued to aid the Afghan mujahideen. Karmal, problematically for the Soviets, did not want a Soviet withdrawal, and he hampered attempts to improve relations with Pakistan since the Pakistani government had refused to recognise the PDPA government.
Public image
Because Karmal was put into power without a formal ceremony as in Afghan tradition, he was seen as an illegitimate leader in many eyes of his people. A poor performance in foreign interviews also did not help his public image where he was noted to speak like an "exhibitionist" rather than a statesman. Karmal was widely viewed as a puppet leader of the Soviet Union by Afghans and the Western press.
Despite his position, Karmal was apparently not permitted to make key decisions as he was following advice from Soviet advisers. The Soviet control of the Afghan state was apparently so much that Karmal himself admitted to a friend of his unfree life, telling him: “The Soviet comrades love me boundlessly, and for the sake of my personal safety, they don’t obey even my own orders.”</blockquote>
Karmal was invited back to Kabul by Najibullah, and "for equally obscure reasons Karmal accepted", returning on 20 June 1991 (this could have been on the recommendation of Anahita Ratebzad who was very close to Karmal and also respected by Najibullah). If Najibullah's plan was to strengthen his position within the Watan Party (the renamed PDPA) by appeasing the pro-Karmal Parchamites, he failed – Karmal's apartment became a center for opposition to Najibullah's government. When Najibullah was toppled in 1992, Karmal became the most powerful politician in Kabul through leadership of the Parcham. However, his negotiations with the rebels collapsed quickly, and on 16 April 1992 the rebels, led by Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, took Kabul. After the fall of Najibullah's government, Karmal was based in Hairatan. There, it is alleged, Karmal used most of his time either trying to establish a new party, or advising people to join the secular National Islamic Movement (Junbish-i-Milli). Abdul Rashid Dostum, the leader of Junbish-i-Milli, was a supporter of Karmal during his rule. It is unknown how much control Karmal had over Dostum, but there is little evidence that Karmal was in any commanding position. Karmal's influence over Dostum appeared indirect – some of his former associates supported Dostum. Those who spoke with Karmal during this period noted his lack of interest in politics. In June 1992 it was reported that he had died in a plane crash along with Dostum, although these reports later proved to be false.
In early December 1996, Karmal died in Moscow's Central Clinical Hospital from liver cancer. The date of his death was reported by some sources as 1 December and by others as 3 December. The Taliban summed up his rule as follows:
<blockquote>[he] committed all kinds of crimes during his illegitimate rule ... God inflicted on him various kinds of hardship and pain. Eventually he died of cancer in a hospital belonging to his paymasters, the Russians.</blockquote>
Notes
ReferencesBibliography
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External links
* [http://www.afghanland.com/history/karmal.html Biography of President Babrak Karmal]
Category:1929 births
Category:1996 deaths
Category:20th-century heads of state of Afghanistan
Category:Afghan atheists
Category:Presidents of Afghanistan
Category:Prime ministers of Afghanistan
Category:Deputy prime ministers of Afghanistan
Category:People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan politicians
Category:Afghan prisoners and detainees
Category:Prisoners and detainees of Afghanistan
Category:Pashtun politicians
Category:Tajik politicians
Category:Afghan emigrants
Category:Immigrants to the Soviet Union
Category:Collaborators with the Soviet Union
Category:Afghan emigrants to Russia
Category:People granted political asylum in the Soviet Union
Category:Deaths from liver cancer in Russia
Category:Political office-holders of the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan
Category:1970s in Afghanistan
Category:1980s in Afghanistan
Category:Afghan revolutionaries
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babrak_Karmal
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Buddhist philosophy
|
(great monastery) was a major institution of higher-learning in ancient India from the 5th century CE until the 12th century.]]
Buddhist philosophy is the ancient Indian philosophical system that developed within the religio-philosophical tradition of Buddhism. It comprises all the philosophical investigations and systems of rational inquiry that developed among various schools of Buddhism in ancient India following the parinirvāṇa of Gautama Buddha (c. 5th century BCE), as well as the further developments which followed the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia.
Buddhism combines both philosophical reasoning and the practice of meditation. The Buddhist religion presents a multitude of Buddhist paths to liberation; with the expansion of early Buddhism from ancient India to Sri Lanka and subsequently to East Asia and Southeast Asia, However he also affirmed theories with metaphysical implications, such as dependent arising, karma, and rebirth.Historical phases of Buddhist philosophy
Edward Conze splits the development of Indian Buddhist philosophy into three phases:
# The phase of the pre-sectarian Buddhist doctrines derived from oral traditions that originated during the life of Gautama Buddha, and are common to all later schools of Buddhism.
# The second phase concerns non-Mahāyāna "scholastic" Buddhism, as evident in the Abhidharma texts beginning in the 3rd century BCE, that feature scholastic reworking and schematic classification of material in the early Buddhist texts.
For the Indian Buddhist philosophers, the teachings of Gautama Buddha were not meant to be taken on faith alone, but to be confirmed by logical analysis and inquiry (pramāṇa) of the world. The Buddha also expected his disciples to approach him as a teacher in a critical fashion and scrutinize his actions and words, as shown in the Vīmaṃsaka Sutta.
The Buddha and early Buddhism
Buddhism is devoted primarily to awakening or enlightenment (bodhi), Nirvāṇa ("blowing out"), and liberation (vimokṣa) from all causes of suffering (duḥkha) due to the existence of sentient beings in saṃsāra (the cycle of compulsory birth, death, and rebirth) through the threefold trainings (ethical conduct, meditative absorption, and wisdom). Classical Indian Buddhism emphasized the importance of the individual's self-cultivation (through numerous spiritual practices like keeping ethical precepts, Buddhist meditation, and worship) in the process of liberation from the defilements which keep us bound to the cycle of rebirth. According to the standard Buddhist scholastic understanding, liberation arises when the proper elements (dhārmata) are cultivated and when the mind has been purified of its attachment to fetters and hindrances that produce unwholesome mental factors (various called defilements, poisons, or fluxes).
The Buddha
surrounded by his followers. Illustration from an 18th-century Burmese watercolour, Bodleian Library.]]
Scholarly opinion varies as to whether Gautama Buddha himself was engaged in philosophical inquiry. Siddartha Gautama (c. 5th century BCE) was a north Indian Śramaṇa (wandering ascetic), whose teachings are preserved in the Pāli Nikayas and in the Āgamas as well as in other surviving fragmentary textual collections, collectively known as the early Buddhist texts. Dating these texts is difficult, and there is disagreement on how much of this material goes back to a single religious founder. While the focus of the Buddha's teachings is about attaining the highest good of nirvāṇa, they also contain an analysis of the source of human suffering (duḥkha), the nature of personal identity (ātman), and the process of acquiring knowledge (prajña) about the world. Thus, Buddhism's main concern is not with luxury or poverty, but instead with the human response to circumstances.
Another related teaching of the historical Buddha is "the teaching through the middle" (majjhena dhammaṃ desana), which claims to be a metaphysical middle path between the extremes of eternalism and annihilationism, as well as the extremes of existence and non-existence. This idea would become central to later Buddhist metaphysics, as all Buddhist philosophies would claim to steer a metaphysical middle course.
Basic teachings
Apart from the middle way, certain basic teachings appear in many places throughout these early Buddhist texts, so older studies by various scholars conclude that the Buddha must at least have taught some of these key teachings:
* The Four Noble Truths, which provide an analysis of the cause of suffering (duḥkha)
* The Noble Eightfold Path, which illustrate the path to spiritual liberation (mokṣa)
* The four dhyānas (meditations)
* The three marks of existence, three characteristics which apply to all phenomena and which are: suffering (duḥkha), impermanence (anicca), and non-self (anattā)
* The five aggregates of clinging (skandhā), which provide an analysis of personal identity and physical existence
* Dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda), a complex doctrine which analyzes the how living beings come to be and how they are conditioned by various psycho-physical processes
* Karma and rebirth, actions which lead to a new existence after death, in an endless cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (saṃsāra)
* Nirvāṇa, the ultimate soteriological goal which leads to the cessation of all suffering
According to N. Ross Reat, all of these doctrines are shared by the Pāli Canon of Theravāda Buddhism and the Śālistamba Sūtra belonging to the Mahāsāṃghika school. A recent study by Bhikkhu Analayo concludes that the Theravādin Majjhima Nikāya and the Sarvāstivādin Madhyama Āgama contain mostly the same major Buddhist doctrines. Richard G. Salomon, in his study of the Gandhāran Buddhist texts (which are the earliest manuscripts containing discourses attributed to Gautama Buddha), has confirmed that their teachings are "consistent with non-Mahayana Buddhism, which survives today in the Theravada school of Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia, but which in ancient times was represented by eighteen separate schools."
However, some scholars such as Schmithausen, Vetter, and Bronkhorst argue that critical analysis reveals discrepancies among these various doctrines. They present alternative possibilities for what was taught in earliest Buddhism and question the authenticity of certain teachings and doctrines. For example, some scholars think that the doctrine of karma was not central to the teachings of the historical Buddha, while others disagree with this position. Likewise, there is scholarly disagreement on whether insight into the true nature of reality (prajña) was seen as liberating in earliest Buddhism or whether it was a later addition. according to Vetter and Bronkhorst, dhyāna constituted the original "liberating practice", while discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development. Scholars such as Bronkhorst and Carol Anderson also think that the Four Noble Truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism but as Anderson writes "emerged as a central teaching in a slightly later period that still preceded the final redactions of the various Buddhist canons."
According to some scholars, the philosophical outlook of earliest Buddhism was primarily negative, in the sense that it focused on what doctrines to reject and let go of more than on what doctrines to accept. Only knowledge that is useful in attaining liberation is valued. According to this theory, the cycle of philosophical upheavals that in part drove the diversification of Buddhism into its many schools and sects only began once Buddhists began attempting to make explicit the implicit philosophy of the Buddha and the early texts.The Four Noble Truths and dependent causation
The Four Noble Truths or "Truths of the Noble One" are a central feature to the teachings of the historical Buddha and are put forth in the Dharmacakrapravartana Sūtra. The first truth of duḥkha, often translated as "suffering", is the inherent and eternal unsatisfactoriness of life. This unpleasantness is said to be not just physical pain and psychological distress, but also a kind of existential unease caused by the inevitable facts of our mortality and ultimately by the impermanence of all beings and phenomena.
Suffering also arises because of contact with unpleasant events, and due to not getting what one desires. The second truth is that this unease arises out of conditions, mainly craving (taṇhā) and ignorance (avidyā). The third truth is then the fact that whenever sentient beings let go of craving and remove ignorance through insight and knowledge, suffering ceases (nirodhā). The fourth truth is the Noble Eightfold Path, which consists of eight practices that end suffering. They are: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samādhi (concentration, mental unification, meditation). The highest good and ultimate goal taught by the historical Buddha, which is the attainment of nirvāṇa, literally means "extinguishing" and signified "the complete extinguishing of greed, hatred, and delusion (i.e. ignorance), the forces which power saṃsāra".
Nirvāṇa also means that after an enlightened being's death, there is no further rebirth. In earliest Buddhism, the concept of dependent origination (pratītya-samutpāda) was most likely limited to processes of mental conditioning and not to all physical phenomena. Gautama Buddha understood the world in procedural terms, not in terms of things or substances. His theory posits a flux of events arising under certain conditions which are interconnected and dependent, such that the processes in question at no time are considered to be static or independent. Craving (taṇhā), for example, is always dependent on, and caused by sensations gained by the sense organs (āyatana). Sensations are always dependent on contact with our surroundings. Buddha's causal theory is simply descriptive: "This existing, that exists; this arising, that arises; this not existing, that does not exist; this ceasing, that ceases." This understanding of causation as "impersonal lawlike causal ordering" is important because it shows how the processes that give rise to suffering work, and also how they can be reversed. According to the Buddha's teachings as recorded in the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, we need to train the mind in meditation to be able to truly comprehend the nature of reality, which is said to have the Three marks of existence: suffering, impermanence, and non-self (anātman). Understanding and meditation are said to work together to clearly see (vipassanā) the nature of human experience and this is said to lead to liberation.
Non-self
Gautama Buddha argued that compounded entities and sentient beings lacked essence, correspondingly the self is without essence (anātman). This means there is no part of a person which is unchanging and essential for continuity, and it means that there is no individual "part of the person that accounts for the identity of that person over time". This is in opposition to the Upanishadic concept of an unchanging ultimate self (ātman) and any view of an eternal soul. The Buddha held that attachment to the appearance of a permanent self in this world of change is the cause of suffering (duḥkha), and the main obstacle to the attainment of spiritual liberation (mokṣa).
The most widely used argument that the Buddha employed against the idea of an unchanging ego is an empiricist one, based on the observation of the five aggregates of existence (skandhā) that constitute a sentient being, and the fact that these are always changing.
This argument is famously expounded in the Anātmalakṣaṇa Sūtra. According to this text, the apparently fixed self is merely the result of identification with the temporary aggregates of existence (skandhā), the changing processes making up an individual human being. In this view, a 'person' is only a convenient nominal designation on a certain grouping of processes and characteristics, and an 'individual' is a conceptual construction overlaid upon a stream of experiences, just like a chariot is merely a conventional designation for the parts of a chariot and how they are put together. The foundation of this argument is purely empiricist, for it is based on the fact that all we observe is subject to change, especially everything observed when looking inwardly in meditation.
Another argument supporting the doctrine of non-self, the "argument from lack of control", is based on the fact that we often seek to change certain parts of ourselves, that the "executive function" of the mind is that which finds certain things unsatisfactory and attempts to alter them. Furthermore, it is also based on the "anti-reflexivity principle" of Indian philosophy, which states an entity cannot operate on or control itself (a knife can cut other things but not itself, a finger can point at other things but not at itself, etc.). This means then, that the self could never desire to change itself and could not do so; another reason for this is that, besides Buddhism, in the orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy the unchanging ultimate self (ātman) is perfectly blissful and does not suffer. The historical Buddha used this idea to attack the concept of self. This argument could be structured thus:}}
As noted by K.R. Norman and Richard Gombrich, the Buddha extended his non-self critique to the Brahmanical belief expounded in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad that the unchanging ultimate self (ātman) was indeed the whole world, or identical with Brahman. This concept is illustrated in the Alagaddupama Sūtra, where the Buddha argues that an individual cannot experience the suffering of the entire world. He used the example of someone carrying off and burning grass and sticks from the Jeta grove and how a monk would not sense or consider themselves harmed by that action. In this example, the Buddha is arguing that we do not have direct experience of the entire world, and hence the self cannot be the whole world."No, venerable sir. Why not? Because that is neither our self nor what belongs to our self." [https://suttacentral.net/en/mn22/69-70].}} In this Buddhist text, as well as in the Soattā Sūtra, the Buddha outlines six wrong views about self:
All schools of Indian philosophy recognize various sets of valid justifications for knowledge (pramāṇa) and many see the Vedas as providing access to truth. The historical Buddha denied the authority of the Vedas, though, like his contemporaries, he affirmed the soteriological importance of holding the right view; that is, having a proper understanding of reality. However, this understanding was not conceived primarily as metaphysical and cosmological knowledge, but as a piece of knowledge into the arising and cessation of suffering in human experience. Therefore, the Buddha's epistemic project is different from that of modern philosophy; it is primarily a solution to the fundamental human spiritual/existential problem.
Gautama Buddha's logico-epistemology has been compared to empiricism, in the sense that it was based on the experience of the world through the senses. The Buddha taught that empirical observation through the six sense fields (āyatanā) was the proper way of verifying any knowledge claims. Some Buddhist texts go further, stating that "the All", or everything that exists (sabbam), are these six sense spheres (SN 35.23, Sabba Sutta) and that anyone who attempts to describe another "All" will be unable to do so because "it lies beyond range". This text seems to indicate that for the Buddha, things in themselves or noumena are beyond our epistemological reach (avisaya).
Furthermore, in the Kālāma Sutta the Buddha tells a group of confused villagers that the only proper reason for one's beliefs is verification in one's own personal experience (and the experience of the wise) and denies any verification which stems from a personal authority, sacred tradition (anussava), or any kind of rationalism which constructs metaphysical theories (takka). In the Tevijja Sutta (DN 13), the Buddha rejects the personal authority of Brahmins because none of them can prove they have had personal experience of Brahman, nor could any of them prove its existence. This tendency of the Buddha to see what is true as what was useful or "what works" has been called by Western scholars such as Mrs Rhys Davids and Vallée-Poussin a form of pragmatism. However, K. N. Jayatilleke argues the Buddha's epistemology can also be taken to be a form of correspondence theory (as per the Apannaka Sutta) with elements of coherentism, and that for the Buddha it is causally impossible for something which is false to lead to cessation of suffering and evil.
Gautama Buddha discouraged his disciples and early followers of Buddhism from indulging in intellectual disputation for its own sake, which is fruitless, and distracts one from the ultimate goals of awakening (bodhi) and liberation (mokṣa). Only philosophy and discussion which has pragmatic value for liberation from suffering is seen as important. According to the Pāli Canon, during his lifetime the Buddha remained silent when asked several metaphysical questions which he regarded as the basis for "unwise reflection". These "unanswered questions" (avyākṛta) regarded issues such as whether the universe is eternal or non-eternal (or whether it is finite or infinite), the unity or separation of the body and the self (ātman), the complete inexistence of a person after death and nirvāṇa, and others. In the Aggi-Vacchagotta Sutta, the historical Buddha stated that thinking about these imponderable issues led to "a thicket of views, a wilderness of views, a contortion of views, a writhing of views, a fetter of views".
One explanation for this pragmatic suspension of judgment or epistemic Epoché is that such questions contribute nothing to the practical methods of realizing awakeness during one's lifetime and bring about the danger of substituting the experience of liberation by a conceptual understanding of the doctrine or by religious faith. According to the Buddha, the Dharma is not an ultimate end in itself or an explanation of all metaphysical reality, but a pragmatic set of teachings. The Buddha used two parables to clarify this point, the 'Parable of the raft' and the Parable of the Poisoned Arrow. The Dharma is like a raft in the sense that it is only a pragmatic tool for attaining nirvana ("for the purpose of crossing over, not for the purpose of holding onto", MN 22); once one has done this, one can discard the raft. It is also like medicine, in that the particulars of how one was injured by a poisoned arrow (i.e. metaphysics, etc.) do not matter in the act of removing and curing the arrow wound itself (removing suffering). In this sense, the Buddha was often called "the great physician" because his goal was to cure the human condition of suffering first and foremost, not to speculate about metaphysics.
Having said this, it is still clear that resisting and even refuting a false or slanted doctrine can be useful to extricate the interlocutor, or oneself, from error; hence, to advance in the way of liberation. Witness the Buddha's confutation of several doctrines by Nigantha Nataputta and other purported sages which sometimes had large followings (e.g., Kula Sutta, Sankha Sutta, Brahmana Sutta). This shows that a virtuous and appropriate use of dialectics can take place. By implication, reasoning and argument shouldn't be disparaged by Buddhists.
After the Buddha's death, some Buddhists such as Dharmakirti went on to use the sayings of the Buddha as sound evidence equal to perception and inference.TranscendenceAnother possible reason why the Buddha refused to engage in metaphysics is that he saw ultimate reality and nirvana as devoid of sensory mediation and conception and therefore language itself is a priori inadequate to explain it. Thus, the Buddha's silence does not indicate misology or disdain for philosophy. Rather, it indicates that he viewed the answers to these questions as not understandable by the unenlightened.
Meta-ethics
The Buddha's ethics are based on the soteriological need to eliminate suffering and on the premise of the law of karma. Buddhist ethics have been termed eudaimonic (with their goal being well-being) and also compared to virtue ethics (this approach began with Damien Keown). Keown writes that Buddhist Nirvana is analogous to the Aristotelian Eudaimonia, and that Buddhist moral acts and virtues derive their value from how they lead us to or act as an aspect of the nirvanic life.
The Buddha outlined five precepts (no killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, or drinking alcohol) which were to be followed by his disciples, lay and monastic. There are various reasons the Buddha gave as to why someone should be ethical.
First, the universe is structured in such a way that if someone intentionally commits a misdeed, a bad karmic fruit will be the result. Hence, from a pragmatic point of view, it is best to abstain from these negative actions which bring forth negative results. However, the important word here is intentionally: for the Buddha, karma is nothing else but intention/volition, and hence unintentionally harming someone does not create bad karmic results. Unlike the Jains who believed that karma was a quasi-physical element, for the Buddha karma was a volitional mental event, what Richard Gombrich calls "an ethicised consciousness".
This idea leads into the second moral justification of the Buddha: intentionally performing negative actions reinforces and propagates mental defilements which keep persons bound to the cycle of rebirth and interfere with the process of liberation, and hence intentionally performing good karmic actions is participating in mental purification which leads to nirvana, the highest happiness. This perspective sees immoral acts as unskillful (akusala) in our quest for happiness, and hence it is pragmatic to do good.
The third meta-ethical consideration takes the view of not-self and our natural desire to end our suffering to its logical conclusion. Since there is no self, there is no reason to prefer our own welfare over that of others because there is no ultimate grounding for the differentiation of "my" suffering and someone else's. Instead, an enlightened person would just work to end suffering tout court, without thinking of the conventional concept of persons. According to this argument, anyone who is selfish does so out of ignorance of the true nature of personal identity and irrationality.
Buddhist schools and Abhidharma
The main Indian Buddhist philosophical schools practiced a form of analysis termed Abhidharma which sought to systematize the teachings of the early Buddhist discourses (sutras). Abhidharma analysis broke down human experience into momentary phenomenal events or occurrences called "dharmas". Dharmas are impermanent and dependent on other causal factors, they arise and pass as part of a web of other interconnected dharmas, and are never found alone. The Abhidharma schools held that the teachings of the Buddha in the sutras were merely conventional, while the Abhidharma analysis was ultimate truth (paramattha sacca), the way things really are when seen by an enlightened being. The Abhidharmic project has been likened as a form of phenomenology or process philosophy.
Abhidharma philosophers not only outlined what they believed to be an exhaustive listing of dharmas (Pali: dhammas), which are the ultimate phenomena, events or processes (and include physical and mental phenomena), but also the causal relations between them. In the Abhidharmic analysis, the only thing which is ultimately real is the interplay of dharmas in a causal stream; everything else is merely conceptual (paññatti) and nominal. Abhidharmikas such as Vasubandhu argued that conventional things (tables, persons, etc.) "disappear under analysis" and that this analysis reveals only a causal stream of phenomenal events and their relations. The mainstream Abhidharmikas defended this view against their main Hindu rivals, the Nyaya school, who were substance theorists and posited the existence of universals. Some Abhidharmikas such as the Prajñaptivāda were also strict nominalists, and held that all things - even dharmas - were merely conceptual.The Abhidharma schools
and the elder Moggaliputta-Tissa, who is seen as a key thinker of the Vibhajyavāda tradition (and thus, of Theravada).]]
An important Abhidhamma work from the Theravāda school is the Kathāvatthu ("Points of controversy"), attributed to the Indian scholar-monk Moggaliputta-Tissa (–247 BCE). This text is important because it attempts to refute several philosophical views which had developed after the death of the Buddha, especially the theory that 'all exists' (sarvāstivāda), the theory of momentariness (khāṇavāda) and the personalist view (pudgalavada). These were the major philosophical theories that divided the Buddhist Abhidharma schools in India.
After being brought to Sri Lanka in the first century BCE, the Pali language Theravada Abhidhamma tradition was heavily influenced by the works of Buddhaghosa (4-5th century AD), the most important philosopher and commentator of the Theravada school. The Theravada philosophical enterprise was mostly carried out in the genre of Atthakatha (commentaries) as well as sub-commentaries (tikas) on the classic Pali Abhidhamma texts. Abhidhamma study also included smaller doctrinal summaries and compendiums, like the Abhidhammattha-saṅgaha (The Compendium of Things contained in the Abhidhamma).
The Sarvāstivāda-Vaibhāṣika (sometimes just "Vaibhāṣika") was one of the major Buddhist philosophical schools in India, and they were so named because of their belief that dharmas exist in all three times: past, present and future. Though the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma system began as a mere categorization of mental events, their philosophers and exegetes such as Dharmatrata and Katyāyāniputra, the compiler of the Mahāvibhāṣa ("Great Commentary"), eventually refined this system into a robust realism, which also included a type of essentialism or substance theory. This realism was based on the nature of dharmas, which was called svabhava ("self-nature" or "intrinsic existence"). Another key figure was Śubhagupta (720–780), who was a Vaibhāṣika thinker within the epistemological (pramana) tradition.
Other Buddhist schools such as the Prajñaptivāda ("the nominalists"), as well as the Caitika Mahāsāṃghikas refused to accept the concept of svabhava. Thus, not all Abhidharma sources defend svabhava. For example, the main topic of the Tattvasiddhi Śāstra by Harivarman (3-4th century CE), an influential Abhidharma text, is the emptiness (shunyata) of dharmas. Indeed, this anti-essentialist nominalism was widespread among the Mahāsāṃghika sects. Another important feature of the Mahāsāṃghika tradition was its unique theory of consciousness. Many of the Mahāsāṃghika sub-schools defended a theory of self-awareness (svasaṃvedana) which held that consciousness can be simultaneously aware of itself as well as its intentional object. Some of these schools also held that the mind's nature (cittasvabhāva) is fundamentally pure (mulavisuddha), but it can be contaminated by adventitious defilements.
(c. 5th century), the most important Abhidharma scholar of Theravāda Buddhism, presenting three copies of the Visuddhimagga.]]
The Theravādins and other schools, such as the Sautrāntikas ("those who follow the sutras"), often attacked the theories of the Sarvāstivādins, especially their theory of time. A major figure in this argument was the scholar Vasubandhu, a Sarvāstivādin monk himself (who was also influenced by the critiques of the Sautrantika school), who critiqued the theory of all exists and argued for philosophical presentism in his comprehensive treatise, the Abhidharmakośa. This work is the major Abhidharma text used in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism today. The Theravāda also holds that dharmas only exist in the present, and are thus also presentists.
The Theravāda presentation of Abhidharma is also not as concerned with ontology as the Sarvāstivāda view, but is more of a phenomenological schema. Karunadasa also describes the Theravada system as a "critical realism" which sees the ultimate existents as the myriad irreducible dhammas, and which also accepts the existence of an external world with entities that truly exist independently of cognition (as opposed to Mahayana forms of idealism).
Another important theory held by some Sarvāstivādins, Theravādins and Sautrāntikas was the theory of "momentariness" (Skt., kṣāṇavāda, Pali, khāṇavāda). This theory held that dhammas only last for a minute moment (ksana) after they arise. The Sarvāstivādins saw these 'moments' in an atomistic way, as the smallest length of time possible (they also developed a material atomism). Reconciling this theory with their eternalism regarding time was a major philosophical project of the Sarvāstivāda. The Theravādins initially rejected this theory, as evidenced by the Khaṇikakathā of the Kathavatthu which attempts to refute the doctrine that "all phenomena (dhamma) are as momentary as a single mental entity." However, momentariness with regards to mental dhammas (but not physical or rūpa dhammas) was later adopted by the Sri Lankan Theravādins, and it is possible that it was first introduced by the scholar Buddhagosa.
All Abhidharma schools also developed complex theories of causation and conditionality to explain how dharmas interacted with each other. Another major philosophical project of the Abhidharma schools was the explanation of perception. Some schools such as the Sarvastivadins explained perception as a type of phenomenalist realism while others such as the Sautrantikas preferred representationalism and held that we only perceive objects indirectly. The major argument used for this view by the Sautrāntikas was the "time-lag argument." According to Mark Siderits: "The basic idea behind the argument is that since there is always a tiny gap between when the sense comes in contact with the external object and when there is sensory awareness, what we are aware of can't be the external object that the senses were in contact with, since it no longer exists." This is related to the theory of extreme momentariness.
One major philosophical view which was rejected by all the schools mentioned above was the view held by the Pudgalavadin or 'personalist' schools. They seemed to have held that there was a sort of 'personhood' in some ultimately real sense which was not reducible to the five aggregates.
The Mahayana also promoted the bodhisattva ideal, which included an attitude of compassion for all sentient beings. The Bodhisattva is someone who chooses to remain in samsara (the cycle of birth and death) to benefit all other beings who are suffering.
Major Mahayana philosophical schools and traditions include the Prajñaparamita, Madhyamaka, Yogācāra, Tathagatagarbha, the epistemological school of Dignaga, and in China the Huayan, Tiantai and Zen schools.
Prajñāpāramitā and Madhyamaka
) from Dunhuang (circa 868 CE).]]
snake spirits who are said to be the guardians of the Prajnaparamita sutras.]]
The earliest Prajñāpāramitā-sutras ("perfection of insight" sutras) (circa 1st century BCE) emphasize the shunyata (emptiness) of all phenomena. It is thus a radical global nominalism and anti-essentialism, which sees all things as illusions and all of reality as a dreamlike appearance without any fundamental essence. The Prajñāpāramitā is said to be a transcendent spiritual knowledge of the nature of ultimate reality, which empty of any essence or foundation, like a universal mirage.
Thus, the Diamond Sutra (Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra) states:
The Heart Sutra famously affirms the emptiness (shunyata) of all phenomena:
<blockquote>Oh, Sariputra, form does not differ from emptiness, and emptiness does not differ from form.<br/>Form is emptiness and emptiness is form; the same is true for feelings, perceptions, volitions and consciousness.</blockquote>The Prajñāpāramitā sources also note that this applies to every single phenomenon, even Buddhahood. The goal of the Buddhist aspirant in the Prajñāpāramitā texts is to awaken to the perfection of wisdom ("prajñāpāramitā"), a non-conceptual transcendent wisdom that knows the emptiness of all things while not being attached to anything (including the very idea of emptiness itself or perfect wisdom). In the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, Nagarjuna relies on reductio ad absurdum arguments to refute various theories which assume svabhava (an inherent essence or "own being"), dravya (substances) or any theory of existence (bhava). In this work, he covers topics such as causation, motion, and the sense faculties.
Nāgārjuna asserted a direct connection between, even identity of, dependent origination, non-self (anatta), and emptiness (śūnyatā). He pointed out that implicit in the early Buddhist concept of dependent origination is the lack of anatta (substantial being) underlying the participants in origination, so that they have no independent existence, a state identified as śūnyatā (i.e., emptiness of a nature or essence (svabhāva sunyam).
Later philosophers of the Madhyamaka school built upon Nāgārjuna's analysis and defended Madhyamaka against their opponents. These included Āryadeva (3rd century CE), Nāgārjuna's pupil; Candrakīrti (600–), who wrote an important commentary on the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā; and Shantideva (8th century), who is the key Mahayana ethicist.
The commentator Buddhapālita (c. 470–550) has been understood as the originator of the 'prāsaṅgika' approach which is based on critiquing essentialism only through reductio arguments. He was criticized by Bhāvaviveka ( – ), who argued for the use of properly logical syllogisms to positively argue for emptiness (instead of just refuting the theories of others). These two approaches were later termed the prāsaṅgika and the svātantrika approaches to Madhyamaka by Tibetan philosophers and commentators.
Influenced by the work of Dignaga, Bhāvaviveka's Madhyamika philosophy makes use of Buddhist epistemology. Candrakīrti, on the other hand, critiqued Bhāvaviveka's adoption of the epistemological (pramana) tradition on the grounds that it contained subtle essentialism. He quotes Nagarjuna's famous statement in the Vigrahavyavartani which says "I have no thesis" for his rejection of positive epistemic Madhyamaka statements. Candrakīrti held that a true Madhyamika could only use "consequence" (prasanga), in which one points out the inconsistencies of their opponent's position without asserting an "autonomous inference" (svatantra), for no such inference can be ultimately true from the point of view of Madhyamaka.
In China, the Madhyamaka school (known as Sānlùn) was founded by Kumārajīva (344–413 CE), who translated the works of Nagarjuna to Chinese. Other Chinese Madhymakas include Kumārajīva 's pupil Sengzhao, Jizang (549–623), who wrote over 50 works on Madhyamaka, and Hyegwan, a Korean monk who brought Madhyamaka teachings to Japan.
Yogācāra
wrote in defense of Vijñapti-matra (appearance only) as well as writing a massive work on Abhidharma, the Abhidharmakosa.]]
The Yogācāra school (Yoga practice) was a Buddhist philosophical tradition which arose in between the 2nd century CE and the 4th century CE and is associated with the philosophers and brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu and with various sutras such as the Sandhinirmocana Sutra and the Lankavatara Sutra. The central feature of Yogācāra thought is the concept of vijñapti-mātra, often translated as "impressions only" or "appearance only". This has been interpreted as a form of Idealism or as a form of Phenomenology. Other names for the Yogācāra school are 'vijñanavada' (the doctrine of consciousness) and 'cittamatra' (mind-only).</blockquote>
According to Vasubandhu then, all our experiences are like seeing hairs on the moon when we have cataracts, that is, we project our mental images into something "out there" when there are no such things. Vasubandhu then goes on to use the dream argument to argue that mental impressions do not require external objects to (1) seem to be spatio-temporally located, (2) to seem to have an inter-subjective quality, and (3) to seem to operate by causal laws. After having argued that impressions-only is a theory that can explain our everyday experience, Vasubandhu then appeals to parsimony - since we do not need the concept of external objects to explain reality, then we can do away with those superfluous concepts altogether as they are most likely just mentally superimposed on our concepts of reality by the mind. Yogācārins like Vasubandhu also attacked the realist theories of Buddhist atomism and the Abhidharma theory of svabhava. He argued that atoms, as conceived by the atomists (un-divisible entities), would not be able to come together to form larger aggregate entities, and hence that they were illogical concepts.</blockquote>
Apart from its defense of an idealistic metaphysics and its attacks on realism, Yogācāra sources also developed a new theory of mind, based on the Eight Consciousnesses, which includes the innovative doctrine of the subliminal storehouse consciousness (Skt: ālayavijñāna).
Yogācāra thinkers also developed a positive account of ultimate reality based on three basic modes or "natures" (svabhāva). This metaphysical doctrine is central to their view of the ultimate and to their understanding of the doctrine of emptiness (śūnyatā).
The Dignāga-Dharmakīrti tradition
Dignāga (–540) and Dharmakīrti (c. 6-7th century) were Buddhist philosophers who developed a system of epistemology (pramana) and logic in their debates with the Brahminical philosophers in order to defend Buddhist doctrine. This tradition is called "those who follow reasoning" (Tibetan: ''rigs pa rjes su 'brang ba); in modern literature, it is sometimes known by the Sanskrit "pramāṇavāda''", or "the Epistemological School." They were associated with the Yogacara and Sautrantika schools, and defended theories held by both of these schools.
Dignāga's influence was profound and led to an "epistemological turn" among all Buddhists and also all Sanskrit language philosophers in India after his death. In the centuries following Dignāga's work, Sanskrit philosophers became much more focused on defending all of their propositions with fully developed theories of knowledge.
The "School of Dignāga" includes later philosophers and commentators like Santabhadra, Dharmottara (8th century), Prajñakaragupta (740–800 C.E.), Jñanasrimitra (975–1025), Ratnakīrti (11th century) and Śaṅkaranandana (fl. c. 9th or 10th century).
These Buddhist philosophers argued in favor of the theory of momentariness, the Yogācāra "awareness only" view, the reality of particulars (svalakṣaṇa), atomism, nominalism and the self-reflexive nature of consciousness (svasaṃvedana). They attacked Hindu theories of God (Isvara), universals, the authority of the Vedas, and the existence of a permanent soul (atman).
Later Yogācāra developments
After the time of Asanga and Vasubandhu, the Yogācāra school developed in different directions. One branch focused on epistemology (this would become the school of Dignaga). Another branch focused on expanding the Yogācāra's metaphysics and philosophy. This latter tradition includes figures like Dharmapala of Nalanda, Sthiramati, Chandragomin (who was known to have debated the Madhyamaka thinker Candrakirti), and Śīlabhadra (a top scholar at Nalanda). Yogācārins such as Paramartha and Guṇabhadra brought the school to China and translated Yogacara works there, where it is known as Wéishí-zōng or Fǎxiàng-zōng. An important contribution to East Asian Yogācāra is Xuanzang's Cheng Weishi Lun, or "Discourse on the Establishment of Consciousness Only".
A later development is the rise of a syncretic tradition of Yogācāra-tathāgatagarbha thought. This group adopted the doctrine of tathāgatagarbha (the buddha-womb, buddha-source, or "buddha-within") found in various tathāgatagarbha sutras. This hybrid school eventually went on to equate the tathāgatagarbha with the pure aspect of the storehouse consciousness. Some key sources of this school are the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, Ratnagotravibhāga (Uttaratantra), and in China, the influential Mahayana Awakening of Faith treatise. This synthetic tradition also became important in later Indian Buddhism, where the Ratnagotravibhāga became the key text.
, Bihar), an important center for late Indian Yogacara. Great panditas like Jñānaśrīmitra and Ratnākaraśānti were 'gate-scholars' in this university.]]
Another later development was the synthesis of Yogācāra with Madhyamaka. Jñānagarbha (8th century) and his student Śāntarakṣita (725–788) brought together Yogacara, Madhyamaka and the Dignaga school of epistemology into a philosophical synthesis known as the Yogācāra-Svatantrika-Mādhyamika. Śāntarakṣita was also instrumental in the introduction of Buddhism and the Sarvastivadin monastic ordination lineage to Tibet, which was conducted at Samye. Śāntarakṣita's disciples included Haribhadra and Kamalaśīla. This philosophical tradition is influential in Tibetan Buddhist thought.
Perhaps the most important debate among late Yogācāra philosophers was the debate between alikākāravāda (Tib. rnam rdzun pa, False Aspectarians, also known as Nirākāravāda) and Satyākāravāda (rnam bden pa, True Aspectarians, also known as sākāravāda). The crux of the debate was the question of whether mental appearances, images or “aspects” (ākāra) are true (satya) or false (alika). The Satyākāravāda camp, defended by scholars like Prajñakaragupta (ca. 8th–9th century), and Jñānaśrīmitra (ca. 980–1040), held that images in consciousness have a real existence, since they arise from a real consciousness. Meanwhile, Alikākāravāda defenders like Sthiramati and Ratnākaraśānti (ca. 970–1045) argued that mental appearances do not really exist, and are false (alīka) or illusory. For these thinkers, the only thing which is real is a pure self-aware consciousness which is contentless (nirākāra, “without images”). Buddha-nature thought
The tathāgathagarbha sutras, in a departure from mainstream Buddhist language, insist that there is a real potential for awakening is inherent to every sentient being. They marked a shift from a largely apophatic (negative) method within Buddhism to a decidedly more cataphatic (positive) mode. The main topic of this genre of literature is the tathāgata-garbha, which can mean the womb or embryo of a Tathāgata (i.e. a Buddha) and is what allows someone to become a Buddha. Another similar term used for this idea is buddhadhātu (buddha-nature or source of the Buddhas).
Prior to the period of these scriptures, Mahāyāna metaphysics had been dominated by teachings on emptiness. The language used by this approach is primarily negative, and the buddha-nature literature can be seen as an attempt to state orthodox Buddhist teachings of dependent origination using positive language instead, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism. In these sutras, the perfection of the wisdom of not-self is stated to be the true self (atman). The word "self" (atman) is used in a way idiosyncratic to these sutras; the "true self" is described as the perfection of the wisdom of not-self in the Buddha-Nature Treatise (Fóxìng lùn, 佛性論, T. 1610) of Paramārtha, for example. It also describes buddha nature as “the intrinsically stainless nature of the mind” (cittaprakṛtivaimalya). Indeed, in many later Indian sources, the tathāgathagarbha teachings also come to be identified with the similar doctrine of the luminous mind (prabhasvara-citta). This ancient idea holds that the mind is inherently pure, and that defilements are only adventitious. In the Ratnagotravibhāga, this originally pure (prakṛtipariśuddha) nature (i.e. the fully purified buddha-nature) is further described through numerous terms such as: unconditioned (asaṃskṛta), unborn (ajāta), unarisen (anutpanna), eternal (nitya), changeless (dhruva), and permanent (śāśvata).
According to some scholars, tathāgatagarbha does not represent a substantial self; rather, it is a positive language expression of emptiness and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices. In this interpretation, the intention of the teaching of tathāgatagarbha is soteriological rather than metaphysical.Vajrayāna Buddhism
, one of "the last great masters" of Indian Buddhism (Kapstein).]]
Vajrayāna (also Mantrayāna, Sacret Mantra, Tantrayāna and Esoteric Buddhism) is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition associated with a group of texts known as the Buddhist Tantras which had developed into a major force in India by the eighth century. By this time Indian Tantric scholars were developing philosophical defenses, hermeneutics and explanations of the Buddhist tantric systems, especially through commentaries on key tantras such as the Guhyasamāja Tantra, Mahavairocana sutra, and the Guhyagarbha Tantra.
While the view of the Vajrayāna was based on the earlier Madhyamaka, Yogacara and Buddha-nature theories, it saw itself as being a faster vehicle to liberation containing many skillful methods (upaya) of tantric ritual. The need for an explication and defense of the Tantras arose out of the unusual nature of the rituals associated with them, which included the use of secret mantras, alcohol, sexual yoga, complex visualizations of mandalas filled with wrathful deities and other practices which were discordant with or at least novel in comparison to traditional Buddhist practice.
The Guhyasamāja Tantra, for example, states: "you should kill living beings, speak lying words, take things that are not given and have sex with many women". Other features of tantra included a focus on the physical body as the means to liberation, and a reaffirmation of feminine elements, feminine deities and a positive view of sexuality.
The defense of these tantric practices is based on the theory of transformation which states that negative mental factors and physical actions can be cultivated and transformed in a ritual setting. The Hevajra tantra states:
<blockquote>Those things by which evil men are bound, others turn into means and gain thereby release from the bonds of existence. By passion the world is bound, by passion too it is released, but by heretical Buddhists, this practice of reversals is not known.</blockquote>
Another hermeneutic of Buddhist Tantric commentaries such as the Vimalaprabha (Stainless Light) of Pundarika (a commentary on the Kalacakra Tantra) is one of interpreting taboo or unethical statements in the Tantras as metaphorical statements about tantric practice and physiology. For example, in the Vimalaprabha'', "killing living beings" refers to stopping the prana at the top of the head. In the Tantric Candrakirti's Pradipoddyotana, a commentary to the Guhyasamaja Tantra, killing living beings is glossed as "making them void" by means of a "special samadhi" which according to Bus-ton is associated with completion stage tantric practice.
Douglas Duckworth notes that Vajrayāna philosophical outlook is one of embodiment, which sees the physical and cosmological body as already containing wisdom and divinity. Liberation (nirvana) and Buddhahood are not seen as something outside the body, or an event in the future, but as imminently present and accessible right now through unique tantric practices like deity yoga. Hence, Vajrayāna is also called the "resultant vehicle", that is to say, it is the spiritual vehicle that relies on the immanent nature of the result of practice (liberation), which is already present in all beings. Duckworth names the philosophical view of Vajrayāna as a form of pantheism, by which he means the belief that every existing entity is in some sense divine and that all things express some form of unity.
Major Indian Tantric Buddhist philosophers such as Buddhaguhya, Padmavajra (author of the Guhyasiddhi commentary), Nagarjuna (the 7th-century disciple of Saraha), Indrabhuti (author of the Jñānasiddhi), Anangavajra, Dombiheruka, Durjayacandra, Ratnākaraśānti and Abhayakaragupta wrote tantric texts and commentaries systematizing the tradition.
Others such as Vajrabodhi and Śubhakarasiṃha brought tantra to Tang China (716 to 720), and tantric philosophy continued to be developed in Chinese and Japanese by thinkers such as Yi Xing (683–727) and Kūkai (774– 835).
In Tibet, philosophers such as Sakya Pandita (1182-28–1251), Longchenpa (1308–1364) and Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) continued the tradition of Buddhist Tantric philosophy in Classical Tibetan.
Tibetan Buddhist philosophy
was the first Buddhist monastery built in Tibet (c. 775–779).]]
Tibetan Buddhist philosophy is mainly a continuation and refinement of the Indian Mahayana philosophical traditions. The initial efforts of Śāntarakṣita and Kamalaśīla brought their eclectic scholarly tradition to Tibet.
The initial work of early Tibetan Buddhist philosophers was in the translation of classical Indian philosophical treatises and the writing of commentaries. This initial period is from the 8th to the 10th century. Early Tibetan commentator-philosophers were heavily influenced by the work of Dharmakirti and these include Ngok Loden Sherab (1059–1109) and Chaba Chökyi Senge (1182–1251). Their works are now lost.
The 12th and 13th centuries saw the translation of the works of Chandrakirti, the promulgation of his views in Tibet by scholars such as Patsab Nyima Drakpa, Kanakavarman and Jayananda (12th century) and the development of the Tibetan debate between the prasangika and svatantrika views which continues to this day among Tibetan Buddhist schools. The main disagreement between these views is the use of reasoned argument. For Śāntarakṣita's school, reason is useful in establishing arguments that lead one to a correct understanding of emptiness. Then, through the use of meditation, one can reach non-conceptual gnosis that does not rely on reason. However, Chandrakirti rejects this idea, because meditation on emptiness cannot possibly involve any object. Reason's role for him is purely negative. Reason is used to negate any essentialist view, and then eventually reason must also negate itself, along with any conceptual proliferation (prapañca).
Another very influential figure from this early period is Mabja Jangchub Tsöndrü (d. 1185), who wrote an important commentary on Nagarjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā. Mabja was studied under the Dharmakirtian Chaba and also the Candrakirti scholar Patsab. His work shows an attempt to steer a middle course between their views, he affirms the conventional usefulness of pramāṇa epistemology, but also accepts Candrakirti's prasangika views.
There are various Tibetan Buddhist schools or monastic orders. According to Georges B.J. Dreyfus, within Tibetan thought, the Sakya school holds a mostly anti-realist philosophical position (which sees saṁvṛtisatya / conventional truth as an illusion), while the Gelug school tends to defend a form of realism (which accepts that conventional truth is in some sense real and true, yet dependently originated). The Kagyu and Nyingma schools also tend to follow Sakya anti-realism (with some differences).Shentong and Buddha natureThe 14th century saw increasing interest in the Buddha nature texts and doctrines. This can be seen in the work of the third Kagyu Karmapa Rangjung Dorje (1284–1339), especially his treatise "Profound Inner Meaning". This treatise describes ultimate nature or suchness as Buddha nature which is the basis for nirvana and samsara, radiant in nature and empty in essence, surpassing thought. This view holds that all relative phenomena are empty of inherent existence, but that the ultimate reality, the buddha-wisdom (buddha jñana) is not empty of its own inherent existence.
According to Dölpopa, all beings are said to have the Buddha nature, the non-dual wisdom which is real, unchanging, permanent, non-conditioned, eternal, blissful and compassionate. This ultimate buddha wisdom is "uncreated and indestructible, unconditioned and beyond the chain of dependent origination" and is the basis for both samsara and nirvana. Dolpopa's shentong view also taught that ultimate reality was truly a "Great Self" or "Supreme Self" referring to works such as the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, the Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra and the Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra.
The shentong view had an influence on philosophers of other schools, such as Nyingma and Kagyu thinkers, and was also widely criticized in some circles as being similar to the Hindu notions of Atman. The Shentong philosophy was also expounded in Tibet and Mongolia by the later Jonang scholar Tāranātha (1575–1634) and numerous later figures of the Jonang tradition. In the late 17th century, the Jonang order and its teachings came under attack by the 5th Dalai Lama, who converted the majority of their monasteries in Tibet to the Gelug order, although several survived in secret.
Gelug
]]
Je Tsongkhapa (Dzong-ka-ba) (1357–1419) founded the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism, which came to dominate the country through the office of the Dalai Lama and is the major defender of the Prasaṅgika Madhyamaka view. His work is influenced by the philosophy of Candrakirti and Dharmakirti. Tsongkhapa's magnum opus is The Ocean of Reasoning, a Commentary on Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika. Gelug philosophy is based upon the study of Madhyamaka texts and Tsongkhapa's works as well as formal debate (rtsod pa).
Tsongkhapa defended Prasangika Madhyamaka as the highest view and critiqued the svatantrika position. Tsongkhapa argued that, because svatantrika conventionally establishes things by their own characteristics, they fail to completely understand the emptiness of phenomena and hence do not achieve the same realization. Drawing on Chandrakirti, Tsongkhapa rejected the Yogacara teachings, even as a provisional stepping point to the Madhyamaka view. while holding that, from the view of ultimate truth (paramarthika satya), all things (including Buddha nature and Nirvana) are empty of inherent existence (svabhava), and that true liberation is this realization of emptiness.
Sakya scholars such as Rongtön and Gorampa disagreed with Tsongkhapa, and argued that the prasangika svatantrika distinction was merely pedagogical. Gorampa also critiqued Tsongkhapa's realism, arguing that the structures which allow an empty object to be presented as conventionally real eventually dissolve under analysis and are thus unstructured and non-conceptual (spros bral). Tsongkhapa's students Gyel-tsap, Kay-drup, and Ge-dun-drup set forth an epistemological realism against the Sakya scholars' anti-realism.
Sakya
Sakya Pandita (1182–1251) was a 13th-century head of the Sakya school and ruler of Tibet. He was also one of the most important Buddhist philosophers in the Tibetan tradition, writing works on logic and epistemology and promoting Dharmakirti's Pramanavarttika (Commentary on Valid Cognition) as central to the scholastic study. Sakya Pandita's 'Treasury of Logic on Valid Cognition' (''Tshad ma rigs pa'i gter'') set forth the classic Sakya epistemic anti-realist position, arguing that concepts such as universals are not known through valid cognition and hence are not real objects of knowledge. Sakya Chokden's philosophy attempted to reconcile the views of the Yogacara and Madhyamaka, seeing them both as valid and complementary perspectives on ultimate truth. Madhyamaka is seen by Chokden as removing the fault of taking the unreal as being real, and Yogacara removes the fault of the denial of Reality. Likewise, the Shentong and Rangtong views are seen as complementary by Sakya Chokden; Rangtong negation is effective in cutting through all clinging to wrong views and conceptual rectification, while Shentong is more amenable for describing and enhancing meditative experience and realization. Therefore, for Sakya Chokden, the same realization of ultimate reality can be accessed and described in two different but compatible ways.
Nyingma
The Nyingma school is strongly influenced by the view of Dzogchen (Great Perfection) and the Dzogchen Tantric literature. Longchenpa (1308–1364) was a major philosopher of the Nyingma school and wrote an extensive number of works on the Tibetan practice of Dzogchen and on Buddhist Tantra. These include the Seven Treasures, the Trilogy of Natural Ease, and his Trilogy of Dispelling Darkness. Longchenpa's works provide a philosophical understanding of Dzogchen, a defense of Dzogchen in light of the sutras, as well as practical instructions. For Longchenpa, the ground of reality is luminous emptiness, rigpa ("knowledge"), or buddha nature, and this ground is also the bridge between sutra and tantra. Longchenpa's philosophy sought to establish the positive aspects of Buddha nature thought against the totally negative theology of Madhyamika without straying into the absolutism of Dolpopa. For Longchenpa, the basis for Dzogchen and Tantric practice in Vajrayana is the "Ground" or "Basis" (gzhi), the immanent Buddha nature, "the primordially luminous reality that is unconditioned and spontaneously present" which is "free from all elaborated extremes".
Rimé movement
The 19th century saw the rise of the Rimé movement (non-sectarian, unbiased) which sought to push back against the politically dominant Gelug school's criticisms of the Sakya, Kagyu, Nyingma and Bon philosophical views, and develop a more eclectic or universal system of textual study. Jamyang Khyentse Wangpo (1820–1892) and Jamgön Kongtrül (1813–1899) were the founders of Rimé. The Rimé movement came to prominence at a point in Tibetan history when the religious climate had become partisan. The aim of the movement was "a push towards a middle ground where the various views and styles of the different traditions were appreciated for their individual contributions rather than being refuted, marginalized, or banned."
The later Nyingma scholar Botrul (1894–1959) classified the major Tibetan Madhyamaka positions as shentong (other emptiness), Nyingma rangtong (self emptiness) and Gelug bdentong (emptiness of true existence). The main difference between them is their "object of negation"; shengtong states that inauthentic experience is empty, rangtong negates any conceptual reference and bdentong negates any true existence.
The 14th Dalai Lama was also influenced by this non-sectarian approach. Having studied under teachers from all major Tibetan Buddhist schools, his philosophical position tends to be that the different perspectives on emptiness are complementary:
<blockquote>There is a tradition of making a distinction between two different perspectives on the nature of emptiness: one is when emptiness is presented within a philosophical analysis of the ultimate reality of things, in which case it ought to be understood in terms of a non-affirming negative phenomena. On the other hand, when it is discussed from the point of view of experience, it should be understood more in terms of an affirming negation – 14th Dalai Lama</blockquote>
East Asian Buddhism
, the founding thinker of the Tiantai school.]]
Tiantai
The schools of Buddhism that had existed in China prior to the emergence of the Tiantai are generally believed to represent direct transplantations from India, with little modification to their basic doctrines and methods. The Tiantai school, founded by Zhiyi (538–597), was the first truly unique Chinese Buddhist philosophical school. Tiantai doctrine sought to bring together all Buddhist teachings into a comprehensive system based on the ekayana ("one vehicle") doctrine taught in the Lotus Sutra.
Tiantai's metaphysics is an immanent holism, which sees every phenomenon (dharma) as conditioned and manifested by the whole of reality (the totality of all other dharmas). Every instant of experience is a reflection of every other, and hence, suffering and nirvana, good and bad, Buddhahood and evildoing, are all "inherently entailed" within each other.
Tiantai metaphysics is entailed in their teaching of the "three truths", which is an extension of the Mādhyamaka two truths doctrine. The three truths are: the conventional truth of appearance, the truth of emptiness and the third truth of 'the exclusive Center' (但中 danzhong) or middle way, which is beyond conventional truth and emptiness. This third truth is the Absolute and expressed by the claim that nothing is "Neither-Same-Nor-Different" than anything else, but rather each 'thing' is the absolute totality of all things manifesting as a particular, everything is mutually contained within each thing. Everything is a reflection of "The Ultimate Reality of All Appearances" (諸法實相 zhufashixiang) and each thought "contains three thousand worlds". This perspective allows the Tiantai school to state such seemingly paradoxical things as "evil is ineradicable from the highest good, Buddhahood." based on the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (Flower Garland Sutra). Huayan holds that all phenomena (Sanskrit: dharmas) are deeply interconnected, mutually arising and that every phenomenon contains all other phenomena. Various metaphors and images are used to illustrate this idea. The first is known as Indra's net. The net is set with jewels which have the extraordinary property that they reflect all of the other jewels, while the reflections also contain every other reflection, ad infinitum. The second image is that of the world text. This image portrays the world as consisting of an enormous text which is as large as the universe itself. The words of the text are composed of the phenomena that make up the world. However, every atom of the world contains the whole text within it. It is the work of a Buddha to let out the text so that beings can be liberated from suffering.
Fazang (Fa-tsang, 643–712), one of the most important Huayan thinkers, wrote 'Essay on the Golden Lion' and 'Treatise on the Five Teachings', which contain other metaphors for the interpenetration of reality. He also used the metaphor of a house of mirrors. Fazang introduced the distinction of "the Realm of Principle" and "the Realm of Things". This theory was further developed by Cheng-guan (738–839) into the major Huayan thesis of "the fourfold Dharmadhatu" (dharma realm): the Realm of Principle, the Realm of Things, the Realm of the Noninterference between Principle and Things, and the Realm of the Noninterference of All Things.
While both Tiantai and Huayan hold to the interpenetration and interconnection of all things, their metaphysics have some differences. Huayan metaphysics is influenced by Yogacara thought and is closer to idealism. The Avatamsaka sutra compares the phenomenal world to a dream, an illusion, and a magician's conjuring. The sutra states nothing has true reality, location, beginning and end, or substantial nature. The Avatamsaka also states that "The triple world is illusory – it is only made by one mind", and Fazang echoes this by writing, "outside of mind there is not a single thing that can be apprehended."
Also during the Kamakura period, the founder of Soto Zen, Dogen (1200–1253), wrote many works on the philosophy of Zen, and the Shobogenzo is his magnum opus. In Korea, Chinul was an important exponent of Seon Buddhism at around the same time.
Esoteric Buddhism
mandala. The center square represents the young stage of Vairocana Buddha.]]
Tantric Buddhism arrived in China in the 7th century, during the Tang dynasty. In China, this form of Buddhism is known as Mìzōng (密宗), or "Esoteric School", and Zhenyan'' (true word, Sanskrit: Mantrayana). Kūkai (AD774–835) is a major Japanese Buddhist philosopher and the founder of the Tantric Shingon (true word) school in Japan. He wrote on a wide variety of topics such as public policy, language, the arts, literature, music and religion. After studying in China under Huiguo, Kūkai brought together various elements into a cohesive philosophical system of Shingon.
Kūkai's philosophy is based on the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra (both from the seventh century). His Benkenmitsu nikkyôron (Treatise on the Differences Between Esoteric and Exoteric Teachings) outlines the difference between exoteric, mainstream Mahayana Buddhism (kengyô) and esoteric Tantric Buddhism (mikkyô). Kūkai provided the theoretical framework for the esoteric Buddhist practices of Mantrayana, bridging the gap between the doctrine of the sutras and tantric practices. At the foundation of Kūkai's thought is the Trikaya doctrine, which holds there are three "bodies of the Buddha".
According to Kūkai, esoteric Buddhism has the Dharmakaya (Jpn: hosshin, embodiment of truth) as its source, which is associated with Vairocana Buddha (Dainichi). Hosshin is embodied absolute reality and truth. Hosshin is mostly ineffable but can be experienced through esoteric practices such as mudras and mantras. While Mahayana is taught by the historical Buddha (nirmāṇakāya), it does not have ultimate reality as its source or the practices to experience the esoteric truth. For Shingon, from an enlightened perspective, the whole phenomenal world itself is also the teaching of Vairocana. Dharmapala also argued that Buddhism included a strong social element, interpreting it as liberal, altruistic and democratic.
A later Sri Lankan philosopher, K. N. Jayatilleke (1920–1970), wrote the classic modern account of Buddhist epistemology (Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, 1963). His student David Kalupahana wrote on the history of Buddhist thought and psychology. Other important Sri Lankan Buddhist thinkers include Ven Ñāṇananda (Concept and Reality), Walpola Rahula, Hammalawa Saddhatissa (Buddhist Ethics, 1987), Gunapala Dharmasiri (A Buddhist critique of the Christian concept of God, 1988), P. D. Premasiri and R. G. de S. Wettimuny.
In 20th-century China, the modernist Taixu (1890–1947) advocated a reform and revival of Buddhism. He promoted an idea of a Buddhist Pure Land, not as a metaphysical place in Buddhist cosmology but as something possible to create here and now in this very world, which could be achieved through a "Buddhism for Human Life" () which was free of supernatural beliefs. Taixu also wrote on the connections between modern science and Buddhism, ultimately holding that "scientific methods can only corroborate the Buddhist doctrine, they can never advance beyond it". Like Taixu, Yin Shun (1906–2005) advocated a form of Humanistic Buddhism grounded in concern for humanitarian issues, and his students and followers have been influential in promoting Humanistic Buddhism in Taiwan. This period also saw a revival of the study of Weishi (Yogachara), by Yang Rensan (1837–1911), Ouyang Jinwu (1871–1943) and Liang Shuming (1893–1988).
One of Tibetan Buddhism's most influential modernist thinkers is Gendün Chöphel (1903–1951), who, according to Donald S. Lopez Jr., "was arguably the most important Tibetan intellectual of the twentieth century." Gendün Chöphel travelled throughout India with the Indian Buddhist Rahul Sankrityayan and wrote a wide variety of material, including works promoting the importance of modern science to his Tibetan countrymen and also Buddhist philosophical texts such as ''Adornment for Nagarjuna's Thought''. Another very influential Tibetan Buddhist modernist was Chögyam Trungpa, whose Shambhala Training was meant to be more suitable to modern Western sensitivities by offering a vision of "secular enlightenment".
In Southeast Asia, thinkers such as Buddhadasa, Thích Nhất Hạnh, Sulak Sivaraksa and Aung San Suu Kyi have promoted a philosophy of socially Engaged Buddhism and have written on the socio-political application of Buddhism. Likewise, Buddhist approaches to economic ethics (Buddhist economics) have been explored in the works of E. F. Schumacher, Prayudh Payutto, Neville Karunatilake and Padmasiri de Silva. The study of the Pali Abhidhamma tradition continued to be influential in Myanmar, where it was developed by monks such as Ledi Sayadaw and Mahasi Sayadaw.
Japanese philosophy was heavily influenced by the work of the Kyoto School which included Kitaro Nishida, Keiji Nishitani, Hajime Tanabe and Masao Abe. These thinkers brought Buddhist ideas in dialogue with Western philosophy, especially European phenomenologists and existentialists. The most important trend in Japanese Buddhist thought after the formation of the Kyoto school is Critical Buddhism, which argues against several Mahayana concepts such as Buddha nature and original enlightenment. This idea of Buddhism influenced the Beat writers, and a contemporary representative of Western Buddhist Romanticism is Gary Snyder. The American Theravada Buddhist monk Thanissaro Bhikkhu has critiqued 'Buddhist Romanticism' in his writings.
Western Buddhist monastics and priests such as Nanavira Thera, Bhikkhu Bodhi, Nyanaponika Thera, Robert Aitken, Taigen Dan Leighton, and Matthieu Ricard have written texts on Buddhist philosophy. A feature of Buddhist thought in the West has been a desire for dialogue and integration with modern science and psychology, and various modern Buddhists such as B. Alan Wallace, James H. Austin, Mark Epstein and the 14th Dalai Lama have worked and written on this issue.
Another area of convergence has been Buddhism and environmentalism, which is explored in the work of Joanna Macy. Another Western Buddhist philosophical trend has been the project to secularize Buddhism, as seen in the works of Stephen Batchelor.
In the West, Comparative philosophy between Buddhist and Western thought began with the work of Charles A. Moore, who founded the journal Philosophy East and West. Contemporary Western Academics such as Mark Siderits, Jan Westerhoff, Jonardon Ganeri, Miri Albahari, Owen Flanagan, Damien Keown, Tom Tillemans, David Loy, Evan Thompson and Jay Garfield have written various works which interpret Buddhist ideas through Western philosophy.
Comparison with other philosophies
Scholars such as Thomas McEvilley, Christopher I. Beckwith, and Adrian Kuzminski have identified cross influences between ancient Buddhism and the ancient Greek philosophy of Pyrrhonism. The Greek philosopher Pyrrho spent 18 months in India as part of Alexander the Great's court on Alexander's conquest of western India, where ancient biographers say his contact with the gymnosophists caused him to create his philosophy. Because of the high degree of similarity between Nāgārjuna's philosophy and Pyrrhonism, particularly the surviving works of Sextus Empiricus, Thomas McEvilley suspects that Nāgārjuna was influenced by Greek Pyrrhonist texts imported into India.
Baruch Spinoza, though he argued for the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all phenomenal existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow is conquered "by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient, not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting." The Buddha taught that the only thing which is eternal is Nirvana. David Hume, after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. Hume's Bundle theory is a very similar concept to the Buddhist skandhas, though his skepticism about causation leads him to opposite conclusions in other areas. Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy parallels Buddhism in his affirmation of asceticism and renunciation as a response to suffering and desire (cf. Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation, 1818).
Ludwig Wittgenstein's "language-game" closely parallel the warning that intellectual speculation or papañca is an impediment to understanding, as found in the Buddhist Parable of the Poison Arrow. Friedrich Nietzsche, although himself dismissive of Buddhism as yet another nihilism, had a similar impermanent view of the self. Heidegger's ideas on being and nothingness have been held by some to be similar to Buddhism today.
An alternative approach to the comparison of Buddhist thought with Western philosophy is to use the concept of the Middle Way in Buddhism as a critical tool for the assessment of Western philosophies. In this way, Western philosophies can be classified in Buddhist terms as eternalist or nihilist. In a Buddhist view, all philosophies are considered non-essential views (ditthis) and not to be clung to.See also
* Abhidharma
* Buddhism and psychology
* Buddhism and science
* Buddhism and sexuality
* Buddhism and Western philosophy
* Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta
* Buddhist logic
* Buddhist texts
** Buddhist canons
** Mahayana sutras
* Creator in Buddhism
* Enlightenment in Buddhism
** Buddhahood
** Buddhist paths to liberation
** Four stages of enlightenment
** Two truths doctrine
* Glossary of Buddhism
* Index of Buddhism-related articles
* Mindfulness
* Mindstream
* Outline of Buddhism
* Reality in Buddhism
* The unanswerable questions
Notes
ReferencesSources
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External links
* [http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/narada/nutshell.html Buddhism in a Nutshell]
* [https://archive.org/details/2500.Years.of.Buddhism.by.Prof.P.Y.Bapat.1956.djvu 2500 Years of Buddhism by Prof. P.Y. Bapat (1956)] at archive.org
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Category:Nāstika
Category:Tibetan Buddhism
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Billy Bob Thornton<!-- Not "William Robert Thornton", see https://books.google.com/books?idnwQEAAAAMBAJ&pgPA54 --> (born August 4, 1955) is an American actor, filmmaker, singer and songwriter. He received international attention after writing, directing and starring in the independent drama film Sling Blade (1996), for which he won an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Actor. For his role in A Simple Plan (1998) he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor.
Thornton is also known for his film roles in One False Move (1992), Tombstone (1993), Dead Man (1995), U Turn (1997), Primary Colors (1998), Armageddon (1998), ''Monster's Ball (2001), The Man Who Wasn't There (2001), Intolerable Cruelty (2003), Bad Santa (2003) and Friday Night Lights (2004). He has written a variety of films, including A Family Thing (1996) and The Gift (2000) and has directed films such as Daddy and Them (2001), All the Pretty Horses (2000) and Jayne Mansfield's Car (2012).
Thornton is also known for his roles on television acting in the CBS sitcom Hearts Afire from 1992 to 1995. In 2014, he starred as Lorne Malvo in the first season of the FX anthology series Fargo, earning a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie and winning a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Miniseries or Television Film. From 2016 to 2021 he played Billy McBride in the Amazon legal drama series, Goliath, which earned him a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Television Series Drama. In 2024, he began playing the lead role of Tommy Norris in the Paramount+ series Landman.
In addition to film work, Thornton began his career as a singer-songwriter. He has released four solo albums and is the vocalist of the rock band the Boxmasters. Thornton has been vocal about his distaste for celebrity culture, choosing to keep out of the public eye. He has been married six times, including to Angelina Jolie from 2000 to 2003 which received significant media attention. Early life Thornton was born on August 4, 1955, in Hot Springs, Arkansas, the son of Virginia Roberta (née Faulkner), a self-proclaimed psychic, and William Raymond "Billy Ray" Thornton, a high school history teacher and basketball coach. He is of English and part Irish descent. He has two other siblings.
Thornton lived in numerous places in Arkansas during his childhood, including Alpine, Malvern, and Mount Holly. He was raised Methodist . He attended Malvern High School. Thornton struggled academically in school due to dyslexia, for which he was not conclusively diagnosed until later in life. A good high school baseball player, he tried out for the Kansas City Royals but was released after an injury. He graduated from Malvern in 1973 and spent a short period laying asphalt for the Arkansas State Transportation Department, before attending Henderson State University to pursue a degree in psychology but dropped out after two semesters.
In the mid-1980s Thornton settled in Los Angeles to pursue his career as an actor with future writing partner Tom Epperson. His first on-screen role was playing a character named Billy Bob in the thriller Hunter's Blood. He was a stand-in on that film for the whole production, and then appeared in two scenes.
He subsequently appeared in minor roles in the film South of Reno and the 1987 Matlock episode "The Photographer". Another one of his early screen roles was as a cast member on the CBS sitcom Hearts Afire'' and in 1989 he appeared as an angry heckler in Adam Sandler's debut film Going Overboard. He played the role as the villain in 1992's One False Move, which he also co-wrote. He also had roles in the 1990s films Indecent Proposal, On Deadly Ground, Bound by Honor, and Tombstone.
1996–2004: Sling Blade and acclaim
He went on to write, direct, and star in the 1996 independent film Sling Blade. Sling Blade garnered international acclaim. Thornton's screenplay earned him an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay, a Writers Guild of America Award, and an Edgar Award, while his performance received Oscar and Screen Actors Guild nominations for Best Actor. That same year, he appeared in the disaster film Armageddon, and the neo-noir thriller film A Simple Plan, the latter of which earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. His screen persona has been described by the press as that of a "tattooed, hirsute man's man".
Thornton adapted the book All the Pretty Horses into a 2000 film of the same name. The negative experience (he was forced to cut more than an hour of footage) led to his decision to never direct another film; a subsequent release, Daddy and Them, had been filmed earlier. Also in 2000, an early script which he and Tom Epperson wrote together was made into The Gift. In 2001, he directed Daddy and Them while securing starring roles in three Hollywood films: the romantic drama ''Monster's Ball, the crime comedy-drama Bandits, and the neo-noir film The Man Who Wasn't There''. In 2002, Thornton appeared in Travis Tritt's music video for the song "Modern Day Bonnie and Clyde".
thumb|upright|left|Thornton in 2012
Thornton played a malicious mall Santa in 2003's Bad Santa, a black comedy on the set of which he admits to getting drunk, and in the same year, portrayed an oil millionaire in the comedy film Intolerable Cruelty, and a womanizing President of the United States in the British romantic comedy film Love Actually. He stated that, following the success of Bad Santa, audiences "like to watch him play that kind of guy" and that "casting directors call him up when they need an asshole". In 2004, Thornton starred as David Crockett in The Alamo, and played Coach Gary Gaines in the football drama film Friday Night Lights. Also that year, he received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame on October 7.
2005–2013: Career fluctuations
He played a baseball coach in the 2005 sports comedy Bad News Bears, a remake of the 1976 film of the same name. He appeared in the 2006 comic film School for Scoundrels. In the film, he plays a self-help doctor, which was written specifically for him. In September 2008, he starred in the action film Eagle Eye. He has also expressed an interest in directing another film, possibly a period piece about cave explorer Floyd Collins, based on the book Trapped!: The Story of Floyd Collins. In 2011, Thornton voiced Jack in the animated comedy film Puss in Boots. Since 2014: Fargo and Goliath In 2014, he starred as sociopathic hitman Lorne Malvo in the FX miniseries Fargo, inspired by the 1996 film of the same name, for which he won a Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Mini-Series. Thornton made a guest appearance on The Big Bang Theory in 2014, where he played a middle-aged urologist who gets excited about every woman who touches him. That same year, he played a prosecutor in the legal drama The Judge. In 2015, Thornton appeared in Entourage, the film adaptation of the television series.
Goliath, a television series by Amazon Studios, featured Thornton as a formerly brilliant and personable lawyer, who is now washed up and alcoholic. It premiered on October 13, 2016, on Amazon Prime Video. Goliath was renewed for two additional seasons, with the final season released on September 24, 2021, by Amazon Prime Video. Also in 2016, he reprised his role as the bad mall Santa in Bad Santa 2.
In 2017, Thornton starred in the music video Stand Down by Kario Salem (musically known as K.O.). It received the Best Music Video award from the Toronto Shorts International Film Festival and has had 13 million views on Facebook and counting.
Since 2024, Thornton has starred in Landman, as Tommy Norris, a landman at an oil company.
Music
, 2007]]
In the 1970s, Thornton was the drummer of a blues rock band named Tres Hombres. Guitarist Billy Gibbons, whose band ZZ Top released an album titled Tres Hombres in 1973, referred to the band as "the best little cover band in Texas", and Thornton bears a tattoo with the band's name on it. In 1983, the band released their only studio album, Gunslinger on Trigger Records.
In 1985, Thornton joined Piet Botha in the South African rock band Jack Hammer, while Botha worked in Los Angeles. Thornton recorded one studio album with Jack Hammer, Death of a Gypsy, which was released in September 1986.
In 2001, Thornton released the album Private Radio on Lost Highway Records. Subsequent albums include The Edge of the World (2003), Hobo (2005) and Beautiful Door (2007). He performed the Warren Zevon song The Wind on the tribute album Enjoy Every Sandwich: Songs of Warren Zevon. Thornton recorded a cover of the Johnny Cash classic "Ring of Fire" with Earl Scruggs, for the Oxford American magazine's Southern Music CD in 2001. The song also appeared on Scruggs' 2001 album Earl Scruggs and Friends. In 2007, Thornton formed The Boxmasters with J.D. Andrew.
On April 8, 2009, Thornton and his musical group The Boxmasters appeared on the CBC Radio One program Q. The appearance was widely criticized and received international attention after Thornton was persistently unintelligible and discourteous to host Jian Ghomeshi. Thornton eventually explained that he had instructed the show's producers to not ask questions about his movie career. Ghomeshi had mentioned Thornton's acting in the introduction. Thornton had also complained Canadian audiences were like "mashed potatoes without the gravy." The following night, opening for Willie Nelson at Toronto's Massey Hall, Thornton said mid-set he liked Canadians but not Ghomeshi, which was greeted with boos and catcalls. The Boxmasters did not continue the tour in Canada as, according to Thornton, some of the crew and band had the flu.Acting credits and accolades
Thornton has received the President's Award from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films, a Special Achievement Award from the National Board of Review, and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. He has also been nominated for an Emmy Award, four Golden Globes, and three Screen Actors Guild Awards.
Discography
;Studio albums
* Private Radio (2001)
* The Edge of the World (2003)
* Hobo (2005)
* Beautiful Door (2007)
Personal life
Marriages and family
, 2007]]
Thornton has been married six times. He has four children by three women.
From 1978 to 1980, he was married to Melissa Lee Gatlin, who in her divorce petition cited "incompatibility and adultery on his part". They had a daughter Amanda (Brumfield), who in 2008 was sentenced to 20 years in prison for the death of her friend's one-year-old daughter. The Innocence Project of Florida began representing Amanda in 2015 and claim that the child's death was entirely accidental. Amanda was freed in 2020 after a deal was reached with prosecutors prior to an evidentiary hearing to provide medical and scientific evidence of her innocence.
Thornton married actress Toni Lawrence in 1986; they separated the following year and divorced in 1988. From 1990 to 1992, he was married to actress Cynda Williams, who was cast in his writing debut One False Move (1992). In 1993, Thornton married Playboy model Pietra Dawn Cherniak, with whom he had two sons. The marriage ended in 1997 with Cherniak accusing Thornton of spousal abuse, sometimes in front of his children.
Thornton dated Laura Dern (despite reports, they were never engaged) from 1997 to 1999, but in 2000, he married actress Angelina Jolie, with whom he starred in Pushing Tin (1999) and who was nearly 20 years his junior. The marriage became known for the couple's eccentric displays of affection, which reportedly included wearing vials of each other's blood around their necks; Thornton later clarified that the "vials" were actually two small lockets, each containing only a single drop of blood. Thornton and Jolie announced the adoption of a child from Cambodia in March 2002, but it was later revealed that Jolie had adopted the child as a single parent. They separated in June 2002 and divorced the following year.
In 2003, Thornton began a relationship with makeup effects crew member Connie Angland, with whom he has a daughter. Although he once said that he likely would not marry again since marriage "doesn't work" for him, his representatives confirmed that he and Angland were married on October 22, 2014, in Los Angeles.
Health problems
During his early years in Los Angeles, Thornton was admitted to a hospital and diagnosed with myocarditis, a heart condition thought to be brought on by his diet. He has since said that he follows a vegan diet and is "extremely healthy", eating no junk food as he is allergic to wheat and dairy.
Thornton has dyslexia and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Various idiosyncratic behaviors have been well documented in interviews with Thornton; among these is a phobia of antique furniture, a disorder shared by Dwight Yoakam's character Doyle Hargraves in the Thornton-penned Sling Blade and by Thornton's own character in the 2001 film Bandits.
In a 2004 interview with The Independent, Thornton explained,
Interests
Thornton is a baseball fan, particularly the St. Louis Cardinals. In his movie contracts, one of his conditions is a television in his trailer with a satellite dish so he can watch the Cardinals play. He narrated The 2006 World Series Film, the year-end retrospective DVD chronicling the Cardinals' championship season. He is also a professed fan of the Indianapolis Colts football team.
Asked about faith, Thornton said "I'm not what you'd call a traditional religious person. We went to the Methodist church—every Sunday you put on your little creepy suit with your clip-on tie and went to church. But it wasn't like I paid any attention. Hardcore Christians and atheists—they both say they know exactly what the deal is. Anybody who says, 'I know what happens,' I don't believe them. That's kind of my religion."<ref name"mensjournal_com" /> References External links
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* [http://www.discogs.com/artist/273408-Billy-Bob-Thornton Billy Bob Thornton] on Discogs
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Category:1955 births
Category:20th-century American male actors
Category:20th-century American writers
Category:21st-century American male actors
Category:21st-century American singer-songwriters
Category:21st-century American writers
Category:American agnostics
Category:American alternative country singers
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Category:American country singer-songwriters
Category:American male film actors
Category:American male screenwriters
Category:American male singer-songwriters
Category:American male television actors
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Category:American people of English descent
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Category:Best Adapted Screenplay Academy Award winners
Category:Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (television) winners
Category:Best Miniseries or Television Movie Actor Golden Globe winners
Category:Country musicians from Arkansas
Category:Edgar Award winners
Category:Film directors from Arkansas
Category:Living people
Category:Male actors from Hot Springs, Arkansas
Category:Male Western (genre) film actors
Category:Malvern High School (Arkansas) alumni
Category:Musicians from Hot Springs, Arkansas
Category:People from Garland County, Arkansas
Category:People from Malvern, Arkansas
Category:Actors with dyslexia
Category:People with obsessive–compulsive disorder
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Category:Former Methodists
Category:Drummers from Arkansas
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The Big O
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. The city is located on a seacoast and is surrounded by a vast desert wasteland. The partially domed city is wholly controlled by the monopolistic Paradigm Corporation, resulting in a corporate police state. Paradigm is known as because forty years prior to the story, destroyed the world outside the city and left the survivors without any prior memories. The city is characterized by severe class inequity; the higher-income population resides inside the more pleasant domes, with the remainder left in tenements outside. Residents of the city believe that they are the last survivors of the world and no other nations exist outside the city. Androids and giant robots known as "Megadeus" coexist with the residents of Paradigm City and residents do not find them unusual.Plot
After failing to negotiate with terrorists at the cost of his client's life, Roger Smith is obligated to care for Dorothy Wayneright, a young female android. Over the course of the series, Roger Smith continues to accept negotiation work from the residents of Paradigm City, he often leads to uncovering the nature and mystery of Paradigm City and encountering megadeus or other giant enemies that require Big O. Supporting characters are Angel, a mysterious woman in search of memories; Dan Dastun, chief of the military police of Paradigm city and old friend of Roger Smith; and Norman Burg, the butler of Roger Smith and mechanic of Big O.
The main antagonist is Alex Rosewater, chairman of Paradigm City whose goal is to revive the megadeus "Big Fau" in attempts to become the god of Paradigm City. Other recurring antagonists are Jason Beck, criminal and con-artist attempting to humiliate Roger Smith; Schwarzwald, an ex-reporter obsessed with finding the truth of Paradigm City and also pilot of the megadeus "Big Duo"; Vera Ronstadt, leader of a group of foreigners known as the Union searching for memories and revenge against Paradigm City; and Alan Gabriel, a cyborg assassin working for Alex Rosewater and the Union.
The series ends with the awakening of a new megadeus, and the revelation that the world is a simulated reality. A climactic battle ensues between Big O and Big Fau, after which reality is systematically erased by the new megadeus, an incarnation of Angel, recognized as "Big Venus" by Dorothy. Roger implores Angel to "let go of the past" regardless of its existential reality, and focus only on the present and the future. In an isolated control room, the real Angel observes Roger and her past encounters with him on a series of television monitors. On the control panel lies Metropolis, a book featured prominently since the thirteenth episode; the cover features an illustration of angel wings and gives the author's name as "Angel Rosewater". Big Venus and Big O physically merge, causing the virtual reality to reset. The final scene shows Roger Smith driving down a restored Paradigm city with Dorothy and Angel observing him from the side of the road.
Production and release
Development of the retro-styled series began in 1996. Keiichi Sato came up with the concept of The Big O: a giant city-smashing robot, piloted by a man in black, in a Gotham-like environment. He later met up with Kazuyoshi Katayama, who had just finished directing Those Who Hunt Elves, and started work on the layouts and character designs. But when things "were about to really start moving," production on Katayama's Sentimental Journey began, putting plans on hold. Meanwhile, Sato was heavily involved with his work on City Hunter. The initial story idea revolved around a cataclysm (caused by a meteorite impact) that destroyed most of human civilization. Konaka deliberately chose to present the setting, Paradigm City, as a city of amnesiacs to avoid needing to develop lore for the origin of the show's mecha. In April 2001, The Big O premiered on Cartoon Network's Toonami lineup.
The series garnered positive fan response internationally that resulted in a second season co-produced by Cartoon Network and Sunrise. Season two premiered on Japan's Sun Television in January 2003, with the American premiere taking place seven months later as an Adult Swim exclusive. The second season would not be seen on Toonami until July 27, 2013, 10 years after it began airing on Adult Swim.
The second season was scripted by Chiaki Konaka with input from the American producers. Cartoon Network raised two requests for the second season: more action and reveal the mystery in the first season, although Kazuyoshi Katayama admitted that he did not intend to reveal it, just to make an anthology of adventures set in the universe. Along with the 13 episodes of season two, Cartoon Network had an option for 26 additional episodes to be written by Konaka, but according to Jason DeMarco, executive producer for season two, the middling ratings and DVD sales in the United States and Japan made any further episodes impossible to be produced.
Following the closure of Bandai Entertainment by parent company in 2012, Sunrise announced at Otakon 2013 that Sentai Filmworks rescued both seasons of The Big O. On June 20, 2017, Sentai Filmworks released both seasons on Blu-ray.
Music
The Big O was scored by Geidai alumnus Toshihiko Sahashi. His composition is richly symphonic and classical, with a number of pieces delving into electronica and jazz. Chosen because of his "frightening amount of musical knowledge about TV dramas overseas," Composed, arranged and performed by Rui Nagai, the song resembles the theme to the Flash Gordon film. The second opening theme is "Respect," composed by Sahashi. The track is an homage to the music of UFO, composed by Barry Gray. The series incorporates the use of long dark shadows in the tradition of chiaroscuro and tenebrism. Film noir is also known for its use of odd angles, such as Roger's low shot introduction in the first episode. Noir cinematographers favoured this angle because it made characters almost rise from the ground, giving them dramatic girth and symbolic overtones. Other disorientating devices like dutch angles, mirror reflection and distorting shots are employed throughout the series.
The dialogue in the series is recognized for its witty, wry sense of humor. The characters come off as charming and exchange banter not often heard in anime series, as the dialogue has the tendency to be straightforward. The plot is moved along by Roger's voice-over narration, a device used in film noir to place the viewer in the mind of the protagonist so it can intimately experience the character's angst and partly identify with the narrator. Roger's recurring theme, a lone saxophone accompaniment to the protagonist's narration, best exemplifies the noir stylings of the series.InfluencesBefore The Big O, Sunrise was a subcontractor for Warner Bros. Animation's Batman: The Animated Series, one of the series' influences. Among Roger's gadgetry is the Griffon, a large, black hi-tech sedan comparable to the Batmobile, a grappling cable that shoots out his wristwatch and the giant robot that Angel calls "Roger's alter ego."
The Big O's cast of supporting characters includes Norman, Roger's faithful mechanically inclined butler who fills the role of Alfred Pennyworth; R. Dorothy Wayneright, who plays the role of the sidekick; and Dan Dastun, a good honest cop who, like Jim Gordon, is both a friend to the hero and greatly respected by his comrades. took seven years to produce and suffered low sales and high running costs. Frustrated by the experience, Katayama and his staff put all their efforts into making "good" with The Big O.
Like Giant Robo, the megadeuses of Big O are metal behemoths. The designs are strange and "more macho than practical,"
Katayama also cited Super Robot Red Baron and Super Robot Mach Baron among influences on the inspiration of The Big O. Believing that because Red Baron had such a low budget and the big fights always happened outside of a city setting, he wanted Big O to be the show he felt Red Baron could be with a bigger budget. He also spoke of how he first came up with designs for the robots first as if they were making designs to appeal to toy companies, rather than how Gundam was created with a toy company wanting an anime to represent their new product. Big O's large pumping piston "Sudden Impact" arms, for example, he felt would be cool gimmicks in a toy.
Related media
Publications
The Big O was conceived as a media franchise.
In anticipation of the broadcast of the second season, a new manga series was published. , authored by Hitoshi Ariga. Lost Memory takes place between volumes five and six of the original manga. The issues were serialized in Magazine Z from November 2002 to September 2003 and were collected in two volumes.
The Big O Visual: The official companion to the TV series () was published by Futabasha in 2003. The book contains full-color artwork, character bios and concept art, mecha sketches, video/LD/DVD jacket illustrations, history on the making of The Big O, staff interviews, "Roger's Monologues" comic strip and the original script for the final episode of the series.
Audio drama
"Walking Together On The Yellow Brick Road" was released by Victor Entertainment on 21 September 2000. The drama CD was written by series head writer Chiaki J. Konaka and featured the series' voice cast. An English translation, written by English dub translator David Fleming, was posted on Konaka's website.
Video games
The first season of Big O is featured in Super Robot Wars D for the Game Boy Advance in 2003. The series, including its second season, is also featured in Super Robot Wars Z, released in 2008. The Big O became a mainstay of the "Z" games, appearing in each entry of the subseries.
Toys and model kits
Bandai released a non-scale model kit of Big O in 2000. Though it was an easy snap-together kit, it required painting, as all of the parts (except the clear orange crown and canopy) were molded in dark gray. The kit included springs that enabled the slide-action Side Piles on the forearms to simulate Big O's Sudden Impact maneuver. Also included was an unpainted Roger Smith figure.
PVC figures of Big O and Big Duo (Schwarzwald's Megadeus) were sold by Bandai America. Each came with non-poseable figures of Roger, Dorothy and Angel. Mini-figure sets were sold in Japan and America during the run of the second season. The characters included Big O (standard and attack modes), Roger, Dorothy & Norman, Griffon (Roger's car), Dorothy-1 (Big O's first opponent), Schwarzwald and Big Duo.
In 2009, Bandai released a plastic/diecast figure of the Big O under their Soul of Chogokin line. The figure has the same features as the model kit, but with added detail and accessories. Its design was closely supervised by original designer Keiichi Sato.
In 2011, Max Factory released action figures of Roger and Dorothy through their Figma toyline. Like most Figmas, they are very detailed, articulated and come with accessories and interchangeable faces. In the same year, Max Factory also released a 12-inch, diecast figure of Big O under their Max Gokin line. The figure contained most of the accessories as the Soul of Chogokin figure but also included some others that could be bought separately from the SOC figure, such as the Mobydick (hip) Anchors and Roger Smith's car: the Griffon. Like the Soul of Chogokin figure, its design was also supervised by Keiichi Sato. As well, in that same year, Max Factory released soft vinyl figures of Big Duo and Big Fau, in-scale with the Max Gokin Big O. These figures are high in detail but limited in articulation, such as the arms and legs being the only things to move. To date, this is the only action figure of Big Fau.
Reception
The Big O premiered on October 13, 1999. The show was not a hit in its native Japan, rather it was reduced from an outlined 26 episodes to 13 episodes. Western audiences were more receptive and the series achieved the success its creators were looking for.
Several words appear constantly in the English-language reviews; adjectives like "hip", "stylish",
"classy", serve to describe the artwork, the concept, and the series itself. Reviewers have pointed out references and homages to various works of fiction, namely Batman, Giant Robo, the works of Isaac Asimov, Fritz Lang's Metropolis, and Cowboy Bebop. But "while saying that may cause one to think the show is completely derivative", reads an article at Anime on DVD, "The Big O still manages to stand out as something original amongst the other numerous cookie-cutter anime shows." One reviewer cites the extensive homages as one of the series problems and calls to unoriginality on the creators' part.
The first season's reception was positive. Anime on DVD recommends it as an essential series. Reviewers, and fans alike, This time around, the animation is "near OVA quality" and the artwork "far more lush and detailed." while others praise the "over-the-top-ness" of their execution. addressing to "something" missing in these episodes. Chris Beveridge of Anime on DVD wonders if this was head writer "Konaka's attempt to throw his hat into the ring for creating one of the most confusing and oblique endings of any series." Patrizio states "the creators watched The Truman Show and The Matrix a few times too many."
Sato, Katayama, Konaka, and Bandai in general received many inquiries from fans in Japan asking for further clarification on the plot and ending. Dan Casey host of The Nerdist's Dan Cave stated The Big O was the anime series he was most eager to see rebooted or remade, along with Trigun and Soul Eater. In 2017, Ollie Barder of Forbes wrote, "From the classic and retro styled mecha design of Keiichi Sato to the overall film noir visual tone of the series, The Big O was a fascinating and visually very different kind of show. It also had a fantastic voice cast, with probably the most notable of these being Akiko Yajima as the voice of Roger's disapproving android Dorothy." In 2019, Crunchyroll writer Thomas Zoth ranked The Big O as his top 10 anime since the 1990s.NotesReferencesExternal links
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Category:1999 anime television series debuts
Category:1999 manga
Category:2000 Japanese television series endings
Category:2002 manga
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Category:2003 anime television series debuts
Category:Animated television series about robots
Category:Anime with original screenplays
Category:Bandai Entertainment anime titles
Category:Bandai Namco franchises
Category:Bandai Visual
Category:Fiction about amnesia
Category:Japanese adult animated science fiction television series
Category:Kodansha manga
Category:Madman Entertainment anime
Category:Neo-noir anime and manga
Category:Post-apocalyptic anime and manga
Category:Seinen manga
Category:Sentai Filmworks
Category:Sunrise (company)
Category:Super robot anime and manga
Category:Viz Media manga
Category:Wowow original programming
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BIOS
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| native_name_lang = <!-- ISO 639-1 code e.g. "fr" for French. If more than one, use inside native_name items instead -->
| status | year_started 1981
| first_published <!-- -->
| version | version_date
| preview | preview_date
| organization = Originally IBM as proprietary software, later industry wide as a de facto standard. In 1996, the BIOS Boot Specification was written by Compaq, Phoenix Technologies and Intel.
| committee | series
| editors | authors
| base_standards | related_standards
| predecessor | successor UEFI
| domain | license
| copyright | website <!-- -->
}}
In computing, BIOS (, ; Basic Input/Output System, also known as the System BIOS, ROM BIOS, BIOS ROM or PC BIOS) is a type of firmware used to provide runtime services for operating systems and programs and to perform hardware initialization during the booting process (power-on startup).
Most BIOS implementations are specifically designed to work with a particular computer or motherboard model, by interfacing with various devices especially system chipset. Originally, BIOS firmware was stored in a ROM chip on the PC motherboard. In later computer systems, the BIOS contents are stored on flash memory so it can be rewritten without removing the chip from the motherboard. This allows easy, end-user updates to the BIOS firmware so new features can be added or bugs can be fixed, but it also creates a possibility for the computer to become infected with BIOS rootkits. Furthermore, a BIOS upgrade that fails could brick the motherboard.
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) is a successor to the legacy PC BIOS, aiming to address its technical limitations. Since 2020, all PCs for Intel platforms no longer support Legacy BIOS. The last version of Microsoft Windows to officially support running on PCs which use legacy BIOS firmware is Windows 10 as Windows 11 requires a UEFI-compliant system (except for IoT Enterprise editions of Windows 11 since version 24H2). History
User interface
The BIOS of the original IBM PC and XT had no interactive user interface. Error codes or messages were displayed on the screen, or coded series of sounds were generated to signal errors when the power-on self-test (POST) had not proceeded to the point of successfully initializing a video display adapter. Options on the IBM PC and XT were set by switches and jumpers on the main board and on expansion cards. Starting around the mid-1990s, it became typical for the BIOS ROM to include a "BIOS configuration utility" (BCU) or "BIOS setup utility", accessed at system power-up by a particular key sequence. This program allowed the user to set system configuration options, of the type formerly set using DIP switches, through an interactive menu system controlled through the keyboard. In the interim period, IBM-compatible PCsincluding the IBM ATheld configuration settings in battery-backed RAM and used a bootable configuration program on floppy disk, not in the ROM, to set the configuration options contained in this memory. The floppy disk was supplied with the computer, and if it was lost the system settings could not be changed. The same applied in general to computers with an EISA bus, for which the configuration program was called an EISA Configuration Utility (ECU).
A modern Wintel-compatible computer provides a setup routine essentially unchanged in nature from the ROM-resident BIOS setup utilities of the late 1990s; the user can configure hardware options using the keyboard and video display. The modern Wintel machine may store the BIOS configuration settings in flash ROM, perhaps the same flash ROM that holds the BIOS itself.
Extensions (option ROMs)
Peripheral cards such as hard disk drive host bus adapters and video cards have their own firmware, and BIOS extension option ROM code may be a part of the expansion card firmware; that code provides additional capabilities in the BIOS. Code in option ROMs runs before the BIOS boots the operating system from mass storage. These ROMs typically test and initialize hardware, add new BIOS services, or replace existing BIOS services with their own services. For example, a SCSI controller usually has a BIOS extension ROM that adds support for hard drives connected through that controller. An extension ROM could in principle contain operating system, or it could implement an entirely different boot process such as network booting. Operation of an IBM-compatible computer system can be completely changed by removing or inserting an adapter card (or a ROM chip) that contains a BIOS extension ROM.
The motherboard BIOS typically contains code for initializing and bootstrapping integrated display and integrated storage. The initialization process can involve the execution of code related to the device being initialized, for locating the device, verifying the type of device, then establishing base registers, setting pointers, establishing interrupt vector tables, selecting paging modes which are ways for organizing available registers in devices, setting default values for accessing software routines related to interrupts, and setting the device's configuration using default values. In addition, plug-in adapter cards such as SCSI, RAID, network interface cards, and video cards often include their own BIOS (e.g. Video BIOS), complementing or replacing the system BIOS code for the given component. Even devices built into the motherboard can behave in this way; their option ROMs can be a part of the motherboard BIOS.
An add-in card requires an option ROM if the card is not supported by the motherboard BIOS and the card needs to be initialized or made accessible through BIOS services before the operating system can be loaded (usually this means it is required in the boot process). An additional advantage of ROM on some early PC systems (notably including the IBM PCjr) was that ROM was faster than main system RAM. (On modern systems, the case is very much the reverse of this, and BIOS ROM code is usually copied ("shadowed") into RAM so it will run faster.)
Physical placement
Option ROMs normally reside on adapter cards. However, the original PC, and perhaps also the PC XT, have a spare ROM socket on the motherboard (the "system board" in IBM's terms) into which an option ROM can be inserted, and the four ROMs that contain the BASIC interpreter can also be removed and replaced with custom ROMs which can be option ROMs. The IBM PCjr is unique among PCs in having two ROM cartridge slots on the front. Cartridges in these slots map into the same region of the upper memory area used for option ROMs, and the cartridges can contain option ROM modules that the BIOS would recognize. The cartridges can also contain other types of ROM modules, such as BASIC programs, that are handled differently. One PCjr cartridge can contain several ROM modules of different types, possibly stored together in one ROM chip.
Operation
System startup
The 8086 and 8088 start at physical address FFFF0h. The 80286 starts at physical address FFFFF0h. The 80386 and later x86 processors start at physical address FFFFFFF0h. When the system is initialized, the first instruction of the BIOS appears at that address.
If the system has just been powered up or the reset button was pressed ("cold boot"), the full power-on self-test (POST) is run. If Ctrl+Alt+Delete was pressed ("warm boot"), a special flag value stored in nonvolatile BIOS memory ("CMOS") tested by the BIOS allows bypass of the lengthy POST and memory detection.
The POST identifies, tests and initializes system devices such as the CPU, chipset, RAM, motherboard, video card, keyboard, mouse, hard disk drive, optical disc drive and other hardware, including integrated peripherals.
Early IBM PCs had a routine in the POST that would download a program into RAM through the keyboard port and run it. This feature was intended for factory test or diagnostic purposes.
After the motherboard BIOS completes its POST, most BIOS versions search for option ROM modules, also called BIOS extension ROMs, and execute them. The motherboard BIOS scans for extension ROMs in a portion of the "upper memory area" (the part of the x86 real-mode address space at and above address 0xA0000) and runs each ROM found, in order. To discover memory-mapped option ROMs, a BIOS implementation scans the real-mode address space from <code>0x0C0000</code> to <code>0x0F0000</code> on 2 KB (2,048 bytes) boundaries, looking for a two-byte ROM signature: 0x55 followed by 0xAA. In a valid expansion ROM, this signature is followed by a single byte indicating the number of 512-byte blocks the expansion ROM occupies in real memory, and the next byte is the option ROM's entry point (also known as its "entry offset"). If the ROM has a valid checksum, the BIOS transfers control to the entry address, which in a normal BIOS extension ROM should be the beginning of the extension's initialization routine.
At this point, the extension ROM code takes over, typically testing and initializing the hardware it controls and registering interrupt vectors for use by post-boot applications. It may use BIOS services (including those provided by previously initialized option ROMs) to provide a user configuration interface, to display diagnostic information, or to do anything else that it requires.
An option ROM should normally return to the BIOS after completing its initialization process. Once (and if) an option ROM returns, the BIOS continues searching for more option ROMs, calling each as it is found, until the entire option ROM area in the memory space has been scanned. It is possible that an option ROM will not return to BIOS, pre-empting the BIOS's boot sequence altogether.
Boot process
After the POST completes and, in a BIOS that supports option ROMs, after the option ROM scan is completed and all detected ROM modules with valid checksums have been called, the BIOS calls interrupt 19h to start boot processing. Post-boot, programs loaded can also call interrupt 19h to reboot the system, but they must be careful to disable interrupts and other asynchronous hardware processes that may interfere with the BIOS rebooting process, or else the system may hang or crash while it is rebooting.
When interrupt 19h is called, the BIOS attempts to locate boot loader software on a "boot device", such as a hard disk, a floppy disk, CD, or DVD. It loads and executes the first boot software it finds, giving it control of the PC. Because boot programs are always loaded at this fixed address, there is no need for a boot program to be relocatable. DL may contain the drive number, as used with interrupt 13h, of the boot device. SS:SP points to a valid stack that is presumably large enough to support hardware interrupts, but otherwise SS and SP are undefined. (A stack must be already set up in order for interrupts to be serviced, and interrupts must be enabled in order for the system timer-tick interrupt, which BIOS always uses at least to maintain the time-of-day count and which it initializes during POST, to be active and for the keyboard to work. The keyboard works even if the BIOS keyboard service is not called; keystrokes are received and placed in the 15-character type-ahead buffer maintained by BIOS.) The boot program must set up its own stack, because the size of the stack set up by BIOS is unknown and its location is likewise variable; although the boot program can investigate the default stack by examining SS:SP, it is easier and shorter to just unconditionally set up a new stack.
At boot time, all BIOS services are available, and the memory below address <code>0x00400</code> contains the interrupt vector table. BIOS POST has initialized the system timers, interrupt controller(s), DMA controller(s), and other motherboard/chipset hardware as necessary to bring all BIOS services to ready status. DRAM refresh for all system DRAM in conventional memory and extended memory, but not necessarily expanded memory, has been set up and is running. The interrupt vectors corresponding to the BIOS interrupts have been set to point at the appropriate entry points in the BIOS, hardware interrupt vectors for devices initialized by the BIOS have been set to point to the BIOS-provided ISRs, and some other interrupts, including ones that BIOS generates for programs to hook, have been set to a default dummy ISR that immediately returns. The BIOS maintains a reserved block of system RAM at addresses <code>0x00400–0x004FF</code> with various parameters initialized during the POST. All memory at and above address <code>0x00500</code> can be used by the boot program; it may even overwrite itself. Operating system services
The BIOS ROM is customized to the particular manufacturer's hardware, allowing low-level services (such as reading a keystroke or writing a sector of data to diskette) to be provided in a standardized way to programs, including operating systems. For example, an IBM PC might have either a monochrome or a color display adapter (using different display memory addresses and hardware), but a single, standard, BIOS system call may be invoked to display a character at a specified position on the screen in text mode or graphics mode.
The BIOS provides a small library of basic input/output functions to operate peripherals (such as the keyboard, rudimentary text and graphics display functions and so forth). When using MS-DOS, BIOS services could be accessed by an application program (or by MS-DOS) by executing an interrupt 13h interrupt instruction to access disk functions, or by executing one of a number of other documented BIOS interrupt calls to access video display, keyboard, cassette, and other device functions.
Operating systems and executive software that are designed to supersede this basic firmware functionality provide replacement software interfaces to application software. Applications can also provide these services to themselves. This began even in the 1980s under MS-DOS, when programmers observed that using the BIOS video services for graphics display were very slow. To increase the speed of screen output, many programs bypassed the BIOS and programmed the video display hardware directly. Other graphics programmers, particularly but not exclusively in the demoscene, observed that there were technical capabilities of the PC display adapters that were not supported by the IBM BIOS and could not be taken advantage of without circumventing it. Since the AT-compatible BIOS ran in Intel real mode, operating systems that ran in protected mode on 286 and later processors required hardware device drivers compatible with protected mode operation to replace BIOS services.
In modern PCs running modern operating systems (such as Windows and Linux) the BIOS interrupt calls are used only during booting and initial loading of operating systems. Before the operating system's first graphical screen is displayed, input and output are typically handled through BIOS. A boot menu such as the textual menu of Windows, which allows users to choose an operating system to boot, to boot into the safe mode, or to use the last known good configuration, is displayed through BIOS and receives keyboard input through BIOS.
Identification
Some BIOSes contain a software licensing description table (SLIC), a digital signature placed inside the BIOS by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM), for example Dell. The SLIC is inserted into the ACPI data table and contains no active code.
Computer manufacturers that distribute OEM versions of Microsoft Windows and Microsoft application software can use the SLIC to authenticate licensing to the OEM Windows Installation disk and system recovery disc containing Windows software. Systems with a SLIC can be preactivated with an OEM product key, and they verify an XML formatted OEM certificate against the SLIC in the BIOS as a means of self-activating (see System Locked Preinstallation, SLP). If a user performs a fresh install of Windows, they will need to have possession of both the OEM key (either SLP or COA) and the digital certificate for their SLIC in order to bypass activation. Modern use Some older operating systems, for example MS-DOS, rely on the BIOS to carry out most input/output tasks within the PC.
After operating systems load, the System Management Mode code is still running in SMRAM. Since 2010, BIOS technology is in a transitional process toward UEFI.
Early BIOS versions did not have passwords or boot-device selection options. The BIOS was hard-coded to boot from the first floppy drive, or, if that failed, the first hard disk. Access control in early AT-class machines was by a physical keylock switch (which was not hard to defeat if the computer case could be opened). Anyone who could switch on the computer could boot it.
Later, 386-class computers started integrating the BIOS setup utility in the ROM itself, alongside the BIOS code; these computers usually boot into the BIOS setup utility if a certain key or key combination is pressed, otherwise the BIOS POST and boot process are executed.
A modern BIOS setup utility has a text user interface (TUI) or graphical user interface (GUI) accessed by pressing a certain key on the keyboard when the PC starts. Usually, the key is advertised for short time during the early startup, for example "Press DEL to enter Setup".
The actual key depends on specific hardware. The settings key is most often Delete (Acer, ASRock, Asus PC, ECS, Gigabyte, MSI, Zotac) and F2 (Asus motherboard, Dell, Lenovo laptop, Origin PC, Samsung, Toshiba), but it can also be F1 (Lenovo desktop) and F10 (HP).
Features present in the BIOS setup utility typically include:
* Configuring, enabling and disabling the hardware components
* Setting the system time
* Setting the boot order
* Setting various passwords, such as a password for securing access to the BIOS user interface and preventing malicious users from booting the system from unauthorized portable storage devices, or a password for booting the system
Hardware monitoring
A modern BIOS setup screen often features a PC Health Status or a Hardware Monitoring tab, which directly interfaces with a Hardware Monitor chip of the mainboard. This makes it possible to monitor CPU and chassis temperature, the voltage provided by the power supply unit, as well as monitor and control the speed of the fans connected to the motherboard.
Once the system is booted, hardware monitoring and computer fan control is normally done directly by the Hardware Monitor chip itself, which can be a separate chip, interfaced through I²C or SMBus, or come as a part of a Super I/O solution, interfaced through Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) or Low Pin Count (LPC). Some operating systems, like NetBSD with envsys and OpenBSD with sysctl hw.sensors, feature integrated interfacing with hardware monitors.
However, in some circumstances, the BIOS also provides the underlying information about hardware monitoring through ACPI, in which case, the operating system may be using ACPI to perform hardware monitoring. Reprogramming
.]]
In modern PCs the BIOS is stored in rewritable EEPROM or NOR flash memory, allowing the contents to be replaced and modified. This rewriting of the contents is sometimes termed flashing. It can be done by a special program, usually provided by the system's manufacturer, or at POST, with a BIOS image in a hard drive or USB flash drive. A file containing such contents is sometimes termed "a BIOS image". A BIOS might be reflashed in order to upgrade to a newer version to fix bugs or provide improved performance or to support newer hardware. Some computers also support updating the BIOS via an update floppy disk or a special partition on the hard drive.
Hardware
BIOS 686. This BIOS chip is housed in a PLCC package in a socket.]]
The original IBM PC BIOS (and cassette BASIC) was stored on mask-programmed read-only memory (ROM) chips in sockets on the motherboard. ROMs could be replaced, but not altered, by users. To allow for updates, many compatible computers used re-programmable BIOS memory devices such as EPROM, EEPROM and later flash memory (usually NOR flash) devices. According to Robert Braver, the president of the BIOS manufacturer Micro Firmware, Flash BIOS chips became common around 1995 because the electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) chips are cheaper and easier to program than standard ultraviolet erasable PROM (EPROM) chips. Flash chips are programmed (and re-programmed) in-circuit, while EPROM chips need to be removed from the motherboard for re-programming.
The size of the BIOS, and the capacity of the ROM, EEPROM, or other media it may be stored on, has increased over time as new features have been added to the code; BIOS versions now exist with sizes up to 32 megabytes. For contrast, the original IBM PC BIOS was contained in an 8 KB mask ROM. Some modern motherboards are including even bigger NAND flash memory ICs on board which are capable of storing whole compact operating systems, such as some Linux distributions. For example, some ASUS notebooks included Splashtop OS embedded into their NAND flash memory ICs. includes
Intel Management Engine or AMD Platform Security Processor firmware.
Vendors and products
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"margin-left: 2em;"
|+ Comparison of different BIOS implementations
|-
! Company
| AwardBIOS
| AMIBIOS <!--latest version is 8 -->
| Insyde
| SeaBIOS
|-
! License
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! Maintained / developed
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! 32-bit PCI BIOS calls
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!
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|-
!
|
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| <small>(1.2)</small>
| <small>(1.2)</small>
|-
!
|
| <!-- SATA, IDE, USB, LAN, Floppy -->
|
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|-
! Boot menu
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|-
! Compression
| <small>(LHA</small>
| <small>(PCX)</small> <!-- 640x480x256 pcx -->
|
| <small>(BMP, JPG)</small> <!-- JPEG would use 16 or 24 bpp video mode, BMP use 24bpp mode only -->
|-
!
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! USB booting
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| <!-- at least USB floppy -->
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! USB hub
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! USB keyboard
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! USB mouse
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|}
IBM published the entire listings of the BIOS for its original PC, PC XT, PC AT, and other contemporary PC models, in an appendix of the IBM PC Technical Reference Manual for each machine type. The effect of the publication of the BIOS listings is that anyone can see exactly what a definitive BIOS does and how it does it.
386 BIOS]]
In May 1984, Phoenix Software Associates released its first ROM-BIOS. This BIOS enabled OEMs to build essentially fully compatible clones without having to reverse-engineer the IBM PC BIOS themselves, as Compaq had done for the Portable; it also helped fuel the growth in the PC-compatibles industry and sales of non-IBM versions of DOS. The first American Megatrends (AMI) BIOS was released in 1986.
New standards grafted onto the BIOS are usually without complete public documentation or any BIOS listings. As a result, it is not as easy to learn the intimate details about the many non-IBM additions to BIOS as about the core BIOS services.
Many PC motherboard suppliers licensed the BIOS "core" and toolkit from a commercial third party, known as an "independent BIOS vendor" or IBV. The motherboard manufacturer then customized this BIOS to suit its own hardware. For this reason, updated BIOSes are normally obtained directly from the motherboard manufacturer. Major IBVs included American Megatrends (AMI), Insyde Software, Phoenix Technologies, and Byosoft. Microid Research and Award Software were acquired by Phoenix Technologies in 1998; Phoenix later phased out the Award brand name (although Award Software is still credited in newer AwardBIOS versions and in UEFI firmwares). General Software, which was also acquired by Phoenix in 2007, sold BIOS for embedded systems based on Intel processors.
SeaBIOS is an open-source BIOS implementation.
Open-source BIOS replacements
The open-source community increased their effort to develop a replacement for proprietary BIOSes and their future incarnations with an open-sourced counterparts. Open Firmware was an early attempt to make an open specification for boot firmware. It was initially endorsed by IEEE in its IEEE 1275-1994 standard but was withdrawn in 2005. Later examples include the OpenBIOS, coreboot and libreboot projects. AMD provided product specifications for some chipsets using coreboot, and Google is sponsoring the project. Motherboard manufacturer Tyan offers coreboot next to the standard BIOS with their Opteron line of motherboards.
Security
DualBIOS PLCC32]]
EEPROM and flash memory chips are advantageous because they can be easily updated by the user; it is customary for hardware manufacturers to issue BIOS updates to upgrade their products, improve compatibility and remove bugs. However, this advantage had the risk that an improperly executed or aborted BIOS update could render the computer or device unusable. To avoid these situations, more recent BIOSes use a "boot block"; a portion of the BIOS which runs first and must be updated separately. This code verifies if the rest of the BIOS is intact (using hash checksums or other methods) before transferring control to it. If the boot block detects any corruption in the main BIOS, it will typically warn the user that a recovery process must be initiated by booting from removable media (floppy, CD or USB flash drive) so the user can try flashing the BIOS again. Some motherboards have a backup BIOS (sometimes referred to as DualBIOS boards) to recover from BIOS corruptions.
There are at least five known viruses that attack the BIOS. Two of which were for demonstration purposes. The first one found in the wild was Mebromi, targeting Chinese users.
The first BIOS virus was BIOS Meningitis, which instead of erasing BIOS chips it infected them. BIOS Meningitis was relatively harmless, compared to a virus like CIH.
The second BIOS virus was CIH, also known as the "Chernobyl Virus", which was able to erase flash ROM BIOS content on compatible chipsets. CIH appeared in mid-1998 and became active in April 1999. Often, infected computers could no longer boot, and people had to remove the flash ROM IC from the motherboard and reprogram it. CIH targeted the then-widespread Intel i430TX motherboard chipset and took advantage of the fact that the Windows 9x operating systems, also widespread at the time, allowed direct hardware access to all programs.
Modern systems are not vulnerable to CIH because of a variety of chipsets being used which are incompatible with the Intel i430TX chipset, and also other flash ROM IC types. There is also extra protection from accidental BIOS rewrites in the form of boot blocks which are protected from accidental overwrite or dual and quad BIOS equipped systems which may, in the event of a crash, use a backup BIOS. Also, all modern operating systems such as FreeBSD, Linux, macOS, Windows NT-based Windows OS like Windows 2000, Windows XP and newer, do not allow user-mode programs to have direct hardware access using a hardware abstraction layer.
As a result, as of 2008, CIH has become essentially harmless, at worst causing annoyance by infecting executable files and triggering antivirus software. Other BIOS viruses remain possible, however; since most Windows home users without Windows Vista/7's UAC run all applications with administrative privileges, a modern CIH-like virus could in principle still gain access to hardware without first using an exploit.<!-- no longer relevant to modern operating systems. requires deletion?? --> The operating system OpenBSD prevents all users from having this access and the grsecurity patch for the Linux kernel also prevents this direct hardware access by default, the difference being an attacker requiring a much more difficult kernel level exploit or reboot of the machine.
The third BIOS virus was a technique presented by John Heasman, principal security consultant for UK-based Next-Generation Security Software. In 2006, at the Black Hat Security Conference, he showed how to elevate privileges and read physical memory, using malicious procedures that replaced normal ACPI functions stored in flash memory.
The fourth BIOS virus was a technique called "Persistent BIOS infection." It appeared in 2009 at the CanSecWest Security Conference in Vancouver, and at the SyScan Security Conference in Singapore. Researchers Anibal Sacco Wired and The Register refuted the NSA's claims.
Newer Intel platforms have Intel Boot Guard (IBG) technology enabled, this technology will check the BIOS digital signature at startup, and the IBG public key is fused into the PCH. End users can't disable this function.
Alternatives and successors
Unified Extensible Firmware Interface (UEFI) supplements the BIOS in many new machines. Initially written for the Intel Itanium architecture, UEFI is now available for x86 and Arm platforms; the specification development is driven by the Unified EFI Forum, an industry special interest group. EFI booting has been supported in only Microsoft Windows versions supporting GPT, with the exception of IoT Enterprise editions of Windows 11. UEFI is required for devices shipping with Windows 8 and above.
Other alternatives to the functionality of the "Legacy BIOS" in the x86 world include coreboot and libreboot.
Some servers and workstations use a platform-independent Open Firmware (IEEE-1275) based on the Forth programming language; it is included with Sun's SPARC computers, IBM's RS/6000 line, and other PowerPC systems such as the CHRP motherboards, along with the x86-based OLPC XO-1.
As of at least 2015, Apple has removed legacy BIOS support from the UEFI monitor in Intel-based Macs. As such, the BIOS utility no longer supports the legacy option, and prints "Legacy mode not supported on this system".
In 2017, Intel announced that it would remove legacy BIOS support by 2020. Since 2019, new Intel platform OEM PCs no longer support the legacy option.
See also
* Double boot
* Extended System Configuration Data (ESCD)
* Input/Output Control System
* ACPI (Advanced Configuration and Power Interface)
* Ralf Brown's Interrupt List (RBIL)interrupts, calls, interfaces, data structures, memory and port addresses, and processor opcodes for the x86 architecture
* System Management BIOS (SMBIOS)
* UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface)
* Das U-Boot, often used on embedded systems
Notes
References
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
* [http://bioshacking.blogspot.com/2012/02/bios-disassembly-ninjutsu-uncovered-1st.html BIOS Disassembly Ninjutsu Uncovered, 1st edition], a freely available book in PDF format [https://web.archive.org/web/20220402165916/http://www.lejabeach.com/sisubb/BIOS_Disassembly_Ninjutsu_Uncovered.pdf]
* [http://osxbook.com/book/bonus/chapter4/firmware/ More Power To Firmware], free bonus chapter to the Mac OS X Internals: A Systems Approach book
External links
*
*
*
*
*
*
Category:CP/M technology
Category:DOS technology
Category:Windows technology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIOS
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Bose–Einstein condensate
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In condensed matter physics, a Bose–Einstein condensate (BEC) is a state of matter that is typically formed when a gas of bosons at very low densities is cooled to temperatures very close to absolute zero, i.e., . Under such conditions, a large fraction of bosons occupy the lowest quantum state, at which microscopic quantum-mechanical phenomena, particularly wavefunction interference, become apparent macroscopically.
More generally, condensation refers to the appearance of macroscopic occupation of one or several states: for example, in BCS theory, a superconductor is a condensate of Cooper pairs. As such, condensation can be associated with phase transition, and the macroscopic occupation of the state is the order parameter.
Bose–Einstein condensate was first predicted, generally, in 1924–1925 by Albert Einstein, crediting a pioneering paper by Satyendra Nath Bose on the new field now known as quantum statistics. In 1995, the Bose–Einstein condensate was created by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman of the University of Colorado Boulder using rubidium atoms; later that year, Wolfgang Ketterle of MIT produced a BEC using sodium atoms. In 2001 Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle shared the Nobel Prize in Physics "for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates".
History
atoms, confirming the discovery of a new phase of matter, the Bose–Einstein condensate. before the appearance of a Bose–Einstein condensate. after the appearance of the condensate. further evaporation, leaving a sample of nearly pure condensate.]]
Bose first sent a paper to Einstein on the quantum statistics of light quanta (now called photons), in which he derived Planck's quantum radiation law without any reference to classical physics. Einstein was impressed, translated the paper himself from English to German and submitted it for Bose to the Zeitschrift für Physik, which published it in 1924. (The Einstein manuscript, once believed to be lost, was found in a library at Leiden University in 2005.) Einstein then extended Bose's ideas to matter in two other papers. The result of their efforts is the concept of a Bose gas, governed by Bose–Einstein statistics, which describes the statistical distribution of identical particles with integer spin, now called bosons. Bosons are allowed to share a quantum state. Einstein proposed that cooling bosonic atoms to a very low temperature would cause them to fall (or "condense") into the lowest accessible quantum state, resulting in a new form of matter. Bosons include the photon, polaritons, magnons, some atoms and molecules (depending on the number of nucleons, see #Isotopes) such as atomic hydrogen, helium-4, lithium-7, rubidium-87 or strontium-84.
In 1938, Fritz London proposed the BEC as a mechanism for superfluidity in and superconductivity.
The quest to produce a Bose–Einstein condensate in the laboratory was stimulated by a paper published in 1976 by two program directors at the National Science Foundation (William Stwalley and Lewis Nosanow), proposing to use spin-polarized atomic hydrogen to produce a gaseous BEC. This led to the immediate pursuit of the idea by four independent research groups; these were led by Isaac Silvera (University of Amsterdam), Walter Hardy (University of British Columbia), Thomas Greytak (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) and David Lee (Cornell University). However, cooling atomic hydrogen turned out to be technically difficult, and Bose-Einstein condensation of atomic hydrogen was only realized in 1998.
On 5 June 1995, the first gaseous condensate was produced by Eric Cornell and Carl Wieman at the University of Colorado at Boulder NIST–JILA lab, in a gas of rubidium atoms cooled to 170 nanokelvins (nK). Shortly thereafter, Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT produced a Bose–Einstein Condensate in a gas of sodium atoms. For their achievements Cornell, Wieman, and Ketterle received the 2001 Nobel Prize in Physics. Bose-Einstein condensation of alkali gases is easier because they can be pre-cooled with laser cooling techniques, unlike atomic hydrogen at the time, which give a significant head start when performing the final forced evaporative cooling to cross the condensation threshold.).
Interactions shift the value, and the corrections can be calculated by mean-field theory.
This formula is derived from finding the gas degeneracy in the Bose gas using Bose–Einstein statistics.
The critical temperature depends on the density. A more concise and experimentally relevant condition involves the phase-space density <math>\mathcal{D}=n \lambda_T^3</math>, where
: <math>\lambda_T=\hbar \sqrt{\frac{2\pi}{m k_\text{B} T}}</math>
is the thermal de Broglie wavelength. It is a dimensionless quantity. The transition to BEC occurs when the phase-space density is greater than critical value:
: <math>\mathcal{D}_\text{c}=\zeta(3/2)</math>
in 3D uniform space. This is equivalent to the above condition on the temperature. In a 3D harmonic potential, the critical value is instead
: <math>\mathcal{D}_\text{c}\zeta(3)\approx 1.202</math>
where <math>n</math> has to be understood as the peak density.
Derivation
Ideal Bose gas
For an ideal Bose gas we have the equation of state
: <math>\frac{1}{v} = \frac{1}{\lambda^3} g_{3/2}(f) + \frac{1}{V}\frac{f}{1 - f},</math>
where <math>v = V/N</math> is the per-particle volume, <math>\lambda</math> is the thermal wavelength, <math>f</math> is the fugacity, and
: <math>g_\alpha(f) \sum\limits_{n1}^\infty \frac{f^n}{n^\alpha}.</math>
It is noticeable that <math>g_{3/2}</math> is a monotonically growing function of <math>f</math> in <math>f \in [0, 1]</math>, which are the only values for which the series converge.
Recognizing that the second term on the right-hand side contains the expression for the average occupation number of the fundamental state <math>\langle n_0 \rangle</math>, the equation of state can be rewritten as
: <math>\frac{1}{v} \frac{1}{\lambda^3} g_{3/2}(f) + \frac{\langle n_0\rangle}{V} \Leftrightarrow \frac{\langle n_0\rangle}{V} \lambda^3 \frac{\lambda^3}{v} - g_{3/2}(f).</math>
Because the left term on the second equation must always be positive, <math>\frac{\lambda^3}{v} > g_{3/2}(f)</math>, and because <math>g_{3/2}(f) \le g_{3/2}(1)</math>, a stronger condition is
: <math>\frac{\lambda^3}{v} > g_{3/2}(1),</math>
which defines a transition between a gas phase and a condensed phase. On the critical region it is possible to define a critical temperature and thermal wavelength:
: <math>\lambda_c^3 g_{3/2}(1)v \zeta(3/2) v,</math>
: <math>T_\text{c} = \frac{2\pi \hbar^2}{m k_\text{B} \lambda_c^2},</math>
recovering the value indicated on the previous section. The critical values are such that if <math>T < T_\text{c}</math> or <math>\lambda > \lambda_\text{c}</math>, we are in the presence of a Bose–Einstein condensate.
Understanding what happens with the fraction of particles on the fundamental level is crucial. As so, write the equation of state for <math>f = 1</math>, obtaining
: <math>\frac{\langle n_0\rangle}{N} 1 - \left(\frac{\lambda_\text{c}}{\lambda}\right)^3</math> and equivalently <math>\frac{\langle n_0\rangle}{N} 1 - \left(\frac{T}{T_\text{c}}\right)^{3/2}.</math>
So, if <math>T \ll T_\text{c}</math>, the fraction <math>\frac{\langle n_0 \rangle}{N} \approx 1</math>, and if <math>T \gg T_\text{c}</math>, the fraction <math>\frac{\langle n_0 \rangle}{N} \approx 0</math>. At temperatures near to absolute 0, particles tend to condense in the fundamental state, which is the state with momentum <math>\vec{p} 0</math>. Experimental observation Superfluid helium-4
In 1938, Pyotr Kapitsa, John Allen and Don Misener discovered that helium-4 became a new kind of fluid, now known as a superfluid, at temperatures less than 2.17 K (the lambda point). Superfluid helium has many unusual properties, including zero viscosity (the ability to flow without dissipating energy) and the existence of quantized vortices. It was quickly believed that the superfluidity was due to partial Bose–Einstein condensation of the liquid. In fact, many properties of superfluid helium also appear in gaseous condensates created by Cornell, Wieman and Ketterle (see below). Superfluid helium-4 is a liquid rather than a gas, which means that the interactions between the atoms are relatively strong; the original theory of Bose–Einstein condensation must be heavily modified in order to describe it. Bose–Einstein condensation remains, however, fundamental to the superfluid properties of helium-4. Note that helium-3, a fermion, also enters a superfluid phase (at a much lower temperature) which can be explained by the formation of bosonic Cooper pairs of two atoms (see also fermionic condensate).
Dilute atomic gases
The first "pure" Bose–Einstein condensate was created by Eric Cornell, Carl Wieman, and co-workers at JILA on 5 June 1995.
A group led by Randall Hulet at Rice University announced a condensate of lithium atoms only one month following the JILA work.
Quasiparticles
Bose–Einstein condensation also applies to quasiparticles in solids. Magnons, excitons, and polaritons have integer spin which means they are bosons that can form condensates.
Magnons, electron spin waves, can be controlled by a magnetic field. Densities from the limit of a dilute gas to a strongly interacting Bose liquid are possible. Magnetic ordering is the analog of superfluidity. In 1999 condensation was demonstrated in antiferromagnetic , with optical pumping.
Excitons, electron-hole pairs, were predicted to condense at low temperature and high density by Boer et al., in 1961. Bilayer system experiments first demonstrated condensation in 2003, by Hall voltage disappearance. Fast optical exciton creation was used to form condensates in sub-kelvin in 2005 on.
Polariton condensation was first detected for exciton-polaritons in a quantum well microcavity kept at 5 K. Quasiparticle BECs have been achieved at room-temperature, for example, in microcavity-coupled organic semiconductors and plasmon-exciton polaritons in periodic arrays of metal nanoparticles coupled to dye molecules.
Models
Bose Einstein's non-interacting gas
Consider a collection of N non-interacting particles, which can each be in one of two quantum states, <math>|0\rangle</math> and <math>|1\rangle</math>. If the two states are equal in energy, each different configuration is equally likely.
If we can tell which particle is which, there are <math>2^N</math> different configurations, since each particle can be in <math>|0\rangle</math> or <math>|1\rangle</math> independently. In almost all of the configurations, about half the particles are in <math>|0\rangle</math> and the other half in <math>|1\rangle</math>. The balance is a statistical effect: the number of configurations is largest when the particles are divided equally.
If the particles are indistinguishable, however, there are only <math>N+1</math> different configurations. If there are <math>K</math> particles in state <math>|1\rangle</math>, there are <math>N-K</math> particles in state <math>|0\rangle</math>. Whether any particular particle is in state <math>|0\rangle</math> or in state <math>|1\rangle</math> cannot be determined, so each value of <math>K</math> determines a unique quantum state for the whole system.
Suppose now that the energy of state <math>|1\rangle</math> is slightly greater than the energy of state <math>|0\rangle</math> by an amount <math>E</math>. At temperature <math>T</math>, a particle will have a lesser probability to be in state <math>|1\rangle</math> by <math>e^{-E/kT}</math>. In the distinguishable case, the particle distribution will be biased slightly towards state <math>|0\rangle</math>. But in the indistinguishable case, since there is no statistical pressure toward equal numbers, the most-likely outcome is that most of the particles will collapse into state <math>|0\rangle</math>.
In the distinguishable case, for large N, the fraction in state <math>|0\rangle</math> can be computed. It is the same as flipping a coin with probability proportional to <math>\exp{(-E/T)}</math> to land tails.
In the indistinguishable case, each value of <math>K</math> is a single state, which has its own separate Boltzmann probability. So the probability distribution is exponential:
:<math>\,
P(K)C e^{-KE/T} C p^K.
</math>
For large <math>N</math>, the normalization constant <math>C</math> is <math>1-p</math>. The expected total number of particles not in the lowest energy state, in the limit that <math>N\rightarrow \infty</math>, is equal to
: <math>\sum_{n>0} C n p^n=p/(1-p) </math>
It does not grow when N is large; it just approaches a constant. This will be a negligible fraction of the total number of particles. So a collection of enough Bose particles in thermal equilibrium will mostly be in the ground state, with only a few in any excited state, no matter how small the energy difference.
Consider now a gas of particles, which can be in different momentum states labeled <math>|k\rangle</math>. If the number of particles is less than the number of thermally accessible states, for high temperatures and low densities, the particles will all be in different states. In this limit, the gas is classical. As the density increases or the temperature decreases, the number of accessible states per particle becomes smaller, and at some point, more particles will be forced into a single state than the maximum allowed for that state by statistical weighting. From this point on, any extra particle added will go into the ground state.
To calculate the transition temperature at any density, integrate, over all momentum states, the expression for maximum number of excited particles, <math>p/(1-p)</math>:
:<math>\,
N V \int {d^3k \over (2\pi)^3} {p(k)\over 1-p(k)} V \int {d^3k \over (2\pi)^3} {1 \over e^{k^2\over 2mT}-1} </math>
:<math>\,
p(k)= e^{-k^2\over 2mT}.
</math>
When the integral (also known as Bose–Einstein integral) is evaluated with factors of <math>k_B</math> and <math>\hbar</math> restored by dimensional analysis, it gives the critical temperature formula of the preceding section. Therefore, this integral defines the critical temperature and particle number corresponding to the conditions of negligible chemical potential <math>\mu</math>. In Bose–Einstein statistics distribution, <math>\mu</math> is actually still nonzero for BECs; however, <math>\mu</math> is less than the ground state energy. Except when specifically talking about the ground state, <math>\mu</math> can be approximated for most energy or momentum states as <math>\mu \approx 0</math>.
Bogoliubov theory for weakly interacting gas
Nikolay Bogoliubov considered perturbations on the limit of dilute gas,
and Fourier spectral methods, are used for its solution. There are different Fortran and C programs for its solution for contact interaction
and long-range dipolar interaction which can be freely used.
Weaknesses of Gross–Pitaevskii model
The Gross–Pitaevskii model of BEC is a physical approximation valid for certain classes of BECs. By construction, the GPE uses the following simplifications: it assumes that interactions between condensate particles are of the contact two-body type and also neglects anomalous contributions to self-energy. These assumptions are suitable mostly for the dilute three-dimensional condensates. If one relaxes any of these assumptions, the equation for the condensate wavefunction acquires the terms containing higher-order powers of the wavefunction. Moreover, for some physical systems the amount of such terms turns out to be infinite, therefore, the equation becomes essentially non-polynomial. The examples where this could happen are the Bose–Fermi composite condensates, and dense condensates and superfluid clusters and droplets. It is found that one has to go beyond the Gross-Pitaevskii equation. For example, the logarithmic term <math>\psi \ln |\psi|^2 </math> found in the Logarithmic Schrödinger equation must be added to the Gross-Pitaevskii equation along with a Ginzburg–Sobyanin contribution to correctly determine that the speed of sound scales as the cubic root of pressure for Helium-4 at very low temperatures in close agreement with experiment.
Other
However, it is clear that in a general case the behaviour of Bose–Einstein condensate can be described by coupled evolution equations for condensate density, superfluid velocity and distribution function of elementary excitations. This problem was solved in 1977 by Peletminskii et al. in microscopical approach. The Peletminskii equations are valid for any finite temperatures below the critical point. Years after, in 1985, Kirkpatrick and Dorfman obtained similar equations using another microscopical approach. The Peletminskii equations also reproduce Khalatnikov hydrodynamical equations for superfluid as a limiting case.
Superfluidity of BEC and Landau criterion
The phenomena of superfluidity of a Bose gas and superconductivity of a strongly-correlated Fermi gas (a gas of Cooper pairs) are tightly connected to Bose–Einstein condensation. Under corresponding conditions, below the temperature of phase transition, these phenomena were observed in helium-4 and different classes of superconductors. In this sense, the superconductivity is often called the superfluidity of Fermi gas. In the simplest form, the origin of superfluidity can be seen from the weakly interacting bosons model.
Peculiar properties
Quantized vortices
As in many other systems, vortices can exist in BECs.
Vortices can be created, for example, by "stirring" the condensate with lasers,
rotating the confining trap,
or by rapid cooling across the phase transition.
The vortex created will be a quantum vortex with core shape determined by the interactions. Fluid circulation around any point is quantized due to the single-valued nature of the order BEC order parameter or wavefunction, that can be written in the form <math>\psi(\vec{r})\phi(\rho,z)e^{i\ell\theta}</math> where <math>\rho, z</math> and <math>\theta</math> are as in the cylindrical coordinate system, and <math>\ell</math> is the angular quantum number (a.k.a. the "charge" of the vortex). Since the energy of a vortex is proportional to the square of its angular momentum, in trivial topology only <math>\ell1</math> vortices can exist in the steady state; Higher-charge vortices will have a tendency to split into <math>\ell1</math> vortices, if allowed by the topology of the geometry.
An axially symmetric (for instance, harmonic) confining potential is commonly used for the study of vortices in BEC. To determine <math>\phi(\rho,z)</math>, the energy of <math>\psi(\vec{r})</math> must be minimized, according to the constraint <math>\psi(\vec{r})=\phi(\rho,z)e^{i\ell\theta}</math>. This is usually done computationally, however, in a uniform medium, the following analytic form demonstrates the correct behavior, and is a good approximation:
:<math>\phi=\frac{nx}{\sqrt{2+x^2}}\,.</math>
Here, <math>n</math> is the density far from the vortex and <math>x\rho/(\ell \xi)</math>, where <math>\xi1/\sqrt{8\pi a_s n_0}</math> is the healing length of the condensate.
A singly charged vortex (<math>\ell=1</math>) is in the ground state, with its energy <math>\epsilon_v</math> given by
:<math>\epsilon_v=\pi n
\frac{\hbar^2}{m}\ln\left(1.464\frac{b}{\xi}\right)</math>
where <math>\,b</math> is the farthest distance from the vortices considered.(To obtain an energy which is well defined it is necessary to include this boundary <math>b</math>.)
For multiply charged vortices (<math>\ell >1</math>) the energy is approximated by
:<math>\epsilon_v\approx \ell^2\pi n
\frac{\hbar^2}{m}\ln\left(\frac{b}{\xi}\right)</math>
which is greater than that of <math>\ell</math> singly charged vortices, indicating that these multiply charged vortices are unstable to decay. Research has, however, indicated they are metastable states, so may have relatively long lifetimes.
Closely related to the creation of vortices in BECs is the generation of so-called dark solitons in one-dimensional BECs. These topological objects feature a phase gradient across their nodal plane, which stabilizes their shape even in propagation and interaction. Although solitons carry no charge and are thus prone to decay, relatively long-lived dark solitons have been produced and studied extensively. Attractive interactions
Experiments led by Randall Hulet at Rice University from 1995 through 2000 showed that lithium condensates with attractive interactions could stably exist up to a critical atom number. Quench cooling the gas, they observed the condensate to grow, then subsequently collapse as the attraction overwhelmed the zero-point energy of the confining potential, in a burst reminiscent of a supernova, with an explosion preceded by an implosion.
Further work on attractive condensates was performed in 2000 by the JILA team, of Cornell, Wieman and coworkers. Their instrumentation now had better control so they used naturally attracting atoms of rubidium-85 (having negative atom–atom scattering length). Through Feshbach resonance involving a sweep of the magnetic field causing spin flip collisions, they lowered the characteristic, discrete energies at which rubidium bonds, making their Rb-85 atoms repulsive and creating a stable condensate. The reversible flip from attraction to repulsion stems from quantum interference among wave-like condensate atoms.
When the JILA team raised the magnetic field strength further, the condensate suddenly reverted to attraction, imploded and shrank beyond detection, then exploded, expelling about two-thirds of its 10,000 atoms. About half of the atoms in the condensate seemed to have disappeared from the experiment altogether, not seen in the cold remnant or expanding gas cloud. Current research
Compared to more commonly encountered states of matter, Bose–Einstein condensates are extremely fragile. The slightest interaction with the external environment can be enough to warm them past the condensation threshold, eliminating their interesting properties and forming a normal gas.
Nevertheless, they have proven useful in exploring a wide range of questions in fundamental physics, and the years since the initial discoveries by the JILA and MIT groups have seen an increase in experimental and theoretical activity.
Bose–Einstein condensates composed of a wide range of isotopes have been produced; see below.
Fundamental research
Examples include experiments that have demonstrated interference between condensates due to wave–particle duality, the study of superfluidity and quantized vortices, the creation of bright matter wave solitons from Bose condensates confined to one dimension, and the slowing of light pulses to very low speeds using electromagnetically induced transparency. Vortices in Bose–Einstein condensates are also currently the subject of analogue gravity research, studying the possibility of modeling black holes and their related phenomena in such environments in the laboratory.
Experimenters have also realized "optical lattices", where the interference pattern from overlapping lasers provides a periodic potential. These are used to explore the transition between a superfluid and a Mott insulator.
They are also useful in studying Bose–Einstein condensation in fewer than three dimensions, for example the Lieb–Liniger model (an the limit of strong interactions, the Tonks–Girardeau gas) in 1D and the Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless transition in 2D. Indeed, a deep optical lattice allows the experimentalist to freeze the motion of the particles along one or two directions, effectively eliminating one or two dimension from the system.
Further, the sensitivity of the pinning transition of strongly interacting bosons confined in a shallow one-dimensional optical lattice originally observed by Haller has been explored via a tweaking of the primary optical lattice by a secondary weaker one. Thus for a resulting weak bichromatic optical lattice, it has been found that the pinning transition is robust against the
introduction of the weaker secondary optical lattice.
Studies of vortices in nonuniform Bose–Einstein condensates as well as excitations of these systems by the application of moving repulsive or attractive obstacles, have also been undertaken. Within this context, the conditions for order and chaos in the dynamics of a trapped Bose–Einstein condensate have been explored by the application of moving blue and red-detuned laser beams (hitting frequencies slightly above and below the resonance frequency, respectively) via the time-dependent Gross-Pitaevskii equation.
Applications
In 1999, Danish physicist Lene Hau led a team from Harvard University which slowed a beam of light to about 17 meters per second using a superfluid. Hau and her associates have since made a group of condensate atoms recoil from a light pulse such that they recorded the light's phase and amplitude, recovered by a second nearby condensate, in what they term "slow-light-mediated atomic matter-wave amplification" using Bose–Einstein condensates. The same team demonstrated in 2017 the first creation of a Bose–Einstein condensate in space and it is also the subject of two upcoming experiments on the International Space Station.
Researchers in the new field of atomtronics use the properties of Bose–Einstein condensates in the emerging quantum technology of matter-wave circuits.
In 1970, BECs were proposed by Emmanuel David Tannenbaum for anti-stealth technology.
Isotopes
Bose-Einstein condensation has mainly been observed on alkaline atoms, some of which have collisional properties particularly suitable for evaporative cooling in traps, and which where the first to laser-cooled. As of 2021, using ultra-low temperatures of or below, Bose–Einstein condensates had been obtained for a multitude of isotopes with more or less ease, mainly of alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, and lanthanide atoms (, , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and metastable (orthohelium)). Research was finally successful in atomic hydrogen with the aid of the newly developed method of 'evaporative cooling'.
In contrast, the superfluid state of below is differs significantly from dilute degenerate atomic gases because the interaction between the atoms is strong. Only 8% of atoms are in the condensed fraction near absolute zero, rather than near 100% of a weakly interacting BEC.
The bosonic behavior of some of these alkaline gases appears odd at first sight, because their nuclei have half-integer total spin. It arises from the interplay of electronic and nuclear spins: at ultra-low temperatures and corresponding excitation energies, the half-integer total spin of the electronic shell (one outer electron) and half-integer total spin of the nucleus are coupled by a very weak hyperfine interaction. The total spin of the atom, arising from this coupling, is an integer value. Conversely, alkali isotopes which have an integer nuclear spin (such as and ) are fermions and can form degenerate Fermi gases, also called "Fermi condensates".
Cooling fermions to extremely low temperatures has created degenerate gases, subject to the Pauli exclusion principle. To exhibit Bose–Einstein condensation, the fermions must "pair up" to form bosonic compound particles (e.g. molecules or Cooper pairs). The first molecular condensates were created in November 2003 by the groups of Rudolf Grimm at the University of Innsbruck, Deborah S. Jin at the University of Colorado at Boulder and Wolfgang Ketterle at MIT. Jin quickly went on to create the first fermionic condensate, working with the same system but outside the molecular regime.
Continuous Bose–Einstein condensation
Limitations of evaporative cooling have restricted atomic BECs to "pulsed" operation, involving a highly inefficient duty cycle that discards more than 99% of atoms to reach BEC. Achieving continuous BEC has been a major open problem of experimental BEC research, driven by the same motivations as continuous optical laser development: high flux, high coherence matter waves produced continuously would enable new sensing applications.
Continuous BEC was achieved for the first time in 2022 with .
In solid state physics
In 2020, researchers reported the development of superconducting BEC and that there appears to be a "smooth transition between" BEC and Bardeen–Cooper–Shrieffer regimes.
Dark matter
P. Sikivie and Q. Yang showed that cold dark matter axions would form a Bose–Einstein condensate by thermalisation because of gravitational self-interactions. Axions have not yet been confirmed to exist. However the important search for them has been greatly enhanced with the completion of upgrades to the Axion Dark Matter Experiment (ADMX) at the University of Washington in early 2018.
In 2014, a potential dibaryon was detected at the Jülich Research Center at about 2380 MeV. The center claimed that the measurements confirm results from 2011, via a more replicable method. The particle existed for 10<sup>−23</sup> seconds and was named d*(2380). This particle is hypothesized to consist of three up and three down quarks. It is theorized that groups of d* (d-stars) could form Bose–Einstein condensates due to prevailing low temperatures in the early universe, and that BECs made of such hexaquarks with trapped electrons could behave like dark matter.
In fiction
* In the 2016 film Spectral, the US military battles mysterious enemy creatures fashioned out of Bose–Einstein condensates.
* In the 2003 novel Blind Lake, scientists observe sentient life on a planet 51 light-years away using telescopes powered by Bose–Einstein condensate-based quantum computers.
See also
* Atom laser
* Atomic coherence
* Bose–Einstein correlations
* Bose–Einstein condensation: a network theory approach
* Bose–Einstein condensation of quasiparticles
* Bose–Einstein statistics
* Cold Atom Laboratory
* Electromagnetically induced transparency
* Fermionic condensate
* Gas in a box
* Gross–Pitaevskii equation
* Macroscopic quantum phenomena
* Macroscopic quantum self-trapping
* Slow light
* Super-heavy atom
* Superconductivity
* Superfluid film
* Superfluid helium-4
* Supersolid
* Tachyon condensation
* Timeline of low-temperature technology
* Ultracold atom
* Wiener sausage
References
Further reading
*
* ,
*
*
*
*
*
* .
*
* .
*
*
*
*
* .
*
*
*
*
* C. J. Pethick and H. Smith, Bose–Einstein Condensation in Dilute Gases, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2001.
* Lev P. Pitaevskii and S. Stringari, Bose–Einstein Condensation, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 2003.
*
* Monique Combescot and Shiue-Yuan Shiau, "Excitons and Cooper Pairs: Two Composite Bosons in Many-Body Physics", Oxford University Press ().
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100113160458/http://iqoqi.at/bec2009/ Bose–Einstein Condensation 2009 Conference] – Frontiers in Quantum Gases
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051220142130/http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/bec/index.html BEC Homepage] General introduction to Bose–Einstein condensation
* [http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/2001/index.html Nobel Prize in Physics 2001] – for the achievement of Bose–Einstein condensation in dilute gases of alkali atoms, and for early fundamental studies of the properties of the condensates
*
* [http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/ Bose–Einstein condensates at JILA]
* [http://atomcool.rice.edu/ Atomcool at Rice University]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051226061445/http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/home.htm Alkali Quantum Gases at MIT]
* [http://www.physics.uq.edu.au/atomoptics/ Atom Optics at UQ]
* [http://www.lorentz.leidenuniv.nl/history/Einstein_archive/ Einstein's manuscript on the Bose–Einstein condensate discovered at Leiden University]
* [http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level2&index1145786 Bose–Einstein condensate on arxiv.org]
* [http://www.vigyanprasar.gov.in/dream/jan2002/article1.htm Bosons – The Birds That Flock and Sing Together]
* [http://jilawww.colorado.edu/bec/BEC_for_everyone/ Easy BEC machine] – information on constructing a Bose–Einstein condensate machine.
* [http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/features/online/2176/verging-absolute-zero Verging on absolute zero – Cosmos Online]
* [https://techtv.mit.edu/videos/15968-bose-einstein-condensates-the-coldest-matter-in-the-universe Lecture by W Ketterle at MIT in 2001]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110709214322/http://bec.nist.gov/ Bose–Einstein Condensation at NIST] – NIST resource on BEC
Category:Albert Einstein
Category:Condensed matter physics
Category:Exotic matter
Category:Phases of matter
Category:Articles containing video clips
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bose–Einstein_condensate
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2025-04-05T18:26:51.059122
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B (programming language)
|
| designer = Ken Thompson
| developer = Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie
| latest_release_version | latest_release_date
| latest_test_version | latest_test_date
| turing-complete = yes
| typing = typeless (everything is a word)
| implementations | dialects
| influenced_by = BCPL, PL/I, TMG
| influenced = C
| operating_system | license
| website | file_ext .b
}}
B is a programming language developed at Bell Labs circa 1969 by Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie.
B was derived from BCPL, and its name may possibly be a contraction of BCPL. Thompson's coworker Dennis Ritchie speculated that the name might be based on Bon, an earlier, but unrelated, programming language that Thompson designed for use on Multics.
B was designed for recursive, non-numeric, machine-independent applications, such as system and language software. It was a typeless language, with the only data type being the underlying machine's natural memory word format, whatever that might be. Depending on the context, the word was treated either as an integer or a memory address.
As machines with ASCII processing became common, notably the DEC PDP-11 that arrived at Bell Labs, support for character data stuffed in memory words became important. The typeless nature of the language was seen as a disadvantage, which led Thompson and Ritchie to develop an expanded version of the language supporting new internal and user-defined types, which became the C programming language.
History
Circa 1969, Ken Thompson Thompson went further by inventing the increment and decrement operators (<code>++</code> and <code>--</code>). Their prefix or postfix position determines whether the value is taken before or after alteration of the operand. This innovation was not in the earliest versions of B. According to Dennis Ritchie, people often assumed that they were created for the auto-increment and auto-decrement address modes of the DEC PDP-11, but this is historically impossible as the machine didn't exist when B was first developed.
B is typeless, or more precisely has one data type: the computer word. Most operators (e.g. <code>+</code>, <code>-</code>, <code>*</code>, <code>/</code>) treated this as an integer, but others treated it as a memory address to be dereferenced. In many other ways it looked a lot like an early version of C. There are a few library functions, including some that vaguely resemble functions from the standard I/O library in C. 36-bit mainframes running the operating system GCOS. The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to threaded code, and Ritchie wrote a compiler using TMG which produced machine code. In 1970 a PDP-11 was acquired and threaded code was used for the port; an assembler, , and the B language itself were written in B to bootstrap the computer. An early version of yacc was produced with this PDP-11 configuration. Ritchie took over maintenance during this period.
and on certain embedded systems () for a variety of reasons: limited hardware in small systems, extensive libraries, tooling, licensing cost issues, and simply being good enough for the job. The highly influential AberMUD was originally written in B.
Examples
The following examples are from the ''Users' Reference to B'' by Ken Thompson:<ref name=bur />
<syntaxhighlight lang="c">
/* The following function will print a non-negative number, n, to
the base b, where 2<b<10. This routine uses the fact that
in the ASCII character set, the digits 0 to 9 have sequential
code values. */
printn(n,b) {
extrn putchar;
auto a;
/* Wikipedia note: the auto keyword declares a variable with
automatic storage (lifetime is function scope), not
"automatic typing" as in C++11. */
if(a=n/b) /* assignment, not test for equality */
printn(a, b); /* recursive */
putchar(n%b + '0');
}
</syntaxhighlight>
<syntaxhighlight lang="c">
/* The following program will calculate the constant e-2 to about
4000 decimal digits, and print it 50 characters to the line in
groups of 5 characters. The method is simple output conver-
sion of the expansion
1/2! + 1/3! + ... = .111...
where the bases of the digits are 2, 3, 4, ... */
main() {
extrn putchar, n, v;
auto i, c, col, a;
i col 0;
while(i<n)
v[i++] = 1;
while(col<2*n) {
a = n+1;
c i 0;
while(i<n) {
c =+ v[i]*10;
v[i++] = c%a;
c =/ a--;
}
putchar(c+'0');
if(!(++col%5))
putchar(col%50?' ':'*n');
}
putchar('*n*n');
}
v[2000];
n 2000;
</syntaxhighlight>
Notes
References External links
* [http://man.cat-v.org/unix-1st/1/b Manual page for b(1) from Unix First Edition]
* [https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/chist.html The Development of the C Language], Dennis M. Ritchie. Puts B in the context of BCPL and C.
* ''[https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/kbman.html Users' Reference to B]'', Ken Thompson. Describes the PDP-11 version.
* [https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/bintro.html The Programming Language B], S. C. Johnson & B. W. Kernighan, Technical Report CS TR 8, Bell Labs (January 1973). The GCOS version on Honeywell equipment.
* [http://www.thinkage.ca/english/gcos/expl/b/index.html B Language Reference Manual], Thinkage Ltd. The production version of the language as used on GCOS, including language and runtime library.
Category:Procedural programming languages
Category:Programming languages
Category:Programming languages created in 1969
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_(programming_language)
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Beer–Lambert law
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The Beer–Bouguer–Lambert (BBL) extinction law is an empirical relationship describing the attenuation in intensity of a radiation beam passing through a macroscopically homogenous medium with which it interacts. Formally, it states that the intensity of radiation decays exponentially in the absorbance of the medium, and that said absorbance is proportional to the length of beam passing through the medium, the concentration of interacting matter along that path, and a constant representing said matter's propensity to interact.
The extinction law's primary application is in chemical analysis, where it underlies the Beer–Lambert law, commonly called '''Beer's law'''. Beer's law states that a beam of visible light passing through a chemical solution of fixed geometry experiences absorption proportional to the solute concentration. Other applications appear in physical optics, where it quantifies astronomical extinction and the absorption of photons, neutrons, or rarefied gases.
Forms of the BBL law date back to the mid-eighteenth century, but it only took its modern form during the early twentieth.
History
The first work towards the BBL law began with astronomical observations Pierre Bouguer performed in the early eighteenth century and published in 1729. Bouguer needed to compensate for the refraction of light by the earth's atmosphere, and found it necessary to measure the local height of the atmosphere. The latter, he sought to obtain through variations in the observed intensity of known stars. When calibrating this effect, Bouguer discovered that light intensity had an exponential dependence on length traveled through the atmosphere (in Bouguer's terms, a geometric progression).
Bouguer's work was then popularized in Johann Heinrich Lambert's Photometria in 1760. Lambert expressed the law, which states that the loss of light intensity when it propagates in a medium is directly proportional to intensity and path length, in a mathematical form quite similar to that used in modern physics. Lambert began by assuming that the intensity of light traveling into an absorbing body would be given by the differential equation <math displayblock>-\mathrm{d}I\mu I \mathrm{d}x,</math> which is compatible with Bouguer's observations. The constant of proportionality was often termed the "optical density" of the body. As long as is constant along a distance , the exponential attenuation law, <math displayblock>II_0 e^{-\mu d}</math> follows from integration.
In 1852, August Beer noticed that colored solutions also appeared to exhibit a similar attenuation relation. In his analysis, Beer does not discuss Bouguer and Lambert's prior work, writing in his introduction that "Concerning the absolute magnitude of the absorption that a particular ray of light suffers during its propagation through an absorbing medium, there is no information available." Beer may have omitted reference to Bouguer's work because there is a subtle physical difference between color absorption in solutions and astronomical contexts. Solutions are homogeneous and do not scatter light at common analytical wavelengths (ultraviolet, visible, or infrared), except at entry and exit. Thus light within a solution is reasonably approximated as due to absorption alone. In Bouguer's context, atmospheric dust or other inhomogeneities could also scatter light away from the detector. Modern texts combine the two laws because scattering and absorption have the same effect. Thus a scattering coefficient and an absorption coefficient can be combined into a total extinction coefficient μ<sub>s</sub> + μ<sub>a</sub>}}.
Importantly, Beer also seems to have conceptualized his result in terms of a given thickness' opacity, writing "If is the coefficient (fraction) of diminution, then this coefficient (fraction) will have the value for double this thickness." Although this geometric progression is mathematically equivalent to the modern law, modern treatments instead emphasize the logarithm of , which clarifies that concentration and path length have equivalent effects on the absorption. An early, possibly the first, modern formulation was given by Robert Luther and Andreas Nikolopulos in 1913. Mathematical formulations There are several equivalent formulations of the BBL law, depending on the precise choice of measured quantities. All of them state that, provided that the physical state is held constant, the extinction process is linear in the intensity of radiation and amount of radiatively-active matter, a fact sometimes called the fundamental law of extinction. Many of them then connect the quantity of radiatively-active matter to a length traveled and a concentration or number density . The latter two are related by Avogadro's number: N<sub>A</sub>c}}.
A collimated beam (directed radiation) with cross-sectional area will encounter particles (on average) during its travel. However, not all of these particles interact with the beam. Propensity to interact is a material-dependent property, typically summarized in absorptivity or scattering cross-section . These almost exhibit another Avogadro-type relationship: N<sub>A</sub>σ}}. The factor of appears because physicists tend to use natural logarithms and chemists decadal logarithms.
Beam intensity can also be described in terms of multiple variables: the intensity or radiant flux . In the case of a collimated beam, these are related by IS}}, but is often used in non-collimated contexts. The ratio of intensity (or flux) in to out is sometimes summarized as a transmittance coefficient }}.
<!-- Does this fail WP:HOWTO? -->When considering an extinction law, dimensional analysis can verify the consistency of the variables, as logarithms (being nonlinear) must always be dimensionless.
Formulation
The simplest formulation of Beer's relates the optical attenuation of a physical material containing a single attenuating species of uniform concentration to the optical path length through the sample and absorptivity of the species. This expression is:<math display"block">\log_{10} (I_0/I)A\varepsilon \ell c</math>The quantities so equated are defined to be the absorbance , which depends on the logarithm base. The Naperian absorbance is then given by ln(10)A}} and satisfies <math display"block">\ln(I_0/I)\tau=\sigma\ell n.</math>
If multiple species in the material interact with the radiation, then their absorbances add. Thus a slightly more general formulation is that <math display="block">\begin{align}
\tau &= \ell\sum_i \sigma_i n_i, \\[4pt]
A &= \ell\sum_i \varepsilon_i c_i,
\end{align}</math>where the sum is over all possible radiation-interacting ("translucent") species, and indexes those species.
In situations where length may vary significantly, absorbance is sometimes summarized in terms of an attenuation coefficient <math display="block">\begin{alignat}{3}
\mu_{10}&\frac{A}{l}&&\epsilon c \\
\mu&\frac{\tau}{l}&&\sigma n.
\end{alignat}</math>
In atmospheric science and radiation shielding applications, the attenuation coefficient may vary significantly through an inhomogenous material. In those situations, the most general form of the Beer–Lambert law states that the total attenuation can be obtained by integrating the attenuation coefficient over small slices of the beamline: <math display="block">\begin{alignat}{3}
A&\int{\mu_{10}(z)\,dz}&&\int{\sum_i{\epsilon_i(z)c_i(z)}\,dz}, \\
\tau&\int{\mu(z)\,dz}&&\int{\sum_i{\sigma_i(z)n_i(z)}\,dz}.
\end{alignat}</math>These formulations then reduce to the simpler versions when there is only one active species and the attenuation coefficients are constant.
Derivation
There are two factors that determine the degree to which a medium containing particles will attenuate a light beam: the number of particles encountered by the light beam, and the degree to which each particle extinguishes the light.
Assume that a beam of light enters a material sample. Define as an axis parallel to the direction of the beam. Divide the material sample into thin slices, perpendicular to the beam of light, with thickness sufficiently small that one particle in a slice cannot obscure another particle in the same slice when viewed along the direction. The radiant flux of the light that emerges from a slice is reduced, compared to that of the light that entered, by <math>\mathrm{d\Phi_e}(z) -\mu(z)\Phi_\mathrm{e}(z) \mathrm{d}z,</math> where is the (Napierian) attenuation coefficient, which yields the following first-order linear, ordinary differential equation:<math display"block">\frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi_\mathrm{e}(z)}{\mathrm{d}z} = -\mu(z)\Phi_\mathrm{e}(z).</math>
The attenuation is caused by the photons that did not make it to the other side of the slice because of scattering or absorption. The solution to this differential equation is obtained by multiplying the integrating factor<math display"block">\exp\left(\int_0^z \mu(z')\mathrm{d}z' \right)</math>throughout to obtain<math display"block">\frac{\mathrm{d}\Phi_\mathrm{e}(z)}{\mathrm{d}z}\, \exp\left(\int_0^z \mu(z')\mathrm{d}z' \right) + \mu(z)\Phi_\mathrm{e}(z)\, \exp\left(\int_0^z \mu(z')\mathrm{d}z' \right) 0,</math>which simplifies due to the product rule (applied backwards) to<math display"block">\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}z}\left[\Phi_\mathrm{e}(z) \exp\left(\int_0^z \mu(z')\mathrm{d}z' \right)\right] = 0.</math>
Integrating both sides and solving for for a material of real thickness , with the incident radiant flux upon the slice <math>\mathrm{\Phi_e^i} \mathrm{\Phi_e}(0)</math> and the transmitted radiant flux <math>\mathrm{\Phi_e^t} \mathrm{\Phi_e}(\ell)</math> gives<math display"block">\mathrm{\Phi_e^t} \mathrm{\Phi_e^i} \exp\left(-\int_0^\ell \mu(z)\mathrm{d}z \right),</math>and finally<math display"block">T \mathrm{\frac{\Phi_e^t}{\Phi_e^i}} = \exp\left(-\int_0^\ell \mu(z)\mathrm{d}z \right).</math>
Since the decadic attenuation coefficient is related to the (Napierian) attenuation coefficient by <math>\mu_{10} \tfrac{\mu}{\ln 10},</math> we also have<math display"block">\begin{align}
T &= \exp\left(-\int_0^\ell \ln(10)\,\mu_{10}(z)\mathrm{d}z \right) \\[4pt]
&= 10^{\;\!\wedge} \!\! \left( -\int_0^\ell \mu_{10}(z)\mathrm{d}z \right).
\end{align}</math>
To describe the attenuation coefficient in a way independent of the number densities of the attenuating species of the material sample, one introduces the attenuation cross section <math>\sigma_i \tfrac{\mu_i(z)}{n_i(z)}.</math> has the dimension of an area; it expresses the likelihood of interaction between the particles of the beam and the particles of the species in the material sample:<math display"block">T \exp\left(-\sum_{i 1}^N \sigma_i \int_0^\ell n_i(z)\mathrm{d}z \right).</math>
One can also use the molar attenuation coefficients <math>\varepsilon_i \tfrac{\mathrm{N_A}}{\ln 10}\sigma_i,</math> where is the Avogadro constant, to describe the attenuation coefficient in a way independent of the amount concentrations <math>c_i(z) n_i \tfrac{z}{\mathrm{N_A}}</math> of the attenuating species of the material sample:<math display="block"> \begin{align}
T &\exp\left(-\sum_{i 1}^N \frac{\ln(10)}{\mathrm{N_A}}\varepsilon_i \int_0^\ell n_i(z)\mathrm{d}z \right) \\[4pt]
&\exp\left(-\sum_{i 1}^N \varepsilon_i \int_0^\ell \frac{n_i(z)}{\mathrm{N_A}}\mathrm{d}z\right)^{\ln(10)} \\[4pt]
&10^{\;\!\wedge} \!\! \left(-\sum_{i 1}^N \varepsilon_i \int_0^\ell c_i(z)\mathrm{d}z \right).
\end{align} </math>
Validity
Under certain conditions the Beer–Lambert law fails to maintain a linear relationship between attenuation and concentration of analyte. These deviations are classified into three categories:
# Real—fundamental deviations due to the limitations of the law itself.
# Chemical—deviations observed due to specific chemical species of the sample which is being analyzed.
# Instrument—deviations which occur due to how the attenuation measurements are made.
There are at least six conditions that need to be fulfilled in order for the Beer–Lambert law to be valid. These are:
# The attenuators must act independently of each other.
# The attenuating medium must be homogeneous in the interaction volume.
# The attenuating medium must not scatter the radiation—no turbidity—unless this is accounted for as in DOAS.
# The incident radiation must consist of parallel rays, each traversing the same length in the absorbing medium.
# The incident radiation should preferably be monochromatic, or have at least a width that is narrower than that of the attenuating transition. Otherwise a spectrometer as detector for the power is needed instead of a photodiode which cannot discriminate between wavelengths.
# The incident flux must not influence the atoms or molecules; it should only act as a non-invasive probe of the species under study. In particular, this implies that the light should not cause optical saturation or optical pumping, since such effects will deplete the lower level and possibly give rise to stimulated emission.
If any of these conditions are not fulfilled, there will be deviations from the Beer–Lambert law.
The law tends to break down at very high concentrations, especially if the material is highly scattering. Absorbance within range of 0.2 to 0.5 is ideal to maintain linearity in the Beer–Lambert law. If the radiation is especially intense, nonlinear optical processes can also cause variances. The main reason, however, is that the concentration dependence is in general non-linear and Beer's law is valid only under certain conditions as shown by derivation below. For strong oscillators and at high concentrations the deviations are stronger. If the molecules are closer to each other interactions can set in. These interactions can be roughly divided into physical and chemical interactions. Physical interaction do not alter the polarizability of the molecules as long as the interaction is not so strong that light and molecular quantum state intermix (strong coupling), but cause the attenuation cross sections to be non-additive via electromagnetic coupling. Chemical interactions in contrast change the polarizability and thus absorption.
In solids, attenuation is usually an addition of absorption coefficient <math>\alpha</math> (creation of electron-hole pairs) or scattering (for example Rayleigh scattering if the scattering centers are much smaller than the incident wavelength). Also note that for some systems we can put <math>1/\lambda</math> (1 over inelastic mean free path) in place of
Applications
In plasma physics
The BBL extinction law also arises as a solution to the BGK equation.
Chemical analysis by spectrophotometry
The Beer–Lambert law can be applied to the analysis of a mixture by spectrophotometry, without the need for extensive pre-processing of the sample. An example is the determination of bilirubin in blood plasma samples. The spectrum of pure bilirubin is known, so the molar attenuation coefficient is known. Measurements of decadic attenuation coefficient are made at one wavelength that is nearly unique for bilirubin and at a second wavelength in order to correct for possible interferences. The amount concentration is then given by
<math display"block">c \frac{\mu_{10}(\lambda)}{\varepsilon(\lambda)}.</math>
For a more complicated example, consider a mixture in solution containing two species at amount concentrations and . The decadic attenuation coefficient at any wavelength is, given by
<math display"block">\mu_{10}(\lambda) \varepsilon_1(\lambda) c_1 + \varepsilon_2(\lambda) c_2.</math>
Therefore, measurements at two wavelengths yields two equations in two unknowns and will suffice to determine the amount concentrations and as long as the molar attenuation coefficients of the two components, and are known at both wavelengths. This two system equation can be solved using Cramer's rule. In practice it is better to use linear least squares to determine the two amount concentrations from measurements made at more than two wavelengths. Mixtures containing more than two components can be analyzed in the same way, using a minimum of wavelengths for a mixture containing components.
The law is used widely in infra-red spectroscopy and near-infrared spectroscopy for analysis of polymer degradation and oxidation (also in biological tissue) as well as to measure the concentration of various compounds in different food samples. The carbonyl group attenuation at about 6 micrometres can be detected quite easily, and degree of oxidation of the polymer calculated.
In-atmosphere astronomy
The Bouguer–Lambert law may be applied to describe the attenuation of solar or stellar radiation as it travels through the atmosphere. In this case, there is scattering of radiation as well as absorption. The optical depth for a slant path is mτ}}, where refers to a vertical path, is called the relative airmass, and for a plane-parallel atmosphere it is determined as where is the zenith angle corresponding to the given path. The Bouguer-Lambert law for the atmosphere is usually written
<math display"block">T \exp \big( -m(\tau_\mathrm{a} + \tau_\mathrm{g} + \tau_\mathrm{RS} + \tau_\mathrm{NO_2} + \tau_\mathrm{w} + \tau_\mathrm{O_3} + \tau_\mathrm{r} + \cdots) \bigr),</math>
where each is the optical depth whose subscript identifies the source of the absorption or scattering it describes:
* refers to aerosols (that absorb and scatter);
* are uniformly mixed gases (mainly carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) and molecular oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) which only absorb);
* }} is nitrogen dioxide, mainly due to urban pollution (absorption only);
* are effects due to Raman scattering in the atmosphere;
* is water vapour absorption;
* }} is ozone (absorption only);
* is Rayleigh scattering from molecular oxygen () and nitrogen () (responsible for the blue color of the sky);
* the selection of the attenuators which have to be considered depends on the wavelength range and can include various other compounds. This can include tetraoxygen, HONO, formaldehyde, glyoxal, a series of halogen radicals and others.
is the optical mass or airmass factor, a term approximately equal (for small and moderate values of ) to {{tmath|\tfrac{1}{\cos \theta},}} where is the observed object's zenith angle (the angle measured from the direction perpendicular to the Earth's surface at the observation site). This equation can be used to retrieve , the aerosol optical thickness, which is necessary for the correction of satellite images and also important in accounting for the role of aerosols in climate.
See also
* Applied spectroscopy
* Atomic absorption spectroscopy
* Absorption spectroscopy
* Cavity ring-down spectroscopy
* Clausius–Mossotti relation
* Infra-red spectroscopy
* Job plot
* Laser absorption spectrometry
* Lorentz–Lorenz relation
* Logarithm
* Polymer degradation
* Scientific laws named after people
* Quantification of nucleic acids
* Tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy
* Transmittance#Beer–Lambert law
References
External links
* [http://www.changbioscience.com/calculator/BeerLambert.html Beer–Lambert Law Calculator]
<!-- * [http://www.canberra.edu.au/irps/blbalaw.html Origin of the law(s)] (Bad link)-->
<!-- See also L. Gerward, The Bouguer–Lambert–Beer Absorption Law. IRPS Bulletin. Newsletter of the International Radiation Physics Society 21(1) (2007) 4–8 -->
* [http://www.chemguide.co.uk/analysis/uvvisible/beerlambert.html Beer–Lambert Law Simpler Explanation]
<!-- * [http://www.files.chem.vt.edu/chem-ed/spec/beerslaw.html Reasons for Deviations from Beer–Lambert Law] (requires VT-PID and password to access) -->
Category:Eponymous laws of physics
Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)
Category:Spectroscopy
Category:Electromagnetic radiation
Category:Visibility
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer–Lambert_law
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The Beach Boys
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| years_active = 1961–present
| label =
| spinoffs =
| spinoff_of | website
| current_members = * Brian Wilson
* Mike Love
* Al Jardine
* Bruce Johnston
* see also: The Beach Boys touring members
| past_members = <!-- PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE CURRENT OR PAST MEMBERS WITHOUT TALK PAGE CONSENSUS -->
* Carl Wilson
* Dennis Wilson
* David Marks
<!--- Glen Campbell will be reverted --->
* Ricky Fataar
* Blondie Chaplin
<!--- John Stamos will be reverted --->}}
The Beach Boys are an American rock band formed in Hawthorne, California, in 1961. The group's original lineup consisted of brothers Brian, Dennis and Carl Wilson, their cousin Mike Love, and friend Al Jardine. Distinguished by their vocal harmonies, adolescent-oriented lyrics, and musical ingenuity, they are one of the most influential acts of the rock era. The group drew on the music of older pop vocal groups, 1950s rock and roll, and black<!--- Quote from Geoffrey Himes: "black R&B was crucial to their sound." There is a notable distinction between the "white" and "black" R&B records of the 1950s, as explained by Carl Wilson: "The black artists were so much better in terms of rock records in those days that the white records almost sounded like put-ons." ---> R&B to create their unique sound. Under Brian's direction, they often incorporated classical or jazz elements and unconventional recording techniques in innovative ways.
The Beach Boys formed as a garage band centered on Brian's songwriting and managed by the Wilsons' father, Murry. In 1963, they enjoyed their first national hit with "Surfin' U.S.A.", beginning a string of top-ten singles that reflected a southern California youth culture of surfing, cars, and romance, dubbed the "California sound". They were one of the few American rock bands to sustain their commercial standing during the British Invasion. Starting with 1965's The Beach Boys Today!, they abandoned beachgoing themes for more personal lyrics and ambitious orchestrations. In 1966, the Pet Sounds album and "Good Vibrations" single raised the group's prestige as rock innovators; both are now widely considered to be among the greatest and most influential works in popular music history. After scrapping the Smile album in 1967, Brian gradually ceded control of the group to his bandmates.
In the late 1960s, the group's commercial momentum faltered in the U.S., and they were widely dismissed by the early rock music press before undergoing a rebranding in the early 1970s. Carl took over as de facto leader until the mid-1970s, when the band responded to the growing success of their live shows and greatest hits compilations by transitioning into an oldies act. Dennis drowned in 1983, and Brian soon became estranged from the group. Following Carl's death from lung cancer in 1998, the band granted Love legal rights to tour under the group's name. In the early 2010s, the original members briefly reunited for the band's 50th anniversary tour. Currently, Brian and Jardine do not perform with Love's edition of the Beach Boys, but remain official members of the band.
The Beach Boys are one of the most critically acclaimed and commercially successful bands of all time, selling over 100 million records worldwide. They helped legitimize popular music as a recognized art form, and influenced the development of music genres and movements such as psychedelia, power pop, progressive rock, punk, alternative, and lo-fi. Between the 1960s and 2020s, the group had 37 songs reach the U.S. Top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 (the most by an American band), with four topping the chart. In 2004, the group was ranked number 12 on Rolling Stones list of the greatest artists of all time. Many critics' polls have ranked Today!, Pet Sounds, Smiley Smile (1967), Sunflower (1970), and ''Surf's Up'' (1971) and "The Beach Boys Love You" (1977) among the finest albums in history. The founding members were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988. Other members during the band's history have been David Marks, Bruce Johnston, Blondie Chaplin, and Ricky Fataar.
History
1958–1961: Formation
, marking where the Wilson family home once stood]]
At the time of his 16th birthday on June 20, 1958, Brian Wilson shared a bedroom with his brothers, Dennis and Carlaged 13 and 11, respectivelyin their family home in Hawthorne. He had watched his father Murry Wilson play piano, and had listened intently to the harmonies of vocal groups such as the Four Freshmen. After dissecting songs such as "Ivory Tower" and "Good News", Brian would teach family members how to sing the background harmonies. For his birthday that year, Brian received a reel-to-reel tape recorder. He learned how to overdub, using his vocals and those of Carl and their mother. Brian played piano, while Carl and David Marks, an eleven-year-old longtime neighbor, played guitars that each had received as Christmas presents.
Soon Brian and Carl were avidly listening to Johnny Otis' KFOX radio show. Inspired by the simple structure and vocals of the rhythm and blues songs he heard, Brian changed his piano-playing style and started writing songs. Family gatherings brought the Wilsons in contact with cousin Mike Love. Brian taught Love's sister Maureen and a friend harmonies. Later, Brian, Love and two friends performed at Hawthorne High School. Brian also knew Al Jardine, a high school classmate. Brian suggested to Jardine that they team up with his cousin and brother Carl. Love gave the fledgling band its name: "The Pendletones", a pun on "Pendleton", a brand of woollen shirt popular at the time. Dennis was the only avid surfer in the group, and he suggested that the group write songs that celebrated the sport and the lifestyle that it had inspired in Southern California.}} Brian finished the song, titled "Surfin", and with Mike Love, wrote "Surfin' Safari".
Murry Wilson, who was an occasional songwriter, arranged for the Pendletones to meet his publisher Hite Morgan.}} Murry brought the demos to Herb Newman, owner of Candix Records and Era Records, and he signed the group on December 8. When the single was released a few weeks later, the band found that they had been renamed "the Beach Boys". Candix wanted to name the group the Surfers until Russ Regan, a young promoter with Era Records, noted that there already existed a group by that name. He suggested calling them the Beach Boys. "Surfin was a regional success for the West Coast, and reached number 75 on the national Billboard Hot 100 chart. 1962–1967: Peak years ''Surfin' Safari, Surfin' U.S.A., Surfer Girl, and Little Deuce Coupe''
outfits, performing at a local high school, late 1962]]
By this time the de facto manager of the Beach Boys, Murry landed the group's first paying gig (for which they earned $300) on New Year's Eve, 1961, at the Ritchie Valens Memorial Dance in Long Beach. In their early public appearances, the band wore heavy wool jacket-like shirts that local surfers favored before switching to their trademark striped shirts and white pants (a look that was taken directly from the Kingston Trio). All five members sang, with Brian playing bass, Dennis playing drums, Carl playing lead guitar, and Al Jardine playing rhythm guitar, while Mike Love was the main singer and occasionally played saxophone. In early 1962, Morgan requested that some of the members add vocals to a couple of instrumental tracks that he had recorded with other musicians. This led to the creation of the short-lived group Kenny & the Cadets, which Brian led under the pseudonym "Kenny". The other members were Carl, Jardine, and the Wilsons' mother Audree.}} In February, Jardine left the Beach Boys and was replaced by David Marks on rhythm guitar. A common misconception is that Jardine left to focus on dental school. In reality, Jardine did not even apply to dental school until 1964, and the reason he left in February 1962 was due to creative differences and his belief that the newly-formed group would not be a commercial success.
After being turned down by Dot and Liberty, the Beach Boys signed a seven-year contract with Capitol Records. This was at the urging of Capitol executive and staff producer Nick Venet who signed the group, seeing them as the "teenage gold" he had been scouting for. On June 4, 1962, the Beach Boys debuted on Capitol with their second single, "Surfin' Safari" backed with "409". The release prompted national coverage in the June 9 issue of Billboard, which praised Love's lead vocal and said the song had potential. "Surfin' Safari" rose to number 14 and found airplay in New York and Phoenix, a surprise for the label.
The Beach Boys' first album, ''Surfin' Safari'', was released in October 1962. It was different from other rock albums of the time in that it consisted almost entirely of original songs, primarily written by Brian with Mike Love and friend Gary Usher. Another unusual feature of the Beach Boys was that, although they were marketed as "surf music", their repertoire bore little resemblance to the music of other surf bands, which was mainly instrumental and incorporated heavy use of spring reverb. For this reason, some of the Beach Boys' early local performances had young audience members throwing vegetables at the band, believing that the group were poseurs.
|}}
In January 1963, the Beach Boys recorded their first top-ten single, "Surfin' U.S.A.", which began their long run of highly successful recording efforts. It was during the sessions for this single that Brian made the production decision from that point on to use double tracking on the group's vocals, resulting in a deeper and more resonant sound. The album of the same name followed in March and reached number 2 on the Billboard charts. Its success propelled the group into a nationwide spotlight, and was vital to launching surf music as a national craze, albeit the Beach Boys' vocal approach to the genre, not the original instrumental style pioneered by Dick Dale. He recalled that he and Love immediately felt threatened by the Beatles, believing that the Beach Boys could never match the excitement created by the Beatles as performers, and that this realization led him to concentrate his efforts on trying to outdo them in the recording studio.}}
" on The Ed Sullivan Show in September 1964 ]]
Brian wrote his last surf song for nearly four years, "Don't Back Down", in April 1964. That month, during recording of the single "I Get Around", Murry was relieved of his duties as manager. He remained in close contact with the group and attempted to continue advising on their career decisions. When "I Get Around" was released in May, it would climb to number 1 in the US and Canada, their first single to do so (also reaching the top-ten in Sweden and the UK), proving that the Beach Boys could compete with contemporary British pop groups. "I Get Around" and "Don't Back Down" both appeared on the band's sixth album All Summer Long, released in July 1964 and reaching number 4 in the US. All Summer Long introduced exotic textures to the Beach Boys' sound exemplified by the piccolos and xylophones of its title track. The album was a swan-song to the surf and car music the Beach Boys built their commercial standing upon. Later albums took a different stylistic and lyrical path. Before this, a live album, Beach Boys Concert, was released in October to a four-week chart stay at number 1, containing a set list of previously recorded songs and covers that they had not yet recorded.
]]
In June 1964, Brian recorded the bulk of ''The Beach Boys' Christmas Album'' with a forty-one-piece studio orchestra in collaboration with Four Freshmen arranger Dick Reynolds. The album was a response to Phil Spector's A Christmas Gift for You (1963). Released in December, the Beach Boys' album was divided between five new, original Christmas-themed songs, and seven reinterpretations of traditional Christmas songs. It would be regarded as one of the finest holiday albums of the rock era. One single from the album, "The Man with All the Toys", was released, peaking at number 6 on the US Billboard Christmas chart. On October 29, the Beach Boys performed for The T.A.M.I. Show, a concert film intended to bring together a wide range of musicians for a one-off performance. The result was released to movie theaters one month later.
Today!, Summer Days, and Party!
By the end of 1964, the stress of road travel, writing, and producing became too much for Brian. On December 23, while on a flight from Los Angeles to Houston, he suffered a panic attack. In January 1965, he announced his withdrawal from touring to concentrate entirely on songwriting and record production. For the last few days of 1964 and into early 1965, session musician and up-and-coming solo artist Glen Campbell agreed to temporarily serve as Brian's replacement in concert. Carl took over as the band's musical director onstage.}} Now a full-time studio artist, Brian wanted to move the Beach Boys beyond their surf aesthetic, believing that their image was antiquated and distracting the public from his talents as a producer and songwriter. Musically, he said he began to "take the things I learned from Phil Spector and use more instruments whenever I could. I doubled up on basses and tripled up on keyboards, which made everything sound bigger and deeper."
In April 1965, Campbell's own career success pulled him from touring with the group. Columbia Records staff producer Bruce Johnston was asked to locate a replacement for Campbell; having failed to find one, Johnston himself became a full-time member of the band on May 19, 1965. With Johnston's arrival, Brian now had a sixth voice he could work with in the band's vocal arrangements, with the June 4 vocal sessions for "California Girls" being Johnston's first recording session with the Beach Boys. "California Girls" was included on the band's next album Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) and eventually charted at number 3 in the US as the second single from the album, while the album itself went to number 2. The first single from Summer Days had been a reworked arrangement of "Help Me, Rhonda", which became the band's second number 1 US single in the spring of 1965. For contractual reasons, owing to his previous deal with Columbia Records, Johnston was not able to be credited or pictured on Beach Boys records until 1967.
To appease Capitol's demands for a Beach Boys LP for the 1965 Christmas season, Brian conceived ''Beach Boys' Party!'', a live-in-the-studio album consisting mostly of acoustic covers of 1950s rock and R&B songs, in addition to covers of three Beatles songs, Bob Dylan's "The Times They Are a-Changin'", and idiosyncratic rerecordings of the group's earlier songs. The album was an early precursor of the "unplugged" trend. It also included a cover of the Regents' song "Barbara Ann", which unexpectedly reached number 2 when released as a single several weeks later. In November, the group released another top-twenty single, "The Little Girl I Once Knew". It was considered the band's most experimental statement thus far. The single continued Brian's ambitions for daring arrangements, featuring unexpected tempo changes and numerous false endings. With the exception of their 1963 and 1964 Christmas singles ("Little Saint Nick" and "The Man with All the Toys") it was the group's lowest charting single on the Billboard Hot 100 since "Ten Little Indians" in 1962, peaking at number 20. According to Luis Sanchez, in 1965, Bob Dylan was "rewriting the rules for pop success" with his music and image, and it was at this juncture that Wilson "led The Beach Boys into a transitional phase in an effort to win the pop terrain that had been thrown up for grabs".
Pet Sounds
in 1966]]
Wilson collaborated with jingle writer Tony Asher for several of the songs on the album Pet Sounds, a refinement of the themes and ideas that were introduced in Today!. In some ways, the music was a jarring departure from their earlier style. Jardine explained that "it took us quite a while to adjust to [the new material] because it wasn't music you could necessarily dance to—it was more like music you could make love to". In The Journal on the Art of Record Production, Marshall Heiser writes that Pet Sounds "diverges from previous Beach Boys' efforts in several ways: its sound field has a greater sense of depth and 'warmth;' the songs employ even more inventive use of harmony and chord voicings; the prominent use of percussion is a key feature (as opposed to driving drum backbeats); whilst the orchestrations, at times, echo the quirkiness of 'exotica' bandleader Les Baxter, or the 'cool' of Burt Bacharach, more so than Spector's teen fanfares".
and engineer Chuck Britz, during the Pet Sounds sessions, 1966]]
For Pet Sounds, Brian desired to make "a complete statement", similar to what he believed the Beatles had done with their newest album Rubber Soul, released in December 1965. Brian was immediately enamored with the album, given the impression that it had no filler tracks, a feature that was mostly unheard of at a time when 45 rpm singles were considered more noteworthy than full-length LPs. He later said: "It didn't make me want to copy them but to be as good as them. I didn't want to do the same kind of music, but on the same level." Taylor's prestige was crucial in offering a credible perspective to those on the outside, and his efforts are widely recognized as instrumental in the album's success in Britain.
}}
Released on May 16, 1966, Pet Sounds was widely influential and raised the band's prestige as an innovative rock group. Early reviews for the album in the US ranged from negative to tentatively positive, and its sales numbered approximately 500,000 units, a drop-off from the run of albums that immediately preceded it. It was assumed that Capitol considered Pet Sounds a risk, appealing more to an older demographic than the younger, female audience upon which the Beach Boys had built their commercial standing. Within two months, the label capitulated by releasing the group's first greatest hits compilation album, Best of the Beach Boys, which was quickly certified gold by the RIAA. By contrast, Pet Sounds met a highly favorable critical response in Britain, where it reached number 2 and remained among the top-ten positions for six months. Responding to the hype, Melody Maker ran a feature in which many pop musicians were asked whether they believed that the album was truly revolutionary and progressive, or "as sickly as peanut butter". The author concluded that "the record's impact on artists and the men behind the artists has been considerable".
"Good Vibrations" and Smile
" at the Capitol Tower, late 1966]]
Throughout the summer of 1966, Brian concentrated on finishing the group's next single, "Good Vibrations". Instead of working on whole songs with clear large-scale syntactical structures, he limited himself to recording short interchangeable fragments (or "modules"). Through the method of tape splicing, each fragment could then be assembled into a linear sequence, allowing any number of larger structures and divergent moods to be produced at a later time. Saturday Evening Post writer Jules Siegel recalled that, on one October evening, Brian announced to his wife and friends that he was "writing a teenage symphony to God".
Recording for Smile lasted about a year, from mid-1966 to mid-1967, and followed the same modular production approach as "Good Vibrations". Concurrently, Wilson planned many different multimedia side projects, such as a sound effects collage, a comedy album, and a "health food" album. Capitol did not support all these ideas, which led to the Beach Boys' desire to form their own label, Brother Records. According to biographer Steven Gaines, Wilson employed his newfound "best friend" David Anderle as head of the label.
Throughout 1966, EMI flooded the UK market with Beach Boys albums not yet released there, including ''Beach Boys' Party!, The Beach Boys Today! and Summer Days (and Summer Nights!!), while Best of the Beach Boys was number 2 there for several weeks at the end of the year. Over the final quarter of 1966, the Beach Boys were the highest-selling album act in the UK, where for the first time in three years American artists broke the chart dominance of British acts. In 1971, Cue'' magazine wrote that, from mid-1966 to late-1967, the Beach Boys "were among the vanguard in practically every aspect of the counter culture".
Released on October 10, 1966, "Good Vibrations" was the Beach Boys' third US number 1 single, reaching the top of the Billboard Hot 100 in December, and became their first number 1 in Britain. That month, the record was their first single certified gold by the RIAA. It came to be widely acclaimed as one of the greatest masterpieces of rock music. In December 1966, the Beach Boys were voted the top band in the world in the NMEs annual readers' poll, ahead of the Beatles, the Walker Brothers, the Rolling Stones, and the Four Tops.
Throughout the first half of 1967, the release date for Smile was repeatedly postponed as Brian continuously tinkered with the recordings, experimenting with different takes and mixes, and appeared unable or unwilling to supply finished versions of songs. Meanwhile, he began to suffer from delusions and paranoia, believing on one occasion that the would-be album track "Fire" caused a building to burn down. On January 3, 1967, Carl Wilson refused to be drafted for military service, leading to indictment and criminal prosecution, which he challenged as a conscientious objector. The FBI arrested him in April, and it took several years for courts to resolve the matter.
After months of recording and media hype, Smile was shelved for personal, technical, and legal reasons. A February 1967 lawsuit seeking $255,000 (equivalent to $}}}} in ) was launched against Capitol Records over neglected royalty payments. Within the lawsuit was an attempt to terminate the band's contract with Capitol before its November 1969 expiry. Many of Wilson's associates, including Parks and Anderle, disassociated themselves from the group by April 1967. Brian later said: "Time can be spent in the studio to the point where you get so next to it, you don't know where you are with it—you decide to just chuck it for a while."
In the decades following Smiles non-release, it became the subject of intense speculation and mystique and the most legendary unreleased album in pop music history. Many of the album's advocates believe that had it been released, it would have altered the group's direction and cemented them at the vanguard of rock innovators. In 2011, Uncut magazine staff voted Smile the "greatest bootleg recording of all time". 1967–1969: Faltered popularity and Brian's reduced involvement Smiley Smile and Wild HoneyFrom 1965 to 1967, the Beach Boys had developed a musical and lyrical sophistication that contrasted their work from before and after. This divide was further solidified by the difference in sound between their albums and their stage performances.}} This resulted in a split fanbase corresponding to two distinct musical markets. One group enjoys the band's early work as a wholesome representation of American popular culture from before the political and social movements brought on in the mid-1960s. The other group also appreciates the early songs for their energy and complexity, but not as much as the band's ambitious work that was created during the formative psychedelic era.}} At the time, rock music journalists typically valued the Beach Boys' early records over their experimental work.}}
In May 1967, the Beach Boys attempted to tour Europe with four extra musicians brought from the US, but were stopped by the British musicians' union. The tour went on without the extra support, and critics described their performances as "amateurish" and "floundering". At the last minute, the Beach Boys declined to headline the Monterey Pop Festival, an event held in June. According to David Leaf, "Monterey was a gathering place for the 'far out' sounds of the 'new' rock ... and it is thought that [their] non-appearance was what really turned the 'underground' tide against them." Fan magazines speculated that the group was on the verge of breaking up. Detractors called the band the "Bleach Boys" and "the California Hypes" as media focus shifted from Los Angeles to the happenings in San Francisco. As authenticity became a higher concern among critics, the group's legitimacy in rock music became an oft-repeated criticism, especially since their early songs appeared to celebrate a politically unconscious youth culture.
, July 1967]]
Although Smile had been cancelled, the Beach Boys were still under pressure and a contractual obligation to record and present an album to Capitol. Carl remembered: "Brian just said, 'I can't do this. We're going to make a homespun version of [Smile] instead. We're just going to take it easy. I'll get in the pool and sing. Or let's go in the gym and do our parts.' That was Smiley Smile." Sessions for the new album lasted from June to July 1967 at Brian's new makeshift home studio. Most of the album featured the Beach Boys playing their own instruments, rather than the session musicians employed in much of their previous work. It was the first album for which production was credited to the entire group instead of Brian alone.
In July 1967, lead single "Heroes and Villains" was issued, arriving after months of public anticipation, and reached number 12 in US. It was met with general confusion and underwhelming reviews, and in the NME, Jimi Hendrix famously dismissed it as a "psychedelic barbershop quartet". By then, the group's lawsuit with Capitol was resolved, and it was agreed that Smile would not be the band's next album. In August, the group embarked on a two-date tour of Hawaii. The shows saw Brian make a brief return to live performance, as Bruce Johnston chose to take a temporary break from the band during the summer of 1967, feeling that the atmosphere within the band "had all got too weird". The performances were filmed and recorded with the intention of releasing a live album, ''Lei'd in Hawaii'', which was also left unfinished and unreleased. The general record-buying public came to view the music made after this time as the point marking the band's artistic decline.}}
Smiley Smile was released on September 18, 1967, and peaked at number 41 in the US, making it their worst-selling album to that date. Critics and fans were generally underwhelmed by the album. According to Scott Schinder, the album was released to "general incomprehension. While Smile may have divided the Beach Boys' fans had it been released, Smiley Smile merely baffled them." The group was virtually blacklisted by the music press, to the extent that reviews of the group's records were either withheld from publication or published long after the release dates. When released in the UK in November, it performed better, reaching number 9. Over the years, the album gathered a reputation as one of the best "chill-out" albums to listen to during an LSD comedown. In 1974, NME voted it the 64th-greatest album of all time.
It had a higher chart placing than Smiley Smile, but still failed to make the top-twenty and remained on the charts for only 15 weeks.
Friends, 20/20, and Manson affair
The Beach Boys were at their lowest popularity in the late 1960s, and their cultural standing was especially worsened by their public image, which remained incongruous with their peers' "heavier" music. At the end of 1967, Rolling Stone co-founder and editor Jann Wenner printed an influential article that denounced the Beach Boys as "just one prominent example of a group that has gotten hung up on trying to catch The Beatles. It's a pointless pursuit." The article had the effect of excluding the group among serious rock fans and such controversy followed them into the next year. Capitol continued to bill them as "America's Top Surfin' Group!" and expected Brian to write more beachgoing songs for the yearly summer markets. From 1968 onward, his songwriting output declined substantially, but the public narrative of "Brian as leader" continued. The group also stopped wearing their longtime striped-shirt stage uniforms in favor of matching white, polyester suits that resembled a Las Vegas show band's.
After meeting Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at a UNICEF Variety Gala in Paris, Love and other high-profile celebrities such as the Beatles and Donovan traveled to Rishikesh, India, in February–March 1968. The following Beach Boys album, Friends, had songs influenced by the Transcendental Meditation the Maharishi taught. In support of Friends, Love arranged for the Beach Boys to tour with the Maharishi in the US. Starting on May 3, 1968, the tour lasted five shows and was canceled when the Maharishi withdrew to fulfill film contracts. Because of disappointing audience numbers and the Maharishi's withdrawal, 24 tour dates were canceled at a cost estimated at $250,000. Friends, released on June 24, peaked at number 126 in the US. In August, Capitol issued an album of Beach Boys backing tracks, Stack-o-Tracks. It was the first Beach Boys LP that failed to chart in the US and UK.
In June 1968, Dennis befriended Charles Manson, an aspiring singer-songwriter, and their relationship lasted for several months. Dennis bought him time at Brian's home studio, where recording sessions were attempted while Brian stayed in his room. Dennis then proposed that Manson be signed to Brother Records. Brian reportedly disliked Manson, and a deal was never made. In July 1968, the group released the single "Do It Again", which lyrically harkened back to their earlier surf songs. Around this time, Brian admitted himself to a psychiatric hospital; his bandmates wrote and produced material in his absence. Released in January 1969, the album 20/20 mixed new material with outtakes and leftovers from recent albums; Brian produced virtually none of the newer recordings.
The Beach Boys recorded one song by Manson without his involvement: "Cease to Exist", rewritten as "Never Learn Not to Love", which was included on 20/20. As his cult of followers took over Dennis's home, Dennis gradually distanced himself from Manson. According to Leaf, "The entire Wilson family reportedly feared for their lives."
In August, the Manson Family committed the Tate–LaBianca murders. According to Jon Parks, the band's tour manager, it was widely suspected in the Hollywood community that Manson was responsible for the murders, and it had been known that Manson had been involved with the Beach Boys, causing the band to be viewed as pariahs for a time. In November, police apprehended Manson, and his connection with the Beach Boys received media attention. He was later convicted for several counts of murder and conspiracy to murder.
Selling of the band's publishing
In April 1969, the band revisited its 1967 lawsuit against Capitol after it alleged an audit revealed the band was owed over $2 million for unpaid royalties and production duties. In May, Brian told the music press that the group's funds were depleted to the point that it was considering filing for bankruptcy at the end of the year, which Disc & Music Echo called "stunning news" and a "tremendous shock on the American pop scene". Brian hoped that the success of a forthcoming single, "Break Away", would mend the financial issues.<!--
After recording over 30 different songs and going through several album titles, their first LP for Reprise, Sunflower, was released on August 31, 1970. Sunflower featured a strong group presence with significant writing contributions from all six band members. Brian was active during this period, writing or co-writing seven of Sunflower's 12 songs and performing at half of the band's domestic concerts in 1970. The album received critical acclaim in both the US and the UK. This was offset by the album reaching only number 151 on US record charts during a four-week stay, The group was broken up until a meeting at Brian's house on September 17. In light of the lucrative CBS contract, the parties negotiated a settlement resulting in Love gaining control of Brian's vote in the group, allowing Love and Jardine to outvote Carl and Dennis on any matter.
The group had still owed one more album for Reprise. Released in September 1978, M.I.U. Album was recorded at Maharishi International University in Iowa at the suggestion of Love. The band originally attempted to record a Christmas album, to be titled Merry Christmas from the Beach Boys, but this idea was rejected by Reprise. These Christmas recordings would eventually be released in 1998 as part of the Ultimate Christmas compilation album. Dennis and Carl made limited contributions to M.I.U. Album; the album was produced by Jardine and Ron Altbach, with Brian credited as "executive producer". Dennis started to withdraw from the group to focus on his second solo album, Bambu, which was shelved just as alcoholism and marital problems overcame all three Wilson brothers. Carl appeared intoxicated during concerts (especially at appearances for their 1978 Australia tour) and Brian gradually slid back into addiction and an unhealthy lifestyle.}} Stephen was fired shortly after the Australia tour partly due to an incident in which Brian's bodyguards, Rocky Pamplin and Stan Love, physically assaulted Dennis.1978–1998: Continued recording and Brian's estrangementL.A. (Light Album) and ''Keepin' the Summer Alive''The group's first two albums for CBS, 1979's L.A. (Light Album) and 1980's ''Keepin' the Summer Alive, struggled in the US, charting at 100 and 75 respectively, though the band did manage a top-forty single from L.A.'' with "Good Timin'". The recording of these albums saw Bruce Johnston return to the band, initially solely as a producer and eventually as a full-time band member. In-between the two albums, the group contributed the song "It's a Beautiful Day" to the soundtrack of the film Americathon. In an April 1980 interview, Carl reflected that "the last two years have been the most important and difficult time of our career. We were at the ultimate crossroads. We had to decide whether what we had been involved in since we were teenagers had lost its meaning. We asked ourselves and each other the difficult questions we'd often avoided in the past." By the next year, he left the touring group because of unhappiness with the band's nostalgia format and lackluster live performances, subsequently pursuing a solo career. He stated: "I haven't quit the Beach Boys but I do not plan on touring with them until they decide that 1981 means as much to them as 1961." Carl returned in May 1982, after approximately 14 months of being away, on the condition that the group reconsider their rehearsal and touring policies and refrain from "Las Vegas-type" engagements.
On June 21, 1980, the Beach Boys performed a concert at Knebworth, England, which featured a slightly intoxicated Dennis. The concert would later be released as a live album titled ''Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980'' in 2002. In 1981, the band scored a surprise US top-twenty hit when their cover of the Del-Vikings' "Come Go with Me", from the three year old M.I.U. Album, was released as a single from Ten Years of Harmony, a double compilation album focusing on the Reprise and CBS years.
In late 1982, Eugene Landy was once more employed as Brian's therapist, and a more radical program was undertaken to try to restore Brian to health. This involved removing him from the group on November 5, 1982, at the behest of Carl, Love, and Jardine, in addition to putting him on a rigorous diet and health regimen. Coupled with long, extreme counseling sessions, this therapy was successful in bringing Brian back to physical health, slimming down from to .Death of Dennis, The Beach Boys, and Still Cruisin
and First Lady Nancy Reagan at the White House, June 1983]]
By the late 1970s and early 1980s, Dennis had been embroiled in successive failed romantic relationships, including a tense and short-lived relationship with Fleetwood Mac's Christine McVie, and found himself in severe economic trouble resulting in the sale of Brother Studios, established by the Wilson brothers in 1974 and where Pacific Ocean Blue was produced, and the forfeiture of his beloved yacht. To cope with the combination of devastating losses, Dennis heavily abused alcohol, cocaine, and heroin and was, by 1983, homeless and lived a nomadic lifestyle. He was often seen spending much of his time wandering the Los Angeles coast and often missed Beach Boys performances. By this point, he had lost his voice and much of his ability to play drums.
In 1983, tensions between Dennis and Love escalated to the point that each obtained a restraining order against the other. Following Brian's readmission for Landy's treatment, Dennis was given an ultimatum after his last performance in November 1983 to check into rehab for his alcohol problems or be banned from performing live with the band again. Dennis checked into rehab for his chance to get sober, but on December 28, he drowned at the age of 39 in Marina del Rey while diving from a friend's boat trying to recover items that he had previously thrown overboard in a fit of rage.
The Beach Boys spent the next several years touring, often playing in front of large audiences, and recording songs for film soundtracks and various artists compilations. One new studio album, the self-titled The Beach Boys, appeared in 1985 and proved a modest success, becoming their highest-charting album in the US since 15 Big Ones. The Beach Boys was the group's final album for CBS. The following year they returned to Capitol with a 25th anniversary greatest hits album Made in U.S.A, which featured two new tracks, "Rock 'n' Roll to the Rescue" and a cover of the Mamas and the Papas' "California Dreamin'", with the latter featuring Roger McGuinn of the Byrds on lead guitar. Made in U.S.A eventually went double platinum.
Commenting on his relationship to the band in 1988, Brian said that he avoided his family at Landy's suggestion, adding that "Although we stay together as a group, as people we're a far cry from friends." Mike denied the accusation that he and the band were keeping Brian from participating with the group. In 1987 the band scored a top-twenty single in collaboration with rap group the Fat Boys, on their cover of the Surfaris' "Wipeout!". The following year, the Beach Boys unexpectedly claimed their first US number 1 single in 22 years with "Kokomo", which topped the chart for one week. The track was featured in the film Cocktail. Both "Wipeout!" and "Kokomo" were included on the band's next album, 1989's Still Cruisin', which went platinum in the US.
During 1990 and 1991, the group's original Capitol-era albums (''Surfin' Safari through Live in London) were released on CD for the first time, with The Beach Boys' Christmas Album and Pet Sounds being individual titles, and the remaining albums issued as two-fers (two albums on one CD). The Reprise and CBS albums (Sunflower through The Beach Boys) would eventually receive the same treatment in 2000. In 1991 the band contributed a cover of "Crocodile Rock" to the Elton John and Bernie Taupin tribute album Two Rooms.
Lawsuits, Summer in Paradise, and Stars and Stripes, Vol. 1''
Carlin summarized: "Once surfin' pin-ups, they remade themselves as avant-garde pop artists, then psychedelic oracles. After that they were down-home hippies, then retro-hip icons. Eventually they devolved into none of the above: a kind of perpetual-motion nostalgia machine." Music journalist Erik Davis wrote in 1990: "the Beach Boys are either dead, deranged, or dinosaurs; their records are Eurocentric, square, unsampled; they've made too much money to merit hip revisionism". 35 of the group's songs were then amended to credit Love. He later called it "almost certainly the largest case of fraud in music history".
The day after California courts issued a restraining order between Brian and Landy, Brian phoned Sire Records staff producer Andy Paley to collaborate on new material tentatively for the Beach Boys. After losing the songwriting credits lawsuit with Love, Brian told MOJO in February 1995: "Mike and I are just cool. There's a lot of shit Andy and I got written for him. I just had to get through that goddamn trial!" In April, it was unclear whether the project would turn into a Wilson solo album, a Beach Boys album, or a combination of the two. The project ultimately disintegrated. Instead, Brian and his bandmates recorded Stars and Stripes Vol. 1, an album of country music stars covering Beach Boys songs, with co-production helmed by River North Records owner Joe Thomas. Afterward, the group discussed finishing the album Smile, but Carl rejected the idea, fearing that it would cause Brian another nervous breakdown.
1997 saw the release of the critically-acclaimed 4-CD box set The Pet Sounds Sessions. A further archival release, Ultimate Christmas, followed in 1998.
1998–present: Love-led tours and brief reunion
Carl's death and band name litigation
Early in 1997, Carl was diagnosed with lung and brain cancer after years of heavy smoking. Despite his terminal condition, Carl continued to perform with the band on its 1997 summer tour (a double-bill with the band Chicago) while undergoing chemotherapy. During performances, he sat on a stool and needed oxygen after every song. Carl died on February 6, 1998, at the age of 51, two months after the death of the Wilsons' mother, Audree.
<!-- The same month, Mike Love, Bruce Johnston, and David Marks created the album "Salute NASCAR" for the 50th anniversary of NASCAR. It was produced by Adrian Baker and sold exclusively at Union 76 gas stations. Contrary to the album cover, Bruce Johnston only appears on the album's intro and David Marks only did a few guitar overdubs, making it primarily a Mike Love album. The album consists entirely of covers and was received negatively by fans, having a user score of 11 on Album Of The Year. needs better sources and corrections -->
After Carl's death, Jardine left the touring line-up and began to perform regularly with his band "Beach Boys: Family & Friends" until he ran into legal issues for using the name without license. Meanwhile, Jardine sued Love, claiming that he had been excluded from their concerts, BRI, through its longtime attorney, Ed McPherson, sued Jardine in Federal Court. Jardine, in turn, counter-claimed against BRI for wrongful termination. Courts ruled in Love's favor, denying Jardine the use of the Beach Boys name in any fashion. However, Jardine proceeded to appeal this decision in addition to seeking $4 million in damages. The California Court of Appeal proceeded to rule that "Love acted wrongfully in freezing Jardine out of touring under the Beach Boys name", allowing Jardine to continue with his lawsuit. The case ended up being settled outside of court with the terms not disclosed. BRI ultimately prevailed.
Jardine's final appearance with the band for more than a decade occurred on May 9, 1998, which was the final official Beach Boys show performed before the license dispute.), after securing a license from BRI, with the first performance of the 'reorganized' Love and Johnston-led touring band on July 4, 1998.
Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of the Beach Boys, a greatest hits compilation, was released in 2003, eventually going multi-platinum. In 2004, Wilson recorded and released his solo album Brian Wilson Presents Smile, a reinterpretation of the unfinished Smile project. That September, Wilson issued a free CD through the Mail On Sunday that included Beach Boys songs he had recently rerecorded, five of which he co-authored with Love. The 10 track compilation had 2.6 million copies distributed and prompted Love to file a lawsuit in November 2005; he claimed the promotion hurt the sales of the original recordings and that his image was used for the CD. Wilson's wife Melinda alleged that, during the deposition, Love turned to Wilson and remarked: "you better start writing a real big hit because you're going to have to write me a real big check". Love's suit was dismissed in 2007 when a judge determined that there were no triable issues and that the case was without merit.
In 2006, Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, Marks, and Johnston participated in a non-performing reunion on the rooftop of the Capitol Records building in Los Angeles to celebrate that Sounds of Summer had been certified double-platinum. Later that year, Jardine joined Brian Wilson and his band for a short tour celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pet Sounds.
In 2008, Marks briefly reunited with Love and Johnston's touring band for a tour of Europe.
In 2010, Jardine released A Postcard from California, his solo debut, in June 2010 (re-released with two extra tracks on April 3, 2012). The album features contributions from Beach Boys Brian Wilson, Carl Wilson (posthumously), Bruce Johnston, David Marks, and Mike Love. Other guests with Beach Boys connections included Glen Campbell, Scott Mathews, Stephen Kalinich, and Gerry Beckley and Dewey Bunnell of America. Also in 2010, Brian Wilson and Jardine sang on "We Are the World 25: for Haiti", a new recording of "We Are the World" (with partially revised lyrics), which was released as a charity single to benefit the population of Haiti.
Jardine made his first appearance with the Beach Boys touring band in more than 10 years in 2011 at a tribute concert for Ronald Reagan's 100th birthday; at this concert, he sang lead on "Help Me, Rhonda" and "Sloop John B". He made a handful of other appearances with Love and Johnston's touring band in preparation for a reunion. The Smile Sessions, ''That's Why God Made the Radio, and 50th anniversary reunion tour On October 31, 2011, Capitol released a double album and box set dedicated to the Smile recordings in the form of The Smile Sessions. The album garnered universal critical acclaim and charted in both the US Billboard'' and UK top-thirty. It went on to win Best Historical Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards.
" in tribute to Smile]]
On December 16, 2011, it was announced that Wilson, Love, Jardine, Johnston, and David Marks would reunite for a new album and 50th anniversary tour. On February 12, 2012, the Beach Boys performed at the 2012 Grammy Awards, in what was billed as a "special performance" by organizers. It marked the group's first live performance to include Wilson since 1996, Jardine since 1998, and Marks since 1999. Released on June 5, ''That's Why God Made the Radio'' debuted at number 3 on the US charts, expanding the group's span of Billboard 200 top-ten albums across 49 years and one week, passing the Beatles with 47 years of top-ten albums. Critics generally regarded the album as an "uneven" collection, with most of the praise centered on its closing musical suite. On June 1, 2012, Love received an e-mail from Ledbetter stating "no more shows for Wilson". Love then began accepting invitations for when the reunion was over. Johnston told reporter Mark Dillon in mid-June that the current tour was "a one-time event. You're not going to see this next year. I'm busy next year doing my thing with Mike." On June 25, Ledbetter sent another e-mail asking to disregard her last message, but by then, Love claimed that "it was too late. We had booked other concerts, and promoters had begun selling tickets."
Despite this, in July, Love stated: "There's talk of us going and doing a return to the Grammys next year, and there's talk about doing another album together. There's nothing in stone, but there's a lot of ideas being floated around. So after this year, after completing the 50th anniversary reunion, we'll entertain doing some more studio work and see what we can come up with and can do in the future." Love said that Wilson and producer Joe Thomas had over 80 hours of material recorded, much of it culled from material they were working on around the time of Wilson's 1998 Imagination album that "were always songs he had earmarked for the Beach Boys" and that their label Capitol Records was excited by the band's reunion and was encouraging the band for more new music and more tour dates.
Ultimately, the reunion tour ended in September 2012 as planned, after a final show on September 28, but amid erroneous rumors that Love had dismissed Wilson from the Beach Boys. At this time, Love and Johnston had announced via a press release that following the end of the reunion tour the Beach Boys would revert to the pre-reunion tour Love/Johnston lineup, without Brian, Jardine, or Marks, all of whom expressed surprise. Although such dates were noted in a late June issue of Rolling Stone, it was widely reported that the three had been "fired".
On October 5, Love responded in a self-written press release to the Los Angeles Times stating he "did not fire Brian Wilson from the Beach Boys. I cannot fire Brian Wilson from the Beach Boys ... I do not have such authority. And even if I did, I would never fire Brian Wilson from the Beach Boys." He claimed that nobody in the band "wanted to do a 50th anniversary tour that lasted 10 years" and that its limited run "was long agreed upon". On October 9, Wilson and Jardine submitted a written response to the rumors stating: "I was completely blindsided by his press release ... We hadn't even discussed as a band what we were going to do with all the offers that were coming in for more 50th shows."
From late September, Love and Johnston continued to perform under the Beach Boys name, while Wilson, Jardine, and Marks toured as a trio in 2013, and a subsequent tour with guitarist Jeff Beck also included Blondie Chaplin at select dates. Wilson and Jardine continued to tour together in 2014 and following years, often joined by Chaplin; Marks declined to join them after 2013.
Copyright extension releases and occasional partial reunions
Responding to a new European Union copyright law that extended copyright to 70 years for recordings that were published within 50 years after they were made, Capitol began issuing annual 50-year anniversary "copyright extension" releases of Beach Boys recordings, starting with The Big Beat 1963 (2013).
In June 2013, Wilson's website announced that he was recording and self-producing new material with Jardine, Marks, Chaplin, Don Was, and Jeff Beck. It stated that the material might be split into three albums: one of new pop songs, another of mostly instrumental tracks with Beck, and another of interwoven tracks dubbed "the suite" which initially began form as the closing four tracks of ''That's Why God Made the Radio''. In January 2014, Wilson declared in an interview that the Beck collaborations would not be released. Released in April 2015, No Pier Pressure marked another collaboration between Wilson and Joe Thomas, featuring guest appearances from Jardine, Marks, Chaplin, and others.
Jardine, Marks, Johnston and Love appeared together at the 2014 Ella Awards Ceremony, where Love was honored for his work as a singer. In 2015, Soundstage aired an episode featuring Wilson performing with Jardine, Chaplin, and Ricky Fataar at The Venetian in Las Vegas. In April, when asked if he was interested in making music with Love again, Wilson replied: "I don't think so, no", adding in July that he "doesn't talk to the Beach Boys [or] Mike Love".
In 2016, Wilson and Jardine embarked on the Pet Sounds 50th Anniversary World Tour, promoted as Wilson's final performances of the album, with Chaplin appearing as a special guest at all dates on select songs. That same year, Love and Wilson each published memoirs, Good Vibrations: My Life as a Beach Boy and I Am Brian Wilson, respectively. Asked about negative comments that Wilson made about him in the book, Love challenged the legitimacy of statements attributed to Wilson in the book and in the press. In an interview with Rolling Stone conducted in June 2016, Wilson said he would like to try to repair his relationship with Love and collaborate with him again. In January 2017, Love said: "If it were possible to make it just Brian and I, and have it under control and done better than what happened in 2012, then yeah, I'd be open to something."
In July 2018, Wilson, Jardine, Love, Johnston, and Marks reunited for a one-off Q&A session moderated by director Rob Reiner at the Capitol Records Tower in Los Angeles. It was the first time the band had appeared together in public since their 2012 tour. That December, Love described his new holiday album, Reason for the Season, as a "message to Brian" and said that he "would love nothing more than to get together with Brian and do some music".
In 2019, Wilson and Jardine (with Chaplin) embarked on a co-headlining tour with the Zombies, performing selections from Friends and ''Surf's Up''.
In February 2020, Wilson and Jardine's official social media pages encouraged fans to boycott the band's music after it was announced that Love's Beach Boys would perform at the Safari Club International Convention in Reno, Nevada on animal rights grounds. The concert proceeded despite online protests, as Love issued a statement that said his group has always supported "freedom of thought and expression as a fundamental tenet of our rights as Americans". In October, Love and Johnston's Beach Boys performed at a fundraiser for Donald Trump's presidential re-election campaign; Wilson and Jardine again issued a statement that they had not been informed about this performance and did not support it.
Selling of the band's intellectual property and 60th anniversary
In March 2020, Jardine was asked about a possible reunion and responded that the band would reunite for a string of live performances in 2021, although he believed a new album was unlikely. In response to reunion rumors, Love said in May that he was open to a 60th anniversary tour, although Wilson has "some serious health issues", while Wilson's manager Jean Sievers commented that no one had spoken to Wilson about such a tour. In February 2021, it was announced that Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, and the estate of Carl Wilson had sold a majority stake in the band's intellectual property to Irving Azoff and his new company Iconic Artists Group; rumors of a 60th anniversary reunion were again discussed.
In April 2021, Omnivore Recordings released California Music Presents Add Some Music, an album featuring Love, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, and several children of the original Beach Boys (most notably on a re-recording of The Beach Boys' "Add Some Music to Your Day" from 1970's Sunflower). In August, Capitol released the box set ''Feel Flows: The Sunflower & Surf's Up Sessions 1969–1971''. In 2022, the group was expected to participate in a "60th anniversary celebration". Azoff stated in an interview from May 2021: "We're going to announce a major deal with a streamer for the definitive documentary on The Beach Boys and a 60th anniversary celebration. We're planning a tribute concert affiliated with the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame and SiriusXM, with amazing acts. That's adding value, and that's why I invested in The Beach Boys."
On Mike Love's 81st birthday, Jardine once again hinted at a possible reunion on his Facebook page by stating that he was "looking forward" to seeing Love at the "reunion". However, while a reunion ultimately did not occur in 2022, Capitol released the Sail On Sailor – 1972 box set in December; following on from the Feel Flows box set, which focused on Sunflower and ''Surf's Up, Sail On Sailor focused on Carl and the Passions and Holland''.
In January 2023, the tribute concert mentioned by Azoff in 2021 was announced as being part of the "Grammys Salute" series of televised tribute concerts. On February 8—three days after the 2023 Grammy award ceremonies, A Grammy Salute to the Beach Boys was recorded at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood, California and subsequently aired as a two-hour special on CBS on April 9. Present for the taping were Wilson, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, and Love—this time not as performers but as featured guests, seated in a luxury box at the theatre, overlooking tribute performances covering the gamut of their catalog by mostly contemporary artists. According to Billboard, the program had 5.18 million viewers.
In July 2023, the Beach Boys announced a limited edition to their book, The Beach Boys by The Beach Boys, set to be released in 2024. It will feature exclusive interviews, archived photos, live shots, as well as archived texts from late members Carl and Dennis Wilson.
In March 2024, the band announced the release of a self-titled documentary which would be released by streaming service Disney+, which includes new and archived interviews from various members of the band and their inner circle, including Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, Carl Wilson, Dennis Wilson, Chaplin, Fataar, Brian Wilson's ex-wife Marilyn, and Don Was, among others. The documentary was directed by Frank Marshall and Thom Zimny and was released on May 24, 2024. The documentary included some footage from a private reunion of Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, Marks, and Johnston at Paradise Cove, where the ''Surfin' Safari'' album cover photo was taken in 1962. Brian Wilson, Love, Jardine, Marks, Johnston, and Blondie Chaplin also participated in a non-performing reunion at the documentary's premiere on May 24, 2024.
By their 2024 tour, the Beach Boys had played nearly 7,300 concerts.
Musical style and development
In Understanding Rock: Essays in Musical Analysis, musicologist Daniel Harrison writes:
}}
The Beach Boys began as a garage band playing 1950s style rock and roll, reassembling styles of music such as surf to include vocal jazz harmony, which created their unique sound. In addition, they introduced their signature approach to common genres such as the pop ballad by applying harmonic or formal twists not native to rock and roll. Among the distinct elements of the Beach Boys' style were the nasal quality of their singing voices, their use of a falsetto harmony over a driving, locomotive-like melody, and the sudden chiming in of the whole group on a key line. Brian Wilson handled most stages of the group's recording process from the beginning, even though he was not properly credited on most of the early recordings.
identical to the 12-string guitar used by Carl Wilson in the early to mid-1960s]]
Early on, Mike Love sang lead vocals in the rock-oriented songs, while Carl contributed guitar lines on the group's ballads. Jim Miller commented: "On straight rockers they sang tight harmonies behind Love's lead ... on ballads, Brian played his falsetto off against lush, jazz-tinged voicings, often using (for rock) unorthodox harmonic structures." Harrison adds that "even the least distinguished of the Beach Boys' early uptempo rock 'n' roll songs show traces of structural complexity at some level; Brian was simply too curious and experimental to leave convention alone". Although Brian was often dubbed a perfectionist, he was an inexperienced musician, and his understanding of music was mostly self-taught. At the lyric stage, he usually worked with Love, whose assertive persona provided youthful swagger that contrasted Brian's explorations in romanticism and sensitivity. Luis Sanchez noted a pattern where Brian would spare surfing imagery when working with collaborators outside of his band's circle, in the examples "Lonely Sea" and "In My Room".
Brian's bandmates resented the notion that he was the sole creative force in the group. In a 1966 article that asked if "the Beach Boys rely too much on sound genius Brian", Carl said that although Brian was the most responsible for their music, every member of the group contributed ideas. Mike Love wrote: "As far as I was concerned, Brian was a genius, deserving of that recognition. But the rest of us were seen as nameless components in Brian's music machine ... It didn't feel to us as if we were just riding on Brian's coattails." Conversely, Dennis defended Brian's stature in the band, stating: "Brian Wilson is the Beach Boys. He is the band. We're his fucking messengers. He is all of it. Period. We're nothing. He's everything."
Influences
The band's earliest influences came primarily from the work of Chuck Berry and the Four Freshmen. Performed by the Four Freshmen, "Their Hearts Were Full of Spring" (1961) was a particular favorite of the group. By analyzing their arrangements of pop standards, Brian educated himself on jazz harmony. Bearing this in mind, Philip Lambert noted: "If Bob Flanigan helped teach Brian how to sing, then Gershwin, Kern, Porter, and the other members of this pantheon helped him learn how to craft a song." Other general influences on the group included the Hi-Los, the Penguins, the Robins, Bill Haley & His Comets, Otis Williams, the Cadets, the Everly Brothers, the Shirelles, the Regents, and the Crystals.
Similarly, John Sebastian of the Lovin' Spoonful noted: "Brian had control of this vocal palette of which we had no idea. We had never paid attention to the Four Freshmen or doo-wop combos like the Crew Cuts. Look what gold he mined out of that."
Vocals
Brian identified each member individually for their vocal range, once detailing the ranges for Carl, Dennis, Jardine ("[they] progress upwards through G, A, and B"), Love ("can go from bass to the E above middle C"), and himself ("I can take the second D in the treble clef"). He added: "The harmonies that we are able to produce give us a uniqueness which is really the only important thing you can put into records – some quality that no one else has got. I love peaks in a song – and enhancing them on the control panel. Most of all, I love the human voice for its own sake."
In the group's early recordings, from lowest intervals to highest, the group's vocal harmony stack usually began with Love or Dennis, followed by Jardine or Carl, and finally Brian on top, according to Jardine, while Carl said that the blend was Love on bottom, Carl above, followed by Dennis or Jardine, and then Brian on top. Jardine explains: "We always sang the same vocal intervals. ... As soon as we heard the chords on the piano we'd figure it out pretty easily. If there was a vocal move [Brian] envisioned, he'd show that particular singer that move. We had somewhat photographic memory as far as the vocal parts were concerned so that [was] never a problem for us." Jimmy Webb said: "They used very little vibrato and sing in very straight tones. The voices all lie down beside each other very easily – there's no bumping between them because the pitch is very precise." According to Brian, "Jack Good once told us, 'You sing like eunuchs in a Sistine Chapel', which was a pretty good quote."
Use of studio musicians
Biographer James Murphy said: "By most contemporary accounts, they were not a very good live band when they started. ... The Beach Boys learned to play as a band in front of live audiences", eventually to become "one of the best and enduring live bands". With only a few exceptions, the Beach Boys played every instrument heard on their first four albums and first five singles. It is the belief of Richie Unterberger that "Before session musicians took over most of the parts, the Beach Boys could play respectably gutsy surf rock as a self-contained unit."
As Wilson's arrangements increased in complexity, he began employing a group of professional studio musicians, later known as "the Wrecking Crew", to assist with recording the instrumentation on select tracks. According to some reports, these musicians then completely replaced the Beach Boys on the backing tracks to their records. Much of the relevant documentation, while accounting for the attendance of unionized session players, had failed to record the presence of the Beach Boys themselves. Dennis's drumming is documented on a number of the group's singles, including 1964's "I Get Around", "Fun, Fun, Fun", and "Don't Worry Baby". Starting with the 1965 albums Today! and Summer Days, Brian used the Wrecking Crew with greater frequency, "but still", Stebbins writes, "the Beach Boys continued to play the instruments on many of the key tracks and single releases".
Overall, the Beach Boys played the instruments on the majority of their recordings from the decade, Slowinski goes on to note: "when painting a picture of a Beach Boys recording session, it's important to examine both the AFM contracts and the session tapes, either of which may be incomplete on their own". During the recording of Pet Sounds, Brian held prayer meetings, later reflecting that "God was with us the whole time we were doing this record ... I could feel that feeling in my brain." In 1966, he explained that he wanted to move into a white spiritual sound, and predicted that the rest of the music industry would follow suit. In 2011, Brian maintained the spirituality was important to his music, and that he did not follow any particular religion.
Carl said that Smile was chosen as an album title because of its connection to the group's spiritual beliefs. He spoke of his LSD trips as a "religious experience", and during a session for "Our Prayer", Brian can be heard asking the other Beach Boys: "Do you guys feel any acid yet?". In 1968, the group's interest in transcendental meditation led them to record the original song, "Transcendental Meditation".LegacyAchievementsThe Beach Boys are one of the most critically acclaimed, commercially successful, and influential bands of all time. They have sold over 100 million records worldwide. The group's early songs made them major pop stars in the US, the UK, Australia and other countries, having seven top 10 singles between April 1963 and November 1964. They were one of the first American groups to exhibit the definitive traits of a self-contained rock band, playing their own instruments and writing their own songs, and they were one of the few American bands formed prior to the 1964 British Invasion to continue their success. Among artists of the 1960s, they are one of the central figures in the histories of rock. Between the 1960s and 2020s, they had 37 songs reach the US Top 40 (the most by an American group) with four topping the Billboard Hot 100; they also hold Nielsen SoundScan's record as the top-selling American band for albums and singles.
Brian Wilson's artistic control over the Beach Boys' records was unprecedented for the time. Carl Wilson elaborated: "Record companies were used to having absolute control over their artists. It was especially nervy, because Brian was a 21-year-old kid with just two albums. It was unheard of. But what could they say? Brian made good records." Ten years later, they were selected for the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. In 2004, Pet Sounds was preserved in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Their recordings of "In My Room", "Good Vibrations", "California Girls" and the entire Pet Sounds album have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.
The Beach Boys are one of the most influential acts of the rock era. In 2017, a study of AllMusic's catalog indicated the Beach Boys as the 6th most frequently cited artist influence in its database. In 2021, the staff of Ultimate Classic Rock ranked the Beach Boys as the top American band of all time; the publication's editor wrote in the group's entry that "few bands ... have had a greater impact on popular music".California sound
Professor of cultural studies James M. Curtis wrote in 1987: "We can say that the Beach Boys represent the outlook and values of white Protestant Anglo-Saxon teenagers in the early sixties. Having said that, we immediately realize that they must mean much more than this. Their stability, their staying power, and their ability to attract new fans prove as much." Cultural historian Kevin Starr explains that the group first connected with young Americans specifically for their lyrical interpretation of a mythologized landscape: "Cars and the beach, surfing, the California Girl, all this fused in the alembic of youth: Here was a way of life, an iconography, already half-released into the chords and multiple tracks of a new sound." In music critic Robert Christgau's opinion, "the Beach Boys were a touchstone for real rock and rollers, all of whom understood that the music had its most essential roots in an innocently hedonistic materialism".
The California sound gradually evolved to reflect a more musically ambitious and mature worldview, becoming less to do with surfing and cars and more about social consciousness and political awareness. Between 1964 and 1969, it fueled innovation and transition, inspiring artists to tackle largely unmentioned themes such as sexual freedom, black pride, drugs, oppositional politics, other countercultural motifs, and war. Soft pop (later known as "sunshine pop") derived in part from this movement. Sunshine pop producers widely imitated the orchestral style of Pet Sounds; however, the Beach Boys themselves were rarely representative of the genre, which was rooted in easy-listening and advertising jingles.
By the end of the 1960s, the California sound declined due to a combination of the West Coast's cultural shifts, Wilson's professional and psychological downturn, and the Manson murders, with David Howard calling it the "sunset of the original California Sunshine Sound ... [the] sweetness advocated by the California Myth had led to chilling darkness and unsightly rot". Drawing from the Beach Boys' associations with Manson and former California governor Ronald Reagan, Erik Davis remarked: "The Beach Boys may be the only bridge between those deranged poles. There is a wider range of political and aesthetic sentiments in their records than in any other band in those heady times—like the state [of California], they expand and bloat and contradict themselves."Innovations
Pet Sounds came to inform the developments of genres such as pop, rock, jazz, electronic, experimental, punk, and hip hop. Similar to subsequent experimental rock LPs by Frank Zappa, the Beatles, and the Who, Pet Sounds featured countertextural aspects that called attention to the very recordedness of the album. Professor of American history John Robert Greene stated that the album broke new ground and took rock music away from its casual lyrics and melodic structures into what was then uncharted territory. He furthermore called it one factor which spawned the majority of trends in post-1965 rock music, the only others being Rubber Soul, the Beatles' Revolver, and the contemporary folk movement. The album was the first piece in popular music to incorporate the Electro-Theremin, an easier-to-play version of the theremin, as well as the first in rock music to feature a theremin-like instrument. With Pet Sounds, they were also the first group to make an entire album that departed from the usual small-ensemble electric rock band format.
According to David Leaf in 1978, Pet Sounds and Good Vibrations "established the group as the leaders of a new type of pop music, Art Rock". Academic Bill Martin states that the band opened a path in rock music "that went from ''Sgt. Pepper's to Close to the Edge and beyond". He argues that the advancing technology of multitrack recording and mixing boards were more influential to experimental rock than electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, allowing the Beatles and the Beach Boys to become the first crop of non-classically trained musicians to create extended and complex compositions. In Strange Sounds: Offbeat Instruments and Sonic Experiments in Pop, Mark Brend writes:
}}
The making of "Good Vibrations", according to Domenic Priore, was "unlike anything previous in the realms of classical, jazz, international, soundtrack, or any other kind of recording", while biographer Peter Ames Carlin wrote that it "sounded like nothing that had ever been played on the radio before". It contained previously untried mixes of instruments, and was the first successful pop song to have cellos in a juddering rhythm. Musicologist Charlie Gillett called it "one of the first records to flaunt studio production as a quality in its own right, rather than as a means of presenting a performance". Again, Brian employed the use of Electro-Theremin for the track. Upon release, the single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins while increasing awareness of analog synthesizers, leading Moog Music to produce their own brand of ribbon-controlled instruments.}} In a 1968 editorial for Jazz & Pop'', Gene Sculatti predicted that the song "may yet prove to be the most significantly revolutionary piece of the current rock renaissance ... In no minor way, 'Good Vibrations' is a primary influential piece for all producing rock artists; everyone has felt its import to some degree".
Sunflower marked an end to the experimental songwriting and production phase initiated by Smiley Smile. After ''Surf's Up'', Harrison wrote, their albums "contain a mixture of middle-of-the-road music entirely consonant with pop style during the early 1970s with a few oddities that proved that the desire to push beyond conventional boundaries was not dead", until 1974, "the year in which the Beach Boys ceased to be a rock 'n' roll act and became an oldies act".
Punk, alternative, and indie
and the Pixies to U2 and My Bloody Valentine.
|source — Music critic Carl Wilson (no relation to Beach Boys member Carl Wilson)
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|align = right
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In the 1970s, the Beach Boys served a "totemic influence" on punk rock that later gave way to indie rock. Brad Shoup of Stereogum surmised that, thanks to the Ramones' praise for the group, many punk, pop punk, or "punk-adjacent" artists showed influence from the Beach Boys, noting cover versions of the band's songs recorded by Slickee Boys, Agent Orange, Bad Religion, Shonen Knife, the Queers, Hi-Standard, the Descendents, the Donnas, M.O.D., and the Vandals. The Beach Boys Love You is sometimes considered the group's "punk album", and Pet Sounds is sometimes advanced as the first emo album.
In the 1990s, the Beach Boys experienced a resurgence of popularity with the alternative rock generation. According to Sean O'Hagan, leader of the High Llamas and former member of Stereolab, a younger generation of record-buyers "stopped listening to indie records" in favor of the Beach Boys. Bands who advocated for the Beach Boys included founding members of the Elephant 6 Collective (Neutral Milk Hotel, the Olivia Tremor Control, the Apples in Stereo, and of Montreal). United by a shared love of the group's music, they named Pet Sounds Studio in honor of the band. Rolling Stone writer Barry Walters wrote in 2000 that albums such as ''Surf's Up and Love You "are becoming sonic blueprints, akin to what early Velvet Underground LPs meant to the previous indie peer group".
The Beach Boys remained among the most significant influences on indie rock into the late 2000s. Smile became a touchstone for many bands who were labelled "chamber pop", Pitchfork writer Mark Richardson cited Smiley Smile as the origin point of "the kind of lo-fi bedroom pop that would later propel Sebadoh, Animal Collective, and other characters". The Sunflower track "All I Wanna Do" is also cited as one of the earliest precursors to chillwave, a microgenre that emerged in 2009.
Landmarks
, located at 1500 Vine Street]]
* The Wilsons' California house, where the Wilson brothers grew up and the group began, was demolished in 1986 to make way for Interstate 105, the Century Freeway. A Beach Boys Historic Landmark (California Landmark No. 1041 at 3701 West 119th Street), dedicated on May 20, 2005, marks the location.
* On December 30, 1980, the Beach Boys were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, located at 1500 Vine Street.
* On September 2, 1977, the Beach Boys performed before an audience of 40,000 at Narragansett Park in Pawtucket, Rhode Island, which remains the largest concert audience in Rhode Island history. On August 9, 2017, a commemoration ceremony produced by Al Gomes and Connie Watrous of Big Noise took place in Rhode Island with the Beach Boys, and the street where the concert stage formerly stood (at 510 Narragansett Park Drive) was officially renamed to "Beach Boys Way".
* On September 21, 2017, the Beach Boys were honored by Roger Williams University, along with Al Gomes and Connie Watrous of Big Noise, and plaques were unveiled to commemorate the band's concert on September 22, 1971, at the Baypoint Inn & Conference Center in Portsmouth, Rhode Island. The concert was the first-ever appearance of South African Ricky Fataar as an official member of the band and Filipino Billy Hinsche as a touring member, essentially changing the Beach Boys' live and recording act's line-up into a multi-cultural group. Diversity is a credo of Roger Williams University, which is why they chose to celebrate this moment in the band's history.
Members
Current members
*Brian Wilson – vocals, keyboards, bass
*Mike Love – vocals, percussion, saxophone, electro-Theremin
*Al Jardine – vocals, rhythm guitar, bass
*Bruce Johnston – vocals, keyboards, bass Former members
*Carl Wilson – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, bass, keyboards
*Dennis Wilson – vocals, drums, percussion, keyboards
*David Marks – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars
*Ricky Fataar – vocals, drums, percussion, rhythm guitar, pedal steel guitar, flute
*Blondie Chaplin – vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, slide guitar, bass
<!--- Notable supporting musicians for both the Beach Boys' live performances and studio recordings included guitarist and session musician Glen Campbell, keyboardists Daryl Dragon and Toni Tennille (Captain & Tennille), keyboardist Billy Hinsche, guitarist Jeffrey Foskett, drummer John Cowsill, and saxophonist Charles Lloyd. --->
Timeline
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Discography
Studio albums
* ''Surfin' Safari (1962)
* Surfin' U.S.A. (1963)
* Surfer Girl (1963)
* Little Deuce Coupe (1963)
* Shut Down Volume 2 (1964)
* All Summer Long (1964)
* The Beach Boys' Christmas Album (1964)
* The Beach Boys Today! (1965)
* Summer Days (And Summer Nights!!) (1965)
* Beach Boys' Party! (1965)
* Pet Sounds (1966)
* Smiley Smile (1967)
* Wild Honey (1967)
* Friends (1968)
* 20/20 (1969)
* Sunflower (1970)
* Surf's Up (1971)
* Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" (1972)
* Holland (1973)
* 15 Big Ones (1976)
* The Beach Boys Love You (1977)
* M.I.U. Album (1978)
* L.A. (Light Album) (1979)
* Keepin' the Summer Alive (1980)
* The Beach Boys (1985)
* Still Cruisin' (1989)
* Summer in Paradise (1992)
* Stars and Stripes Vol. 1 (1996)
* That's Why God Made the Radio (2012)
Selected archival releases
* The Pet Sounds Sessions (1997)
* Endless Harmony Soundtrack (1998)
* Ultimate Christmas (1998)
* Hawthorne, CA (2001)
* The Smile Sessions (2011)
* The Big Beat 1963 (2013)
* Keep an Eye on Summer 1964 (2014)
* Becoming the Beach Boys: The Complete Hite & Dorinda Morgan Sessions (2015)
* Beach Boys' Party! Uncovered and Unplugged (2015)
* 1967 – Sunshine Tomorrow (2017)
* Wake the World: The Friends Sessions (2018)
* I Can Hear Music: The 20/20 Sessions (2018)
* Feel Flows: The Sunflower & Surf's Up Sessions 1969–1971 (2021)
* Sail On Sailor – 1972 (2022)
Filmography
* 1962: One Man's Challenge
* 1964: T.A.M.I. Show
* 1965: The Girls on the Beach
* 1965: The Monkey's Uncle
* 1971: Good Vibrations from Central Park
* 1976: The Beach Boys: Good Vibrations Tour
* 1979: The Midnight Special
* 1980: Beach Boys 4th of July Celebration: Live from Queen Mary
* 1980: The Beach Boys: A Celebration Concert
* 1981: The Beach Boys: 20th Anniversary Special
* 1985: The Beach Boys: An American Band
* 1987: The Beach Boys: 25 Years Together
* 1991: The Beach Boys Live in Japan '91
* 1993: The Beach Boys Today
* 1996: The Beach Boys: Nashville Sounds
* 1998: Endless Harmony: The Beach Boys Story
* 1998: The Beach Boys: The Lost Concert 1964
* 2002: Good Timin': Live at Knebworth England 1980
* 2004: Sights + Sounds of Summer: The Very Best of The Beach Boys
* 2006: The Beach Boys: In London 1966
* 2012: The Beach Boys 50: Doin' It Again
* 2012: The 50th Reunion Tour
* 2014: The Beach Boys: Live at the Hollywood Bowl
* 2016: Classic Albums: Pet Sounds
* 2023: A Grammy Salute to The Beach Boys
* 2024: The Beach Boys'' documentary on Disney+<ref name"2024 self-titled documentary announcement" />Notes
References
Citations
Print sources
* |year2004|publisherBackbeat Books|isbn=978-0-87930-818-6}}
* |year2002|publisherBackbeat Books|isbn=978-0-87930-653-3}}
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* |year2006|publisherRodale|isbn978-1-59486-320-2}}
* |year1987|publisherPopular Press|isbn=978-0-87972-369-9}}
* |year2012|publisherECW Press|isbn=978-1-77041-071-8}}
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* |date2005|publisherBloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-1266-8}}
* |year1986|publisherDa Capo Press|locationNew York|isbn=0306806479}}
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* |publisherChicago Review Press |isbn=978-1-55652-507-0 }}
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* }}
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* |author-linkBarney Hoskyns|year2009|publisherBackbeat Books|isbn978-0-87930-943-5}}
* }}
* |year2008|publisherAshgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6244-0}}
* |titleThe Dark Stuff: Selected Writings on Rock Music|year2009|publisherDa Capo Press|isbn=9780786730742}}
* |year2007|publisherContinuum|isbn=978-0-8264-1876-0}}
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* |chapter=The Beach Boys}}
* |year2010|publisherMIT Press|isbn978-0-262-51405-7}}
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* |year2009|publisherHarvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-04216-2}}
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* |year2005|publisherSanctuary|locationLondon|isbn=1860746276}}
* |year2014|publisherBloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-62356-956-3}}
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* }}
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* |year2007|publisherVirgin Books|isbn978-1-85227-391-0}}
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* |year2009|publisherJawbone|isbn=978-1-906002-22-0}}
* |year1992|publisherHal Leonard Corporation|isbn=978-0-634-09978-6}}
* |year1996|publisherHenry Holt (P)|isbn978-0-8050-4702-8}}
* }}
*
* }}
Further reading
Articles
*
*
Books
* |year1998|publisherHelter Skelter|isbn=978-1-90092-402-3}}
* Berry, Torrence (2013). Beach Boys Archives, Volume 2. White Lightning Publishing. .
* Berry, Torrence (2014). Beach Boys Archives, Volume 5. White Lightning Publishing. .
* Berry, Torrence (2015). Beach Boys Archives, Volume 7. White Lightning Publishing. .
* Berry, Torrence and Zenker, Gary (2013). Beach Boys Archives, Volume 1. White Lightning Publishing. .
* Berry, Torrence and Zenker, Gary (2014). Beach Boys Archives, Volume 3. White Lightning Publishing. .
* Berry, Torrence and Zenker, Gary (2014). Beach Boys Archives, Volume 4. White Lightning Publishing. .
* Cox, Perry D. (2017). Price and Reference Guide for the Beach Boys American Records (By Perry Cox, Frank Daniels & Mark Galloway. Foreword by Jeffrey Foskett). Perry Cox Ent. .
*
*
*
* |year2004|publisherOmnibus Press|isbn978-1-84449-426-2}}
*
* |year1978|publisher=Reed Books}}
* |year1976|publisherBorgo Press|isbn978-0-87877-202-5}}
* |publisherChicago Review Press|isbn9781556525070}}
*
* |year1988|publisher=Surfin' Colours Hollywood}}
* |year1994|publisherBillboard Books|isbn=978-0-8230-7628-4}}
*
* |year1982|publication-date2003|publisherBloomsbury USA|isbn978-1-58234-282-5|chapterSurfin' Death Valley USA: The Beach Boys and Heavy Friends|url-accessregistration|urlhttps://archive.org/details/soundfuryrocksba0000unse}}
* |dateJune 1, 2003|publisherOmnibus|isbn=978-0-7119-9103-3}}
External links
*
*
}}
Category:1961 establishments in California
Category:Musical quintets from California
Category:American pop music groups
Category:American surf rock music groups
Category:Rock music groups from California
Category:Brian Wilson
Category:California Sound
Category:Capitol Records artists
Category:Carl Wilson
Category:Dennis Wilson
Category:Family musical groups
Category:Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Category:Musical groups established in 1961
Category:Musicians from Hawthorne, California
Category:Proto-prog groups
Category:Psychedelic musical groups
Category:Reprise Records artists
Category:Sibling musical groups
Category:Warner Records artists
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BCE (disambiguation)
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BCE is an abbreviation meaning Before Common Era, an alternative to the use of BC.
BCE, B.C.E. or bce may also refer to:
Bachelor of Civil Engineering
Banco Central del Ecuador
Basic Chess Endings, a book by Reuben Fine
BCE Inc., formerly Bell Canada Enterprises
BCE Place, Toronto, Canada, later Brookfield Place
Bracknell railway station, Berkshire, UK, code
Bhagalpur College of Engineering
Entity–control–boundary, an architectural pattern used in software design
See also
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BC
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BC most often refers to:
Before Christ, a calendar era based on the traditionally reckoned year of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth
British Columbia, the westernmost province of Canada
Baja California, a state of Mexico
BC may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
"B.C.", a song by Sparks from the 1974 album Propaganda
B.C. (comic strip) by Johnny Hart, and one of its characters
BC (video game) by Lionhead Studios
BC The Archaeology of the Bible Lands, a BBC television series
Bullet Club, a professional wrestling stable
Businesses and organizations
Basilian Chouerite Order of Saint John the Baptist, an order of the Greek Catholic Church
BC Card, a Korean credit card company
Bella Center, a conference center in Copenhagen, Denmark
Brasseries du Cameroun, a brewery in Cameroon (also known as SABC)
Brunswick Corporation (NYSE ticker symbol BC)
Education
United States
Bakersfield College, a college in Bakersfield, California
Bellevue College, a college in Bellevue, Washington
Benedictine College, a college in Atchison, Kansas
Benedictine Military School, a high school in Savannah, Georgia
Bergen Catholic High School, a high school in Oradell, New Jersey
Boston College, a university in Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
Boston College Eagles, its athletic teams
Brazosport College, a college in Lake Jackson, Texas
Broward College, a college in Fort Lauderdale, Florida
Brooklyn College, a college in Brooklyn, New York
Worldwide
Baccalaureus or bc, a Bachelor's degree in the Netherlands
Baghdad College, a high school in Baghdad, Iraq
British Council
Science and technology
Backcrossing, a crossing of a hybrid with one of its parents, or a genetically similar individual
Backward compatibility, the ability of new software to work similarly to its predecessor
Ballistic coefficient, a measure of air drag on a projectile
Base curve radius, a parameter of a contact lens
Battle command, a military discipline
Bayonet cap, a standard light bulb connection
bc (programming language), an arbitrary-precision calculator language
Black carbon, a carbonaceous component of soot
Bliss bibliographic classification, a library cataloguing system
× Brassocattleya or Bc., an orchid genus
Buoyancy compensator (diving), a piece of scuba diving equipment
Transportation
NZR BC class, a type of steam locomotive
Skymark Airlines (IATA airline code BC)
Other uses
Banbridge Chronicle, Northern Irish newspaper
Bullcrap, a phrase denoting something worthless
"B.C.", nickname of Burr Chamberlain (1877–1933), American football player and coach
Baguio, a city in the Philippines, locally abbreviated as "B.C."
BC Powder, a brand of pain reliever
BookCrossing, a website that encourages leaving books in public places to be found by others
Botswana, WMO country code (and obsolete NATO and FIPS country codes)
See also
BC Cygni, a red supergiant star that is one of the largest stars
Belaruskaja Čyhunka (BCh), the national railway company of Belarus
Blind carbon copy (Bcc:), the practice of sending an e-mail to multiple recipients without disclosing the complete list of recipients
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Beatrix Potter
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| birth_place = West Brompton, London, England
| death_date }}
| death_place = Near Sawrey, Lancashire<!--Lancashire pre-1974-->, England
| occupation = Children's author and illustrator
| notable_works = The Tale of Peter Rabbit
| spouse =
| relatives = Edmund Potter (grandfather)
| partner = Norman Warne (fiance; died before marriage)
}}
Helen Beatrix Heelis (; 28 July 186622 December 1943), usually known as Beatrix Potter ( ), was an English writer, illustrator, natural scientist, and conservationist. She is best known for her children's books featuring animals, such as The Tale of Peter Rabbit, which was her first commercially published work in 1902. Her books, including The Tale of Jemima Puddle Duck and The Tale of Tom Kitten, have sold more than 250 million copies. An entrepreneur, Potter was a pioneer of character merchandising. They were English Unitarians, associated with dissenting Protestant congregations, influential in 19th-century Britain, that affirmed the oneness of God and that rejected the doctrine of the Trinity. Potter's paternal grandfather, Edmund Potter, from Glossop in Derbyshire, owned what was then the largest calico printing works in England, and later served as a Member of Parliament.
Potter's father, Rupert William Potter (1832–1914), was educated at Manchester College by the Unitarian philosopher James Martineau. He then trained as a barrister in London. Rupert practiced law, specialising in equity law and conveyancing. He married Helen Leech (1839–1932) on 8 August 1863 at Hyde Unitarian Chapel, Gee Cross. Helen was the daughter of Jane Ashton (1806–1884) and John Leech, a wealthy cotton merchant and shipbuilder from Stalybridge. Helen's first cousins were siblings Harriet Lupton (née Ashton) and Thomas Ashton, 1st Baron Ashton of Hyde. It was reported in July 2014 that Potter had personally given a number of her own original hand-painted illustrations to the two daughters of Arthur and Harriet Lupton, who were cousins to both Beatrix Potter and Catherine, Princess of Wales.
, Spot]]
Potter's parents lived comfortably at 2 Bolton Gardens, West Brompton, London, where Helen Beatrix was born on 28 July 1866 and her brother Walter Bertram on 14 March 1872. The house was destroyed in the Blitz. Bousfield Primary School now stands where the house once was. A blue plaque on the school building testifies to the former site of the Potter home. Both parents were artistically talented, and Rupert was an adept amateur photographer. Rupert had invested in the stock market, and by the early 1890s, he was extremely wealthy.
Beatrix Potter was educated by three governesses, the last of whom was Annie Moore (née Carter), just three years older than Potter, who tutored Potter in German as well as acting as lady's companion. She and Potter remained friends throughout their lives, and Annie's eight children were the recipients of many of Potter's picture letters. It was Annie who later suggested that these letters might make good children's books.
during a family holiday began her long association with the English Lake District.]]
She and her younger brother Walter Bertram (1872–1918) grew up with few friends outside their large extended family. Her parents were artistic, interested in nature, and enjoyed the countryside. As children, Potter and Bertram had numerous small animals as pets which they observed closely and drew endlessly. In their schoolroom, Potter and Bertram kept a variety of small pets—mice, rabbits, a hedgehog and some bats, along with collections of butterflies and other insects—which they drew and studied. Potter was devoted to the care of her small animals, often taking them with her on long holidays. In most of the first fifteen years of her life, Potter spent summer holidays at Dalguise, an estate on the River Tay in Perthshire, Scotland. There she sketched and explored an area that nourished her imagination and her observation. Her first sketchbook from those holidays, kept at age 8 and dated 1875, is held at and has been digitised by the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. Potter and her brother were allowed great freedom in the country, and both children became adept students of natural history. In 1882, when Dalguise was no longer available, the Potters took their first summer holiday in the Lake District, at Wray Castle near Lake Windermere. Here Potter met Hardwicke Rawnsley, vicar of Wray and later the founding secretary of the National Trust, whose interest in the countryside and country life inspired the same in Potter and who was to have a lasting impact on her life.
At about the age of 14, Potter began to keep a diary, written in a simple substitution cipher of her own devising. Her Journal was important to the development of her creativity, serving as both sketchbook and literary experiment. In tiny handwriting, she reported on society, recorded her impressions of art and artists, recounted stories and observed life around her. The Journal, deciphered and transcribed by Leslie Linder in 1958, does not provide an intimate record of her personal life, but it is an invaluable source for understanding a vibrant part of British society in the late 19th century. It describes Potter's maturing artistic and intellectual interests, her often amusing insights into the places she visited, and her unusual ability to observe nature and to describe it. Started in 1881, her journal ends in 1897 when her artistic and intellectual energies were absorbed in scientific study and in efforts to publish her drawings. Precocious but reserved and often bored, she was searching for more independent activities and wished to earn some money of her own while dutifully taking care of her parents, dealing with her especially demanding mother, and managing their various households.
Scientific illustrations and work in mycology
'', 1897]]
In the Victorian era, women of her class were privately educated and rarely went to university. Potter's parents encouraged her higher education, but the social norms of the time limited her academic career within Britain's institutions.
Beatrix Potter was interested in every branch of natural science except astronomy. Botany was a passion for most Victorians, and nature study was a popular enthusiasm. She collected fossils, studied archaeological artefacts from London excavations, and was interested in entomology. In all these areas, she drew and painted her specimens with increasing skill. By the 1890s, her scientific interests centred on mycology. First drawn to fungi because of their colours and evanescence in nature and her delight in painting them, her interest deepened after meeting Charles McIntosh, a revered naturalist and amateur mycologist, during a summer holiday in Dunkeld in Perthshire in 1892. He helped improve the accuracy of her illustrations, taught her taxonomy, and supplied her with live specimens to paint during the winter. <onlyinclude></onlyinclude>
Rebuffed by William Thiselton-Dyer, the Director at Kew, because of her sex and amateur status, Potter wrote up her conclusions and submitted a paper, On the Germination of the Spores of the Agaricineae, to the Linnean Society in 1897. It was introduced by Massee because, as a woman, Potter could not attend proceedings nor read her paper. She subsequently withdrew it, realising that some of her samples were contaminated, but continued her microscopic studies for several more years. Her work is only now being properly evaluated. Potter later gave her other mycological and scientific drawings to the Armitt Museum and Library in Ambleside, where mycologists still refer to them to identify fungi. There is also a collection of her fungus paintings at the Perth Museum and Art Gallery in Perth, Scotland, donated by Charles McIntosh. In 1967, the mycologist W. P. K. Findlay included many of Potter's beautifully accurate fungus drawings in his Wayside & Woodland Fungi, thereby fulfilling her desire to one day have her fungus drawings published in a book. In 1997, the Linnean Society issued a posthumous apology to Potter for the sexism displayed in its handling of her research.
Artistic and literary career
Potter's artistic and literary interests were deeply influenced by fairy tales and fantasy. She was a student of the classic fairy tales of Western Europe as well as stories from the Old Testament, John Bunyan's ''The Pilgrim's Progress'' and Harriet Beecher Stowe's ''Uncle Tom's Cabin. She grew up with Aesop's Fables'', the fairy tales of the Brothers Grimm and Hans Christian Andersen, Charles Kingsley's The Water Babies, the folk tales and mythology of Scotland, the German Romantics, Shakespeare, and the romances of Sir Walter Scott. As a young child, before the age of eight, Edward Lear's A Book of Nonsense, including the much-loved The Owl and the Pussycat, and Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland had made their impression, although she later said of Alice that she was more interested in Tenniel's illustrations than what they were about.
The Brer Rabbit stories of Joel Chandler Harris had been family favourites, and she later studied his Uncle Remus stories and illustrated them. She studied book illustration from a young age and developed her own tastes, but the work of the picture book triumvirate Walter Crane, Kate Greenaway and Randolph Caldecott, the last an illustrator whose work was later collected by her father, was a great influence. Her earliest illustrations focused on traditional rhymes and stories like Cinderella, Sleeping Beauty, Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, Puss in Boots, and Little Red Riding Hood. However, most often her illustrations were fantasies featuring her own pets: mice, rabbits, kittens, and guinea pigs.
In her teenage years, Potter was a regular visitor to the art galleries of London, particularly enjoying the summer and winter exhibitions at the Royal Academy in London. Her Journal'' reveals her growing sophistication as a critic as well as the influence of her father's friend, the artist Sir John Everett Millais, who recognised Potter's talent of observation. Although Potter was aware of art and artistic trends, her drawing and her prose style were uniquely her own.
, 1917]]
As a way to earn money in the 1890s, Potter printed Christmas cards of her own design, as well as cards for special occasions. These were her first commercially successful works as an illustrator. Mice and rabbits were the most frequent subject of her fantasy paintings. In 1890, the firm of Hildesheimer and Faulkner bought several of the drawings of her rabbit Benjamin Bunny to illustrate verses by Frederic Weatherly titled A Happy Pair''. In 1893, the same printer bought several more drawings for Weatherly's Our Dear Relations, another book of rhymes, and the following year Potter sold a series of frog illustrations and verses for Changing Pictures, a popular annual offered by the art publisher Ernest Nister. Potter was pleased by this success and determined to publish her own illustrated stories.
Whenever Potter went on holiday to the Lake District or Scotland, she sent letters to young friends, illustrating them with quick sketches. Many of these letters were written to the children of her former governess Annie Carter Moore, particularly to Moore's eldest son Noel, who was often ill. In September 1893, Potter was on holiday at Eastwood in Dunkeld, Perthshire. She had run out of things to say to Noel, and so she told him a story about "four little rabbits whose names were Flopsy, Mopsy, Cottontail, and Peter". It became one of the most famous children's letters ever written and the basis of Potter's future career as a writer-artist-storyteller.
In 1900, Potter revised her tale about the four little rabbits, and fashioned a dummy book of it – it has been suggested, in imitation of Helen Bannerman's 1899 bestseller The Story of Little Black Sambo. Unable to find a buyer for the work, she published it for family and friends at her own expense in December 1901. It was drawn in black and white with a coloured frontispiece. Rawnsley had great faith in Potter's tale, recast it in didactic verse, and made the rounds of the London publishing houses. Frederick Warne & Co had previously rejected the tale but, eager to compete in the booming small format children's book market, reconsidered and accepted the "bunny book" (as the firm called it) following the recommendation of their prominent children's book artist L. Leslie Brooke. The firm declined Rawnsley's verse in favour of Potter's original prose, and Potter agreed to colour her pen and ink illustrations, choosing the new Hentschel three-colour process to reproduce her watercolours.
On 2 October 1902, The Tale of Peter Rabbit was published and became an immediate success. It was followed the next year by The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin and The Tailor of Gloucester, which had also first been written as picture letters to the Moore children. Working with Norman Warne as her editor, Potter published two or three little books each year: 23 books in all. The last book in this format was ''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes in 1922, a collection of favourite rhymes. Although The Tale of Little Pig Robinson was not published until 1930, it had been written much earlier. Potter continued creating her little books until after the First World War when her energies were increasingly directed toward her farming, sheep-breeding, and land conservation.
The immense popularity of Potter's books was based on the lively quality of her illustrations, the non-didactic nature of her stories, the depiction of the rural countryside, and the imaginative qualities she lent to her animal characters.
Potter was also a canny businesswoman. As early as 1903, she made and patented a Peter Rabbit doll. It was followed by other merchandise over the years, including painting books, board games, wall-paper, figurines, baby blankets and china tea-sets. All were licensed by Frederick Warne & Co and earned Potter an independent income, as well as immense profits for her publisher.
In 1905, Potter and Norman Warne became unofficially engaged. Potter's parents objected to the match because Warne was "in trade" and thus not socially suitable. The engagement lasted only one month—Warne died of pernicious anaemia at age 37. That same year, Potter used some of her income and a small inheritance from an aunt to buy Hill Top Farm in Near Sawrey, located west of Lake Windermere in the English Lake District. Potter and Warne may have hoped that Hill Top Farm would be their holiday home, but after Warne's death, Potter went ahead with its purchase as she had always wanted to own that farm and live in "that charming village".Country life and marriagein Near Sawrey – Potter's home from 1905 until her death in 1943, now owned by the National Trust and preserved as it was when she lived and wrote her stories there.
Owning and managing these working farms required routine collaboration with the widely respected William Heelis. By the summer of 1912, Heelis had proposed marriage and Potter had accepted; although she did not immediately tell her parents, who once again disapproved because Heelis was only a country solicitor. Potter and Heelis were married on 15 October 1913 in London at St Mary Abbots in Kensington. The couple moved immediately to Near Sawrey, residing at Castle Cottage, the renovated farmhouse on Castle Farm, which was large. Hill Top remained a working farm but was now remodelled to allow for the tenant family and Potter's private studio and workshop. At last her own woman, Potter settled into the partnerships that shaped the rest of her life: her country solicitor husband and his large family, her farms, the Sawrey community and the predictable rounds of country life. The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck and The Tale of Tom Kitten are representative of Hill Top Farm and her farming life and reflect her happiness with her country life.
Her father, Rupert Potter, died in 1914, and with the outbreak of World War I, Potter persuaded her mother to move to the Lake District, renting her a property in Sawrey. Finding life in Sawrey dull, Helen Potter soon moved to Lindeth Howe (now a 34-bedroomed hotel), a large house the Potters had previously rented for the summer in Bowness, on the other side of Lake Windermere. Potter continued to write stories for Frederick Warne & Co and fully participated in country life. She established a nursing trust for local villages and served on various committees and councils responsible for footpaths and other rural issues.Sheep farming
Soon after acquiring Hill Top Farm, Potter became keenly interested in the breeding and raising of Herdwick sheep, the indigenous fell sheep. In 1923 she bought a large sheep farm in the Troutbeck Valley called Troutbeck Park Farm, formerly a deer park, restoring its land with thousands of Herdwick sheep. This established her as one of the major Herdwick sheep farmers in the county. She was admired by her shepherds and farm managers for her willingness to experiment with the latest biological remedies for the common diseases of sheep, and for her employment of the best shepherds, sheep breeders, and farm managers.
By the late 1920s, Potter and her Hill Top farm manager Tom Storey had made a name for their prize-winning Herdwick flock, which took many prizes at the local agricultural shows, where Potter was often asked to serve as a judge. In 1942 she became President-elect of the Herdwick Sheepbreeders' Association, the first time a woman had been elected, but died before taking office.
Welsh language
In one of her diary entries whilst travelling through Wales, Potter complained about the Welsh language. She wrote "Machynlleth, wretched town, hardly a person could speak English", continuing "Welsh seem a pleasant intelligent race, but I should think awkward to live with... the language is past description."Lake District conservation
in North West England]]
Potter had been a disciple of the land conservation and preservation ideals of her long-time friend and mentor, Canon Hardwicke Rawnsley, the first secretary and founding member of the National Trust. According to the National Trust, "she supported the efforts of the National Trust to preserve not just the places of extraordinary beauty but also those heads of valleys and low grazing lands that would be irreparably ruined by development." Potter was also an authority on the traditional Lakeland crafts and period furniture, as well as local stonework. She restored and preserved the farms that she bought or managed, making sure that each farm house had in it a piece of antique Lakeland furniture. Potter was interested in preserving not only the Herdwick sheep but also the way of life of fell farming. In 1930 the Heelises became partners with the National Trust in buying and managing the fell farms included in the large Monk Coniston Estate.
The estate was composed of many farms spread over a wide area of north-western Lancashire, including the Tarn Hows. Potter was the de facto estate manager for the Trust for seven years until the National Trust could afford to repurchase most of the property from her. Potter's stewardship of these farms earned her full regard, but she was not without her critics, not the least of which were her contemporaries who felt she used her wealth and the position of her husband to acquire properties in advance of their being made public. She was notable in observing the problems of afforestation, preserving the intact grazing lands, and husbanding the quarries and timber on these farms. All her farms were stocked with Herdwick sheep and frequently with Galloway cattle.Later life
" illustration by Potter from her ''Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes, 1922]]
Potter continued to write stories and to draw, although mostly for her own pleasure. In 1922, Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes, a collection of traditional English nursery rhymes, was published. Her books in the late 1920s included the semi-autobiographical The Fairy Caravan'', a fanciful tale set in her beloved Troutbeck fells. It was published only in the US during Potter's lifetime, and not until 1952 in the UK. Sister Anne, Potter's version of the story of Bluebeard, was written for her American readers, but illustrated by Katharine Sturges. A final folktale, Wag by Wall, was published posthumously by The Horn Book Magazine in 1944. Potter was a generous patron of the Girl Guides, whose troops she allowed to make their summer encampments on her land, and whose company she enjoyed as an older woman.
Potter and William Heelis enjoyed a happy marriage of thirty years, continuing their farming and preservation efforts throughout the hard days of World War II. Although they were childless, Potter played an important role in William's large family, particularly enjoying her relationship with several nieces whom she helped educate, and giving comfort and aid to her husband's brothers and sisters.
Potter died of complications from pneumonia and heart disease on 22 December 1943 at Castle Cottage, and her remains were cremated at Carleton Crematorium, Blackpool. She left nearly all her property to the National Trust, including over of land, sixteen farms, cottages and herds of cattle and Herdwick sheep. Hers was the largest gift at that time to the National Trust, and it enabled the preservation of the land now included in the Lake District National Park and the continuation of fell farming. The central office of the National Trust in Swindon was named "Heelis" in 2005 in her memory. William Heelis continued his stewardship of their properties and of her literary and artistic work for the twenty months he survived her. When he died in August 1945, he left the remainder to the National Trust.
Legacy
Potter left almost all the original illustrations for her books to the National Trust. The copyright to her stories and merchandise was then given to her publisher Frederick Warne & Co, now a division of the Penguin Group. On 1 January 2014, the copyright expired in the UK and other countries with a 70-years-after-death limit. Hill Top Farm was opened to the public by the National Trust in 1946; her artwork was displayed there until 1985 when it was moved to William Heelis's former law offices in Hawkshead, also owned by the National Trust as the Beatrix Potter Gallery.
Potter gave her folios of mycological drawings to the Armitt Library and Museum in Ambleside before her death. The Tale of Peter Rabbit is owned by Warne, The Tailor of Gloucester by the Tate Gallery, and The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies by the British Museum.
In 2015, a manuscript for an unpublished book was discovered by Jo Hanks, a publisher at Penguin Random House Children's Books, in the Victoria and Albert Museum archive. The book The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots, with illustrations by Quentin Blake, was published 1 September 2016, to mark the 150th anniversary of Potter's birth. Also in 2016, Peter Rabbit was depicted on the reverse of a British fifty pence coin, and Peter along with other Potter characters featured on a series of UK postage stamps issued by the Royal Mail.
In 2017, The Art of Beatrix Potter: Sketches, Paintings, and Illustrations by Emily Zach was published after San Francisco publisher Chronicle Books decided to mark the 150th anniversary of Beatrix Potter's birth by showing that she was "far more than a 19th-century weekend painter. She was an artist of astonishing range."
In December 2017, the asteroid 13975 Beatrixpotter, discovered by Belgian astronomer Eric Elst in 1992, was renamed in her memory. In 2022, an exhibition, Beatrix Potter: Drawn to Nature, was held at the Victoria and Albert Museum. Research for the exhibition identified the man's court waistcoat c. 1780s, which inspired Potter's sketch in The Tailor of Gloucester.
Analysis
There are many interpretations of Potter's literary work, the sources of her art, and her life and times. These include critical evaluations of her corpus of children's literature and Modernist interpretations of Humphrey Carpenter and Katherine Chandler. Judy Taylor, That Naughty Rabbit: Beatrix Potter and Peter Rabbit (rev. 2002) tells the story of the first publication and many editions.
Potter's country life, her farming and role as a landscape preservationist are discussed in the work of Matthew Kelly, The Women Who Saved the English Countryside (2022). See also Susan Denyer and authors in the publications of The National Trust, such as Beatrix Potter at Home in the Lake District (2004).
Potter's work as a scientific illustrator and her work in mycology are discussed in Linda Lear's books Beatrix Potter: A Life in Nature (2006) and Beatrix Potter: The Extraordinary Life of a Victorian Genius (2008).AdaptationsIn 1971, a ballet film was released, The Tales of Beatrix Potter, directed by Reginald Mills, set to music by John Lanchbery with choreography by Frederick Ashton, and performed in character costume by members of the Royal Ballet and the Royal Opera House orchestra. The ballet of the same name has been performed by other dance companies around the world.
In 1992, Potter's children's book The Tale of Benjamin Bunny was featured in the film ''Lorenzo's Oil''.
Potter is also featured in Susan Wittig Albert's series of light mysteries called The Cottage Tales of Beatrix Potter. The first of the eight-book series is Tale of Hill Top Farm (2004), which deals with Potter's life in the Lake District and the village of Near Sawrey between 1905 and 1913.In film
(who starred as Beatrix Potter) at the premiere of Miss Potter in December 2006]]
In 1982, the BBC produced The Tale of Beatrix Potter. This dramatization of her life was written by John Hawkesworth, directed by Bill Hayes, and starred Holly Aird and Penelope Wilton as the young and adult Potter, respectively. The World of Peter Rabbit and Friends, a TV series based on nine of her twenty-four stories, starred actress Niamh Cusack as Beatrix Potter.
In 1993, Weston Woods Studios made an almost hour non-story film called "Beatrix Potter: Artist, Storyteller, and Countrywoman" with narration by Lynn Redgrave. In 2006, Chris Noonan directed Miss Potter, a biographical film of Potter's life focusing on her early career and romance with her editor Norman Warne. The film stars Renée Zellweger as Beatrix Potter, Ewan McGregor as Norman Warne, and Emily Watson as Warne's sister.
On 9 February 2018, Columbia Pictures released Peter Rabbit, directed by Will Gluck, based on the work by Potter. The character Bea, played by Rose Byrne, is a re-imagined version of Potter. A sequel to the film titled Peter Rabbit 2: The Runaway was released in 2021.
On 24 December 2020, Sky One premiered Roald & Beatrix: The Tail of the Curious Mouse, a made-for-television drama film inspired by the true story of a six-year-old Roald Dahl meeting his idol Potter. Set in 1922, the movie was written by Abigail Wilson, directed by David Kerr and starred Dawn French as Beatrix Potter, Rob Brydon as William Heelis and Jessica Hynes as Sofie Dahl. Filming took place in Wales, the birthland of Dahl, French and Brydon. This production incorporates live action, stop motion, and puppetry. The DVD was released on 26 April 2021.Publications The 23 Tales
# The Tale of Peter Rabbit (privately printed, 250 copies, 1901; printed in a trade edition by Frederick Warne & Co. in 1902)
#The Tale of Squirrel Nutkin (1903)
#The Tailor of Gloucester (privately printed by the author in 1902, and published in a trade edition by Frederick Warne & Co. in 1903)
#The Tale of Benjamin Bunny (1904)
#The Tale of Two Bad Mice (1904)
#The Tale of Mrs. Tiggy-Winkle (1905)
#The Tale of the Pie and the Patty-Pan (1905)
#The Tale of Mr. Jeremy Fisher (1906)
#The Story of a Fierce Bad Rabbit (1906)
#The Story of Miss Moppet (1906)
#The Tale of Tom Kitten (1907)
#The Tale of Jemima Puddle-Duck (1908)
#The Tale of Samuel Whiskers or, The Roly-Poly Pudding (1908)
#The Tale of the Flopsy Bunnies (1909)
#The Tale of Ginger and Pickles (1909)
#The Tale of Mrs. Tittlemouse (1910)
#The Tale of Timmy Tiptoes (1911)
#The Tale of Mr. Tod (1912)
#The Tale of Pigling Bland (1913)
#''Appley Dapply's Nursery Rhymes (1917)
#The Tale of Johnny Town-Mouse (1918)
#Cecily Parsley's Nursery Rhymes (1922)
#The Tale of Little Pig Robinson (1930)
Other books
#Peter Rabbit's Painting Book (1911)
#Tom Kitten's Painting Book (1917)
#Jemima Puddle-Duck's Painting Book (1925)
#Peter Rabbit's Almanac for 1929 (1928)
#The Fairy Caravan (1929)
#Sister Anne (illustrated by Katharine Sturges) (1932)
#Wag-by-Wall (decorations by J. J. Lankes) (1944)
#The Tale of the Faithful Dove (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1955, 1970)
#The Sly Old Cat (written 1906; first published 1971)
#The Tale of Tuppenny (illustrated by Marie Angel) (1973)
#The Tale of Kitty-in-Boots (2016)<ref name="kitty in boots"/> (Illustrated by Quentin Blake.)
#Red Riding Hood'' (2019) (Illustrated by Helen Oxenbury.)
References
Further reading
Letters, journals and writing collections
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* Potter, Beatrix. (rev. 1989). The Journal of Beatrix Potter, 1881–1897, transcribed from her code writings by Leslie Linder. F. Warne & Co.
*Art studies*
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External links
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101126154132/http://linnean.org/fileadmin/images/Beatrix_Potter/BPotter_fossils.pdf Beatrix Potter's fossils and her interest in geology – B. G. Gardiner]
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* [http://sf-encyclopedia.uk/fe.php?nmpotter_beatrix Beatrix Potter] at the Encyclopedia of Fantasy
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090505073415/http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/prints_books/features/potter/index.html Collection of Potter materials] at Victoria and Albert Museum
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061212025728/http://www.library.pitt.edu/libraries/is/enroom/illustrators/potter.htm Beatrix Potter online feature] at the University of Pittsburgh School of Information Sciences
* [http://www.beatrixpottersociety.org.uk/ Beatrix Potter Society, UK]
* [http://www.themorgan.org/collections/works/potter/default.asp Exhibition of Beatrix Potter's Picture Letters at the Morgan Library]
* [https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/search/?subcollection=151 Beatrix Potter Collection] (digitized images from the Free Library of Philadelphia)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatrix_Potter
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Liberal Party (UK)
|
| founder = John Russell, 1st Earl Russell
| foundation
| dissolution <!--; reconstituted 1989-->
| merger =
| successor = Liberal Democrats (majority)<br>Liberal Party (UK, 1989) (minority)
| headquarters = Offices at the National Liberal Club, 1 Whitehall Place, London
| youth_wing = Young Liberals
| ideology Liberalism (British)<br/>Factions:<br/>Classical liberalism<br/>Free trade<br/>Gladstonian liberalism<br/>Radicalism<br/>Social liberalism
| position = Centre
| national = SDP–Liberal Alliance<br>(1981–1988)
| international =
| european = Federation of European Liberal Democrats<br />(1976–1988)
| europarl =
| affiliation1_title = Northern Irish affiliate
| affiliation1 = Ulster Liberal Party (1956–1987)
| colours = }} Orange (official) | }} Yellow (customary)}}
| blank1_title = Conference
| blank1 = Liberal Assembly
| anthem = "The Land"
| country = the United Kingdom
}}
The Liberal Party was one of the two major political parties in the United Kingdom, along with the Conservative Party, in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Beginning as an alliance of Whigs, free trade–supporting Peelites, and reformist Radicals in the 1850s, by the end of the 19th century, it had formed four governments under William Ewart Gladstone. Despite being divided over the issue of Irish Home Rule, the party returned to government in 1905 and won a landslide victory in the 1906 general election. Under prime ministers Henry Campbell-Bannerman (1905–1908) and H. H. Asquith (1908–1916), the Liberal Party passed reforms that created a basic welfare state. Although Asquith was the party leader, its dominant figure was David Lloyd George.
Asquith was overwhelmed by his wartime role as prime minister and Lloyd George led a coalition that replaced him in late 1916. However, Asquith remained as Liberal Party leader. The split between Lloyd George's breakaway faction and Asquith's official Liberal faction badly weakened the party. The coalition government of Lloyd George was increasingly dominated by the Conservative Party, which finally ousted him as prime minister in 1922. The subsequent Liberal collapse was quick and catastrophic. With 400 MPs elected in the 1906 election; they had only 40 in 1924. Their share of the popular vote plunged from 49% to 18%. The Labour Party absorbed most of the ex-Liberal voters and then became the Conservatives' main rival.
By the 1950s, the party had won as few as six seats at general elections. Apart from a few notable by-election victories, its fortunes did not improve significantly until it formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance with the newly formed Social Democratic Party (SDP) in 1981. At the 1983 general election, the Alliance won over a quarter of the vote, but won only 23 of the 633 seats it contested. At the 1987 general election, its share of the vote fell below 23%. Further, the Liberals and the SDP merged in 1988 to form the Social and Liberal Democrats (SLD), who the following year were renamed the Liberal Democrats. A splinter group reconstituted the Liberal Party in 1989.
The Liberals were a coalition with diverse positions on major issues and no unified national policy. This made them repeatedly liable to deep splits, such as that of the Liberal Unionists in 1886 (they eventually joined the Conservative Party); the faction of labour union members that joined the new Labour Party; the split between factions led by Asquith and that led by Lloyd George in 1918–1922; and a three-way split in 1931. Many prominent intellectuals were active in the party, including philosopher John Stuart Mill, economist John Maynard Keynes, and social planner William Beveridge. Winston Churchill during his years as a Liberal (1904–1924) authored Liberalism and the Social Problem (1909).
History
Origins
]]
The Liberal Party grew out of the Whigs, who had their origins in an aristocratic faction in the reign of Charles II and the early 19th century Radicals. The Whigs were in favour of reducing the power of the Crown and increasing the power of Parliament. Although their motives in this were originally to gain more power for themselves, the more idealistic Whigs gradually came to support an expansion of democracy for its own sake. The great figures of reformist Whiggery were Charles James Fox (died 1806) and his disciple and successor Earl Grey. After decades in opposition, the Whigs returned to power under Grey in 1830 and carried the First Reform Act in 1832.
The Reform Act was the climax of Whiggism, but it also brought about the Whigs' demise. The admission of the middle classes to the franchise and to the House of Commons led eventually to the development of a systematic middle-class liberalism and the end of Whiggery, although for many years reforming aristocrats held senior positions in the party. In the years after Grey's retirement, the party was led first by Lord Melbourne, a fairly traditional Whig, and then by Lord John Russell, the son of a Duke but a crusading radical, and by Lord Palmerston, a renegade Irish Tory and essentially a conservative, although capable of radical gestures.
As early as 1839, Russell had adopted the name of "Liberals", but in reality, his party was a loose coalition of Whigs in the House of Lords and Radicals in the Commons. The leading Radicals were John Bright and Richard Cobden, who represented the manufacturing towns which had gained representation under the Reform Act. They favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England (many Liberals were Nonconformists), avoidance of war and foreign alliances (which were bad for business) and above all free trade. For a century, free trade remained the one cause which could unite all Liberals.
In 1841, the Liberals lost office to the Conservatives under Sir Robert Peel, but their period in opposition was short because the Conservatives split over the repeal of the Corn Laws, a free trade issue; and a faction known as the Peelites (but not Peel himself, who died soon after) aligned to the Liberal side on the issue of free trade. This allowed ministries led by Russell, Palmerston and the Peelite Lord Aberdeen to hold office for most of the 1850s and 1860s. A leading Peelite was William Gladstone, who was a reforming Chancellor of the Exchequer in most of these governments. The formal foundation of the Liberal Party is traditionally traced to 1859 when the remaining Peelites, Radicals and Whigs agreed to vote down the incumbent Conservative government. This meeting was held at the Willis' rooms in London on 6 June 1859. This led to Palmerston's second government.
However, the Whig-Radical amalgam could not become a true modern political party while it was dominated by aristocrats and it was not until the departure of the "Two Terrible Old Men", Russell and Palmerston, that Gladstone could become the first leader of the modern Liberal Party. This was brought about by Palmerston's death in 1865 and Russell's retirement in 1868. After a brief Conservative government (during which the Second Reform Act was passed by agreement between the parties), Gladstone won a huge victory at the 1868 election and formed the first Liberal government. The establishment of the party as a national membership organisation came with the foundation of the National Liberal Federation in 1877. The philosopher John Stuart Mill was also a Liberal MP from 1865 to 1868.
Gladstone era
For the next 30 years, Gladstone and Liberalism were synonymous. William Gladstone served as prime minister four times (1868–74, 1880–85, 1886, and 1892–94). His financial policies, based on the notion of balanced budgets, low taxes and laissez-faire, were suited to a developing capitalist society, but they could not respond effectively as economic and social conditions changed. Called the "Grand Old Man" later in life, Gladstone was always a dynamic popular orator who appealed strongly to the working class and to the lower middle class. Deeply religious, Gladstone brought a new moral tone to politics, with his evangelical sensibility and his opposition to aristocracy. His moralism often angered his upper-class opponents (including Queen Victoria), and his heavy-handed control split the Liberal Party.
In foreign policy, Gladstone was in general against foreign entanglements, but he did not resist the realities of imperialism. For example, he ordered the occupation of Egypt by British forces in the 1882 Anglo-Egyptian War. His goal was to create a European order based on co-operation rather than conflict and on mutual trust instead of rivalry and suspicion; the rule of law was to supplant the reign of force and self-interest. This Gladstonian concept of a harmonious Concert of Europe was opposed to and ultimately defeated by a Bismarckian system of manipulated alliances and antagonisms.
As prime minister from 1868 to 1874, Gladstone headed a Liberal Party which was a coalition of Peelites like himself, Whigs and Radicals. He was now a spokesman for "peace, economy and reform". One major achievement was the Elementary Education Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict. c. 75), which provided England with an adequate system of elementary schools for the first time. He also secured the abolition of the purchase of commissions in the British Army and of religious tests for admission to Oxford and Cambridge; the introduction of the secret ballot in elections; the legalization of trade unions; and the reorganization of the judiciary in the Judicature Act.
Regarding Ireland, the major Liberal achievements were land reform, where he ended centuries of landlord oppression, and the disestablishment of the (Anglican) Church of Ireland through the Irish Church Act 1869.
In the 1874 general election, Gladstone was defeated by the Conservatives under Benjamin Disraeli during a sharp economic recession. He formally resigned as Liberal leader and was succeeded by the Marquess of Hartington, but he soon changed his mind and returned to active politics. He strongly disagreed with Disraeli's pro-Ottoman foreign policy and in 1880 he conducted the first outdoor mass-election campaign in Britain, known as the Midlothian campaign. The Liberals won a large majority in the 1880 election. Hartington ceded his place and Gladstone resumed office.
Ireland and Home Rule
Among the consequences of the Third Reform Act (1884) was the giving of the vote to many Irish Catholics. In the 1885 general election the Irish Parliamentary Party held the balance of power in the House of Commons and demanded Irish Home Rule as the price of support for a continued Gladstone ministry. Gladstone personally supported Home Rule, but a strong Liberal Unionist faction led by Joseph Chamberlain, along with the last of the Whigs, Hartington, opposed it. The Irish Home Rule bill proposed to offer all owners of Irish land a chance to sell to the state at a price equal to 20 years' purchase of the rents and allowing tenants to purchase the land. Irish nationalist reaction was mixed, Unionist opinion was hostile, and the election addresses during the 1886 election revealed English radicals to be against the bill also. Among the Liberal rank and file, several Gladstonian candidates disowned the bill, reflecting fears at the constituency level that the interests of the working people were being sacrificed to finance a costly rescue operation for the landed élite. Further, Home Rule had not been promised in the Liberals' election manifesto, and so the impression was given that Gladstone was buying Irish support in a rather desperate manner to hold on to power.
The result was a catastrophic split in the Liberal Party, and heavy defeat in the 1886 election at the hands of Lord Salisbury, who was supported by the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party. There was a final weak Gladstone ministry in 1892, but it also was dependent on Irish support and failed to get Irish Home Rule through the House of Lords.
Newcastle Programme
Historically, the aristocracy was divided between Conservatives and Liberals. However, when Gladstone committed to home rule for Ireland, Britain's upper classes largely abandoned the Liberal party, giving the Conservatives a large permanent majority in the House of Lords. Following the Queen, High Society in London largely ostracized home rulers and Liberal clubs were badly split. Joseph Chamberlain took a major element of upper-class supporters out of the Party and into a third party called Liberal Unionism on the Irish issue. It collaborated with and eventually merged into the Conservative party. The Gladstonian liberals in 1891 adopted The Newcastle Programme that included home rule for Ireland, disestablishment of the Church of England in Wales, tighter controls on the sale of liquor, major extension of factory regulation and various democratic political reforms. The Programme had a strong appeal to the nonconformist middle-class Liberal element, which felt liberated by the departure of the aristocracy. Relations with trade unions
A major long-term consequence of the Third Reform Act was the rise of Lib-Lab candidates. The Act split all county constituencies (which were represented by multiple MPs) into single-member constituencies, roughly corresponding to population patterns. With the foundation of the Labour Party not to come till 1906, many trade unions allied themselves with the Liberals. In areas with working class majorities, in particular coal-mining areas, Lib-Lab candidates were popular, and they received sponsorship and endorsement from trade unions. In the first election after the Act was passed (1885), thirteen were elected, up from two in 1874. The Third Reform Act also facilitated the demise of the Whig old guard; in two-member constituencies, it was common to pair a Whig and a radical under the Liberal banner. After the Third Reform Act, fewer former Whigs were selected as candidates. Reform policies A broad range of interventionist reforms were introduced by the 1892–1895 Liberal government. Amongst other measures, standards of accommodation and of teaching in schools were improved, factory inspection was made more stringent, and ministers used their powers to increase the wages and reduce the working hours of large numbers of male workers employed by the state.
Historian Walter L. Arnstein concludes:
After Gladstone
Gladstone finally retired in 1894. Gladstone's support for Home Rule deeply divided the party, and it lost its upper and upper-middle-class base, while keeping support among Protestant nonconformists and the Celtic fringe. Historian R. C. K. Ensor reports that after 1886, the main Liberal Party was deserted by practically the entire whig peerage and the great majority of the upper-class and upper-middle-class members. High prestige London clubs that had a Liberal base were deeply split. Ensor notes that, "London society, following the known views of the Queen, practically ostracized home rulers."
The new Liberal leader was the ineffectual Lord Rosebery. He led the party to a heavy defeat in the 1895 general election.
Liberal factions
The Liberal Party lacked a unified ideological base in 1906. It contained numerous contradictory and hostile factions, such as imperialists and supporters of the Boers; near-socialists and laissez-faire classical liberals; suffragettes and opponents of women's suffrage; antiwar elements and supporters of the military alliance with France. Nonconformists – Protestants outside the Anglican fold – were a powerful element, dedicated to opposing the established church in terms of education and taxation. However, the non-conformists were losing support amid society at large and played a lesser role in party affairs after 1900. The party, furthermore, also included Irish Catholics, and secularists from the labour movement. Many Conservatives (including Winston Churchill) had recently protested against high tariff moves by the Conservatives by switching to the anti-tariff Liberal camp, but it was unclear how many old Conservative traits they brought along, especially on military and naval issues.
The middle-class business, professional and intellectual communities were generally strongholds, although some old aristocratic families played important roles as well. The working-class element was moving rapidly toward the newly emerging Labour Party. One uniting element was widespread agreement on the use of politics and Parliament as a device to upgrade and improve society and to reform politics. All Liberals were outraged when Conservatives used their majority in the House of Lords to block reform legislation. In the House of Lords, the Liberals had lost most of their members, who in the 1890s "became Conservative in all but name." The government could force the unwilling king to create new Liberal peers, and that threat did prove decisive in the battle for dominance of Commons over Lords in 1911.
Rise of New Liberalism
The late nineteenth century saw the emergence of New Liberalism within the Liberal Party, which advocated state intervention as a means of guaranteeing freedom and removing obstacles to it such as poverty and unemployment. The policies of the New Liberalism are now known as social liberalism.
and Winston Churchill enacted the 1909 People's Budget which specifically aimed at the redistribution of wealth.]]
The New Liberals included intellectuals like L. T. Hobhouse, and John A. Hobson. They saw individual liberty as something achievable only under favourable social and economic circumstances. In their view, the poverty, squalor, and ignorance in which many people lived made it impossible for freedom and individuality to flourish. New Liberals believed that these conditions could be ameliorated only through collective action coordinated by a strong, welfare-oriented, and interventionist state.
After the historic 1906 victory, the Liberal Party introduced multiple reforms on a range of issues, including health insurance, unemployment insurance, and pensions for elderly workers, thereby laying the groundwork for the future British welfare state. Some proposals failed, such as licensing fewer pubs, or rolling back Conservative educational policies. The People's Budget of 1909, championed by David Lloyd George and fellow Liberal Winston Churchill, introduced unprecedented taxes on the wealthy in Britain and radical social welfare programmes to the country's policies. In the Liberal camp, as noted by one study, "the Budget was on the whole enthusiastically received." It was the first budget with the expressed intent of redistributing wealth among the public. It imposed increased taxes on luxuries, liquor, tobacco, high incomes, and land – taxation that fell heavily on the rich. The new money was to be made available for new welfare programmes as well as new battleships. In 1911 Lloyd George succeeded in putting through Parliament his National Insurance Act, making provision for sickness and invalidism, and this was followed by his Unemployment Insurance Act.
Historian Peter Weiler argues:
Contrasting Old Liberalism with New Liberalism, David Lloyd George noted in a 1908 speech the following:
Liberal zenith
]]
(satirised as an unmarried mother leaving her baby at a Foundling hospital) abandons his commitment to old age pensions after failing to reach agreement with the Friendly Societies; Chancellor Austen Chamberlain threatens duties on consumer items which had been removed by Gladstone (in the picture on the wall); Chinese indentured labour in South Africa; John Bull contemplates his vote; and Joseph Chamberlain and Arthur Balfour (who favoured retaliatory tariffs) wearing top hats. The heading "ratepayers money for sectarian schools" refers to the Education Act 1902.]]
The Liberals languished in opposition for a decade while the coalition of Salisbury and Chamberlain held power. The 1890s were marred by infighting between the three principal successors to Gladstone, party leader William Harcourt, former prime minister Lord Rosebery, and Gladstone's personal secretary, John Morley. This intrigue finally led Harcourt and Morley to resign their positions in 1898 as they continued to be at loggerheads with Rosebery over Irish home rule and issues relating to imperialism. Replacing Harcourt as party leader was Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman. Harcourt's resignation briefly muted the turmoil in the party, but the beginning of the Second Boer War soon nearly broke the party apart, with Rosebery and a circle of supporters including important future Liberal figures H. H. Asquith, Edward Grey and Richard Burdon Haldane forming a clique dubbed the Liberal Imperialists that supported the government in the prosecution of the war. On the other side, more radical members of the party formed a Pro-Boer faction that denounced the conflict and called for an immediate end to hostilities. Quickly rising to prominence among the Pro-Boers was David Lloyd George, a relatively new MP and a master of rhetoric, who took advantage of having a national stage to speak out on a controversial issue to make his name in the party. Harcourt and Morley also sided with this group, though with slightly different aims. Campbell-Bannerman tried to keep these forces together at the head of a moderate Liberal rump, but in 1901 he delivered a speech on the government's "methods of barbarism" in South Africa that pulled him further to the left and nearly tore the party in two. The party was saved after Salisbury's retirement in 1902 when his successor, Arthur Balfour, pushed a series of unpopular initiatives such as the Education Act 1902 and Joseph Chamberlain called for a new system of protectionist tariffs.
Campbell-Bannerman was able to rally the party around the traditional liberal platform of free trade and land reform and led them to the greatest election victory in their history. This would prove the last time the Liberals won a majority in their own right. Although he presided over a large majority, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman was overshadowed by his ministers, most notably H. H. Asquith at the Exchequer, Edward Grey at the Foreign Office, Richard Burdon Haldane at the War Office and David Lloyd George at the Board of Trade. Campbell-Bannerman retired in 1908 and died soon after. He was succeeded by Asquith, who stepped up the government's radicalism. Lloyd George succeeded Asquith at the Exchequer and was in turn succeeded at the Board of Trade by Winston Churchill, a recent defector from the Conservatives.
]]
The 1906 general election also represented a shift to the left by the Liberal Party. According to Rosemary Rees, almost half of the Liberal MPs elected in 1906 were supportive of the 'New Liberalism' (which advocated government action to improve people's lives),) while claims were made that "five-sixths of the Liberal party are left wing." Other historians, however, have questioned the extent to which the Liberal Party experienced a leftward shift; according to Robert C. Self however, only between 50 and 60 Liberal MPs out of the 400 in the parliamentary party after 1906 were Social Radicals, with a core of 20 to 30. Nevertheless, important junior offices were held in the cabinet by what Duncan Tanner has termed "genuine New Liberals, Centrist reformers, and Fabian collectivists," and much legislation was pushed through by the Liberals in government. This included the regulation of working hours, National Insurance and welfare.
depicts Lloyd George as a giant with a cudgel labelled "Budget" in reference to his People's Budget while "a plutocrat" cowers beneath the table, Punch 28 April 1909. The caption, not shown, reads "Fee Fi Fo Phat, I smell the blood of a plutocrat. Be he alive or be he dead, I'll grind his bones to make my bread,"]]
A political battle erupted over the People's Budget, which was rejected by the House of Lords and for which the government obtained an electoral mandate at the January 1910 election. The election resulted in a hung parliament, with the government left dependent on the Irish Nationalists. Although the Lords now passed the budget, the government wished to curtail their power to block legislation. Asquith was required by King George V to fight a second general election in December 1910 (whose result was little changed from that in January) before he agreed, if necessary, to create hundreds of Liberals peers. Faced with that threat, the Lords voted to give up their veto power and allowed the passage of the Parliament Act 1911.
As the price of Irish support, Asquith was now forced to introduce a third Home Rule bill in 1912. Since the House of Lords no longer had the power to block the bill, but only to delay it for two years, it was due to become law in 1914. The Unionist Ulster Volunteers, led by Sir Edward Carson, launched a campaign of opposition that included the threat of a provisional government and armed resistance in Ulster. The Ulster Protestants had the full support of the Conservatives, whose leader, Bonar Law, was of Ulster-Scots descent. Government plans to deploy troops into Ulster had to be cancelled after the threat of mass resignation of their commissions by army officers in March 1914 (see Curragh Incident). Ireland seemed to be on the brink of civil war when the First World War broke out in August 1914. Asquith had offered the Six Counties (later to become Northern Ireland) an opt out from Home Rule for six years (i.e., until after two more general elections were likely to have taken place) but the Nationalists refused to agree to permanent Partition of Ireland. Historian George Dangerfield has argued that the multiplicity of crises in 1910 to 1914, political and industrial, so weakened the Liberal coalition before the war broke out that it marked the Strange Death of Liberal England. However, most historians date the collapse to the crisis of the First World War.
Decline
The Liberal Party might have survived a short war, but the totality of the Great War called for measures that the Party had long rejected. The result was the permanent destruction of the ability of the Liberal Party to lead a government. Historian Robert Blake explains the dilemma:
Blake further notes that it was the Liberals, not the Conservatives who needed the moral outrage of Belgium to justify going to war, while the Conservatives called for intervention from the start of the crisis on the grounds of realpolitik and the balance of power.}}
Asquith's Liberal government was brought down in , due in particular to a crisis in inadequate artillery shell production and the protest resignation of Admiral Fisher over the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign against Turkey. Reluctant to face doom in an election, Asquith formed a new coalition government on 25 May, with the majority of the new cabinet coming from his own Liberal party and the Unionist (Conservative) party, along with a token Labour representation. The new government lasted a year and a half and was the last time Liberals controlled the government. The analysis of historian A. J. P. Taylor is that the British people were so deeply divided over numerous issues, but on all sides, there was growing distrust of the Asquith government. There was no agreement whatsoever on wartime issues. The leaders of the two parties realized that embittered debates in Parliament would further undermine popular morale and so the House of Commons did not once discuss the war before May 1915. Taylor argues:
The 1915 coalition fell apart at the end of 1916, when the Conservatives withdrew their support from Asquith and gave it instead to Lloyd George, who became prime minister at the head of a new coalition largely made up of Conservatives. Asquith and his followers moved to the opposition benches in Parliament and the Liberal Party was deeply split once again.
Lloyd George as a Liberal heading a Conservative coalition
Lloyd George remained a Liberal all his life, but he abandoned many standard Liberal principles in his crusade to win the war at all costs. He insisted on strong government controls over business as opposed to the laissez-faire attitudes of traditional Liberals. in 1915–16 he had insisted on conscription of young men into the Army, a position that deeply troubled his old colleagues. That brought him and a few like-minded Liberals into the new coalition on the ground long occupied by Conservatives. There was no more planning for world peace or liberal treatment of Germany, nor discomfit with aggressive and authoritarian measures of state power. More deadly to the future of the party, says historian Trevor Wilson, was its repudiation by ideological Liberals, who decided sadly that it no longer represented their principles. Finally, the presence of the vigorous new Labour Party on the left gave a new home to voters disenchanted with the Liberal performance.
The last majority Liberal Government in Britain was elected in 1906. The years preceding the First World War were marked by worker strikes and civil unrest and saw many violent confrontations between civilians and the police and armed forces. Other issues of the period included women's suffrage and the Irish Home Rule movement. After the carnage of 1914–1918, the democratic reforms of the Representation of the People Act 1918 instantly tripled the number of people entitled to vote in Britain from seven to twenty-one million. The Labour Party benefited most from this huge change in the electorate, forming its first minority government in 1924.
In the 1918 general election, Lloyd George, hailed as "the Man Who Won the War", led his coalition into a khaki election. Lloyd George and the Conservative leader Bonar Law wrote a joint letter of support to candidates to indicate they were considered the official Coalition candidates—this "coupon", as it became known, was issued against many sitting Liberal MPs, often to devastating effect, though not against Asquith himself. The coalition won a massive victory: Labour increased their position slightly, but the Asquithian Liberals were decimated. Those remaining Liberal MPs who were opposed to the Coalition Government went into opposition under the parliamentary leadership of Sir Donald MacLean who also became Leader of the Opposition. Asquith, who had appointed MacLean, remained as overall Leader of the Liberal Party even though he lost his seat in 1918. Asquith returned to Parliament in 1920 and resumed leadership. Between 1919 and 1923, the anti-Lloyd George Liberals were called Asquithian Liberals, Wee Free Liberals or Independent Liberals.
Lloyd George was increasingly under the influence of the rejuvenated Conservative party who numerically dominated the coalition. In 1922, the Conservative backbenchers rebelled against the continuation of the coalition, citing, in particular, Lloyd George's plan for war with Turkey in the Chanak Crisis, and his corrupt sale of honours. He resigned as prime minister and was succeeded by Bonar Law.
At the 1922 and 1923 elections, the Liberals won barely a third of the vote and only a quarter of the seats in the House of Commons as many radical voters abandoned the divided Liberals and went over to Labour. In 1922, Labour became the official opposition. A reunion of the two warring factions took place in 1923 when the new Conservative prime minister Stanley Baldwin committed his party to protective tariffs, causing the Liberals to reunite in support of free trade. The party gained ground in the 1923 general election but made most of its gains from Conservatives whilst losing ground to Labour—a sign of the party's direction for many years to come. The party remained the third largest in the House of Commons, but the Conservatives had lost their majority. There was much speculation and fear [by whom?] about the prospect of a Labour government and comparatively little about a Liberal government, even though it could have plausibly presented an experienced team of ministers compared to Labour's almost complete lack of experience as well as offering a middle ground that could obtain support from both Conservatives and Labour in crucial Commons divisions. However, instead of trying to force the opportunity to form a Liberal government, Asquith decided instead to allow Labour the chance of office in the belief that they would prove incompetent, and this would set the stage for a revival of Liberal fortunes at Labour's expense, but it was a fatal error.
Labour was determined to destroy the Liberals and become the sole party of the left. Ramsay MacDonald was forced into a snap election in 1924 and although his government was defeated, he achieved his objective of virtually wiping the Liberals out as many more radical voters now moved to Labour whilst moderate middle-class Liberal voters concerned about socialism moved to the Conservatives. The Liberals were reduced to a mere forty seats in Parliament, only seven of which had been won against candidates from both parties and none of these formed a coherent area of Liberal survival. The party seemed finished, and during this period some Liberals, such as Churchill, went over to the Conservatives while others went over to Labour. Several Labour ministers of later generations, such as Michael Foot and Tony Benn, were the sons of Liberal MPs.
Asquith finally resigned as Liberal leader in 1926 (he died in 1928). Lloyd George, now party leader, began a drive to produce coherent policies on many key issues of the day. In the 1929 general election, he made a final bid to return the Liberals to the political mainstream, with an ambitious programme of state stimulation of the economy called We Can Conquer Unemployment!, largely written for him by the Liberal economist John Maynard Keynes. The Liberal Party stood in Northern Ireland for the first and only time in the 1929 general election, gaining 17% of the vote, but won no seats. Nationally the Liberals gained ground, but once again it was at the Conservatives' expense whilst also losing seats to Labour. Indeed, the urban areas of the country suffering heavily from unemployment, which might have been expected to respond the most to the radical economic policies of the Liberals, instead gave the party its worst results. By contrast, most of the party's seats were won either due to the absence of a candidate from one of the other parties or in rural areas on the Celtic fringe, where local evidence suggests that economic ideas were at best peripheral to the electorate's concerns. The Liberals now found themselves with 59 members, holding the balance of power in a Parliament where Labour was the largest party but lacked an overall majority. Lloyd George offered a degree of support to the Labour government in the hope of winning concessions, including a degree of electoral reform to introduce the alternative vote, but this support was to prove bitterly divisive as the Liberals increasingly divided between those seeking to gain what Liberal goals they could achieve, those who preferred a Conservative government to a Labour one and vice versa. Splits over the National Government
]]
A group of Liberal MPs led by Sir John Simon opposed the Liberal Party's support for the minority Labour government. They preferred to reach an accommodation with the Conservatives. In 1931 MacDonald's Labour government fell apart in response to the Great Depression. Macdonald agreed to lead a National Government of all parties, which passed a budget to deal with the financial crisis. When few Labour MPs backed the National government, it became clear that the Conservatives had the clear majority of government supporters. They then forced MacDonald to call a general election. Lloyd George called for the party to leave the National Government but only a few MPs and candidates followed. The majority, led by Sir Herbert Samuel, decided to contest the elections as part of the government. The bulk of Liberal MPs supported the government, – the Liberal Nationals (officially the "National Liberals" after 1947) led by Simon, also known as "Simonites", and the "Samuelites" or "official Liberals", led by Samuel who remained as the official party. Both groups secured about 34 MPs but proceeded to diverge even further after the election, with the Liberal Nationals remaining supporters of the government throughout its life. There were to be a succession of discussions about them rejoining the Liberals, but these usually foundered on the issues of free trade and continued support for the National Government. The one significant reunification came in 1946 when the Liberal and Liberal National party organisations in London merged. The National Liberals, as they were called by then, were gradually absorbed into the Conservative Party, finally merging in 1968.
The official Liberals found themselves a tiny minority within a government committed to protectionism. Slowly they found this issue to be one they could not support. In early 1932 it was agreed to suspend the principle of collective responsibility to allow the Liberals to oppose the introduction of tariffs. Later in 1932 the Liberals resigned their ministerial posts over the introduction of the Ottawa Agreement on Imperial Preference. However, they remained sitting on the government benches supporting it in Parliament, though in the country local Liberal activists bitterly opposed the government. Finally in late 1933 the Liberals crossed the floor of the House of Commons and went into complete opposition. By this point their number of MPs was severely depleted. In the 1935 general election, just 17 Liberal MPs were elected, along with Lloyd George and three followers as independent Liberals. Immediately after the election the two groups reunited, though Lloyd George declined to play much of a formal role in his old party. Over the next ten years there would be further defections as MPs deserted to either the Liberal Nationals or Labour. Yet there were a few recruits, such as Clement Davies, who had deserted to the National Liberals in 1931 but now returned to the party during World War II and who would lead it after the war.
Near extinction
Samuel had lost his seat in the 1935 election and the leadership of the party fell to Sir Archibald Sinclair. With many traditional domestic Liberal policies now regarded as irrelevant, he focused the party on opposition to both the rise of Fascism in Europe and the appeasement foreign policy of the National Government, arguing that intervention was needed, in contrast to the Labour calls for pacifism. Despite the party's weaknesses, Sinclair gained a high profile as he sought to recall the Midlothian Campaign and once more revitalise the Liberals as the party of a strong foreign policy.
In 1940, they joined Churchill's wartime coalition government, with Sinclair serving as Secretary of State for Air, the last British Liberal to hold Cabinet rank office for seventy years. However, it was a sign of the party's lack of importance that they were not included in the War Cabinet; some leading party members founded Radical Action, a group which called for liberal candidates to break the war-time electoral pact. At the 1945 general election, Sinclair and many of his colleagues lost their seats to both Conservatives and Labour and the party returned just 12 MPs to Westminster, but this was just the beginning of the decline. In 1950, the general election saw the Liberals return just nine MPs. Another general election was called in 1951 and the Liberals were left with just six MPs and all but one of them were aided by the fact that the Conservatives refrained from fielding candidates in those constituencies.
In 1957, this total fell to five when one of the Liberal MPs died and the subsequent by-election was lost to the Labour Party, which selected the former Liberal Deputy Leader Megan Lloyd George as its own candidate. The Liberal Party seemed close to extinction. During this low period, it was often joked that Liberal MPs could hold meetings in the back of one taxi.
Liberal revival
Through the 1950s and into the 1960s, the Liberals survived only because a handful of constituencies in rural Scotland and Wales clung to their Liberal traditions, whilst in two English towns, Bolton and Huddersfield, local Liberals and Conservatives agreed to each contest only one of the town's two seats. Jo Grimond, for example, who became Leader of the Liberal Party in 1956, was MP for the remote Orkney and Shetland islands. Under his leadership a Liberal revival began, marked by the Orpington by-election of March 1962 which was won by Eric Lubbock. There, the Liberals won a seat in the London suburbs for the first time since 1935.
The Liberals became the first of the major British political parties to advocate British membership of the European Economic Community. Grimond also sought an intellectual revival of the party, seeking to position it as a non-socialist radical alternative to the Conservative government of the day. In particular he canvassed the support of the young post-war university students and recent graduates, appealing to younger voters in a way that many of his recent predecessors had not, and asserting a new strand of Liberalism for the post-war world.
The new middle-class suburban generation began to find the Liberals' policies attractive again. Under Grimond (who retired in 1967) and his successor, Jeremy Thorpe, the Liberals regained the status of a serious third force in British politics, polling up to 20% of the vote, but unable to break the duopoly of Labour and Conservative and win more than fourteen seats in the Commons. An additional problem was competition in the Liberal heartlands in Scotland and Wales from the Scottish National Party and Plaid Cymru who both grew as electoral forces from the 1960s onwards. Although Emlyn Hooson held on to the seat of Montgomeryshire, upon Clement Davies death in 1962, the party lost five Welsh seats between 1950 and 1966. In September 1966, the Welsh Liberal Party formed their own state party, moving the Liberal Party into a fully federal structure.
In local elections, Liverpool remained a Liberal stronghold, with the party taking the plurality of seats on the elections to the new Liverpool Metropolitan Borough Council in 1973. On 26 July 1973, the party won two by-elections on the same day, in the Isle of Ely (with Clement Freud), and Ripon (with David Austick). In the February 1974 general election, the Conservative government of Edward Heath won a plurality of votes cast, but the Labour Party gained a plurality of seats. The Conservatives were unable to form a government due to the Ulster Unionist MPs refusing to support the Conservatives after the Northern Ireland Sunningdale Agreement. The Liberals obtained 6.1 million votes, the most it would ever achieve, and now held the balance of power in the Commons. Conservatives offered Thorpe the Home Office if he would join a coalition government with Heath. Thorpe was personally in favour of it, but the party insisted it would only agree pending a clear government commitment to introducing proportional representation (PR) and a change of prime minister. The former was unacceptable to Heath's cabinet and the latter to Heath personally, so the talks collapsed. Instead, a minority Labour government was formed under Harold Wilson but with no formal support from Thorpe. In the October 1974 general election, the Liberals total vote slipped back slightly (and declined in each of the next three) and the Labour government won a wafer-thin majority.
Thorpe was subsequently forced to resign after allegations that he attempted to have his homosexual lover murdered by a hitman. The party's new leader, David Steel, negotiated the Lib–Lab pact with Wilson's successor as prime minister, James Callaghan. According to this pact, the Liberals would support the government in crucial votes in exchange for some influence over policy. The agreement lasted from 1977 to 1978, but proved mostly fruitless, for two reasons: the Liberals' key demand of PR was rejected by most Labour MPs, whilst the contacts between Liberal spokespersons and Labour ministers often proved detrimental, such as between Treasury spokesperson John Pardoe and Chancellor of the Exchequer Denis Healey, who were mutually antagonistic.
Alliance, Liberal Democrats and reconstituted Liberal Party
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The Conservative Party under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher won the 1979 general election, placing the Labour Party back in opposition, which served to push the Liberals back into the margins.
In 1981, defectors from a moderate faction of the Labour Party, led by former Cabinet ministers Roy Jenkins, David Owen and Shirley Williams, founded the Social Democratic Party (SDP). The new party and the Liberals quickly formed the SDP–Liberal Alliance, which for a while polled as high as 50% in the opinion polls and appeared capable of winning the next general election. Indeed, Steel was so confident of an Alliance victory that he told the 1981 Liberal conference, "Go back to your constituencies, and prepare for government!".
However, the Alliance was overtaken in the polls by the Tories in the aftermath of the Falkland Islands War and at the 1983 general election the Conservatives were re-elected by a landslide, with Labour once again forming the opposition. While the SDP–Liberal Alliance came close to Labour in terms of votes (a share of more than 25%), it only had 23 MPs compared to Labour's 209. The Alliance's support was spread out across the country, and was not concentrated in enough areas to translate into seats.
In the 1987 general election, the Alliance's share of the votes fell slightly and it now had 22 MPs. In the election's aftermath Steel proposed a merger of the two parties. Most SDP members voted in favour of the merger, but SDP leader David Owen objected and continued to lead a "rump" SDP.
In March 1988, the Liberal Party and Social Democratic Party merged to create the Social and Liberal Democrats, renamed the Liberal Democrats in October 1989. Over two-thirds of Liberal members joined the merged party, along with all sitting MPs. Steel and SDP leader Robert Maclennan served briefly as interim leaders of the merged party.
A group of Liberal opponents of the merger with the Social Democrats, including Michael Meadowcroft (the former Liberal MP for Leeds West) and Paul Wiggin (who served on Peterborough City Council as a Liberal), continued with a new party organisation under the name of the 'Liberal Party'. Meadowcroft joined the Liberal Democrats in 2007, but the Liberal Party as reconstituted in 1989 continues to hold council seats and field candidates in Westminster Parliamentary elections. Only one of the twelve Liberal candidates in 2024 achieved 5% or more of the votes, resulting in all bar that one losing their deposits.
Ideology
to see them elect a Liberal Party candidate during the 1880 general elections.]]
During the 19th century, the Liberal Party was broadly in favour of what would today be called classical liberalism, supporting laissez-faire economic policies such as free trade and minimal government interference in the economy (this doctrine was usually termed Gladstonian liberalism after the Victorian era Liberal Prime Minister William Gladstone). The Liberal Party favoured social reform, personal liberty, reducing the powers of the Crown and the Church of England (many of them were nonconformists) and an extension of the electoral franchise. Sir William Harcourt, a prominent Liberal politician in the Victorian era, said this about liberalism in 1872: <blockquote>If there be any party which is more pledged than another to resist a policy of restrictive legislation, having for its object social coercion, that party is the Liberal party. (Cheers.) But liberty does not consist in making others do what you think right, (Hear, hear.) The difference between a free Government and a Government which is not free is principally this—that a Government which is not free interferes with everything it can, and a free Government interferes with nothing except what it must. A despotic Government tries to make everybody do what it wishes; a Liberal Government tries, as far as the safety of society will permit, to allow everybody to do as he wishes. It has been the tradition of the Liberal party consistently to maintain the doctrine of individual liberty. It is because they have done so that England is the place where people can do more what they please than in any other country in the world. [...] It is this practice of allowing one set of people to dictate to another set of people what they shall do, what they shall think, what they shall drink, when they shall go to bed, what they shall buy, and where they shall buy it, what wages they shall get and how they shall spend them, against which the Liberal party have always protested.</blockquote>
The political terms of "modern", "progressive" or "new" Liberalism began to appear in the mid to late 1880s and became increasingly common to denote the tendency in the Liberal Party to favour an increased role for the state as more important than the classical liberal stress on self-help and freedom of choice.
By the early 20th century, the Liberals stance began to shift towards "New Liberalism", what would today be called social liberalism, namely a belief in personal liberty with a support for government intervention to provide social welfare. This shift was best exemplified by the Liberal government of H. H. Asquith and his Chancellor David Lloyd George, whose Liberal reforms in the early 1900s created a basic welfare state.
David Lloyd George adopted a programme at the 1929 general election entitled We Can Conquer Unemployment!, although by this stage the Liberals had declined to third-party status. The Liberals as expressed in the Liberal Yellow Book now regarded opposition to state intervention as being a characteristic of right-wing extremists.
After nearly becoming extinct in the 1940s and the 1950s, the Liberal Party revived its fortunes somewhat under the leadership of Jo Grimond in the 1960s by positioning itself as a radical centrist, non-socialist alternative to the Conservative and Labour Party governments of the time.
Religious alignment
Since 1660, nonconformist Protestants have played a major role in English politics. Relatively few MPs were Dissenters. However the Dissenters were a major voting bloc in many areas, such as the East Midlands. They were very well organised and highly motivated and largely won over the Whigs and Liberals to their cause. Down to the 1830s, Dissenters demanded removal of political and civil disabilities that applied to them (especially those in the Test and Corporation Acts). The Anglican establishment strongly resisted until 1828. Numerous reforms of voting rights, especially that of 1832, increased the political power of Dissenters. They demanded an end to compulsory church rates, in which local taxes went only to Anglican churches. They finally achieved the end of religious tests for university degrees in 1905. Gladstone brought the majority of Dissenters around to support for Home Rule for Ireland, putting the dissenting Protestants in league with the Irish Roman Catholics in an otherwise unlikely alliance. The Dissenters gave significant support to moralistic issues, such as temperance and sabbath enforcement. The nonconformist conscience, as it was called, was repeatedly called upon by Gladstone for support for his moralistic foreign policy. In election after election, Protestant ministers rallied their congregations to the Liberal ticket. In Scotland, the Presbyterians played a similar role to the Nonconformist Methodists, Baptists and other groups in England and Wales.
By the 1820s, the different Nonconformists, including Wesleyan Methodists, Baptists, Congregationalists and Unitarians, had formed the Committee of Dissenting Deputies and agitated for repeal of the highly restrictive Test and Corporation Acts. These Acts excluded Nonconformists from holding civil or military office or attending Oxford or Cambridge, compelling them to set up their own Dissenting Academies privately. The Tories tended to be in favour of these Acts and so the Nonconformist cause was linked closely to the Whigs, who advocated civil and religious liberty. After the Test and Corporation Acts were repealed in 1828, all the Nonconformists elected to Parliament were Liberals. Nonconformists were angered by the Education Act 1902, which integrated Church of England denominational schools into the state system and provided for their support from taxes. John Clifford formed the National Passive Resistance Committee and by 1906 over 170 Nonconformists had gone to prison for refusing to pay school taxes. They included 60 Primitive Methodists, 48 Baptists, 40 Congregationalists and 15 Wesleyan Methodists.
The political strength of Dissent faded sharply after 1920 with the secularisation of British society in the 20th century. The rise of the Labour Party reduced the Liberal Party strongholds into the nonconformist and remote "Celtic Fringe", where the party survived by an emphasis on localism and historic religious identity, thereby neutralising much of the class pressure on behalf of the Labour movement.
| rowspan="2"|William Ewart Gladstone
|1,428,776
|61.5
|}}
| 18
| 1st
|
|-
!1874
|1,281,159
|52.0
|}}
| 145
| 2nd
|
|-
!1880
|data-sort-value="hart"|Spencer Cavendish
|1,836,423
|54.2
|}}
| 110
| 1st
|
|-
!1885
| rowspan="3"|William Ewart Gladstone
|2,199,198
|47.4
|}}
| 33
| 1st
|
|-
!1886
|1,353,581
|45.5
|}}
| 128
| 2nd
|
|-
!1892
|2,088,019
|45.4
|}}
| 80
| 1st
|
|-
!1895
|data-sort-value="rose"|Archibald Primrose
|1,765,266
|45.7
|}}
| 95
| 2nd
|
|-
!1900
| rowspan="2"|Henry Campbell-Bannerman
|1,572,323
|44.7
|}}
| 6
| 2nd
|
|-
!1906
|2,565,644
|48.9
|}}
| 214
| 1st
|
|-
!data-sort-value="1910.1"|January 1910
| rowspan="6"|H. H. Asquith
|2,712,511
|43.5
|}}
| 123
| 1st
|
|-
!data-sort-value="1910.2"|December 1910
|2,157,256
|43.2
|}}
| 2
| 1st
|
|-
!1918
|1,355,398
|13.0
|}}
| 235
| 5th
|
|-
!1922
|2,601,486
|18.9
|}}
| 26
| 3rd
|
|-
!1923
|4,129,922
|29.7
|}}
| 96
| 3rd
|
|-
!1924
|2,818,717
|17.8
|}}
| 118
| 3rd
|
|-
!1929
|data-sort-value="llo"|David Lloyd George
|5,104,638
|23.6
|}}
| 19
| 3rd
|
|-
!1931
| rowspan"2"|Herbert Samuel
|1,346,571
|6.5
|}}
| 29
| 4th
|
|-
!1935
|1,414,010
|6.7
|}}
| 12
| 4th
|
|-
!1945
|data-sort-value="sinc"|Archibald Sinclair
|2,177,938
|9.0
|}}
| 9
| 3rd
|
|-
!1950
| rowspan="3"|Clement Davies
|2,621,487
|9.1
|}}
| 3
| 6th
|
|-
!1951
|730,546
|2.5
|}}
| 3
| 4th
|
|-
!1955
|722,402
|2.7
|}}
| 0
| 3rd
|
|-
!1959
|rowspan="3"|Jo Grimond
|1,640,760
|5.9
|}}
| 0
| 3rd
|
|-
!1964
|3,099,283
|11.2
|}}
| 3
| 3rd
|
|-
!1966
|2,327,533
|8.5
|}}
| 3
| 3rd
|
|-
!1970
|rowspan="3"|Jeremy Thorpe
|2,117,035
|7.5
|}}
| 6
| 3rd
|
|-
!data-sort-value="1974.1"|February 1974
|6,059,519
|19.3
|}}
| 8
| 3rd
|
|-
!data-sort-value="1974.2"|October 1974
|5,346,704
|18.3
|}}
| 1
| 3rd
|
|-
!1979
|rowspan="3"|David Steel
|4,313,804
|13.8
|}}
| 2
| 3rd
|
|-
!1983
|4,273,146
|25.4 (Alliance)
|}}
| 6
| 3rd
|
|-
!1987
|4,170,849
|22.6 (Alliance)
|}}
| 0
| 3rd
|
|}
; Notes
See also
* :Category:Liberal Party (UK) MPs
* List of Liberal Party (UK) MPs
* Liberalism in the United Kingdom
* Liberal Democrats
* Leader of the Liberal Party (UK)
* List of United Kingdom Whig and allied party leaders, 1801–1859
* Liberal Chief Whip
* President of the Liberal Party
* List of Liberal Party and Liberal Democrats (UK) general election manifestos
References
Further reading
* Adelman, Paul. The decline of the Liberal Party 1910–1931 (2nd ed. Routledge, 2014).
* Bentley, Michael The Climax of Liberal Politics: British Liberalism in Theory and Practice, 1868–1918 (1987).
*
* Brack, Duncan; Ingham, Robert; Little, Tony, eds. British Liberal Leaders (2015).
* Campbell, John Lloyd George, The Goat in the Wilderness, 1922–31 (1977).
* Clarke, P. F. "The Electoral Position of the Liberal and Labour Parties, 1910–1914." English Historical Review 90.357 (1975): 828–836. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/567297 in JSTOR].
* Cook, Chris. A Short History of the Liberal Party, 1900–2001 (6th edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002. .
* Cregier, Don M. "The Murder of the British Liberal Party," The History Teacher 3#4 (1970), pp. 27–36 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3054322 online edition]
* Cross, Colin. The Liberals in Power, 1905–1914 (1963).
* David, Edward. "The Liberal Party Divided 1916–1918." Historical Journal 13#3 (1970, pp. 509–32, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2637886 online]
* Dangerfield, George. The Strange Death of Liberal England (1935), a famous classic [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.175390 online free].
* Dutton, David. A History of the Liberal Party Since 1900 (2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 2013). [https://books.google.com/books?id5CBHEAAAQBAJ&dq%22Liberal+party%22+UK+intellectuals&pg=PP1 online]
* Fairlie, Henry. "Oratory in Political Life," History Today (Jan 1960) 10#1 pp 3–13. A survey of political oratory in Britain from 1730 to 1960.
* Fahey, David M. "Temperance and the Liberal Party – Lord Peel's Report, 1899." Journal of British Studies 20#3 (1971), pp. 132–59, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/175352 online].
* Gilbert, Bentley Brinkerhoff. David Lloyd George: A Political Life: The Architect of Change 1863–1912 (1987)' David Lloyd George: A Political Life: Organizer of Victory, 1912–1916 (1992).
* Goodlad, Graham D. "The Liberal Party and Gladstone's Land Purchase Bill of 1886." Historical Journal 32#3 (1989), pp. 627–41, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639536 online].
* Hamer, D. A. Liberal Politics in the Age of Gladstone and Rosebery (1972) [https://archive.org/details/liberalpoliticsi0000daha/page/n5/mode/2up online]
* Hammond, J. L. and M. R. D. Foot. [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.125582 Gladstone and Liberalism] (1952)
* Hazlehurst, Cameron. "Asquith as Prime Minister, 1908–1916," The English Historical Review 85#336 (1970), pp. 502–531 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/563193 in JSTOR].
* Heyck, Thomas William. "Home Rule, Radicalism, and the Liberal Party, 1886–1895." Journal of British Studies 13#2 (1974), pp. 66–91, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/175088 online].
* Hughes, K. M. "A Political Party and Education: Reflections on the Liberal Party's Educational Policy, 1867–1902." British Journal of Educational Studies 8#2, (1960), pp. 112–26, [https://doi.org/10.2307/3118796 online].
* Jenkins, Roy. "From Gladstone to Asquith: The Late Victorian Pattern of Liberal Leadership," History Today (July 1964) 14#7 pp 445–452.
* Jenkins, Roy. Asquith: portrait of a man and an era (1964).
* Jenkins, T. A. "Gladstone, the Whigs and the Leadership of the Liberal Party, 1879–1880." Historical Journal 27#2 (1984), pp. 337–60, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639179 online].
*Jenkins, Terry. The Liberal Ascendancy, 1830–1886 (Bloomsbury, 1994).
* Jones, Thomas. Lloyd George (1951), short biography
* Kellas, James G. "The Liberal Party in Scotland 1876–1895." Scottish Historical Review 44#137, (1965), pp. 1–16, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25528584 online]
* Laybourn, Keith. "The rise of Labour and the decline of Liberalism: the state of the debate." History 80.259 (1995): 207–226, [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24422523 online]
* Lubenow, W. C. "Irish Home Rule and the Social Basis of the Great Separation in the Liberal Party in 1886." Historical Journal 28#1 (1985), pp. 125–42, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2639378 online].
* Lynch, Patricia. The Liberal Party in Rural England, 1885–1910: Radicalism and Community (2003).
* MacAllister, Iain, et al., "Yellow fever? The political geography of Liberal voting in Great Britain," Political Geography (2002) 21#4 pp. 421–447.
* McEwen, John M. "The Liberal Party and the Irish Question during the First World War." Journal of British Studies, 12#1, (1972), pp. 109–31, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/175330 online].
* McGill, Barry. "Francis Schnadhorst and Liberal Party Organization." Journal of Modern History 34#1 (1962), pp. 19–39, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1874816 online].
* Machin, G. I. T. "Gladstone and Nonconformity in the 1860s: The Formation of an Alliance." Historical Journal 17, no. 2 (1974): 347–64. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2638302 online].
* McCready, H. W. "Home Rule and the Liberal Party, 1899–1906." Irish Historical Studies 13#52, (1963), pp. 316–48, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/30005014 online].
*
* Mowat, Charles Loch. Britain between the Wars, 1918–1940 (1955) 694 pp. scholarly survey [https://archive.org/details/britainbetweenwa00mowa online]
* Packer, Ian. Liberal government and politics, 1905–15 (Springer, 2006).
* Parry, Jonathan. The Rise and Fall of Liberal Government in Victorian Britain (Yale, 1993) .
* Poe, William A. "Conservative Nonconformists: Religious Leaders and the Liberal Party in Yorkshire/Lancashire." Nineteenth Century Studies, vol. 2, (1988), pp. 63–72, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/45196640 online].
* Pugh, Martin D. "Asquith, Bonar Law and the First Coalition." Historical Journal 17.4 (1974): 813–836.
* Pugh, Martin. "The Liberal Party and the Popular Front." English Historical Review 121#494, (2006), pp. 1327–50, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4493712 online].
* Roberts, Matthew. "The Decline of Liberalism and the Rise of Labour" in Roberts, Political Movements in Urban England, 1832–1914 (2009) pp 128–144.
* Rossi, John P. "The Transformation of the British Liberal Party: A Study of the Tactics of the Liberal Opposition, 1874–1880." Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 68#8, (1978), pp. 1–133, [https://doi.org/10.2307/1006334 online].
* Rossi, John P. "English Catholics, the Liberal Party, and the General Election of 1880." Catholic Historical Review, 63#3, (1977), pp. 411–27, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25020158 online].
* Russell, A.K. Liberal Landslide: The General Election of 1906 (David & Charles, 1973).
* Searle, G. R. "The Edwardian Liberal Party and Business." English Historical Review 98#386, (1983), pp. 28–60, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/570163 online].
* Searle, G. R. A New England? Peace and war, 1886–1918 (Oxford UP, 2004), wide-ranging scholarly survey
* Sykes, Alan, The Rise and Fall of British Liberalism, 1776–1988 (1997) [https://www.amazon.com/Rise-Fall-British-Liberalism-1776-1988/dp/0582060419/refsr_1_1?Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.x0&Adv-Srch-Books-Submit.y0&dibeyJ2IjoiMSJ9.-HGq7MkoDM_DVTL9LdI5noVABuf0nu0q65yDqqLZFfDGjHj071QN20LucGBJIEps.Jwn9XqOQQrs0felSicc80m3i3ysLVLp91O3AFLuB2hs&dib_tagse&qid1718364964&refinementsp_27%3Asykes%2Cp_28%3Arise+and+fall&sbooks&sr1-1&unfiltered1&asin0582060575&revisionId&format4&depth1 excerpt]
* Thorpe, Andrew. "Labour Leaders and the Liberals, 1906–1924", Cercles 21 (2011), pp. 39–54. [http://www.cercles.com/n21/thorpe.pdf online].
* Tregidga, Garry. "Turning of the Tide? A Case Study of the Liberal Party in Provincial Britain in the Late 1930s." History 92#3 (2007), pp. 347–66, [http://www.jstor.org/stable/24428247 online].
* Vincent, John. The Formation of the Liberal Party, 1857–1868 (Constable, 1966) [https://archive.org/details/formationofbriti0000vinc online]
* Weiler, Peter. The New Liberalism: Liberal Social Theory in Great Britain, 1889–1914 (Routledge, 2016).
* Wilson, Trevor. The Downfall of the Liberal Party: 1914–1935 (1966).
Historiography
* Häusermann, Silja, Georg Picot, and Dominik Geering. "Review article: Rethinking party politics and the welfare state–recent advances in the literature". British Journal of Political Science 43#1 (2013): 221–240.[https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/S0007123412000336 online].
* St. John, Ian. The Historiography of Gladstone and Disraeli (Anthem Press, 2016) 402 pp. [https://books.google.com/books?idybo1DgAAQBAJ&pgPP1 excerpt].
* Thompson, J. A. "The Historians and the Decline of the Liberal Party." Albion 22#1, (1990), pp. 65–83, [https://doi.org/10.2307/4050257 online].
Primary sources
* Craig, Frederick Walter Scott, ed. (1975). British General Election Manifestos, 1900–74. Springer.
* [https://archive.org/details/liberalmagazine01britgoog/page/n8 Liberal Magazine 1901] in-depth coverage of 1900.
* [https://archive.org/details/liberalmagazine00britgoog/page/n6 Liberal Magazine 1900] in-depth coverage of 1899.
* The Liberal year book. 1887 (1887) [https://archive.org/details/liberalyearbook10000unse online]
* The Liberal year book: 1906 (1906); [https://archive.org/details/liberalyearbook01britgoog/page/n5/mode/1up online]
* The Liberal year book: 1907 (1907); [https://archive.org/details/liberalyearbook00assogoog online]
* The Liberal Year Book: 1908 (1908); [https://archive.org/details/liberalyearbook01unkngoog online], Biographies and voting returns since 1880s.
External links
* [http://www.liberalhistory.org.uk/ Liberal Democrat History Group].
* [http://archives.lse.ac.uk/TreeBrowse.aspx?srcCalmView.Catalog&fieldRefNo&key=LIBERAL%20PARTY Catalogue] of the Liberal Party papers (mostly dating from after 1945) at [https://web.archive.org/web/20070618035533/http://www.lse.ac.uk/library/archive/Default.htm LSE Archives].
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=74LSqxcUgYsC The Liberal Magazine Volume 2 1895].
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=lUFJAQAAMAAJ Liberal Magazine A Periodical for the Use of Liberal Speakers, Writers and Canvassers Volume 1 1893].
* [https://books.google.com/books?idQjoIAAAAQAAJ&dqliberal+campaign+factory+act+shaftesbury&pg=PA1 Facts for Liberal Politicians By John Noble 1879].
* [https://books.google.com/books?id5Kk5AQAAIAAJ&qnational+liberal+federation Proceedings in Connection with the Annual Meeting of the National Liberal Federation with the Annual Report By National Liberal Federation, 1881].
* [https://books.google.com/books?idoSLsl4p8h1AC&dqliberal+campaign+factory+act+shaftesbury&pg=PA30 Election Address and Speeches By Samuel Smith, 1882].
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=JAQLAAAAYAAJ Annual Report Presented at a Meeting of the Council By National Liberal Federation, 1887].
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=tgQLAAAAYAAJ Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Council By National Liberal Federation, 1895].
* [https://books.google.com/books?id8O9fAAAAcAAJ&qliberal+party+municipal+reform+housing Five Years of Liberal Policy and Conservative Opposition By George Charles Brodrick, 1874].
* [https://mrc-catalogue.warwick.ac.uk/records/HKW/6/3 Leaflets published by the Liberal Publication Department for the General Election of 1906, 1906].
* [https://archive.org/details/liberalyearbook01unkngoog The Liberal year book for 1908].
* [https://archive.org/details/governmentsrecor00libeuoft/page/n441/mode/2up The Government's record, 1906–1913 : seven years of Liberal legislation and administration By Liberal Publication Dept. (Great Britain)].
* [https://books.google.com/books?idV3FIAAAAYAAJ&dqmanchester+liberals+municipal+programme+working+class&pg=PA368 The Yale Review Volume 4 1895].
* [https://books.google.com/books?idKh4vEAAAQBAJ&dqliberal+municipal+programmes+midlands+working+class&pg=PT17 The Age of Lloyd George The Liberal Party and British Politics, 1890–1929 By Kenneth O. Morgan, 2021].
Category:Classical liberal parties
Category:Social liberal parties
Category:Defunct political parties in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom 1860s
Category:Political parties established in 1859
Category:Political parties disestablished in 1988
Category:1859 establishments in the United Kingdom
Category:1988 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Category:Leeds Blue Plaques
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)
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Bank of England
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| established
| president = Andrew Bailey (since 2020)
| leader_title = Governor
| bank_of = United Kingdom
| currency = Pound sterling
| currency_iso = GBP
| borrowing_rate 4.75%
| website =
| footnotes | image_width_2 150px
}}
The Bank of England is the central bank of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based. Established in 1694 to act as the English Government's banker and debt manager, and still one of the bankers for the government of the United Kingdom, it is the world's second oldest central bank.
The bank was privately owned by stockholders from its foundation in 1694 until it was nationalised in 1946 by the Attlee ministry. In 1998 it became an independent public organisation, wholly owned by the Treasury Solicitor on behalf of the government, with a mandate to support the economic policies of the government of the day, but independence in maintaining price stability. In the 21st century the bank took on increased responsibility for maintaining and monitoring financial stability in the UK, and it increasingly functions as a statutory regulator. The road junction outside is known as Bank Junction.
The bank, among other things, is custodian to the official gold reserves of the United Kingdom (and those of around 30 other countries). , the bank held around of gold, worth £141 billion. These estimates suggest that the vault could hold as much as 3% of the 171,300 tonnes of gold mined throughout human history.
Functions
According to its strapline, the bank's core purpose is 'promoting the good of the people of the United Kingdom by maintaining monetary and financial stability'. This is achieved in a variety of ways:
Monetary stability
Stable prices and secure forms of payment are the two main criteria for monetary stability.
Stable prices
Stable prices are maintained by seeking to ensure that price increases meet the Government's inflation target. The bank aims to meet this target by adjusting the base interest rate (known as the bank rate), which is decided by the bank's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC). (The MPC has devolved responsibility for managing monetary policy; HM Treasury has reserve powers to give orders to the committee "if they are required in the public interest and by extreme economic circumstances", but Parliament must endorse such orders within 28 days.)
As of 2024 the inflation target is 2%; if this target is missed the Governor is required to write an open letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining the situation and proposing remedies. Other than setting the base interest rate, the main tool at the bank's disposal in this regard is quantitative easing.
Secure forms of payment
The bank has a monopoly on the issue of banknotes in England and Wales and regulates the issuance of banknotes by commercial banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland. (Scottish and Northern Irish banks retain the right to issue their own banknotes, but they must be backed one-for-one with deposits at the bank, excepting a few million pounds representing the value of notes they had in circulation in 1845.)
In addition the bank supervises other payment systems, acting as a settlement agent and operating Real-time gross settlement systems including CHAPS. In 2024 the bank was settling around £500 billion worth of payments between banks each day.
Financial stability
Maintaining financial stability involves protecting the UK's savers, investors and borrowers against threats to the financial system as a whole. Threats are detected by the bank's surveillance and market intelligence functions, and dealt with through financial and other operations (both at home and abroad). The majority of these safeguards were put in place in after the 2007–2008 financial crisis:
Regulation
In 2011 the bank's Prudential Regulation Authority was established to regulate and supervise all major banks, building societies, credit unions, insurers and investment firms in the UK ('microprudential regulation'). The bank also has a statutory supervisory role in relation to financial market infrastructures.Risk managementAt the same time, the bank's Financial Policy Committee (FPC) was set up to identify and monitor risks in the financial system, and to take appropriate action where necessary ('macroprudential regulation'). The FPC publishes its findings (and actions taken) in a biannual Financial Stability Report.
Banking services
The bank provides wholesale banking services to the UK Government (and to over a hundred overseas central banks). It manages the UK's Exchange Equalisation Account on behalf of HM Treasury and it maintains the government's Consolidated Fund account. It also manages the country's foreign exchange reserves and is custodian of the UK's (and others') gold reserves.
The bank also offers 'liquidity support and other services to banks and other financial institutions'. (for this reason the Bank of England is sometimes called 'the bankers' bank'). Until 2017, Bank staff were entitled to open current accounts directly with the Bank of England and were given the unique sort code of 10-00-00.
Historic services and responsibilities
Between 1715 and 1998, the Bank of England managed Government Stocks (which formed the bulk of the national debt): the bank was responsible for issuing stocks to stockholders, paying dividends and maintaining a register of transfers; Computershare took over as the registrar for UK Government bonds (gilt-edged securities or 'gilts') from the bank at the end of 2004. The bank, however, continues to act as settlement agent for the Debt Management Office and custodian of its securities. Previously, the bank had maintained private and commercial accounts for all sorts of customers, including individuals, small businesses and public organisations; but a change of policy following the First World War saw the bank increasingly withdraw from this type of business to focus more clearly on its central banking role.HistoryFoundingDuring the Nine Years' War, the Royal Navy was defeated by the French Navy in the 1690 Battle of Beachy Head, causing consternation in the government of William III of England. The English government decided to rebuild the Royal Navy into a force that was capable of challenging the French on equal terms; however, their ability to do so was hampered both by a lack of available public funds and the government's low credit. This lack of credit made it impossible for the English government to borrow the £1.5m that it wanted to use to expand the Royal Navy.ConceptIn 1691, William Paterson had proposed establishing a national bank as a means of bolstering public finances. As he later wrote in his pamphlet A Brief Account of the Intended Bank of England (1694): While his scheme was not immediately acted upon, it did provide the basis for the bank's first Charter and the legislation which made its establishment possible. that William Phips played a timely, if incidental, role: his successful expedition to retrieve booty from a sunken Spanish galleon (the Nuestra Señora de la Concepción) helped create an ideal market for the bank's foundation: flooding the market with bullion and creating an enthusiasm for joint-stock ventures.
Legislation
Paterson's proposal required the Government to set up a fund from which interest would be paid to the subscribers. It was decided that this would be provided for by income from tonnage, and certain other shipping duties routinely levied by HM Exchequer; therefore Parliament approved the bank's establishment by means of the Tonnage Act 1694 ('An Act for granting to theire Majesties severall Rates and Duties upon Tunnage of Shipps and Vessells and upon Beere Ale and other Liquors for secureing certaine Recompenses and Advantages in the said Act mentioned to such Persons as shall voluntarily advance the summe of Fifteen hundred thousand Pounds towards the carrying on the Warr against France').
To induce subscription to the loan, the subscribers were to be incorporated by the name of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. Public finances were in such dire condition at the time that the terms of the loan (as laid down in the Act of Parliament) were that it was to be serviced at a rate of 8% per annum; there was also a service charge of £4,000 per annum payable to the bank for the management of the loan.
The Act limited the subscribers' investment to a maximum of £10,000 each in the first instance, and £1,200,000 in total (it was envisaged that the Exchequer would raise the remaining £300,000 through other forms of borrowing). The majority of the original subscribers were of 'the mercantile middle classes of London' (though tradesmen and artisans also subscribed).
Investment in the navy duly took place. As a side effect, the huge industrial effort needed (including establishing ironworks to make more nails and advances in agriculture feeding the quadrupled strength of the navy) started to transform the economy. This helped the new Kingdom of Great Britain – England and Scotland were formally united in 1707 – to become powerful. The power of the Royal Navy made Britain the dominant world power in the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Governance
The first Governor of the bank was John Houblon, and the first Deputy Governor Michael Godfrey. (330 years later, in 1994, the bank would issue a £50 note depicting Houblon to mark its tercentenary.)
emblem, signed by the Chief Cashier, Thomas Madockes, and dated 1699.]]
Governance was vested in the Governor, his Deputy and a 'Court' of 24 Directors (most of whom were merchant bankers recruited from the City); the Directors were elected annually by a 'General Court' of all the Bank's registered stockholders (collectively known as 'the Proprietors'). The common seal of the Court of Directors, adopted on 30 July 1694, depicted 'Britannia sitting and looking on a Bank of mony'; Britannia has been the bank's emblem ever since.
The Court appointed three senior officers who, alongside the Governor and Deputy Governor, were responsible for its day-to-day running of the bank: the Secretary and Sollicitor, the First Accomptant and the First Cashier. (Their successors, the Secretary, Chief Accountant and Chief Cashier, continued to head up the main divisions of the bank's operations for the next 250 years: the Chief Cashier and the Chief Accountant had oversight of the 'cash side' and the 'stock side' of the bank, respectively, while the Secretary oversaw its internal administration.)
Premises
The bank initially did not have its own building, first opening on 1 August 1694 in Mercers' Hall on Cheapside. This however was found to be too small and from 31 December 1694 the bank operated from Grocers' Hall (located then on Poultry), where it would remain for almost 40 years. (Houblon had served as Master of the Grocers' Company in 1690–1691.)18th centuryDay at the Bank, 1770''. The Pay Hall of 1732 was one of the Bank's first buildings on Threadneedle Street. (At one time shareholders were required to attend in person for the payment of Government dividends; the practice was abolished in 1910). this marked the start of the bank's role in managing Government Stocks, which were a means for people to invest in government debt (previously Government borrowing had been administered directly by the Exchequer). The bank was obliged by the Act to pay half-yearly dividends and to keep a book record of all transfers (as it was already accustomed to do with regard to its own Bank Stock).
The bank did not have a monopoly on lending to the government, however: the South Sea Company had been established in 1711, and in 1720 it too became responsible for part of the UK's national debt, becoming a major competitor to the Bank of England. While the "South Sea Bubble" disaster soon ensued, the company continued managing part of the UK national debt until 1853. The East India Company too was a lender of choice for the government.
In 1734 there were ninety-six members of staff at the bank.
Threadneedle Street
The Bank of England moved to its current location, on the site of Sir John Houblon's house and garden in Threadneedle Street (close by the church of St Christopher le Stocks), in 1734. (The estate had been purchased ten years earlier; Houblon had died in 1712, but his widow lived on in the house until her death in 1731, after which the house was demolished and work on the bank began.) The front building contained transfer offices on the first floor, beneath which was an entrance arch leading to a courtyard. Facing the entrance was the 'main building' of the bank: and where deposits and withdrawals could be made. Beyond the Hall was a quadrangle of buildings enclosing a 'spacious and commodious Court-yard' (later known as Bullion Court). On the south side of the quadrangle were the Court Room and Committee Room, on the north side was a large Accountants' Office; on either side were arcaded walkways, with rooms for the senior officers, while the upper floors contained offices and apartments. The pediment above the entrance to the main Hall was decorated with a carved alto relievo figure of Britannia (who had appeared on the common seal of the bank since 30 July 1694); the sculptor was Robert Taylor, who went on to be appointed Architect, in succession to Sampson, in 1764. Inside, the east end of the Hall was dominated by a large statue by John Cheere of King William III, lauded in an accompanying Latin inscription as the bank's founder (conditor); East of the Pay Hall, Taylor built a suite of halls and offices dedicated to the management of stocks and dividends, which more or less doubled the size of the bank's footprint (extending it as far as Bartholomew Lane). These rooms were centred on a large Rotunda, also known as the Brokers' Exchange, where dealing in Government Stock took place; around it were arranged four sizeable Transfer Offices, each corresponding with a different fund (as described in the 1820s: 'In each office under the several letters of the alphabet, are arranged the books on which the names of all persons having property in the funds are registered, as well as the particulars of their respective interests'). All these offices were top-lit, to avoid the need for windows in the external walls.
In 1782 the church of St Christopher le Stocks was demolished, allowing the bank to expand westwards along Threadneedle Street. The new west wing was completed to Taylor's design in 1786 (its frontage matching that of Taylor's earlier east wing): it housed the Reduced Annuities Office, the Cheque Office and the Dividend Warrant Office (among others). Immediately to the north lay the former churchyard of St Christopher le Stocks, which was preserved within the complex of buildings as a garden (known as the 'Garden Court'). North of Bullion Court, Taylor built a new four-storey Library, to house the bank's expanding collection of archives.
The Bank Picquet
The church's demolition had been prompted by the 1780 Gordon Riots, during which rioters reportedly climbed on the church to throw projectiles at the buildings of the bank. During the riots, in June 1780, the Lord Mayor of London petitioned the Secretary of State to send a military guard to protect the bank and the Mansion House. Thenceforward a nightly guard (the 'Bank Picquet') was provided by soldiers of the Household Brigade (a practice which continued until 1973). To house the guard Taylor built a barracks (accessed from a separate entrance on Princes Street) in the north-west corner of the site.
John Soane's rebuilding
Sir Robert Taylor died in 1788 and in his place the bank appointed John Soane as Architect and Surveyor (he would remain in post until 1827). Under his direction, the bank was further expanded and partially rebuilt, bit by bit but to a cohesive plan. A survey of the buildings, undertaken at the start of his tenure, identified some problems, which were promptly remedied by Soane: for example in 1795 he rebuilt the Rotunda and two of the adjacent Transfer Offices (the Bank Stock Office and the Four Per Cent Office), replacing Taylor's timber roofs, which were leaking, with more durable stonework. to the west of this he built a new Chief Cashier's office, and rooms for the Secretary and Chief Accountant; to the east he constructed a new Library block and added a fifth Transfer Office (the Consols Transfer Office) to the north of the other four.
The Brokers' Exchange in the Bank
In the late 18th and early 19th century, prior to the establishment of the London Stock Exchange, the Rotunda in the Bank of England was used as a trading floor 'where stock-brokers, stock-jobbers, and other persons, meet for the purpose of transacting business in public funds'.
Conflicts and credit crises
, 1797. The "Old Lady of Threadneedle St" (the bank personified) is ravished by William Pitt the Younger.]]
The credit crisis of 1772 has been described as the first modern banking crisis faced by the Bank of England. The whole City of London was in uproar when Alexander Fordyce was declared bankrupt. In August 1773, the Bank of England assisted the EIC with a loan. The strain upon the reserves of the Bank of England was not eased until towards the end of the year.
During the American War of Independence, business for the bank was so good that George Washington remained a shareholder throughout the period.
By the bank's charter renewal in 1781, it was also the bankers' bank – keeping enough gold to pay its notes on demand until 26 February 1797 when war had so diminished gold reserves that – following an invasion scare caused by the Battle of Fishguard days earlier – the government prohibited the bank from paying out in gold by the passing of the bank Restriction Act 1797. This prohibition lasted until 1821.
In 1798, during the French Revolutionary Wars, a Corps of bank Volunteers was formed (of between 450 and 500 men) to defend the bank in the event of an invasion. It was disbanded in 1802, but promptly re-formed the following year at the start of the Napoleonic Wars. Its soldiers were trained, in the event of an invasion, to remove the gold and silver from the vaults to a remote location, along with the banknote printing presses and certain important records. An armoury was provided on site at Threadneedle Street for their arms and accoutrements. Soane continued in post until 1833; in the last years before his retirement he completed his rebuilding of Taylor's east wing and reconfigured Sampson and Taylor's street-facing façades to make the entire perimeter of the complex a coherent whole.
In 1811, an 'ingeniously contrived clock' by Thwaites & Co. was installed above the Pay Hall: as well as chiming the hours and quarters, it conveyed the time remotely (by means of brass rods extending a total of in length) to dials located in sixteen different offices around the site.
The 'panic of 1825' highlighted risks inherent in the bank's three-way split loyalties: to its stockholders, to the Government (and thereby to the public), and to its commercial banking customers. In 1825–26 the bank was able to avert a liquidity crisis when Nathan Mayer Rothschild succeeded in supplying it with gold; nevertheless, after the crisis, many country and provincial banks failed prompting numerous commercial bankruptcies.
20th century
remained in circulation until 1957.]]
Until 1931 Britain was on the gold standard, meaning the value of sterling was fixed by the price of gold. That year, the Bank of England had to take Britain off the gold standard due to the effects of Great Depression spreading to Europe.
1913 attempted bombing
bombs on display at the City of London Police Museum in 2019. The bomb on the left was used in an attempted bombing outside the bank on 4 April 1913, an attack that likely would have caused many casualties had it not been foiled.]]
A terrorist bombing was attempted outside the Bank of England building on 4 April 1913. A bomb was discovered smoking and ready to explode next to railings outside the building. The bomb had been planted as part of the suffragette bombing and arson campaign, in which the Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) launched a series of politically motivated bombing and arson attacks nationwide as part of their campaign for women's suffrage. The bomb was defused before it could detonate, in what was then one of the busiest public streets in the capital, which likely prevented many civilian casualties. The bomb had been planted the day after WSPU leader Emmeline Pankhurst was sentenced to three years' imprisonment for carrying out a bombing on the home of politician David Lloyd George. Initially the plan had been to retain Soane's banking halls behind the curtain wall, but this proved challenging so they were instead demolished and rebuilt in facsimile. The demolition and rebuilding took place in stages, with staff moving from one part of the building to another (or, in some cases, into temporary accommodation at Finsbury Circus). The bullion and securities remained on site throughout. During reconstruction human remains pertaining to the old churchyard of St Christopher le Stocks were exhumed and reburied at Nunhead Cemetery.
by Charles Wheeler.]]
Baker's steel-framed building stands seven storeys high, with a further three vault storeys extending below ground level. It is decorated with sculpture and bronze work by Charles Wheeler, plasterwork by Joseph Armitage and mosaics by Boris Anrep.
A number of the bank's operations and staff were relocated to Hampshire for the duration of the war, including the printing works (which moved to Overton), the Accountant's Department (which went to Hurstbourne Park) and various other offices. Those who remained at Threadneedle Street, including the Directors, moved their offices into the underground vaults.
After the war, the very large Accountant's Department (which managed the stock side of the bank) moved back to London from Hampshire. Its designated office-space at Threadneedle Street, however, had in the meantime been taken over by the Exchange Control office. The department was instead provided with temporary accommodation (once more in Finsbury Circus), pending construction of a new building, which would occupy a two-acre bombsite immediately to the east of St Paul's Cathedral. 'Bank of England New Change' was designed by Victor Heal and opened in 1957 (at the time it was London's biggest post-war rebuilding project); the new building contained several staff amenities alongside the office accommodation and, at street level, retail units were let to an assortment of businesses. The bank had the building on a 200-year lease; but with the advent of computerisation staff numbers were drastically reduced in the 1980s-90s; parts of the building were let to other firms (most notably the law firm Allen & Overy). The bank sold the building in 2000 and in 2007 it was demolished; One New Change now stands on the site.
The bank's "10 bob note" was withdrawn from circulation in 1970 in preparation for Decimal Day in 1971.
thumb|United Kingdom bonds
In 1977 the bank set up a wholly owned subsidiary called Bank of England Nominees Limited (BOEN), a now-defunct private limited company, with two of its hundred £1 shares issued. According to its memorandum of association, its objectives were: "To act as Nominee or agent or attorney either solely or jointly with others, for any person or persons, partnership, company, corporation, government, state, organisation, sovereign, province, authority, or public body, or any group or association of them". Bank of England Nominees Limited was granted an exemption by Edmund Dell, Secretary of State for Trade, from the disclosure requirements under Section 27(9) of the Companies Act 1976, because "it was considered undesirable that the disclosure requirements should apply to certain categories of shareholders". The Bank of England is also protected by its royal charter status and the Official Secrets Act. BOEN was a vehicle for governments and heads of state to invest in UK companies (subject to approval from the Secretary of State), providing they undertake "not to influence the affairs of the company". In its later years, BOEN was no longer exempt from company law disclosure requirements. Although a dormant company, dormancy does not preclude a company actively operating as a nominee shareholder. BOEN had two shareholders: the Bank of England, and the Secretary of the Bank of England.
The reserve requirement for banks to hold a minimum fixed proportion of their deposits as reserves at the Bank of England was abolished in 1981: see for more details. The contemporary transition from Keynesian economics to Chicago economics was analysed by Nicholas Kaldor in The Scourge of Monetarism.
The handing over of monetary policy to the bank became a key plank of the Liberal Democrats' economic policy for the 1992 general election. Conservative MP Nicholas Budgen had also proposed this as a private member's bill in 1996, but the bill failed as it had the support of neither the government nor the opposition.
The UK government left the expensive-to-maintain European Exchange Rate Mechanism in September 1992, in an action that cost HM Treasury over £3 billion. This led to closer communication between the government and the bank. The Bank of England has been a leader in producing innovative ways of communicating information to the public, especially through its Inflation Report, which many other central banks have emulated.
The bank celebrated its three-hundredth birthday in 1994. Under the terms of the Bank of England Act 1998 (which came into force on 1 June 1998) the bank's Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) was given sole responsibility for setting interest rates to meet the Government's Retail Prices Index (RPI) inflation target of 2.5%. The target has changed to 2% since the Consumer Price Index (CPI) replaced the Retail Prices Index as the Treasury's inflation index. If inflation overshoots or undershoots the target by more than 1% the Governor has to write a letter to the Chancellor of the Exchequer explaining why, and how he will remedy the situation.
Independent central banks that adopt an inflation target are known as Friedmanite central banks. This change in Labour's politics was described by Skidelsky in The Return of the Master as a mistake and as an adoption of the rational expectations hypothesis as promulgated by Alan Walters. Inflation targets combined with central bank independence have been characterised as a "starve the beast" strategy creating a lack of money in the public sector.
in June 1998 responsibility for the regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries was transferred from the bank to the Financial Services Authority. A memorandum of understanding described the terms under which the bank, the Treasury, and the FSA would work toward the common aim of increased financial stability. (Ten years later, however, after the 2007–2008 financial crisis, new banking legislation transferred the responsibility for regulation and supervision of the banking and insurance industries back to the Bank of England).21st centuryThe bank decided to sell its banknote-printing operations to De La Rue in December 2002, under the advice of Close Brothers Corporate Finance Ltd.
Mervyn King became the Governor of the Bank of England on 30 June 2003.
In 2009, a request made to HM Treasury under the Freedom of Information Act sought details about the 3% Bank of England stock owned by unnamed shareholders whose identity the bank is not at liberty to disclose. In a letter of reply dated 15 October 2009, HM Treasury explained that "Some of the 3% Treasury stock which was used to compensate former owners of bank stock has not been redeemed. However, interest is paid out twice a year and it is not the case that this has been accumulating and compounding."
thumb|300px|UK bond rates
In 2010, the incoming Chancellor announced his intention to merge the Financial Services Authority back into the bank. In 2011 an interim Financial Policy Committee (FPC) was created (as a mirror committee to the Monetary Policy Committee) to spearhead the bank's new mandate on financial stability. The Financial Services Act 2012 gave the bank additional functions and bodies, including an independent FPC, the Prudential Regulation Authority (PRA), and more powers to supervise financial market infrastructure providers. At Government request, his term was extended to 2019, then again to 2020. , the bank also had four Deputy Governors.
BOEN was dissolved, following liquidation, in July 2017.
Andrew Bailey succeeded Carney as the Governor of the Bank of England on 16 March 2020.Asset purchase facility The bank has operated, since January 2009, an Asset Purchase Facility (APF) to buy "high-quality assets financed by the issue of Treasury bills and the DMO's cash management operations" and thereby improve liquidity in the credit markets. It has, since March 2009, also provided the mechanism by which the bank's policy of quantitative easing (QE) is achieved, under the auspices of the MPC. Along with managing the QE funds, which were £895 bn at peak, the APF continues to operate its corporate facilities. Both are undertaken by a subsidiary company of the Bank of England, the Bank of England Asset Purchase Facility Fund Limited (BEAPFF). Initially this would be achieved by not replacing tranches of maturing bonds, and would later be accelerated through active bond sales.
In August 2022, the Bank of England reiterated its intention to accelerate the QE wind-down through active bond sales. This policy was affirmed in an exchange of letters between the Bank of England and the UK Chancellor of the Exchequer in September 2022. Between February 2022 and September 2022, a total of £37.1bn of government bonds matured, reducing the outstanding stock from £875.0bn at the end of 2021 to £837.9bn. In addition, a total of £1.1bn of corporate bonds matured, reducing the stock from £20.0bn to £18.9bn, with sales of the remaining stock planned to begin on 27 September.
Banknote issues
The bank has issued banknotes since 1694. Notes were originally hand-written; although they were partially printed from 1725 onwards, cashiers still had to sign each note and make them payable to someone. Notes were fully printed from 1855. Until 1928 all notes were "White Notes", printed in black and with a blank reverse. In the 18th and 19th centuries, White Notes were issued in £1 and £2 denominations. During the 20th century, White Notes were issued in denominations between £5 and £1000. Until the passing of the Gold Standard Act 1925 the bank was obliged to pay on demand the value of the note in gold coin to its bearer. The printing itself was undertaken by private printing firms; the copper plates were kept in the vault, and accompanied during their time at the printer by a bank clerk (who would record the number of copies made); once dry they would be delivered to the bank. The printing operation was brought within the bank's premises (albeit still under private contract) in 1791; in 1808 it was brought fully in-house.
banknote, issued by the Gloucester Old Bank in 1813.]]
Until the mid-19th century, commercial banks were allowed to issue their own banknotes, and notes issued by provincial banking companies were commonly in circulation. The Bank Charter Act 1844 began the process of restricting note issue to the bank; new banks were prohibited from issuing their own banknotes, and existing note-issuing banks were not permitted to expand their issue. As provincial banking companies merged to form larger banks, they lost their right to issue notes, and the English private banknote eventually disappeared, leaving the bank with a monopoly of note issues in England and Wales. The last private bank to issue its own banknotes in England and Wales was Fox, Fowler and Company in 1921. However, the limitations of the 1844 Act only affected banks in England and Wales, and today three commercial banks in Scotland and four in Northern Ireland continue to issue their own banknotes, regulated by the bank. The Bank of England issued notes for ten shillings and one pound for the first time on 22 November 1928.
.]]
During the Second World War, the German Operation Bernhard attempted to counterfeit denominations between £5 and £50, producing 500,000 notes each month in 1943. The original plan was to parachute the money into the UK in an attempt to destabilise the British economy, but it was found more useful to use the notes to pay German agents operating throughout Europe. Although most fell into Allied hands at the end of the war, forgeries frequently appeared for years afterward, which led banknote denominations above £5 to be removed from circulation.
In 2006, over £53 million in banknotes belonging to the bank was stolen from a depot in Tonbridge, Kent.
In 1917 the bank had moved its printing operation into St Luke's Printing Works, a former hospital; in 1958 it moved out to Debden. Modern banknotes are printed by contract with De La Rue Currency in Loughton, Essex.
Branch offices
branch buildings opened in the early 1970s.]]
For most of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the bank had a number of branches in London and other English cities.
The first branches opened in 1826 (with impetus provided by the passing of the Country Bankers Act, which for the first time permitted the establishment of joint-stock banks outside London). The bank envisaged that the new network of branches would 'increase the circulation of Bank Notes, give the bank much more complete control over the whole paper circulation, and protect the bank against the competition of larger banking Companies'. Each branch was overseen by an Agent (a person of 'commercial knowledge, with local experience').
{| class="wikitable centered"
!| Name !!| Period
|-
| Samuel Gladstone
| 1899–1901
|-
| Augustus Prevost
| 1901–1903
|-
| Samuel Morley
| 1903–1905
|-
| Alexander Wallace
| 1905–1907
|-
| William Campbell
| 1907–1909
|-
| Reginald Eden Johnston
| 1909–1911
|-
| Alfred Cole
| 1911–1913
|-
| Walter Cunliffe
| 1913–1918
|-
| Brien Cokayne
| 1918–1920
|-
| Montagu Norman
| 1920–1944
|-
| Thomas Catto
| 1944–1949
|-
| Cameron Cobbold
| 1949–1961
|-
| Rowland Baring (3rd Earl of Cromer)
| 1961–1966
|-
| Leslie O'Brien
| 1966–1973
|-
| Gordon Richardson
| 1973–1983
|-
| Robert Leigh-Pemberton
| 1983–1993
|-
| Edward George
| 1993–2003
|-
| Mervyn King
| 2003–2013
|-
| Mark Carney
| 2013–2020
|-
| Andrew Bailey
| 2020–present
|-
|}
Court of Directors
The Court of Directors is a unitary board that is responsible for setting the organisation's strategy and budget and making key decisions on resourcing and appointments. It consists of five executive members from the bank (the Governor and the four Deputy Governors, each of whom oversees a different area of the bank's work), plus up to 9 non-executive members, all of whom are appointed by the Crown. The Chancellor selects the Chairman of the Court from among the non-executive members. The Court is required to meet at least seven times a year.
The Governor serves for a period of eight years, the Deputy Governors for five years, and the non-executive members for up to four years.
{| class="wikitable centered"
|+ Court of Directors (2024)
!| Name
!!| Function
|-
| David Roberts
| Chair, Court of Directors
|-
| Andrew Bailey
| Governor, Bank of England
|-
| Benjamin Broadbent
| Deputy Governor, Monetary Policy
|-
| Sarah Breeden
| Deputy Governor, Financial Stability
|-
| Sam Woods
| Deputy Governor, Prudential Regulation and Chief Executive of the Prudential Regulation Authority
|-
| Sir Dave Ramsden
| Deputy Governor, Markets and Banking
|-
| Jonathan Bewes
| Non-Executive Director
|-
| Sabine Chalmers
| Non-Executive Director
|-
| Jitesh Gadhia
| Non-Executive Director
|-
| Anne Glover
| Non-Executive Director
|-
| Sir Ron Kalifa
| Non-Executive Director and Senior Independent Director
|-
| Diana Noble
| Non-Executive Director and Deputy Chair
|-
| Frances O'Grady
| Non-Executive Director
|-
| Tom Shropshire
| Non-Executive Director
|-
|}
Other staff
The Secretary of the Bank of England is today responsible for the banks governance and ethics: 'He is responsible for ensuring the organisation is well run and advises our Court of Directors [...] He is also our conflicts officer and supports the Government when it makes appointments to our policy committees and Court of Directors'.
Since 2013, the bank has had a chief operating officer (COO) with the status and remuneration of a Deputy Governor. , the bank's COO is Ben Stimson; he is responsible for the day-to-day operations of the bank, including Human Resources, Property, IT and Security. In March 2025, the Bank of England appointed Sarah John as its new Chief Operating Officer. John previously served as the Bank's Chief Cashier.
Some twenty executive directors work alongside the Governors, forming 'the wider executive management team'. Among their number are the bank's chief economist (Huw Pill since 2021), and chief cashier. See also
* List of British currencies
* Bank of England Act
* Coins of the pound sterling
* Financial Sanctions Unit
* Commonwealth banknote-issuing institutions
* Bank of England Museum
* Deputy Governor of the Bank of England
* List of directors of the Bank of England
* List of central banks
Explanatory notes
References
Further reading
* , on nationalisation 1945–50, pp 43–76
*
* Lane, Nicholas. "." History Today (Aug 1960) 19#8 pp 535–541.
* O'Brien, Patrick K.; Palma, Nuno (2022). "[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.13191 Not an ordinary bank but a great engine of state: The Bank of England and the British economy, 1694–1844]". The Economic History Review.
*
*
* Schuster, F. The Bank of England and the State
*
External links
*
*
}}
Category:1694 establishments in England
England
Category:Banks established in 1694
Category:Grade I listed buildings in the City of London
England
Category:Economy of the United Kingdom
Category:HM Treasury
Category:Organisations based in the City of London
Category:Public corporations of the United Kingdom with a Royal Charter
Category:Herbert Baker buildings and structures
Category:John Soane buildings
Category:Georgian architecture in London
Category:Neoclassical architecture in London
Category:Grade I listed banks
Category:Leeds Blue Plaques
|
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Bakelite
|
|Section2 = |Section4 Baekeland's initial intent was to find a replacement for shellac, a material in limited supply because it was made naturally from the secretion of lac insects (specifically Kerria lacca). He produced a soluble phenol-formaldehyde shellac called Novolak, but it was not a market success, and the heat curing process it required. It was the first synthetic thermosetting plastic produced, and Baekeland speculated on "the thousand and one ... articles" it could be used to make.
Baekeland filed a substantial number of related patents. He also filed for patent protection in other countries, including Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Hungary, Japan, Mexico, Russia, and Spain. He announced his invention at a meeting of the American Chemical Society on February 5, 1909.
Baekeland started semi-commercial production of his new material in his home laboratory, marketing it as a material for electrical insulators. In the summer of 1909, he licensed the continental European rights to Rütger AG. The subsidiary formed at that time, Bakelite AG, was the first to produce Bakelite on an industrial scale.
By 1910, Baekeland was producing enough material in the US to justify expansion. He formed the General Bakelite Company of Perth Amboy, New Jersey, as a U.S. company to manufacture and market his new industrial material, and made overseas connections to produce it in other countries. However, the demand for molded plastics led the company to concentrate on molding rather than cast solid resins.
The Bakelite Corporation was formed in 1922 after patent litigation favorable to Baekeland, from a merger of three companies: Baekeland's General Bakelite Company; the Condensite Company, founded by J. W. Aylesworth; and the Redmanol Chemical Products Company, founded by Lawrence V. Redman. Under director of advertising and public relations Allan Brown, who came to Bakelite from Condensite, Bakelite was aggressively marketed as "the material of a thousand uses". A filing for a trademark featuring the letter B above the infinity symbol was made August 25, 1925, and claimed the mark was in use as of December 1, 1924. A wide variety of uses were listed in their trademark applications.
The first issue of Plastics magazine, October 1925, featured Bakelite on its cover and included the article "Bakelite – What It Is" by Allan Brown. The range of colors that were available included "black, brown, red, yellow, green, gray, blue, and blends of two or more of these". The article emphasized that Bakelite came in various forms.
.
Once Baekeland's heat and pressure patents expired in 1927, Bakelite Corporation faced serious competition from other companies. Because molded Bakelite incorporated fillers to give it strength, it tended to be made in concealing dark colors. The creation of marbled phenolic resins may also be attributable to the Catalin company.Synthesis
Making Bakelite is a multi-stage process. It begins with the heating of phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of a catalyst such as hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride, or the base ammonia. This creates a liquid condensation product, referred to as Bakelite A, which is soluble in alcohol, acetone, or additional phenol. Heated further, the product becomes partially soluble and can still be softened by heat. Sustained heating results in an "insoluble hard gum". However, the high temperatures required to create this tend to cause violent foaming of the mixture when done at standard atmospheric pressure, which results in the cooled material being porous and breakable. Baekeland's innovative step was to put his "last condensation product" into an egg-shaped "Bakelizer". By heating it under pressure, at about , Baekeland was able to suppress the foaming that would otherwise occur. The resulting substance is extremely hard and both infusible and insoluble. Asbestos was gradually abandoned as filler because many countries banned the production of asbestos.
Bakelite's molding process had a number of advantages. Bakelite resin could be provided either as powder or as preformed partially cured slugs, increasing the speed of the casting. Thermosetting resins such as Bakelite required heat and pressure during the molding cycle but could be removed from the molding process without being cooled, again making the molding process faster. Also, because of the smooth polished surface that resulted, Bakelite objects required less finishing. Millions of parts could be duplicated quickly and relatively cheaply.
Bakelite phenolic sheet is produced in many commercial grades and with various additives to meet diverse mechanical, electrical, and thermal requirements. Some common types include:
* Paper reinforced NEMA XX per MIL-I-24768 PBG. Normal electrical applications, moderate mechanical strength, continuous operating temperature of .
* Canvas-reinforced NEMA C per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBM NEMA CE per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBG. Good mechanical and impact strength with a continuous operating temperature of 250 °F.
* Linen-reinforced NEMA L per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FBI NEMA LE per MIL-I-24768 TYPE FEI. Good mechanical and electrical strength. Recommended for intricate high-strength parts. Continuous operating temperature convert 250 °F.
* Nylon reinforced NEMA N-1 per MIL-I-24768 TYPE NPG. Superior electrical properties under humid conditions, fungus resistant, continuous operating temperature of .
Properties
Bakelite has a number of important properties. It can be molded very quickly, decreasing production time. Moldings are smooth, retain their shape, and are resistant to heat, scratches, and destructive solvents. It is also resistant to electricity, and prized for its low conductivity. It is not flexible.
Phenolic resin products may swell slightly under conditions of extreme humidity or perpetual dampness. When rubbed or burnt, Bakelite has a distinctive, acrid, sickly-sweet or fishy odor.
Applications
]]
The characteristics of Bakelite made it particularly suitable as a molding compound, an adhesive or binding agent, a varnish, and a protective coating, as well as for the emerging electrical and automobile industries because of its extraordinarily high resistance to electricity, heat, and chemical action. Bakelite was soon used for non-conducting parts of telephones, radios, and other electrical devices, including bases and sockets for light bulbs and electron tubes (vacuum tubes), supports for any type of electrical components, automobile distributor caps, and other insulators. By 1912, it was being used to make billiard balls, since its elasticity and the sound it made were similar to ivory.
During World War I, Bakelite was used widely, particularly in electrical systems. Important projects included the Liberty airplane engine, the wireless telephone and radio phone, and the use of micarta-bakelite propellers in the NBS-1 bomber and the DH-4B aeroplane.
Bakelite's availability and ease and speed of molding helped to lower the costs and increase product availability so that telephones and radios became common household consumer goods. It was also very important to the developing automobile industry. It was soon found in myriad other consumer products ranging from pipe stems and buttons to saxophone mouthpieces, cameras, early machine guns, and appliance casings. Bakelite was also very commonly used in the pistol grip, hand guard, and buttstock of firearms. Also magazines for Kalashnikov rifles - though components of the AKM, and some early AK-74 rifles are frequently mistakenly identified as using Bakelite, but most were made with AG-4S.. Other uses through the first half of the 20th century include knife handles and "scales".
Beginning in the 1920s, it became a popular material for jewelry. Designer Coco Chanel included Bakelite bracelets in her costume jewelry collections. Designers such as Elsa Schiaparelli used it for jewelry and also for specially designed dress buttons. Later, Diana Vreeland, editor of Vogue, was enthusiastic about Bakelite. Bakelite was also used to make presentation boxes for Breitling watches.
By 1930, designer Paul T. Frankl considered Bakelite a "Materia Nova", "expressive of our own age". dominoes, and mahjong sets. Kitchenware made with Bakelite, including canisters and tableware, was promoted for its resistance to heat and to chipping. In the mid-1930s, Northland marketed a line of skis with a black "Ebonite" base, a coating of Bakelite. By 1935, it was used in solid-body electric guitars. Performers such as Jerry Byrd loved the tone of Bakelite guitars but found them difficult to keep in tune.
Charles Plimpton patented BAYKO in 1933 and rushed out his first construction sets for Christmas 1934. He called the toy Bayko Light Constructional Sets, the words "Bayko Light" being a pun on the word "Bakelite".
During World War II, Bakelite was used in a variety of wartime equipment including pilots' goggles and field telephones. It was also used for patriotic wartime jewelry. In 1943, the thermosetting phenolic resin was even considered for the manufacture of coins, due to a shortage of traditional material. Bakelite and other non-metal materials were tested for usage for the one cent coin in the US before the Mint settled on zinc-coated steel.
During World War II, Bakelite buttons were part of British uniforms. These included brown buttons for the Army and black buttons for the RAF.
In 1947, Dutch art forger Han van Meegeren was convicted of forgery, after chemist and curator Paul B. Coremans proved that a purported Vermeer contained Bakelite, which van Meegeren had used as a paint hardener.
By the late 1940s, newer materials were superseding Bakelite in many areas. Soviet heatshields for ICBM warheads and spacecraft reentry consisted of asbestos textolite, impregnated with Bakelite. Bakelite is also used in the mounting of metal samples in metallography.
<gallery widths"120px" class"center">
File:Ericsson bakelittelefon 1931.jpg|Ericsson Bakelite telephone,
File:Bakelite letter opener.jpg|Bakelite letter opener
File:Bakelite radio.jpg|Bakelite radio at Bakelite museum
File:Old Bakelit light switches and socket.jpg|Old tumbler switch composed of Bakelite
File:Bakelite Domino (5467420994).jpg|A Bakelite domino
File:AK74andAKS74U.jpg|AK74 and AKS74 with Bakelite magazines and grips
</gallery>
Collectibles
Bakelite items, particularly jewelry and radios, have become popular collectibles.
Due to its aesthetics, a similar material fakelite (fake bakelite) exists made from modern safer materials which do not contain asbestos.
Similar plastics
* Catalin is also a phenolic resin, similar to Bakelite, but contains different mineral fillers that allow the production of light colors.
* Condensites are similar thermoset materials having much the same properties, characteristics, and uses.
* Crystalate is an early plastic.
* Faturan is a phenolic resin, also similar to Bakelite, that turns red over time, regardless of its original color.
* Galalith is an early plastic derived from milk products.
* Micarta is an early composite insulating plate that used Bakelite as a binding agent. It was developed in 1910 by the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company, which put the new material to use for casting synthetic blades for Westinghouse electric fans.
* Novotext is a brand name for cotton textile-phenolic resin.
* G-10 or garolite is made with fiberglass and epoxy resin.
See also
* Ericsson DBH 1001 telephone
* Lacquer, including antique Asian lacquerware
* Tenite, a cellulosic thermoplastic material
* Vulcanised rubber, a similar material
References
External links
*
* [https://allthingsbakelite.com/#watch All Things Bakelite: The Age of Plastic]—trailer for a film by John Maher, with additional video & resources
* [http://www.amsterdambakelitecollection.com Amsterdam Bakelite Collection]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070624110231/http://www.bakelit.ch/index_eng.html Large Bakelite Collection]
* [http://www.bakelitemuseum.de Bakelite: The Material of a Thousand Uses]
* [http://juliensart.be/bakeliet Virtual Bakelite Museum of Ghent 1907–2007]
Category:Plastics
Category:1909 introductions
Category:Belgian inventions
Category:Composite materials
Category:Dielectrics
Category:Phenol formaldehyde resins
Category:Plastic brands
Category:Thermosetting plastics
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakelite
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Bean
|
pods on a plant]]
A bean is the seed of any plant in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying, but fresh beans are also sold. Most beans are traditionally soaked and boiled, but they can be cooked in many different ways, including frying and baking, and are used in many traditional dishes throughout the world. The unripe seedpods of some varieties are also eaten whole as green beans or edamame (immature soybean), but fully ripened beans contain toxins like phytohemagglutinin and require cooking.
Terminology
The word 'bean', for the Old World vegetable, existed in Old English, long before the New World genus Phaseolus was known in Europe. With the Columbian exchange of domestic plants between Europe and the Americas, use of the word was extended to pod-borne seeds of Phaseolus, such as the common bean and the runner bean, and the related genus Vigna. The term has long been applied generally to seeds of similar form, such as Old World soybeans and lupins, and to the fruits or seeds of unrelated plants such as coffee beans, vanilla beans, castor beans, and cocoa beans. History
Beans in an early cultivated form were grown in Thailand from the early seventh millennium BCE, predating ceramics. Beans were deposited with the dead in ancient Egypt. Not until the second millennium BCE did cultivated, large-seeded broad beans appear in the Aegean region, Iberia, and transalpine Europe. In the Iliad (8th century BCE), there is a passing mention of beans and chickpeas cast on the threshing floor.
The oldest-known domesticated beans in the Americas were found in Guitarrero Cave, Peru, dated to around the second millennium BCE.
Most of the kinds of beans commonly eaten today are part of the genus Phaseolus, which originated in the Americas. The first European to encounter them was Christopher Columbus, while exploring what may have been the Bahamas, and saw them growing in fields. Five kinds of Phaseolus beans were domesticated by pre-Columbian peoples, selecting pods that did not open and scatter their seeds when ripe: common beans (P. vulgaris) grown from Chile to the northern part of the United States; lima and sieva beans (P. lunatus); and the less widely distributed teparies (P. acutifolius), scarlet runner beans (P. coccineus), and polyanthus beans.
Pre-Columbian peoples as far north as the Atlantic seaboard grew beans in the "Three Sisters" method of companion planting. The beans were interplanted with maize and squash. Beans were cultivated across Chile in Pre-Hispanic times, likely as far south as the Chiloé Archipelago.
Diversity
Taxonomic range
Beans are legumes, but from many different genera, native to different regions.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! style="width: 70px;" | Genus
! style="width: 250px;" | Species and common varieties
! style="width: 180px;" | Probable home region
! style="width: 180px;" | Distribution, climate
! style="width: 250px;" | Notes
|-
| Phaseolus
|
* P. vulgaris: kidney, pinto, navy (cannellini, haricot/French/pole/bush), black, Borlotti beans
* P. lunatus: Lima beans
* P. coccineus: runner, flat beans
* P. acutifolius: tepary bean
|The Americas
|Tropical, subtropical, Warm temperate
| Some contain high levels of toxic phytohemagglutinin.
|-
| Pisum
|P. sativum: Green/garden, white, yellow, field, snow, and snap peas
|Mediterranean
|Subtropical, temperate, occasionally cool tropical
|
|-
| Vigna
|
* V. radiata: mung bean
* V. mungo: urad bean
* V. unguiculata (Cowpeas): yardlong bean, black-eyed peas
* V. aconitifolia: moth bean
* V. angularis: adzuki beans
|Mostly South Asia
|Equatorial, pantropical, warm subtropical, hot temperate
|
|-
| Cajanus
| C. cajan: pigeon pea
| Indian Subcontinent
| Pantropical, equatorial
|
|-
| Lens
| L. culinaris: red, green, and Puy lentils
| Near East/Levant
| Temperate, subtropical, cool tropical
|
|-
| Cicer
| C. arietinum: chickpeas
| Turkey/Levant/Near East
| Temperate, subtropical, cool tropical
|
|-
| Vicia
|
* V. faba: broad beans
* V. ervilia: bitter vetch
* V. sativa: common vetch
|Near East
|Subtropical, temperate
|Causes Favism in susceptible people.
|-
| Arachis
|A. hypogaea: peanut
|South America
|Warm Subtropical, cool tropical
|
|-
| Glycine
|G. max: soybean
|East Asia
|Hot temperate, Subtropical, cool tropical
|
|-
| Macrotyloma
|M. uniflorum: horsegram
|South Asia
|Tropical, subtropical
|
|-
| Mucuna
|M. pruriens: velvet bean
|Tropical Asia and Africa
|Tropical, Warm Subtropical
|Contains L-DOPA, and smaller amounts of other psychoactive compounds. Can cause itching and rashes on contact.
|-
| Lupinus
|
* L. albus: white lupin
* L. mutabilis: tarwi/Andean lupin
|The Mediterranean, Balkans, Levant (albinus), The Andes (mutabilis)
|Subtropical, temperate
|Requires soaking to remove toxins.
|-
| Ceratonia
|C. siliqua: carob bean
|Mediterranean, Middle East
|Subtropical, arid subtropical, hot temperate
|
|-
| Canavalia
|
* C. gladiata: sword bean
* C. ensiformis: Jack beans
|South Asia or Africa (C. gladiata), Brazil and South America (C. Ensiformis)
|Tropical
|
|-
| Cyamopsis
|C. tetragonoloba: guar bean
|Africa or South Asia
|Tropical, semi-arid
|Source of Guar gum
|-
| Lablab
|L. purpureus: hyacinth/lablab bean
|South Asia, Indian Subcontinent or Africa
|Tropical
|
|-
| Psophocarpus
|P. tetranoglobulus: winged bean
|New Guinea
|Tropical, equatorial
|
|-
| Clitoria
|C. ternatea: butterfly pea
|Equatorial and Tropical Asia
|Tropical, subtropical
|Flowers used as a natural food colouring
|-
| Lathyrus
|
* L. sativus: grass pea
* L. tuberosus: tuberous pea
|Balkans, India or Asia
|Subtropical
|Can cause Lathyrism if used as staple.
|}
Conservation of cultivars
The biodiversity of bean cultivars is threatened by modern plant breeding, which selects a small number of the most productive varieties. Efforts are being made to conserve the germplasm of older varieties in different countries. As of 2023, the Norwegian Svalbard Global Seed Vault holds more than 40,000 accessions of Phaseolus bean species. Cultivation Agronomy Many beans are summer crops that needs warm temperatures to grow; peas are an exception. Legumes are capable of nitrogen fixation and hence need less fertiliser than most plants. Maturity is typically 55–60 days from planting to harvest. As the pods mature, they turn yellow and dry up, and the beans inside change from green to their mature colour. Many beans are vines needing external support, such as "bean cages" or poles. Native Americans customarily grew them along with corn and squash, the tall stalks acting as support for the beans.
More recently, the commercial "bush bean" which does not require support and produces all its pods simultaneously has been developed.
<gallery class"center" mode"nolines" widths"200" heights"160">
File:Bean Flower in Bangladesh.jpg|Flower with pollinator
File:Lablab bean and bean flowers.JPG|Lablab flowers and fruits
File:Field beans near Pendomer - geograph.org.uk - 1463701.jpg|Broad beans ready for harvest
</gallery>
Production
The production data for legumes are published by FAO in three categories:
# Pulses dry: all mature and dry seeds of leguminous plants except soybeans and groundnuts.
# Oil crops: soybeans and groundnuts.
# Fresh vegetable: immature green fresh fruits of leguminous plants.
The following is a summary of FAO data.
{|class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|+ Production of legumes (million metric tons)
!Crops<br/>[FAO code]
!1961
!1981
!2001
!2015
!2016
!Ratio<br/><small>2016 /1961</small>
!Remarks
|-
|Total pulses (dry) [1726]
|40.78
|41.63
|56.23
|77.57
|81.80
|2.01
| Per capita production decreased.<br/>(Population grew 2.4×)
|-
! colspan="8" |Oil crops (dry)
|-
|Soybeans [236]
|26.88
|88.53
|177.02
|323.20
|334.89
|12.46
| Increase driven by animal feeds and oil.
|-
|Groundnuts, with shell [242]
|14.13
|20.58
|35.82
|45.08
|43.98
|3.11
|
|-
! colspan="8" |Fresh vegetables (80–90% water)
|-
|Beans, green [414]
|2.63
|4.09
|10.92
|23.12
|23.60
|8.96
|
|-
|Peas, green [417]
|3.79
|5.66
|12.41
|19.44
|19.88
|5.25
|
|}
{|class"wikitable" style"text-align:center"
|+ Top producers, pulses [1726]<br/>(million metric tons)
|-
!
!Country
!2016
!Share
|-
!Total
!
!81.80
!100%
|-
|1
|India
|17.56
|21.47%
|-
|2
|Canada
|8.20
|10.03%
|-
|3
|Myanmar
|6.57
|8.03%
|-
|4
|China
|4.23
|5.17%
|-
|5
|Nigeria
|3.09
|3.78%
|-
|6
|Russia
|2.94
|3.60%
|-
|7
|Ethiopia
|2.73
|3.34%
|-
|8
|Brazil
|2.62
|3.21%
|-
|9
|Australia
|2.52
|3.09%
|-
|10
|USA
|2.44
|2.98%
|-
|11
|Niger
|2.06
|2.51%
|-
|12
|Tanzania
|2.00
|2.45%
|-
|
|Others
|24.82
|30.34%
|}
The world leader in production of dry beans (Phaseolus spp), is India, followed by Myanmar (Burma) and Brazil. In Africa, the most important producer is Tanzania.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Top ten dry beans (Phaseolus spp) producers, 2020
|-
! Country
! Production<br/>(tonnes)
! Footnote
|-
| ||alignright|5,460,000||alignright|FAO figure
|-
| ||alignright|3,053,012||alignright|Official figure
|-
| ||alignright|3,035,290||alignright|Aggregated data
|-
| ||alignright|1,495,180||alignright|Semi-official data
|-
| ||alignright|1,281,586||alignright|Official figure
|-
| ||alignright|1,267,648||alignright|FAO figure
|-
| ||alignright|1,056,071||alignright|Official figure
|-
| ||alignright|774,366||alignright|FAO figure
|-
| ||alignright|633,823||alignright|Semi-official data
|-
| ||alignright|603,980||alignright|Official figure
|-
| World||align=right|27,545,942||Aggregated data
|}
Source: UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
Uses
Culinary
Beans can be cooked in a wide variety of casseroles, curries, salads, soups, and stews. They can be served whole or mashed alongside meat or toast, or included in an omelette or a flatbread wrap. Other options are to include them in a bake with a cheese sauce, a Mexican-style chili con carne, or to use them as a meat substitute in a burger or in falafels. The French cassoulet is a slow-cooked stew with haricot beans, sausage, pork, mutton, and preserved goose. Soybeans can be processed into bean curd (tofu) or fermented into a cake (tempeh); these can be eaten fried or roasted like meat, or included in stir-fries, curries, and soups. Most dry beans contain 21-25% protein by weight; dry soybeans are 36.5% protein by weight.
<gallery class"center" mode"nolines" widths"200" heights"160">
File:Bean salad.jpg|Bean salad
File:Beans on toast - Vios 2024-01-09.jpg|Beans on toast, Greece
File:Senate bean soup, United States Capitol Visitor Center, April 2019.jpg|Bean soup
File:Bowl of cassoulet.JPG|Cassoulet, France
File:Chili con carne 6.jpg|Chili con carne with meat, beans, and red peppers
File:Vegetarian black bean burger with homefries.jpg|Bean burger
File:Deep fried bean-curd curry (2894128615).jpg|Bean curd curry
File:Tempeh tempe.jpg|Tempeh cakes ready to cook, Indonesia
</gallery>
Other
beans are used for their gum. ]]
Guar beans are used for their gum, a galactomannan polysaccharide. It is used to thicken and stabilise foods and other products.
Health concerns
Toxins
Some kinds of raw beans contain a harmful, flavourless toxin: the lectin phytohaemagglutinin, which must be destroyed by cooking. Red kidney beans are particularly toxic, but other types also pose risks of food poisoning. Even small quantities (4 or 5 raw beans) may cause severe stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhea. This risk does not apply to canned beans because they have already been cooked. A recommended method is to boil the beans for at least ten minutes; under-cooked beans may be more toxic than raw beans.
Cooking beans, without bringing them to a boil, in a slow cooker at a temperature well below boiling may not destroy toxins.
Bean poisoning is not well known in the medical community, and many cases may be misdiagnosed or never reported; figures appear not to be available. In the case of the UK National Poisons Information Service, available only to health professionals, the dangers of beans other than red beans were not flagged . Beans are a major source of dietary protein in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Zambia. Other hazards It is common to make beansprouts by letting some types of bean, often mung beans, germinate in moist and warm conditions; beansprouts may be used as ingredients in cooked dishes, or eaten raw or lightly cooked. There have been many outbreaks of disease from bacterial contamination, often by salmonella, listeria, and Escherichia coli, of beansprouts not thoroughly cooked, some causing significant mortality.
Many types of bean like kidney bean contain significant amounts of antinutrients that inhibit some enzyme processes in the body. Phytic acid, present in beans, interferes with bone growth and interrupts vitamin D metabolism.
Many beans, including broad beans, navy beans, kidney beans and soybeans, contain large sugar molecules, oligosaccharides (particularly raffinose and stachyose). A suitable oligosaccharide-cleaving enzyme is necessary to digest these. As the human digestive tract does not contain such enzymes, consumed oligosaccharides are digested by bacteria in the large intestine, producing gases such as methane, released as flatulence. In human society
(c.1584) by Annibale Carracci ]]
Beans have often been thought of as a food of the poor, as small farmers ate grains, vegetables, and got their protein from beans, while the wealthier classes were able to afford meat. extracted from the mould fungus Aspergillus niger'', it breaks down glycolipids and glycoproteins. The reputation of beans for flatulence is the theme of a children's song "Beans, Beans, the Musical Fruit".
The Mexican jumping bean is a segment of a seed pod occupied by the larva of the moth Cydia saltitans, and sold as a novelty. The pods start to jump when warmed in the palm of the hand. Scientists have suggested that the random walk that results may help the larva to find shade and so to survive on hot days.
See also
* Baked beans
* List of bean soups
** Fassoulada – a bean soup
* List of legume dishes
References
Bibliography
*External links
* [http://siris-archives.si.edu/ipac20/ipac.jsp?session119C6813C8S25.9800&profileall&source~!siarchives&viewsubscriptionsummary&urifull3100001~!179119~!1&ri21&aspectKeyword&menusearch&ipp20&spp20&staffonly&termbickley&index.TW&uindex&aspectKeyword&menusearch&ri21 Everett H. Bickley Collection, 1919–1980] Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051225193340/http://www.discovery.com/area/skinnyon/skinnyon970815/skinnyon.html Discovery Online: The Skinny On Why Beans Give You Gas]
* [https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2006.01506.x Fermentation improves nutritional value of beans]
* [http://www.foodsubs.com/Beans.html Cook's Thesaurus on Beans]
Category:Edible legumes
Category:Pod vegetables
Category:Staple foods
Category:Vegan cuisine
Category:Vegetarian cuisine
Category:Crops
Category:Plant common names
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean
|
2025-04-05T18:26:51.764842
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Breast
|
( 'of the breast')}}
| Image = Weibliche brust en.jpg
| Caption = Morphology of female human breasts, with the areola, nipple, and inframammary fold
| Image2 = File:Male Thorax.jpg
| Caption2 = Male human breasts with defined pectoral muscles
| Precursor | System
| Artery = Internal thoracic artery
| Vein = Internal thoracic vein
| Nerve | Lymph
}}
The breasts are two prominences located on the upper ventral region of the torso among humans and other primates. Both sexes develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. The relative size and development of the breasts is a major secondary sex distinction between females and males. There is also considerable variation in size between individuals. Female humans are the only mammals which permanently develop breasts at puberty; all other mammals develop their mammary tissue during the latter period of pregnancy; at puberty, estrogens, in conjunction with growth hormone, cause permanent breast growth.
In females, the breast serves as the mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed infants. Subcutaneous fat covers and envelops a network of ducts that converge on the nipple, and these tissues give the breast its distinct size and globular shape. At the ends of the ducts are lobules, or clusters of alveoli, where milk is produced and stored in response to hormonal signals. During pregnancy, the breast responds to a complex interaction of hormones, including estrogens, progesterone, and prolactin, that mediate the completion of its development, namely lobuloalveolar maturation, in preparation of lactation and breastfeeding.
Along with their major function in providing nutrition for infants, several cultures ascribe social and sexual characteristics to female breasts, and may regard bare breasts in public as immodest or indecent. Breasts have been featured in ancient and modern sculpture, art, and photography. Breasts can represent fertility, femininity, or abundance. They can figure prominently in the perception of a woman's body and sexual attractiveness. Breasts, especially the nipples, can be an erogenous zone.
Etymology and terminology
The English word breast derives from the Old English word from Proto-Germanic , from the Proto-Indo-European base . The breast spelling conforms to the Scottish and North English dialectal pronunciations. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary states that "Middle English , [comes] from Old English ; akin to Old High German ..., Old Irish [belly], [and] Russian "; the first known usage of the term was before the 12th century.
Breasts is often used to refer to female breasts in particular, though the stricter anatomical term refers to the same region on members of either sex. Male breasts are sometimes referred to in the singular to mean the collective upper chest area, whereas female breasts are referred to in the plural unless speaking of a specific left or right breast.
A large number of colloquial terms for female breasts are used in English, ranging from fairly polite terms to vulgar or slang. Some vulgar slang expressions may be considered to be derogatory or sexist to women.
Evolutionary development
breastfeeding an infant]]
Humans are the only mammals whose breasts become permanently enlarged after sexual maturity (known in humans as puberty). The reason for this evolutionary change is unknown. Several hypotheses have been put forward:
A link has been proposed to processes for synthesizing the endogenous steroid hormone precursor dehydroepiandrosterone which takes place in fat rich regions of the body like the buttocks and breasts. These contributed to human brain development and played a part in increasing brain size. Breast enlargement may for this purpose have occurred as early as Homo ergaster (1.7–1.4 MYA).
It has been suggested by zoologists Avishag and Amotz Zahavi that the size of the human breasts can be explained by the handicap theory of sexual dimorphism. This would see the explanation for larger breasts as them being an honest display of the women's health and ability to grow and carry them in her life. Prospective mates can then evaluate the genes of a potential mate for their ability to sustain her health even with the additional energy demanding burden she is carrying.
The zoologist Desmond Morris describes a sociobiological approach in his science book The Naked Ape. He suggests, by making comparisons with the other primates, that breasts evolved to replace swelling buttocks as a sex signal of ovulation. He notes how humans have, relatively speaking, large penises as well as large breasts. Furthermore, early humans adopted bipedalism and face-to-face coitus. He therefore suggested enlarged sexual signals helped maintain the bond between a mated male and female even though they performed different duties and therefore were separated for lengths of time.
A 2001 study proposed that the rounded shape of a woman's breast evolved to prevent the sucking infant offspring from suffocating while feeding at the teat; that is, because of the human infant's small jaw, which did not project from the face to reach the nipple, they might block the nostrils against the mother's breast if it were of a flatter form (compare with the common chimpanzee). Theoretically, as the human jaw receded into the face, the woman's body compensated with round breasts.
Ashley Montague (1965) proposed that breasts came about as an adaptation for infant feeding for a different reason, as early human ancestors adopted bipedalism and the loss of body hair. Human upright stance meant infants must be carried at the hip or shoulder instead of on the back as in the apes. This gives the infant less opportunity to find the nipple or the purchase to cling on to the mother's body hair. The mobility of the nipple on a large breast in most human females gives the infant more ability to find it, grasp it and feed. The natural resonant frequency of the human breast is about 2 hertz.
Morphologically, the breast is tear-shaped. The superficial tissue layer (superficial fascia) is separated from the skin by 0.5–2.5 cm of subcutaneous fat (adipose tissue). The suspensory Cooper's ligaments are fibrous-tissue prolongations that radiate from the superficial fascia to the skin envelope. The female adult breast contains 14–18 irregular lactiferous lobes that converge at the nipple. The 2.0–4.5 mm milk ducts are immediately surrounded with dense connective tissue that support the glands. Milk exits the breast through the nipple, which is surrounded by a pigmented area of skin called the areola. The size of the areola can vary widely among women. The areola contains modified sweat glands known as Montgomery's glands. These glands secrete oily fluid that lubricate and protect the nipple during breastfeeding. Volatile compounds in these secretions may also serve as an olfactory stimulus for the newborn's appetite.
s]]
The dimensions and weight of the breast vary widely among women. A small-to-medium-sized breast weighs 500 grams (1.1 pounds) or less, and a large breast can weigh approximately 750 to 1,000 grams (1.7 to 2.2 pounds) or more. In terms of composition, the breasts are about 80 to 90% stromal tissue (fat and connective tissue), while epithelial or glandular tissue only accounts for about 10 to 20% of the volume of the breasts. The tissue composition ratios of the breast also vary among women. Some women's breasts have a higher proportion of glandular tissue than of adipose or connective tissues. The fat-to-connective-tissue ratio determines the density or firmness of the breast. During a woman's life, her breasts change size, shape, and weight due to hormonal changes during puberty, the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, breastfeeding, and menopause.
Glandular structure
of the breast.]]
The breast is an apocrine gland that produces the milk used to feed an infant. The nipple of the breast is surrounded by the areola (nipple-areola complex). The areola has many sebaceous glands, and the skin color varies from pink to dark brown. The basic units of the breast are the terminal duct lobular units (TDLUs), which produce the fatty breast milk. They give the breast its offspring-feeding functions as a mammary gland. They are distributed throughout the body of the breast. Approximately two-thirds of the lactiferous tissue is within 30 mm of the base of the nipple. The terminal lactiferous ducts drain the milk from TDLUs into 4–18 lactiferous ducts, which drain to the nipple. The milk-glands-to-fat ratio is 2:1 in a lactating woman, and 1:1 in a non-lactating woman. In addition to the milk glands, the breast is also composed of connective tissues (collagen, elastin), white fat, and the suspensory Cooper's ligaments. Sensation in the breast is provided by the peripheral nervous system innervation by means of the front (anterior) and side (lateral) cutaneous branches of the fourth-, fifth-, and sixth intercostal nerves. The T-4 nerve (Thoracic spinal nerve 4), which innervates the dermatomic area, supplies sensation to the nipple-areola complex.Lymphatic drainageApproximately 75% of the lymph from the breast travels to the axillary lymph nodes on the same side of the body, while 25% of the lymph travels to the parasternal nodes (beside the sternum bone). The axillary lymph nodes include the pectoral (chest), subscapular (under the scapula), and humeral (humerus-bone area) lymph-node groups, which drain to the central axillary lymph nodes and to the apical axillary lymph nodes. The lymphatic drainage of the breasts is especially relevant to oncology because breast cancer is common to the mammary gland, and cancer cells can metastasize (break away) from a tumor and be dispersed to other parts of the body by means of the lymphatic system.Morphology
The morphologic variations in the size, shape, volume, tissue density, pectoral locale, and spacing of the breasts determine their natural shape, appearance, and position on a woman's chest. Breast size and other characteristics do not predict the fat-to-milk-gland ratio or the potential for the woman to nurse an infant. The size and the shape of the breasts are influenced by normal-life hormonal changes (thelarche, menstruation, pregnancy, menopause) and medical conditions (e.g. virginal breast hypertrophy). The shape of the breasts is naturally determined by the support of the suspensory Cooper's ligaments, the underlying muscle and bone structures of the chest, and by the skin envelope. The suspensory ligaments sustain the breast from the clavicle (collarbone) and the clavico-pectoral fascia (collarbone and chest) by traversing and encompassing the fat and milk-gland tissues. The breast is positioned, affixed to, and supported upon the chest wall, while its shape is established and maintained by the skin envelope. In most women, one breast is slightly larger than the other.
The base of each breast is attached to the chest by the deep fascia over the pectoralis major muscles. The base of the breast is semi-circular, however the shape and position of the breast above the surface is variable. The space between the breast and the pectoralis major muscle, called retromammary space, gives mobility to the breast. The chest (thoracic cavity) progressively slopes outwards from the thoracic inlet (atop the breastbone) and above to the lowest ribs that support the breasts. The inframammary fold (IMF), where the lower portion of the breast meets the chest, is an anatomic feature created by the adherence of the breast skin and the underlying connective tissues of the chest; the IMF is the lower-most extent of the anatomic breast. Normal breast tissue has a texture that feels nodular or granular, with considerable variation from woman to woman.
Support
While it is a common belief that breastfeeding causes breasts to sag, researchers have found that a woman's breasts sag due to four key factors: cigarette smoking, number of pregnancies, gravity, and weight loss or gain. Women sometimes wear bras because they mistakenly believe they prevent breasts from sagging as they get older. This belief was based on the false idea that breasts cannot anatomically support themselves.
Sports bras are sometimes used for cardiovascular exercise, sports bras are designed to secure the breasts closely to the body to prevent movement during high-motion activity such as running. Studies have indicated sports bras which are overly tight may restrict respiratory function.
Development
The breasts are principally composed of adipose, glandular, and connective tissues. Because these tissues have hormone receptors, their sizes and volumes fluctuate according to the hormonal changes particular to thelarche (sprouting of breasts), menstruation (egg production), pregnancy (reproduction), lactation (feeding of offspring), and menopause (end of menstruation).PubertyThe morphological structure of the human breast is identical in males and females until puberty. For pubescent girls in thelarche (the breast-development stage), the female sex hormones (principally estrogens) in conjunction with growth hormone promote the sprouting, growth, and development of the breasts. During this time, the mammary glands grow in size and volume and begin resting on the chest. These development stages of secondary sex characteristics (breasts, pubic hair, etc.) are illustrated in the five-stage Tanner scale.
During thelarche, the developing breasts are sometimes of unequal size, and usually the left breast is slightly larger. This condition of asymmetry is transitory and statistically normal in female physical and sexual development. Medical conditions can cause overdevelopment (e.g., virginal breast hypertrophy, macromastia) or underdevelopment (e.g., tuberous breast deformity, micromastia) in girls and women.
Approximately two years after the onset of puberty (a girl's first menstrual cycle), estrogen and growth hormone stimulate the development and growth of the glandular fat and suspensory tissues that compose the breast. This continues for approximately four years until the final shape of the breast (size, volume, density) is established at about the age of 21. Mammoplasia (breast enlargement) in girls begins at puberty, unlike all other primates, in which breasts enlarge only during lactation.
In menopausal women, HRT helps restore breast volume and skin elasticity diminished by declining estrogen levels, typically using oral or transdermal estradiol.
In gender-affirming hormone therapy, breast development is induced through feminizing HRT, often combining estrogen with anti-androgens to suppress testosterone. Maximum growth is usually achieved after 2–3 years.
Factors such as age, genetics, and hormone dosage influence outcomes.
Changes during the menstrual cycle
During the menstrual cycle, the breasts are enlarged by premenstrual water retention and temporary growth as influenced by changing hormone levels.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding
The breasts reach full maturity only when a woman's first pregnancy occurs. Changes to the breasts are among the first signs of pregnancy. The breasts become larger, the nipple-areola complex becomes larger and darker, the Montgomery's glands enlarge, and veins sometimes become more visible. Breast tenderness during pregnancy is common, especially during the first trimester. By mid-pregnancy, the breast is physiologically capable of lactation and some women can express colostrum, a form of breast milk.
Pregnancy causes elevated levels of the hormone prolactin, which has a key role in the production of milk. However, milk production is blocked by the hormones progesterone and estrogen until after delivery, when progesterone and estrogen levels plummet. The breasts can decrease in size when the levels of circulating estrogen decline. The adipose tissue and milk glands also begin to wither. The breasts can also become enlarged from adverse side effects of combined oral contraceptive pills. The size of the breasts can also increase and decrease in response to weight fluctuations.
Physical changes to the breasts are often recorded in the stretch marks of the skin envelope; they can serve as historical indicators of the increments and the decrements of the size and volume of a woman's breasts throughout the course of her life.
Breast changes during menopause are sometimes treated with hormone replacement therapy.
Cancer
Breast cancer is a cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, milk rejection, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a red or scaly patch of skin. In those with distant spread of the disease, there may be bone pain, swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath, or yellow skin.
Risk factors for developing breast cancer include obesity, a lack of physical exercise, alcohol consumption, hormone replacement therapy during menopause, ionizing radiation, an early age at first menstruation, having children late in life (or not at all), older age, having a prior history of breast cancer, and a family history of breast cancer. About five to ten percent of cases are the result of an inherited genetic predisposition,
Full-term newborns have an instinct and a need to suck on a nipple, and breastfed babies nurse for both nutrition and for comfort. Breast milk provides all necessary nutrients for the first six months of life, and then remains an important source of nutrition, alongside solid foods, until at least one or two years of age. Exercise Biomechanical studies have demonstrated that, depending on the activity and the size of a woman's breast, when she walks or runs braless, her breasts may move up and down by or more, and also oscillate side to side.Clinical significance
The breast is susceptible to numerous benign and malignant conditions. The most frequent benign conditions are puerperal mastitis, fibrocystic breast changes and mastalgia.
Lactation unrelated to pregnancy is known as galactorrhea. It can be caused by certain drugs (such as antipsychotic medications), extreme physical stress, or endocrine disorders. Lactation in newborns is caused by hormones from the mother that crossed into the baby's bloodstream during pregnancy.
Breast cancer
Breast cancer is the most common cause of cancer death among women and it is one of the leading causes of death among women. Factors that appear to be implicated in decreasing the risk of breast cancer are regular breast examinations by health care professionals, regular mammograms, self-examination of breasts, healthy diet, exercise to decrease excess body fat, and breastfeeding.
Male breasts
Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. Anatomically, male breasts do not normally contain lobules and acini that are present in females. In rare instances, it is possible for very few lobules to be present; this makes it possible for some men to develop lobular carcinoma of the breast. Normally, males produce lower levels of estrogens and higher levels of androgens, namely testosterone, which suppress the effects of estrogens in developing excessive breast tissue. In boys and men, abnormal breast development is manifested as gynecomastia, the consequence of a biochemical imbalance between the normal levels of estrogen and testosterone in the male body. Around 70% of boys temporarily develop breast tissue during adolescence. Breast augmentation and breast lift (mastopexy) procedures are done only for cosmetic reasons, whereas breast reduction is sometimes medically indicated.
member participating in a protest|left]]
Femen is a feminist activist group which uses topless protests as part of their campaigns against sex tourism religious institutions, sexism, and homophobia. Femen activists have been regularly detained by police in response to their protests.
There is a long history of female breasts being used by comedians as a subject for comedy fodder (e.g., British comic Benny Hill's burlesque/slapstick routines).
During the middle of the first millennium BC, Greek culture experienced a gradual change in the perception of female breasts. Women in art were covered in clothing from the neck down, including female goddesses like Athena, the patron of Athens who represented heroic endeavor. There were exceptions: Aphrodite, the goddess of love, was more frequently portrayed fully nude, though in postures that were intended to portray shyness or modesty, a portrayal that has been compared to modern pin ups by historian Marilyn Yalom. Although nude men were depicted standing upright, most depictions of female nudity in Greek art occurred "usually with drapery near at hand and with a forward-bending, self-protecting posture". A popular legend at the time was of the Amazons, a tribe of fierce female warriors who socialized with men only for procreation and even removed one breast to become better warriors (the idea being that the right breast would interfere with the operation of a bow and arrow). The legend was a popular motif in art during Greek and Roman antiquity and served as an antithetical cautionary tale.
Body image
Many women regard their breasts as important to their sexual attractiveness, as a sign of femininity that is important to their sense of self. A woman with smaller breasts may regard her breasts as less attractive.
Clothing
woman of northern Namibia wears a traditional headdress and skirt]]
Because breasts are mostly fatty tissue, their shape can—within limits—be molded by clothing, such as foundation garments. Bras are commonly worn by about 90% of Western women, and are often worn for support. The social norm in most Western cultures is to cover breasts in public, though the extent of coverage varies depending on the social context. Some religions ascribe a special status to the female breast, either in formal teachings or through symbolism. Islam forbids free women from exposing their breasts in public.
Many cultures, including Western cultures in North America, associate breasts with sexuality and tend to regard bare breasts as immodest or indecent. In some cultures, like the Himba in northern Namibia, bare-breasted women are normal. In some African cultures, for example, the thigh is regarded as highly sexualized and never exposed in public, but breast exposure is not taboo. In a few Western countries and regions female toplessness at a beach is acceptable, although it may not be acceptable in the town center.
Social attitudes and laws regarding breastfeeding in public vary widely. In many countries, breastfeeding in public is common, legally protected, and generally not regarded as an issue. However, even though the practice may be legal or socially accepted, some mothers may nevertheless be reluctant to expose a breast in public to breastfeed due to actual or potential objections by other people, negative comments, or harassment. It is estimated that around 63% of mothers across the world have publicly breast-fed. Bare-breasted women are legal and culturally acceptable at public beaches in Australia and much of Europe.
Breast binding, also known as chest binding, is the flattening and hiding of breasts with constrictive materials such as cloth strips or purpose-built undergarments. Binders may also be used as alternatives to bras or for reasons of propriety. People who bind include women, trans men, non-binary people, and cisgender men with gynecomastia.
Sexual characteristic
In some cultures, breasts play a role in human sexual activity. Breasts and especially the nipples are among the various human erogenous zones. They are sensitive to the touch as they have many nerve endings; and it is common to press or massage them with hands or orally before or during sexual activity. During sexual arousal, breast size increases, venous patterns across the breasts become more visible, and nipples harden. Compared to other primates, human breasts are proportionately large throughout adult females' lives. Some writers have suggested that they may have evolved as a visual signal of sexual maturity and fertility. In Patterns of Sexual Behavior, a 1951 analysis of 191 traditional cultures, the researchers noted that stimulation of the female breast by a male sexual partner "seemed absent in all subhuman forms, although it is common among the members of many different human societies."
Many people regard bare female breasts to be aesthetically pleasing or erotic, and they can elicit heightened sexual desires in men in many cultures. In the ancient Indian work the Kama Sutra, light scratching of the breasts with nails and biting with teeth are considered erotic. Some people show a sexual interest in female breasts distinct from that of the person, which may be regarded as a breast fetish. A number of Western fashions include clothing which accentuate the breasts, such as the use of push-up bras and decollete (plunging neckline) gowns and blouses which show cleavage. While U.S. culture prefers breasts that are youthful and upright, some cultures venerate women with drooping breasts, indicating mothering and the wisdom of experience.
Research conducted at the Victoria University of Wellington showed that breasts are often the first thing men look at, and for a longer time than other body parts. The writers of the study had initially speculated that the reason for this is due to endocrinology with larger breasts indicating higher levels of estrogen and a sign of greater fertility, but the researchers said that "Men may be looking more often at the breasts because they are simply aesthetically pleasing, regardless of the size." Research suggests that the orgasms are genital orgasms, and may also be directly linked to "the genital area of the brain". In these cases, it seems that sensation from the nipples travels to the same part of the brain as sensations from the vagina, clitoris and cervix. Nipple stimulation may trigger uterine contractions, which then produce a sensation in the genital area of the brain.Anthropomorphic geography
There are many mountains named after the breast because they resemble it in appearance and so are objects of religious and ancestral veneration as a fertility symbol and of well-being. In Asia, there was "Breast Mountain", which had a cave where the Buddhist monk Bodhidharma (Da Mo) spent much time in meditation. Other such breast mountains are Mount Elgon on the Uganda–Kenya border; and the Maiden Paps in Scotland; the ('Maiden's breast mountains') in Talim Island, Philippines, the twin hills known as the Paps of Anu ( or 'the breasts of Anu'), near Killarney in Ireland; the 2,086 m high or in the , Spain; in Thailand, in Puerto Rico; and the Breasts of Aphrodite in Mykonos, among many others. In the United States, the Teton Range is named after the French word for 'nipple'.
Measurement
The maturation and size of the breasts can be measured by a variety of different methods. These include Tanner staging, bra cup size, breast volume, breast–chest difference, the breast unit, breast hemicircumference, and breast circumference, among other measures.
See also
* Udder
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
* Morris, Desmond ''The Naked Ape: a zoologist's study of the human animal'' Bantam Books, Canada. 1967
*
*
* External links
*
Category:Breastfeeding
Category:Human sexuality
Category:Human physiology
Category:Anatomy
Category:Human body
Category:Health
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breast
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Baghdad
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| image_caption | image_flag Flag of Baghdad.svg
| flag_size = <!-- 120px -->
| image_seal = Seal of Baghdad.svg
| nickname City of Peace (مَدِيْنَةُ السَّلَام)
| pushpin_map = Iraq#Asia
| pushpin_label_position | pushpin_relief yes
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Baghdad within Iraq
| coordinates
| coordinates_footnotes | subdivision_type Country
| subdivision_name = Iraq
| subdivision_type1 = Governorate
| subdivision_name1 = Baghdad
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 30 July 762 AD
| founder = Caliph al-Mansur
| government_type = Mayor–council
| governing_body = Baghdad City Advisory Council
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Ammar Moussa Kadhum
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_total_km2 = 673
| elevation_m = 34
| population_density_km2 = 12,000
| population_est 7,921,134
| pop_est_as_of = 2024
| population_metro = 8,141,000
| population_rank = 1st in Iraq
| population_demonym = Baghdadi
| timezone = AST
| utc_offset = +03:00
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 10001 to 10090
| area_code_type = (+964) 1
| website
| parts_type = Districts
| parts = 11
}}
Baghdad or ; , }} is the capital and largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the most populous cities in the Middle East and Arab World and forms 22% of the country's population. Spanning an area of approximately , Baghdad is the capital of its governorate and serves as Iraq's political, economic, and cultural hub.
Founded in 762 AD by Al-Mansur, Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate and became its most notable development project. The city evolved into a cultural and intellectual center of the Muslim world. This, in addition to housing several key academic institutions, including the House of Wisdom, as well as a multi-ethnic and multi-religious environment, garnered it a worldwide reputation as the "Center of Learning". For much of the Abbasid era, during the Islamic Golden Age, Baghdad was one of the largest cities in the world and rivaled Chang'an, as the population peaked at more than one million. It was largely destroyed at the hands of the Mongol Empire in 1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries due to frequent plagues and multiple successive empires such as the Ilkhanate, White Sheep Turkoman, Turco–Persian, Mamluk Dynasty and the Ottoman Empire.
The city was part of the Ottoman Empire's Baghdad Vilayet until World War I, when it was captured by British forces in 1917. Baghdad became capital of the former Mandate of Mesopotamia in 1921. With the recognition of Iraq as an independent monarchy in 1932, it gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center of Arab culture. During the era of oil boom in Iraq, the city experienced a period of prosperity and growth. It faced severe infrastructural damage due to the Iraq War, which began with the invasion of Iraq in 2003, resulting in a substantial loss of cultural heritage and historical artifacts. Impacted by the subsequent 2011–2013 insurgency and renewed war from 2013 to 2017, during this period, it had one of the highest rates of terrorist attacks in the world. However, it has gradually been on the decline since the territorial defeat of the Islamic State militant group in Iraq in 2017, and are now rare.
As capital of Iraq, Baghdad is location of the seat of government, national institutions and government ministries and serves as headquarters to numerous companies. It generates 40% of Iraq's GDP. A major center of Islamic history, the city is home to numerous historic mosques, as well as churches, mandis and synagogues, highlighting the city's historical diversity. Baghdad is home to Mustansiriya University, one of the oldest universities and Masjid al-Kādhimayn, that is visited every year by millions of Shi'ite pilgrims. The city is home to important cultural sites such as the National Museum of Iraq, the Iraqi National Library and the National Media Center. It is also known as the "City of Palaces", as it is home to well-known palaces.
Name
The name Baghdad is pre-Islamic, and its origin is disputed.
Arab authors, realizing the pre-Islamic origins of Baghdad's name, generally looked for its roots in Middle Persian. They suggested various meanings, the most common of which was "bestowed by God". Modern scholars generally tend to favor this etymology, In Old Persian the first element can be traced to boghu and is related to Indo-Iranian bhag and Slavic bog "god." A similar term in Middle Persian is the name Mithradāt (Mehrdad in New Persian), known in English by its borrowed Hellenistic form Mithridates, meaning "Given by Mithra" (dāt is the more archaic form of dād, related to Sanskrit dāt, Latin dat and English donor), and Baghdati in Georgia, which likely share the same etymological Iranic origins.
Other authors have suggested older origins for the name, in particular the name Bagdadu or Hudadu that existed in Old Babylonian (spelled with a sign that can represent both bag and hu), and the Jewish Babylonian Aramaic name of a place called Baghdatha (). Some scholars suggested Aramaic derivations.
When the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur founded a completely new city for his capital, he chose the name "City of peace" (),which now refers to the Round City of Baghdad proper. Another explanation is that the Sorani Kurdish language words of bagh (), which means "the garden of"; and dad (), which stands for "Justice". This was the official name on coins, weights, and other official usage, although the common people continued to use the old name. By the 11th century, Baghdad became almost the exclusive name for the world-renowned metropolis.
Christophe Wall-Romana has suggested that al-Mansur's choice to found his "new city" at Baghdad because of its strategic location was the same criteria which influenced Sargon's choice to found the original city of Akkad in the exact same location.
History
Foundation
between 767 and 912 AD|left]]
After the fall of the Umayyads, the victorious Abbasids sought a new capital.
The two designers who were hired by Al-Mansur to plan the city's design were Naubakht, a Zoroastrian who also determined that the date of the foundation of the city would be astrologically auspicious, and Mashallah, a Jew from Khorasan, Iran. They determined the city's auspicious founding date under the sign of Leo the lion, symbolizing strength and expansion.
Baghdad's strategic location along the Tigris and its abundant water supply contributed to its rapid growth. It was divided into three judicial districts: Round City (Madinat al-Mansur), al-Karkh (al-Sharqiyya), and Askar al-Mahdi. To prevent disturbances, Al-Mansur moved markets to al-Karkh. Over time, Baghdad became a hub for merchants and craftsmen. Officials called "Muhtasib" monitored trade to prevent fraud.
Baghdad surpassed Ctesiphon, the former Sassanid capital, located 30 km southeast. The ruins of Ctesiphon remain in Salman Pak, where Salman the Persian is believed to be buried. Ctesiphon itself had replaced Seleucia, which had earlier succeeded Babylon. According to the traveler Ibn Battuta, Baghdad was one of the largest cities, not including the damage it has received. The residents are mostly Hanbalis. Most residents were Hanbali Muslims. The city housed Abu Hanifa’s grave, marked by a mosque and cell. Its ruler, Abu Said Bahadur Khan, was a Tatar who had embraced Islam.
Baghdad was designed to symbolize Paradise as described in the Qur'an. It took four years (764–768) to build, with over 100,000 workers involved. Al-Mansur recruited engineers and artisans worldwide. Astrologers Naubakht Ahvazi and Mashallah advised starting construction under Leo, associated with fire, productivity, and expansion. Bricks for the city were 18 inches square, and Abu Hanifah supervised their production. A canal supplied water for drinking and construction. Marble was used extensively, including steps leading to the river.
The city’s layout consisted of two large semicircles, with a 2 km-wide circular core known as the "Round City." It had parks, gardens, villas, and promenades. Unlike European cities of the time, Baghdad had a sanitation system, fountains, and public baths, with thousands of hammams enhancing hygiene. The mosque and guard headquarters stood at the center, though some central space's function remains unknown. Baghdad’s circular design reflected ancient Near Eastern urban planning, similar to the Sasanian city of Gur and older Mesopotamian cities like Mari. While Tell Chuera and Tell al-Rawda also provide examples of this type of urban planning existing in Bronze Age Syria. This style of urban planning contrasted with Ancient Greek and Roman urban planning, in which cities are designed as squares or rectangles with streets intersecting each other at right angles.
Baghdad was lively, with attractions like cabarets, chess halls, live plays, concerts, and acrobatics. Storytelling flourished, with professional storytellers (al-Qaskhun) captivating crowds, inspiring the tales of Arabian Nights. The city had four walls named after major destinations—Kufa, Basra, Khurasan, and Syria; their gates pointed in on these destinations. The gates were 2.4 km apart, with massive iron doors requiring several men to operate. The walls, up to 44 meters thick and 30 meters high, were reinforced with a second wall, towers, and a moat for added defense. On street corners, storytellers engaged crowds with tales such as those later told in Arabian Nights. The Golden Gate Palace, home of the caliph, stood at Baghdad's center with a grand 48-meter green dome. Only the caliph could approach its esplanade on horseback. Nearby were officer residences and a guardhouse. After Caliph Al-Amin's death in 813, the palace ceased to be the caliph's residence.
Center of learning (8th–9th centuries)
madrasa, established in 1227, was one of the oldest universities in the world. Its building survived the Mongol invasion of 1258. The modern Mustansiriyah University was established in 1963.]]
Within a generation of its founding, Baghdad became a hub of learning and commerce. The city flourished into an unrivaled intellectual center of science, medicine, philosophy, and education, especially with the Abbasid translation movement began under the second caliph Al-Mansur and thrived under the seventh caliph Al-Ma'mun. and had the largest selection of books in the world by the middle of the 9th century. Notable scholars based in Baghdad during this time include translator Hunayn ibn Ishaq, mathematician al-Khwarizmi, and philosopher Al-Kindi. Nestorians, Jews, Arab Christians, and people from other ethnic and religious groups native to the region. These are considered among the fundamental elements that contributed to the flourishing of scholarship in the Medieval Islamic world. Baghdad was also a significant center of Islamic religious learning, with Al-Jahiz contributing to the formation of Mu'tazili theology, as well as Al-Tabari culminating in the scholarship on the Quranic exegesis. Baghdad is likely to have been the largest city in the world from shortly after its foundation until the 930s, when it tied with Córdoba. Several estimates suggest that the city contained over a million inhabitants at its peak. Many of the One Thousand and One Nights tales, widely known as the Arabian Nights, are set in Baghdad during this period. It would surpass even Constantinople in prosperity and size.
, built in the 14th century as a caravanserai]]
Among the notable features of Baghdad during this period were its exceptional libraries. Many of the Abbasid caliphs were patrons of learning and enjoyed collecting both ancient and contemporary literature. Although some of the princes of the previous Umayyad dynasty had begun to gather and translate Greek scientific literature, the Abbasids were the first to foster Greek learning on a large scale. Many of these libraries were private collections intended only for the use of the owners and their immediate friends, but the libraries of the caliphs and other officials soon took on a public or a semi-public character.
Four great libraries were established in Baghdad during this period. The earliest was that of the famous Al-Ma'mun, who was caliph from 813 to 833. Another was established by Sabur ibn Ardashir in 991 or 993 for the literary men and scholars who frequented his academy. and 2 million. Baghdad's early meteoric growth eventually slowed due to troubles within the Caliphate, including relocations of the capital to Samarra (during 808–819 and 836–892), the loss of the western and easternmost provinces, and periods of political domination by the Iranian Buwayhids (945–1055) and Seljuk Turks (1055–1135). The Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks from Central Asia that converted to the Sunni branch of Islam. In 1040, they destroyed the Ghaznavids, taking over their land and in 1055, Tughril Beg, the leader of the Seljuks, took over Baghdad. The Seljuks expelled the Buyid dynasty of Shiites that had ruled for some time and took over power and control of Baghdad. They ruled as Sultans in the name of the Abbasid caliphs (they saw themselves as being part of the Abbasid regime). Tughril Beg saw himself as the protector of the Abbasid Caliphs.
Baghdad was captured in 1394, 1534, 1623 and 1638. The city has been sieged in 812, 865, 946, 1157, 1258 and in 1393 and 1401, by Tamerlane. In 1058, Baghdad was captured by the Fatimids under the Turkish general Abu'l-Ḥārith Arslān al-Basasiri, an adherent of the Ismailis along with the 'Uqaylid Quraysh. Not long before the arrival of the Saljuqs in Baghdad, al-Basasiri petitioned to the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir to support him in conquering Baghdad on the Ismaili Imam's behalf. It has recently come to light that the famed Fatimid ''da'i'', al-Mu'ayyad al-Shirazi, had a direct role in supporting al-Basasiri and helped the general to succeed in taking Mawṣil, Wāsit and Kufa. Soon after, by December 1058, a Shi'i adhān (call to prayer) was implemented in Baghdad and a khutbah (sermon) was delivered in the name of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph.
by the Mongols in 1258 CE|220x220px]]
On 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Genghis Khan (Chingiz Khan''), during the siege of Baghdad. Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate. It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilization never fully recovered.
sacked the city and spared almost no one]]
At this point, Baghdad was ruled by the Ilkhanate, a breakaway state of the Mongol Empire, ruling from Iran. In August 1393, Baghdad was occupied by the Central Asian Turkic conqueror Timur ("Tamerlane"), by marching there in only eight days from Shiraz. Sultan Ahmad Jalayir fled to Syria, where the Mamluk Sultan Barquq protected him and killed Timur's envoys. Timur left the Sarbadar prince Khwaja Mas'ud to govern Baghdad, but he was driven out when Ahmad Jalayir returned.
In 1401, Baghdad was again sacked, by Timur, a Central Asian Turko-Mongol figure. When his forces took Baghdad, he spared almost no one, and ordered that each of his soldiers bring back two severed human heads. Baghdad became a provincial capital controlled by the Mongol Jalayirid (1400–1411), Turkic Kara Koyunlu (1411–1469), Turkic Ak Koyunlu (1469–1508), and the Iranian Safavid (1508–1534) dynasties.
Ottoman and Mamluks (16th–19th centuries)
The Safavids took control of the city in 1509 under the leadership of Shah Ismail I. It remained under Safavid rule until the Ottomans seized it in 1535, but the Safavids regained control in 1624. A massacre occurred when the Shah's army entered the city. It remained under Safavid rule until 1639 when Sultan Murad IV recaptured it in 1638.
In 1534, Baghdad was captured by the Ottoman Empire. Under the Ottomans, Baghdad continued into a period of decline, partially as a result of the enmity between its rulers and Iranian Safavids, which did not accept the Sunni control of the city. Between 1623 and 1638, it returned to Iranian rule before falling back into Ottoman hands. Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague and cholera, and sometimes two-thirds of its population has been wiped out. The city became part of an eyalet and then a vilayet.
For a time, Baghdad had been the largest city in the Middle East. The Nuttall Encyclopedia reports the 1907 population of Baghdad as 185,000. The year 1869 is of great importance in the history of Baghdad in the Ottoman era, as it was the beginning of what can be considered a distinct era of the Ottoman eras, the foundations of which were laid by Governor Midhat Pasha, who implemented a number of reform systems and laws that the state legislated during the era of reforms and reconstruction, which was called the Tanzimat era. The city had Jewish population of over 6,000 and had numerous yeshivas. It was retaliated by air bombing campaigns by the British forces in 1920, where thousands of residents were killed. After receiving independence in 1932, the city became capital of the new Kingdom of Iraq.
On 1 April 1941, members of the "Golden Square" and Rashid Ali al-Gaylani staged a coup in Baghdad and installed a pro-German and pro-Italian government to replace the pro-British government of Regent Abd al-Ilah. On 31 May, after the resulting Anglo-Iraqi War and after al-Gaylani and his government had fled, the Mayor of Baghdad surrendered to British and Commonwealth forces. Between 300 and 400 non-Jewish rioters were killed in the attempt to quell the violence. Between 1950 and 1951, Jews were targeted in series of bombings. According to Avi Shlaim, Israel was behind bombings, which is also believed by the majority of the Iraqis. A development plan came during the reign of King Faisal II. King Faisal, former Prime Minister Nuri al-Said, former Regent Prince Abd al-Ilah, members of the royal family, and others were brutally killed during the coup. New projects such as Al–Thawra and New Baghdad (Baghdad al-Jadeeda) came under his rule. In 1960, Baghdad hosted an international conference with dignitaries from Iran, Venezuela and Saudi Arabia, that founded Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
During the 1970s, Baghdad experienced a period of prosperity and growth because of a sharp increase in the price of petroleum, which is Iraq's main export. New infrastructure including modern sewerage, water, highway facilities, and airport were built during this period. Saddam sponsored numerous architectural and artwork events, which attracted some of the world’s popular architects. The city had a vibrant modern culture and lifestyle. Baghdad was called as "the Nuremberg of 1930s" and "Las Vegas of the 1980s". Iran launched a number of missile attacks against Baghdad in retaliation for the Iraqi Army's continuous bombardments of Tehran's residential districts. In 1981, a nuclear reactor near Baghdad was destroyed in an airstrike by Israel. The city was attacked numerous times between 1986 and 1988 by the Iranian forces. Iran also fired numerous rockets towards the city, landing dangerously close to Al-Rashid Street and the Jewish Quarter. In 1983, a summit of the Non-Alignment Movement was proposed to be held in Baghdad. However, due to rising threats from pro-Iranian groups and war situations, the summit was hosted New Delhi. On 13 February 1991, an aerial bombing attack in Amiriya killed at least 408 civilians. Air defenses, bridges, communications systems, chemical weapons facilities, tanks and artillery were damaged. Oil refinery and airport were targeted. Shortly after the war ended in 1991, ethnic Kurds and Shi'ite Muslims in Iraq led uprisings against the government. Another uprising ocurred in 1999, when Shi'a jurist Muhammad al-Sadr was assassinated in Najaf. The Shi'a community accused the government for the assassination. By the end of the 1990s, the government made improvements in Iraq's economy and infrastructure. In 2000, a broad initiative came to restore Baghdad's cultural heritage. Older mosques, churches, mandis and synagogues were restored and other historical structures were rebuilt. Saddam Hussein continued his architectural vision, which boosted further after the war. These structures further beautified Baghdad. As a part of Saddam's Faith Campaign, numerous mosques such as Umm al-Qura Mosque were built. However, these efforts were interrupted by the war which began in 2003.
In March 2003, the United States-led coalition invaded Iraq. The coalition forces launched massive aerial assaults. Shortly after invasion and toppling of the government, an anti-coalition insurgancy began, consisting of former government officers and Islamist groups.
Two bombings took place at Jordanian Embassy and Canal Hotel. Religious and ethnic minorities,— Christians, Mandaeans, and Jews, began leaving the city out of fear of being targeted in attacks, as they were subjected to kidnappings, death threats, and violence. The Haifa Street helicopter incident on 12 September gained controversial attraction. Attempts were made to rescue people, specially from the Sunni district of Adhamiyah, which is seen as a symbol of unity.
Coinciding the execution of Saddam Hussein in 2006, violence increased iduring the civil war between Shi'ite militias and Sunni insurgents. Shi'ite militias were Muqtada as-Sadr’s Jaysh al-Mahdi (JAM) and the Iranian-backed Special Groups and among Sunni insurgents, the largest was Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI). Baghdad experienced anti-government protests by Sunnis during the Arab Spring. It was followed by another war from 2013 to 2017 and a low-level insurgency from 2017, which included suicide bombings in January 2018 and January 2021. It has been site of clashes between the citizens and the government. The city attracted global media attention on 3 January 2020, when Iranian general Qasem Soleimani was assassinated in a U.S. drone strike near Baghdad Airport. In December 2015, Baghdad was selected by UNESCO as the first Arab city of the center of literary creativity.
Geography
]]
The city is located on a vast plain bisected by the Tigris river. The Tigris splits Baghdad in half, with the eastern half being called "Risafa" and the Western half known as "Karkh". The land on which the city is built is almost entirely flat and low-lying, being of quaternary alluvial origin due to periodic large flooding of the Tigris river. The Diyala river is a tributary of the Tigris, flowing southeast of the city and bordering its eastern suburbs.
Baghdad is northwest of Basra, south of Mosul, south of Erbil and northeast of Karbala. Located to the south is Mahmoudiyah, which serves as the gateway to Baghdad.
Climate Baghdad has a hot desert climate (Köppen BWh), featuring extremely hot, prolonged, dry summers and mild to cool, slightly wet, short winters. In the summer, from June through August, the average maximum temperature is as high as and accompanied by sunshine. Rainfall has been recorded on fewer than half a dozen occasions at this time of year and has never exceeded . Even at night, temperatures in summer are seldom below . Baghdad's record highest temperature of was reached on 28 July 2020. Humidity is under 50% in summer, due to Baghdad's distance from both the marshes in southern Iraq and the coasts of the Persian Gulf. Dust storms from the deserts to the west are a normal occurrence during the summer.
Its winter temperatures are those of a hot desert climate. From December through February, Baghdad has maximum temperatures averaging , with highs possible above . Lows below freezing occur statistically a couple of times per year.
Annual rainfall, almost entirely confined to the period from November through March, averages approximately , but has been as high as and as low as . Snowfall was again reported on 11 February 2020, with accumulations across the city.
Governance
, government preceint ]]
Administratively, Baghdad Governorate is divided into districts which are further divided into sub-districts.
The nine districts are subdivided into 89 smaller neighborhoods which may make up sectors of any of the districts above. The following is a selection (rather than a complete list) of these neighborhoods:
*Al-Ghazaliya
*Al-A'amiriya
*Dora
*Karrada
*Al-Jadriya
*Al-Hebnaa
*Zayouna
*Al-Saydiya
*Al-Sa'adoon
*Al-Shu'ala
*Al-Mahmudiyah
*Bab Al-Moatham
**Al-Baya'
*Al-Za'franiya
*Hayy Ur
*Sha'ab
*Hayy Al-Jami'a
*Al-Adel
*Al Khadhraa
*Hayy Al-Jihad
*Hayy Al-A'amel
*Hayy Aoor
*Al-Hurriya
*Haydar-Khana
*Hayy Al-Shurtta
*Yarmouk
*Jesr Diyala
*Abu Disher
*Al-Maidan
*Raghiba Khatoun
*Arab Jibor
*Al-Fathel
*Al-Ubedy
*Al-Washash
*Al-Wazireya
*Bataween
Notable streets
*Haifa Street
*Hilla Road – Runs from the north into Baghdad via Yarmouk (Baghdad)
*Caliphs Street – site of historical mosques and churches
*Al-Sa'doun Street – stretching from Liberation Square to Masbah
*Abu Nuwas Street – runs along the Tigris from the Jumhouriya Bridge to 14 July Suspended Bridge
*Damascus Street – goes from Damascus Square to the Baghdad Airport Road
*Mutanabbi Street – A street with numerous bookshops, named after the 10th century Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi
*Rabia Street
*14th July Street (Mosul Road)
*Muthana al-Shaibani Street
*Bor Saeed (Port Said) Street
*Thawra Street
*Al-Qanat Street – runs through Baghdad north-south
*Al-Khat al-Sare'a – Mohammed al-Qasim (high speed lane) – runs through Baghdad, north–south
*Industry Street runs by the University of Technology – center of the computer trade in Baghdad
*Al Nidhal Street
*Al-Rasheed Street – city center Baghdad
*Al-Jumhuriya Street – city center Baghdad
*Falastin Street
*Tariq al-Muaskar – (Al-Rasheed Camp Road)
*Akhrot street
*Baghdad Airport Road
Demographics
Baghdad's population was estimated at 7.22 million in 2015. The surrounding metropolitan region's population is estimated to be 10,500,000. The 2013–2017 war following the Islamic State's invasion in 2014 caused hundreds of thousands of Iraqi internally displaced people to flee to the city. Minority ethnic groups include Feyli, Kurdish, Turkmen, Assyrians, Kawliya, Circassians, Mandaeans, and Armenians. Baghdad being Iraq's primate city, attracts peeople of several ethnic background from different parts of Iraq to seize oppurtunities for work and education, as well as representatives of these coummunity live in Baghdad.
Though Kurds in Iraq are found in northern Iraq (Kurdistan Region), they have a presence in Baghdad. In 2003, 500,000 Kurds lived in Baghdad. Today around 300,000 Kurds live in Baghdad. Among them, about 150,000 are Shi’a mostly of Luri origin.
A report by the Central Intelligence Agency in 1950 states 20% of the Assyrians live in Baghdad, followed by Mosul. The historic "Assyrian Quarter" of the city – Dora, which boasted a population of 150,000 Assyrians in 2003, made up over 3% of the capital's Assyrian population then. The community has been subject to kidnappings, death threats, vandalism, and house burnings by al-Qaeda and other insurgent groups. The surrounding areas of Baghdad is also home to Kawliya community, that traces its roots from India and are predominantly Shi'a and Sunni Muslims. Although their language is Domari, most of them today speak Arabic. After the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, the community has persecuted by militias and denied recognition.
Baghdad is home to largest community of Circassians in Iraq. There is also a Circassian neighborhood in the city. Religion The majority of the citizens are Muslims with minorities of Christians, Yezidis, Jews and Mandeans also present. There are many religious centers distributed around the city including mosques, churches, synagogues and Mashkhannas cultic huts. Sunni Muslims make up 29–34% of Iraq's population and they are still a majority in west and north Iraq. primarily concentrated in several neighborhoods with a Christian majority, the most notable being Karrada and Dora, which had around 150,000 Christians. The Christian community in Baghdad is divided among various denominations, mainly the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Syriac Catholic Church. The city serves as the headquarters of the Chaldean Catholic Church, with its see located in the Cathedral of Our Lady of Sorrows, while the Ancient Church of the East has its see in the Cathedral of the Virgin.
Baghdad was once home to one of the most significant Jewish communities in the world. In 1948, the Jewish population numbered approximately 150,000, constituting 33% of the city’s population. Persecution forced most Jews to flee Iraq. Even after 1948, up to 100,000 Jews remained, which decreased. Majority of the country’s 15,000 Jews lived in Baghdad during Saddam Hussein’s rule and their population dwindled, not due to persecution but because of lifted travel restrictions that allowed many to emigrate. The city was historically home to over 60 synagogues, cemeteries, and shrines, many of which were preserved before 2003.
Beyond their traditional homelands, around Amarah and Basra, Mandeans are also found in Baghdad. By the late 20th century, Mandaeans began settling in Baghdad for better opportunities. The Sikhs are mostly Indians. It connects trade routes between Turkey, Syria, India, and Southeast Asia. As the capital, it hosts government institutions and state enterprises, key sources of employment. Since 2003, the public sector has struggled to provide jobs, and the private sector hasn't grown sufficiently, leading companies to hire mainly foreigners. To address this, NGOs are establishing incubation centers in the city.
— one of the affluent districts of Baghdad]]
Baghdad serves as headquarters for important companies of Iraq, such as Iraq National Oil Company, State Organization for Marketing of Oil and Iraqi Airways. Multinational companies such as Honeywell, Shell, General Electric, SalamAir and Robert Bosch GmbH have established their regional base. Tourism has diminished due to wars, but in recent years the city has a revival in tourism although still facing challenges. There are numerous historic, scientific and artistic museums in Baghdad. Religious tourism in Baghdad has grown since 2003, with sites like Al-Kadhimiya Mosque, Abu Hanifa Mosque, Mausoleum of Abdul-Qadir Gilani, and Buratha Mosque attracting visitors from Iran, Pakistan, and India, while non-religious tourists mainly come from Turkey, France, and the United States. Around 1 million people visit the city annually for religious purposes.
The city contains the factories of carpets, leather and textiles, workshops, cement and tobacco factories. Industrial areas extend from the city center to outside and suburbs in the metropolitan area, such as Taji and northern Baghdad. It was believed that the quantities of oil is modest, but the drilling disclosed that its size exceeds the initial estimates, and has northern extensions in the province of Salah al-Din, and southern province of Wasit. Some of the private projects includes Baghdad Renaissance Plan, Sindbad Hotel Complex and Conference Center, and Central Bank of Iraq Tower. Other project proposed includes Romantic Island and Baghdad Gate. Numerous projects have been also impacted due to corruption. According to a report published by CNBC, there are around 150 entertainment projects planned for the city. Many of them were delayed due to government policies.<gallery mode"packed" widths"200" perrow"4" class"center" caption="Under-construction projects in Baghdad">
File:مجمع الصالحية السكني في بغداد.jpg|link=|Under construction buildings in Karkh
File:فندق بغداد روتانا.jpg|Baghdad Mall and Rotana Hotel in Harthiya, Mansour district
</gallery>
Transportation
Baghdad lacks substantial public transportation, and taxis are the primary means of transportation in the city. Roads in Baghdad are noted to be especially congested and this began since 2003. According to MP Jassim Al-Bukhati in 2021, "Baghdad's roads are designed to accommodate 700,000 cars, while now there are between 2.5 and 3 million cars on them". It is because since 2003, import of car has increased. Private organizations are working to improve transport system.
at night]]
Among the major bridges connecting Karkh and Rusafa are 14th of July Bridge, Al-Aimmah Bridge and Al-Sarafiya Bridge. In 2023, the authorities announced to build 19 bridges in Baghdad. Air transport Iraqi Airways, the national airline of Iraq, operates out of Baghdad International Airport in Baghdad. The airport was opened by Saddam Hussein in 1982 as Saddam International Airport. The airport was reopened in August 2000. In 2019, it was reported that Korean Hyundai and French Alstom would be building the metro. However, the planned construction did not happen.
As of February 2024, the current plan consisted of fully electric and automated (driverless) trains running on an extensive railway network including an underground railway portion as well as an elevated railway. The proposed Baghdad Metro system includes seven main lines with a total length of more than 148 kilometres, 64 metro stations, four workshops and depots for trains, several operations control centers (OCC) and seven main power stations (MPS) with a capacity of 250 mega-watts, and several Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) towers. The metro will be equipped with CCTV and internet as well as USB ports for charging. Special compartments will be allocated for women and children as well as seats for people with special needs, pregnant women, and the elderly. The metro stations will be connected to other public transport networks such as buses and taxis, and 10 parking spaces will be available for commuters. The planned operating speed will be 80–140 km/hour with an estimated 3.25 million riders per day.
In July 2024, it was announced that an international consortium of German French, Spanish, and Turkish companies was awarded $17.5 billion contract to construct Baghdad's metro. The consortium includes Alstom, Systra, SNCF, Talgo, Deutsche Bank and SENER. The consortium was then to negotiate the technical, financial and operational details of the project which is now estimated to be completed in May 2029. Cityscape
The Round City was the core of the city, during the establishment of Baghdad. It ceased to exist, as a result of the Mongolian siege. Urban features such as streets, avenues, alleyways and squares clusters a large number of landmarks, which itself creates an identity of cultural or intellectual hubs and define the beauty of Baghdad.
Al-Rasheed Street is one of the most significant landmarks in Baghdad. Located in al-Rusafa area, the street was an artistic, intellectual and cultural center for many Baghdadis. It also included many prominent theaters and nightclubs such as the Crescent Theatre where Egyptian Singer Umm Kulthum sang during her visit in 1932 as well as the Chakmakji Company that recorded the music of various Arab singers. The street also contains famous and well-known landmarks including the ancient Haydar-Khana Mosque as well as numerous well-known cafés such as al-Zahawi Café and the Brazilian Café.
Mutanabbi Street is located near the old quarter of Baghdad; at Al-Rasheed Street. It is the historic center of Baghdadi book-selling, a street filled with bookstores and outdoor book stalls. It was named after the 10th-century classical Iraqi poet Al-Mutanabbi. This street is well established for bookselling and has often been referred to as the heart and soul of the Baghdad literacy and intellectual community. The square was the site of the statue of Saddam Hussein that was pulled down by the coalition forces in a widely televised event during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.
Qushla or Qishla is a public square and the historical complex located in al-Rusafa neighborhood at the riverbank of Tigris. The place and its surroundings is where the historical features and cultural capitals of Baghdad are concentrated, from the Mutanabbi Street, Abbasid-era palace and bridges, Ottoman-era mosques to the Mustansariyah Madrasa. Architecture During the 1970s and 1980s, Saddam Hussein's government spent a lot of money on new monuments, mosques, palaces and hotels. The Street is also notable for its architecture and aesthetic which was inspired by Renaissance architecture and also includes the famous Iraqi shanasheel. Landmarks |left]]The National Museum of Iraq whose collection of artifacts was looted during the invasion, and the iconic Hands of Victory arches. Multiple political parties are in discussions as to whether the arches should remain as historical monuments or be dismantled. Al-Shaheed Monument, also known as the Martyr's Memorial, is a monument dedicated to the Iraqi soldiers who died in the Iran–Iraq War. It contains the tombs of the seventh and ninth Twelver Shi'ite Imams, Musa al-Kadhim and Muhammad at-Taqi respectively, upon whom the title of Kādhimayn ("Two who swallow their anger") was bestowed.
The historic Jewish quarters of Bataween and Shorja is home to numerous sites that are associated with Jews. These sites were preserved during the Ba'athist regime. However, after 2003, many of them are in poor conditions. It is the main community center for Mandaeans in Iraq. The city is home to Baba Nanak Shrine, a sacred site in Sikhism. On 23 June 2013, the house was destroyed under unclear circumstances. This was a result of theft of some animals for human food, and starvation of caged animals that had no food. Eventually Paul Bremer, Director of the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq after the invasion, ordered protection for the zoo and enlisted U.S. engineers to help reopen the facility.
*Deutsche Schule Bagdad
*Baghdad Japanese School (バグダッド日本人学校), a nihonjin gakko
Universities
*University of Baghdad
*Mustansiriya University
*Iraqi University
*Nahrain University
*Albayan University
*University of Technology, Iraq
*American University of Baghdad
*Al-Turath University College
*Dijlah University College
Culture
performing in July 2007]]
Cathedral of Our Lady of Sorrows|left]]
Baghdad has always played a significant role in the broader Arab cultural sphere, contributing several significant writers, musicians and visual artists. Famous Arab poets and singers such as Nizar Qabbani, Umm Kulthum, Fairuz, Salah Al-Hamdani, Ilham al-Madfai and others have performed for the city. The dialect of Arabic spoken in Baghdad today differs from that of other large urban centers in Iraq, having features more characteristic of nomadic Arabic dialects (Versteegh, The Arabic Language). It is possible that this was caused by the repopulating of the city with rural residents after the multiple sackings of the late Middle Ages. For poetry written about Baghdad, see Reuven Snir (ed.), Baghdad: The City in Verse (Harvard, 2013). Baghdad joined the UNESCO Creative Cities Network as a City of Literature in December 2015.
Some of the important cultural institutions in the city include the National Theater, which was looted during the 2003 invasion of Iraq, but efforts are underway to restore the theater. The live theater industry received a boost during the 1990s, when UN sanctions limited the import of foreign films. As many as 30 movie theaters were reported to have been converted to live stages, producing a wide range of comedies and dramatic productions. Institutions offering cultural education in Baghdad include The Music and Ballet School of Baghdad and the Institute of Fine Arts Baghdad. The Iraqi National Symphony Orchestra is a government funded symphony orchestra in Baghdad. The INSO plays primarily classical European music, as well as original compositions based on Iraqi and Arab instruments and music. Mandaeans had cultural club in Al-Zawraa, where poetry evenings and cultural seminars were held, attended by poets, writers, artists, officials, and dignitaries of the communities. There is also a social cultural center of Mandaeans at al-Qadisiyyah.
Baghdad is also home to a number of museums which housed artifacts and relics of ancient civilization; many of these were stolen, and the museums looted, during the widespread chaos immediately after United States forces entered the city.
During occupation of Iraq, AFN Iraq ("Freedom Radio") broadcast news and entertainment within Baghdad, among other locations. There is also a private radio station called "Dijlah" (named after the Arabic word for the Tigris River) that was created in 2004 as Iraq's first independent talk radio station. Radio Dijlah offices, in the Jamia neighborhood of Baghdad, have been attacked on several occasions.
Sport
Baghdad is home to some of the most successful football (soccer) teams in Iraq, the biggest being Al-Shorta (Police), Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya (Air Force), Al-Zawraa, and Al-Talaba (Students). The largest stadium in Baghdad is Al-Shaab Stadium, which was opened in 1966. In recent years, the capital has seen the building of several football stadiums which are meant be opened in near future. The city has also had a strong tradition of horse racing ever since World War I, known to Baghdadis simply as 'Races'. There are reports of pressures by the Islamists to stop this tradition due to the associated gambling.
{|class="wikitable"
|+
!Club
!Founded
!League
|-
|Al-Quwa Al-Jawiya SC
|1931
|Iraq Stars League
|-
|Al-Shorta SC
|1932
|Iraq Stars League
|-
|Al-Zawraa SC
|1969
|Iraq Stars League
|-
|Al-Talaba SC
|1969
|Iraq Stars League
|}
Twin towns – sister cities
* Cairo, Egypt
* Pyongyang, North Korea
* Tehran, Iran
* Amman, Jordan
* Damascus, Syria
* Beirut, Lebanon
See also
*Iraqi art
*List of mosques in Baghdad
*List of places in Iraq
*History of the Jews in Baghdad
*Battle of Baghdad (2003)
Notes
ReferencesFurther readingArticles*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050525231213/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/ds49x2xm465d/ A Dweller in Mesopotamia], being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & format)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050402090804/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/DS49x2xW684B/ By Desert Ways to Baghdad], by Louisa Jebb (Mrs. Roland Wilkins), 1908 (1909 ed) (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & format)
*[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13602365.2012.692603#preview/ Miastoprojekt goes abroad: the transfer of architectural labour from socialist Poland to Iraq (1958–1989)] by Lukasz Stanek, The Journal of Architecture, Volume 17, Issue 3, 2012
Books
*Caecilia Pieri, Bagdad, la construction d'une capitale moderne, 1914–1960, Presses de l'Ifpo, 2015, 440 pages, about 800 illustrations (ISBN 978-2-35159-399-8) (ISSN 2225-7578).
*Mina Marefat, Caecilia Pieri, Gilles Ragot, Le Corbusier's Gymnasium in Bagdad, 2014, Éditions du patrimoine, collection Regards (French and English versions), Presses de l'Ifpo (Arabic version) (ISBN 2757703013).
*
*"Travels in Asia and Africa 1325-135" by Ibn Battuta.
*"Gertrude Bell: The Arabian Diaries, 1913–1914." by Bell Gertrude Lowthian, and O'Brien, Rosemary.
*"Historic Cities of the Islamic World". by Bosworth, Clifford Edmund.
*"Ottoman administration of Iraq, 1890–1908." by Cetinsaya, Gokhan.
*"Naked in Baghdad." by Garrels, Anne, and Lawrence, Vint.
*"A memoir of Major-General Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson." by Rawlinson, George.
*Stanek, Łukasz (2020). Architecture in Global Socialism: Eastern Europe, West Africa, and the Middle East in the Cold War. Princeton. .
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161011182836/http://www.amanatbaghdad.gov.iq/ Amanat/Mayoralty of Baghdad]
*[http://www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/iraq/baghdadmapb.jpg Map of Baghdad]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070911122606/http://www.iraqimage.com/pages/browse/Baghdad.html Iraq Image – Baghdad Satellite Observation]
*[http://www.investpromo.gov.iq/ National Commission for Investment in Iraq]
*[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/map_item.pl?styleplnews&data/gmtemp/news/ni000001.sid&title=Baghdad,+2003 Interactive map]
*[http://countrystudies.us/iraq/42.htm Iraq – Urban Society]
*[http://vb.bagdady.com/bagdady551878/ – Baghdad government websites]
*[https://www.usatoday.com/money/world/2004-03-01-hisham_x.htm Envisioning Reconstruction In Iraq]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060212064817/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=7592 Description of the original layout of Baghdad]
*[http://healingiraq.blogspot.com/baghdadethno1.JPG Ethnic and sectarian map of Baghdad – Healingiraq]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060921050720/http://www.tufts.edu/home/feature/?p=ashkouri Man With A Plan: Hisham Ashkouri]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090828185553/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/iraq/090824/behind-baghdads-9-11 Behind Baghdad's 9/11]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091219131236/http://www.iauiraq.org/ Iraq Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit] Reports, maps and assessments of Iraq from the UN Inter-Agency Information & Analysis Unit
*
}}
Category:762 establishments
Category:Capitals in Asia
Category:Capitals of caliphates
Category:Cities in Iraq
Category:Assyrian communities in Iraq
Category:Turkmen communities in Iraq
Category:Populated places along the Silk Road
Category:Populated places established in the 8th century
Category:Populated places on the Tigris River
Category:8th-century establishments in Asia
Category:Planned communities
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Outline of biology
|
250px|thumb|Drosophila melanogaster, commonly used as a model organism
Biology – The natural science that studies life. Areas of focus include structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.
History of biology
History of anatomy
History of biochemistry
History of biotechnology
History of botany
History of ecology
History of genetics
History of evolutionary thought:
Darwinism
Eclipse of Darwinism (Lamarckism, Orthogenesis, Structuralism, and Mutationism)
Modern (evolutionary) synthesis
History of molecular evolution
History of speciation
History of marine biology
History of medicine
History of model organisms
History of molecular biology
Natural history
History of neuroscience
History of plant systematics
History of pathology
History of virology
History of zoology
Overview
Biology
Science
Life
Properties: Adaptation – Energy processing – Growth – Order – Regulation – Reproduction – Response to environment
Biological organization: atom – molecule – cell – tissue – organ – organ system – organism – population – community – ecosystem – biosphere
Approach: Reductionism – emergent property – mechanistic
Biology as a science:
Natural science
Scientific method: observation – research question – hypothesis – testability – prediction – experiment – data – statistics
Scientific theory – scientific law
Research method
List of research methods in biology
Scientific literature
List of biology journals: peer review
Chemical basis
Outline of biochemistry
Atoms and molecules
matter – element – atom – proton – neutron – electron– Bohr model – isotope – chemical bond – ionic bond – ions – covalent bond – hydrogen bond – molecule
Water:
properties of water – solvent – cohesion – adhesion – surface tension – pH
Organic compounds:
carbon – carbon-carbon bonds – hydrocarbon – monosaccharide – amino acids – nucleotide – functional group – monomer – adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – lipids – oil – sugar – vitamins – neurotransmitter – wax
Macromolecules:
polysaccharide: cellulose – carbohydrate – chitin – glycogen – starch
proteins: primary structure – secondary structure – tertiary structure – conformation – native state – protein folding – enzyme – receptor – transmembrane receptor – ion channel – membrane transporter – collagen – pigments: chlorophyll – carotenoid – xanthophyll – melanin – prion
lipids: cell membrane – fats – phospholipids
nucleic acids: DNA – RNA
Cells
Outline of cell biology
Cell structure:
Cell coined by Robert Hooke
Techniques: cell culture – flow cytometry – microscope – light microscope – electron microscopy – SEM – TEM – live cell imaging
Organelles: Cytoplasm – Vacuole – Peroxisome – Plastid
Cell nucleus
Nucleoplasm – Nucleolus – Chromatin – Chromosome
Endomembrane system
Nuclear envelope – Endoplasmic reticulum – Golgi apparatus – Vesicles – Lysosome
Energy creators: Mitochondrion and Chloroplast
Biological membranes:
Plasma membrane – Mitochondrial membrane – Chloroplast membrane
Other subcellular features: Cell wall – pseudopod – cytoskeleton – mitotic spindle – flagellum – cilium
Cell transport: Diffusion – Osmosis – isotonic – active transport – phagocytosis
Cellular reproduction: cytokinesis – centromere – meiosis
Nuclear reproduction: mitosis – interphase – prophase – metaphase – anaphase – telophase
programmed cell death – apoptosis – cell senescence
Metabolism:
enzyme - activation energy - proteolysis – cooperativity
Cellular respiration
Glycolysis – Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex – Citric acid cycle – electron transport chain – fermentation
Photosynthesis
light-dependent reactions – Calvin cycle
Cell cycle
mitosis – chromosome – haploid – diploid – polyploidy – prophase – metaphase – anaphase – telophase – cytokinesis – meiosis
Genetics
Outline of Genetics
Inheritance
heredity – Mendelian inheritance – gene – locus – trait – allele – polymorphism – homozygote – heterozygote – hybrid – hybridization – dihybrid cross – Punnett square – inbreeding
genotype–phenotype distinction – genotype – phenotype – dominant gene – recessive gene
genetic interactions – Mendel's law of segregation – genetic mosaic – maternal effect – penetrance – complementation – suppression – epistasis – genetic linkage
Model organisms: Drosophila – Arabidopsis – Caenorhabditis elegans – mouse – Saccharomyces cerevisiae – Escherichia coli – Lambda phage – Xenopus – chicken – zebrafish – Ciona intestinalis – amphioxus
Techniques: genetic screen – linkage map – genetic map
DNA
Nucleic acid double helix
Nucleobase: adenine (A) – cytosine (C) – guanine (G) – thymine (T) – uracil (U)
DNA replication – mutation – mutation rate – proofreading – DNA mismatch repair – point mutation – crossover – recombination – plasmid – transposon
Gene expression
Central dogma of molecular biology: nucleosome – genetic code – codon – transcription factor – transcription – translation – RNA – histone – telomere
heterochromatin – promoter – RNA polymerase
Protein biosynthesis – ribosomes
Gene regulation
operon – activator – repressor – corepressor – enhancer – alternative splicing
Genomes
DNA sequencing – high throughput sequencing – bioinformatics
Proteome – proteomics – metabolome – metabolomics
DNA paternity testing
Biotechnology (see also Outline of biochemical techniques and Molecular biology):
DNA fingerprinting – genetic fingerprint – microsatellite – gene knockout – imprinting – RNA interference Genomics – computational biology – bioinformatics – gel electrophoresis – transformation – PCR – PCR mutagenesis – primer – chromosome walking – RFLP – restriction enzyme – sequencing – shotgun sequencing – cloning – culture – DNA microarray – electrophoresis – protein tag – affinity chromatography – x-ray diffraction – proteomics – mass spectrometry – CRISPR – gene therapy
Genes, development, and evolution
Apoptosis
French flag model
Pattern formation
Evo-devo gene toolkit
Transcription factor
Evolution
Outline of evolution (see also evolutionary biology)
Evolutionary processes
evolution
microevolution: adaptation – selection – natural selection – directional selection – sexual selection – genetic drift – sexual reproduction – asexual reproduction – colony – allele frequency – neutral theory of molecular evolution – population genetics – Hardy–Weinberg principle
Speciation
Species
Phylogeny
Lineage (evolution) – evolutionary tree – cladistics – species – taxon – clade – monophyletic – polyphyly – paraphyly – heredity – phenotypic trait – nucleic acid sequence – synapomorphy – homology – molecular clock – outgroup (cladistics) – maximum parsimony (phylogenetics) – Computational phylogenetics
Linnaean taxonomy: Carl Linnaeus – domain (biology) – kingdom (biology) – phylum – class (biology) – order (biology) – family (biology) – genus – species
Three-domain system: archaea – bacteria – eukaryote – protist – fungi – plant – animal
Binomial nomenclature: scientific classification – Homo sapiens
History of life
Origin of life – hierarchy of life – Miller–Urey experiment
Macroevolution: adaptive radiation – convergent evolution – extinction – mass extinction – fossil – taphonomy – geologic time – plate tectonics – continental drift – vicariance – Gondwana – Pangaea – endosymbiosis
Diversity
Bacteria and Archaea
Protists
Plant diversity
Green algae
Chlorophyta
Charophyta
Bryophytes
Marchantiophyta
Anthocerotophyta
Moss
Pteridophytes
Lycopodiophyta
Polypodiophyta
Seed plants
Cycadophyta
Ginkgophyta
Pinophyta
Gnetophyta
Magnoliophyta
Fungi
Yeast – mold (fungus) – mushroom
Animal diversity
Invertebrates:
sponge – cnidarian – coral – jellyfish – Hydra (genus) – sea anemone
flatworms – nematodes
arthropods: crustacean – chelicerata – myriapoda – arachnids – insects – annelids – molluscs
Vertebrates:
fishes: – agnatha – chondrichthyes – osteichthyes
Tiktaalik
tetrapods
amphibians
reptiles
birds
flightless birds – Neognathae – dinosaurs
mammals
placental: primates
marsupial
monotreme
Viruses
DNA viruses – RNA viruses – retroviruses
Plant form and function
Plant body
Organ systems: root – shoot – stem – leaf – flower
Plant nutrition and transport
Vascular tissue – bark (botany) – Casparian strip – turgor pressure – xylem – phloem – transpiration – wood – trunk (botany)
Plant development
tropism – taxis
seed – cotyledon – meristem – apical meristem – vascular cambium – cork cambium
alternation of generations – gametophyte – antheridium – archegonium – sporophyte – spore – sporangium
Plant reproduction
angiosperms – flower – reproduction – sperm – pollination – self-pollination – cross-pollination – nectar – pollen
Plant responses
Plant hormone – ripening – fruit – Ethylene as a plant hormone – toxin – pollinator – phototropism – skototropism – phototropin – phytochrome – auxin – photoperiodism – gravity
Animal form and function
General features: morphology (biology) – anatomy – physiology – biological tissues – organ (biology) – organ systems
Water and salt balance
Body fluids: osmotic pressure – ionic composition – volume
Diffusion – osmosis) – Tonicity – sodium – potassium – calcium – chloride
Excretion
Nutrition and digestion
Digestive system: stomach – intestine – liver – nutrition – primary nutritional groups metabolism – kidney – excretion
Breathing
Respiratory system: lungs
Circulation
Circulatory system: heart – artery – vein – capillary – Blood – blood cell
Lymphatic system: lymph node
Muscle and movement
Skeletal system: bone – cartilage – joint – tendon
Muscular system: muscle – actin – myosin – reflex
Nervous system
Neuron – dendrite – axon – nerve – electrochemical gradient – electrophysiology – action potential – signal transduction – synapse – receptor –
Central nervous system: brain – spinal cord
limbic system – memory – vestibular system
Peripheral nervous system
Sensory nervous system: eye – vision – audition – proprioception – olfaction –
Integumentary system: skin cell
Hormonal control
Endocrine system: hormone
Animal reproduction
Reproductive system: testes – ovary – pregnancy
Fish#Reproductive system
Mammalian reproductive system
Human reproductive system
Mammalian penis
Os penis
Penile spines
Genitalia of bottlenose dolphins
Genitalia of marsupials
Equine reproductive system
Even-toed ungulate#Genitourinary system
Bull#Reproductive anatomy
Carnivora#Reproductive system
Fossa (animal)#External genitalia
Female genitalia of spotted hyenas
Cat anatomy#Genitalia
Genitalia of dogs
Canine penis
Bulbus glandis
Animal development
stem cell – blastula – gastrula – egg (biology) – fetus – placenta - gamete – spermatid – ovum – zygote – embryo – cellular differentiation – morphogenesis – homeobox
Immune system
antibody – host – vaccine – immune cell – AIDS – T cell – leucocyte
Animal behavior
Behavior: mating – animal communication – seek shelter – migration (ecology)
Fixed action pattern
Altruism (biology)
Ecology
Outline of ecology
Ecosystems:
Ecology – Biodiversity – habitat – plankton – thermocline – saprobe
Abiotic component: water – light – radiation – temperature – humidity – atmosphere – acidity
Microbe – biomass – organic matter – decomposer – decomposition – carbon – nutrient cycling – solar energy – topography – tilt – Windward and leeward – precipitation Temperature – biome
Populations
Population ecology: organism – geographical area – sexual reproduction – population density – population growth – birth rate – death Rate – immigration rate – exponential growth – carrying capacity – logistic function – natural environment – competition (biology) – mating – biological dispersal – endemic (ecology) – growth curve (biology) – habitat – drinking water – resource – human population – technology – Green revolution
Communities
Community (ecology) – ecological niche – keystone species – mimicry – symbiosis – pollination – mutualism – commensalism – parasitism – predation – invasive species – environmental heterogeneity – edge effect
Consumer–resource interactions: food chain – food web – autotroph – heterotrophs – herbivore – carnivore – trophic level
Biosphere
lithosphere – atmosphere – hydrosphere
biogeochemical cycle: nitrogen cycle – carbon cycle – water cycle
Climate change: Fossil fuel – coal – oil – natural gas – World energy consumption – Climate change feedback – Albedo – water vapor Carbon sink
Conservation
Biodiversity – habitats – Ecosystem services – biodiversity loss – extinction – Sustainability – Holocene extinction – bioremediation
Branches
Anatomy – study of form in animals, plants and other organisms, or specifically in humans. Simply, the study of internal structure of living organisms.
Physiology – study of the internal workings of organisms and the functions of anatomical structures.
Comparative anatomy – the study of evolution of species through similarities and differences in their anatomy.
Gross anatomy – study of anatomy at the macroscopic level
Histology – also known as microscopic anatomy or microanatomy, the branch of biology which studies the microscopic anatomy of biological tissues.
Neuroanatomy – the study of the nervous system.
Osteology – study of bones.
Radiographic anatomy – study of anatomy through radiography
Surface anatomy – study of external features of a body
Biochemistry – study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level.
Biophysics – study of biological processes through the methods traditionally used in the physical sciences.
Biomechanics – the study of the mechanics of living beings.
Cellular biophysics – study of physical principles underlying cell function
Neurophysics – study of the development of the nervous system on a molecular level.
Molecular biophysics – study of physical properties of biomolecules at the molecular level
Quantum biology – application of quantum mechanics and theoretical chemistry to biological objects and problems.
Virophysics – study of mechanics and dynamics driving the interactions between virus and cells.
Biotechnology – new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology.
Bioinformatics – use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data.
Bioengineering – study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology.
Synthetic biology – research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological functions not found in nature.
Botany – study of plants.
Economic botany – study of relationship between people and plants, including the practical uses of plants
Ethnobotany – study of a region's plants and their usage by people
Photobiology – scientific study of the interactions of light (technically, non-ionizing radiation) and living organisms. The field includes the study of photosynthesis, photomorphogenesis, visual processing, circadian rhythms, bioluminescence, and ultraviolet radiation effects.
Phycology – scientific study of algae.
Plant anatomy – study of internal structure of plants
Plant ecology – study of how plants interact with each other and their environment
Plant genetics – study of heredity and variation in plants
Plant pathology – study of plant diseases
Plant physiology – subdiscipline of botany concerned with the functioning, or physiology, of plants.
Cell biology – study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell.
Histology – study of the anatomy of cells and tissues of plants and animals using microscopy.
Chronobiology – field of biology that examines periodic (cyclic) phenomena in living organisms and their adaptation to solar- and lunar-related rhythms.
Dendrochronology – study of tree rings, using them to date the exact year they were formed in order to analyze atmospheric conditions during different periods in natural history.
Developmental biology – study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure
Embryology – study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth).
Gerontology – study of aging processes.
Ecology – study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment.
Behavioral ecology – the study of the evolutionary basis for animal behavior due to ecological pressure
Ecosystem ecology – study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem
Landscape ecology – study of relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems
Microbial ecology – study of the relationships between microorganisms and their environments
Population ecology – study of dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment
Urban ecology – study of the relationships between living organisms with each other and their urban environment.
Biogeography – study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally.
Evolutionary biology – study of the origin and descent of species over time.
Evolutionary developmental biology – field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different organisms to determine the ancestral relationship between them, and to discover how developmental processes evolved.
Paleobiology – discipline which combines the methods and findings of the life sciences with the methods and findings of the earth science, paleontology.
Paleoanthropology – the study of fossil evidence for human evolution, mainly using remains from extinct hominin and other primate species to determine the morphological and behavioral changes in the human lineage, as well as the environment in which human evolution occurred.
Paleobotany – study of fossil plants.
Paleontology – study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life.
Paleopathology – the study of pathogenic conditions observable in bones or mummified soft tissue, and on nutritional disorders, variation in stature or morphology of bones over time, evidence of physical trauma, or evidence of occupationally derived biomechanic stress.
Genetics – study of genes and heredity.
Molecular genetics – study of the bimolecular mechanisms behind the structure and function of DNA
Quantitative genetics – study of phenotypes that vary continuously (in characters such as height or mass)—as opposed to discretely identifiable phenotypes and gene-products (such as eye-colour, or the presence of a particular biochemical).
Marine biology – study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings.
Microbiology – study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things.
Bacteriology – study of bacteria
Immunology – study of immune systems in all organisms.
Mycology – study of fungi
Parasitology – study of parasites and parasitism.
Virology – study of viruses
Biochemistry
Molecular biology – study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, with some cross over from biochemistry.
Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules.
Health sciences and human biology – biology of humans.
Medicine – Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of illness.
Endocrinology – study of the endocrine system.
Oncology – study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation, oncogenesis, angiogenesis, and tissues remoldings.
Pharmacology – study of medication and drugs
Epidemiology – major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations.
Neuroscience – study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and emergent proprieties.
Behavioral neuroscience – study of physiological, genetic, and developmental mechanisms of behavior in humans and other animals.
Cellular neuroscience – study of neurons at a cellular level.
Cognitive neuroscience – study of biological substrates underlying cognition, with a focus on the neural substrates of mental processes.
Computational neuroscience – study of the information processing functions of the nervous system, and the use of digital computers to study the nervous system.
Developmental neuroscience – study of the cellular basis of brain development and addresses the underlying mechanisms.
Molecular neuroscience – studies the biology of the nervous system with molecular biology, molecular genetics, protein chemistry and related methodologies.
Neuroanatomy – study of the anatomy of nervous tissue and neural structures of the nervous system.
Neuroendocrinology – studies the interaction between the nervous system and the endocrine system, that is how the brain regulates the hormonal activity in the body.
Neuroethology – study of animal behavior and its underlying mechanistic control by the nervous system.
Neuroimmunology – study of the nervous system, and immunology, the study of the immune system.
Neuropharmacology – study of how drugs affect cellular function in the nervous system.
Neurophysiology – study of the function (as opposed to structure) of the nervous system.
Systems neuroscience – studies the function of neural circuits and systems.
Theoretical Biology – the mathematical modeling of biological phenomena.
Systems biology – computational modeling of biological systems.
– study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior. Subbranches include:
Arthropodology – biological discipline concerned with the study of arthropods, a phylum of animals that include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others that are characterized by the possession of jointed limbs.
Acarology – study of the taxon of arachnids that contains mites and ticks.
Arachnology – scientific study of spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, harvestmen, collectively called arachnids.
Entomology – study of insects.
Coleopterology – study of beetles.
Lepidopterology – study of a large order of insects that includes moths and butterflies (called lepidopterans).
Myrmecology – scientific study of ants.
Carcinology – study of crustaceans.
Myriapodology – study of centipedes, millipedes, and other myriapods.
– scientific study of animal behavior, usually with a focus on behavior under natural conditions.
Helminthology – study of worms, especially parasitic worms.
Herpetology – study of amphibians (including frogs, toads, salamanders, newts, and gymnophiona) and reptiles (including snakes, lizards, amphisbaenids, turtles, terrapins, tortoises, crocodilians, and the tuataras).
Batrachology – subdiscipline of herpetology concerned with the study of amphibians alone.
Ichthyology – study of fishes. This includes bony fishes (Osteichthyes), cartilaginous fishes (Chondrichthyes), and jawless fishes (Agnatha).
Malacology – branch of invertebrate zoology which deals with the study of the Mollusca (mollusks or molluscs), the second-largest phylum of animals in terms of described species after the arthropods.
Teuthology – branch of Malacology which deals with the study of cephalopods.
Mammalogy – study of mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. Mammalogy has also been known as "mastology," "theriology," and "therology." There are about 4,200 different species of animals which are considered mammals.
Cetology – branch of marine mammal science that studies the approximately eighty species of whales, dolphins, and porpoise in the scientific order Cetacea.
Primatology – scientific study of primates
Human biology – interdisciplinary field studying the range of humans and human populations via biology/life sciences, anthropology/social sciences, applied/medical sciences
Biological anthropology – subfield of anthropology that studies the physical morphology, genetics and behavior of the human genus, other hominins and hominids across their evolutionary development
Human behavioral ecology – the study of behavioral adaptations (foraging, reproduction, ontogeny) from the evolutionary and ecologic perspectives (see behavioral ecology). It focuses on human adaptive responses (physiological, developmental, genetic) to environmental stresses.
Nematology – scientific discipline concerned with the study of nematodes, or roundworms.
Ornithology – scientific study of birds.
Interdisciplinary fields
Astrobiology – study of potential life outside of Earth.
Bioarchaeology – study of human and animal remains from archaeological sites.
Geobiology – study of the interactions between the physical Earth and the biosphere.
Biolinguistics – biological study of language.
Biological anthropology – study of the development of the human species.
Biologists
Lists of notable biologists
List of notable biologists
List of Nobel Prize winners in physiology or medicine
Lists of biologists by author abbreviation
List of authors of names published under the ICZN
Lists of biologists by subject
List of biochemists
List of ecologists
List of neuroscientists
List of physiologists
See also
Bibliography of biology
Earliest known life forms
Invasion biology terminology
List of omics topics in biology
Related outlines
Outline of life forms
Outline of zoology
Outline of engineering
Outline of technology
List of social sciences
Journals
Biology journals
References
External links
OSU's Phylocode
The Tree of Life: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity.
MIT video lecture series on biology
A wiki site for protocol sharing run from MIT.
Biology and Bioethics.
Biology online wiki dictionary.
Biology Video Sharing Community.
What is Biotechnology : a voluntary program as Biotech for Beginners.
Biology
Biology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_biology
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British thermal unit
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The British thermal unit (Btu) is a measure of heat, which is a form of energy. It was originally defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit. It is also part of the United States customary units. The SI unit for energy is the joule (J); one Btu equals about 1,055 J (varying within the range of 1,054–1,060 J depending on the specific definition of BTU; see below).
While units of heat are often supplanted by energy units in scientific work, they are still used in some fields. For example, in the United States the price of natural gas is quoted in dollars per the amount of natural gas that would give 1 million Btu (1 "MMBtu") of heat energy if burned. There are several different definitions of the Btu that differ slightly. This reflects the fact that the temperature change of a mass of water due to the addition of a specific amount of heat (calculated in energy units, usually joules) depends slightly upon the water's initial temperature. As seen in the table below, definitions of the Btu based on different water temperatures vary by up to 0.5%.
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Variant
! Energy (J)
! Notes
|-
| Thermochemical
| ≈1,054.35}}
| Originally, the thermochemical Btu was defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from its freezing point to its boiling point, divided by 180 (the temperature change being 180 °F). The basis for its modern definition in terms of SI units is the conceptually similar thermochemical calorie, originally defined as the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from freezing to boiling divided by 100 (the temperature change being 100 °C). The thermochemical calorie is exactly 4.184 J by definition of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
|-
|
| ≈1,054.80
| Used for American natural gas pricing.
|-
|
| ≈1,054.68
| Mainly Canadian.
|-
|
| ≈1,059.67 The Btu is then calculated from the calorie as is done for the thermochemical definitions of the BTU and the calorie, as in International standard ISO 31-4 Quantities and units—Part 4: Heat and British Standard BS 350:Part 1:1974 Conversion factors and tables.
|}
Prefixes
Units of kBtu are used in building energy use tracking and heating system sizing. Energy Use Index (EUI) represents kBtu per square foot of conditioned floor area. "k" stands for 1,000.
The unit Mbtu is used in natural gas and other industries to indicate 1,000 Btu. However, there is an ambiguity in that the metric system (SI) uses the prefix "M" to indicate 'Mega-', one million (1,000,000). Even so, "MMbtu" is often used to indicate one million Btu particularly in the oil and gas industry.
Energy analysts accustomed to the metric "k" ('kilo-') for 1,000 are more likely to use MBtu to represent one million, especially in documents where M represents one million in other energy or cost units, such as MW, MWh and $.
The unit 'therm' is used to represent 100,000 Btu. A decatherm is 10 therms or one million Btu. The unit quad is commonly used to represent one quadrillion (10<sup>15</sup>) Btu.
For natural gas
* In natural gas pricing, the Canadian definition is that ≡ .
* The energy content (high or low heating value) of a volume of natural gas varies with the composition of the natural gas, which means there is no universal conversion factor for energy to volume. of average natural gas yields ≈ 1,030 Btu (between 1,010 Btu and 1,070 Btu, depending on quality, when burned)
* As a coarse approximation, of natural gas yields ≈ ≈ .
* For natural gas price conversion ≈ 36.9 million Btu and ≈ Btu/hThe SI unit of power for heating and cooling systems is the watt. Btu per hour (Btu/h) is sometimes used in North America and the United Kingdom - the latter for air conditioning mainly, though "Btu/h" is sometimes abbreviated to just "Btu". MBH—thousands of Btu per hour—is also common.
* 1 W is approximately
* 1,000 Btu/h is approximately
* 1 hp is approximately
Associated units
* 1 ton of cooling, a common unit in North American refrigeration and air conditioning applications, is . It is the rate of heat transfer needed to freeze of water into ice in 24 hours.
* In the United States and Canada, the R-value that describes the performance of thermal insulation is typically quoted in square foot degree Fahrenheit hours per British thermal unit (ft<sup>2</sup>⋅°F⋅h/Btu). For one square foot of the insulation, one Btu per hour of heat flows across the insulator for each degree of temperature difference across it.
* 1 therm is defined in the United States as 100,000 Btu using the definition. In the EU it was listed in 1979 with the BTU<sub>IT</sub> definition and planned to be discarded as a legal unit of trade by 1994. United Kingdom regulations were amended to replace therms with joules with effect from 1 January 2000. the therm was still used in natural gas pricing in the United Kingdom.
* 1 quad (short for quadrillion Btu) is 10<sup>15</sup> Btu, which is about 1 exajoule (). Quads are used in the United States for representing the annual energy consumption of large economies: for example, the U.S. economy used 99.75 quads in 2005. One quad/year is about 33.43 gigawatts.
The Btu should not be confused with the Board of Trade Unit (BTU), an obsolete UK synonym for kilowatt hour ().
The Btu is often used to express the conversion-efficiency of heat into electrical energy in power plants. Figures are quoted in terms of the quantity of heat in Btu required to generate 1 kW⋅h of electrical energy. A typical coal-fired power plant works at , an efficiency of 32–33%.
The centigrade heat unit (CHU) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of of water by one Celsius degree. It is equal to 1.8 Btu or 1,899 joules. In 1974, this unit was "still sometimes used" in the United Kingdom as an alternative to Btu.
Another legacy unit for energy in the metric system is the calorie, which is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. See also
*Conversion of units
*Latent heat
*Metrication
*Ton of refrigeration
Notes
References
External links
*
*
Category:Units of energy
Category:Imperial units
Category:Customary units of measurement in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_thermal_unit
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Bugatti
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| founder = Ettore Bugatti
| defunct =
| location_city = Molsheim, Alsace
| location_country = France
| locations | area_served
| key_people =
| industry = Automotive
| products = Automobiles
| services | revenue
| operating_income | net_income
| assets | equity
| owner | num_employees
| divisions | subsid
| homepage | footnotes
| intl =
}}
Automobiles Ettore Bugatti was a German then French manufacturer of high-performance automobiles. The company was founded in 1909 in the then-German city of Molsheim, Alsace, by the Italian-born industrial designer Ettore Bugatti. The cars were known for their design beauty and numerous race victories. Famous Bugatti automobiles include the Type 35 Grand Prix cars, the Type 41 "Royale", the Type 57 "Atlantic" and the Type 55 sports car.
The death of Ettore Bugatti in 1947 proved to be a severe blow to the marque, and the death of his son Jean in 1939 meant that there was no successor to lead the factory with no more than about 8,000 cars made. The company struggled financially, and it released one last model in the 1950s before eventually being purchased for its airplane parts business in 1963.
In 1987, an Italian entrepreneur bought the brand name and revived it as Bugatti Automobili S.p.A.
A movie about the founding of the French car manufacturer Bugatti is being produced by Andrea Iervolino with the film slated for release in 2025.Under Ettore BugattiThe founder Ettore Bugatti was born in Milan, Italy, and the automobile company that bears his name was founded in 1909 in Molsheim located in the Alsace region which was part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1919. The company was known both for the level of detail of its engineering in its automobiles, and for the artistic manner in which the designs were executed, given the artistic nature of Ettore's family (his father, Carlo Bugatti (1856–1940), was an important Art Nouveau furniture and jewelry designer).World War I and its aftermathDuring the war Ettore Bugatti was sent away, initially to Milan and later to Paris, but as soon as hostilities had been concluded he returned to his factory at Molsheim. Less than four months after the Versailles Treaty formalised the transfer of Alsace from Germany to France, Bugatti was able to obtain, at the last minute, a stand at the 15th Paris motor show in October 1919. Bugattis swept to victory in the Targa Florio for five years straight from 1925 through 1929. Louis Chiron held the most podiums in Bugatti cars, and the modern marque revival Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. named the 1999 Bugatti 18/3 Chiron concept car in his honour. But it was the final racing success at Le Mans that is most remembered—Jean-Pierre Wimille and Pierre Veyron won the 1939 race with just one car and meagre resources.
Aeroplane racing
In the 1930s, Ettore Bugatti got involved in the creation of a racer airplane, hoping to beat the Germans in the Deutsch de la Meurthe prize. This would be the Bugatti 100P, which never flew. It was designed by Belgian engineer Louis de Monge who had already applied Bugatti Brescia engines in his "Type 7.5" lifting body.RailcarEttore Bugatti also designed a successful motorised railcar, the Autorail Bugatti.
Family tragedy
The death of Ettore Bugatti's son, Jean Bugatti, on 11 August 1939 marked a turning point in the company's fortunes as he died while testing a Type 57 tank-bodied race car near the Molsheim factory.
After World War II
World War II left the Molsheim factory in ruins and the company lost control of the property. During the war, Bugatti planned a new factory at Levallois, a northwestern suburb of Paris. After the war, Bugatti designed and planned to build a series of new cars, including the Type 73 road car and Type 73C single seat racing car, but in all Bugatti built only five Type 73 cars.
Development of a 375 cc supercharged car was stopped when Ettore Bugatti died on 21 August 1947. Following his death, the business declined further and made its last appearance as a business in its own right at a Paris Motor Show in October 1952.
After a long decline, the original incarnation of Bugatti ceased operations in 1952.)|alt]]DesignBugatti models are known to focus on design. Engine blocks were hand scraped to ensure that the surfaces were flat so that gaskets were not required for sealing, and many of the exposed surfaces of the engine compartment featured guilloché finishes on them. Safety wires were threaded through most fasteners in intricately laced patterns. Rather than bolt the springs to the axles as most manufacturers did, Bugatti's axles were forged such that the spring passed through an opening in the axle, a much more elegant solution requiring fewer parts. Bugatti himself described his competitor Bentley's cars as "the world's fastest lorries" for focusing on durability. According to Bugatti, "weight was the enemy".Notable models{| class"wikitable" style="margin:auto; width:99%;"
|-
! style="width:33%; vertical-align:top;"| Prototypes
! style="width:33%; vertical-align:top;"| Racing cars
! style="width:33%; vertical-align:top;"| Road cars
|-
| valign=top |
* 1900–1901 Type 2
* 1903 Type 5
* 1908 Type 10 "Petit Pur Sang"
* 1925 Type 36
* 1929–1930 Type 45/47
* Type 56 (electric car)
* 1939 Type 64 (coupe)
* 1943/1947 Type 73C
* 1957–1962 Type 252 (2-seat sports convertible)
| valign=top |
* 1910–1914 Type 13/Type 15/17/22
* 1912 Type 16 "Bébé"
* 1922–1926 Type 29 "Cigare"
* 1923 Type 32 "Tank"
* 1924–1930 Type 35/35A/35B/35T/35C/37/39 "Grand Prix"
* 1927–1930 Type 52 (electric racer for children)
* 1936–1939 Type 57G "Tank"
* 1937–1939 Type 50B
* 1931–1936 Type 53
* 1931–1936 Type 51/51A/54GP/59
* 1955–1956 Type 251
| valign=top |
* 1910 Type 13
* 1912–1914 Type 18
* 1913–1914 Type 23/Brescia Tourer (roadster)
* 1922–1934 Type 30/38/40/43/44/49 (touring car)
* 1927–1933 Type 41 "Royale"
* 1929–1939 Type 46/50/50T (touring car)
* 1932–1935 Type 55 (roadster)
* 1934–1940 Type 57/57S/Type 57SC (touring car)
* 1951–1956 Type 101 (coupe)
|}
Gallery
<gallery>
File:Bugatti 1913.JPG|1913 Bugatti 22, 3 seat Vinet
File:Bugatti Type 46 Gangloff uncoverable semi-profiled coach 1931.jpg|Bugatti Type 50 i
File:RL 1938 Bugatti 57SC Atlantic 34 2.jpg|1938 Type 57SC Atlantic from the Ralph Lauren collection
File:1933 Bugatti Type 59 Grand Prix 34 rear.jpg|1933 Type 59 Grand Prix racer from the Ralph Lauren collection
File:Bugatti 43 Cockpit.jpg|Bugatti Type 43 Cockpit
</gallery>
Notable finds in the modern era
Relatives of Harold Carr found a rare 1937 Bugatti Type 57S Atalante when cataloguing the doctor's belongings after his death in 2009. Carr's Type 57S is notable because it was originally owned by British race car driver Earl Howe. Because much of the car's original equipment is intact, it can be restored without relying on replacement parts.
On 10 July 2009, a 1925 Bugatti Brescia Type 22 which had lain at the bottom of Lake Maggiore on the border of Switzerland and Italy for 75 years was recovered from the lake. The Mullin Museum in Oxnard, California bought it at auction for $351,343 at Bonham's Rétromobile sale in Paris in 2010.
Attempts at revival
The company attempted a comeback under Roland Bugatti in the mid-1950s with the mid-engined Type 251 race car. Designed with help from Gioacchino Colombo, the car failed to perform to expectations and the company's attempts at automobile production were halted.
In the 1960s, Virgil Exner designed a Bugatti as part of his "Revival Cars" project. A show version of this car was actually built by Ghia using the last Bugatti Type 101 chassis, and was shown at the 1965 Turin Motor Show. Finance was not forthcoming, and Exner then turned his attention to a revival of Stutz.
Bugatti continued manufacturing airplane parts and was sold to Hispano-Suiza, also a former auto maker turned aircraft supplier, in 1963.
Racing car designer Mauro Forghieri served as Bugatti's technical director from 1993 through 1994. On 27 August 1993, through his holding company, ACBN Holdings S.A. of Luxembourg, Romano Artioli purchased Lotus Cars from General Motors. Plans were made to list Bugatti shares on international stock exchanges.
Bugatti presented a prototype large saloon called the EB112 in 1993.
Perhaps the most famous Bugatti EB110 owner was seven-time Formula One World Champion racing driver Michael Schumacher who purchased an EB110 in 1994. Schumacher sold his EB110, which had been repaired after a severe 1994 crash, to Modena Motorsport, a Ferrari service and race preparation garage in Germany.
By the time the EB110 came to market, the North American and European economies were in recession. Poor economic conditions caused the company to fail and operations ceased in September 1995. A model specific to the US market called the "Bugatti America" was in the preparatory stages when the company ceased operations.
Bugatti's liquidators sold Lotus Cars to Proton of Malaysia. German firm Dauer Racing purchased the EB110 licence and remaining parts stock in 1997 in order to produce five more EB110 SS vehicles. These five SS versions of the EB110 were greatly refined by Dauer. The Campogalliano factory was sold to a furniture-making company, which became defunct prior to moving in, leaving the building unoccupied. After Dauer stopped producing cars in 2011, Toscana-Motors GmbH of Germany purchased the remaining parts stock from Dauer.
Ex vice-president Jean-Marc Borel and ex-employees Federico Trombi, Gianni Sighinolfi and Nicola Materazzi established the B Engineering company and designed and built the Edonis using the chassis and engine from the Bugatti EB110 SS, but simplifying the turbocharging system and driveline (from 4WD to 2WD).
Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. (1998–present)
Pre-Veyron
]]
Volkswagen Group acquired the Bugatti brand in 1998. Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. commissioned Giorgetto Giugiaro of ItalDesign to produce Bugatti Automobiles's first concept vehicle, the EB118, a coupé that debuted at the 1998 Paris Auto Show. The EB118 concept featured a , W-18 engine. After its Paris debut, the EB118 concept was shown again in 1999 at the Geneva Auto Show and the Tokyo Motor Show. Bugatti introduced its next concepts, the EB 218 at the 1999 Geneva Motor Show and the 18/3 Chiron at the 1999 Frankfurt Motor Show (IAA).
Veyron era (2005–2015)
Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S. began assembling its first regular-production vehicle, the Bugatti Veyron 16.4 (the 1001 PS super car with an 8-litre W-16 engine with four turbochargers) in September 2005 at the Bugatti Molsheim, France assembly "studio". On 23 February 2015, Bugatti sold its last Veyron Grand Sport Vitesse, which was named La Finale.
Chiron era (2016–present)
]]
The Bugatti Chiron is a mid-engined, two-seated sports car, designed by Achim Anscheidt, developed as the successor to the Bugatti Veyron. The Chiron was first revealed at the Geneva Motor Show on March 1, 2016.
In February 2024, Bugatti announced the successor to the Chiron, which will use a V16 hybrid-electric powertrain. In June 2024 the successor was confirmed as the Bugatti Tourbillon.See also* Musée National de l'Automobile de Mulhouse, home of the Schlumpf Collection of Bugatti carsReferences
*}}
External links
* [http://www.Bugatti.com Bugatti Automobiles S.A.S.]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080412172359/http://www.octagonfox.com/biblio.html Bugatti bibliography]
* [http://www.bugatti-trust.co.uk The Bugatti Trust]
* [http://www.les24heures.fr/index.php/1937/129-1937-voitures/483-1937-1-2-bugatti-t57g Bugatti at LeMans]
Category:Car manufacturers of France
Category:Companies based in Grand Est
Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1909
Category:Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1963
Category:Defunct aircraft engine manufacturers of France
Category:Defunct companies of France
Category:Formula One constructors
Category:Formula One entrants
Category:French auto racing teams
Category:French racecar constructors
Category:Grand Prix teams
Category:Auto racing teams established in 1929
Category:Auto racing teams disestablished in 1956
Category:Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers
Category:Sports car manufacturers
Category:Volkswagen Group
Category:Molsheim
Category:Car brands
Category:German companies established in 1909
Category:1963 disestablishments in France
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugatti
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Benchmark
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Benchmark may refer to:
Business and economics
Benchmarking, evaluating performance within organizations
Benchmark price
Benchmark (crude oil), oil-specific practices
Science and technology
Experimental benchmarking, the act of defining an experimental reference system to compare the accuracy of other non-experimental scientific methods
Benchmark (surveying), a point of known elevation marked for the purpose of surveying
Benchmarking (geolocating), an activity involving finding benchmarks
Benchmark (computing), the result of running a computer program to assess performance
Benchmark, a best-performing, or gold standard test in medicine and statistics
Companies
Benchmark Electronics, an electronics manufacturer
Benchmark (venture capital firm), a venture capital firm
Benchmark Recordings, a music label with CDs by the Fabulous Thunderbirds and Mike Bloomfield
Other uses
Benchmarking (journal), a bimonthly peer-reviewed academic journal relating to the field of quality management
McAfee's Benchmark, a brand of bourbon
Benchmark (game show), on UK Channel 4
See also
Specification (technical standard)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benchmark
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Band
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Band or BAND may refer to:
Places
Bánd, a village in Hungary
Band, Iran, a village in Urmia County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran
Band, Mureș, a commune in Romania
Band-e Majid Khan, a village in Bukan County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran
People
Band (surname), various people with the surname
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
Musical ensemble, a group of people who perform instrumental or vocal music
Band (rock and pop), a small ensemble that plays rock or pop
Concert band, an ensemble of woodwind, brass, and percussion instruments
Dansband, band playing popular music for a partner-dancing audience
Jazz band, a musical ensemble that plays jazz music
Marching band, a group of instrumental musicians who generally perform outdoors
School band, a group of student musicians who rehearse and perform instrumental music
The Band, a Canadian-American rock and roll group
The Band (album), The Band's eponymous 1969 album
"Bands" (song), by American rapper Comethazine
"The Band", a 2002 single by Mando Diao
Other uses in arts, entertainment and media
Band, nickname of Brazilian television network Rede Bandeirantes
The Band (film), a 1978 Israeli film
The Band (musical), a 2017 musical by Tim Firth with the music of Take That
"Band" (Not Going Out), a 2012 television episode
Clothing, jewelry, and accessories
Armband or arm band
Smart band a band with electronic component
Microsoft Band, a smart band with smartwatch features from the software giant
Bandolier or bandoleer, an ammunition belt
Bands (neckwear), two pieces of cloth fitted around the neck as part of formal clothing for clergy, academics, and lawyers
Belt (clothing), a flexible band or strap, typically made of leather or heavy cloth, and worn around the waist
Strap, an elongated flap or ribbon, usually of fabric or leather
Wedding band, a metal ring indicating the wearer is married
Military
Bands (Italian Army irregulars), 19th- and 20th-century military units in the service of the Italian "Regio Esercito"
Female order of the Band, a medieval military order native to Spain
Order of the Band, a medieval military order native to Spain
Science and technology
Band (algebra), an idempotent semigroup
Band (order theory), a solid subset of an ordered vector space that contains its supremums
Band (radio), a range of frequencies or wavelengths in radio and radar, specifically:
Frequency band
LTE frequency bands used for cellphone data
Shortwave bands
UMTS frequency bands used for cellphones
BAND (software), a mobile app that facilitates group communication
Band cell, a type of white blood cell
Bird banding, placing a numbered metal band on a bird's leg for identification
Electronic band structure of electrons in solid-state physics
Gastric band, a human weight-control measure
Signaling (telecommunications):
In-band signaling
Out-of-band
Birds Are Not Dinosaurs, or BAND, a controversial stance on the origin of birds
Society and government
Band (First Nations Canada), the primary unit of First Nations Government in Canada
Band society, a small group of humans in a simple form of society
Tribe (Native American), a tribe, band, nation, or other group or community of Indigenous peoples in the United States
Other uses
Rubber band
The Band (professional wrestling), the Total Nonstop Wrestling name for the professional wrestling stable New World Order
See also
Band of Brothers (disambiguation)
Bandage
Banding (disambiguation)
Bandy (disambiguation)
Bend (disambiguation)
Drum and bugle corps (disambiguation)
Herd, a social grouping of certain animals of the same species
Ribbon (disambiguation)
Stripe (disambiguation)
Bands (disambiguation)
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Black Death
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The Black Death was a bubonic plague pandemic that occurred in Europe from 1346 to 1353. It was one of the most fatal pandemics in human history; as many as people The disease is caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and spread by fleas and through the air. One of the most significant events in European history, the Black Death had far-reaching population, economic, and cultural impacts. It was the beginning of the second plague pandemic. The plague created religious, social and economic upheavals, with profound effects on the course of European history.
The origin of the Black Death is disputed. with flea-mediated strains emerging around 3,800 years ago during the late Bronze Age. The immediate territorial origins of the Black Death and its outbreak remain unclear, with some evidence pointing towards Central Asia, China, the Middle East, and Europe. The pandemic was reportedly first introduced to Europe during the siege of the Genoese trading port of Kaffa in Crimea by the Golden Horde army of Jani Beg in 1347. From Crimea, it was most likely carried by fleas living on the black rats that travelled on Genoese ships, spreading through the Mediterranean Basin and reaching North Africa, West Asia, and the rest of Europe via Constantinople, Sicily, and the Italian Peninsula. There is evidence that once it came ashore, the Black Death mainly spread from person-to-person as pneumonic plague, thus explaining the quick inland spread of the epidemic, which was faster than would be expected if the primary vector was rat fleas causing bubonic plague. In 2022, it was discovered that there was a sudden surge of deaths in what is today Kyrgyzstan from the Black Death in the late 1330s; when combined with genetic evidence, this implies that the initial spread may have been unrelated to the 14th century Mongol conquests previously postulated as the cause.
The Black Death was the second great natural disaster to strike Europe during the Late Middle Ages (the first one being the Great Famine of 1315–1317) and is estimated to have killed 30% to 60% of the European population, as well as approximately 33% of the population of the Middle East. There were further outbreaks throughout the Late Middle Ages and, also due to other contributing factors (the crisis of the late Middle Ages), the European population did not regain its 14th century level until the 16th century. Outbreaks of the plague recurred around the world until the early 19th century.
<span id"Etymology"></span><span id"Name"></span><span id"Naming"></span>NamesEuropean writers contemporary with the plague described the disease in Latin as or ; ; . In English prior to the 18th century, the event was called the "pestilence" or "great pestilence", "the plague" or the "great death". Subsequent to the pandemic "the furste moreyn" (first murrain) or "first pestilence" was applied, to distinguish the mid-14th century phenomenon from other infectious diseases and epidemics of plague. This expression as a proper name for the pandemic had been popularized by Swedish and Danish chroniclers in the 15th and early 16th centuries, and in the 16th and 17th centuries was transferred to other languages as a calque: , , and . Previously, most European languages had named the pandemic a variant or calque of the . The phrase , was used in 1350 by Simon de Covino (or Couvin), a Belgian astronomer, in his poem "On the Judgement of the Sun at a Feast of Saturn" (), which attributes the plague to an astrological conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn. His use of the phrase is not connected unambiguously with the plague pandemic of 1347 and appears to refer to the fatal outcome of disease. The historian Cardinal Francis Aidan Gasquet wrote about the Great Pestilence in 1893 and suggested that it had been "some form of the ordinary Eastern or bubonic plague".}} In 1908, Gasquet said use of the name for the 14th-century epidemic first appeared in a 1631 book on Danish history by J. I. Pontanus: "Commonly and from its effects, they called it the black death" ().
Previous plague epidemics
(200 × magnification), the bacterium that causes plague]]
Research from 2017 suggests plague first infected humans in Europe and Asia in the Late Neolithic-Early Bronze Age. Research in 2018 found evidence of Yersinia pestis in an ancient Swedish tomb, which may have been associated with the "Neolithic decline" around 3000 BCE, in which European populations fell significantly. This Y. pestis may have been different from more modern types, with bubonic plague transmissible by fleas first known from Bronze Age remains near Samara.
The symptoms of bubonic plague are first attested in a fragment of Rufus of Ephesus preserved by Oribasius; these ancient medical authorities suggest bubonic plague had appeared in the Roman Empire before the reign of Trajan, six centuries before arriving at Pelusium in the reign of Justinian I. In 2013, researchers confirmed earlier speculation that the cause of the Plague of Justinian (541–549 CE, with recurrences until 750) was Y. pestis. This is known as the first plague pandemic. In 610, the Chinese physician Chao Yuanfang described a "malignant bubo" "coming in abruptly with high fever together with the appearance of a bundle of nodes beneath the tissue." The Chinese physician Sun Simo who died in 652 also mentioned a "malignant bubo" and plague that was common in Lingnan (Guangzhou). Ole Jørgen Benedictow believes that this indicates it was an offshoot of the first plague pandemic which made its way eastward to Chinese territory by around 600.
14th-century plague
Causes
Early theory
A report by the Medical Faculty of Paris stated that a conjunction of planets had caused "a great pestilence in the air" (miasma theory). Muslim religious scholars taught that the pandemic was a "martyrdom and mercy" from God, assuring the believer's place in paradise. For non-believers, it was a punishment. Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God. Others adopted preventive measures and treatments for plague used by Europeans. These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks.
Predominant modern theory
Due to climate change in Asia, rodents began to flee the dried-out grasslands to more populated areas, spreading the disease. The plague disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, is enzootic (commonly present) in populations of fleas carried by ground rodents, including marmots, in various areas, including Central Asia, Kurdistan, West Asia, North India, Uganda, and the western United States.
Y. pestis was discovered by Alexandre Yersin, a pupil of Louis Pasteur, during an epidemic of bubonic plague in Hong Kong in 1894; Yersin also proved this bacterium was present in rodents and suggested the rat was the main vehicle of transmission. The mechanism by which Y. pestis is usually transmitted was established in 1898 by Paul-Louis Simond and was found to involve the bites of fleas whose midguts had become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage starves the fleas, drives them to aggressive feeding behaviour, and causes them to try to clear the blockage via regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria flushing into the feeding site and infecting the host. The bubonic plague mechanism was also dependent on two populations of rodents: one resistant to the disease, which act as hosts, keeping the disease endemic, and a second that lacks resistance. When the second population dies, the fleas move on to other hosts, including people, thus creating a human epidemic.
DNA evidence
, near Marseille in southern France, yielded molecular evidence of the orientalis strain of Yersinia pestis, the organism responsible for bubonic plague. The second pandemic of bubonic plague was active in Europe from 1347, the beginning of the Black Death, until 1750.]]
Definitive confirmation of the role of Y. pestis arrived in 2010 with a publication in PLOS Pathogens by Haensch et al. and the techniques employed, stating that this method "does not allow us to confirm the identification of Y. pestis as the aetiological agent of the Black Death and subsequent plagues. In addition, the utility of the published tooth-based ancient DNA technique used to diagnose fatal bacteraemias in historical epidemics still awaits independent corroboration".}} They assessed the presence of DNA/RNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques for Y. pestis from the tooth sockets in human skeletons from mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this new research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany, "ends the debate about the cause of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages". In 2011 these results were further confirmed with genetic evidence derived from Black Death victims in the East Smithfield burial site in England. Schuenemann et al. concluded in 2011 "that the Black Death in medieval Europe was caused by a variant of Y. pestis that may no longer exist".
Later in 2011, Bos et al. reported in Nature the first draft genome of Y. pestis from plague victims from the same East Smithfield cemetery and indicated that the strain that caused the Black Death is ancestral to most modern strains of Y. pestis.
Later genomic papers have further confirmed the phylogenetic placement of the Y. pestis strain responsible for the Black Death as both the ancestor of later plague epidemics—including the third plague pandemic—and the descendant of the strain responsible for the Plague of Justinian. In addition, plague genomes from prehistory have been recovered.
DNA taken from 25 skeletons from 14th-century London showed that plague is a strain of Y. pestis almost identical to that which hit Madagascar in 2013. Further DNA evidence also proves the role of Y. pestis and traces the source to the Tian Shan mountains in Kyrgyzstan.Alternative explanationsResearchers are hampered by a lack of reliable statistics from this period. Most work has been done on the spread of the disease in England, where estimates of overall population at the start of the plague vary by over 100%, as no census was undertaken in England between the time of publication of the Domesday Book of 1086 and the poll tax of the year 1377. Estimates of plague victims are usually extrapolated from figures for the clergy.
Mathematical modelling is used to match the spreading patterns and the means of transmission. In 2018 researchers suggested an alternative model in which "the disease was spread from human fleas and body lice to other people".'' The second model claims to better fit the trends of the plague's death toll, as the rat-flea-human hypothesis would have produced a delayed but very high spike in deaths, contradicting historical death data.
Lars Walløe argued that these authors "take it for granted that Simond's infection model, black rat → rat flea → human, which was developed to explain the spread of plague in India, is the only way an epidemic of Yersinia pestis infection could spread". Similarly, Monica Green has argued that greater attention is needed to the range of (especially non-commensal) animals that might be involved in the transmission of plague.
Archaeologist Barney Sloane has argued that there is insufficient evidence of the extinction of numerous rats in the archaeological record of the medieval waterfront in London, and that the disease spread too quickly to support the thesis that Y. pestis was spread from fleas on rats; he argues that transmission must have been person to person. This theory is supported by research in 2018 which suggested transmission was more likely by body lice and fleas during the second plague pandemic.SummaryAcademic debate continues, but no single alternative explanation for the plague's spread has achieved widespread acceptance. Many scholars arguing for Y. pestis as the major agent of the pandemic suggest that its extent and symptoms can be explained by a combination of bubonic plague with other diseases, including typhus, smallpox, and respiratory infections. In addition to the bubonic infection, others point to additional septicemic and pneumonic forms of plague, which lengthen the duration of outbreaks throughout the seasons and help account for its high mortality rate and additional recorded symptoms. In 2014, Public Health England announced the results of an examination of 25 bodies exhumed in the Clerkenwell area of London, as well as of wills registered in London during the period, which supported the pneumonic hypothesis.
By the early 14th century, so much filth had collected inside urban Europe that French and Italian cities were naming streets after human waste. In medieval Paris, several street names were inspired by merde, the French word for "shit". There were rue Merdeux, rue Merdelet, rue Merdusson, rue des Merdons and rue Merdiere—as well as a rue du Pipi. Pigs, cattle, chickens, geese, goats and horses roamed the streets of medieval London and Paris.
Medieval homeowners were supposed to police their housefronts, including removing animal dung, but most urbanites were careless. William E. Cosner, a resident of the London suburb of Farringdon Without, received a complaint alleging that "men could not pass [by his house] for the stink [of] . . . horse dung and horse piss." One irate Londoner complained that the runoff from the local slaughterhouse had made his garden "stinking and putrid", while another charged that the blood from slain animals flooded nearby streets and lanes, "making a foul corruption and abominable sight to all dwelling near." In much of medieval Europe, sanitation legislation consisted of an ordinance requiring homeowners to shout, "Look out below!" three times before dumping a full chamber pot into the street.
Early Christians considered bathing a temptation. With this danger in mind, St. Benedict declared, "To those who are well, and especially to the young, bathing shall seldom be permitted." St. Agnes took the injunction to heart and died without ever bathing.Territorial originsAccording to a team of medical geneticists led by Mark Achtman, Yersinia pestis "evolved in or near China" over 2,600 years ago. Later research by a team led by Galina Eroshenko placed its origins more specifically in the Tian Shan mountains on the border between Kyrgyzstan and China. However more recent research notes that the previous sampling contained East Asian bias and that sampling since then has discovered strains of Y. pestis in the Caucasus region previously thought to be restricted to China. There is also no physical or specific textual evidence of the Black Death in 14th century China. As a result, China's place in the sequence of the plague's spread is still debated to this day. According to Charles Creighton, records of epidemics in 14th-century China suggest nothing more than typhus and major Chinese outbreaks of epidemic disease post-date the European epidemic by several years. The earliest Chinese descriptions of the bubonic plague do not appear until the 1640s.
Nestorian gravesites dating from 1338 to 1339 near Issyk-Kul have inscriptions referring to plague, which has led some historians and epidemiologists to think they mark the outbreak of the epidemic; this is supported by recent direct findings of Y. pestis DNA in teeth samples from graves in the area with inscriptions referring to "pestilence" as the cause of death.
|Philip Slavin}}
According to John Norris, evidence from Issyk-Kul indicates a small sporadic outbreak characteristic of transmission from rodents to humans with no wide-scale impact. According to Achtman, the dating of the plague suggests that it was not carried along the Silk Road, and its widespread appearance in that region probably postdates the European outbreak.
}}
Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders from their port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347. During a protracted siege of the city in 1345–1346, the Mongol Golden Horde army of Jani Beg—whose mainly Tatar troops were suffering from the disease—catapulted infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants, though it is also likely that infected rats travelled across the siege lines to spread the epidemic to the inhabitants. As the disease took hold, Genoese traders fled across the Black Sea to Constantinople, where the disease first arrived in Europe in summer 1347.
The epidemic there killed the 13-year-old son of the Byzantine emperor, John VI Kantakouzenos, who wrote a description of the disease modelled on Thucydides's account of the 5th century BCE Plague of Athens, noting the spread of the Black Death by ship between maritime cities. the disease spread rapidly all over the island. Galleys from Kaffa reached Genoa and Venice in January 1348, but it was the outbreak in Pisa a few weeks later that was the entry point into northern Italy. Towards the end of January, one of the galleys expelled from Italy arrived in Marseilles.
From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain, Portugal, and England by June 1348, then spreading east and north through Germany, Scotland and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced into Norway in 1349 when a ship landed at Askøy, then spread to Bjørgvin (modern Bergen). Finally, it spread to northern Russia in 1352 and reached Moscow in 1353. Plague was less common in parts of Europe with less-established trade relations, including the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated Alpine villages throughout the continent.
According to some epidemiologists, periods of unfavorable weather decimated plague-infected rodent populations, forcing their fleas onto alternative hosts, inducing plague outbreaks which often peaked in the hot summers of the Mediterranean and during the cool autumn months of the southern Baltic region.}} Among many other culprits of plague contagiousness, pre-existing malnutrition weakened the immune response, contributing to an immense decline in European population.West Asian and North African outbreak
The disease struck various regions in the Middle East and North Africa during the pandemic, leading to serious depopulation and permanent change in both economic and social structures.
By autumn 1347, plague had reached Alexandria in Egypt, transmitted by sea from Constantinople via a single merchant ship carrying slaves. By late summer 1348, it reached Cairo, capital of the Mamluk Sultanate, cultural center of the Islamic world, and the largest city in the Mediterranean Basin; the Bahriyya child sultan an-Nasir Hasan fled and more than a third of the 600,000 residents died. The Nile was choked with corpses despite Cairo having a medieval hospital, the late 13th-century bimaristan of the Qalawun complex. Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the Islamic world, from Arabia across North Africa.
The pandemic spread westwards from Alexandria along the African coast, while in April 1348 Tunis was infected by ship from Sicily. Tunis was then under attack by an army from Morocco; this army dispersed in 1348 and brought the contagion with them to Morocco, whose epidemic may also have been seeded from the Islamic city of Almería in al-Andalus. During 1349, records show the city of Mosul suffered a massive epidemic, and the city of Baghdad experienced a second round of the disease.Signs and symptoms
gangrene of the fingers due to bubonic plague causes the skin and flesh to die and turn black]]
on the upper thigh of a person infected with bubonic plague. Swollen lymph nodes (buboes) often occur in the neck, armpit and groin (inguinal) regions of plague victims.]]
Bubonic plague
Symptoms of the plague include fever of , headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. Left untreated, 80% of victims die within eight days.
Contemporary accounts of the pandemic are varied and often imprecise. The most commonly noted symptom was the appearance of buboes (or gavocciolos) in the groin, neck and armpits, which oozed pus and bled when opened.}}}}
This was followed by acute fever and vomiting of blood. Most people died two to seven days after initial infection. Freckle-like spots and rashes, which may have been caused by flea-bites, were identified as another potential sign of plague.Pneumonic plagueLodewijk Heyligen, whose master Cardinal Giovanni Colonna died of plague in 1348, noted a distinct form of the disease, pneumonic plague, that infected the lungs and led to respiratory problems. Some estimate that it may have killed between 75,000,000 and 200,000,000 people in Eurasia. A study published in 2022 of pollen samples across Europe from 1250 to 1450 was used to estimate changes in agricultural output before and after the Black Death. The authors found great variability in different regions, with evidence for high mortality in areas of Scandinavia, France, western Germany, Greece, and central Italy, but uninterrupted agricultural growth in central and eastern Europe, Iberia, and Ireland. The authors concluded that "the pandemic was immensely destructive in some areas, but in others it had a far lighter touch ... [the study methodology] invalidates histories of the Black Death that assume Y. pestis was uniformly prevalent, or nearly so, across Europe and that the pandemic had a devastating demographic impact everywhere."
The Black Death killed, by various estimations, from 25 to 60% of Europe's population. Robert Gottfried writes that as early as 1351, "agents for Pope Clement VI calculated the number of dead in Christian Europe at 23,840,000. With a preplague population of about 75 million, Clement's figure accounts for mortality of 31%-a rate about midway between the 50% mortality estimated for East Anglia, Tuscany, and parts of Scandinavia, and the less-than-15% morbidity for Bohemia and Galicia. And it is unerringly close to Froissart's claim that "a third of the world died," a measurement probably drawn from St. John's figure of mortality from plague in the Book of Revelation, a favorite medieval source of information." Ole J. Benedictow proposes 60% mortality rate for Europe as a whole based on available data, with up to 80% based on poor nutritional conditions in the 14th century.}}}} According to medieval historian Philip Daileader, it is likely that over four years, 45–50% of the European population died of plague.}}}}
The overwhelming number of deaths in Europe sometimes made mass burials necessary, and some sites had hundreds or thousands of bodies. The mass burial sites that have been excavated have allowed archaeologists to continue interpreting and defining the biological, sociological, historical, and anthropological implications of the Black Death.
In 1348, the disease spread so rapidly that nearly a third of the European population perished before any physicians or government authorities had time to reflect upon its origins. In crowded cities, it was not uncommon for as much as 50% of the population to die. Half of Paris' population of 100,000 people died. In Italy, the population of Florence was reduced from between 110,000 and 120,000 inhabitants in 1338 to 50,000 in 1351. At least 60% of the population of Hamburg and Bremen perished, and a similar percentage of Londoners may have died from the disease as well, leaving a death toll of approximately 62,000 between 1346 and 1353.}} Florence's tax records suggest that 80% of the city's population died within four months in 1348. Before 1350, there were about 170,000 settlements in Germany, and this was reduced by nearly 40,000 by 1450. The disease bypassed some areas, with the most isolated areas being less vulnerable to contagion. Plague did not appear in Flanders until the turn of the 15th century, and the impact was less severe on the populations of Hainaut, Finland, northern Germany, and areas of Poland. Monks, nuns, and priests were especially hard-hit since they cared for people ill with the plague. The level of mortality in the rest of Eastern Europe was likely similar to that of Western Europe in the first outbreak, with descriptions suggesting a similar effect on Russian towns, and the cycles of plague in Russia being roughly equivalent. In the first outbreak, two thirds of the population contracted the illness and most patients died; in the next, half the population became ill but only some died; by the third, a tenth were affected and many survived; while by the fourth occurrence, only one in twenty people were sickened and most of them survived.}}
The most widely accepted estimate for the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran, and Syria, during this time, is for a death toll of about a third of the population. The Black Death killed about 40% of Egypt's population. In Cairo, with a population numbering as many as 600,000, and possibly the largest city west of China, between one third and 40% of the inhabitants died within eight months.
But along with population decline from the pandemic, wages soared in response to a subsequent labour shortage. In some places rents collapsed (e.g., lettings "used to bring in £5, and now but £1.") Taxes and tithes became difficult to collect, with living poor refusing to cover the share of the rich deceased, because many properties were empty and unfarmed, and because tax-collectors, where they could be employed, refused to go to plague spots.
Environmental
A study performed by Thomas Van Hoof of the Utrecht University suggests that the innumerable deaths brought on by the pandemic cooled the climate by freeing up land and triggering reforestation. This may have led to the Little Ice Age.
Persecutions
in 1349. Miniature from a 14th-century manuscript Antiquitates Flandriae by Gilles Li Muisis]]
Renewed religious fervor and fanaticism increased in the wake of the Black Death. Some Europeans targeted "various groups such as Jews, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims", lepers, and Romani, blaming them for the crisis. Lepers, and others with skin diseases such as acne or psoriasis, were killed throughout Europe.
Because 14th-century healers and governments were at a loss to explain or stop the disease, Europeans turned to astrological forces, earthquakes and the poisoning of wells by Jews as possible reasons for outbreaks. Many believed the epidemic was a punishment by God for their sins, and could be relieved by winning God's forgiveness.
There were many attacks against Jewish communities. In the Strasbourg massacre of February 1349, about 2,000 Jews were murdered. During this period many Jews relocated to Poland, where they received a welcome from King Casimir the Great.Social
's The Triumph of Death reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague, which devastated medieval Europe.]]
One theory that has been advanced is that the Black Death's devastation of Florence, between 1348 and 1350, resulted in a shift in the world view of people in 14th-century Italy that ultimately led to the Renaissance. Italy was particularly badly hit by the pandemic, and the resulting familiarity with death may have caused thinkers to dwell more on their lives on Earth, rather than on spirituality and the afterlife.}} It has also been argued that the Black Death prompted a new wave of piety, manifested in the sponsorship of religious works of art.
This does not fully explain why the Renaissance occurred in Italy in the 14th century; the Renaissance's emergence was most likely the result of the complex interaction of the above factors, in combination with an influx of Greek scholars after the fall of the Byzantine Empire. As a result of the drastic reduction in the populace the value of the working class increased, and commoners came to enjoy more freedom. To answer the increased need for labour, workers travelled in search of the most favorable position economically.
Prior to the emergence of the Black Death, the continent was considered a feudalistic society, composed of fiefs and city-states frequently managed by the Catholic Church. The pandemic completely restructured both religion and political forces; survivors began to turn to other forms of spirituality and the power dynamics of the fiefs and city-states crumbled. The survivors of the pandemic found not only that the prices of food were lower but also that lands were more abundant, and many of them inherited property from their dead relatives, and this probably contributed to the destabilization of feudalism.
The word "quarantine" has its roots in this period, though the practice of isolating people to prevent the spread of disease is older. In the city-state of Ragusa (modern Dubrovnik, Croatia), a thirty-day isolation period was implemented in 1377 for new arrivals to the city from plague-affected areas. The isolation period was later extended to forty days, and given the name "quarantino" from the Italian word for "forty".
All institutions were affected. Smaller monasteries and convents became unviable and closed. Up to half parish churches lost their priest, apart from the parishioners. Religious sensibilities changed: More than 1.25 million deaths resulted from the extreme incidence of plague in 17th-century Spain.
The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world. Plague could be found in the Islamic world almost every year between 1500 and 1850. Sometimes the outbreaks affected small areas, while other outbreaks affected multiple regions. Plague repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost 30,000–50,000 inhabitants to it in 1620–1621, and again in 1654–1657, 1665, 1691, and 1740–1742. Cairo suffered more than fifty plague epidemics within 150 years from the plague's first appearance, with the final outbreak of the second pandemic there in the 1840s. Baghdad has suffered severely from visitations of the plague, and sometimes two-thirds of its population died.Third plague pandemic
The third plague pandemic (1855–1859) started in China in the mid-19th century, spreading to all inhabited continents and killing 10 million people in India alone. The investigation of the pathogen that caused the 19th-century plague was begun by teams of scientists who visited Hong Kong in 1894, among whom was the French-Swiss bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, for whom the pathogen was named.
Twelve plague outbreaks in Australia between 1900 and 1925 resulted in over 1,000 deaths, chiefly in Sydney. This led to the establishment of a Public Health Department there which undertook some leading-edge research on plague transmission from rat fleas to humans via the bacillus Yersinia pestis.
The first North American plague epidemic was the San Francisco plague of 1900–1904, followed by another outbreak in 1907–1908.
Modern-day
Modern treatment methods include insecticides, the use of antibiotics, and a plague vaccine. It is feared that the plague bacterium could develop drug resistance and again become a major health threat. One case of a drug-resistant form of the bacterium was found in Madagascar in 1995. Another outbreak in Madagascar was reported in November 2014. In October 2017, the deadliest outbreak of the plague in modern times hit Madagascar, killing 170 people and infecting thousands.
An estimate of the case fatality rate for the modern plague, after the introduction of antibiotics, is 11%, although it may be higher in underdeveloped regions.
See also
* Flagellant
* Globalization and disease
Footnotes
Citations
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Category:Plague pandemics
Category:1340s
Category:1350s
Category:Eurasian history
Category:History of medieval medicine
Category:Medieval health disasters
Category:Second plague pandemic
Category:Causes of death
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Biotechnology
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Biotechnology is a multidisciplinary field that involves the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms and parts thereof for products and services. Specialists in the field are known as biotechnologists.
The term biotechnology was first used by Károly Ereky in 1919 to refer to the production of products from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. The core principle of biotechnology involves harnessing biological systems and organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, and plants, to perform specific tasks or produce valuable substances.
Biotechnology had a significant impact on many areas of society, from medicine to agriculture to environmental science. One of the key techniques used in biotechnology is genetic engineering, which allows scientists to modify the genetic makeup of organisms to achieve desired outcomes. This can involve inserting genes from one organism into another, and consequently, create new traits or modifying existing ones.
Other important techniques used in biotechnology include tissue culture, which allows researchers to grow cells and tissues in the lab for research and medical purposes, and fermentation, which is used to produce a wide range of products such as beer, wine, and cheese.
The applications of biotechnology are diverse and have led to the development of products like life-saving drugs, biofuels, genetically modified crops, and innovative materials. It has also been used to address environmental challenges, such as developing biodegradable plastics and using microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites.
Biotechnology is a rapidly evolving field with significant potential to address pressing global challenges and improve the quality of life for people around the world; however, despite its numerous benefits, it also poses ethical and societal challenges, such as questions around genetic modification and intellectual property rights. As a result, there is ongoing debate and regulation surrounding the use and application of biotechnology in various industries and fields.
Definition
The concept of biotechnology encompasses a wide range of procedures for modifying living organisms for human purposes, going back to domestication of animals, cultivation of plants, and "improvements" to these through breeding programs that employ artificial selection and hybridization. Modern usage also includes genetic engineering, as well as cell and tissue culture technologies. The American Chemical Society defines biotechnology as the application of biological organisms, systems, or processes by various industries to learning about the science of life and the improvement of the value of materials and organisms, such as pharmaceuticals, crops, and livestock. As per the European Federation of Biotechnology, biotechnology is the integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services. Biotechnology is based on the basic biological sciences (e.g., molecular biology, biochemistry, cell biology, embryology, genetics, microbiology) and conversely provides methods to support and perform basic research in biology.
Biotechnology is the research and development in the laboratory using bioinformatics for exploration, extraction, exploitation, and production from any living organisms and any source of biomass by means of biochemical engineering where high value-added products could be planned (reproduced by biosynthesis, for example), forecasted, formulated, developed, manufactured, and marketed for the purpose of sustainable operations (for the return from bottomless initial investment on R & D) and gaining durable patents rights (for exclusives rights for sales, and prior to this to receive national and international approval from the results on animal experiment and human experiment, especially on the pharmaceutical branch of biotechnology to prevent any undetected side-effects or safety concerns by using the products). The utilization of biological processes, organisms or systems to produce products that are anticipated to improve human lives is termed biotechnology.
By contrast, bioengineering is generally thought of as a related field that more heavily emphasizes higher systems approaches (not necessarily the altering or using of biological materials directly) for interfacing with and utilizing living things. Bioengineering is the application of the principles of engineering and natural sciences to tissues, cells, and molecules. This can be considered as the use of knowledge from working with and manipulating biology to achieve a result that can improve functions in plants and animals. Relatedly, biomedical engineering is an overlapping field that often draws upon and applies biotechnology (by various definitions), especially in certain sub-fields of biomedical or chemical engineering such as tissue engineering, biopharmaceutical engineering, and genetic engineering.History
was an early application of biotechnology.]]
Although not normally what first comes to mind, many forms of human-derived agriculture clearly fit the broad definition of "utilizing a biotechnological system to make products". Indeed, the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise.
Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Through early biotechnology, the earliest farmers selected and bred the best-suited crops (e.g., those with the highest yields) to produce enough food to support a growing population. As crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain, it was discovered that specific organisms and their by-products could effectively fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the history of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants — one of the first forms of biotechnology.
These processes also were included in early fermentation of beer. These processes were introduced in early Mesopotamia, Egypt, China and India, and still use the same basic biological methods. In brewing, malted grains (containing enzymes) convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process, carbohydrates in the grains broke down into alcohols, such as ethanol. Later, other cultures produced the process of lactic acid fermentation, which produced other preserved foods, such as soy sauce. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur's work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.
Before the time of Charles Darwin's work and life, animal and plant scientists had already used selective breeding. Darwin added to that body of work with his scientific observations about the ability of science to change species. These accounts contributed to Darwin's theory of natural selection.
For thousands of years, humans have used selective breeding to improve the production of crops and livestock to use them for food. In selective breeding, organisms with desirable characteristics are mated to produce offspring with the same characteristics. For example, this technique was used with corn to produce the largest and sweetest crops.
In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I.
Biotechnology has also led to the development of antibiotics. In 1928, Alexander Fleming discovered the mold Penicillium. His work led to the purification of the antibiotic formed by the mold by Howard Florey, Ernst Boris Chain and Norman Heatley – to form what we today know as penicillin. In 1940, penicillin became available for medicinal use to treat bacterial infections in humans. Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had modified a bacterium (of the genus Pseudomonas) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. (Chakrabarty's work did not involve gene manipulation but rather the transfer of entire organelles between strains of the Pseudomonas bacterium).
The MOSFET invented at Bell Labs between 1955 and 1960, Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented the first biosensor in 1962. Biosensor MOSFETs were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters. The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld in 1970. It is a special type of MOSFET, The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization, biomarker detection from blood, antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology.
Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically modified seeds that resist pests and drought. By increasing farm productivity, biotechnology boosts biofuel production.Examples
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non-food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g., biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.
For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of microorganisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.
A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:
* Bioinformatics (or "gold biotechnology") is an interdisciplinary field that addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization as well as analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale". Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
* Blue biotechnology is based on the exploitation of sea resources to create products and industrial applications.
* Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate. It is commonly considered as the next phase of green revolution, which can be seen as a platform to eradicate world hunger by using technologies which enable the production of more fertile and resistant, towards biotic and abiotic stress, plants and ensures application of environmentally friendly fertilizers and the use of biopesticides, it is mainly focused on the development of agriculture.
* Yellow biotechnology refers to the use of biotechnology in food production (food industry), for example in making wine (winemaking), cheese (cheesemaking), and beer (brewing) by fermentation.
* Gray biotechnology is dedicated to environmental applications, and focused on the maintenance of biodiversity and the remotion of pollutants.
* Dark biotechnology is the color associated with bioterrorism or biological weapons and biowarfare which uses microorganisms, and toxins to cause diseases and death in humans, livestock and crops.
chip – some can do as many as a million blood tests at once. ]]
Pharmacogenomics (a combination of pharmacology and genomics) is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's response to drugs. Researchers in the field investigate the influence of genetic variation on drug responses in patients by correlating gene expression or single-nucleotide polymorphisms with a drug's efficacy or toxicity. The purpose of pharmacogenomics is to develop rational means to optimize drug therapy, with respect to the patients' genotype, to ensure maximum efficacy with minimal adverse effects. Such approaches promise the advent of "personalized medicine"; in which drugs and drug combinations are optimized for each individual's unique genetic makeup.
, the zinc ions holding it together, and the histidine residues involved in zinc binding]]
Biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule pharmaceutical drugs as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – biopharmaceutics. Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle or pigs). The genetically engineered bacteria are able to produce large quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost. Biotechnology has also enabled emerging therapeutics like gene therapy. The application of biotechnology to basic science (for example through the Human Genome Project) has also dramatically improved our understanding of biology and as our scientific knowledge of normal and disease biology has increased, our ability to develop new medicines to treat previously untreatable diseases has increased as well. Most of the time, testing is used to find changes that are associated with inherited disorders. The results of a genetic test can confirm or rule out a suspected genetic condition or help determine a person's chance of developing or passing on a genetic disorder. As of 2011 several hundred genetic tests were in use. Since genetic testing may open up ethical or psychological problems, genetic testing is often accompanied by genetic counseling.
Agriculture
Genetically modified crops ("GM crops", or "biotech crops") are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified with genetic engineering techniques. In most cases, the main aim is to introduce a new trait that does not occur naturally in the species. Biotechnology firms can contribute to future food security by improving the nutrition and viability of urban agriculture. Furthermore, the protection of intellectual property rights encourages private sector investment in agrobiotechnology.
Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, stressful environmental conditions, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), reduction of spoilage, or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.
Farmers have widely adopted GM technology. Between 1996 and 2011, the total surface area of land cultivated with GM crops had increased by a factor of 94, from . As of 2011, 11 different transgenic crops were grown commercially on in 29 countries such as the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay, Pakistan, South Africa, Uruguay, Bolivia, Australia, Philippines, Myanmar, Burkina Faso, Mexico and Spain. Commercial sale of genetically modified foods began in 1994, when Calgene first marketed its Flavr Savr delayed ripening tomato. To date most genetic modification of foods have primarily focused on cash crops in high demand by farmers such as soybean, corn, canola, and cotton seed oil. These have been engineered for resistance to pathogens and herbicides and better nutrient profiles. GM livestock have also been experimentally developed; in November 2013 none were available on the market, but in 2015 the FDA approved the first GM salmon for commercial production and consumption.
There is a scientific consensus Insect-resistant crops have proven to lower pesticide usage, therefore reducing the environmental impact of pesticides as a whole. However, opponents have objected to GM crops per se on several grounds, including environmental concerns, whether food produced from GM crops is safe, whether GM crops are needed to address the world's food needs, and economic concerns raised by the fact these organisms are subject to intellectual property law.
Biotechnology has several applications in the realm of food security. Crops like Golden rice are engineered to have higher nutritional content, and there is potential for food products with longer shelf lives. Though not a form of agricultural biotechnology, vaccines can help prevent diseases found in animal agriculture. Additionally, agricultural biotechnology can expedite breeding processes in order to yield faster results and provide greater quantities of food. Transgenic biofortification in cereals has been considered as a promising method to combat malnutrition in India and other countries.IndustrialIndustrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes, including industrial fermentation. It includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms, or components of cells like enzymes, to generate industrially useful products in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels. In the current decades, significant progress has been done in creating genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that enhance the diversity of applications and economical viability of industrial biotechnology. By using renewable raw materials to produce a variety of chemicals and fuels, industrial biotechnology is actively advancing towards lowering greenhouse gas emissions and moving away from a petrochemical-based economy.
Synthetic biology is considered one of the essential cornerstones in industrial biotechnology due to its financial and sustainable contribution to the manufacturing sector. Jointly biotechnology and synthetic biology play a crucial role in generating cost-effective products with nature-friendly features by using bio-based production instead of fossil-based. Synthetic biology can be used to engineer model microorganisms, such as Escherichia coli, by genome editing tools to enhance their ability to produce bio-based products, such as bioproduction of medicines and biofuels. For instance, E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a consortium could be used as industrial microbes to produce precursors of the chemotherapeutic agent paclitaxel by applying the metabolic engineering in a co-culture approach to exploit the benefits from the two microbes.
Another example of synthetic biology applications in industrial biotechnology is the re-engineering of the metabolic pathways of E. coli by CRISPR and CRISPRi systems toward the production of a chemical known as 1,4-butanediol, which is used in fiber manufacturing. In order to produce 1,4-butanediol, the authors alter the metabolic regulation of the Escherichia coli by CRISPR to induce point mutation in the gltA gene, knockout of the sad gene, and knock-in six genes (cat1, sucD, 4hbd, cat2, bld, and bdh). Whereas CRISPRi system used to knockdown the three competing genes (gabD, ybgC, and tesB) that affect the biosynthesis pathway of 1,4-butanediol. Consequently, the yield of 1,4-butanediol significantly increased from 0.9 to 1.8 g/L.EnvironmentalEnvironmental biotechnology includes various disciplines that play an essential role in reducing environmental waste and providing environmentally safe processes, such as biofiltration and biodegradation. The environment can be affected by biotechnologies, both positively and adversely. Vallero and others have argued that the difference between beneficial biotechnology (e.g., bioremediation is to clean up an oil spill or hazard chemical leak) versus the adverse effects stemming from biotechnological enterprises (e.g., flow of genetic material from transgenic organisms into wild strains) can be seen as applications and implications, respectively. Cleaning up environmental wastes is an example of an application of environmental biotechnology; whereas loss of biodiversity or loss of containment of a harmful microbe are examples of environmental implications of biotechnology.
Many cities have installed CityTrees, which use biotechnology to filter pollutants from urban atmospheres.
Regulation
The regulation of genetic engineering concerns approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the use of genetic engineering technology, and the development and release of genetically modified organisms (GMO), including genetically modified crops and genetically modified fish. There are differences in the regulation of GMOs between countries, with some of the most marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on the intended use of the products of the genetic engineering. For example, a crop not intended for food use is generally not reviewed by authorities responsible for food safety. The European Union differentiates between approval for cultivation within the EU and approval for import and processing. While only a few GMOs have been approved for cultivation in the EU a number of GMOs have been approved for import and processing. The cultivation of GMOs has triggered a debate about the coexistence of GM and non-GM crops. Depending on the coexistence regulations, incentives for the cultivation of GM crops differ.
Database for the GMOs used in the EU
The EUginius (European GMO Initiative for a Unified Database System) database is intended to help companies, interested private users and competent authorities to find precise information on the presence, detection and identification of GMOs used in the European Union. The information is provided in English.Learning
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In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (National Institutes of Health) (NIGMS) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP; if accepted, then stipend, tuition and health insurance support are provided for two or three years during the course of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs. Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges.
References and notes
External links
* [http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/ What is Biotechnology? – A curated collection of resources about the people, places and technologies that have enabled biotechnology]
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Battle of Poitiers
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| result = English victory
| combatant1 = England
| combatant2 = France
| commander1 = Edward, the Black Prince
| commander2 = JohnII
| commander3 | strength1 6,000
| strength2 = 14,000–16,000
| casualties1 = ~40 men-at-arms killed<br/>An unknown but much larger number of common infantry killed
| casualties2 = More than 4,500 men-at-arms killed or captured<br/>Either 1,500 or 3,800 common infantry killed or captured
| campaignbox =
}}
The Battle of Poitiers was fought on 19September 1356 between a French army commanded by King JohnII and an Anglo-Gascon force under Edward, the Black Prince, during the Hundred Years' War. It took place in western France, south of Poitiers, when approximately 14,000 to 16,000 French attacked a strong defensive position held by 6,000 Anglo-Gascons.
Nineteen years after the start of the war, the Black Prince, eldest son and heir of the English King, set out on a major campaign in south-west France. His army marched from Bergerac to the River Loire, which they were unable to cross. John gathered a large and unusually mobile army and pursued Edward's forces. The Anglo-Gascons had by this point established a strong defensive position near Poitiers, and after unsuccessful negotiations between the two sides, were attacked by the French.
The first assault included two units of heavily armoured cavalry, a strong force of crossbowmen as well as many infantry and dismounted men-at-arms. They were driven back by the Anglo-Gascons, who were fighting entirely on foot. A second French attack by 4,000 men-at-arms on foot under John's son and heir Charles, the Dauphin, followed. After a prolonged fight this was also repulsed. As the Dauphin's division recoiled there was confusion in the French ranks: about half the men of their third division, under Philip, Duke of Orléans, left the field, taking with them all four of John's sons. Some of those who did not withdraw with Philip launched a weak and unsuccessful third assault. Those Frenchmen remaining gathered around the King and launched a fourth assault against the by now exhausted Anglo-Gascons, again all as infantry. The French sacred banner, the , was unfurled, the signal that no prisoners were to be taken. Battle was again joined, with the French slowly getting the better of it. Then a small, mounted, Anglo-Gascon force of 160 men, who had been sent earlier to threaten the French rear, appeared behind the French. Believing themselves surrounded, some Frenchmen fled, which panicked others, and soon the entire French force collapsed.
John was captured, as was one of his sons and between 2,000 and 3,000 men-at-arms. Approximately 2,500 French men-at-arms were killed. Additionally, either 1,500 or 3,800 French common infantry were killed or captured. The surviving French dispersed, while the Anglo-Gascons continued their withdrawal to Gascony. The following spring a two-year truce was agreed and the Black Prince escorted John to London. Populist revolts broke out across France. Negotiations to end the war and ransom John dragged out. In response Edward launched a further campaign in 1359. During this, both sides compromised and the Treaty of Brétigny was agreed in 1360 by which vast areas of France were ceded to England, to be ruled by the Black Prince, and John was ransomed for three million gold écu. At the time this seemed to end the war, but the French resumed hostilities in 1369 and recaptured most of the lost territory. The war eventually ended with a French victory in 1453.
Background
Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. By the first quarter of the fourteenth century, the only significant French possession still held by the English in France was Gascony in the south-west. But Gascony was disproportionately important: duty levied by the English Crown on wine from Bordeaux, the capital of Gascony, totalled more than all other English customs duties combined and was by far the largest source of state income. Bordeaux had a population of more than 50,000, greater than London's, and Bordeaux was possibly richer. Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France () and Edward III of England (), on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council agreed that the lands held by EdwardIII in France should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that EdwardIII was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.
Although Gascony was the cause of the war, EdwardIII was able to spare few resources for its defence. In most campaigning seasons the Gascons had to rely on their own resources and had been hard-pressed by the French. Typically the Gascons could field 3,000 to 6,000 men, the large majority infantry, although up to two-thirds of them would be tied down in garrisoning their fortifications. In 1345 and 1346 Henry, Earl of Lancaster, led a series of successful Anglo-Gascon campaigns in Aquitaine and was able to push the focus of the fighting away from the heart of Gascony.
The French port of Calais fell to the English in August 1347 after the Crécy campaign. Shortly after this the Truce of Calais was signed, partially the result of both countries being financially exhausted. The same year the Black Death reached northern France and southern England and is estimated to have killed a third of the population of Western Europe; the death rate was over 40% in southern England. This catastrophe, which lasted until 1350, temporarily halted the fighting. The treaty was extended repeatedly over the years; this did not stop ongoing naval clashes, nor small-scale fightingwhich was especially fierce in south-west Francenor occasional fighting on a larger scale.
A treaty to end the war was negotiated at Guînes and signed on 6 April 1354. However, the composition of the inner council of the French king, JohnII (), changed and sentiment turned against its terms. John decided not to ratify it, and it was clear that from the summer of 1355 both sides would be committed to full-scale war. In April 1355 EdwardIII and his council, with the treasury in an unusually favourable financial position, decided to launch offensives that year in both northern France and Gascony. John attempted to strongly garrison his northern towns and fortifications against the expected descent by EdwardIII, at the same time as assembling a field army; he was unable to, largely because of a lack of money.Black Prince arrives
In 1355 EdwardIII's eldest son, Edward of Woodstock, later known as the Black Prince, was given the Gascon command and began assembling men, shipping and supplies. He arrived in Bordeaux on 20September accompanied by 2,200 English soldiers. The next day he was formally acknowledged as the king's lieutenant in Gascony, with plenipotentiary powers, by the Gascon officials and dignitaries. Gascon nobles reinforced him to a strength of somewhere between 5,000 and 6,000 and provided a bridging train and a substantial supply train.
Edward set out on 5October on a , which was a large-scale mounted raid. The Anglo-Gascon force marched from Bordeaux to Narbonnealmost on the Mediterranean coast and deep in French-held territoryand back to Gascony. They devastated a wide swathe of French territory and sacked many French towns on the way. John, Count of Armagnac, who commanded the local French forces, avoided battle, and there was little fighting. While no territory was captured, enormous economic damage was done to France; the modern historian Clifford Rogers concluded "the importance of the economic attrition aspect of the can hardly be exaggerated." The expedition returned to Gascony on 2December having marched .1356
The English troops resumed the offensive from Gascony after Christmas to great effect. More than 50 French-held towns or fortifications were captured during the following four months, including strategically important towns close to the borders of Gascony, and others more than away. Local French commanders did not attempt countermeasures. Several members of the local French nobility changed allegiance to the English; the Black Prince received homage from them on 24April 1356.
Money and enthusiasm for the war were running low in France. The modern historian Jonathan Sumption describes the French national administration as "fall[ing] apart in jealous acrimony and recrimination". A contemporary chronicler recorded "the King of France was severely hated in his own realm". The town of Arras rebelled and killed loyalists. The major nobles of Normandy refused to pay taxes. On 5April 1356 John arrested the notoriously treacherous CharlesII, king of Navarre, one of the largest landholders in Normandy|groupnote}} and nine more of his more outspoken critics; four were summarily executed. The Norman nobles who had not been arrested turned to Edward for assistance.
Seeing an opportunity, Edward III diverted an expedition planned for Brittany under Henry of Lancaster to Normandy in late June. Lancaster set off with 2,300 men and pillaged and burnt his way eastward across Normandy. King John moved to Rouen with a much stronger force, hoping to intercept Lancaster. After relieving and re-victualling the besieged fortifications of Breteuil and Pont-Audemer the English stormed and sacked the town of Verneuil. John pursued, but bungled several opportunities to bring the English to battle and they escaped. In three weeks the expedition had, with few casualties, seized a large amount of loot including many horses, cemented new alliances, and damaged the French economy and prestige. The French King returned to Breteuil and re-established the siege, where he continued to be distracted from the English preparations for a greater from south-west France.PreludeManoeuvres
On 4August 1356 a combined force of 6,000 Gascon and English fighting men headed north from Bergerac. They were accompanied by approximately 4,000 non-combatants. All of the fighting men were mounted, including those who would always fight on foot, such as the archers. On 14August the Anglo-Gascon army separated into three divisions, which moved north abreast of each other and began to systematically devastate the countryside. There would be approximately between the flanking units, enabling them to devastate a band of French territory more than wide, yet be able to unite to face an enemy at approximately a day's notice. They advanced slowly, to facilitate their tasks of looting and destruction. The modern historian David Green describes the progress of the Black Prince's army as "deliberately destructive, extremely brutal... methodical and sophisticated." Several strong castles were assaulted and captured. The populaces of most towns fled, or surrendered at the first sight of Anglo-Gascon troops. Overall, there was little French resistance. If a French field army had been in the area, the Anglo-Gascon forces would have had to stay relatively close together, ready to support each other if attacked. The absence of any such French force enabled the Prince's formations to disperse widely to maximise their destructive effect on the French countryside.
The main French army remained in Normandy. Despite it being clear that Breteuil could be neither stormed nor starved, John felt unable to abandon its siege as this would undermine his prestige as a warrior-king. He declined to march against the Black Prince, declaring that the garrison of Breteuil posed a more serious threat. At some point in August an unusually large belfry, or mobile siege tower, was pushed up to the walls of Breteuil and a full-scale assault launched. The defenders set fire to the belfry and repulsed the attack. Sumption describes the French losses in this attack as "terrible" and the entire second siege as "a pointless endeavour". The historian Kenneth Fowler describes the siege as "magnificent but archaic". Eventually John had to give way to the pressure to do something to prevent the destruction being inflicted in south-west France. Sometime around 20August he offered the garrison of Breteuil free passage, a huge bribe and permission to take with them their valuables and goods, which persuaded them to vacate the town. The French army promptly marched south, as all available forces were concentrated against the Black Prince.
Hearing on 28August that John was marching on Tours and was prepared to give battle, the Black Prince moved his three divisions closer together and ordered them to move towards Tours. He was also willing to fight an open battle, if he could do so under the right circumstances. He still hoped to cross the Loire River, both to be able to come to grips with the French army and to link up with either Edward III's or Lancaster's army, if they were in the area. The French royal army from Breteuil had moved to Chartres, where it received reinforcements, particularly of men-at-arms. John sent home nearly all of the infantry contingents, which reduced the French wage bill and left an entirely mounted force that had the mobility and speed to match that of the Black Prince's all-mounted army. Two hundred Scottish picked men-at-arms under William, Lord of Douglas, joined John at Chartres. Once John felt he had an overwhelmingly strong force it set off south towards the Loire, and then south-west along its north bank. Early on 8September the Black Prince's army reached Tours, where he received news that Lancaster was not far to the east, on the other side of the Loire, and hoped to join him soon. The Anglo-Gascons prepared for battle and expected the imminent arrival of the French. But John had crossed the Loire at Blois, to the east of Tours, on 10September, where he was joined by the army of his son John, Count of Poitiers.
Meanwhile, the anticipated support from England failed to materialise. In early August an Aragonese galley fleet, which had sailed from Barcelona in April, arrived in the English Channel. The fleet hired by the French only contained nine galleys, but it caused panic among the English. Edward's attempts to raise an army to send to France were still underway and shipping was being assembled. The troops gathered were split up to guard the coast and the ships sailing to Southampton to transport the army were ordered to remain in port until the galleys had left. At some point in August Lancaster marched south from eastern Brittany with an army of 2,500 men or more. The unusual height of the Loire and the French control of its bridges meant Lancaster was unable to cross and effect a junction. In early September he abandoned the attempt to force a crossing at Les Ponts-de-Cé and returned to Brittany where he laid siege to its capital, Rennes.
Strategy
The Anglo-Gascon army was treading a balance. While there were no large French forces facing them they spread out to loot and despoil the land. But their primary objective was to use the threat of devastation to force, or perhaps persuade, the French army to attack them. The Anglo-Gascons were confident that fighting defensively on ground of their choosing they could defeat a numerically superior French force. In the event of the French being too numerous they were equally confident that they could avoid battle by manoeuvring. The French, aware of this approach, usually attempted to isolate English forces against a river or the sea, where the threat of starvation would force them to take the tactical offensive and attack the French in a prepared position. Once he crossed the Loire, John repeatedly attempted to interpose his army between the Anglo-Gascons and Gascony, so they would be forced to try and fight their way out. Meanwhile, the Black Prince did not wish to rapidly retreat to the safety of Gascony, but to manoeuvre in the vicinity of the French army so as to persuade it to attack on unfavourable terms, without himself becoming cut off. He was aware that John had been eager to fight Lancaster's force in Normandy in June and anticipated this enthusiasm for battle would continue. Movement to contact Once he had crossed the Loire on 10September and been reinforced John moved to cut off the Anglo-Gascon line of retreat. Hearing of this, and losing hope that Lancaster would be able to join him, the Black Prince moved his army some south to Montbazon where he took up a fresh defensive position on 12September. The same day John's son and heir, Charles, the Dauphin, entered Tours, having travelled from Normandy with 1,000 men-at-arms, and Hélie de Talleyrand-Périgord, Cardinal of Périgord, arrived at the Black Prince's camp to attempt to negotiate a two-day truce on behalf of Pope Innocent VI. According to differing sources this was to be followed by peace negotiations or an arranged battle. The Black Prince dismissed Talleyrand and, happy to do battle, but concerned that a two-day delay would leave his army with its back to the Loire in an area with few supplies, marched hard and crossed the River Creuse at La Haye on 13September, to the south. John, aware he outnumbered the Anglo-Gascons, was also eager to wipe them out in battle and so similarly ignored Talleyrand. The French army continued to march south parallel to the English, rather than moving directly towards them, with the aim of cutting their lines of retreat and supply. On 14September the English marched south-west to Châtellerault on the Vienne.
At Châtellerault the Black Prince felt there were no geographical barriers against which the French could pin his army and that he was occupying an advantageous defensive position. He arrived there on 14September, the day Talleyrand had proposed for the two armies to engage in battle, and waited for the French to come to him. Two days later his scouts reported that John had bypassed his position and was about to cross the Vienne at Chauvigny. At this point the French had lost track of the Anglo-Gascon army and were unaware of its position, but were about to position themselves south of the Anglo-Gascons and directly in their path back to friendly territory. The Black Prince saw an opportunity to attack the French while they were on the march, or possibly even while crossing the Vienne, and so set off at first light on 17September to intercept them, leaving his baggage train behind to follow on as best it could.
When the Anglo-Gascon vanguard reached Chauvigny most of the French army had already crossed and marched on towards Poitiers. A force of 700 men-at-arms of the French rearguard was intercepted near Savigny-Lévescault. Contemporary accounts note that they were not wearing helmets, suggesting they were completely unarmoured and not expecting battle. They were rapidly routed with 240 killed or captured, including 3 counts taken prisoner. Many Anglo-Gascons pursued the remaining, fleeing, French, although the Black Prince held back most of his army, not wishing to scatter it in the close vicinity of the enemy, and camped at Savigny-Lévescault. In response, John drew up his army outside Poitiers in battle order. Negotiations On 18September the Anglo-Gascons marched towards Poitiers arrayed for battle. They took up a strong, carefully selected position south of Poitiers on a wooded hill in the and began preparing it for a defensive battle: digging pits to impede the French advance (especially that of mounted troops) and trenches, and forming barricades to fight behind. They hoped that the French would launch an impromptu assault. Instead, Talleyrand rode up to negotiate. The Black Prince was initially disinclined to delay any battle. He was persuaded to discuss terms after Talleyrand pointed out that the two armies were now so close that if the French declined to attack, the Anglo-Gascons would find it almost impossible to withdraw. If they attempted to the French would attack, aiming to defeat them in detail, and if they stood their position they would run out of supplies before the French. The Anglo-Gascons had to stay concentrated in the presence of the French army, and several days' hard marching had reduced the opportunities to forage. Because of this, food was almost exhausted. Unknown to Talleyrand the Anglo-Gascons were already unable to find sufficient water for their horses.
After lengthy negotiations the Black Prince agreed extensive concessions in exchange for free passage to Gascony.|groupnote}} However, they were dependent on the agreement being ratified by his father, EdwardIII. Unknown to Talleyrand or the French, Edward had given his son written permission to, in such circumstances, "help himself by making a truce or armistice, or in any other way that seems best to him." This has caused modern historians to doubt the Prince's sincerity. The French discussed these proposals at length, with John in favour. Several senior advisers felt it would be humiliating to, as they saw it, have at their mercy the Anglo-Gascon army which had devastated so much of France and to tamely allow it to escape. John was persuaded and Talleyrand informed the Black Prince he could expect a battle. Attempts to agree a site for the battle failed, as the French wished the Anglo-Gascons to move out of their strong defensive position and the English wished to remain there. At dawn on 19September Talleyrand again attempted to arrange a truce, but as his army's supplies were already running out the Black Prince rejected this.Opposing forcesAnglo-Gascon armyThe Anglo-Gascon army is generally considered by modern historians to have consisted of 6,000 men: 3,000 men-at-arms, 2,000 English and Welsh longbowmen and 1,000 Gascon infantry. The latter included many equipped with either crossbows or javelins, both classed as light infantry. Some contemporary accounts give lower numbers of 4,800 or 5,000. The division of the men-at-arms between English and Gascons is not recorded, but the previous year, when campaigning with a similarly sized army, 1,000 of the Prince's men-at-arms had been English. All of the Anglo-Gascons travelled on horses, but all or nearly all of them dismounted to fight.
The men-at-arms of both armies were, broadly, knights or knights in training. They were drawn from the landed gentry and ranged from great lords to the relatives and attendants of minor landowners. They needed to be able to equip themselves with a full suit of armour and a warhorse. They wore a quilted gambeson under chain mail which covered the body and limbs. This was supplemented by varying amounts of plate armour on the body and limbs, more so for wealthier and more experienced men. Heads were protected by bascinets: open-faced military iron or steel helmets, with mail attached to the lower edge of the helmet to protect the throat, neck and shoulders. A moveable visor (face guard) protected the face. Heater shields, typically made from thin wood overlaid with leather, were carried. The English men-at-arms were all dismounted. The weapons they used are not recorded, but in similar battles they used their lances as pikes, cut them down to use as short spears, or fought with swords and battle-axes.
arrowhead used by English longbows to penetrate armour}}]]
The longbow used by the English and Welsh archers was unique to them; it took up to ten years to master and an experienced archer could discharge up to ten arrows per minute well over ..|groupnote}} Computer analysis by Warsaw University of Technology in 2017 demonstrated that heavy bodkin point arrows could penetrate typical plate armour of the time at . The depth of penetration would be slight at that range; predicted penetration increased as the range closed or against armour of less than the best quality available at the time.|groupnote}} At short range longbow arrows could pierce any practicable thickness of plate armour if they struck at the correct angle. Archers carried one quiver of 24 arrows as standard. There may have been a resupply of ammunition from the wagons to the rear during the battle to at least some longbowmen; the archers also ventured forward during pauses in the fighting to retrieve arrows.
The Anglo-Gascons were divided into three divisions or "battles". The one on the left was commanded by Thomas, Earl of Warwick, marshal of England and a veteran of the Battle of Crecy, where he had been guardian to the Black Prince. He had as deputies John, Earl of Oxford, and the Gascon lord Jean, Captal de Buch; they were assisted by mostly Gascon lords. As well as 1,000 men-at-arms, Warwick's division contained approximately 1,000 archers. The archers were positioned to the left of the men-at-arms. The right flank was under William, Earl of Salisbury, deputised by Robert, Earl of Suffolk, and Maurice, Baron Berkeley. Salisbury's division, like Warwick's, consisted of about 1,000 men-at-arms and 1,000 Welsh and English longbowmen. Again the archers were positioned on the flank of the men-at-arms, in this case the right. The Black Prince took command of the centre division, which consisted of men-at-arms and Gascon infantry: about 1,000 of each, only the flanking divisions contained longbowmen. He had two veteran campaigners, John Chandos and James Audley, as his deputies. Initially the Prince's force was held back behind the other two divisions as a reserve. Each division deployed four to five men deep. It is possible a further, small, reserve was held back behind the Prince's division.
French army
The French army was made up of between 14,000 and 16,000 men: 10,000 to 12,000 were men-at-arms, 2,000 were crossbowmen and 2,000 were infantrymen who were not classed as men-at-arms. Although most or all of the French had travelled mounted, they all fought dismounted at Poitiers except for two small groups of mounted knights, totalling either 300 or 500. These were selected from the Frenchmen who had the best armour, especially on their horses; horse armour is known as barding and the use of plate armour for this was a recent innovation in Western Europe. Their riders were equipped as the dismounted men-at-arms, apart from the superior quality of their armour. They wielded wooden lances, usually ash, tipped with iron and approximately long; their dismounted colleagues retained their lances, but cut them down to in order to use them as short spears. The crossbowmen wore metal helmets, brigandines (thick leather jerkins with varying amounts of small pieces of plate armour sewn to them) and possibly chain-mail hauberks. Crossbowmen usually fought from behind pavisesvery large shields with their own bearers, behind each of which three crossbowmen could shelter. A trained crossbowman could shoot his weapon approximately twice a minute and had a shorter effective range than a longbowman of about .
The French army was divided into four battles. The foremost division was led by the constable of France, Walter, Count of Brienne. As well as a large core of French men-at-arms it included 200 Scottish men-at-arms under William Douglas, most of the French infantry and crossbowmen and all of their cavalry. The two small groups of cavalry were each led by one of the two marshals of France: Arnoul d'Audrehem and Jean de Clermont. The leading French were approximately from the English. Behind this was a division led jointly by John's 19-year-old son and heir and John's uncle: Charles, the Dauphin, and Peter, Duke of Bourbon, respectively; Charles was experiencing his first taste of war. This formation consisted entirely of dismounted men-at-arms, 4,000 of them. The third division was led by John's younger brother, Philip, Duke of Orléans, also inexperienced in war, and was made up of approximately 3,200 men-at-arms. The rearmost division, of 2,000 men-at-arms and an uncertain number of crossbowmen, was commanded by the king himself.BattleFirst attackThe English had slept in or near their defensive positions and just after dawnwhich would have been at 5:40 amthe French drew themselves up in battle order with their leading men about from the English positions. After the two armies had been facing each other for about two hours the French detected movement among the English, and believed the Black Prince's personal standard was withdrawing. There is modern debate as to what movement took place. Some scholars have proposed that the movement was of wagons, escorted by cavalry from Warwick's division; the wagons may have been empty and returning to their laager in the rear, or full and moving to a safer position away from the front line, or both and the start of a staged withdrawal by the English. If the latter their escort may have been most or all of Warwick's division and the movement of the standard was possibly his being mistaken for the Prince's or the Prince moving back as the second part of the disengagement. Another proposal is that the Black Prince deliberately had his troops move to simulate a withdrawal and provoke a French attack. The commanders of the leading French division took the movement to be a full-scale English withdrawal and ordered their men to advance, thinking this movement would effectively be a pursuit, thus starting the fighting.
Audrehem's cavalry attacked Warwick's division on the English left, while Clermont charged Salisbury's on the right. In both cases the French plan was that they clear away the English archers, while given fire support by their own crossbowmen. However, the archers in Warwick's division were positioned in the edge of a marsh and this terrain prevented the French cavalry from getting to grips with them. The archers in turn found that the French armour and barding prevented them from firing effectively. To get close enough to penetrate the French armour, the longbowmen would have had to leave the protection of the marsh, which would have exposed them to the risk of being ridden down by the French. Instead, they turned their fire on the supporting crossbowmen and, having a superior rate of fire, were able to suppress them.|groupnote}} Oxford realised the French horses were mostly only barded on their forequarters. He led some of the archers along the edge of the marsh to a position from which they could shoot into the horses' unprotected hindquarters. The French cavalry took heavy casualties and withdrew; Audrehem was captured.
On the English right Clermont advanced more cautiously, not far ahead of Brienne's dismounted troops. He discovered that Salisbury's men were defending a thick hedge with a single passable gap, wide enough for four horses abreast. Already committed to the attack, the French attempted to smash through the men-at-arms defending the gap. The English archers positioned in trenches near and to the right of the hedge are calculated to have fired 50 arrows per second at Clermont's group of cavalry. Gascon crossbowmen joined in; although they had a much lower rate of fire, they could penetrate plate armour at longer ranges. Despite this fire, the cavalry were able to reach the gap in the hedge with few casualties. Here a fierce melee broke out. With the French now halted and at close range, the longbowmen were more effective against them. The French were also heavily outnumbered by the English men-at-arms and were forced back with heavy losses, including Clermont killed.
The sources contain only details concerning the rest of the attack by the first French division, made up of a mixed force of French and foreign men-at-arms, and common heavy infantry. The bolts from their supporting crossbowmen were recorded as falling thickly, but with the cavalry repulsed the longbowmen turned against them and, having a superior rate of fire, were able to force them to withdraw despite their use of pavises. The division's leader, Brienne, the constable of France, was killed, as was one of Talleyrand's nephews, Robert of Durazzo, who had accompanied the Cardinal during his negotiations. Douglas either fled to save his life or was badly wounded and carried from the field. Given the heavy French casualties, it is assumed the attack was strongly pressed. As some contemporary sources summarise this phase of the fighting with "the first French division was defeated by the arrows of the English" it is also assumed by many modern historians that the longbowmen, still well supplied with ammunition able to punch straight through armour at close range, played a prominent part in the attack's repulse. The Black Prince was infuriated by the participation of Talleyrand's relatives and companions, and when told that a relative of the Cardinal, the châtelain d'Emposte, had been captured he ordered him beheaded; he was rapidly persuaded to withdraw the order by his advisers.Second attack
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There was no pursuit of the French survivors of the first attack as they retreated. The English were ordered to hold their positions and to take the opportunity to reform, as the next French division was already moving towards them. This, 4,000 strong, attacked vigorously. The French advanced against the steady fire of the English and Welsh archers, which caused many casualties, and were disordered by the retreating members of the first assault. The French had to force their way through the hedge the English were defending, which put them at a disadvantage, but they closed with the Anglo-Gascons in ferocious hand-to-hand fighting which went on for two hours.
They massed against two gaps in the hedge, on one occasion succeeding in driving back their opponents and breaking through; a force of archers had been deployed to cover this position and their fire cut down the leading Frenchmen, giving the Anglo-Gascons the opportunity to counter-attack and reform their line. Suffolk, aged almost 60, rode behind the Anglo-Gascon line, shouting encouragement, directing reinforcements to threatened points and telling the archers where to direct their fire. Throughout the battle the experienced English and Gascon commanders were able to manoeuvre and redeploy their troops in a way the French were not. The French commanders, mostly, carried out their orders and their men fought with reckless bravery, but they were inflexible. The Anglo-Gascons were able to respond in the heat of battle to French threats. Sumption describes this as "remarkable", David Green refers to "an extremely flexible tactical response". The historian Peter Hoskins states that most of the Anglo-Gascons having served together for a year "contributed to the discipline that the Anglo-Gascons displayed" and suggests that the French attack was ineptly handled.
A contemporary French chronicler described this second attack as "more amazing, harder and more lethal than the others". An English account states "Man fought frenziedly against man, each one striving to bring death to his opponent so that he himself might live." As the fighting went on, the Black Prince was forced to commit almost all of his reserves to reinforce weak spots. Both sides suffered many casualties. Audley was noted for being wounded in the body, head and face, and fighting on for the English. One of the French joint commanders, Bourbon, was killed, and the Dauphin's standard-bearer was captured. The Dauphin was accompanied by two of his brothers, Louis and John, and the trio's advisers and bodyguards were perturbed by the intensity of the fighting in their vicinity and forced them to withdraw from the front line to a safer position. Seeing this, the rest of the division, exhausted after two hours fighting and already demoralised by the death of Bourbon and the loss of the Dauphin's standard, withdrew as well. There was no panic and the disengagement was orderly. The senior surviving commanders of the division confirmed the movement and the surviving men-at-arms marched away from the Anglo-Gascons.
It is unclear if the Anglo-Gascons pursued the French, and if so, to what extent. Some modern historians state that the Anglo-Gascons again remained in their positions, as they had after the repulse of the first French division. Others write of a limited pursuit by individuals breaking ranks or of a full-blooded one by Warwick's division causing many French casualties. In any event, most of the Anglo-Gascons stood their ground, tended their wounded, knifed the French wounded and stripped their bodies and those of the already dead, and recovered what arrows they could find in the immediate vicinity, including those impaling dead and wounded Frenchmen. There were many English and Gascons wounded or dead and those still standing were exhausted from three hours of ferocious and near-continuous fighting.Third attackAs the Dauphin's division recoiled there was confusion in the French ranks. The third French division contained 3,200 men-at-arms. Their commander, John's brother the Duke of Orléans, marched away from the battle with half of them and many of the survivors of the first two attacks. The contemporary sources contradict each other regarding the reasons for this. Orléans may have thought that the orderly withdrawal of the Dauphin's division marked a general retreat. There were official accounts after the battle that John had ordered Orléans to escort his four sons to safety, but these were widely disbelieved and rumoured to have been invented after the event to excuse the behaviour of Orléans and the men who had retreated with him. Three of John's four sons, including the Dauphin, did leave the field at this point; one, Philip, returned to his father's side and took part in the final attack. Of the 1,600 men who did not flee the scene, who included some from Orléans' inner circle, many joined the King's division behind. The rest advanced against the Anglo-Gascons and launched a feeble attack, which was repelled easily.
In the aftermath of this failure a number, possibly a large number, of men from Warwick's division left their positions and pursued the French. One motivation for this would have been their intention to take prisoners, the ransoming of whom could be extremely lucrative. Many of the English and Welsh archers again scavenged longbow arrows from the immediate vicinity. Of those men-at-arms who did not pursue, the majority were carrying wounds of varying degrees of severity and treating them was a preoccupation.Fourth attackJohn's fourth French division had started the battle with 2,000 men-at-arms, including 400 picked men under his personal command. Many of the surviving men-at-arms of the first two attacks had rallied to the King, as had many of those from the third division who had not withdrawn with Orléans. Some survivors of the botched third assault also fell back to join the King. These reinforcements probably brought the number of men-at-arms in the division to about 4,000. John's division also had a large but unspecified number of crossbowmen attached to it, and they had been joined by many surviving crossbowmen from the first attack. Modern scholars differ as to whether the French or the Anglo-Gascons had more men at this stage of the battle. This very large division marched across the gap towards the by now exhausted Anglo-Gascons, again all as infantry. The King ordered the French sacred banner, the , to be unfurled, which signalled that no prisoners were to be taken, on pain of death.|group=note}}
It was normal for medieval armies to form up in three divisions; having overcome three French divisions, many in the Anglo-Gascon army thought the battle was over. The sight of a further major force, under the royal standard and with the flying, dispirited them. One chronicler reports the Black Prince prayed aloud as this last division approached. The Prince harangued his exhausted men in an attempt to stiffen their morale, but they remained doubtful of their ability to repulse the approaching force. The Anglo-Gascon command group conferred. It seemed probable that if they stood to face a fourth attack they would be defeated. They decided to attempt a stratagem. Perhaps remembering a similar ploy by a French force at the 1349 Battle of Lunalonge it was agreed to send a small mounted group under the Gascon lord Jean, the Captal de Buch, on a circuitous march around the French flank in an attempt to launch a surprise attack on the French rear. The account by one contemporary chronicler that all of the Anglo-Gascon men-at-arms remounted at this point is generally discounted by modern historians. Some modern sources have a force of volunteers led by the wounded Audley mounting and being tasked with launching an attack against King John personally once the two forces came to battleonly 4 men by some modern accounts, 400 in others. The modern historian Michael Jones describes this as a "suicide mission". Other modern sources maintain that other than the Captal de Buch's small force all of the Anglo-Gascons remained dismounted.
The sight of the Captal de Buch and his men making for the rear further disheartened the Anglo-Gascons, who believed that they were fearfully escaping an inevitable defeat. Some men fled. Concerned his army would break and rout in the face of the French assault, the Black Prince gave the order for a general advance. This bolstered Anglo-Gascon morale and shook the French. Discipline reasserted itself and the Anglo-Gascons moved forward, out of their defensive positions. The French crossbowmen advanced in front of their men-at-arms, and as the English longbowmen on the flanks of the Anglo-Gascon men-at-arms came within range they attempted to establish fire superiority. The French crossbow bolts are said to have "darkened the sky". The men firing them were able to shelter behind pavises and the English archers were running short of arrows after the desperate fighting of the morning. Nevertheless, the English were able to largely suppress this fire until the crossbowmen drew aside to let the French men-at-arms through for their final charge. As the English archers expended the last of their ammunition these 4,000 or so men-at-arms attempted to use their shields, ducked their heads against the arrows and charged home into the survivors of the 3,000 English and Gascon men-at-arms who had started the battle. The longbowmen threw their bows aside and joined the melee armed with swords and hand axes.
Battle was again joined, with fierce fighting. The impetus of the Anglo-Gascon charge was halted by the French, who slowly got the better of the struggle. Rogers is of the opinion that the French would have won this fight if no other factors had intervened. The Anglo-Gascon line was starting to break when it was reinforced by men of Warwick's division returning from their pursuit. This heartened the Anglo-Gascons and discouraged the French. If it occurred, it was at this point that Audley led a cavalry charge aimed directly at the French king. The fighting continued, with the French focused on the opponents in front of them. With the battle in the balance, the Captal de Buch's 160 men arrived undetected in the French rear. His 100 archers or Gascon crossbowmen. Many simply describe them as "archers".|groupnote}} dismounted and opened an effective fire into the French reara contemporary account states they "greatly and horribly pierced" the Frenchand his 60 mounted men-at-arms charged into the rear of the French line.
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The 2,000 men who had originally made up John's division were all assigned to its front line when it advanced. Men who joined after their original divisions had been defeated in one of the previous three attacks filled in behind them. They were more tired than those in the front ranks and, having already having taken part in a failed assault, their morale was brittle. Dismayed by Warwick's reinforcement and shocked by the Captal de Buch's sudden arrival behind them, some started to run from the field. Once this movement had started others copied them and the division fell apart. Most of the first to run were able to reach their horses and escape, as the Anglo-Gascons concentrated on dealing with their enemies who were still fighting. These were pushed back as the Anglo-Gascons were reinvigorated by the prospect of victory. The French still fighting around their King were forced into a loop of the River Miosson, known as the Champ d'Alexandre. By now they had been surrounded and split into small groups.
Many of these men were the elite of the French army: John's personal bodyguards, senior nobles or members of the Order of the Star. (The latter had all sworn not to retreat from a battle.|groupnote}}) The fighting was brutal as these men refused to surrender. Their cause was clearly hopeless and the Anglo-Gascons were eager to take them prisonerin order that they could be ransomedrather than kill them, so many were captured. The standard-bearer of the was killed and the sacred banner captured. Surrounded by enemies, John and his youngest son, Philip, surrendered.Mopping upFrenchmen who had fled soon after the Captal de Buch's force arrived generally reached their horses and were able to escape. Once John's division was clearly retreating many Anglo-Gascons mounted and pursued. A large number pursued the Frenchmen fleeing towards what they thought was the safety of Poitiers. Its citizens, fearing the Anglo-Gascons, had closed the gates and manned the walls, and refused access. The mounted Anglo-Gascons caught the French soldiers as they milled outside the gate and slaughtered them. The lack of mention of any quarter being offered suggests that the French were common soldiers, rather than men-at-arms whom it would have been financially advantageous to capture in order to hold for ransom. The French camp was overrun by Anglo-Gascon cavalry. Elsewhere the Anglo-Gascons spread out in a helter-skelter chase. French men-at-arms who failed to reach their horses were captured or, occasionally, killed. Those who did mount were frequently pursued: some were caught and captured, some fought off their pursuers,|groupnote}} while most escaped. It was evening before the last Anglo-Gascons returned to their camp with their prisoners.
Casualties
According to different modern sources 2,000 to 3,000 French men-at-arms and either 500 or 800 common soldiers were taken prisoner during the battle. As well as the King and his youngest son they included the archbishop of Sens, one of the two marshals of France, and the seneschals of Saintonge, Tours and Poitou. Approximately 2,500 French men-at-arms were killed, as were 3,300 common soldiers according to English accounts or 700 by French ones. Among the slain were the French King's uncle; the grand constable of France; the other marshal; the Bishop of Châlons; and John's standard bearer, Geoffroi de Charny.|groupnote}} A contemporary opined that the French had suffered "a great harm, a great pity, and damage irreparable". The Anglo-Gascons suffered many wounded but reported a mere 40 to 60 killed, of whom only 4 were men-at-arms. Hoskins comments that these "seem improbably low". Modern sources estimate Anglo-Gascon fatalities at about 40 men-at-arms and an uncertain but much larger number of bowmen and other infantry.
Aftermath
March to Bordeaux
The French were concerned the victorious Anglo-Gascons would attempt to storm Poitiers or other towns, or continue their devastation. The Black Prince was more concerned with getting his army with its prisoners and loot safely back to Gascony. He was aware many Frenchmen had survived the battle, but unaware of their state of cohesion or morale. The Anglo-Gascons moved south on 20September and tended the wounded, buried the dead, paroled some of their prisoners, and reorganised their formations. On 21September the Anglo-Gascons continued their interrupted march south, travelling slowly, overladen as they were with plunder and prisoners. On 2 October they entered Libourne and rested while a triumphal entrance was arranged at Bordeaux. Two weeks later the Black Prince escorted John into Bordeaux amid ecstatic scenes.
Peace
; French territory in green, English territory in pink}}]]
The Black Prince's is described by Rogers as "the most important campaign of the Hundred Years' War". In its aftermath English and Gascon forces raided widely across France, against little or no opposition. With no effective central authority France dissolved into near anarchy. In March 1357 a truce was agreed for two years. In April the Black Prince sailed for England, accompanied by his prisoner, John, and landed at Plymouth on 5 May. They proceeded to London and a rapturous reception. Protracted negotiations between John and Edward III led to the First Treaty of London in May 1358, which would have ended the war with a large transfer of French territory to England and the payment of a ransom for John's freedom. The French government was unenthusiastic and was anyway unable to raise the first instalment of the ransom, causing the treaty to lapse. A peasant revolt known as the broke out in northern France during the spring of 1358 and was bloodily put down in June. At length John and Edward agreed the Second Treaty of London, which was similar to the first except that even larger swathes of French territory would be transferred to the English. In May 1359 this was similarly rejected by the Dauphin and the Estates General.
In October 1359 Edward III led another campaign in northern France. It was unopposed by French forces but was unable to take any strongly fortified places. Instead the English army spread out and for six months devastated much of the region. Both countries were finding it almost impossible to finance continued hostilities, but neither was inclined to change their attitude to the proposed peace terms. On 13 April 1360, near Chartres, a sharp fall in temperature and a heavy hail storm killed many English baggage horses and some soldiers. Taking this as a sign from God, Edward reopened negotiations, directly with the Dauphin. By 8 May the Treaty of Brétigny had been agreed, which largely replicated the First Treaty of London or the Treaty of Guînes. By this treaty vast areas of France were ceded to England, to be personally ruled by the Black Prince, and John was ransomed for three million gold écu. Rogers states "Edward gained territories comprising a full third of France, to be held in full sovereignty, along with a huge ransom for the captive King Johnhis original war aims and much more." As well as John, sixteen of the more senior nobles captured at Poitiers were finally released with the sealing of this treaty. At the time it seemed this was the end of the war, but large-scale fighting broke out again in 1369 and the Hundred Years' War did not end until 1453, with a French victory which left only Calais in English hands.
Notes, citations and sources
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Category:1356 in England
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Category:Hundred Years' War, 1337–1360
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Poitiers
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Backbone cabal
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The backbone cabal was an informal organization of large-site news server administrators of the worldwide distributed newsgroup-based discussion system Usenet. It existed from about 1983 until around 1988.
The cabal was created in an effort to facilitate reliable propagation of new Usenet posts. While in the 1970s and 1980s many news servers only operated during night time to save on the cost of long-distance communication, servers of the backbone cabal were available 24 hours a day. The administrators of these servers gained sufficient influence in the otherwise anarchic Usenet community to be able to push through controversial changes, for instance the Great Renaming of Usenet newsgroups during 1987.
History
Mary Ann Horton recruited membership in and designed the original physical topology of the Usenet Backbone in 1983. Gene "Spaf" Spafford then created an email list of the backbone administrators, plus a few influential posters. This list became known as the Backbone Cabal and served as a "political (i.e. decision making) backbone". Other prominent members of the cabal were Brian Reid, Richard Sexton, Chuq von Rospach and Rick Adams.
In internet culture
During most of its existence, the cabal (sometimes capitalized) steadfastly denied its own existence; those involved would often respond "There is no Cabal" (sometimes abbreviated as "TINC"').
The result of this policy was an aura of mystery, even a decade after the cabal mailing list disbanded in late 1988 following an internal fight.
References
Further reading
Henry Edward Hardy, 1993. The Usenet System, ITCA Teleconferencing Yearbook 1993, ITCA Research Committee, International Teleconferencing Association, Washington, DC. pp 140–151, esp. subheading "The Great Renaming" and "The Breaking of the Backbone Cartel".
External links
Cabal Conspiracy FAQ (archived May 2013)
Lumber Cartel
The Eric Conspiracy
15px|link|alt This article incorporates text from the corresponding entry in the Jargon File, which is in the public domain according to its Introduction.
Category:Usenet
Category:1980s in Internet culture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backbone_cabal
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Bongo (antelope)
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, these successes have been compromised by reports of possibly only 100 mountain bongos left in the wild due to logging and poaching.
Taxonomy
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The scientific name of the bongo is Tragelaphus eurycerus, and it belongs to the genus Tragelaphus and family Bovidae. It was first described by Irish naturalist William Ogilby in 1837. The generic name Tragelaphus is composed of two Greek words: trag-, meaning a goat; and elaphos, meaning deer. The specific name eurycerus originated from the fusion of eurus (broad, widespread) and keras (an animal's horn). The common name "bongo" originated probably from the Kele language of Gabon. The first known use of the name "bongo" in English dates to 1861.
Bongos are further classified into two subspecies: T. e. eurycerus, the lowland or western bongo, and the far rarer T. e. isaaci, the mountain or eastern bongo, restricted to the mountains of Kenya only. The eastern bongo is larger and heavier than the western bongo. Two other subspecies are described from West and Central Africa, but taxonomic clarification is required. They have been observed to live up to 19 years.
, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of São Paulo]]
Appearance
Bongos are one of the largest of the forest antelopes. In addition to the deep chestnut colour of their coats, they have bright white stripes on their sides to help with camouflage.
Adults of both sexes are similar in size. Adult height is about at the shoulder and length is , including a tail of . Females weigh around , while males weigh about . Its large size puts it as the third-largest in the Bovidae tribe of Strepsicerotini, behind both the common and greater eland by about , and above the greater kudu by about .
Both sexes have heavy spiral horns; those of the male are longer and more massive. All bongos in captivity are from the isolated Aberdare Mountains of central Kenya.
Coat and body
The bongo sports a bright auburn or chestnut coat, with the neck, chest, and legs generally darker than the rest of the body, especially in males. Coats of male bongos become darker as they age until they reach a dark mahogany-brown colour. Coats of female bongos are usually more brightly coloured than those of males. The eastern bongo is darker in color than the western and this is especially pronounced in older males which tend to be chestnut brown, especially on the forepart of their bodies.
The smooth coat is marked with 10–15 vertical white-yellow stripes, spread along the back from the base of the neck to the rump. The number of stripes on each side is rarely the same. It also has a short, bristly, brown ridge of dorsal hair from the shoulder to the rump; the white stripes run into this ridge.
A white chevron appears between the eyes, with two large white spots on each cheek. Another white chevron occurs where the neck meets the chest. Bongos have no special secretion glands, so rely likely less on scent to find one another than do other similar antelopes. The lips of a bongo are white, topped with a black muzzle.
Horns
Bongos have two heavy and slightly spiralled horns that slope over their backs. Bongo males have larger backswept horns, while females have smaller, thinner, and more parallel horns. The size of the horns range between . The horns of bongos are spiraled, and share this trait with those of the related antelope species of nyalas, sitatungas, bushbucks, kudus, and elands. The horns of bongos twist once.
Unlike deer, which have branched antlers shed annually, bongos and other antelopes have unbranched horns they keep throughout their lives.
Like all other horns of antelopes, the core of a bongo's horn is hollow and the outer layer of the horn is made of keratin, the same material that makes up human fingernails, toenails, and hair. The bongo runs gracefully and at full speed through even the thickest tangles of lianas, laying its heavy spiralled horns on its back so the brush cannot impede its flight. Bongos are hunted for their horns by humans.
Social organization and behavior
Like other forest ungulates, bongos are seldom seen in large groups. Males, called bulls, tend to be solitary, while females with young live in groups of six to eight. Bongos have seldom been seen in herds of more than 20. Gestation is about 285 days (9.5 months), with one young per birth, and weaning occurs at six months. Sexual maturity is reached at 24–27 months. The preferred habitat of this species is so dense and difficult to operate in, that few Europeans or Americans observed this species until the 1960s.<!-- conflict - zoo? Current living animals derive solely from Kenyan importations made during 1969–1978.-->
As young males mature and leave their maternal groups, they most often remain solitary, although rarely they join an older male. Adult males of similar size/age tend to avoid one another. Occasionally, they meet and spar with their horns in a ritualised manner and it is rare for serious fights to take place. However, such fights are usually discouraged by visual displays, in which the males bulge their necks, roll their eyes, and hold their horns in a vertical position while slowly pacing back and forth in front of the other male. They seek out females only during mating time. When they are with a herd of females, males do not coerce them or try to restrict their movements as do some other antelopes.
Although mostly nocturnal, they are occasionally active during the day. However, like deer, bongos may exhibit crepuscular behaviour. Bongos are both timid and easily frightened; after a scare, a bongo moves away at considerable speed, even through dense undergrowth. Once they find cover, they stay alert and face away from the disturbance, but peek every now and then to check the situation.
The calves grow rapidly and can soon accompany their mothers in the nursery herds. Their horns grow rapidly and begin to show in 3.5 months. They are weaned after six months and reach sexual maturity at about 20 months.
Ecology
Distribution and habitat
Bongos are found in tropical jungles with dense undergrowth up to an altitude of in Central Africa, with isolated populations in Kenya, and these West African countries: Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Republic of the Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Ivory Coast, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Sierra Leone, South Sudan.
.]]
Historically, bongos are found in three disjunct parts of Africa: East, Central, and West. Today, all three populations' ranges have shrunk in size due to habitat loss for agriculture and uncontrolled timber cutting, as well as hunting for meat.
Bongos favour disturbed forest mosaics that provide fresh, low-level green vegetation. Such habitats may be promoted by heavy browsing by elephants, fires, flooding, tree-felling (natural or by logging), and fallowing. Mass bamboo die-off provides ideal habitat in East Africa. They can live in bamboo forests.
Diet
]]
Like many forest ungulates, bongos are herbivorous browsers and feed on leaves, bushes, vines, bark (bark and pith of rotting trees, grasses/herbs, roots, cereals, and fruits.
Bongos require salt in their diets, and are known to regularly visit natural salt licks. Bongos are also known to eat burnt wood after a storm, as a rich source of salt and minerals. This behavior is believed to be a means of getting salts and minerals into their diets. This behavior has also been reported in the okapi. Another similarity to the okapi, though the bongo is unrelated, is that the bongo has a long prehensile tongue which it uses to grasp grasses and leaves.
Suitable habitats for bongos must have permanent water available. As a large animal, the bongo requires an ample amount of food, and is restricted to areas with abundant year-round growth of herbs and low shrubs.
Population and conservation
Few estimates of population density are available. Assuming average population densities of 0.25 animals per km<sup>2</sup> in regions where it is known to be common or abundant, and 0.02 per km<sup>2</sup> elsewhere, and with a total area of occupancy of 327,000 km<sup>2</sup>, a total population estimate of around 28,000 is suggested. Only about 60% are in protected areas, suggesting the actual numbers of the lowland subspecies may only be in the low tens of thousands. In Kenya, their numbers have declined significantly and on Mount Kenya, they were extirpated within the last decade due to illegal hunting with dogs. Although information on their status in the wild is lacking, lowland bongos are not presently considered endangered.
Bongos are susceptible to diseases such as rinderpest, which almost exterminated the species during the 1890s. Tragelaphus eurycerus'' may suffer from goitre. Over the course of the disease, the thyroid glands greatly enlarge (up to 10 x 20 cm) and may become polycystic. Pathogenesis of goiter in the bongo may reflect a mixture of genetic predisposition coupled with environmental factors, including a period of exposure to a goitrogen. Leopards and spotted hyenas are the primary natural predators (lions are seldom encountered due to differing habitat preferences); pythons sometimes eat bongo calves. Humans prey on them for their pelts, horns, and meat, with the species being a common local source for "bush meat".Conservation
In the last few decades, a rapid decline in the numbers of wild mountain bongo has occurred due to poaching and human pressure on their habitat, with local extinctions reported in Cherangani and Chepalungu hills, Kenya.
The Bongo Surveillance Programme, working alongside the Kenya Wildlife Service, have recorded photos of bongos at remote salt licks in the Aberdare Forests using camera traps, and, by analyzing DNA extracted from dung, have confirmed the presence of bongo in Mount Kenya, Eburru, and Mau forests. The programme estimate as few as 140 animals left in the wild – spread across four isolated populations. Whilst captive breeding programmes can be viewed as having been successful in ensuring survival of this species in Europe and North America, the situation in the wild has been less promising. Evidence exists of bongo surviving in Kenya. However, these populations are believed to be small, fragmented, and vulnerable to extinction.
Animal populations with impoverished genetic diversity are inherently less able to adapt to changes in their environments (such as climate change, disease outbreaks, habitat change, etc.). The isolation of the four remaining small bongo populations, which themselves would appear to be in decline, means a substantial amount of genetic material is lost each generation. Whilst the population remains small, the impact of transfers will be greater, so the establishment of a "metapopulation management plan" occurs concurrently with conservation initiatives to enhance in situ population growth, and this initiative is both urgent and fundamental to the future survival of mountain bongo in the wild.
The western/lowland bongo faces an ongoing population decline as habitat destruction and hunting pressures increase with the relentless expansion of human settlement. Its long-term survival will only be assured in areas which receive active protection and management. At present, such areas comprise about 30,000 km<sup>2</sup>, and several are in countries where political stability is fragile. So, a realistic possibility exists whereby its status could decline to Threatened in the near future.
As the largest and most spectacular forest antelope, the western/lowland bongo is both an important flagship species for protected areas such as national parks, and a major trophy species which has been taken in increasing numbers in Central Africa by sport hunters during the 1990s. Both of these factors are strong incentives to provide effective protection and management of populations.
<!--One of the reasons often cited for the popularity of the bongo as a prized hunting target was a highly publicized hunting trip taken by Maurice Stans, an official in Richard Nixon's cabinet, to Uganda. During the trip, Stans killed two bongos, and after this, their desirability among wealthy hunters rose substantially.-->
Trophy hunting has the potential to provide economic justification for the preservation of larger areas of bongo habitat than national parks, especially in remote regions of Central Africa, where possibilities for commercially successful tourism are very limited. to try to keep tabs on what are thought to be the last 100 eastern bongos left in the wild in the Mau Eburu Forest in central Kenya, whose numbers are still declining due to logging of their habitat and illegal poaching.
Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy runs a bongo rehabilitation program in collaboration with the Kenya Wildlife Service. The Conservancy aims to prevent extinction of the bongo through breeding and release back into the wild.
Status
The IUCN Antelope Specialist Group considers the western or lowland bongo, T. e. eurycerus, to be Lower Risk (Near Threatened)<ref nameiucn-eurycerus/> and the eastern or mountain bongo, T. e. isaaci, of Kenya, to be Critically Endangered.<ref nameiucn-isaaci/> These bongos may be endangered due to human environmental interaction, as well as hunting and illegal actions towards wildlife.
CITES lists bongos as an Appendix III species, only regulating their exportation from a single country, Ghana. It is not protected by the US Endangered Species Act and is not listed by the USFWS.ReferencesExternal links
*ARKive – [https://web.archive.org/web/20070410103136/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Tragelaphus_eurycerus/ images and movies of the bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus)]
*[http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/africa/what_we_do/central_africa/congo_basin_forests/the_area/wildlife/mammals/bongo/index.cfm WWF]
*[http://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Tragelaphus_eurycerus.html Tragelaphus eurycerus]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070108012917/http://www.endangeredandrareanimals.com/East_african_bongo.htm East African Bongo]
*[http://www.awf.org/content/wildlife/detail/bongo Bongos: Wildlife summary from the African Wildlife Foundation]
*[http://bongo.animalorphanagekenya.org The Bongo Repatriation to Mount Kenya Project]
*
*[http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Tragelaphus_eurycerus.html Tragelaphus eurycerus] at Animal Diversity Web
Category:Tragelaphus
Category:Fauna of Central Africa
Category:Mammals of West Africa
Category:Mammals described in 1837
Category:Bovids of Africa
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bongo_(antelope)
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Bunyip
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The bunyip is a creature from the aboriginal mythology of southeastern Australia, said to lurk in swamps, billabongs, creeks, riverbeds, and waterholes.
Name
The origin of the word bunyip has been traced to the Wemba-Wemba or Wergaia language of the Aboriginal people of Victoria, in South-Eastern Australia.
The word bunyip is usually translated by Aboriginal Australians today as "devil" or "evil spirit". This contemporary translation may not accurately represent the role of the bunyip in pre-contact Aboriginal mythology or its possible origins before written accounts were made. Some modern sources allude to a linguistic connection between the bunyip and Bunjil, "a mythic 'Great Man' who made the mountains, rivers, man, and all the animals".
The word bahnyip first appeared in the Sydney Gazette in 1812. It was used by James Ives to describe "a large black animal like a seal, with a terrible voice which creates terror among the blacks".
Distribution
The bunyip is part of traditional Aboriginal beliefs and stories throughout Australia, while its name varies according to tribal nomenclature. In his 2001 book, writer Robert Holden identified at least nine regional variations of the creature known as the bunyip across Aboriginal Australia. Characteristics
digital collections, demonstrates the variety in descriptions of the legendary creature.]]
The bunyip has been described as amphibious, almost entirely aquatic (there are no reports of the creature being sighted on land),.}} inhabiting lakes, rivers, swamps, lagoons, billabongs, The Challicum bunyip, an outline image of a bunyip carved by Aboriginal people into the bank of Fiery Creek, near Ararat, Victoria, was first recorded by The Australasian newspaper in 1851. According to the report, the bunyip had been speared after killing an Aboriginal man. Antiquarian Reynell Johns claimed that until the mid-1850s, Aboriginal people made a "habit of visiting the place annually and retracing the outlines of the figure [of the bunyip] which is about 11 paces long and 4 paces in extreme breadth". The outline image no longer exists. Robert Brough Smyth's Aborigines of Victoria (1878) devoted ten pages to the bunyip, but concluded "in truth little is known among the blacks respecting its form, covering or habits; they appear to have been in such dread of it as to have been unable to take note of its characteristics". Eugénie Louise McNeil recalled from her childhood memory in the 1890s that the bunyip supposedly had a snout like an owl ("a mopoke"), and was probably a nocturnal creature by her estimation. especially southern elephant seals and leopard seals.
Another suggestion is that the bunyip may be a folk memory of extinct Australian marsupials such as the Diprotodon, Zygomaturus, Nototherium, or Palorchestes. This connection was first formally made by Dr George Bennett of the Australian Museum in 1871. In the early 1990s, palaeontologist Pat Vickers-Rich and geologist Neil Archbold also cautiously suggested that Aboriginal legends "perhaps had stemmed from an acquaintance with prehistoric bones or even living prehistoric animals themselves ... When confronted with the remains of some of the now extinct Australian marsupials, Aborigines would often identify them as the bunyip." They also note that "legends about the mihirung paringmal of western Victorian Aborigines ... may allude to the ... extinct giant birds the Dromornithidae."
In a 2017 Australian Birdlife article, Karl Brandt suggested Aboriginal encounters with the southern cassowary inspired the myth. According to the first written description of the bunyip from 1845, hence, it is occasionally called the "bunyip bird". This was a continuation of a story on 'fossil remains' from the previous issue. The newspaper continued, "On the bone being shown to an intelligent black, he at once recognised it as belonging to the bunyip, which he declared he had seen.}}
Shortly after this account appeared, it was repeated in other Australian newspapers. This appears to be the first use of the word bunyip in a written publication. Australian Museum's bunyip of 1847 In January 1846, a peculiar skull was taken by a settler from the banks of Murrumbidgee River near Balranald, New South Wales. Initial reports suggested that it was the skull of something unknown to science. The squatter who found it remarked, "all the natives to whom it was shown called [it] a bunyip". By July 1847, several experts, including W. S. Macleay and Professor Owen, had identified the skull as the deformed foetal skull of a foal or calf. At the same time, the purported bunyip skull was put on display in the Australian Museum (Sydney) for two days. Visitors flocked to see it, and The Sydney Morning Herald reported that many people spoke out about their "bunyip sightings". Reports of this discovery used the phrase 'Kine Pratie' as well as Bunyip. Explorer William Hovell, who examined the skull, also called it a 'katen-pai'.
In March of that year, "a bunyip or an immense Platibus" (Platypus) was sighted "sunning himself on the placid bosom of the Yarra, just opposite the Custom House" in Melbourne. "Immediately a crowd gathered" and three men set off by boat "to secure the stranger" which "disappeared" when they were "about a yard from him". William Buckley's account of bunyips, 1852 Another early written account is attributed to escaped convict William Buckley in his 1852 biography of thirty years living with the Wathaurong people. His 1852 account records "in ... Lake Moodewarri [now Lake Modewarre] as well as in most of the others inland ... is a ... very extraordinary amphibious animal, which the natives call Bunyip." Buckley's account suggests he saw such a creature on several occasions. He adds, "I could never see any part, except the back, which appeared to be covered with feathers of a dusky grey colour. It seemed to be about the size of a full grown calf ... I could never learn from any of the natives that they had seen either the head or tail." Buckley also claimed the creature was common in the Barwon River and cites an example he heard of an Aboriginal woman being killed by one. He emphasized the bunyip was believed to have supernatural powers. Stocqueler's sightings and drawings, 1857 In an article titled, 'The Bunyip', a newspaper reported on the drawings made by Edwin Stocqueler as he travelled on the Murray and Goulburn rivers: 'Amongst the latter drawings we noticed a likeness of the Bunyip, or rather a view of the neck and shoulders of the animal. Mr. Stocqueler informs us that the Bunyip is a large freshwater seal, having two small padules or fins attached to the shoulders, a long swan like neck, a head like a dog, and a curious bag hanging under the jaw, resembling the pouch of the pelican. The animal is covered with hair, like the platypus, and the colour is a glossy black. Mr. Stocqueler saw no less than six of these curious animals at different times; his boat was within thirty feet of one near M'Guire's punt on the Goulburn, and he fired at the Bunyip, but did not succeed in capturing him. The smallest appeared to be about five feet in length, and the largest exceeded fifteen feet. The head of the largest was the size of a bullock's head, and three feet out of water. After taking a sketch of the animal, Mr. Stocqueler showed it to several blacks of the Goulburn tribe, who declared that the picture was "Bunyip's brother," meaning a duplicate or likeness of the bunyip. The animals moved against the current, at the rate of about seven miles an hour, and Mr. Stockqueler states that he could have approached close to the specimens he observed, had he not been deterred by the stories of the natives concerning the power and fury of the bunyip, and by the fact that his gun had only a single barrel, and his boat was of a very frail description.'
The description varied across newspaper accounts: 'The great Bunyip question seems likely to be brought to a close, as a Mr. Stocqueler, an artist and gentleman, who has come up the Murray in a small boat, states that he saw one, and was enabled to take a drawing of this "vexed question," but could not succeed in catching him. We have seen the sketch, and it puts us in mind of an hybrid between the water mole and the great sea serpent.' 'Mr. Stocqueler, an artist, and his mother are on an expedition down the Murray, for the purpose of making some faithful sketches of the views on this fine stream, as well as of the creatures frequenting it. I have seen some of their productions, and as they pourtray localities with which I am well acquainted, can pronounce the drawings faithful representations. Mother and son go down the stream in a canoe. The lady paints flowers, &c.; the son devotes himself to choice views on the river's side. One of the drawings represents a singular creature, which the artist is unable to classify. It has the appearance in miniature of the famous sea-serpent, as that animal is described by navigators. Mr. Stocqueler was about twenty-five yards distant from it at first sight as it lay placidly on the water. On being observed, the stranger set-off, working his paddles briskly, and rapidly disappeared. Captain Cadell has tried to solve the mystery, but is not yet satisfied as to what the animal really is. Mr. Stocqueler states that there were about two feet of it above water when he first saw it, and he estimated its length at from five to six feet. The worthy Captain says, that unless the creature is the "Musk Drake" (so called from giving off a very strong odour of musk), he cannot account for the novelty.'
Stocqueler disputed the newspaper descriptions in a letter; stating that he never called the animal a bunyip, it did not have a swan like neck, and he never said anything about the size of the animal as he never saw the whole body. He went on to write that all would be revealed in his diorama as an 'almost life size portrait of the beast' would be included. The diorama took him four years to paint and was reputed to be a mile (1.6 km) long and made of 70 individual pictures. The diorama has long since disappeared and may no longer exist.
Figure of speech and eponymy
By the 1850s, bunyip was also used as a "synonym for impostor, pretender, humbug and the like", The term bunyip aristocracy was first coined in 1853 to describe Australians aspiring to be aristocrats. In the early 1990s, Prime Minister Paul Keating used this term to describe members of the conservative Liberal Party of Australia opposition.
The word bunyip can still be found in a number of Australian contexts, including place names such as the Bunyip River (which flows into Westernport Bay in southern Victoria) and the town of Bunyip, Victoria.
In popular culture and fiction
* The Bunyip is a local weekly newspaper published in the town of Gawler, South Australia. First published as a pamphlet by the Gawler Humbug Society in 1863, the name was chosen because "the Bunyip is the true type of Australian Humbug!"
*A private residence built in the 1860s in Clifton Hill, Victoria, was redeveloped in the 1970s as the "House of the Gentle Bunyip", an ecumenical Christian community, the first of several such initiatives.
accompanying the tale "The Bunyip" in the Brown Fairy Book]]
Numerous tales of the bunyip in written literature appeared in the 19th and early 20th centuries. One of the earliest known is a story in Andrew Lang's The Brown Fairy Book (1904), adapted from a tale collected and published in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute in 1899.
(born 1939). Forecourt of the State Library of Victoria.]]
* Well-known Australian author Colin Thiele wrote Gloop The Gloomy Bunyip, an illustrated children's book published in 1962.
* The character Alexander Bunyip, created by children's author and illustrator Michael Salmon, first appeared in print in The Monster That Ate Canberra (1972). Salmon featured the Bunyip character in many other books and adapted his work as a live-action television series, ''Alexander Bunyip's Billabong''. A statue of Alexander Bunyip by Anne Ross, called A is for Alexander, B is for Bunyip, C is for Canberra, was commissioned by the ACT Government for Gungahlin's $3.8 million town park and installed in front of the Gungahlin Library in 2011.
*(1916) ragtime musical comedy The Bunyip or The Enchantment of Fairy Princess Wattle Blossom by Ella Palzier Campbell (AKA Ella Airlie) toured nine venues in three states for a year with Fuller Brothers theatre circuit. Music was supplied by a number of Australian stage personalities including Vince Courtney, Herbert De Pinna, Fred Monument and James Kendis.
The Australian tourism boom of the 1970s brought a renewed interest in bunyip mythology.
* (1972) A coin-operated bunyip was built by Dennis Newell at Murray Bridge, South Australia, at Sturt Reserve on the town's riverfront.
* Jenny Wagner published a children's picture book, ''The Bunyip of Berkeley's Creek'' (1973).
* (1977) The film Dot and the Kangaroo contains a song "The Bunyip (Bunyip Moon)". The bunyip was the subject of Dot and the Smugglers where the title character, Dot, and her animal friends foil a circus-ringmaster's plan to capture a bunyip. The bunyip turns out to be a gentle, shy creature.
* (1982) Graham Jenkin wrote a children's picture book, The Ballad of the Blue Lake Bunyip
* (1996) Australian children's author Jackie French wrote several bunyip tales, including the short story "Bunyip's Gift", collected in the anthology ''Mind's Eye.
* An episode of The Silver Brumby featured a friendly, prank-playing bunyip.
* Wommy, a character on Noah's Island'', keeps mentioning bunyips and mistook Noah, the noble polar bear who's the title character, and feral cats for bunyips.
* (1986) The Australian film Frog Dreaming centres around the search for a bunyip called Donkegin.
* (2016) The independent Australian film Red Billabong was released in 2016. It tells of two estranged brothers who find themselves stalked by the Bunyip.
Bunyip stories have also been published outside Australia.
's Chander Pahar. Art by Jukto Binir Basu.]]
* (1937) Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay wrote a Bengali novel Chander Pahar (Mountain of the Moon) that included an account of a bunyip. The novel was adapted as a film of the same name, released in late 2013. The bunyip was portrayed as the primary threat to the treasure seekers in the wilderness of the Richtersveld mountains in southern Africa. In the novel, the bunyip is described as a three-toed ape-like hominid.
* From 1954 to 1966, Bertie the Bunyip was the lead puppet character on a popular children's series on Channel 3 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
* (1992) The roleplaying game, Werewolf: The Apocalypse, appropriates the Bunyip legend, having the Bunyip actually be a tribe of Australian native Garou, or werewolves. However, they are not playable in the game as, according to the game's lore, they were driven to extinction by the European werewolves during the colonisation of Australia.
The Bunyip has been featured in films as well.
* In the 1978 Ozploitation eco-horror film Long Weekend, a bunyip is featured as a creature that terrorizes the main couple in the film, who trash a peaceful Australian beach.
In the 21st century, the bunyip has been featured in works around the world.
* (2002) The video game series Ty the Tasmanian Tiger portrays Bunyips as peaceful, mystical elders who inhabit the world of The Dreaming, though not as ferocious as their namesake and resembling primates. The robotic suits that Ty can pilot in Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 2: Bush Rescue and Ty the Tasmanian Tiger 3: Night of the Quinkan are named after the Bunyips, such as Shadow Gunyip, Battle Gunyip and Missile Gunyips.
* (2008) The MMORPG Runescape features a familiar Bunyip, whom largely represents the folkore description.
* (2009) A character named Bruce Bunyip appears in the children's book The Neddiad by American Daniel Pinkwater. He is initially described as "big and swarthy, and had tiny eyes, a scowl and his eyebrows grew together" and later says he is a monster.
* (2009) Bunyips appeared as the focus cryptids in an episode of The Secret Saturdays; however, they were depicted as small, troublemaking creatures instead of monsters.
* (2010) Bunyips appear in Naomi Novik's fantasy novel Tongues of Serpents, where they are depicted as relatives of dragons that have adapted to the extreme conditions of the Outback.
* (2011) An episode of Prank Patrol (Australia) Season 2 involved a prank called Bunyip Hunters.
* (2014) In the novel Afterworlds, one of the characters is the author of a fictional book named Bunyip.
* (2014) The fantasy novel, Queen of the Dark Things, by C. Robert Cargill, features the Bunyip throughout the story.
* (2016) A "tri-horned" bunyip appears in the My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic episode "P.P.O.V (Pony Point Of View)" after being revealed to be the cause of a shipwreck that is recollected differently by three of the series' main characters.
* (2019) In the Monsterverse a titan located under Ayers Rock is named after the mythical creature.
* (2021) Bunyip appears in the match 3 RPG mobile game Tower of Saviors as Vitriolic Savagery - Bunyip
* (2022) In the novel The Island by Adrian McKinty, which takes place in Australia, an antagonist fearfully refers to the bunyip before dying.
* (2023) In a time-limited activity chapter in the video game Reverse: 1999, bunyip shows as a symbol of deception, and a monstrous bunyip raised by the villain appears as the final boss.
See also
* Drop bear, a fictitious Australian mammal
* Min Min light, a natural phenomenon that may have influenced Australian Aboriginal mythology
* Nargun, a living stone creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology
* Rainbow Serpent, a common motif in the art and mythology of Aboriginal Australia
* Underwater panther, a similar North American creature of legend
* Yara-ma-yha-who, a vampiric creature from Australian Aboriginal mythology
* P. A. Yeomans, inventor of the Bunyip Slipper Imp, a plough for developing watersheds
* Yowie, or Wowee, a "Big Foot" style of creature that has its origins in Australian Aboriginal mythology
Footnotes
References
Sources
* <!--alt (nonpaginated) urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOjBZDwAAQBAJ&pgPT85-->
* non-previewable--> |oclc=10292063}}<!--https://catalogue.nla.gov.au/Record/1758469-->
* |last1Holden |first1Robert |author1-link<!--Robert Holden (Australian author)--> |last2Holden |first2Nicholas |author2-link<!--Nicholas Holden--> |year2001 |titleBunyips: Australia's folklore of fear |publisherNational Library of Australia |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUHoldennKPCZT0x6kC |isbn0-642-10732-7<!--, 9780642107329--> }}
*
Further reading
* External links
*
Category:Australian Aboriginal legendary creatures
Category:Australian Aboriginal words and phrases
Category:Mythological marsupials
Category:Water spirits
Category:Swamp monsters
vi:Quỷ
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Brabant
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Brabant is a traditional geographical region (or regions) in the Low Countries of Europe. It may refer to:
Place names in Europe
Belgium
Province of Brabant, which in 1995 was split up into two provinces and an autonomous region:
Flemish Brabant, in the Flanders region; the Dutch speaking part of the former Brabant province.
Walloon Brabant, in the Wallonia region; the French speaking part of the former Brabant province.
Brussels-Capital Region, bilingual between French and Dutch.
Klein-Brabant, the municipalities Bornem, Puurs and Sint-Amands in the Antwerp province of Flanders region
East Brabant, or Hageland, an area east of Brussels between the cities of Leuven, Aarschot, Diest and Tienen
Netherlands
North Brabant province
France
Brabant-en-Argonne, commune in the Meuse department
Brabant-le-Roi, commune in the Meuse department
Brabant-lès-Villers (1973–1982), former commune, amalgamation of Brabant-le-Roi and Villers-aux-Vents
Geology
London-Brabant Massif, a geological structure stretching from England to northern Germany
Historical use
Pagus of Brabant, the original, early medieval territory, divided between several counts, core of the later Landgraviate
Landgraviate of Brabant (1085–1183), an expansive medieval lordship including Brussels, core of the later Duchy
Duchy of Brabant, a duchy of the Holy Roman Empire from 1183 until the French Revolution, by which time the northern half had been lost to the Dutch Republic
Staats-Brabant, a territory of the Dutch Republic directly governed by the States-General from 1588 until the French Revolution
Département of Brabant, a département under various forms of French control, formed from an earlier French Département of the Dommel, and predecessor of modern North Brabant.
Province of Brabant (called South Brabant, 1815–1830), part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, based on earlier French département of the Dyle, became part of Belgium in 1830, now divided into three parts (see above)
Royalty and nobility
House of Brabant descended from the Reginarid family of Lotharingia
Duke of Brabant, a dynastic title of the modern Belgian royal family
Place names outside Europe
Brabant Lake, Saskatchewan, Canada
Port Brabant, former name of Tuktoyaktuk, Canada
Brabant, West Virginia, United States
Le Morne Brabant, a mountain on Mauritius
Brabant Island, Antarctica
Other uses
Brabant (or Brabançon), other names for the Belgian Draught, a Belgian breed of horse
Brabantian dialect, a dialect that formed the basis of the Dutch language
Brabançonne (or "the Brabantian"), the national anthem of Belgium
Brabant killers, a 1980s terrorist group
HNLMS Noord-Brabant ('North Brabant'), several ships of the Dutch navy
Brabant Company, precursor of the Dutch East India Company (VOC)
Brabant (train), a Paris-Brussels express train 1963–1995
Brabant (cruise ship), operated by Fred. Olsen Cruise Lines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brabant
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Boone, North Carolina
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| elevation_footnotes
| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID
| blank1_info 2405303
| website =
| named_for = Daniel Boone
| footnotes | pop_est_as_of
| pop_est_footnotes | population_est
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes
| population_footnotes | nickname The Heart of the High Country
}}
Boone is a town in and the county seat of Watauga County, North Carolina, United States. Located in the Blue Ridge Mountains of western North Carolina, Boone is the home of Appalachian State University and the headquarters of the disaster and medical relief organization Samaritan's Purse. The population was 19,092 at the 2020 census.
The town is named for famous American pioneer and explorer Daniel Boone, and every summer from 1952 has hosted an outdoor amphitheatre drama, Horn in the West, portraying the British settlement of the area during the American Revolutionary War and featuring the contributions of its namesake. It is the largest community and the economic hub of the seven-county region of Western North Carolina known as the High Country.
History
]] Boone took its name from the famous pioneer and explorer Daniel Boone, who on several occasions camped at a site generally agreed to be within the present city limits. Daniel's nephews, Jesse and Jonathan (sons of brother Israel Boone), were members of the town's first church, Three Forks Baptist, still in existence today.
Boone was served by the narrow-gauge East Tennessee and Western North Carolina Railroad (nicknamed "Tweetsie") until the flood of 1940. The flood washed away much of the tracks and it was decided not to replace them.
Boone is the home of Appalachian State University, a constituent member of the University of North Carolina. Appalachian State is the sixth-largest university in the seventeen-campus system. Caldwell Community College & Technical Institute also operates a satellite campus in Boone.
"Horn in the West" is a dramatization of the life and times of the early settlers of the mountain area. It features Daniel Boone as one of its characters, and has been performed in an outdoor amphitheater near the town every summer since 1952, except for when COVID-19 necessitated canceling the 2020 performances.
The original actor in the role of "Daniel Boone" was Ned Austin. His "Hollywood Star" stands on a pedestal on King Street in downtown Boone. He was followed in the role by Glenn Causey, who portrayed the rugged frontiersman for 41 years, and whose image is still seen in many of the depictions of Boone featured in the area today.
Boone is notable for being home to the Junaluska community. Located in the hills just north of Downtown Boone, a free black community has existed in the area since before the Civil War. Although integration in the mid-20th century led to many of the businesses in the neighborhood closing in favor of their downtown counterparts, descendants of the original inhabitants still live in the neighborhood. Junaluska is also home to one of the few majority-African American Mennonite Brethren congregations.
Boone is a center for bluegrass musicians and Appalachian storytellers. Notable artists associated with Boone include the late Grammy Award-winning bluegrass guitar player Doc Watson and the late guitarist Michael Houser, one of the founding members of and the lead guitarist for the band Widespread Panic, as well as Old Crow Medicine Show, The Blue Rags, and Eric Church, all who are Boone natives.
The Blair Farm, Daniel Boone Hotel, Jones House, John Smith Miller House, and US Post Office-Boone are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Geography and climate
Boone has an elevation of above sea level. An earlier survey gave the elevation as 3,332 ft and since then it has been published as . Boone has the highest elevation of any town of its size (over 10,000 population) east of the Mississippi River. As such, Boone features, depending on the isotherm used, a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb), a rarity for the Southeastern United States, bordering on an oceanic climate (Cfb) and straddles the boundary between USDA Plant Hardiness Zones 6B and 7A; the elevation also results in enhanced precipitation, with of average annual precipitation. Compared to the lower elevations of the Carolinas, winters are long and cold, with frequent sleet and snowfall. The daily average temperature in January is ,
| source }}Demographics
2020 census
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:right"
|+Boone racial composition
!scope="col"| Race
!scope="col"| Number
!scope="col"| Percentage
|-
!scope="row"| White (non-Hispanic)
| 13,701
| 71.76%
|-
!scope="row"| Black or African American (non-Hispanic)
| 1,783
| 9.34%
|-
!scope="row"| Native American
| 31
| 0.16%
|-
!scope="row"| Asian
| 645
| 3.38%
|-
!scope="row"| Pacific Islander
| 7
| 0.04%
|-
!scope="row"| Other/Mixed
| 1,154
| 6.04%
|-
!scope="row"| Hispanic or Latino
| 1,771
| 9.28%
|}
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 19,092 people, 5,905 households, and 1,641 families residing in the town.
2000 census
As of the census
* The Mountain Times (free weekly entertainment publication).
* The High Country Press (daily online news publication).
A smaller newspaper, The Appalachian, is Appalachian State University's campus newspaper; it is published once a week on Thursdays. In addition to the locally printed papers, a monthly entertainment pamphlet, Kraut Creek Revival, has limited circulation and is funded by a Denver, North Carolina–based newspaper.Radio
* WATA-AM 1450 AM is a local news talk information radio station.
* WATA-FM 96.5 FM is an alternate frequency of 1450 AM.
* WZJS 100.7 FM is a classic hits radio station.
* WMMY 106.1 FM is a country music radio station, broadcasting the same as 102.3 ("Highway 106.1/102.3").
* WWMY 102.3 FM is a country music radio station, broadcasting the same as 106.1 ("Highway 106.1/102.3").
* WECR 1130 AM is an adult contemporary music radio station ("Star").
* WXIT 1200 AM is a top 40/contemporary hits radio station ("Pulse Boone").
* WASU 90.5 FM is a college radio station from the Appalachian State University.
* WNCW 92.9 FM is a noncommercial NPR-affiliate public radio station licensed to Isothermal Community College.
* W261CK 100.1 FM is a local translator for WFDD 88.1 FM, a noncommercial NPR-affiliate public radio station from Wake Forest University.
Law and government
Boone operates under a mayor–council government. The city council consists of five members. The mayor presides over the council and casts a vote in the event of a tie. , the Town Council members were Mayor Tim Futrelle and Councilors: Edie Tugman (Mayor Pro-Tem), Todd Carter, Virginia Roseman, Jon Dalton George, and Rebecca Nenow.
Development
Industrial, commercial, and residential development in Boone is controversial due to its location in the mountains of Appalachia. On October 16, 2009, the town council accepted the "Boone 2030 Land Use Plan." The document is not in any way law, but is used by the town council, board of adjustment, and other committees to guide decision-making as to what types of development are appropriate.
In 2009, the North Carolina Department of Transportation began widening 1.1 miles of U.S. 421 (King Street) to a 4-to-6-lane divided highway with a raised concrete median from U.S. 321 (Hardin Street) to east of N.C. 194 (Jefferson Road), including a new entrance and exit to the new Watauga High School, at a cost of $16.2 million. The widening has displaced 25 businesses and 63 residences east of King Street. The project was slated to be completed by December 31, 2011, but construction continued into 2012.SportsBoone is home to the Appalachian State Mountaineers, which field varsity teams in 17 sports, 7 for men and 10 for women. Appalachian State's football program has been successful with the Mountaineers winning three straight national championships in 2005, 2006, and 2007, the only team in North Carolina, public or private, to win an NCAA national championship in football.
Aside from college sports, Boone also has local baseball and soccer teams. The Boone Bigfoots were formed in 2021 and compete in the Coastal Plain League, a wood-bat collegiate summer baseball league. The Bigfoots play their home games at Beaver Field at Jim and Bettie Smith Stadium. Boone's entry in the National Premier Soccer League is Appalachian FC, which plays home games at ASU Soccer Stadium in the Ted Mackorell Soccer Complex.Points of interest
* Appalachian State University
* Blue Ridge Parkway
* Boone Mall
* Daniel Boone Native Gardens
* Elk Knob State Park
* Grandfather Mountain
* Horn in the West
* Howard Knob
* Kidd-Brewer Stadium
* Tweetsie Railroad
* Watauga River
Notable people
* Sam Adams, professional golfer who played on the PGA Tour
* Chris Austin, country music singer
* Eustace Conway, American naturalist
* Bertha Cook, needlework artist (native of nearby Sands)
* Rufus L. Edmisten, former North Carolina Secretary of State and Attorney General
* Steve Goss, former North Carolina Senator and ordained Southern Baptist minister
* Franklin Graham, American evangelist and missionary, president and CEO of Samaritan's Purse
* Tommy Gregg, former MLB player
* Doc Hendley, founder of Wine to Water, an American charitable organization
* John Hollar, former NFL player for the Washington Redskins and Detroit Lions
* James Holshouser, served as the 68th Governor of North Carolina
* Michael Houser, founding member and lead guitarist of the band Widespread Panic
* Ryder Jones, MLB player with the San Francisco Giants
* Bob Matheson, former NFL player and two-time Super Bowl champion with the Miami Dolphins
* Abraham Morlu, former CFL player and track Olympian, representing his birth country Liberia
* Stanley South, major proponent of the processual archaeology movement
* Brenda Taylor, Olympic hurdler who represented Team USA at the 2004 Athens Olympics
* Doc Watson, bluegrass, gospel, blues, folk, and country singer
Sister city
Boone has one sister city, as designated by Sister Cities International:
* Collingwood, Ontario, CanadaReferencesExternal links
*
* [https://www.digitalnc.org/exhibits/historic-boone/ DigitalNC: Historic Boone]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20030330065920/http://booneonline.com/ Historical Boone Photos, Postcards, and Paper]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060206162954/http://johnsonsdepot.com/crumley/cyhome.htm Cy Crumley ET&WNC Photo Collection]
Category:1872 establishments in North Carolina
Category:Appalachian culture in North Carolina
Category:County seats in North Carolina
Category:Populated places established in 1872
Category:Towns in North Carolina
Category:Towns in Watauga County, North Carolina
Category:Western North Carolina
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Banshee
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, Fairy Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland, by Thomas Crofton Croker, 1825|300x300px]]
A banshee ( ; Modern Irish , from , "woman of the fairy mound" or "fairy woman") is a female spirit in Irish folklore who heralds the death of a family member, usually by screaming, wailing, shrieking, or keening. Her name is connected to the mythologically important tumuli or "mounds" that dot the Irish countryside, which are known as (singular ) in Old Irish.DescriptionSometimes she has long streaming hair, which she may be seen combing, with some legends specifying she can only keen while combing her hair. She wears a grey cloak over a green dress, and her eyes are red from continual weeping. She may be dressed in white with red hair and a ghastly complexion, according to a firsthand account by Ann, Lady Fanshawe in her Memoirs. Lady Wilde in her books provides others:
In John O'Brien's Irish-English dictionary, the entry for Síth-Bhróg states:<blockquote>"hence bean-síghe, plural mná-síghe, she-fairies or women-fairies, credulously supposed by the common people to be so affected to certain families that they are heard to sing mournful lamentations about their houses by night, whenever any of the family labours under a sickness which is to end by death, but no families which are not of an ancient & noble Stock, are believed to be honoured with this fairy privilege".</blockquote>Keening
In Ireland and parts of Scotland, a traditional part of mourning is the keening woman (), who wails a lament —in ('weeping'), pronounced in the Irish dialects of Munster and southern County Galway, in Connacht (except south Galway) and (particularly west) Ulster, and in Ulster, particularly in the traditional dialects of north and east Ulster, including County Louth. This keening woman may in some cases be a professional, and the best keeners would be in high demand.
Irish legend speaks of a lament being sung by a fairy woman, or banshee. She would sing it when a family member died or was about to die, even if the person had died far away and news of their death had not yet come. In those cases, her wailing would be the first warning the household had of the death. The banshee is also a predictor of death. If someone is about to enter a situation where it is unlikely they will come out alive she will warn people by screaming or wailing, giving rise to a banshee also being known as a wailing woman. The banshee was also associated with the death coach, being said to either summon it with her keening or to travel in tandem with it.
When several banshees appear at once, it indicates the death of someone great or holy. The tales sometimes recounted that the woman, though called a fairy, was a ghost, often of a specific murdered woman, or a mother who died in childbirth.
Accounts reach as far back as 1380 to the publication of the Cathreim Thoirdhealbhaigh (Triumphs of Torlough) by Sean mac Craith. with the original belief appearing to associate the folklore with a number of ancient Irish families. According to this tradition, a banshee would not lament or visit someone of Saxon or Norman descent or who came to Ireland later. Most, but not all, surnames associated with banshees have the Ó or Mc/Mac prefix – that is, surnames of Goidelic origin, indicating a family native to the Insular Celtic lands rather than those of the Norse, Anglo-Saxon, or Norman.
There are some exceptions to this lore, including that a banshee may lament a person who had been "gifted with music and song". For example, there are accounts of the Geraldines hearing a banshee – as they had reputedly become "more Irish than the Irish themselves" – and that the Bunworth Banshee, associated with the Rev. Charles Bunworth (a name of Anglo-Saxon origin), heralded the death of an Irish person who had been a patron to musicians.
According to tradition, some families had their own banshee,See also
*Baobhan Sith
*Cailleach
*Caoineag
*Clíodhna
*Devil Bird
*La Llorona
*Klagmuhme
*Madam Koi Koi
*Psychopomp
*Siren
*White Lady (ghost)
References
Further reading
*
*
*External links
*
Category:Aos Sí
Category:Fairies
Category:Female ghosts
Category:Irish folklore
Category:Irish ghosts
Category:Irish legendary creatures
Category:Personifications of death
Category:Psychopomps
Category:Supernatural legends
Category:Tuatha Dé Danann
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banshee
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Genetically modified maize
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containing a gene from the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis]]
Genetically modified maize (corn) is a genetically modified crop. Specific maize strains have been genetically engineered to express agriculturally-desirable traits, including resistance to pests and to herbicides. Maize strains with both traits are now in use in multiple countries. GM maize has also caused controversy with respect to possible health effects, impact on other insects and impact on other plants via gene flow. One strain, called Starlink, was approved only for animal feed in the US but was found in food, leading to a series of recalls starting in 2000.
Marketed products
Herbicide-resistant maize
Corn varieties resistant to glyphosate herbicides were first commercialized in 1996 by Monsanto, and are known as "Roundup Ready Corn". They tolerate the use of Roundup. Bayer CropScience developed "Liberty Link Corn" that is resistant to glufosinate. Pioneer Hi-Bred has developed and markets corn hybrids with tolerance to imidazoline herbicides under the trademark "Clearfield" – though in these hybrids, the herbicide-tolerance trait was bred using tissue culture selection and the chemical mutagen ethyl methanesulfonate, not genetic engineering. Consequently, the regulatory framework governing the approval of transgenic crops does not apply for Clearfield. By 2012, 26 varieties of herbicide-resistant GM maize were authorised for import into the European Union, but such imports remain controversial. Cultivation of herbicide-resistant corn in the EU provides substantial farm-level benefits. Insect-resistant corn , Ostrinia nubilalis, destroys corn crops by burrowing into the stem, causing the plant to fall over.]] Bt maize/corn / is a variant of maize that has been genetically altered to express one or more proteins from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis although GM corn is not considered organic. The European corn borer causes about a billion dollars in damage to corn crops each year.
In recent years, traits have been added to ward off corn ear worms and root worms, the latter of which annually causes about a billion dollars in damages.
The Bt protein is expressed throughout the plant. When a vulnerable insect eats the Bt-containing plant, the protein is activated in its gut, which is alkaline. In the alkaline environment, the protein partially unfolds and is cut by other proteins, forming a toxin that paralyzes the insect's digestive system and forms holes in the gut wall. The insect stops eating within a few hours and eventually starves.
In 1996, the first GM maize producing a Bt Cry protein was approved, which killed the European corn borer and related species; subsequent Bt genes were introduced that killed corn rootworm larvae.
The Philippine Government has promoted Bt corn, hoping for insect resistance and higher yields.
Approved Bt genes include single and stacked (event names bracketed) configurations of: Cry1A.105 (MON89034), CryIAb (MON810), CryIF (1507), Cry2Ab (MON89034), Cry3Bb1 (MON863 and MON88017), Cry34Ab1 (59122), Cry35Ab1 (59122), mCry3A (MIR604), and Vip3A (MIR162), in both corn and cotton. Corn genetically modified to produce VIP was first approved in the US in 2010.
A 2018 study found that Bt-corn protected nearby fields of non-Bt corn and nearby vegetable crops, reducing the use of pesticides on those crops. Data from 1976 to 1996 (before Bt corn was widespread) was compared to data after it was adopted (1996–2016). They examined levels of the European corn borer and corn earworm. Their larvae eat a variety of crops, including peppers and green beans. Between 1992 and 2016, the amount of insecticide applied to New Jersey pepper fields decreased by 85 percent. Another factor was the introduction of more effective pesticides that were applied less often. Sweet Corn GM sweet corn varieties include "Attribute", the brand name for insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Syngenta and Performance Series insect-resistant sweet corn developed by Monsanto. Cuba While Cuba's agriculture is largely focused on organic production, as of 2010, the country had developed a variety of genetically modified corn that is resistant to the palomilla moth.
Drought-resistant maize
In 2013 Monsanto launched the first transgenic drought tolerance trait in a line of corn hybrids called DroughtGard. The MON 87460 trait is provided by the insertion of the cspB gene from the soil microbe Bacillus subtilis; it was approved by the USDA in 2011 and by China in 2013. Health Safety In regular corn crops, insects promote fungal colonization by creating "wounds," or holes, in corn kernels. These wounds are favored by fungal spores for germination, which subsequently leads to mycotoxin accumulation in the crop that can be carcinogenic and toxic to humans and other animals. This can prove to be especially devastating in developing countries with drastic climate patterns such as high temperatures, which favor the development of toxic fungi. In addition, higher mycotoxin levels leads to market rejection or reduced market prices for the grain. GM corn crops encounter fewer insect attacks, and thus, have lower concentrations of mycotoxins. Fewer insect attacks also keep corn ears from being damaged, which increases overall yields.
Products in development
In 2007, South African researchers announced the production of transgenic maize resistant to maize streak virus (MSV), although it has not been released as a product. While breeding cultivars for resistance to MSV isn't done in the public, the private sector, international research centers, and national programmes have done all of the breeding. As of 2014, there have been a few MSV-tolerant cultivars released in Africa. A private company Seedco has released 5 MSV cultivars.
Research has been done on adding a single E. coli gene to maize to enable it to be grown with an essential amino acid (methionine).
Refuges
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations require farmers who plant Bt corn to plant non-Bt corn nearby (called a refuge), with the logic that pests will infest the non-Bt corn and thus will not evolve a resistance to the Bt toxin. Typically, 20% of corn in a grower's fields must be refuge; refuge must be at least 0.5 miles from Bt corn for lepidopteran pests, and refuge for corn rootworm must at least be adjacent to a Bt field. EPA regulations also require seed companies to train farmers how to maintain refuges, to collect data on the refuges and to report that data to the EPA. Resistance Resistant strains of the European corn borer have developed in areas with defective or absent refuge management. Regulation
Regulation of GM crops varies between countries, with some of the most-marked differences occurring between the US and Europe. Regulation varies in a given country depending on intended uses.
Controversy
<!-- The following language and sources, per WP:GMORfC, must not be altered without achieving consensus-->There is a scientific consensus
GM crops provide a number of ecological benefits, but there are also concerns for their overuse, stalled research outside of the Bt seed industry, proper management and issues with Bt resistance arising from their misuse.
Critics have objected to GM crops on ecological, economic and health grounds. The economic issues derive from those organisms that are subject to intellectual property law, mostly patents. The first generation of GM crops lose patent protection beginning in 2015. Monsanto has claimed it will not pursue farmers who retain seeds of off-patent varieties. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, protests and to restrictive legislation in most countries.
Introduction of Bt maize led to significant reduction of mycotoxin-related poisoning and cancer rates, as they were significantly less prone to contain mycotoxins (29%), fumonisins (31%) and thricotecens (37%), all of which are toxic and carcinogenic.
Effects on nontarget insects
Critics claim that Bt proteins could target predatory and other beneficial or harmless insects as well as the targeted pest. These proteins have been used as organic sprays for insect control in France since 1938 and the USA since 1958 with no ill effects on the environment reported. While cyt proteins are toxic towards the insect order Diptera (flies), certain cry proteins selectively target lepidopterans (moths and butterflies), while other cyt selectively target Coleoptera. As a toxic mechanism, cry proteins bind to specific receptors on the membranes of mid-gut (epithelial) cells, resulting in rupture of those cells. Any organism that lacks the appropriate gut receptors cannot be affected by the cry protein, and therefore Bt. Regulatory agencies assess the potential for the transgenic plant to impact nontarget organisms before approving commercial release.
A 1999 study found that in a lab environment, pollen from Bt maize dusted onto milkweed could harm the monarch butterfly. Several groups later studied the phenomenon in both the field and the laboratory, resulting in a risk assessment that concluded that any risk posed by the corn to butterfly populations under real-world conditions was negligible. A 2002 review of the scientific literature concluded that "the commercial large-scale cultivation of current Bt–maize hybrids did not pose a significant risk to the monarch population". A 2007 review found that "nontarget invertebrates are generally more abundant in Bt cotton and Bt maize fields than in nontransgenic fields managed with insecticides. However, in comparison with insecticide-free control fields, certain nontarget taxa are less abundant in Bt fields." Gene flow
Gene flow is the transfer of genes and/or alleles from one species to another. Concerns focus on the interaction between GM and other maize varieties in Mexico, and of gene flow into refuges.
In 2009 the government of Mexico created a regulatory pathway for genetically modified maize, but because Mexico is the center of diversity for maize, gene flow could affect a large fraction of the world's maize strains. A 2001 report in Nature presented evidence that Bt maize was cross-breeding with unmodified maize in Mexico. The data in this paper was later described as originating from an artifact. Nature later stated, "the evidence available is not sufficient to justify the publication of the original paper". A 2005 large-scale study failed to find any evidence of contamination in Oaxaca. However, other authors also found evidence of cross-breeding between natural maize and transgenic maize.
A 2004 study found Bt protein in kernels of refuge corn.
In 2017, a large-scale study found "pervasive presence of transgenes and glyphosate in maize-derived food in Mexico"
Food
The French High Council of Biotechnologies Scientific Committee reviewed the 2009 Vendômois et al. study and concluded that it "presents no admissible scientific element likely to ascribe any haematological, hepatic or renal toxicity to the three re-analysed GMOs." However, the French government applies the precautionary principle with respect to GMOs.
A review by Food Standards Australia New Zealand and others of the same study concluded that the results were due to chance alone.
A 2011 Canadian study looked at the presence of CryAb1 protein (BT toxin) in non-pregnant women, pregnant women and fetal blood. All groups had detectable levels of the protein, including 93% of pregnant women and 80% of fetuses at concentrations of 0.19 ± 0.30 and 0.04 ± 0.04 mean ± SD ng/ml, respectively. The paper did not discuss safety implications or find any health problems. FSANZ agency published a comment pointing out a number of inconsistencies in the paper, most notably that it "does not provide any evidence that GM foods are the source of the protein".
In January 2013, the European Food Safety Authority released all data submitted by Monsanto in relation to the 2003 authorisation of maize genetically modified for glyphosate tolerance.
Starlink corn recalls
StarLink contains Cry9C, which had not previously been used in a GM crop. Starlink's creator, Plant Genetic Systems, had applied to the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to market Starlink for use in animal feed and in human food. However, because the Cry9C protein lasts longer in the digestive system than other Bt proteins, the EPA had concerns about its allergenicity, and PGS did not provide sufficient data to prove that Cry9C was not allergenic. As a result, PGS split its application into separate permits for use in food and use in animal feed. Starlink was approved by the EPA for use in animal feed only in May 1998. The registration for Starlink varieties was voluntarily withdrawn by Aventis in October 2000. Pioneer had been bought by AgrEvo which then became Aventis CropScience at the time of the incident,
Fifty-one people reported adverse effects to the FDA; US Centers for Disease Control (CDC), which determined that 28 of them were possibly related to Starlink. However, the CDC studied the blood of these 28 individuals and concluded there was no evidence of hypersensitivity to the Starlink Bt protein.
A subsequent review of these tests by the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act Scientific Advisory Panel points out that while "the negative results decrease the probability that the Cry9C protein is the cause of allergic symptoms in the individuals examined ... in the absence of a positive control and questions regarding the sensitivity and specificity of the assay, it is not possible to assign a negative predictive value to this."
The US corn supply has been monitored for the presence of the Starlink Bt proteins since 2001.
In 2005, aid sent by the UN and the US to Central American nations also contained some StarLink corn. The nations involved, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala refused to accept the aid.
Corporate espionage
On 19 December 2013 six Chinese citizens were indicted in Iowa on charges of plotting to steal genetically modified seeds worth tens of millions of dollars from Monsanto and DuPont. Mo Hailong, director of international business at the Beijing Dabeinong Technology Group Co., part of the Beijing-based DBN Group, was accused of stealing trade secrets after he was found digging in an Iowa cornfield.
See also
* Genetically modified food
* Genetically modified crops
* Genetically modified food controversies
References
External links
*
*
* - research project on coexistence and traceability of GM and non-GM supply chains
* (Part of the minutes of the plenary meeting held on 3–4 December 2008, see on page 9)
Category:Genetically modified organisms in agriculture
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_maize
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Body substance isolation
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Body substance isolation is a practice of isolating all body substances (blood, urine, feces, tears, etc.) of individuals undergoing medical treatment, particularly emergency medical treatment of those who might be infected with illnesses such as HIV, or hepatitis so as to reduce as much as possible the chances of transmitting these illnesses. BSI is similar in nature to universal precautions, but goes further in isolating workers from pathogens, including substances now known to carry HIV.
Place of body substance isolation practice in history
Practice of Universal precautions was introduced in 1985–88. In 1987, the practice of Universal precautions was adjusted by a set of rules known as body substance isolation. In 1996, both practices were replaced by the latest approach known as standard precautions (health care). Nowadays and in isolation, practice of body substance isolation has just historical significance.
Body substance isolation went further than universal precautions in isolating workers from pathogens, including substances now currently known to carry HIV. These pathogens fall into two broad categories, bloodborne (carried in the body fluids) and airborne. The practice of BSI was common in Pre-Hospital care and emergency medical services due to the often unknown nature of the patient and his/her disease or medical conditions. It was a part of the National Standards Curriculum for Prehospital Providers and Firefighters.Types of body substance isolation included:
Hospital gowns
Medical gloves
Shoe covers
Surgical mask or N95 Respirator
Safety Glasses
It was postulated that BSI precautions should be practiced in environment where treaters were exposed to bodily fluids, such as:
blood, semen, preseminal fluid, vaginal secretions, synovial fluid, amniotic fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, pleural fluid, peritoneal fluid, marrow, pericardial fluid, feces, nasal secretions, urine, vomitus, sputum, mucus, cervical mucus, phlegm, saliva, breastmilk, colostrum, and secretions and blood from the umbilical cord
Such infection control techniques that were recommended following the AIDS outbreak in the 1980s. Every patient was treated as if infected and therefore precautions were taken to minimize risk. Other conditions which called for minimizing risks with BSI:
Diseases with air-borne transmission (e.g., tuberculosis)
Diseases with droplet transmission (e.g., mumps, rubella, influenza, pertussis)
Transmission by direct or indirect contact with dried skin (e.g., colonisation with MRSA) or contaminated surfaces
Prion diseases (e.g., Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease)
or any combination of the above.
See also
Barrier nursing
Footnotes
Further reading
Category:Medical hygiene
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_substance_isolation
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Boudica
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Boudica or Boudicca (, from Brythonic * 'victory, win' + * 'having' suffix, i.e. 'Victorious Woman', known in Latin chronicles as Boadicea or Boudicea, and in Welsh as , ) was a queen of the ancient British Iceni tribe, who led a failed uprising against the conquering forces of the Roman Empire in AD 60 or 61. She is considered a British national heroine and a symbol of the struggle for justice and independence.
Boudica's husband Prasutagus, with whom she had two daughters, ruled as a nominally independent ally of Rome. He left his kingdom jointly to his daughters and to the Roman emperor in his will. When he died, his will was ignored, and the kingdom was annexed and his property taken. According to the Roman historian Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters raped. The historian Cassius Dio wrote that previous imperial donations to influential Britons were confiscated and the Roman financier and philosopher Seneca called in the loans he had forced on the reluctant Britons.
In 60/61, Boudica led the Iceni and other British tribes in revolt. They destroyed Camulodunum (modern Colchester), earlier the capital of the Trinovantes, but at that time a for discharged Roman soldiers. Upon hearing of the revolt, the Roman governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus hurried from the island of Mona (modern Anglesey) to Londinium, the 20-year-old commercial settlement that was the rebels' next target. Unable to defend the settlement, he abandoned it. Boudica's army defeated a detachment of the Legio IX Hispana, and burnt both Londinium and Verulamium. In all, an estimated 70,000–80,000 Romans and Britons were killed by Boudica's followers. Suetonius, meanwhile, regrouped his forces, possibly in the West Midlands, and despite being heavily outnumbered, he decisively defeated the Britons. Boudica died, by suicide or illness, shortly afterwards. The crisis of 60/61 caused Nero to consider withdrawing all his imperial forces from Britain, but Suetonius's victory over Boudica confirmed Roman control of the province.
Interest in these events was revived in the English Renaissance and led to Boudica's fame in the Victorian era and as a cultural symbol in Britain.
Historical sources
The Boudican revolt against the Roman Empire is referred to in four works from classical antiquity written by three Roman historians: the Agricola () and Annals () by Tacitus; a mention of the uprising by Suetonius in his Lives of the Caesars (121); and the longest account, a detailed description of the revolt contained within Cassius Dio's history of the Empire ().
Tacitus wrote some years after the rebellion, but his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola was an eyewitness to the events, having served in Britain as a tribune under Suetonius Paulinus during this period.
Both Tacitus and Dio give an account of battle-speeches given by Boudica, though it is thought that her words were never recorded during her life. Although imaginary, these speeches, designed to provide a comparison for readers of the antagonists' demands and approaches to war, and to portray the Romans as morally superior to their enemy, helped create an image of patriotism that turned Boudica into a legendary figure.
Whilst the vast majority of historians accept Boudica as a historical figure, a small minority have questioned whether she existed based on the lack of contemporary sources and archaeological evidence.
Background
lands in Norfolk]]
Boudica was the consort of Prasutagus, king of the Iceni,|groupnote}} a tribe who inhabited what is now the English county of Norfolk and parts of the neighbouring counties of Cambridgeshire, Suffolk and Lincolnshire.Events leading to the revoltOn his death in AD 60/61, Prasutagus made his two daughters as well as the Roman Emperor Nero his heirs.
| quote = "Have we not been robbed entirely of most of our possessions, and those the greatest, while for those that remain we pay taxes? Besides pasturing and tilling for them all our other possessions, do we not pay a yearly tribute for our very bodies? How much better it would be to have been sold to masters once for all than, possessing empty titles of freedom, to have to ransom ourselves every year! How much better to have been slain and to have perished than to go about with a tax on our heads!... Among the rest of mankind death frees even those who are in slavery to others; only in the case of the Romans do the very dead remain alive for their profit. Why is it that, though none of us has any money (how, indeed, could we, or where would we get it?), we are stripped and despoiled like a murderer's victims? And why should the Romans be expected to display moderation as time goes on, when they have behaved toward us in this fashion at the very outset, when all men show consideration even for the beasts they have newly captured?"}}
The Romans' next actions were described by Tacitus, who detailed pillaging of the countryside, the ransacking of the king's household, and the brutal treatment of Boudica and her daughters. According to Tacitus, Boudica was flogged and her daughters were raped. Dio claimed that Boudica called upon the British goddess of victory Andraste to aid her army. Once the revolt had begun, the only Roman troops available to provide assistance, aside from the few within the colony, were 200 auxiliaries located in London, who were not equipped to fight Boudica's army. Camulodunum was captured by the rebels; those inhabitants who survived the initial attack took refuge in the Temple of Claudius for two days before they were killed. Quintus Petillius Cerialis, then commanding the Legio IX Hispana, attempted to relieve Camulodunum, but suffered an overwhelming defeat. The infantry with him were all killed and only the commander and some of his cavalry escaped. After this disaster, Catus Decianus, whose behaviour had provoked the rebellion, fled abroad to Gaul.
Suetonius was leading a campaign against the island of Mona, off the coast of North Wales. On hearing the news of the Iceni uprising, he left a garrison on Mona and returned to deal with Boudica. north-west of London, though the extent of its destruction is unclear.
Dio and Tacitus both reported that around 80,000 people were said to have been killed by the rebels. Dio adds that the noblest women were impaled on spikes and had their breasts cut off and sewn to their mouths, "to the accompaniment of sacrifices, banquets, and wanton behaviour" in sacred places, particularly the groves of Andraste. Defeat and death Suetonius regrouped his forces. He amassed an army of almost 10,000 men at an unidentified location, and took a stand in a defile (a narrow pass) with a wood behind. The Romans used the terrain to their advantage, launching javelins at the Britons before advancing in a wedge-shaped formation and deploying cavalry. — but Boudica's army was crushed, and according to Tacitus, neither the women nor the animals were spared. Tacitus states that Boudica poisoned herself; Dio says she fell sick and died, after which she was given a lavish burial. It has been argued that these accounts are not mutually exclusive.
Name
Boudica may have been an honorific title, in which case the name by which she was known during most of her life is unknown. The English linguist and translator Kenneth Jackson concluded that the name Boudica—based on later developments in Welsh () and Irish ()—derives from the Proto-Celtic feminine adjective *boudīkā 'victorious', which in turn is derived from the Celtic word *boudā 'victory', and that the correct spelling of the name in Common Brittonic (the British Celtic language) is , pronounced . Variations on the historically correct Boudica include Boudicca, Bonduca, Boadicea, and Buduica. The Gaulish version of her name is attested in inscriptions as Boudiga in Bordeaux, Boudica in Lusitania, and Bodicca in Algeria.
Boudica's name was spelt incorrectly by Dio, who used Buduica. The true spelling was totally obscured when Boadicea first appeared in around the 17th century.
Both Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People (731) and the 9th-century work Historia Brittonum by the Welsh monk Nennius include references to the uprising of 60/61, but do not mention Boudica. A narrative by the Florentine scholar Petruccio Ubaldini in The Lives of the Noble Ladies of the Kingdom of England and Scotland (1591) includes two female characters, 'Voadicia' and 'Bunduica', both based on Boudica. A variation of this name was used in the Jacobean play Bonduca (1612), a tragicomedy that most scholars agree was written by John Fletcher, in which one of the characters was Boudica. A version of that play called Bonduca, or the British Heroine was set to music by the English composer Henry Purcell in 1695. One of the choruses, "Britons, Strike Home!", became a popular patriotic song in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Depiction during the 18th and 19th centuries
'' by Thomas Thornycroft, near Westminster Pier, London]]
During the late 18th century, Boudica was used to develop ideas of English nationhood. Illustrations of Boudica during this period—such as in Edward Barnard's New, Complete and Authentic History of England (1790) and the drawing by Thomas Stothard of the queen as a classical heroine—lacked historical accuracy. The illustration of Boudica by Robert Havell in Charles Hamilton Smith's The Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands from the Earliest Periods to the Sixth Century (1815) was an early attempt to depict her in an historically accurate way.
Cowper's 1782 poem Boadicea: An Ode was the most notable literary work to champion the resistance of the Britons, and helped to project British ideas of imperial expansion. It caused Boudica to become a British cultural icon and be perceived as a national heroine. The statue, Thornycroft's most ambitious work, was produced between 1856 and 1871, cast in 1896, and positioned on the Victoria Embankment next to Westminster Bridge in 1902.
<gallery mode"packed" heights"150" style="text-align:left">
File:Portraits and Dresses of the Most Remarkable Personages in England Prior to the Norman Conquest Plate 1.jpg|alt=18th century depiction of Boudica|The History of England (1791), illustration by Francis West
File:Boudicca-or-Boadicea.jpg|alt=Early 19th century engraving|An engraving by William Sharp after Thomas Stothard (1812)
File:Caricature of Queen Caroline as Boudica.jpg|alt=Caricature of Queen Caroline as Boudica|A caricature of Queen Caroline (1820)
File:Charles Hamilton Smith - Boudica.png|alt=19th century illustration of Boudica and other Britons|Robert Havell, The Costume of the Original Inhabitants of the British Islands (1821)
File:Frontispiece-Boudica.jpg|alt=Engraving of Bodica's rebellion|John Cassell's Illustrated History of England (1857)
File:Boadicea Shows the marks of the Roman Rods.jpg|alt=1893 illustration of Boudica|G.A. Henty, Beric, the Briton (1893)
</gallery>
20th century – present
Boudica was once thought to have been buried at a place which lies now between platforms 9 and 10 in King's Cross station in London. There is no evidence for this and it is probably a post-World War II invention. At Colchester Town Hall, a life-sized statue of Boudica stands on the south facade, sculpted by L J Watts in 1902; another depiction of her is in a stained glass window by Clayton and Bell in the council chamber.
Boudica was adopted by the suffragettes as one of the symbols of the campaign for women's suffrage. In 1908, a "Boadicea Banner" was carried in several National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies marches. She appears as a character in A Pageant of Great Women written by Cicely Hamilton, which opened at the Scala Theatre, London, in November 1909 before a national tour, and she was described in a 1909 pamphlet as "the eternal feminine... the guardian of the hearth, the avenger of its wrongs upon the defacer and the despoiler".
A "vocal minority" has claimed Boudica as a Celtic Welsh heroine. A statue of Boudica in the Marble Hall at Cardiff City Hall was among those unveiled by David Lloyd George in 1916, though the choice had gained little support in a public vote.
Permanent exhibitions describing the Boudican Revolt are at the Museum of London, Colchester Castle Museum and the Verulamium Museum in St Albans. A long distance footpath called Boudica's Way passes through countryside between Norwich and Diss in Norfolk. In film and TV
* Boadicea (1927), a British silent historical film directed by Sinclair Hill and starring Phyllis Neilson-Terry.
* Warrior Queen (1978), a British television series created by Martin Mellett and starring Sian Phillips.
* Boudica (2003), a British biographical-historical television film directed by Bill Anderson and starring Alex Kingston.
* Boudica (2023), a British action drama film directed by Jesse V. Johnson and starring Olga Kurylenko.
In music
* "Boadicea" (1987), a song by Enya from her self-titled album Enya, released by BBC Records (UK) and Atlantic Records (USA).
See also
*
* List of women warriors in folklore
* Women in ancient warfare
Notes
References Sources<!---->
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Further reading
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Category:Boudica
Category:1st-century monarchs in Europe
Category:1st-century rebels
Category:60s in the Roman Empire
Category:61 deaths
Category:Ancient rebels
Category:British rebels
Category:Briton monarchs
Category:Celtic women warriors
Category:Iceni
Category:People from Norfolk
Category:Women in 1st-century warfare
Category:Women in ancient European warfare
Category:Women in war in Britain
Category:Women warriors
Category:Queens regnant in the British Isles
Category:Suicides by poison
Category:Female suicides
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudica
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Borneo
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|image_name = Borneo Topography.png
|image_caption = Topography of Borneo
|native_name |native_name_link
|location = Southeast Asia
|coordinates
|archipelago = Indonesian Archipelago
----
Greater Sunda Islands
|area_km2 = 748168
|rank = 3rd
|highest_mount = Mount Kinabalu
|elevation_ft = 13,435
|country =
|country_admin_divisions_title = Districts
|country_admin_divisions = Belait<br/ >Brunei and Muara<br />Temburong<br />Tutong
|country1 =
|country2 =
|country1_admin_divisions_title = Provinces
|country1_admin_divisions = (Pontianak)<br /> (Palangkaraya)<br /> (Banjarbaru)<br /> (Samarinda)<br /> (Tanjung Selor)
|country_largest_city = Bandar Seri Begawan (pop. ~150,000)
|country_largest_city_area |country1_largest_city Samarinda (pop. 842,691)
|country1_largest_city_area |country2_largest_city Kota Kinabalu (pop. 500,421)
|country2_largest_city_area |country2_admin_divisions_title States and FT
|country2_admin_divisions = <br /><br />
|population 21,258,000 (2023 Censuses)
|population_as_of = 2023
|density_km2 = 30.8
|ethnic_groups | timezone1
| utc_offset1 =
}}
Borneo () is the third-largest island in the world, with an area of , and population of 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses). Approximately 73% of Borneo is Indonesian territory, and in the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. The Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo.
Etymology
When the sixteenth-century Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes made contact with the indigenous people of Borneo, they referred to their island as ''Pulu K'lemantang'', which became the name for modern-day Indonesian Borneo. The term kelamantan is used in Sarawak to refer to a group of people who consume sago in the northern part of the island.
According to Crowfurd, the word kelamantan is the name of a type of mango (Mangifera), though he adds that the word is fanciful and unpopular. The local mango, called klemantan, is still widely found in rural Ketapang and surrounding areas of West Kalimantan.
Internationally, it is known as Borneo, a name derived from European contact with the Brunei kingdom in the 16th century, during the Age of Exploration. On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and the whole island is also labelled Borneo. The name may derive from the Sanskrit word (), meaning either "water" or Varuna, the Hindu god of rain.
Another source states that it derives from the Sanskrit word kalamanthana, meaning "burning weather", possibly to describe the island's hot and humid tropical weather. In the Indianized Malay era the name Kalamanthana was derived from the Sanskrit terms kala (time or season) and manthana (churning, kindling, or creating fire by friction), which possibly describes the hot weather.
In 977, Chinese records began to use the term Bo-ni to refer to Borneo. In 1225, it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适). The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama, written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentions the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara, which means the "island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom".GeographyGeology
.]]
Borneo was formed through Mesozoic accretion of microcontinental fragments, ophiolite terranes and island arc crust onto a Paleozoic continental core. At the beginning of the Cenozoic Borneo formed a promontory of Sundaland which partly separated from Asian mainland by the proto-South China Sea. The oceanic part of the proto-South China Sea was subducted during the Paleogene period and a large accretionary complex formed along the northwestern of the island of Borneo. In the early Miocene uplift of the accretionary complex occurred as a result of underthrusting of thinned continental crust in northwest. The island today is surrounded by the South China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to the south. To the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. To the south and east are islands of Indonesia: Java and Sulawesi, respectively. To the northeast are the Philippine Islands. With an area of , it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest island of Asia (the largest continent). Its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of . the Barito, Kahayan, and Mendawai in South Kalimantan (, , and long respectively), Rajang in Sarawak ( long) and Kinabatangan in Sabah ( long). Borneo has significant cave systems. In Sarawak, the Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underground rivers while Deer Cave is home to over three million bats, with guano accumulated to over deep. The Gomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the "Cockroach Cave" due to the presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave. The Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan which particularly a karst areas contains thousands of smaller caves.Ecology
Bornean orangutan, a great ape endemic to Borneo]]
The Borneo rainforest is estimated to be around 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. The current dominant tree group, the dipterocarps, has dominated the Borneo lowland rain forests for millions of years. It is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals, and the rainforest is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan. It is an important refuge for many endemic forest species, including the Borneo elephant, the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros, the Bornean clouded leopard, the Bornean rock frog, the hose's palm civet and the dayak fruit bat.
satellite image of Borneo on 19 May 2002]]
Peat swamp forests occupy the entire coastline of Borneo. The soil of the peat swamp is comparatively infertile, while it is known to be the home of various bird species such as the hook-billed bulbul, helmeted hornbill and rhinoceros hornbill. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo (about the same as Sumatra and Java combined). The Borneo river shark is known only from the Kinabatangan River. In 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) stated that 123 species have been discovered in Borneo since the "Heart of Borneo" agreement was signed in 2007.
, Indonesia]]
The WWF has classified the island into seven distinct ecoregions. Most are lowland regions:
* Borneo lowland rain forests cover most of the island, with an area of .
* Borneo peat swamp forests
* Kerangas or Sundaland heath forests
* Southwest Borneo freshwater swamp forests are found in the island's western and southern lowlands
* Sunda Shelf mangroves
* The Borneo montane rain forests lie in the central highlands of the island, above the elevation.
*The highest elevations of Mount Kinabalu are home to the Kinabalu montane alpine meadows, a subalpine and alpine shrubland notable for its numerous endemic species, including many orchids.
According to analysis of data from Global Forest Watch, the Indonesian portion of Borneo lost of tree cover between 2002 and 2019, of which was primary forest, compared with Malaysian Borneo's of tree cover loss and of primary forest cover loss. As of 2020, Indonesian Borneo accounts for 72% of the island's tree cover, Malaysian Borneo 27%, and Brunei 1%. Primary forest in Indonesia accounts for 44% of Borneo's overall tree cover.
Conservation issues
. Borneo has lost more than half of its rainforests in the past half century.]]
The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced due to heavy logging by the Indonesian and Malaysian wood industry, especially with the large demands of raw materials from industrial countries along with the conversion of forest lands for large-scale agricultural purposes. Forest fires since 1997, started by the locals to clear the forests for plantations were exacerbated by an exceptionally dry El Niño season, worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest. During these fires, hotspots were visible on satellite images and the resulting haze frequently affected Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. The haze could also reach southern Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines as evidenced on the 2015 Southeast Asian haze.
A 2018 study found that Bornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015.
Topography
in Malaysia, the highest summit of the island]]
List of highest peaks in Borneo by elevation:
* Mount Kinabalu
* Mount Trusmadi
* Raya Hill
* Muruk Miau
* Mount Wakid
* Monkobo Hill
* Mount Lotung
* Mount Magdalena
* Talibu Hill River systemsin Indonesia. At in length, it is the longest river in Borneo.]]
List of rivers in Borneo by length:
* Kapuas River
* Barito River
* Mahakam River
* Kahayan River
* Mendawai River
* Kayan River
* Rajang River
* Kinabatangan River
* Baram River
* Sembakung River
* Sesayap River
* Pawan River HistoryEarly history
, the main indigenous people of the island, were feared for their headhunting practices.]]
In November 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo. It has been proposed, based on house construction styles, linguistic and genetic evidence, that Madagascar may have been first populated from southern Borneo.
According to ancient Chinese (977), Indian and Japanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by the first millennium AD. In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor, tortoise shells, hornbill ivory, rhinoceros horn, crane crest, beeswax, lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thick liana, Dalbergia parviflora), dragon's blood, rattan, edible bird's nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from Borneo. The Indians named Borneo Suvarnabhumi (the land of gold) and also Karpuradvipa (Camphor Island). The Javanese named Borneo Puradvipa, or Diamond Island. Archaeological findings in the Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300. By the 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in present-day Indonesia), later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty of China. Pre-Islamic Sulu, then known locally as Lupah Sug, stretched from Palawan and the Sulu archipelago at the Philippines; to Sabah, Eastern, and Northern Kalimantan in Borneo. The Sulu empire rose as a rebellion and reaction against former Majapahit Imperialism against Sulu which Majapahit briefly occupied. The religion of Islam entered the island in the 10th century, following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas.
The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of the Majapahit emperor in the mid-14th century. During its golden age under Bolkiah from the 15th to the 17th century, the Bruneian sultanate ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to the island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines. arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu; he titled himself as "Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr". Following its independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence, Sulu began to expand its thalassocracy to parts of the northern Borneo. Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinese junks. Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms.British and Dutch control
hoisted for the first time on the island of Labuan, on 24 December 1846.]]
After the fall of Malacca in 1511, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Borneo, and especially with Brunei from 1530. Having visited Brunei's capital, the Portuguese described the place as surrounded by a stone wall. While Borneo was seen as rich, the Portuguese did not make any attempts to conquer it. The Dutch tried to settle the island of Balambangan, north of Borneo, in the second half of the 18th century, but withdrew by 1797. In 1812, the sultan in southern Borneo ceded his forts to the British East India Company. The British, led by Stamford Raffles, then tried to establish an intervention in Sambas but failed. Although they managed to defeat the sultanate the next year and declared a blockade on all ports in Borneo except Brunei, Banjarmasin and Pontianak, the project was cancelled by the British governor-general Lord Minto in India as it was too expensive. and the waters around the island infested with pirates, especially between the north eastern Borneo and the southern Philippines. The Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo, along with the attacks by Illanuns of the Moro pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in the Battle off Mukah.
The Dutch began to intervene in the southern part of the island upon resuming contact in 1815, posting residents to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas and assistant-residents to Landak and Mampawa. The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842 granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the British adventurer James Brooke, as a reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion. Brooke established the Raj of Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying a fee to the sultanate. He established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as the White Rajahs. Brooke also acquired the island of Labuan for Great Britain in 1846 through the Treaty of Labuan with the sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18 December 1846. The region of northern Borneo came under the administration of North Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer named Baron von Overbeck, before it was passed to the British Dent brothers (comprising Alfred Dent and Edward Dent). Further expansion by the British continued into the Borneo interior. This led the 26th sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin to appeal the British to halt such efforts, and as a result a Treaty of Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate.
during an Erau ceremony in Tenggarong]]
Before the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land from the Sultanate of Brunei. A company known as American Trading Company of Borneo was formed by Joseph William Torrey, Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese investors, establishing a colony named "Ellena" in the Kimanis area. The colony failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US government, and to diseases and riots among the workers. Before Torrey left, he managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck. Meanwhile, the Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from the Sultanate of Sulu where he conducted business and exported large quantities of arms, opium, textiles and tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the sultanate.
in 1930]]
Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a protocol known as the Madrid Protocol of 1885 was signed between the governments of the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain in Madrid to cement Spanish influence and recognise their sovereignty over the Sultanate of Sulu—in return for Spain's relinquishing its claim to the former possessions of the sultanate in northern Borneo. The British administration then established the first railway network in northern Borneo, known as the North Borneo Railway. During this time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines, and the Dutch followed suit to increase their economic production. By 1888, North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become British protectorate. The area in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891.
In 1895, Marcus Samuel received a concession in the Kutei area of east Borneo, and based on oil seepages in the Mahakam River delta, Mark Abrahams struck oil in February 1897. This was the discovery of the Sanga Sanga Oil Field, a refinery was built in Balikpapan, and discovery of the Samboja Oil Field followed in 1909. In 1901, the Pamusian Oil Field was discovered on Tarakan, and the Bunyu Oil Field in 1929. Royal Dutch Shell discovered the Miri Oil Field in 1910, and the Seria oil field in 1929.
World War II
on 14 January 1942.]]
moving towards Victoria and Brown beach to assist the landing of members of the Australian 24th Infantry Brigade on the island during Operation Oboe Six, 10 June 1945.]]
During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of Borneo from 1941 to 1945. In the first stage of the war, the British saw the Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors. The occupation drove many people in the coastal towns to the interior, searching for food and escaping the Japanese. The Chinese residents in Borneo, especially with the Sino-Japanese War in Mainland China mostly resisted the Japanese occupation. Following the formation of resistance movements in northern Borneo such as the Jesselton Revolt, many innocent indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged involvement.
In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the Malay sultans of West Kalimantan in the Pontianak incidents, together with Chinese people who were already against the Japanese for suspecting them to be threats. The Japanese also set-up Pusat Tenaga Rakjat (PUTERA) in the Indonesian archipelago in 1943, although it was abolished the following year when it became too nationalistic. Some of the Indonesian nationalist like Sukarno and Hatta who had returned from Dutch exile began to co-operate with the Japanese. Shortly after his release, Sukarno became president of the Central Advisory Council, an advisory council for south Borneo, Celebes, and Lesser Sunda, set up in February 1945. In addition, of the total of 17,488 Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions and maltreatment. with Allied Z Special Unit provided assistance to them. Australia contributed significantly to the liberation of Borneo. The Australian Imperial Force was sent to Borneo to fight off the Japanese. Together with other Allies, the island was completely liberated in 1945.
Recent history
visiting Pontianak, West Kalimantan, in 1963.]]
In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined based on the desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition of Malaya. Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for a Greater Indonesian republic. Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945. While nationalist guerrillas supporting the inclusion of southern Borneo in the new Indonesian republic were active in Ketapang, and to lesser extent in Sambas where they rallied with the red-white flag which became the flag of Indonesia, most of the Chinese residents in southern Borneo expected to be liberated by Chinese Nationalist troops from mainland China and to integrate their districts as an overseas province of China. Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo became separate British crown colonies in 1946.
1st Battalion conduct a patrol to search for enemy positions in the jungle of Brunei.]]
In 1961, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of the independent Federation of Malaya desired to unite Malaya, the British colonies of Sarawak, North Borneo, Singapore and the protectorate of Brunei under the proposed Federation of Malaysia. The idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines as well from communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo. Sukarno, as the president of the new republic, perceiving the British trying to maintain their presence in northern Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, decided to launch a military infiltration, later known as the confrontation, from 1962 to 1969. As a response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts. Australia and New Zealand also participated in these measures.
The Philippines opposed the newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a former possession of the Sultanate of Sulu. The Philippine government mostly based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu's cession agreement with the British North Borneo Company, as by now the sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit the Sulu former territories. The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic.
, an attempt to establish a sovereign state by unifying North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak by A. M. Azahari]]
The Sultanate of Brunei at first welcomed the proposal of a new larger federation. Meanwhile, the Brunei People's Party led by A.M. Azahari desired to reunify Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo into one federation known as the North Borneo Federation (), where the sultan of Brunei would be the head of state for the federation—though Azahari had his own intention to abolish the Brunei monarchy, to make Brunei more democratic, and to integrate the territory and other former British colonies in Borneo into Indonesia, with the support from the latter government. This directly led to the Brunei Revolt, which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia. Brunei withdrew from being part of the new Federation of Malaysia due to some disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation.
With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, the Cobbold Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various stipulations. The federation was successfully achieved with the inclusion of northern Borneo through the Malaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963. To this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro pirates since the 18th century and militant from groups such as Abu Sayyaf since 2000 in the frequent cross border attacks. During the administration of Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos, Marcos made some attempts to destabilise the state of Sabah, although his plan failed and resulted in the Jabidah massacre and later the insurgency in the southern Philippines.
In August 2019, Indonesian president Joko Widodo announced a plan to move the capital of Indonesia from Jakarta to a newly established location in the East Kalimantan province in Borneo.DemographicsThe demonym for Borneo is Bornean.
Borneo had 23,053,723 inhabitants (in 2020 Censuses),<br>(2% of the population)||5,765 km<sup>2</sup><br>(0.8% of the land area)||72.11/km<sup>2</sup><br>|| colspan="4" |
|Bandar Seri Begawan
||UTC+8
|-
| rowspan"5" | (Kalimantan)|| rowspan"5" |16,544,696<br>(72% of the population)|| rowspan"5" |539,238 km<sup>2</sup><br>(72.5% of the land area)|| rowspan="5" |30.8/km<sup>2</sup><br>||||713,622<br>(3% of the population)||72,275 km<sup>2</sup><br>(9.7% of the land area)||9.7/km<sup>2</sup>||Tanjung Selor
||UTC+8
|-
|||3,849,842<br>(16.8% of the population)||127,347 km<sup>2</sup><br>(17.1% of the land area)||29.6/km<sup>2</sup><br>||Samarinda
||UTC+8
|-
|||3,808,235<br>(16.6% of the population)||38,744 km<sup>2</sup><br>(5.2% of the land area)||105.1/km<sup>2</sup><br>||Banjarbaru
||UTC+8
|-
|||2,702,200<br>(11.8% of the population)||153,565 km<sup>2</sup><br>(20.6% of the land area)||17.4/km<sup>2</sup><br>||Palangka Raya
||UTC+7
|-
|||5,470,797<br>(23.8% of the population)||147,307 km<sup>2</sup><br>(19.8% of the land area)||36.8/km<sup>2</sup><br>||Pontianak
||UTC+7
|-
| rowspan"3" | (East Malaysia)|| rowspan"3" |5,967,582<br>(26% of the population)|| rowspan"3" |198,447 km<sup>2</sup><br>(26.7% of the land area)|| rowspan"3" |30.7/km<sup>2</sup><br>||||3,418,785<br>(14.9% of the population)||73,904 km<sup>2</sup><br>(9.9% of the land area)||46/km<sup>2</sup><br>||Kota Kinabalu
||UTC+8
|-
|||2,453,677<br>(10.7% of the population)||124,450 km<sup>2</sup><br>(16.7% of the land area)||22/km<sup>2</sup><br>||Kuching
||UTC+8
|-
|||95,120<br>(0.4% of the population)||92 km<sup>2</sup><br>(0.1% of the land area)||1,000/km<sup>2</sup><br>||Victoria
||UTC+8
|-
|Total||22,972,623||743,450 km<sup>2</sup><br>||30.9~/km<sup>2</sup><br>
|}
<small>May includes the offshore islands and its populations</small><br>
<small>Due to its size, Brunei is further subdivided into 4 districts (mukim), which is similar to the size of smaller administrative units in Indonesia (kecamatan) and Malaysia (daerah)
</small>
20 largest cities and towns in Borneo by population
, the most populous and largest city on the island of Borneo]]
, the second most populous and largest city on Borneo]]
*
*
{| class="sortable wikitable"
! Rank !! City !! Population !! Country !! Province/state
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|1 || style"text-align:left;background-color:#cfecec"|Samarinda || style="text-align:right;" | 861,878 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|2 || style"text-align:left;"|Balikpapan || style="text-align:right;" | 738,532 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|3 || style"text-align:left;background-color:#cfecec"|Pontianak || style="text-align:right;" | 679,818 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|4 || style"text-align:left;"|Banjarmasin || style="text-align:right;" | 678,243 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|5 || style"text-align:left;background-color:#cfecec"|Kota Kinabalu || style="text-align:right;" | 500,425 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|6 || style"text-align:left;"|Sandakan || style="text-align:right;" | 439,050 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|7 || style"text-align:left;"|Tawau || style="text-align:right;" | 420,806 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|8 || style"text-align:left;background-color:#cfecec"|Kuching || style="text-align:right;" | 402,738 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|9 || style"text-align:left;" |Miri || style="text-align:right;" | 356,900 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|10 || style"text-align:left;background-color:#ccff99"" |Bandar Seri Begawan || style"text-align:right;" | 318,530 || scope"col" colspan="2"|
|-
| style"text-align:center;|11 || style"text-align:left;background-color:#cfecec" |Palangkaraya||style="text-align:right;" | 305,797||||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|12 || style"text-align:left;background-color:#cfecec" |Banjarbaru || style="text-align:right;" | 272,763 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|13 || style"text-align:left;" |Tarakan || style="text-align:right;" | 249,960 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|14 || style"text-align:left;" |Singkawang || style="text-align:right;" | 246,112 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|15 || style"text-align:left;" |Bontang || style="text-align:right;" | 189,968 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|16 || style"text-align:left;" |Sampit || style="text-align:right;" | 166,773 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|17 || style"text-align:left;" |Sibu || style="text-align:right;" | 162,676 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|18 || style"text-align:left;" |Bintulu || style="text-align:right;" | 114,058 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|19 || style"text-align:left;" |Tenggarong || style="text-align:right;" | 106,669 || ||
|-
| style"text-align:center;"|20 || style"text-align:left;" |Pangkalan Bun || style="text-align:right;" | 105,514 || ||
|-
|}
Urbanisation by region
, one of the largest cities on the island of Borneo]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!rowspan="2" |Country
!rowspan="2" |Province/state
!colspan="2" |Urban–rural population (%)
|-
!style"background-color:#" data-sort-type"number"|Urban
!style"background-color:#" data-sort-type"number"|Rural
|-
|-
|||||style"text-align:right;" | 78.3% ||style="text-align:right;" | 21.8%
|-
| rowspan"4" | (Kalimantan)||<br>||style"text-align:right;" | 68.9% ||style="text-align:right;" | 31.1%
|-
|||style"text-align:right;" | 48.4% ||style"text-align:right;" | 51.6%
|-
|||style"text-align:right;" | 40.2% ||style"text-align:right;" | 59.8%
|-
|||style"text-align:right;" | 36.2% ||style"text-align:right;" | 63.8%
|-
| rowspan"3" | (East Malaysia)||||style"text-align:right;" | 54.7% ||style"text-align:right;" | 45.3%
|-
|||style"text-align:right;" | 57.0% ||style"text-align:right;" | 43.0%
|-
|||style"text-align:right;" | 88.9% ||style"text-align:right;" | 11.1%
|}
Data based on the projection in the former territories in East Kalimantan Province (prior to the separation of North Kalimantan in 2012)
Major ethnicities by region
dancers in their traditional clothes, Pampang Cultural Village, Samarinda, East Kalimantan, Indonesia]]
an men in Baju Melayu; the ethnic Malays of Borneo primarily inhabit the coastal areas of the island.]]
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" |Country
! rowspan="2" |Province/state
! colspan="2" |Major ethnic groups
|-
! Indigenous
! Non-indigenous
|-
||||| Bisaya, Dusun, Kedayan, Malay
|Chinese
|-
| rowspan="5" | (Kalimantan)||||Bajau, Bulungan, Dayak, Tidung
| Bugis, Javanese
|-
|||Banjarese, Berau, Dayak, Kutai, Paser
| Bugis, Javanese
|-
|||Banjarese, Dayak
|Bugis, Javanese, Madurese
|-
|||Banjarese, Dayak, Malay
|Javanese, Madurese
|-
|||Dayak, Malay
|Chinese, Javanese, Madurese
|-
| rowspan="3" | (East Malaysia)|||| Bajau, Kadazan-Dusun, Malay, Murut, Rungus, Suluk
|Bugis, Chinese
|-
|||Bidayuh, Iban, Malay, Melanau, Orang Ulu
|Chinese
|-
|||Bajau, Kadazan-Dusun, Kedayan, Malay, Murut
|Chinese
|}
Based on alphabetical order
Religion
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Religions based on regions
|-
|
||
|label1 = Islam
|value1 = 51.9
|color1 = Green
|label2 = Christianity
|value2 = 37.4
|color2 = Blue
|label3 = Buddhism
|value3 = 9.0
|color3 = Yellow
|label5 = Hinduism
|value5 = 0.1
|color5 = DarkOrange
|label4 = Confucianism and others
|value4 = 0.3
|color4 = White
|label6 = No religion
|value6 = 1.3
|color6 = Black
}}
||
|}
Administration
The island of Borneo is divided administratively by three countries.
* The independent sultanate of Brunei (main part and eastern exclave of Temburong)
* The Indonesian provinces of East, South, West, North and Central Kalimantan, in Kalimantan
* The East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, as well as the Federal Territory of Labuan (on offshore islands nearby)
Economy
Borneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining, oil and gas, and ecotourism. Brunei's economy is highly dependent on the oil and gas production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in Southeast Asia. The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters of timber.
}}
Further reading
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External links
*
*
* [http://www.mongabay.com/borneo.html Environmental Profile of Borneo] – Background on Borneo, including natural and social history, deforestation statistics, and conservation news.
Category:Greater Sunda Islands
Category:International islands
Category:Islands of Brunei
Category:Islands of Malaysia
Category:Maritime Southeast Asia
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borneo
|
2025-04-05T18:26:52.551305
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4519
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Ballpoint pen
|
Ball Pen (film)}}
(original)<br /> (modern)
| manufacturer = Bic and others
}}
A ballpoint pen, also known as a biro (Nepali English and South Asian English), is a pen that dispenses ink (usually in paste form) over a metal ball at its point, i.e., over a "ball point". The metals commonly used are steel, brass, or tungsten carbide. The design was conceived and developed as a cleaner and more reliable alternative to dip pens and fountain pens, and it is now the world's most-used writing instrument; was issued on 30 October 1888 to John J. Loud, who was attempting to make a writing instrument that would be able to write "on rough surfaces—such as wood, coarse wrapping paper, and other articles" which fountain pens could not. Loud's pen had a small rotating steel ball held in place by a socket. Although it could be used to mark rough surfaces such as leather, as Loud intended, it proved too coarse for letter-writing. With no commercial viability, its potential went unexploited,
László Bíró, a Hungarian newspaper editor (later a naturalized Argentine) frustrated by the amount of time that he wasted filling up fountain pens and cleaning up smudged pages, noticed that inks used in newspaper printing dried quickly, leaving the paper dry and smudge-free. He decided to create a pen using the same type of ink. to develop viscous ink formulae for new ballpoint designs.
In 1941, the Bíró brothers and a friend, Juan Jorge Meyne, fled Germany and moved to Argentina, where they formed "Bíró Pens of Argentina" and filed a new patent in 1943. Ballpoint pens were found to be more versatile than fountain pens, especially in airplanes, where fountain pens were prone to leak.Postwar proliferationFollowing World War II, many companies vied to commercially produce their own ballpoint pen design. In pre-war Argentina, success of the Birome ballpoint was limited, but in mid-1945, the Eversharp Co., a maker of mechanical pencils, teamed up with Eberhard Faber Co. to license the rights from Birome for sales in the United States.
During the same period, American entrepreneur Milton Reynolds came across a Birome ballpoint pen during a business trip to Buenos Aires, Argentina. Reynolds went to great extremes to market the pen, with great success; Gimbel's sold many thousands of pens within one week. In Britain, the Miles-(Harry) Martin pen company was producing the first commercially successful ballpoint pens there by the end of 1945.
Neither Reynolds' nor Eversharp's ballpoint lived up to consumer expectations in America. Ballpoint pen sales peaked in 1946, and consumer interest subsequently plunged due to market saturation, going from luxury good to fungible consumable. advertising campaign in the 1960s. Production in China Many industrial sites specialized in pen production were created in China. One important production site is the Fenshui Township. Their ballpoint pen production started in 1974, when the Hangzhou Ballpoint Pen Factory inciated it's production using bamboo. The Wengang Township has a long tradition of brush pen production, but all kinds of pens are produced, including ballpoint pens. In 2002, China's Pen Capital was constructed in Wenzhou, with an investment of ¥ 600 million. AIHAO was one of the first companies to move to the industrial site. Their most famous product is the ball-point pen. 210-211]}}
In the 2000's, China ballpoint pen production skyrocketed. In 2017, China produced 38 billion ballpoint pens per year, 80% of the global market. But the country had a problem in doing precision engineering, including the ballpoint pen tip, that had to be imported from Germany, Switzerland and Japan for the cost of ¥ 120 million a year. The subject was criticized by western media. Forbes argued that the lack of IP protections were the cause of it, as the country wouldn't attract investments in innovation. Financial Times argued that because of Chinese self-sufficiency policy, companies handled the entire supply chain by themselves, thus creating inefficiency. Hong Kong Economic Journal declared that "the day China can produce a 100% homemade ball pen will be the day it truly qualifies as a first-class industrial power".
Since 2011, the Ministry of Science and Technology invested $ 8.7 million in the production of the tips. Beifa Group worked with Taiyuan Iron & Steel Group (TISCO) with no success. The achievement reached the front-page news, was discussed in talk shows and celebrated on social media.
Inks
Ballpoint pen ink is normally a paste containing around 25 to 40 percent dye. The dyes are suspended in a mixture of solvents and fatty acids. The most common of the solvents are benzyl alcohol or phenoxyethanol, which mix with the dyes and oils to create a smooth paste that dries quickly. This type of ink is also called "oil-based ink". The fatty acids help to lubricate the ball tip while writing. Hybrid inks also contain added lubricants in the ink to provide a smoother writing experience. The drying time of the ink varies depending upon the viscosity of the ink and the diameter of the ball.
In general, the more viscous the ink, the faster it will dry, but more writing pressure needs to be applied to dispense ink. But although they are less viscous, hybrid inks have a faster drying time compared to normal ballpoint inks. Also, a larger ball dispenses more ink and thus increases drying time.
The dyes used in blue and black ballpoint pens are basic dyes based on triarylmethane and acid dyes derived from diazo compounds or phthalocyanine. Common dyes in blue (and black) ink are Prussian blue, Victoria blue, methyl violet, crystal violet, and phthalocyanine blue. The dye eosin is commonly used for red ink.
The inks are resistant to water after drying but can be defaced by certain solvents which include acetone and various alcohols.
Types of ballpoint pens
ballpoint pens shown in four basic ink colors]]
Ballpoint pens are produced in both disposable and refillable models. Refills allow for the entire internal ink reservoir, including a ballpoint and socket, to be replaced. Such characteristics are usually associated with designer-type pens or those constructed of finer materials. The simplest types of ballpoint pens are disposable and have a cap to cover the tip when the pen is not in use, or a mechanism for retracting the tip, Compared to oil-based ballpoints, rollerball pens are said to provide more fluid ink-flow, but the water-based inks will blot if held stationary against the writing surface. Water-based inks also remain wet longer when freshly applied and are thus prone to "smearing"—posing problems to left-handed people (or right handed people writing right-to-left script)—and "running", should the writing surface become wet.
Some ballpoint pens use a hybrid ink formulation whose viscosity is lower than that of standard ballpoint ink, but greater than rollerball ink. These pens are also labelled "extra smooth", as they offer a smoother writing experience compared to normal ballpoint pens.
Ballpoint pens with erasable ink were pioneered by the Paper Mate pen company. It was the Bic company's first product and is still synonymous with the company name. The Bic Cristal is part of the permanent collection at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, acknowledged for its industrial design.
]]
Multi-pens are pens that feature multiple varying colored pen refills. Sometimes ballpoint refills are combined with another non-ballpoint refill, usually a mechanical pencil. Sometimes ballpoint pens combine a ballpoint tip on one end and touchscreen stylus on the other.
Ballpoint pens are sometimes provided free by businesses, such as hotels and banks, printed with a company's name and logo. Ballpoints have also been produced to commemorate events, such as a pen commemorating the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy.
Technology developed by Fisher pens in the United States resulted in the production of what came to be known as the "Fisher Space Pen". Space Pens combine a more viscous ink with a pressurized ink reservoir Astronauts have made use of these pens in outer space. Standard components of a ballpoint tip include the freely rotating "ball" itself (distributing the ink on the writing surface), a "socket" holding the ball in place, small "ink channels" that provide ink to the ball through the socket, and a self-contained "ink reservoir" supplying ink to the ball.Standards
The International Organization for Standardization has published standards for ball point and roller ball pens:
; ISO 12756:1998: Drawing and writing instruments – Ball point pens – Vocabulary
; ISO 12757-1:1998: Ball point pens and refills – Part 1: General use
; ISO 12757-2:1998: Ball point pens and refills – Part 2: Documentary use (DOC)
; ISO 14145-1:1998: Roller ball pens and refills – Part 1: General use
; ISO 14145-2:1998: Roller ball pens and refills – Part 2: Documentary use (DOC)
Guinness World Records
* The world's largest functioning ballpoint pen was made by Acharya Makunuri Srinivasa in India. The pen measures long and weighs .
* The world's most popular pen is the Bic Cristal, with the 100 billionth model sold in September, 2006. The Bic Cristal was launched in December 1950 and roughly 57 are sold per second. See also
* Gel pen
* List of pen types, brands and companies
* Retractable pen
* Rollerball pen
* Ballpoint pen knife
References
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190913070341/http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/ballpen.htm Fascinating facts about the invention of the Ballpoint Pen by Ladislas Biro in 1935] (archived 13 September 2019)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130522234407/http://jewish.hu/view.php?clabel=biro_laszlo Laszlo Biro on Jewish.hu's list of famous Hungarians] (archived 22 May 2013)
Category:American inventions
Category:Argentine inventions
Category:Hungarian inventions
Category:Pens
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Burroughs Corporation
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| location = St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.
| foundation =
| defunct =
| fate = Merged with the Sperry Corporation
| founder = William Seward Burroughs I
| industry =
}}
The Burroughs Corporation was a major American manufacturer of business equipment. The company was founded in 1886 as the American Arithmometer Company by William Seward Burroughs. The company's history paralleled many of the major developments in computing. At its start, it produced mechanical adding machines, and later moved into programmable ledgers and then computers. It was one of the largest producers of mainframe computers in the world, also producing related equipment including typewriters and printers.
In the 1960s, the company introduced a range of mainframe computers that were well regarded for their performance running high level languages. These formed the core of the company's business into the 1970s. At that time the emergence of superminicomputers and the dominance of the IBM System/360 and 370 at the high end led to shrinking markets, and in 1986 the company purchased former competitor Sperry UNIVAC and merged their operations to form Unisys.
Early history
]]
In 1886, the American Arithmometer Company was established in St. Louis, Missouri, to produce and sell an adding machine invented by William Seward Burroughs (grandfather of Beat Generation author William S. Burroughs). In 1904, six years after Burroughs' death, the company moved to Detroit and changed its name to the Burroughs Adding Machine Company. It was soon the biggest adding machine company in America.
Evolving product lines
The adding machine range began with the basic, hand-cranked Class 1 which was only capable of adding. The design included some revolutionary features, foremost of which was the dashpot which governed the speed at which the operating lever could be pulled so allowing the mechanism to operate consistently correctly. The machine also had a full-keyboard with a separate column of keys 1 to 9 for each decade where the keys latch when pressed, with interlocking which prevented more than one key in any decade from being latched. The latching allowed the operator to quickly check that the correct number had been entered before pulling the operating lever. The numbers entered and the final total were printed on a roll of paper at the rear, so there was no danger of the operator writing down the wrong answer and there was a copy of the calculation which could be checked later if necessary.
The Class 2 machine, called the "duplex" and built in the same basic style, provided a means of keeping two separate totals. The Class 6 machine was built for bookkeeping work and provided the ability for direct subtraction.
Burroughs released the Class 3 and Class 4 adding machines which were built after the purchase of the Pike Adding Machine Company around 1910. These machines provided a significant improvement over the older models because operators could view the printing on the paper tape. The machines were called "the visible" for this improvement.
In 1925 Burroughs released a much smaller machine called "the portable". Two models were released, the Class 8 (without subtraction) and the Class 9 with subtraction capability. Later models continued to be released with the P600 and top-of-the-range P612 offered some limited programmability based upon the position of the movable carriage. The range was further extended by the inclusion of the Series J ten-key machines which provided a single finger calculation facility, and the Class 5 (later called Series C) key-driven calculators in both manual and electrical assisted comptometers.
In the late 1960s, the Burroughs sponsored "nixi-tube" provided an electronic display calculator. Burroughs developed a range of adding machines with different capabilities, gradually increasing in their capabilities. A revolutionary adding machine was the Sensimatic, which was able to perform many business functions semi-automatically. It had a moving programmable carriage to maintain ledgers. It could store 9, 18 or 27 balances during the ledger posting operations and worked with a mechanical adder named a Crossfooter. The Sensimatic developed into the Sensitronic which could store balances on a magnetic stripe which was part of the ledger card. This balance was read into the accumulator when the card was inserted into the carriage. The Sensitronic was followed by the E1000, E2000, E3000, E4000, E6000 and the E8000, which were computer systems supporting card reader/punches and a line printer.
Later, Burroughs was selling more than adding machines, including typewriters.
Move into computers
The biggest shift in company history came in 1953: the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was renamed the Burroughs Corporation and began moving into digital computer products, initially for banking institutions. This move began with Burroughs' purchase in June 1956, of the ElectroData Corporation in Pasadena, California, a spinoff of the Consolidated Engineering Corporation which had designed test instruments and had a cooperative relationship with Caltech in Pasadena. ElectroData had built the Datatron 205 and was working on the Datatron 220. the L and TC series range was produced (e.g. the TC500—Terminal Computer 500) which had a golf ball printer and in the beginning a 1K (64 bit) disk memory. These were popular as branch terminals to the B5500/6500/6700 systems, and sold well in the banking sector, where they were often connected to non-Burroughs mainframes. In conjunction with these products, Burroughs also manufactured an extensive range of cheque processing equipment, normally attached as terminals to a medium systems such as B200/B300 and larger systems such as a B2700 or B1700.
In the 1950s, Burroughs worked with the Federal Reserve Bank on the development and computer processing of magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) especially for the processing of bank cheques. Burroughs made special MICR/OCR sorter/readers which attached to their medium systems line of computers (2700/3700/4700) and B200/B300 systems and this entrenched the company in the computer side of the banking industry.
A force in the computing industry
Burroughs was one of the nine major United States computer companies in the 1960s, with IBM the largest, Honeywell, NCR Corporation, Control Data Corporation (CDC), General Electric (GE), Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), RCA and Sperry Rand (UNIVAC line). In terms of sales, Burroughs was always a distant second to IBM. In fact, IBM's market share was so much larger than all of the others that this group was often referred to as "IBM and the Seven Dwarves." By 1972 when GE and RCA were no longer in the mainframe business, the remaining five companies behind IBM became known as the BUNCH, an acronym based on their initials.
At the same time, Burroughs was very much a competitor. Like IBM, Burroughs tried to supply a complete line of products for its customers, including Burroughs-designed printers, disk drives, tape drives, computer printing paper and typewriter ribbons.
Developments and innovations
The Burroughs Corporation developed three highly innovative architectures, based on the design philosophy of "language-directed design". Their machine instruction sets favored one or many high level programming languages, such as ALGOL, COBOL or FORTRAN. All three architectures were considered mainframe class machines:
* The Burroughs Large Systems machines started with the B5000 in 1961. The B5500 came a few years later when large rotating disks replaced drums as the main external memory media. These B5000 Series systems used the world's first virtual memory multi-programming operating system. They were followed by the B6500/B6700 in the later 1960s, the B7700 in the mid-1970s, and the A series in the 1980s. The underlying architecture of these machines is similar and continues today as the Unisys ClearPath MCP line of computers: stack machines designed to be programmed in an extended Algol 60. Their operating systems, called MCP (Master Control Program—the name later borrowed by the screenwriters for Tron), were programmed in ESPOL (Executive Systems Programming Oriented Language, a minor extension of ALGOL) and DCALGOL (Data Communications ALGOL) and later in NEWP (with further extensions to ALGOL) almost a decade before Unix. The command interface developed into a compiled structured language with declarations, statements and procedures called WFL (Work Flow Language).
Many computer scientists consider these series of computers to be technologically groundbreaking. Stack oriented processors, with 48 bit word length where each word was defined as data or program contributed significantly to a secure operating environment, long before spyware and viruses affected computing. The modularity of these large systems was unique: multiple CPUs, multiple memory modules and multiple I/O and Data Comm processors permitted incremental and cost effective growth of system performance and reliability.
In industries like banking, where continuous operations was mandatory, Burroughs Large Systems penetrated nearly every large bank, including the Federal Reserve Bank. Burroughs built the backbone switching systems for Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication (SWIFT) which sent its first message in 1977. Unisys is still the provider to SWIFT today.
* Burroughs produced the B2500 or "medium systems" computers aimed primarily at the business world. The machines were designed to execute COBOL efficiently. This included a BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) based arithmetic unit, storing and addressing the main memory using base 10 numbering instead of binary. The designation for these systems was Burroughs B2500 through B49xx, followed by Unisys V-Series V340 through V560.
* Burroughs produced the B1700 or "small systems" computers that were designed to be microprogrammed, with each process potentially getting its own virtual machine designed to be the best match to the programming language chosen for the program being run.
* The smallest general-purpose computers were the B700 "microprocessors" which were used both as stand-alone systems and as special-purpose data-communications or disk-subsystem controllers.
* Burroughs manufactured an extensive range of accounting machines including stand-alone systems such as the Sensimatic, L500 and B80 and dedicated terminals including the TC500 and specialised check processing equipment.
* In 1982, Burroughs began producing personal computers, the B20 and B25 lines with the Intel 8086/8088 family of 16-bit chips as the processor. These ran the BTOS operating system, which Burroughs licensed from Convergent Technologies. These machines implemented an early local area network to share a hard disk between workgroup users. These microcomputers were later manufactured in Kunming, China for use in China under agreement with Burroughs.
* Burroughs collaborated with University of Illinois on a multiprocessor architecture developing the ILLIAC IV computer in the early 1960s. The ILLIAC had up to 128 parallel processors while the B6700 & B7700 only accommodated a total of 7 CPUs and/or I/O units (the 8th unit was the memory tester).
* Burroughs made military computers, such as the D825 (the "D" prefix signifying it was for defense industrial use), in its Great Valley Laboratory in Paoli, Pennsylvania. The D825 was, according to some scholars, the first true multiprocessor computer. Paoli was also home to the Defense and Space Group Marketing Division.
* In 1964 Burroughs had completed the D830 which was another variation of the D825 designed specifically for real-time applications, such as airline reservations. Burroughs designated the B8300 after Trans World Airlines (TWA) ordered one in September 1965. A system with three instruction processors was installed at TWA's reservations center in Rockleigh, New Jersey in 1968. The system, which was called George, with an application programmed in JOVIAL, was intended to support some 4000 terminals, but the system experienced repeated crashes due to a filing system disk allocation error when operating under a large load. A fourth processor was added but did nothing to resolve the problem. The problem was resolved in late 1970 and the system became stable. The decision to cancel the project was being made at the very time that the problem was resolved. TWA cancelled the project and acquired one IBM System/360 Model 75, two IBM System/360 model 65s, and IBM's PARS software for its reservations system. TWA sued Burroughs for non-fulfillment of the contract, but Burroughs counter-sued, stating that the basic system did work and that the problems were in TWA's applications software. The two companies reached an out-of-court settlement.
* Burroughs developed a half-size version of the D825 called the D82, cutting the word size from 48 to 24 bits and simplifying the computer's instruction set. The D82 could have up to 32,768 words of core memory and continued the use of separate instruction and I/O processors. Burroughs sold a D82 to Air Canada to handle reservations for trips originating in Montreal and Quebec. This design was further refined and made much more compact as the D84 machine which was completed in 1965. A D84 processor/memory unit with 4096 words of memory occupied just . This system was used successfully in two military projects: field test systems used to check the electronics of the Air Force General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark fighter plane and systems used to control the countdown and launch of the Army's Pershing 1 and 1a missile systems.Merger with Sperry
In September 1986, Burroughs Corporation merged with Sperry Corporation to form Unisys. For a time, the combined company retained the Burroughs processors as the A- and V-systems lines. As the market for large systems shifted from proprietary architectures to common servers, the company eventually dropped the V-Series line, although customers continued to use V-series systems . Unisys continues to develop and market the A-Series, now known as ClearPath. Burroughs Payment Systems
| parent = Marlin Equity Partners
| products = Payment processors
| website =
}}
In 2010, Unisys sold off its Payment Systems Division to Marlin Equity Partners, a California-based private investment firm, which incorporated it as Burroughs Payment Systems, Inc. (later just Burroughs, Inc.), based in Plymouth, Michigan.
References in popular culture
Burroughs B205 hardware has appeared as props in many Hollywood television and film productions from the late 1950s. For example, a B205 console was often shown in the television series Batman as the Bat Computer; also as the flight computer in Lost in Space. B205 tape drives were often seen in series such as The Time Tunnel and Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea.
Burroughs equipment was also featured in the movie The Angry Red Planet.
References
Further reading
* Allweiss, Jack A., [https://web.archive.org/web/20131202234301/http://jack.hoa.org/hoajaa/Burr126b.html "Evolution of Burroughs Stack Architecture - Mainframe Computers"], 2010
* Barton, Robert S. "A New Approach to the Functional Design of a Digital Computer" Proc. western joint computer Conf. ACM (1961).
*
*
*Hauck, E.A., Dent, Ben A. "Burroughs B6500/B7500 Stack Mechanism", SJCC (1968) pp. 245–251.
* Martin, Ian L. (2012) [https://leedsmet.academia.edu/IanMartin/Papers/1583479/Too_far_ahead_of_its_time_Barclays_Burroughs_and_real-time_banking "Too far ahead of its time: Barclays, Burroughs and real-time banking"], IEEE Annals of the History of Computing 34(2), pp. 5–19. . (Draft version)
* Mayer, Alastair J.W., [http://www.smecc.org/The%20Architecture%20%20of%20the%20Burroughs%20B-5000.htm "The Architecture of the Burroughs B5000 - 20 Years Later and Still Ahead of the Times?"], ACM Computer Architecture News, 1982 (archived at the Southwest Museum of Engineering, Communications and Computation. Glendale, Arizona)
*McKeeman, William M. "Language Directed Computer Design", FJCC (1967) pp. 413–417.
* Morgan, Bryan, "Total to Date: The Evolution of the Adding Machine: The Story of Burroughs", Burroughs Adding Machine Limited London, 1953.
*Organick, Elliot I. [http://www.bitsavers.org/pdf/burroughs/LargeSystems/B5000_5500_5700/Organick_Computer_System_Organization_The_B5700_B6700_Series_1973.pdf "Computer System Organization The B5700/B6700 series"], Academic Press (1973)
*Wilner, Wayne T. "Design of the B1700", FJCC pp. 489–497 (1972).
* Wilner, Wayne T., [https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_burroughsBgnImpMay72_2101971/mode/1up "B1700 Design and Implementation"], Burroughs Corporation, Santa Barbara Plant, Goleta, California, May 1972.
External links
* [http://purl.umn.edu/41129 Burroughs Corporation Records] Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. Collection contains the records of the Burroughs Corporation, and its predecessors the American Arithmometer Company and Burroughs Adding Machine Company. Materials include corporate records, photographs, films and video tapes, scrapbooks, papers of employees and the records of companies acquired by Burroughs. CBI's Burroughs Corporation Records includes over 100,000 photographs depicting the entire visual history of Burroughs from its origin as the American Arithmometer Corporation in 1886 to its merger with the Sperry Corporation to form the Unisys Corporation in 1986.
* [http://www.cbi.umn.edu/images/index.html Burroughs Corporation Photo Database] at the Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. The searchable photo database permits browsing and retrieval of over 550 historical images.
* [http://purl.umn.edu/107105 "Burroughs B 5000 Conference, OH 98"], Oral history on 6 September 1985, Marina del Ray, California. Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. The Burroughs 5000 computer series is discussed by individuals responsible for its development and marketing from 1957 through the 1960s in a 1985 conference sponsored by AFIPS and Burroughs Corporation.
* [http://purl.umn.edu/104351 Oral history interview with Isaac Levin Auerbach] Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. Auerbach discusses his work at Burroughs 1949–1957 managing development for the SAGE project, BEAM I computer, the Intercontinental Ballistic Missile System, a magnetic core encryption communications system, and Atlas missile.
* [http://purl.umn.edu/107210 Oral history interview with Robert V. D. Campbell]. Discusses his work at Burroughs (1949–1966) as director of research and in program planning.
* [http://purl.umn.edu/107213 Oral history interview with Alfred Doughty Cavanaugh] Cavanaugh discusses the work of his grandfather, A. J. Doughty, with William Seward Burroughs and the Burroughs Adding Machine Company.
* [http://purl.umn.edu/107630 Oral history interview with Carel Sellenraad] Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. Sellenraad describes his long association with Burroughs Adding Machine Company, and the impact of World Wars I & II on the sales and service of calculators, and adding and bookkeeping machines in Europe.
* [http://purl.umn.edu/107635 Oral history interview with Ovid M. Smith] Charles Babbage Institute University of Minnesota. Smith reviews his 46½ year career at Burroughs Adding Machine Company (later Burroughs Corporation).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120802080919/http://www.cs.virginia.edu/about/museum/ "Early Burroughs Machines"], University of Virginia's Computer Museum.
* [http://bitsavers.org/pdf/burroughs/ Older Burroughs computer manuals online]
* [http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/BRL64-b.html Burroughs computers such as the D825 at BRL]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070922205535/http://www.burroughsinfo.com/ An historical Burroughs Adding Machine Company/Burroughs site]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070929100000/http://www.burroughsinfo.com/~hancockm/manufacturing_plants.htm Unofficial list of Burroughs manufacturing plants and labs]
* [http://www.ianjoyner.name Ian Joyner's Burroughs page]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130521171833/http://jack.hoa.org/hoajaa/b5900.htm The Burroughs B5900 and E-Mode: A bridge to 21st Century Computing] - Jack Allweiss
Category:1886 establishments in Missouri
Category:1986 disestablishments in the United States
Category:American companies established in 1886
Category:American companies disestablished in 1986
Category:Companies based in St. Louis
Category:Computer companies established in 1886
Category:Computer companies disestablished in 1986
Category:Defunct companies based in Missouri
Category:Defunct computer companies of the United States
Category:Defunct computer hardware companies
Category:Defunct computer systems companies
Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1886
Category:Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1986
Category:Mechanical calculator companies
Category:Technology companies disestablished in 1986
Category:Unisys
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Brick
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with bricks of various shades and lengths.]]
laid with alternating courses of headers and stretchers.]]
A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term brick denotes a unit primarily composed of clay, but is now also used informally to denote units made of other materials or other chemically cured construction blocks. Bricks can be joined using mortar, adhesives or by interlocking. Bricks are usually produced at brickworks in numerous classes, types, materials, and sizes which vary with region, and are produced in bulk quantities.
Block is a similar term referring to a rectangular building unit composed of clay or concrete, but is usually larger than a brick. Lightweight bricks (also called lightweight blocks) are made from expanded clay aggregate.
, Iran]]
Fired bricks are one of the longest-lasting and strongest building materials, sometimes referred to as artificial stone, and have been used since . Air-dried bricks, also known as mudbricks, have a history older than fired bricks, and have an additional ingredient of a mechanical binder such as straw.
Bricks are laid in courses and numerous patterns known as bonds, collectively known as brickwork, and may be laid in various kinds of mortar to hold the bricks together to make a durable structure.
History
Middle East and South Asia
stupa of Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka is one of the largest brick structures in the world.]]
The earliest bricks were dried mudbricks, meaning that they were formed from clay-bearing earth or mud and dried (usually in the sun) until they were strong enough for use. The oldest discovered bricks, originally made from shaped mud and dating before 7500 BC, were found at Tell Aswad, in the upper Tigris region and in southeast Anatolia close to Diyarbakir.
Mudbrick construction was used at Çatalhöyük, from c. 7,400 BC.
Mudbrick structures, dating to c. 7,200 BC have been located in Jericho, Jordan Valley. These structures were made up of the first bricks with dimension 400x150x100 mm.
Between 5000 and 4500 BC, Mesopotamia had discovered fired brick.
The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh also constructed air-dried mudbrick structures between 7000 and 3300 BC and later the ancient Indus Valley cities of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, and Mehrgarh. Ceramic, or fired brick was used as early as 3000 BC in early Indus Valley cities like Kalibangan.
In the middle of the third millennium BC, there was a rise in monumental baked brick architecture in Indus cities. Examples included the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro, the fire altars of Kaalibangan, and the granary of Harappa. There was a uniformity to the brick sizes throughout the Indus Valley region, conforming to the 1:2:4, thickness, width, and length ratio. As the Indus civilization began its decline at the start of the second millennium BC, Harappans migrated east, spreading their knowledge of brickmaking technology. This led to the rise of cities like Pataliputra, Kausambi, and Ujjain, where there was an enormous demand for kiln-made bricks.
By 604 BC, bricks were the construction materials for architectural wonders such as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, where glazed fired bricks were put into practice. These bricks were made of red clay, fired on all sides to above 600 °C, and used as flooring for houses. By the Qujialing period (3300 BC), fired bricks were being used to pave roads and as building foundations at Chengtoushan.
According to Lukas Nickel, the use of ceramic pieces for protecting and decorating floors and walls dates back at various cultural sites to 3000-2000 BC and perhaps even before, but these elements should be rather qualified as tiles. For the longest time builders relied on wood, mud and rammed earth, while fired brick and mudbrick played no structural role in architecture. Proper brick construction, for erecting walls and vaults, finally emerges in the third century BC, when baked bricks of regular shape began to be employed for vaulting underground tombs. Hollow brick tomb chambers rose in popularity as builders were forced to adapt due to a lack of readily available wood or stone. The oldest extant brick building above ground is possibly Songyue Pagoda, dated to 523 AD.
By the end of the third century BC in China, both hollow and small bricks were available for use in building walls and ceilings. Fired bricks were first mass-produced during the construction of the tomb of China's first Emperor, Qin Shi Huangdi. The floors of the three pits of the Terracotta Army were paved with an estimated 230,000 bricks, with the majority measuring 28x14x7 cm, following a 4:2:1 ratio. The use of fired bricks in Chinese city walls first appeared in the Eastern Han dynasty (25 AD-220 AD). Up until the Middle Ages, buildings in Central Asia were typically built with unbaked bricks. It was only starting in the ninth century CE when buildings were entirely constructed using fired bricks. The Roman legions operated mobile kilns, and built large brick structures throughout the Roman Empire, stamping the bricks with the seal of the legion. The Romans used brick for walls, arches, forts, aqueducts, etc. Notable mentions of Roman brick structures are the Herculaneum gate of Pompeii and the baths of Caracalla.
During the Early Middle Ages the use of bricks in construction became popular in Northern Europe, after being introduced there from Northwestern Italy. An independent style of brick architecture, known as brick Gothic (similar to Gothic architecture) flourished in places that lacked indigenous sources of rocks. Examples of this architectural style can be found in modern-day Denmark, Germany, Poland, and Kaliningrad (former East Prussia).
of the Teutonic Order in Poland – the largest brick castle in the world]]
This style evolved into the Brick Renaissance as the stylistic changes associated with the Italian Renaissance spread to northern Europe, leading to the adoption of Renaissance elements into brick building. Identifiable attributes included a low-pitched hipped or flat roof, symmetrical facade, round arch entrances and windows, columns and pilasters, and more.
A clear distinction between the two styles only developed at the transition to Baroque architecture. In Lübeck, for example, Brick Renaissance is clearly recognisable in buildings equipped with terracotta reliefs by the artist Statius von Düren, who was also active at Schwerin (Schwerin Castle) and Wismar (Fürstenhof).
Long-distance bulk transport of bricks and other construction equipment remained prohibitively expensive until the development of modern transportation infrastructure, with the construction of canal, roads, and railways.
Industrial era
in Mérida, Spain (designed by Rafael Moneo and built in the 1980s) the coating of hard-fired clay bricks forms a compression-resistant element together with the fill of non-reinforced concrete.]]
Production of bricks increased massively with the onset of the Industrial Revolution and the rise in factory building in England. For reasons of speed and economy, bricks were increasingly preferred as building material to stone, even in areas where the stone was readily available. It was at this time in London that bright red brick was chosen for construction to make the buildings more visible in the heavy fog and to help prevent traffic accidents.
The transition from the traditional method of production known as hand-moulding to a mechanised form of mass-production slowly took place during the first half of the nineteenth century. The first brick-making machine was patented by Richard A. Ver Valen of Haverstraw, New York, in 1852. The Bradley & Craven Ltd 'Stiff-Plastic Brickmaking Machine' was patented in 1853. Bradley & Craven went on to be a dominant manufacturer of brickmaking machinery. Henry Clayton, employed at the Atlas Works in Middlesex, England, in 1855, patented a brick-making machine that was capable of producing up to 25,000 bricks daily with minimal supervision. His mechanical apparatus soon achieved widespread attention after it was adopted for use by the South Eastern Railway Company for brick-making at their factory near Folkestone.
At the end of the 19th century, the Hudson River region of New York State would become the world's largest brick manufacturing region, with 130 brickyards lining the shores of the Hudson River from Mechanicsville to Haverstraw and employing 8,000 people. At its peak, about 1 billion bricks were produced a year, with many being sent to New York City for use in its construction industry.
The demand for high office building construction at the turn of the 20th century led to a much greater use of cast and wrought iron, and later, steel and concrete. The use of brick for skyscraper construction severely limited the size of the building – the Monadnock Building, built in 1896 in Chicago, required exceptionally thick walls to maintain the structural integrity of its 17 storeys.
Following pioneering work in the 1950s at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology and the Building Research Establishment in Watford, UK, the use of improved masonry for the construction of tall structures up to 18 storeys high was made viable. However, the use of brick has largely remained restricted to small to medium-sized buildings, as steel and concrete remain superior materials for high-rise construction. Methods of manufacture
Four basic types of brick are un-fired, fired, chemically set bricks, and compressed earth blocks. Each type is manufactured differently for various purposes.
Mudbrick
Unfired bricks, also known as mudbrick, are made from a mixture of silt, clay, sand and other earth materials like gravel and stone, combined with tempers and binding agents such as chopped straw, grasses, tree bark, or dung. Since these bricks are made up of natural materials and only require heat from the Sun to bake, mudbricks have a relatively low embodied energy and carbon footprint.
The ingredients are first harvested and added together, with clay content ranging from 30% to 70%. The mixture is broken up with hoes or adzes, and stirred with water to form a homogenous blend. Next, the tempers and binding agents are added in a ratio, roughly one part straw to five parts earth to reduce weight and reinforce the brick by helping reduce shrinkage. However, additional clay could be added to reduce the need for straw, which would prevent the likelihood of insects deteriorating the organic material of the bricks, subsequently weakening the structure. These ingredients are thoroughly mixed together by hand or by treading and are then left to ferment for about a day.
One proposed optimal mix is:
# Silica (sand) – 50% to 60% by weight
# Alumina (clay) – 20% to 30% by weight
# Lime – 2 to 5% by weight
# Iron oxide – ≤ 7% by weight
# Magnesia – less than 1% by weight
Shaping methods
Three main methods are used for shaping the raw materials into bricks to be fired:
* Moulded bricks – These bricks start with raw clay, preferably in a mix with 25–30% sand to reduce shrinkage. The clay is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency. The clay is then pressed into steel moulds with a hydraulic press. The shaped clay is then fired at to achieve strength.
* Dry-pressed bricks – The dry-press method is similar to the soft-mud moulded method, but starts with a much thicker clay mix, so it forms more accurate, sharper-edged bricks. The greater force in pressing and the longer firing time make this method more expensive.
* Extruded bricks – For extruded bricks the clay is mixed with 10–15% water (stiff extrusion) or 20–25% water (soft extrusion) in a pugmill. This mixture is forced through a die to create a long cable of material of the desired width and depth. This mass is then cut into bricks of the desired length by a wall of wires. Most structural bricks are made by this method as it produces hard, dense bricks, and suitable dies can produce perforations as well. The introduction of such holes reduces the volume of clay needed, and hence the cost. Hollow bricks are lighter and easier to handle, and have different thermal properties from solid bricks. The cut bricks are hardened by drying for 20 to 40 hours at before being fired. The heat for drying is often waste heat from the kiln. Kilns
brickmaker at kiln near Ngcobo in 2007]]
In many modern brickworks, bricks are usually fired in a continuously fired tunnel kiln, in which the bricks are fired as they move slowly through the kiln on conveyors, rails, or kiln cars, which achieves a more consistent brick product. The bricks often have lime, ash, and organic matter added, which accelerates the burning process.
The other major kiln type is the Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British engineer W. Bull in the late 19th century.
An oval or circular trench is dug, wide, deep, and in circumference. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the centre. Half or more of the trench is filled with "green" (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern to allow airflow. The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of finished brick.
In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the brick pile. Historically, a stack of unfired bricks covered for protection from the weather was called a "hack". Cooled finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport to their destinations. In the middle, the brick workers create a firing zone by dropping fuel (coal, wood, oil, debris, etc.) through access holes in the roof above the trench. The constant source of fuel maybe grown on the woodlots.
Influences on colour
]]
The colour of fired clay bricks is influenced by the chemical and mineral content of the raw materials, the firing temperature, and the atmosphere in the kiln. For example, pink bricks are the result of a high iron content, white or yellow bricks have a higher lime content. Most bricks burn to various red hues; as the temperature is increased the colour moves through dark red, purple, and then to brown or grey at around . The names of bricks may reflect their origin and colour, such as London stock brick and Cambridgeshire White. Brick tinting may be performed to change the colour of bricks to blend-in areas of brickwork with the surrounding masonry.
An impervious and ornamental surface may be laid on brick either by salt glazing, in which salt is added during the burning process, or by the use of a slip, which is a glaze material into which the bricks are dipped. Subsequent reheating in the kiln fuses the slip into a glazed surface integral with the brick base.
Chemically set bricks
Chemically set bricks are not fired but may have the curing process accelerated by the application of heat and pressure in an autoclave.
Calcium-silicate bricks
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NB: This is NOT related to the chemical compound "calcium silicate"
These are bricks made from calcium compounds (lime) and silicate compounds (sand)
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Calcium-silicate bricks are also called sandlime or flintlime bricks, depending on their ingredients. Rather than being made with clay they are made with lime binding the silicate material. The raw materials for calcium-silicate bricks include lime mixed in a proportion of about 1 to 10 with sand, quartz, crushed flint, or crushed siliceous rock together with mineral colourants. The materials are mixed and left until the lime is completely hydrated; the mixture is then pressed into moulds and cured in an autoclave for three to fourteen hours to speed the chemical hardening. The finished bricks are very accurate and uniform, although the sharp arrises need careful handling to avoid damage to brick and bricklayer. The bricks can be made in a variety of colours; white, black, buff, and grey-blues are common, and pastel shades can be achieved. This type of brick is common in Sweden as well as Russia and other post-Soviet countries, especially in houses built or renovated in the 1970s. A version known as fly ash bricks, manufactured using fly ash, lime, and gypsum (known as the FaL-G process) are common in South Asia. Calcium-silicate bricks are also manufactured in Canada and the United States, and meet the criteria set forth in ASTM C73 – 10 Standard Specification for Calcium Silicate Brick (Sand-Lime Brick). Concrete bricks
Town, Hainan, China. This operation produces a pallet containing 42 bricks, approximately every 30 seconds.]]
Bricks formed from concrete are usually termed as blocks or concrete masonry unit, and are typically pale grey. They are made from a dry, small aggregate concrete which is formed in steel moulds by vibration and compaction in either an "egglayer" or static machine. The finished blocks are cured, rather than fired, using low-pressure steam. Concrete bricks and blocks are manufactured in a wide range of shapes, sizes and face treatments – a number of which simulate the appearance of clay bricks.
Concrete bricks are available in many colours and as an engineering brick made with sulfate-resisting Portland cement or equivalent. When made with adequate amount of cement they are suitable for harsh environments such as wet conditions and retaining walls. They are made to standards BS 6073, EN 771-3 or ASTM C55. Concrete bricks contract or shrink so they need movement joints every 5 to 6 metres, but are similar to other bricks of similar density in thermal and sound resistance and fire resistance. (but see brick tax), but the depth has varied from about or smaller in earlier times to about more recently. In the United Kingdom, the usual size of a modern brick (from 1965) is , which, with a nominal mortar joint, forms a unit size of , for a ratio of 6:3:2.
In the United States, modern standard bricks are specified for various uses; The most commonly used is the modular brick has the actual dimensions of × × inches (194 × 92 × 57 mm). With the standard inch mortar joint, this gives the nominal dimensions of 8 x 4 x inches which eases the calculation of the number of bricks in a given wall. The 2:1 ratio of modular bricks means that when they turn corners, a 1/2 running bond is formed without needing to cut the brick down or fill the gap with a cut brick; and the height of modular bricks means that a soldier course matches the height of three modular running courses, or one standard CMU course.
Some brickmakers create innovative sizes and shapes for bricks used for plastering (and therefore not visible on the inside of the building) where their inherent mechanical properties are more important than their visual ones. These bricks are usually slightly larger, but not as large as blocks and offer the following advantages:
* A slightly larger brick requires less mortar and handling (fewer bricks), which reduces cost
* Their ribbed exterior aids plastering
* More complex interior cavities allow improved insulation, while maintaining strength.
Blocks have a much greater range of sizes. Standard co-ordinating sizes in length and height (in mm) include 400×200, 450×150, 450×200, 450×225, 450×300, 600×150, 600×200, and 600×225; depths (work size, mm) include 60, 75, 90, 100, 115, 140, 150, 190, 200, 225, and 250. Much like in Grand Rapids, municipalities across the United States began replacing brick streets with inexpensive asphalt concrete by the mid-20th century.
In Northwest Europe, bricks have been used in construction for centuries. Until recently, almost all houses were built almost entirely from bricks. Although many houses are now built using a mixture of concrete blocks and other materials, many houses are skinned with a layer of bricks on the outside for aesthetic appeal.
Bricks in the metallurgy and glass industries are often used for lining furnaces, in particular refractory bricks such as silica, magnesia, chamotte and neutral (chromomagnesite) refractory bricks. This type of brick must have good thermal shock resistance, refractoriness under load, high melting point, and satisfactory porosity. There is a large refractory brick industry, especially in the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, Belgium and the Netherlands.
Engineering bricks are used where strength, low water porosity or acid (flue gas) resistance are needed.
In the UK a red brick university is one founded in the late 19th or early 20th century. The term is used to refer to such institutions collectively to distinguish them from the older Oxbridge institutions, and refers to the use of bricks, as opposed to stone, in their buildings.
Colombian architect Rogelio Salmona was noted for his extensive use of red bricks in his buildings and for using natural shapes like spirals, radial geometry and curves in his designs. Limitations
Starting in the 20th century, the use of brickwork declined in some areas due to concerns about earthquakes. Earthquakes such as the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 and the 1933 Long Beach earthquake revealed the weaknesses of unreinforced brick masonry in earthquake-prone areas. During seismic events, the mortar cracks and crumbles, so that the bricks are no longer held together. Brick masonry with steel reinforcement, which helps hold the masonry together during earthquakes, has been used to replace unreinforced bricks in many buildings. Retrofitting older unreinforced masonry structures has been mandated in many jurisdictions. However, similar to steel corrosion in reinforced concrete, rebar rusting will compromise the structural integrity of reinforced brick and ultimately limit the expected lifetime, so there is a trade-off between earthquake safety and longevity to a certain extent.
Accessibility
The United States Access Board does not specify which materials a sidewalk must be made of in order to be ADA compliant, but states that sidewalks must not have surface variances of greater than one inch. Due to the accessibility challenges of bricks, the Federal Highway Administration recommends against the use of bricks as well as cobblestones in its accessibility guide for sidewalks and crosswalks. The Brick Industry Association maintains standards for making brick more accessible for disabled people, with proper and regular maintenance being necessary to keep brick accessible.
Some US jurisdictions, such as San Francisco, have taken steps to remove brick sidewalks from certain areas such as Market Street in order to improve accessibility.
St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi Brick Detail 2.JPG|Decorative bricks in St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi
BiblioBarco.jpg|Virgilio Barco Public Library, Bogotá, Colombia
Maria Claudia Cali edificio FES.jpg|FES Building, Cali, Colombia
Brick likn india.JPG|A brick kiln, Tamil Nadu, India
SW 4th Avenue MAX station.jpg|Brick sidewalk paving in Portland, Oregon, U.S.
CambridgeMAFireplugB.jpg|Brick sidewalk in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.
Porotherm style clay block brick angle 1.jpg|Porotherm style clay block brick
Cegly01.jpg|Moulding bricks, Poland
Normanby Brick.jpg|Brick made as a byproduct of ironstone mining Normanby – UK
Brick making in Hainan - 01.jpg|Fired, clay bricks in Hainan, China
Stanley_Dock_warehouses.jpg|The largest brick warehouse in the world, Stanley Dock Tobacco Warehouse, Liverpool, UK
Foraine brick en.jpg|Medieval heir to the Roman brick in the Toulouse region, the "Foraine" brick has kept the same large and flat format.
(Albi) North views of the Ste Cécile Cathedral.jpg|The Albi Cathedral (France) was built using "Foraine" bricks.
File:艋舺古厝-成都路洪和商店No.124-2023-01.jpg|The old brick house at Taipei, Taiwan.
</gallery>
See also
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References
Further reading
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* Hudson, Kenneth (1972) Building Materials; chap. 3: Bricks and tiles. London: Longman; pp. 28–42
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External links
* [http://www.ochshorndesign.com/cornell/writings/brick.html Brick in 20th-Century Architecture]
* [http://www.gobrick.com Brick Industry Association] United States
* [http://www.brick.org.uk Brick Development Association] UK
* [http://www.thinkbrick.com.au Think Brick Australia]
* [http://www.ibcabrick.com/ International Brick Collectors Association]
Category:Building materials
Category:Masonry
Category:Soil-based building materials
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brick
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Béla Bartók
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Béla Viktor János Bartók (; ; 25 March 1881 – 26 September 1945) was a Hungarian composer, pianist and ethnomusicologist. He is considered one of the most important composers of the 20th century; he and Franz Liszt are regarded as Hungary's greatest composers. Through his collection and analytical study of folk music, he was one of the founders of comparative musicology, which later became known as ethnomusicology.
Biography
Childhood and early years (1881–1898)
Bartók was born in the Banatian town of Nagyszentmiklós in the Kingdom of Hungary (present-day Sânnicolau Mare, Romania) on 25 March 1881. On his father's side, the Bartók family was a Hungarian lower noble family, originating from Borsodszirák, Borsod. His paternal grandmother was a Catholic of Bunjevci origin, but considered herself Hungarian. Bartók's father (1855–1888) was also named Béla. Bartók's mother, (1857–1939), spoke Hungarian fluently. A native of Turócszentmárton (present-day Martin, Slovakia), she had German, Hungarian and Slovak or Polish ancestry.
Béla displayed notable musical talent very early in life. According to his mother, he could distinguish between different dance rhythms that she played on the piano before he learned to speak in complete sentences. By the age of four he was able to play 40 pieces on the piano, and his mother began formally teaching him the next year.
In 1888, when he was seven, his father, the director of an agricultural school, died suddenly. His mother then took Béla and his sister, Erzsébet, to live in Nagyszőlős (present-day Vynohradiv, Ukraine) and then in Pressburg (present-day Bratislava, Slovakia). Béla gave his first public recital aged 11 in Nagyszőlős, to positive critical reception. Among the pieces he played was his own first composition, written two years previously: a short piece called "The Course of the Danube". Shortly thereafter, László Erkel accepted him as a pupil.
Early musical career (1899–1908)
From 1899 to 1903, Bartók studied piano under István Thomán, a former student of Franz Liszt, and composition under János Koessler at the Royal Academy of Music in Budapest. There he met Zoltán Kodály, who made a strong impression on him and became a lifelong friend and colleague. In 1903, Bartók wrote his first major orchestral work, Kossuth, a symphonic poem that honored Lajos Kossuth, hero of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848.
The music of Richard Strauss, whom he met in 1902 at the Budapest premiere of Also sprach Zarathustra, strongly influenced his early work. When visiting a holiday resort in the summer of 1904, Bartók overheard a young nanny, Lidi Dósa from Kibéd in Transylvania, sing folk songs to the children in her care. This sparked his lifelong dedication to folk music.
Beginning in 1907, he came under the influence of French composer Claude Debussy, whose compositions Kodály had brought back from Paris. Bartók's large-scale orchestral works were still in the style of Johannes Brahms and Richard Strauss, but he wrote a number of small piano pieces which showed his growing interest in folk music. The first piece to show clear signs of this new interest is the String Quartet No. 1 in A minor (1908), which contains folk-like elements. He began teaching as a piano professor at the Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest. This position freed him from touring Europe as a pianist. Among his notable students were Fritz Reiner, Sir Georg Solti, György Sándor, Ernő Balogh, Gisela Selden-Goth, and Lili Kraus. After Bartók moved to the United States, he taught Jack Beeson and Violet Archer.
In 1908, Bartok and Kodály traveled into the countryside to collect and research old Magyar folk melodies. Their growing interest in folk music coincided with a contemporary social interest in traditional national culture. Magyar folk music had previously been categorised as Gypsy music. The classic example is Franz Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies for piano, which he based on popular art songs performed by Romani bands of the time. In contrast, Bartók and Kodály discovered that the old Magyar folk melodies were based on pentatonic scales, similar to those in Asian folk traditions, such as those of Central Asia, Anatolia and Siberia.
Bartók and Kodály set about incorporating elements of such Magyar peasant music into their compositions. They both frequently quoted folk song melodies verbatim and wrote pieces derived entirely from authentic songs. An example is Bartok's two volumes entitled For Children for solo piano, containing 80 folk tunes to which he wrote accompaniment. Bartók's style in his art music compositions was a synthesis of folk music, classicism, and modernism. His melodic and harmonic sense was influenced by the folk music of Hungary, Romania, and other nations. He was especially fond of the asymmetrical dance rhythms and pungent harmonies found in Bulgarian music. Most of his early compositions offer a blend of nationalist and late Romanticism elements.
Middle years and career (1909–1939)
Personal life
In 1909, at the age of 28, Bartók married Márta Ziegler (1893–1967), aged 16. Their son, , was born the next year. After nearly 15 years together, Bartók divorced Márta in June 1923. Two months after his divorce, he married Ditta Pásztory (1903–1982), a piano student, ten days after proposing to her. She was aged 19, he 42. Their son, , was born in 1924.
Raised as a Catholic, by his early adulthood Bartók had become an atheist. He later became attracted to Unitarianism and publicly converted to the Unitarian faith in 1916. Although Bartók was not conventionally religious, according to his son Béla Bartók III, "he was a nature lover: he always mentioned the miraculous order of nature with great reverence". As an adult, Béla III later became lay president of the Hungarian Unitarian Church.
Opera
In 1911, Bartók wrote what was to be his only opera, ''Bluebeard's Castle, dedicated to Márta. In creating Bluebeard's Castle, Bartók uses symbolism to show parallels between unconscious motivation and fate. The opera in showing fate has a strong interaction between the characters and gives the idea that people are not able to control what the outcome will be. He entered it for a prize by the Hungarian Fine Arts Commission, but they rejected his work as not fit for the stage. In 1917 Bartók revised the score for the 1918 première and rewrote the ending. Following the 1919 revolution, in which he actively participated, he was pressured by the Horthy regime to remove the name of librettist Béla Balázs from the opera, as Balázs was of Jewish origin, was blacklisted, and had left the country for Vienna. Bluebeard's Castle'' received only one revival, in 1936, before Bartók emigrated. For the remainder of his life, although devoted to Hungary, its people and its culture, he never felt much loyalty to the government or its official establishments.
Folk music and composition
to record Slovak folk songs sung by peasants in Zobordarázs (, today part of Nitra, Slovakia)]]
After his disappointment over the Fine Arts Commission competition, Bartók wrote little for two or three years, preferring to concentrate on collecting and arranging folk music. He found the phonograph an essential tool for collecting folk music for its accuracy, objectivity, and manipulability. He collected first in the Carpathian Basin (then the Kingdom of Hungary), where he notated Hungarian, Slovak, Romanian, and Bulgarian folk music. The developmental breakthrough for Bartok arrived when he collaboratively collected folk music with Zoltán Kodály through the medium of a phonomotor, on which they studied classification possibilities (for individual folk songs) and recorded hundreds of cylinders. Bartok's compositional command of folk elements is expressed in such an authentic and undiluted a manner because of the scales, sounds, and rhythms that were so much a part of his native Hungary that he automatically saw music in these terms. He also collected in Moldavia, Wallachia, and (in 1913) Algeria. The outbreak of World War I forced him to stop the expeditions, but he returned to composing with a ballet called The Wooden Prince (1914–1916) and the String Quartet No. 2 in (1915–1917), both influenced by Debussy.
Bartók's libretto for The Miraculous Mandarin, another ballet, was influenced by Igor Stravinsky, Arnold Schoenberg and Richard Strauss. Though started in 1918, the story's sexual content kept it from being performed until 1926. He next wrote his two violin sonatas (written in 1921 and 1922, respectively), which are among his most harmonically and structurally complex pieces.
In March 1927, he visited Barcelona and performed the Rhapsody for piano Sz. 26 with the Orquestra Pau Casals at the Gran Teatre del Liceu. During the same stay, he attended a concert by the at the Palau de la Música Catalana. Having first sent his manuscripts out of the country, Bartók reluctantly emigrated to the US with his wife, Ditta Pásztory, in October 1940. They settled in New York City after arriving on the night of 29–30 October by a steamer from Lisbon. After joining them in 1942, their younger son Péter Bartók enlisted in the United States Navy, where he served in the Pacific during the remainder of the war and later settled in Florida, where he became a recording and sound engineer. His elder son by his first marriage, Béla Bartók III, remained in Hungary and later worked as a railroad official until his retirement in the early 1980s.
Although he became an American citizen in 1945 shortly before his death, Bartók never felt fully at home in the United States. He initially found it difficult to compose in his new surroundings. Although he was well known in America as a pianist, ethnomusicologist and teacher, he was not well known as a composer. There was little American interest in his music during his final years. He and his wife Ditta gave some concerts, but demand for them was low. Bartók, who had made some recordings in Hungary, also recorded for Columbia Records after he came to the US; many of these recordings (some with Bartók's own spoken introductions) were later issued on LP and CD.
Bartók was supported by a $3000-yearly research fellowship from Columbia University for several years (more than $50,000 in 2024 dollars). He and Ditta worked on a large collection of Serbian and Croatian folk songs in Columbia's libraries. Bartók's economic difficulties during his first years in America were mitigated by publication royalties, teaching and performance tours. While his finances were always precarious, he did not live and die in poverty as was the common myth. He had enough friends and supporters to ensure that there was sufficient money and work available for him to live on. Bartók was a proud man and did not easily accept charity. Despite being short on cash at times, he often refused money that his friends offered him out of their own pockets. Although he was not a member of the ASCAP, the society paid for any medical care he needed during his last two years, to which Bartók reluctantly agreed. According to Edward Jablonski's 1963 article, "At no time during Bartók's American years did his income amount to less than $4,000 a year" (about $70,000 in 2024 dollars). The first symptoms of his health problems began late in 1940, when his right shoulder began to show signs of stiffening. In 1942, symptoms increased and he started having bouts of fever. Bartók's illness was at first thought to be a recurrence of the tuberculosis he had experienced as a young man, and one of his doctors in New York was Edgar Mayer, director of Will Rogers Memorial Hospital in Saranac Lake, but medical examinations found no underlying disease. Finally, in April 1944, leukemia was diagnosed, but by this time, little could be done.
As his body slowly failed, Bartók found more creative energy and produced a final set of masterpieces, partly thanks to the violinist Joseph Szigeti and the conductor Fritz Reiner (Reiner had been Bartók's friend and champion since his days as Bartók's student at the Royal Academy). Bartók's last work might well have been the String Quartet No. 6 but for Serge Koussevitzky's commission for the Concerto for Orchestra. Koussevitsky's Boston Symphony Orchestra premiered the work in December 1944 to highly positive reviews. The Concerto for Orchestra quickly became Bartók's most popular work, although he did not live to see its full impact.
In 1944, he was also commissioned by Yehudi Menuhin to write a Sonata for Solo Violin. In 1945, Bartók composed his Piano Concerto No. 3, a graceful and almost neo-classical work, as a surprise 42nd birthday present for Ditta, but he died just over a month before her birthday, with the scoring not quite finished. He had also sketched his Viola Concerto, but had barely started the scoring at his death, leaving completed only the viola part and sketches of the orchestral part.
banknote (printed between 1983 and 1992; no longer in circulation)]]
Béla Bartók died at age 64 in a hospital in New York City from complications of leukemia (specifically, of secondary polycythemia) on 26 September 1945. His funeral was attended by only ten people. Aside from his widow and their son, other attendees included György Sándor.
Bartók's body was initially interred in Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale, New York. During the final year of communist Hungary in the late 1980s, the Hungarian government, along with his two sons, Béla III and Péter, requested that his remains be exhumed and transferred back to Budapest for burial, where Hungary arranged a state funeral for him on 7 July 1988. He was re-interred at Budapest's Farkasréti Cemetery, next to the remains of Ditta, who died in 1982, one year after what would have been Béla Bartók's 100th birthday.
The two unfinished works were later completed by his pupil Tibor Serly. György Sándor was the soloist in the first performance of the Third Piano Concerto on 8 February 1946. Ditta Pásztory-Bartók later played and recorded it. The Viola Concerto was revised and published in the 1990s by Bartók's son; this version may be closer to what Bartók intended. Concurrently, Peter Bartók, in association with Argentine musician Nelson Dellamaggiore, worked to reprint and revise past editions of the Third Piano Concerto.Music
Bartók's music reflects two trends that dramatically changed the sound of music in the 20th century: the breakdown of the diatonic system of harmony that had served composers for the previous two hundred years; and the revival of nationalism as a source for musical inspiration, a trend that began with Mikhail Glinka and Antonín Dvořák in the last half of the 19th century. In his search for new forms of tonality, Bartók turned to Hungarian folk music, as well as to other folk music of the Carpathian Basin and even of Algeria and Turkey; in so doing he became influential in that stream of modernism which used indigenous music and techniques.
One characteristic style of music is his Night music, which he used mostly in slow movements of multi-movement ensemble or orchestral compositions in his mature period. It is characterised by "eerie dissonances providing a backdrop to sounds of nature and lonely melodies". An example is the third movement (Adagio) of his Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta. His music can be grouped roughly in accordance with the different periods in his life.Early years (1890–1902)
The works of Bartók's youth were written in a classical and early romantic style touched with influences of popular and romani
music. Between 1890 and 1894 (9 to 13 years of age) he wrote 31 piano pieces. Although most of these were simple dance pieces, in these early works Bartók began to tackle some more advanced forms, as in his ten-part programmatic A Duna folyása ("The Course of the Danube", 1890–1894), which he played in his first public recital in 1892.
In Catholic grammar school Bartók took to studying the scores of composers "from Bach to Wagner", his compositions then advancing in style and taking on similarities to Schumann and Brahms. Following his matriculation into the Budapest Academy in 1890 he composed very little, though he began to work on exercises in orchestration and familiarized himself thoroughly with the operas of Wagner. In 1902 his creative energies were revitalized by the discovery of the music of Richard Strauss, whose tone poem Also sprach Zarathustra, according to Bartók, "stimulated the greatest enthusiasm in me; at last I saw the way that lay before me". Bartók also owned the score to ''A Hero's Life, which he transcribed for the piano and committed to memory.
New influences (1903–1911)
Under the influence of Strauss, Bartók composed in 1903 Kossuth, a symphonic poem in ten tableaux on the subject of the 1848 Hungarian war of independence, reflecting the composers growing interest in musical nationalism. A year later he renewed his opus numbers with the Rhapsody for Piano and Orchestra'' serving as Opus 1. Driven by nationalistic fervor and a desire to transcend the influence of prior composers, Bartók began a lifelong devotion to folk music, which was sparked by his overhearing nanny Lidi Dósa's singing of Transylvanian folk songs at a Hungarian resort in 1904. Bartók began to collect Magyar peasant melodies, later extending to the folk music of other peoples of the Carpathian Basin, Slovaks, Romanians, Rusyns, Serbs and Croatians. He used fewer and fewer romantic elements, in favour of an idiom that embodied folk music as intrinsic and essential to its style. Later in life he commented on the incorporation of folk and art music:
<blockquote>
The question is, what are the ways in which peasant music is taken over and becomes transmuted into modern music? We may, for instance, take over a peasant melody unchanged or only slightly varied, write an accompaniment to it and possibly some opening and concluding phrases. This kind of work would show a certain analogy with Bach's treatment of chorales. ... Another method ... is the following: the composer does not make use of a real peasant melody but invents his own imitation of such melodies. There is no true difference between this method and the one described above. ... There is yet a third way ... Neither peasant melodies nor imitations of peasant melodies can be found in his music, but it is pervaded by the atmosphere of peasant music. In this case we may say, he has completely absorbed the idiom of peasant music which has become his musical mother tongue.
</blockquote>
Bartók became first acquainted with Debussy's music in 1907 and regarded his music highly. In an interview in 1939 Bartók said:
<blockquote>
Debussy's great service to music was to reawaken among all musicians an awareness of harmony and its possibilities. In that, he was just as important as Beethoven, who revealed to us the possibilities of progressive form, or as Bach, who showed us the transcendent significance of counterpoint. Now, what I am always asking myself is this: is it possible to make a synthesis of these three great masters, a living synthesis that will be valid for our time?
</blockquote>
Debussy's influence is present in the Fourteen Bagatelles (1908). These made Ferruccio Busoni exclaim: "At last something truly new!" Until 1911, Bartók composed widely differing works which ranged from adherence to romantic style, to folk song arrangements and to his modernist opera ''Bluebeard's Castle''. The negative reception of his work led him to focus on folk music research after 1911 and abandon composition with the exception of folk music arrangements.Inspiration and experimentation (1916–1921)His pessimistic attitude towards composing was lifted by the stormy and inspiring contact with Klára Gombossy in the summer of 1915. This interesting episode in Bartók's life remained hidden until it was researched by Denijs Dille between 1979 and 1989. Bartók started composing again, including the Suite for piano opus 14 (1916), and The Miraculous Mandarin (1919) and he completed The Wooden Prince (1917).
Bartók felt the result of World War I as a personal tragedy. Many regions he loved were severed from Hungary: Transylvania, the Banat (where he was born), and Bratislava (Pozsony, where his mother had lived). Additionally, the political relations between Hungary and other successor states to the Austro-Hungarian empire prohibited his folk music research outside of Hungary. Bartók also wrote the noteworthy Eight Improvisations on Hungarian Peasant Songs in 1920 and the sunny Dance Suite in 1923, the year of his second marriage.
"Synthesis of East and West" (1926–1945)
In 1926, Bartók needed a significant piece for piano and orchestra with which he could tour in Europe and America. He was particularly inspired by American composer Henry Cowell's controversial use of intense tone clusters on the piano while touring western Europe. Bartók happened to be present at one of these concerts and (to avoid causing offence) later requested Cowell's permission to use his technique, which Cowell granted. In the preparation for writing his first Piano Concerto, he wrote his Sonata, Out of Doors, and Nine Little Pieces, all for solo piano, and all of which prominently utilize clusters. He increasingly found his own voice in his maturity. The style of his last period named "Synthesis of East and West" is hard to define let alone to put under one term. In his mature period, Bartók wrote relatively few works but most of them are large-scale compositions for large settings. Only his voice works have programmatic titles and his late works often adhere to classical forms.
Among Bartók's most important works are the six string quartets (1909, 1917, 1927, 1928, 1934, and 1939), the Cantata Profana (1930), which Bartók declared was the work he felt and professed to be his most personal "credo", the Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta (1936), the Concerto for Orchestra (1943) and the Third Piano Concerto (1945). He made a lasting contribution to the literature for younger students: for his son Péter's music lessons, he composed Mikrokosmos, a six-volume collection of graded piano pieces.
Musical analysis
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Paul Wilson lists as the most prominent characteristics of Bartók's music from late 1920s onwards the influence of the Carpathian basin and European art music, and his changing attitude toward (and use of) tonality, but without the use of the traditional harmonic functions associated with major and minor scales.
Although Bartók claimed in his writings that his music was always tonal, he rarely used the chords or scales normally associated with tonality, and so the descriptive resources of tonal theory are of limited use. George and Elliott focus on his alternative methods of signaling tonal centers, via axes of inversional symmetry. Others view Bartók's axes of symmetry in terms of atonal analytic protocols. Richard argues that inversional symmetry is often a byproduct of another atonal procedure, the formation of chords from transpositionally related dyads. Atonal pitch-class theory also furnishes resources for exploring polymodal chromaticism, projected sets, privileged patterns, and large set types used as source sets such as the equal tempered twelve tone aggregate, octatonic scale (and alpha chord), the diatonic and heptatonia secunda seven-note scales, and less often the whole tone scale and the primary pentatonic collection.
He rarely used the simple aggregate actively to shape musical structure, though there are notable examples such as the second theme from the first movement of his Second Violin Concerto, of which he commented that he "wanted to show Schoenberg that one can use all twelve tones and still remain tonal". More thoroughly, in the first eight measures of the last movement of his Second Quartet, all notes gradually gather with the twelfth (G) sounding for the first time on the last beat of measure 8, marking the end of the first section. The aggregate is partitioned in the opening of the Third String Quartet with C–D–D–E in the accompaniment (strings) while the remaining pitch classes are used in the melody (violin 1) and more often as 7–35 (diatonic or "white-key" collection) and 5–35 (pentatonic or "black-key" collection) such as in no. 6 of the Eight Improvisations. There, the primary theme is on the black keys in the left hand, while the right accompanies with triads from the white keys. In measures 50–51 in the third movement of the Fourth Quartet, the first violin and cello play black-key chords, while the second violin and viola play stepwise diatonic lines. On the other hand, from as early as the Suite for piano, Op. 14 (1914), he occasionally employed a form of serialism based on compound interval cycles, some of which are maximally distributed, multi-aggregate cycles. Ernő Lendvai analyses Bartók's works as being based on two opposing tonal systems, that of the acoustic scale and the axis system, as well as using the golden section as a structural principle.
Milton Babbitt, in his 1949 review of Bartók's string quartets, criticized Bartók for using tonality and non-tonal methods unique to each piece. Babbitt noted that "Bartók's solution was a specific one, it cannot be duplicated". Bartók's use of "two organizational principles"—tonality for large scale relationships and the piece-specific method for moment to moment thematic elements—was a problem for Babbitt, who worried that the "highly attenuated tonality" requires extreme non-harmonic methods to create a feeling of closure.
Catalogues
The cataloguing of Bartók's works is somewhat complex. Bartók assigned opus numbers to his works three times, the last of these series ending with the Sonata for Violin and Piano No. 1, Op. 21 in 1921. He ended this practice because of the difficulty of distinguishing between original works and ethnographic arrangements, and between major and minor works. Since his death, three attempts—two full and one partial—have been made at cataloguing. The first, and still most widely used, is András Szőllősy's chronological Sz. numbers, from 1 to 121. subsequently reorganised the juvenilia (Sz. 1–25) thematically, as DD numbers 1 to 77. The most recent catalogue is that of László Somfai; this is a chronological index with works identified by BB numbers 1 to 129, incorporating corrections based on the Béla Bartók Thematic Catalogue.
On 1 January 2016, Bartók's works entered the public domain in the European Union.DiscographyTogether with his like-minded contemporary Zoltán Kodály, Bartók embarked on an extensive programme of field research to capture the folk and peasant melodies of Magyar, Slovak and Romanian language territories. At first they transcribed the melodies by hand, but later they began to use a phonomotor, a wax cylinder recording machine invented by Thomas Edison. Compilations of Bartók's field recordings, interviews, and original piano playing have been released over the years, largely by the Hungarian record label Hungaroton:
* |referenceBartók, Béla. 1994. Bartók at the Piano. Hungaroton 12326. 6-CD set.}}
* |referenceBartók, Béla. 1995a. Bartók Plays Bartók – Bartók at the Piano 1929–41. Pearl 9166. CD recording.}}
* |referenceBartók, Béla. 1995b. Bartók Recordings from Private Collections. Hungaroton 12334. CD recording.}}
* |referenceBartók, Béla. 2003. Bartók Plays Bartók. Pearl 179. CD recording.}}
* Bartók, Béla. 2003. Bartók Sonata for 2 Pianos & Percussion, Suite for 2 Pianos. Apex 0927-49569-2. CD recording.
* |reference Bartók, Béla. 2007. Bartók: Contrasts, Mikrokosmos. Membran/Documents 223546. CD recording.}}
* |reference Bartók, Béla. 2008. Bartók Plays Bartók. Urania 340. CD recording.}}
* |reference Bartók, Béla. 2016. Bartók the Pianist. Hungaroton HCD32790-91. Two CDs. Works by Bartók, Domenico Scarlatti, Zoltán Kodály, and Franz Liszt.}}
A compilation of field recordings and transcriptions for two violas was also recently released by Tantara Records in 2014.
On 18 March 2016 Decca Classics released Béla Bartók: The Complete Works, the first ever complete compilation of all of Bartók's compositions, including new recordings of never-before-recorded early piano and vocal works. However, none of the composer's own performances are included in this 32-disc set.
Statues and other memorials
, Hungary]]
]]
* A statue of Bartók stands in Brussels, Belgium, near the central train station in a public square, Spanjeplein-Place d'Espagne.
* A statue stands outside Malvern Court, London, south of the South Kensington tube station, and just north of Sydney Place. An English Heritage blue plaque, unveiled in 1997, now commemorates Bartók at 7 Sydney Place, where he stayed when performing in London.
* A statue of him was installed in front of the house in which Bartók spent his last eight years in Hungary, at Csalán út 29, in the hills above Budapest. It is now operated as the Béla (Bartók Béla Emlékház). Copies of this statue also stand in Makó (the closest Hungarian city to his birthplace, which is now in Romania), Paris, London and Toronto.
* A bust and plaque located at his last residence, in New York City at 309 W. 57th Street, inscribed: "The Great Hungarian Composer / Béla Bartók / (1881–1945) / Made His Home In This House / During the Last Year of His Life".
* A bust of him is located in the front yard of Ankara State Conservatory, Ankara, Turkey, next to the bust of Ahmet Adnan Saygun.
* A bronze statue of Bartók, sculpted by Imre Varga in 2005, stands in the front lobby of The Royal Conservatory of Music, 273 Bloor Street West, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
* A bronze bust of Bartók stands in the Anton Scudier Central Park in Timișoara, Romania. This park has an "Alley of Personalities", set up in 2009 and featuring busts of famous "Romanians". Sânnicolau Mare (Nagyszentmiklós in Hungarian), the small town where Bartók was born in 1881, is situated some 58 kilometres north-west of Timișoara, and is just inside Romania today, near the border with Hungary.
* A statue of Bartók, sculpted by Imre Varga, stands near the river Seine in the public park at , 26 place de Brazzaville, in Paris, France.
* Also to be noted, in the same park, a sculptural transcription of the composer's research on tonal harmony, the fountain/sculpture Cristaux designed by Jean-Yves Lechevallier in 1980.
* An expressionist sculpture by Hungarian sculptor András Beck in , Paris 16th arrondissement.
* A statue of him also stands in the city centre of Târgu Mureș, Romania.
* Bartok has star on the Walk of Fame on Karlsplatz-Passage in Vienna.
References
Citations
Sources
* |referenceAntokoletz, Elliott. 1984. The Music of Béla Bartók: A Study of Tonality and Progression in Twentieth-Century Music. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. .}}
* |referenceBabbitt, Milton. 1949. "The String Quartets of Bartók". Musical Quarterly 35 (July): 377–85. Reprinted in The Collected Essays of Milton Babbitt, edited by Stephen Peles, with Stephen Dembski, Andrew Mead, and Joseph N. Straus, [http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7616.pdf 1–9]. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003. .}}
* |referenceBartók, Béla. 1948. Levelek, fényképek, kéziratok, kották. [Letters, photographs, manuscripts, scores], ed. János Demény, 2 vols. A Muvészeti Tanács könyvei, 1.–2. sz. Budapest: Magyar Muvészeti Tanács. English edition, as Béla Bartók: Letters, translated by Péter Balabán and István Farkas; translation revised by Elisabeth West and Colin Mason (London: Faber and Faber Ltd.; New York: St. Martin's Press, 1971). }}
* |referenceBartók, Béla. 1976. Essays, selected and edited by Benjamin Suchoff. The New York Bartók Archive Studies in Musicology, No. 8. London: Faber & Faber; New York: St. Martin's Press. .}}
* |referenceBartók, Béla. 2018. .}}
* }}
* |referenceBotstein, Leon. [n.d.] "Modernism", Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 29 April 2008), [http://www.grovemusic.com (subscription access)].}}
* |referenceChalmers, Kenneth. 1995. Béla Bartók. 20th-Century Composers. London: Phaidon Press. (pbk).}}
*
* |referenceCohn, Richard, 1988. "Inversional Symmetry and Transpositional Combination in Bartók." Music Theory Spectrum 10:19–42.}}
* |referenceCooper, David. 2015. Béla Bartók. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. .}}
*
* |referenceDicaire, David. 2010. The Early Years of Folk Music: Fifty Founders of the Tradition. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. .}}
* |referenceDille, Denijs. 1990. Béla Bartók: Regard sur le Passé. (French, no English version available). Namur: Presses universitaires de Namur. .}}
* |referenceEinstein, Alfred. 1947. Music in the Romantic Era. New York: W. W. Norton.}}
* |referenceFisk, Josiah (ed.). 1997. ''Composers on Music: Eight Centuries of Writings: A New and Expanded Revision of Morgenstern's Classic Anthology. Boston: Northeastern University Press. .}}
* |referenceGagné, Nicole V. 2012. Historical Dictionary of Modern and Contemporary Classical Music. Historical Dictionaries of Literature and the Arts. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. .}}
*|referenceGetting, Peter. 2020. [https://plus.sme.sk/c/22398037/slovenske-poklady-zozbieral-skladatel-svetoveho-mena.html Zomieral s pocitom, že jeho práca bola daromná. Našťastie nebula. Bartók zanechal monumentálne dielo]. SME.sk (accessed 9 May 2020).}}
* |referenceGillies, Malcolm (ed.). 1990. Bartók Remembered. London: Faber. (cased) (pbk).}}
* |referenceGillies, Malcolm (ed.). 1993. The Bartók Companion. London: Faber. (cloth), (pbk); New York: Hal Leonard. .}}
* |referenceGillies, Malcolm. 2001. "Béla Bartók". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. Also in Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy (Accessed 23 May 2006), [http://www.grovemusic.com (subscription access)].}}
* |referenceGollin, Edward. 2007. "Multi-Aggregate Cycles and Multi-Aggregate Serial Techniques in the Music of Béla Bartók". Music Theory Spectrum 29, no. 2 (Fall): 143–76.}}
* |referenceGriffiths, Paul. 1978. A Concise History of Modern Music. London: Thames and Hudson. .}}
* |referenceGriffiths, Paul. 1988. Bartók. London: JM Dent & Sons Ltd.}}
* |referenceHooker, Lynn. 2001. "The Political and Cultural Climate in Hungary at the Turn of the Twentieth Century". In [https://books.google.com/books?id=4uInwtVVfxMC The Cambridge Companion to Bartók], edited by Amanda Bayley, 7–23. Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. (cloth); (pbk).}}
* |referenceHughes, Peter. 2001. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20131207194032/https://www25.uua.org/uuhs/duub/articles/belabartok.html Béla Bartók]" in Dictionary of Unitarian and Universalist Biography. [n.p.]: Unitarian Universalist Historical Society. Archive from 7 December 2013 (accessed 24 October 2017).}}
* |referenceHughes, Peter. 2007. "[https://books.google.com/books?idw5vIopoWMaUC&pgPA21 Béla Bartók: Composer (1881–1945)]". In Notable American Unitarians 1936–1961'', edited by Herbert Vetter, 21–22. Cambridge: Harvard Square Library. .}}
* |referenceJones, Tom. 2012. "[http://www.tiredoflondontiredoflife.com/2012/10/see-bela-bartok.html See Béla Bartók]". Tired of London, Tired of Life blog site (8 October) (accessed 4 July 2014).}}
* |referenceKory, Agnes. 2007. "[http://www.bbcm.co.uk/main/fiddle.htm#1 Kodály, Bartók, and Fiddle Music in Bartók's Compositions]". Béla Bartók Centre for Musicianship website (accessed 27 September 2018).}}
* |referenceLendvai, Ernő. 1971. Béla Bartók: An Analysis of His Music, introduced by Alan Bush. London: Kahn & Averill. .}}
* |referenceMartins, José António Oliveira. 2006. "Dasian, Guidonian, and Affinity Spaces in Twentieth-century Music". Ph.D. diss. Chicago: University of Chicago.}}
* |referenceMatthews, Peter. 2012. "[http://www.feastofmusic.com/feast_of_music/2012/01/bart%C3%B3k-in-new-york.html Bartók in New York]". Feast of Music website (accessed 26 September 2018).}}
* |referenceMaurice, Donald. 2004. ''[https://books.google.com/books?idsI4sRzCR-s8C&pgPA205 Bartók's Viola Concerto: The Remarkable Story of His Swansong]. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. (accessed 19 October 2017)}}
* |referenceMoreux, Serge. 1953. Béla Bartók, translated G. S. Fraser and Erik de Mauny. London: The Harvill Press.}}
* |referenceMoreux. 1974. Béla Bartók, translated G. S. Fraser and Erik de Mauny, with a preface by Arthur Honegger. Partial reprint of . New York: Vienna House.}}
* |referenceMóser, Zoltán. 2006a. "[http://epa.oszk.hu/00700/00713/00175/pdf/2006_03.pdf Szavak, feliratok, kivonatok]". Tiszatáj 60, no. 3 (March): 41–45.}}
* |referenceÖzgentürk, Nebil. 2008. Türkiye'nin Hatıra Defteri, episode 3. Istanbul: Bir Yudum İnsan Prodüksiyon LTD. ȘTİ. Turkish CNN television documentary series.}}
* |referencePerle, George. 1955. "Symmetrical Formations in the String Quartets of Béla Bartók". Music Review 16, no. 4 (November 1955). Reprinted in The Right Notes: Twenty-Three Selected Essays by George Perle on Twentieth-Century Music, foreword by Oliver Knussen, introduction by David Headlam, 189–205. Monographs in Musicology. Stuyvesant, NY: Pendragon Press. .}}
* |referenceRockwell, John. 1982. "Kodaly Was More Than a Composer". The New York Times (12 December).}}
* |referenceRodda, Richard E. 1990–2018. "[http://www.kennedy-center.org/artist/composition/2236 String Quartet No. 1 in A minor, Op. 7/Sz 40: About the Work]". The Kennedy Center website (accessed 27 September 2018).}}
* |referenceSchneider, David E. 2006. Bartók, Hungary, and the Renewal of Tradition: Case Studies in the Intersection of Modernity and Nationality. California Studies in 20th-Century Music 5. Berkeley: University of California Press. .}}
* |referenceSipos, János (ed.). 2000. In the Wake of Bartók in Anatolia 1: Collection Near Adana. Budapest: Ethnofon Records.}}
* |referenceSomfai, László. 1996. Béla Bartók: Composition, Concepts, and Autograph Sources. Ernest Bloch Lectures in Music 9. Berkeley : University of California Press. .}}
* |referenceStevens, Halsey. 1964. The Life and Music of Béla Bartók, second edition. New York: Oxford University Press. ASIN: B000NZ54ZS}}
* |referenceStevens, Halsey. 1993. The Life and Music of Béla Bartók, third edition, prepared by Malcolm Gillies. New York: Oxford University Press. .}}
* |referenceStevens, Halsey. 2018. "[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Bela-Bartok#ref84023 Béla Bartók: Hungarian Composer]". Encyclopædia Britannica online (accessed 27 September 2018).}}
* |referenceSuchoff, Benjamin. 2001 [https://books.google.com/books?id=a1YQBD2ERgUC Béla Bartók: Life and Work]. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. – via Google Books. (2001) (accessed 29 July 2019).}}
* |referenceSzabolcsi, Bence. 1974. "Bartók Béla: Cantata profana". In Miért szép századunk zenéje?'' (Why is the music of the Twentieth century so beautiful?), edited by György Kroó, . Budapest: Gondolat }}
*|referenceSzekernyés János. 2017. "[https://muvelodes.net/enciklopedia/bartokek-nagyszentmikloson Bartókék Nagyszentmiklóson]" [Bartók in Nagyszentmiklós]. Művelődés 70 (July) (accessed 10 March 2019).}}
* |referenceTudzin, Jessica Taylor. 2010. "[https://web.archive.org/web/20140714181240/http://www.bohemianink.net/?p=1384 Schooled in Bartók]". Bohemian Ink blog site (2 August) (accessed 4 July 2014).}}
* }}
*
* |referenceWilson, Paul. 1992. The Music of Béla Bartók. New Haven: Yale University Press. .}}
Further reading
*
* Bartók, Béla. 1976. "The Influence of Peasant Music on Modern Music (1931)". In Béla Bartók Essays, edited by Benjamin Suchoff, 340–44. London: Faber & Faber.
* <!-- |reference -->Bartók, Béla. 1981. [https://books.google.com/books?idDxsJAQAAMAAJ&qszuhafo+bartok The Hungarian Folk Song] , second English edition, edited by Benjamin Suchoff, translated by Michel D. Calvocoressi, with annotations by Zoltán Kodály. The New York Bartók Archive Studies in Musicology 13. Albany: State University of New York Press. <!-- }} -->
* Bartók, Peter. 2002. "My Father". Homosassa, Florida, Bartók Records ().
* <!-- |reference -->Bayley, Amanda (ed.). 2001. [https://books.google.com/books?id4uInwtVVfxMC&pgPA16 The Cambridge Companion to Bartók] . Cambridge Companions to Music. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. (cloth); (pbk). <!-- }} -->
* Bónis, Ferenc. 2006. [https://books.google.com/books?idW7-iAQAACAAJ&q%C3%89LET-K%C3%89PEK:+BART%C3%93K+B%C3%89LA Élet-képek: Bartók Béla] . Budapest: Balassi Kiadó: Vávi Kft., Alföldi Nyomda Zrt. .
* Boys, Henry. 1945. "Béla Bartók 1881–1945". The Musical Times 86, no. 1233 (November): 329–31.
* Cohn, Richard, 1992. "Bartók's Octatonic Strategies: A Motivic Approach." Journal of the American Musicological Society 44
* Czeizel, Endre. 1992. Családfa: honnan jövünk, mik vagyunk, hová megyünk? [Budapest]: Kossuth Könyvkiadó.
* <!-- |reference -->Decca. 2016. "[http://www.deccaclassics.com/gb/cat/4789311 Béla Bartók: Complete Works: Int. Release 18 Mar. 2016: 32 CDs, 0289 478 9311 0] ". Welcome to Decca Classics: Catalogue, www.deccaclassics.com (accessed 19 August 2016).<!-- }} -->
* Fassett, Agatha, 1958. ''The Naked Face of Genius: Béla Bartók's American Years.'' Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
* Jyrkiäinen, Reijo. 2012. "Form, Monothematicism, Variation and Symmetry in Béla Bartók's String Quartets". Ph.D. diss. Helsinki: University of Helsinki. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20121012085705/https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/33683 Abstract]).
* Kárpáti, János. 1975. ''Bartók's String Quartets, translated by Fred MacNicol. Budapest: Corvina Press.
* Kasparov, Andrey. 2000. "Third Piano Concerto in the Revised 1994 Edition: Newly Discovered Corrections by the Composer". Hungarian Music Quarterly 11, nos. 3–4:2–11.
* Leafstedt, Carl S. 1999. Inside Bluebeard's Castle. New York: Oxford University Press.
* <!-- |reference -->Lendvai, Ernő. 1972. "Einführung in die Formen- und Harmoniewelt Bartóks" (1953). In his Béla Bartók: Weg und Werk, edited by Bence Szabolcsi, 105–49. Kassel: Bärenreiter.<!-- }} -->
* Loxdale, Hugh D., and Adalbert Balog. 2009. "Béla Bartók: Musician, Musicologist, Composer, and Entomologist!." Antenna – Bulletin of the Royal Entomological Society of London 33, no. 4:175–82.
* <!-- |reference -->Maconie, Robin. 2005. Other Planets: The Music of Karlheinz Stockhausen''. Lanham, MD, Toronto, Oxford: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. .<!-- }} -->
* <!-- |reference -->Martins, José Oliveira. 2015. "Bartók's Polymodality: the Dasian and other Affinity Spaces". Journal of Music Theory 59, no. 2 (October): 273–320. <!-- }} -->
* Móser, Zoltán. 2006b. "Bartók-õsök Gömörben". [http://www.hnm.hu/honismeret/folyoirat/2006-2-honismeret1.pdf Honismeret: A Honismereti Szövetség folyóirata ] 34, no. 2 (April): 9–11.
* [http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicalofferings/vol3/iss2/2 Nelson, David Taylor (2012). "Béla Bartók: The Father of Ethnomusicology", Musical Offerings: Vol. 3: No. 2, Article 2.]
* Sluder, Claude K. 1994. "Revised Bartók Composition Highlights Pro Musica Concert". The Republic (16 February).
* <!-- |reference -->Smith, Erik. 1965. A discussion between István Kertész and the producer. DECCA Records (liner notes for ''Bluebeard's Castle).<!-- }} -->
* Somfai, László. 1981. Tizennyolc Bartók-tanulmány [Eighteen Bartók Studies]. Budapest: Zeneműkiadó. .
* Wells, John C. 1990. "Bartók", in Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'', 63. Harlow, England: Longman.
External links
*
* [http://www.bartokmuseum.hu Bartók Béla Memorial House, Budapest]
* [http://bartok.kbr.be The Belgian Bartók Archives, housed in the Brussels Royal Library and founded by Denijs Dille]
*
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160312045308/http://www.zti.hu/bartok/exhibition/main.htm Virtual Exhibition on Bartók]
* [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4079017 Finding aid to Béla Bartók manuscripts at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.]
*
* [http://www.soundfountain.org/rem/dongabor2.html#bartok Bartók plays Bartók for Don Gabor's Continental record label later reissued on Remington Records]
* [https://www.explorethescore.org/pgs/bartok/inside_the_score/inside_the_score_homepage.html Interactive scores of Bartók's works for piano with Sir András Schiff.]
Category:1881 births
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William John Clifton Haley (; July 6, 1925 – February 9, 1981) was an American rock and roll musician. He is credited by many with first popularizing this form of music in the early 1950s with his group Bill Haley & His Comets and million-selling hits such as "Rock Around the Clock", "See You Later, Alligator", "Shake, Rattle and Roll", "Rocket 88", "Skinny Minnie", and "Razzle Dazzle". Haley has sold over 60 million records worldwide. In 1987, he was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.BiographyEarly life and careerHaley was born July 6, 1925, in Highland Park, Michigan. In 1929, the four-year-old Haley underwent an inner-ear mastoid operation which accidentally severed an optic nerve, leaving him blind in his left eye for the rest of his life. It is said that he adopted his trademark kiss curl over his right eye to draw attention from his left, but it also became his "gimmick", and added to his popularity. As a result of the effects of the Great Depression on the Detroit area, his father moved the family to Bethel Township, Pennsylvania, when Bill was seven years old. Haley's father William Albert Haley (1900–1956) was from Kentucky and played the banjo and mandolin, and his mother, Maude Green (1895–1955), who was originally from Ulverston in Lancashire, England, was a technically accomplished keyboardist with classical training. Haley told the story that when he made a simulated guitar out of cardboard, his parents bought him a real one.
One of his first appearances was in 1938 for a Bethel Junior baseball team entertainment event, performing guitar and songs when he was 13 years old.
The anonymous sleeve notes accompanying the 1956 Decca album Rock Around the Clock describe Haley's early life and career: "When Bill Haley was fifteen [c. 1940] he left home with his guitar and very little else and set out on the hard road to fame and fortune. The next few years, continuing this story in a fairy-tale manner, were hard and poverty-stricken, but crammed full of useful experience. Apart from learning how to exist on one meal a day and other artistic exercises, he worked at an open-air park show, sang and yodelled with any band that would have him, and worked with a traveling medicine show. Eventually he got a job with a popular group known as the 'Down Homers' while they were in Hartford, Connecticut. Soon after this he decided, as all successful people must decide at some time or another, to be his own boss again – and he has been that ever since." These notes fail to account for his early band, known as the Four Aces of Western Swing. During the 1940s Haley was considered one of the top cowboy yodelers in America as "Silver Yodeling Bill Haley". One source states that Haley started his career as "The Rambling Yodeler" in a country band, The Saddlemen.
The sleeve notes conclude: "For six years Bill Haley was a musical director of Radio Station WPWA in Chester, Pennsylvania, and led his own band all through this period. It was then known as Bill Haley's Saddlemen, indicating their definite leaning toward the tough Western style. They continued playing in clubs as well as over the radio around Philadelphia, and in 1951 made their first recordings on Ed Wilson's Keystone Records in Philadelphia." The group subsequently signed with Dave Miller's Holiday Records and, on June 14, 1951, the Saddlemen recorded a cover of the Delta Cats "Rocket 88".
Bill Haley and His Comets
During the Labor Day weekend in 1952, the Saddlemen were renamed '''Bill Haley with Haley's Comets'''. The name was inspired by the supposedly official pronunciation of Halley's Comet and was suggested by Bob Johnson, program director at radio station WPWA where Bill Haley had a live radio program from 12:00noon to 1:00p.m. In 1953, Haley's recording of "Crazy Man, Crazy" (co-written by Haley and his bass player, Marshall Lytle, although Lytle would not receive credit until 2001) hit the American charts, peaking at number 12 on Billboard and number 11 on Cash Box. Some sources indicate that this was the first rock and roll record in history, although rockabilly might be a more appropriate term. By the time this record was released, the group's name had been revised to using the term "Comets" instead of "Saddlemen".
In 1954, Haley recorded "Rock Around the Clock". Initially, it was only a moderate success, peaking at number 36 on the Cash Box pop singles chart and staying on the charts for just two weeks. On re-release, the record reached number one on July 9, 1955.
Haley had already had a worldwide hit with "Shake, Rattle and Roll", another rhythm and blues cover in this case from Big Joe Turner, which went on to sell a million copies and was the first rock 'n' roll song to enter the UK Singles Chart in December 1954, becoming a gold record. He retained elements of the original (which was slow blues), but sped it up with some country music aspects into the song (specifically, Western swing) and changed up the lyrics. Haley and his band were important in launching the music known as "Rock and Roll" to a wider audience after a period of it being considered an underground genre.
When "Rock Around the Clock" appeared as the theme song of the 1955 film Blackboard Jungle starring Glenn Ford, it soared to the top of the American Billboard chart for eight weeks. The single is commonly used as a convenient line of demarcation between the "rock era" and the music industry that preceded it. Billboard separated its statistical tabulations into 1890–1954 and 1955–present. After the record rose to number one, Haley became widely popular with those who had come to embrace the new style of music. With the song's success, the age of rock music began overnight and ended the dominance of the jazz and pop standards performed by Frank Sinatra, Jo Stafford, Perry Como, Bing Crosby, Eddie Fisher, and Patti Page. "Rock Around the Clock" was also the first record to sell over one million copies in both Britain and Germany. Danny Cedrone, not a member of The Comets, played the guitar solo on the record, though did not live long enough to see the song's success as he died shortly after the recording following a fall down stairs at his home, aged 33.
Bill Haley and the Comets performed "Rock Around the Clock" on the Texaco Star Theater hosted by Milton Berle on May 31, 1955, on NBC in an a cappella and lip-synched version. Berle predicted that the song would go number one: "A group of entertainers who are going right to the top." Berle also sang and danced to the song which was performed by the entire cast of the show. This was one of the earliest nationally televised performances by a rock and roll band and provided the new musical genre with a much wider audience.
Bill Haley and the Comets were the first rock and roll act to appear on American musical variety series the Ed Sullivan Show on August 7, 1955, on CBS in a broadcast that originated from the Shakespeare Festival Theater in Stratford, Connecticut. They performed a live version of "Rock Around the Clock" with Franny Beecher on lead guitar and Dick Richards on drums. The band made their second appearance on the show on Sunday, April 28, 1957, performing the songs "Rudy's Rock" and "Forty Cups of Coffee".
Later on in 1957, Haley became the first major American rock singer to tour Europe. Haley continued to score hits throughout the 1950s such as "See You Later, Alligator" and he starred in the first rock and roll musical films Rock Around the Clock and ''Don't Knock the Rock, both in 1956. Haley was already 30 years old, and his popularity was soon eclipsed in the United States by the younger Elvis Presley, but continued to enjoy great popularity in Latin America, Europe, and Australia during the 1960s.
Bill Haley and the Comets appeared on American Bandstand'' hosted by Dick Clark on ABC twice in 1957, on the prime time show October 28, 1957, and on the regular daytime show on November 27, 1957. The band also appeared on Dick Clark's Saturday Night Beechnut Show, also known as The Dick Clark Show, a primetime TV series from New York on March 22, 1958, during the first season and on February 20, 1960, performing "Rock Around the Clock"; "Shake, Rattle and Roll"; and "Tamiami".
Personal life
Marriages
Haley was married at least three times:
* Dorothy Crowe (December 11, 1946 – November 14, 1952) (divorced, two children)
* Barbara Joan Cupchak (November 18, 1952 – 1960) (divorced, five children)
* Martha Valaesco (1963 – February 9, 1981)
Children
Haley had at least ten children. John W. Haley, his eldest son, wrote Sound and Glory, a biography of Haley. His youngest daughter, Gina Haley, is a professional musician based in Texas. Scott Haley is an athlete. His youngest son Pedro is also a musician.Last years and deathHaley failed to achieve the level of success enjoyed by contemporaries such as Little Richard and Jerry Lee Lewis. According to one source, "he had conflicted feelings about fame, was extremely private, suffered chronic alcoholism, and troubled relationships". Having admitted to an alcohol problem in a 1974 radio interview for the BBC, Haley continued to battle alcoholism into the 1970s. Nonetheless, he and his band continued to be a popular touring act, benefiting from a 1950s nostalgia movement that began in the late 1960s and the signing of a lucrative record deal with the European Sonet label. After performing for Queen Elizabeth II at the Royal Variety Performance on November 26, 1979, Haley made his final performances in South Africa in May and June 1980. Just before the South African tour commenced, Haley was diagnosed with a brain tumor, and a planned tour of Germany in the autumn of 1980 was subsequently cancelled.
Despite his illness, Haley started compiling notes for possible use as a basis for either a biographical film based on his life, or a published autobiography (accounts differ), and there were plans for him to record an album in Memphis, Tennessee, when the brain tumor began affecting his behavior and he returned to his home in Harlingen, Texas.
The October 25, 1980, issue of German tabloid Bild reported that Haley had a brain tumor. Haley's British manager, Patrick Malynn, was quoted as saying that "Haley had taken a fit [and] didn't recognize anyone anymore." In addition, a doctor who examined Haley said that the tumor was inoperable.
Haley's widow Martha, who was with him in these troubling times, denied he had a brain tumor, as did his close friend Hugh McCallum. Martha and friends related that Haley did not want to go on the road anymore and that ticket sales for that planned tour of Germany in the fall of 1980 were slow. McCallum said, "It's my unproven gut feeling that that [the brain tumor] was said to curtail talks about the tour and play the sympathy card." Haley made a succession of bizarre, mostly monologue late-night phone calls to friends and relatives toward the end of his life in which he was semi-coherent. His first wife has been quoted as saying, "He would call you and ramble, dwelling on the past..." The biography also describes Haley painting the windows of his home black, He was discovered lying motionless on his bed by a friend who had stopped by to visit him. The friend immediately called the police and Haley was pronounced dead at the scene. Following a small funeral service attended by 75 people,Tributes and legacyHaley received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6350 Hollywood Boulevard on February8, 1960, for his contributions to the music industry. Haley was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1987. His son Pedro represented him at the ceremony. The Comets were separately inducted into the Hall of Fame as a group in 2012, after a rule change allowed the induction of backing groups.
Songwriters Tom Russell and Dave Alvin addressed Haley's demise in musical terms with "Haley's Comet" on Alvin's 1991 album Blue Blvd. Dwight Yoakam sang backup on the tribute.
Surviving members of the 1954–55 contingent of Haley's Comets reunited in the late 1980s and continued to perform for many years around the world. They released a concert DVD in 2004 on Hydra Records, played the Viper Room in West Hollywood in 2005, and performed at Dick Clark's American Bandstand Theater in Branson, Missouri, beginning in 2006–07. As of 2014, only two members of this particular contingent were still alive (Joey Ambrose and Dick Richards), but they continued to perform in Branson and Europe. In 2019, Dick Richards, the drummer of the Comets, died at the age of 95. As of 2014, at least two other groups continue to perform in North America under the Comets name.
In March 2007, the Original Comets opened the Bill Haley Museum in Munich, Germany. On October 27, 2007, ex-Comets guitar player Bill Turner opened the Bill Haley Museum for the public. Asteroid
In February 2006, the International Astronomical Union announced the naming of asteroid 79896 Billhaley to mark the 25th anniversary of Haley's death.
Published biographies
* In 1980, Haley began working on an autobiography entitled The Life and Times of Bill Haley, but died after completing only 100 pages. The work is registered with the U.S. Copyright Office, but has yet to be released to the public. According to Gina Haley, Bill's youngest daughter, her father managed to complete the book on his career, and the manuscript is in possession of the Bill Haley estate.
* Bill Haley, Jr. and Peter Benjaminson, Crazy Man, Crazy: The Bill Haley Story ,(2019)
* John Swenson, Bill Haley: The Daddy of Rock and Roll (),(1982)
* John W. Haley with John von Hoëlle, ''Sound and Glory: The Incredible Story of Bill Haley, the Father of Rock 'N' Roll and the Music That Shook the World (), (1992)
* Jim Dawson, Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution! (), (2005)
* Otto Fuchs, Bill Haley: The Father of Rock 'n' Roll, (), (2011)
Film portrayals
Unlike his contemporaries, Haley has rarely been portrayed on screen. Following the success of The Buddy Holly Story'' in 1978, Haley expressed interest in having his life story committed to film, but this never came to fruition. In the 1980s and early 1990s, numerous media reports emerged stating that plans were underway to do a biopic based upon Haley's life, with Beau Bridges, Jeff Bridges and John Ritter all at one point being mentioned as actors in line to play Haley (according to Goldmine Magazine, Ritter attempted to buy the film rights to Sound and Glory).
Haley has been portrayed by:
* John Paramor in ''Shout! The Story of Johnny O'Keefe (1985)
* Michael Daingerfield in Mr. Rock 'n' Roll: The Alan Freed Story (1999)
* Dicky Barrett in Shake, Rattle and Roll: An American Love Story'' (1999)Discography
Before the formation of Bill Haley and the Saddlemen, which later became the Comets, Haley released several singles with other groups. Dates are approximate due to lack of documentation.
As Bill Haley and the Four Aces of Western Swing:
1948
* Too Many Parties and Too Many Pals (vocal by Tex King)/Four Leaf Clover Blues (Cowboy CR1201) August 1948
1949
* Tennessee Border/Candy Kisses (Cowboy CR1202) March 1949
As Johnny Clifton and His String Band:
1950
* Stand Up and Be Counted/Loveless Blues (Center C102)
Many Haley discographies list two 1946 recordings by the Down Homers released on the Vogue Records label as featuring Haley. Haley historian Chris Gardner, as well as surviving members of the group, have confirmed that the two singles: "Out Where the West Winds Blow"/"Who's Gonna Kiss You When I'm Gone" (Vogue R736) and "Boogie Woogie Yodel"/"Baby I Found Out All About You" (Vogue R786) do not feature Haley. However, the tracks were nonetheless included in the compilation box set ''Rock 'n' Roll Arrives'' released by Bear Family Records in 2006.CompositionsHaley's compositions included "Four Leaf Clover Blues" in 1948; "Rose of My Heart"; "Yodel Your Blues Away"; "Crazy Man, Crazy"; "What'Cha Gonna Do"; "Fractured"; "Live It Up"; "Farewell, So Long, Goodbye"; "Real Rock Drive"; "Rocking Chair on the Moon"; "Sundown Boogie"; "Green Tree Boogie"; "Tearstains on My Heart"; "Down Deep in My Heart"; "Straight Jacket"; "Birth of the Boogie"; "Two Hound Dogs"; "Rock-A-Beatin' Boogie"; "Hot Dog Buddy Buddy"; "R-O-C-K"; "Rudy's Rock"; "Calling All Comets"; "Tonight's the Night"; "Hook, Line and Sinker"; "Sway with Me"; "Paper Boy (On Main Street U.S.A.)"; "Skinny Minnie"; "B.B. Betty"; "Eloise"; "Whoa Mabel!"; "Vive le Rock and Roll"; "I've Got News For You"; "So Right Tonight"; "Jamaica D.J."; "Ana Maria"; "Yucatán Twist"; "Football Rock and Roll"; "Let the Good Times Roll Again" in 1979; and "Chick Safari" in 1960.
He also wrote or co-wrote songs for other artists such as "I've Got News for You" for Penny Smith in 1955 on Kahill, "Calypso Rock" for Dave Day and The Red Coats on Kapp in 1956, "Half Your Heart" with Robert J. Hayes for Kitty Nation in 1956 on Wing, "I Oughta" and "Everything But You" for Dotti Malone in 1956 also on Wing, "A.B.C. Rock" and "Rocky the Rockin' Rabbit" (among others) for Sally Starr for an album she released on Haley's own label, Clymax Records, "A Sweet Bunch of Roses" for Country and Western singer Lou Graham, "Toodle-Oo-Bamboo" for Ray Coleman and His Skyrockets on Skyrocket Records in 1959, "Always Together" for the Cook Brothers on Arcade in 1960, "Crazy Street" for The Matys Brothers on Coral Records, "The Cat" for Cappy Bianco, and "(Ya Gotta) Sing For the Ladies" and "Butterfly Love" for Ginger Shannon and Johnny Montana in 1960 on Arcade as well as "I'm Shook" and "Broke Down Baby", both of which were recorded by The Tyrones in 1958–59.
Awards
In 1982, Haley's "Rock Around the Clock" was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame, a special Grammy award established in 1973 to honor recordings at least 25 years old and with "qualitative or historical significance".
In December 2017, Haley was inducted into the Rhythm and Blues Hall Of Fame.
References
Other sources
* Jim Dawson, Rock Around the Clock: The Record That Started the Rock Revolution! (San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2005)
* John W. Haley and John von Hoëlle, Sound and Glory (Wilmington, DE: Dyne-American, 1990)
* John Swenson, Bill Haley (London: W.H. Allen, 1982)
External links
* [http://www.bill-haley.com/ Bill Haley's new Comets web site]
* [https://archive.today/20091025075400/http://www.geocities.com/buddycruiser/bio4.html?1054745371300 Melody Manor (Bill Haley's house)] [https://maps.google.com/maps?lirwp&q3190+FOULK+RD,+MARCUS+HOOK,+PA+19061&ieUTF8&th&om1&z16&ll39.850902,-75.484078&spn0.007215,0.021458&iwloc=A Google Map]
*
* [http://www.billhaleyjrandthecomets.com/ Bill Haley Jr. and the Comets site]
Category:1925 births
Category:1981 deaths
Category:People from Highland Park, Michigan
Category:Bill Haley & His Comets members
Category:American people of English descent
Category:American radio personalities
Category:American rock singers
Category:American rockabilly guitarists
Category:American male guitarists
Category:Musicians from Delaware County, Pennsylvania
Category:People from Harlingen, Texas
Category:Rock and roll musicians
Category:Decca Records artists
Category:Songwriters from Michigan
Category:Songwriters from Pennsylvania
Category:Western swing performers
Category:American yodelers
Category:20th-century American singers
Category:American rock guitarists
Category:Singers from Pennsylvania
Category:Guitarists from Michigan
Category:Guitarists from Philadelphia
Category:20th-century American guitarists
Category:20th-century American male singers
Category:Essex Records artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_Haley
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Northern bobwhite
|
| image = Virginiawachtel 2007-06-16 065.jpg
| image_caption = Adult male
| image2 = Northern Bobwhite female RWD.jpg
| image2_caption = Adult female
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref
| status2 = G4
| status2_system = TNC
| status2_ref
| genus = Colinus
| species = virginianus
| authority = (Linnaeus, 1758)
| synonyms = *Tetrao virginianus
*Ortyx virginiana
| range_map = Colinus virginianus map.svg
| range_map_caption = Range
}}
The northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus), also known as the Virginia quail or (in its home range) bobwhite quail, is a ground-dwelling bird native to Canada, the United States, Mexico, and Cuba, with introduced populations elsewhere in the Caribbean, Europe, and Asia. It is a member of the group of species known as New World quail (Odontophoridae). They were initially placed with the Old World quail in the pheasant family (Phasianidae), but are not particularly closely related. The name "bobwhite" is an onomatopoeic derivation from its characteristic whistling call. Despite its secretive nature, the northern bobwhite is one of the most familiar quails in eastern North America, because it is frequently the only quail in its range. Habitat degradation has contributed to the northern bobwhite population in eastern North America declining by roughly 85% from 1966 to 2014. This population decline is apparently range-wide and continuing.
There are 20 subspecies of northern bobwhite, many of which are hunted extensively as game birds. One subspecies, the masked bobwhite (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), is listed as endangered with wild populations located in the northern Mexican state of Sonora and a reintroduced population in Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge in southern Arizona.
Taxonomy
The northern bobwhite was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tetrao virginianus. Linnaeus specified the type location as "America" but this has been restricted to the state of Virginia. Linnaeus based his account on the "American partridge" that had been described and illustrated by the English naturalist Mark Catesby in his book The Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands. The northern bobwhite is now one of four species placed in the genus Colinus that was introduced in 1820 by the German naturalist Georg August Goldfuss.
Subspecies
by John James Audubon depicting Virginian Partridge.}}]]
There are 20 recognized subspecies in four groups. One subspecies, the Key West bobwhite (C. v. insulanus), is extinct. The subspecies are listed in taxonomic order:
*Eastern group
**C. v. virginianus <small>(Linnaeus, 1758)</small> - Virginia bobwhite - eastern North America from Ontario south to northern Florida (includes former subspecies marilandicus and mexicanus)
**C. v. floridanus <small>(Coues, 1872)</small> – Florida bobwhite – peninsular Florida
**†C. v. insulanus <small>(Howe, 1904)</small> – Key West bobwhite – the Florida Keys (extinct)
**C. v. cubanensis <small>(GR Gray, 1846)</small> – Cuban bobwhite – Cuba and Isla de la Juventud; introduced to Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and the Turks and Caicos islands
**C. v. taylori <small>(Lincoln, 1915)</small> – plains bobwhite – South Dakota to northern Texas, western Missouri and northwestern Arkansas
**C. v. texanus <small>(Lawrence, 1853)</small> – Texas bobwhite – southwestern Texas to northern Mexico
**C. v. aridus <small>(Lawrence, 1853)</small> – Jaumave bobwhite – west-central Tamaulipas to southeastern San Luis Potosí
**C. v. maculatus'' <small>(Nelson, 1899)</small> – spot-bellied bobwhite – central Tamaulipas to northern Veracruz and southeastern San Luis Potosí
*Grayson's group
**C. v. graysoni <small>(Lawrence, 1867)</small> – Grayson's bobwhite – west-central Mexico
**C. v. nigripectus <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> – Puebla bobwhite – eastern Mexico
*Black-breasted group
**C. v. pectoralis <small>(Gould, 1843)</small> – black-breasted bobwhite – eastern slopes and mountains of central Veracruz
**C. v. godmani <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> – Godman's bobwhite – eastern slopes and mountains of central Veracruz
**C. v. minor <small>(Nelson, 1901)</small> – least bobwhite – northeastern Chiapas and Tabasco
**C. v. thayeri <small>(Bangs and Peters, 1928)</small> – Thayer's bobwhite – northeastern Oaxaca
*Masked group
**C. v. ridgwayi <small>(Brewster, 1885)</small> – masked bobwhite – north-central Sonora; reintroduced to Arizona
**C. v. atriceps <small>(Ogilvie-Grant, 1893)</small> – black-headed bobwhite – interior of western Oaxaca
**C. v. harrisoni <small>(Orr and Webster, 1968)</small> – Harrison's bobwhite – southwestern Oaxaca
**C. v. coyoleos <small>(Müller, PLS, 1776)</small> – Coyoleos bobwhite – Pacific Coast of Oaxaca and Chiapas
**C. v. salvini <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> – Salvin's bobwhite – coastal and southern Chiapas
**C. v. insignis <small>(Nelson, 1897)</small> – Guatemalan bobwhite – Guatemala (Rio Chiapas Valley) and southeastern Chiapas (includes former subspecies nelsoni)
The holotype specimen of Ortyx pectoralis Gould ([https://biodiversitylibrary.org/page/30679944 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1842 (1843), p.182.]) is held in the collections of the National Museums Liverpool at the World Museum, with accession number D3713. The specimen died in the aviary at Knowsley Hall, Lancashire and came to the Liverpool national collection via the 13th Earl of Derby's collection, which was bequeathed to the people of Liverpool in 1851.
Description
The northern bobwhite is a moderately-sized quail, and is the only small galliform native to eastern North America. The bobwhite can range from in length with a wingspan. As indicated by body mass, weights increase in birds found further north, as corresponds to Bergmann's rule. In Mexico, northern bobwhites weigh from whereas in the north they average and large males can attain as much as . Among standard measurements, the wing chord is , the tail is the culmen is and the tarsus is . It has the typical chunky, rounded shape of a quail. The bill is short, curved and brown-black in color. This species is sexually dimorphic. Males have a white throat and brow stripe bordered by black. The overall rufous plumage has gray mottling on the wings, white scalloped stripes on the flanks, and black scallops on the whitish underparts. The tail is gray.
The clear whistle "bob-WHITE" or "bob-bob-WHITE" call is very recognizable. The syllables are slow and widely spaced, rising in pitch a full octave from beginning to end. Other calls include lisps, peeps, and more rapidly whistled warning calls.
Distribution and habitat
The northern bobwhite can be found year-round in agricultural fields, grassland, open woodland areas, roadsides and wood edges. Its range covers the southeastern quadrant of the United States from the Great Lakes and southern Minnesota east to New York State and southern Massachusetts, and extending west to southern Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Colorado front-range foothills to 7,000 feet, and all but westernmost Texas.
It is absent from the southern tip of Florida (where the extinct Key West bobwhite subspecies once lived) and the highest elevations of the Appalachian Mountains, but occurs in eastern Mexico and in Cuba, and has been introduced to Hispaniola (both the Dominican Republic and Haiti), the Bahamas, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the U.S. Virgin Islands (formerly), Puerto Rico, France, China, Portugal, and Italy. Isolated populations also have been introduced in Oregon and Washington. The northern bobwhite has also been introduced to New Zealand.
There is no self-sustaining population in Pennsylvania, where the bird is considered extirpated; it is also considered extirpated in the states of New Hampshire and Connecticut. Its distribution in New York has been limited to Suffolk and Nassau Counties on Long Island, as well as potential population pockets in Upstate New York. The bird is considered declining or extirpated throughout much of the Northeastern United States. Similarly, the bird is almost extirpated from Ontario (and Canada as a whole), with the only self-sustaining population confirmed to exist recorded on Walpole Island.Behavior and ecologyLike most game birds, the northern bobwhite is shy and elusive. When threatened, it will crouch and freeze, relying on camouflage to stay undetected, but will flush into low flight if closely disturbed. It is generally solitary or paired early in the year, but family groups are common in the late summer and winter roosts may have two dozen or more birds in a single covey. Breeding The species was once considered monogamous, but with the advent of radio telemetry, the sexual behavior of bobwhites has better been described as ambisexual polygamy. Either parent may incubate a clutch for 23 days, and the precocial young leave the nest shortly after hatching. The main source of nest failure is predation, with nest success averaging 28% across their range. However, the nest success of stable populations is typically much higher than this average, and the aforementioned estimate includes values for declining populations.
Brooding behavior varies in that amalgamation (kidnapping, adopting, creching, gang brooding) may occur. An incubating parent may alternatively stay with its young. A hen may re-nest up to four times until she has a successful nest. However, it is extremely rare for bobwhites to hatch more than two successful nests within one nesting season.Food and feedingThe northern bobwhite's diet consists of plant material and small invertebrates, such as snails, ticks, grasshoppers, beetles, spiders, crickets, and leafhoppers. Plant sources include seeds, wild berries, partridge peas, and cultivated grains. It forages on the ground in open areas with some spots of taller vegetation.
Optimal nutrient requirements for bobwhite vary depending on the age of bird and the time of the year. For example, the optimal protein requirement for egg laying hens (23% protein) is much higher than for males (16%).
Relationship to humans
Introduced populations
European Union
Northern bobwhite were introduced into Italy in 1927, and are reported in the plains and hills in the northwest of the country. Other reports from the EU are in France, Spain, and the Balkans. As bobwhites are highly productive and popular aviary subjects, it is reasonable to expect other introductions have been made in other parts of the EU, especially in the U.K. and Ireland, where game-bird breeding, liberation, and naturalization are relatively common practices. New Zealand From 1898 to 1902, some 1,300 birds were imported from America and released in many parts of the North and South Islands, from Northland to Southland. The bird was briefly on the Nelson game shooting licence, but: "It would seem that the committee was a little too eager in placing these Quail on the licence, or the shooters of the day were over-zealous and greedy in their bag limits, for the Virginian Quail, like the Mountain Quail were soon a thing of the past." The Taranaki (Acclimatisation) Society released a few in 1900 and was confidant that in a year or two they might offer good sport; two years later, broods were reported and the species was said to be steadily increasing; but after another two years they seemed to have disappeared and that was the end of them. The Otago (Acclimatisation) Society imported more in 1948, but these releases did no good. After 1923, no more genuinely wild birds were sighted until 1952, when a small population was found northwest of Wairoa in the Ruapapa Road area. Since then, bobwhite have been found at several localities around Waikaremoana, in farmland, open bush and along roadsides.
Captivity
Housing
Bobwhites are generally compatible with most parrots, softbills and doves. This species should, however, be the only ground-dwelling species in the aviary. Most individuals will do little damage to finches, but one should watch that nests are not being crushed when the species perches at night. Single pairs are preferred, unless the birds have been raised together as a group since they were chicks. Some fighting will occur between cocks at breeding time. One cock may be capable of breeding with several hens, but the fertility seems to be highest in the eggs from the preferred hen. Aviary style is a compromise between what is tolerated by the bird and what is best for the bird. Open parrot-style type aviaries may be used, but some birds will remain flighty and shy in this situation. In a planted aviary, this species will generally settle down to become quite tame and confiding. Parents with chicks will roost on the ground, forming a circular arrangement, with heads facing outwards. In the early morning and late afternoon, the cock will utter his call, which, although not loud, carries well and may offend noise-sensitive neighbors. Most breeding facilities keep birds in breeding groups on wire up off the ground.
Feeding
In the wild the northern bobwhite feeds on a variety of weed and grass seeds, as well as insects. These are generally collected on the ground or from low foliage. Birds in the aviary are easily catered for with a commercial small seed mix (finch, budgerigar, or small parrot mix) when supplemented with greenfeed. Live food is not usually necessary for breeding, but will be ravenously accepted. High protein foods such as chicken grower crumble are more convenient to supply and will be useful for the stimulation of breeding birds. Extra calcium is required, especially by laying hens; it can be supplied in the form of shell grit, or cuttlefish bone. Breeding If a nesting site and privacy are not provided, hens will lay anywhere within an open aviary. Hens that do this may, in a season, lay upwards of 80 eggs, which can be taken for artificial incubation and the chicks hand-raised. Hens with nesting cover that do make a nest (on the ground) will build up 8–25 eggs in a clutch, with eggs being laid daily. Mutations and hybrids
Some captive bobwhite hybrids recorded are between blue quail (scaled quail), Gambel's quail, California quail, and mountain quail. It has long been suggested that there are Japanese quail hybrids being bred commercially; however, there is a distinct lack of photographic proof to substantiate this. Inter-subspecific hybrids have been common.
Several mutations have long been established, including Californian Jumbo, Wisconsin Jumbo, Northern Giant, Albino, Snowflake, Blonde, Fawn, Barred, Silver, and Red.
Status
The northern bobwhite is rated as a Near-threatened species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The northern bobwhite is threatened across its range due to habitat loss and habitat degradation. Changing land use patterns and changing fire regimes have caused once prime habitat to become unfavorable for the bobwhite.
Masked bobwhite
The masked bobwhite subspecies, C. v. ridgwayi, is listed as endangered in the U.S. The birds were twice declared extirpated in Arizona in the past century. It was originally endemic to southern Arizona in the U.S., and northern Sonora in Mexico. It is considered a Critically Imperiled Subspecies by NatureServe.
The masked bobwhite was in decline since its discovery in 1884. By 1900, the subspecies was already extinct in the U.S. Populations remained in Mexico, but their study was curtailed by political events in Mexico, including the Mexican Revolution and the last of the Yaqui Wars. A population of the masked bobwhite was finally discovered and studied in Mexico, in 1931 and 1932. A 2017 study recorded no wild sightings of the bird in Sonora. Decline of the species has been attributed to intense livestock grazing in an ecosystem that does not rejuvenate quickly.
A captive flock was established in Arizona in the 1970s. The George Miksch Sutton Avian Research Center (Sutton Center) became involved with conservation efforts in 2017 to establish a breeding population at the Sutton Center in Oklahoma, in order to reintroduce birds to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge (BANWR). In 2019, biologists from the Sutton Center transported 1,000 chicks by road vehicle to Buenos Aires National Wildlife Refuge. In 2020, a projected total of 1,200 birds will be transported by airplanes to BANWR. These recent actions are supplemental, and in addition to other conservation efforts in the past, seem to aid the subspecies' future conservation efforts. In popular culture
In Eek! The Cat episode "PolitEekly Correct", while Sharky is chasing Eek, they cause a quail named Bob White to lose his signature call. They travel across the United States and eventually recover his distinctive "bobwhite" call.
In 2023, the masked bobwhite subspecies will be featured on a United States Postal Service Forever stamp as part of the Endangered Species set, based on a photograph from Joel Sartore's Photo Ark. The stamp will be dedicated at a ceremony at the National Grasslands Visitor Center in Wall, South Dakota.See also*Quail huntingReferencesExternal links
* [http://www.seattleaudubon.org/birdweb/bird_details.aspx?id127 Northern Bobwhite at BirdWeb (seattleaudubon.org)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111113232036/http://birding.about.com/od/birdprofiles/p/Northern-Bobwhite.htm Northern Bobwhite info] at About.com
* [http://bringbackbobwhites.org/ National Bobwhite Conservation Initiative]
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northern bobwhite
Category:Birds of the United States
Category:Birds of Canada
Category:Birds of Mexico
Category:Birds of Cuba
Category:Birds of the Dominican Republic
northern bobwhite
northern bobwhite
Category:Game birds
Category:Extant Pleistocene first appearances
Category:Birds of the Sierra Madre Oriental
Category:Birds of the Sierra Madre del Sur
Category:Birds of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt
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Bipolar disorder
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In the United States, about 3% are estimated to be affected at some point in their life; rates appear to be similar in females and males. Symptoms most commonly begin between the ages of 20 and 25 years old; an earlier onset in life is associated with a worse prognosis. Around one-quarter to one-third of people with bipolar disorder have financial, social or work-related problems due to the illness. Due to lifestyle choices and the side effects of medications, the risk of death from natural causes such as coronary heart disease in people with bipolar disorder is twice that of the general population. The condition is characterized by intermittent episodes of mania, commonly (but not in every patient) alternating with bouts of depression, with an absence of symptoms in between. During these episodes, people with bipolar disorder exhibit disruptions in normal mood, psychomotor activity (the level of physical activity that is influenced by mood)—e.g. constant fidgeting during mania or slowed movements during depression—circadian rhythm and cognition. Mania can present with varying levels of mood disturbance, ranging from euphoria, which is associated with "classic mania", to dysphoria and irritability. Psychotic symptoms such as delusions or hallucinations may occur in both manic and depressive episodes; their content and nature are consistent with the person's prevailing mood.
Manic episodes
Also known as a manic episode, mania is a distinct period of at least one week of elevated or irritable mood, which can range from euphoria to delirium. The core symptom of mania involves an increase in energy of psychomotor activity. Mania can also present with increased self-esteem or grandiosity, racing thoughts, pressured speech that is difficult to interrupt, decreased need for sleep, disinhibited social behavior, To fit the definition of a manic episode, these behaviors must impair the individual's ability to socialize or work.
In severe manic episodes, a person can experience psychotic symptoms, where thought content is affected along with mood. This may lead to violent behavior and, sometimes, hospitalization in an inpatient psychiatric hospital.
The onset of a manic or depressive episode is often foreshadowed by sleep disturbance. Manic individuals often have a history of substance use disorder developed over years as a form of "self-medication".
Hypomanic episodes
Hypomania is the milder form of mania, defined as at least four days of the same criteria as mania, while others are irritable or demonstrate poor judgment.
Hypomania may feel good to some individuals who experience it, though most people who experience hypomania state that the stress of the experience is very painful. If not accompanied by depressive episodes, hypomanic episodes are often not deemed problematic unless the mood changes are uncontrollable or volatile. In individuals with Bipolar II disorder, depressive symptoms typically overlap with hypomania symptoms. These individuals may not be able to identify these specific symptoms as hypomania, rather they view them as typical depression with slight alterations in mood. Most commonly, symptoms continue for time periods from a few weeks to a few months.
Depressive episodes
, after a photograph by Hugh Welch Diamond]]
Symptoms of the depressive phase of bipolar disorder include persistent feelings of sadness, irritability or anger, loss of interest in previously enjoyed activities, excessive or inappropriate guilt, hopelessness, sleeping too much or not enough, changes in appetite or weight, fatigue, problems concentrating, self-loathing or feelings of worthlessness, and thoughts of death or suicide. For most people with bipolar types 1 and 2, the depressive episodes are much longer than the manic or hypomanic episodes. Mixed affective episodes
In bipolar disorder, a mixed state is an episode during which symptoms of both mania and depression occur simultaneously. Individuals experiencing a mixed state may have manic symptoms such as grandiose thoughts while simultaneously experiencing depressive symptoms such as excessive guilt or feeling suicidal. Certain medical conditions are also more common in people with bipolar disorder as compared to the general population. This includes increased rates of metabolic syndrome (present in 37% of people with bipolar disorder), migraine headaches (35%), obesity (21%) and type 2 diabetes (14%).
Substance use disorder is a common comorbidity in bipolar disorder; the subject has been widely reviewed. Causes The causes of bipolar disorder likely vary between individuals and the exact mechanism underlying the disorder remains unclear. Genetic influences are believed to account for 73–93% of the risk of developing the disorder indicating a strong hereditary component. Twin studies have been limited by relatively small sample sizes but have indicated a substantial genetic contribution, as well as environmental influence. For bipolar I disorder, the rate at which identical twins (same genes) will both have bipolar I disorder (concordance) is around 40%, compared to about 5% in fraternal twins. A combination of bipolar I, II, and cyclothymia similarly produced rates of 42% and 11% (identical and fraternal twins, respectively). The relatively low concordance between fraternal twins brought up together suggests that shared family environmental effects are limited, although the ability to detect them has been limited by small sample sizes. The risk of bipolar disorder is nearly ten-fold higher in first-degree relatives of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population; similarly, the risk of major depressive disorder is three times higher in relatives of those with bipolar disorder than in the general population. linkage studies have been inconsistent. Findings point strongly to heterogeneity, with different genes implicated in different families. Robust and replicable genome-wide significant associations showed several common single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are associated with bipolar disorder, including variants within the genes CACNA1C, ODZ4, and NCAN. The largest and most recent genome-wide association study failed to find any locus that exerts a large effect, reinforcing the idea that no single gene is responsible for bipolar disorder in most cases. On the other hand, two polymorphisms in TPH2 were identified as being associated with bipolar disorder.
Due to the inconsistent findings in a genome-wide association study, multiple studies have undertaken the approach of analyzing SNPs in biological pathways. Signaling pathways traditionally associated with bipolar disorder that have been supported by these studies include corticotropin-releasing hormone signaling, cardiac β-adrenergic signaling, phospholipase C signaling, glutamate receptor signaling, cardiac hypertrophy signaling, Wnt signaling, Notch signaling, and endothelin 1 signaling. Of the 16 genes identified in these pathways, three were found to be dysregulated in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex portion of the brain in post-mortem studies: CACNA1C, GNG2, and ITPR2.
Bipolar disorder is associated with reduced expression of specific DNA repair enzymes and increased levels of oxidative DNA damages. The AKAP11 gene was recently discovered as the first gene linked to bipolar disorder. The exomes of around 14,000 individuals with bipolar disorder were analysed and compared to those without the condition. The findings were combined with data from another study in the Schizophrenia Exome Sequencing Meta-Analysis (SCHEMA), examining the genome sequences of 24,000 people alongside the original 14,000 bipolar disorder cases. This study identified genetic variants, including the AKAP11 gene, associated with an increased risk of bipolar disorder. The AKAP11 gene’s interaction with the GSK3B protein, a molecular target of lithium, points to a possible mechanism behind the medication’s therapeutic effects. Environmental Psychosocial factors play a significant role in the development and course of bipolar disorder, and individual psychosocial variables may interact with genetic dispositions. Recent life events and interpersonal relationships likely contribute to the onset and recurrence of bipolar mood episodes, just as they do for unipolar depression. Subtypes of abuse, such as sexual and emotional abuse, also contribute to violent behaviors seen in patients with bipolar disorder. The number of reported stressful events in childhood is higher in those with an adult diagnosis of bipolar spectrum disorder than in those without, particularly events stemming from a harsh environment rather than from the child's own behavior. Acutely, mania can be induced by sleep deprivation in around 30% of people with bipolar disorder.
Neurological
Less commonly, bipolar disorder or a bipolar-like disorder may occur as a result of or in association with a neurological condition or injury including stroke, traumatic brain injury, HIV infection, multiple sclerosis, porphyria, and rarely temporal lobe epilepsy.
Proposed mechanisms
The precise mechanisms that cause bipolar disorder are not well understood. Bipolar disorder is thought to be associated with abnormalities in the structure and function of certain brain areas responsible for cognitive tasks and the processing of emotions.
Functional MRI findings suggest that the ventricular prefrontal cortex regulates the limbic system, especially the amygdala. Consistent with this, pharmacological treatment of mania returns ventricular prefrontal cortex activity to the levels in non-manic people, suggesting that ventricular prefrontal cortex activity is an indicator of mood state. However, while pharmacological treatment of mania reduces amygdala hyperactivity, it remains more active than the amygdala of those without bipolar disorder, suggesting amygdala activity may be a marker of the disorder rather than the current mood state. Manic and depressive episodes tend to be characterized by dysfunction in different regions of the ventricular prefrontal cortex. Manic episodes appear to be associated with decreased activation of the right ventricular prefrontal cortex whereas depressive episodes are associated with decreased activation of the left ventricular prefrontal cortex.
People with bipolar disorder who are in a euthymic mood state show decreased activity in the lingual gyrus compared to people without bipolar disorder. People with bipolar have increased activation of left hemisphere ventral limbic areaswhich mediate emotional experiences and generation of emotional responsesand decreased activation of right hemisphere cortical structures related to cognitionstructures associated with the regulation of emotions. However, further research is needed to consolidate neuroimaging findings, which are often heterogeneous and not consistently reported according to a common standard.
Neuroscientists have proposed additional models to try to explain the cause of bipolar disorder. One proposed model for bipolar disorder suggests that hypersensitivity of reward circuits consisting of frontostriatal circuits causes mania, and decreased sensitivity of these circuits causes depression. According to the "kindling" hypothesis, when people who are genetically predisposed toward bipolar disorder experience stressful events, the stress threshold at which mood changes occur becomes progressively lower, until the episodes eventually start (and recur) spontaneously. There is evidence supporting an association between early-life stress and dysfunction of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis leading to its overactivation, which may play a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder. Other brain components that have been proposed to play a role in bipolar disorder are the mitochondria
Dopamine, a neurotransmitter responsible for mood cycling, has increased transmission during the manic phase. The dopamine hypothesis states that the increase in dopamine results in secondary homeostatic downregulation of key system elements and receptors such as lower sensitivity of dopaminergic receptors. This results in decreased dopamine transmission characteristic of the depressive phase. Glutamate is significantly increased within the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex during the manic phase of bipolar disorder, and returns to normal levels once the phase is over.
Medications used to treat bipolar may exert their effect by modulating intracellular signaling, such as through depleting myo-inositol levels, inhibition of cAMP signaling, and through altering subunits of the dopamine-associated G-protein. Consistent with this, elevated levels of G<sub>αi</sub>, G<sub>αs</sub>, and G<sub>αq/11</sub> have been reported in brain and blood samples, along with increased protein kinase A (PKA) expression and sensitivity; typically, PKA activates as part of the intracellular signalling cascade downstream from the detachment of G<sub>αs</sub> subunit from the G protein complex.
Decreased levels of 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, a byproduct of serotonin, are present in the cerebrospinal fluid of persons with bipolar disorder during both the depressed and manic phases. Increased dopaminergic activity has been hypothesized in manic states due to the ability of dopamine agonists to stimulate mania in people with bipolar disorder. Decreased sensitivity of regulatory α<sub>2</sub> adrenergic receptors as well as increased cell counts in the locus coeruleus indicated increased noradrenergic activity in manic people. Low plasma GABA levels on both sides of the mood spectrum have been found. One review found no difference in monoamine levels, but found abnormal norepinephrine turnover in people with bipolar disorder. Tyrosine depletion was found to reduce the effects of methamphetamine in people with bipolar disorder as well as symptoms of mania, implicating dopamine in mania. VMAT2 binding was found to be increased in one study of people with bipolar mania.
Diagnosis
Bipolar disorder is commonly diagnosed during adolescence or early adulthood, but onset can occur throughout life. Its diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the individual, abnormal behavior reported by family members, friends or co-workers, observable signs of illness as assessed by a clinician, and ideally a medical work-up to rule out other causes. Caregiver-scored rating scales, specifically from the mother, have shown to be more accurate than teacher and youth-scored reports in identifying youths with bipolar disorder. Assessment is usually done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to oneself or others.
The most widely used criteria for diagnosing bipolar disorder are from the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5) and the World Health Organization's (WHO) International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, 10th Edition (ICD-10). The ICD-10 criteria are used more often in clinical settings outside of the U.S. while the DSM criteria are used within the U.S. and are the prevailing criteria used internationally in research studies. The DSM-5, published in 2013, includes further and more accurate specifiers compared to its predecessor, the DSM-IV-TR. This work has influenced the eleventh revision of the ICD, which includes the various diagnoses within the bipolar spectrum of the DSM-V.
Several rating scales for the screening and evaluation of bipolar disorder exist, The use of evaluation scales cannot substitute a full clinical interview but they serve to systematize the recollection of symptoms.
Differential diagnosis
Bipolar disorder is classified by the International Classification of Diseases as a mental and behavioural disorder. Mental disorders that can have symptoms similar to those seen in bipolar disorder include schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, A key difference between bipolar disorder and borderline personality disorder is the nature of the mood swings; in contrast to the sustained changes to mood over days to weeks or longer, those of the latter condition (more accurately called emotional dysregulation) are sudden and often short-lived, and secondary to social stressors.
Although there are no biological tests that are diagnostic of bipolar disorder, Bipolar spectrum Bipolar spectrum disorders include: bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, cyclothymic disorder and cases where subthreshold symptoms are found to cause clinically significant impairment or distress. Bipolar II disorder was established as a diagnosis in 1994 within DSM IV; though debate continues over whether it is a distinct entity, part of a spectrum, or exists at all.
Criteria and subtypes
The DSM and the ICD characterize bipolar disorder as a spectrum of disorders occurring on a continuum. The DSM-5 and ICD-11 lists three specific subtypes: depressive episodes are common in the vast majority of cases with bipolar disorder I, but are unnecessary for the diagnosis.
When relevant, specifiers for peripartum onset and with rapid cycling should be used with any subtype. Individuals who have subthreshold symptoms that cause clinically significant distress or impairment, but do not meet full criteria for one of the three subtypes may be diagnosed with other specified or unspecified bipolar disorder. Other specified bipolar disorder is used when a clinician chooses to explain why the full criteria were not met (e.g., hypomania without a prior major depressive episode).
Rapid cycling
Most people who meet criteria for bipolar disorder experience a number of episodes, on average 0.4 to 0.7 per year, lasting three to six months. Rapid cycling, however, is a course specifier that may be applied to any bipolar subtype. It is defined as having four or more mood disturbance episodes within a one-year span. Rapid cycling is usually temporary but is common amongst people with bipolar disorder and affects 25.8–45.3% of them at some point in their life. These episodes are separated from each other by a remission (partial or full) for at least two months or a switch in mood polarity (i.e., from a depressive episode to a manic episode or vice versa). The literature examining the pharmacological treatment of rapid cycling is sparse and there is no clear consensus with respect to its optimal pharmacological management. "Ultra rapid" and "ultradian" have been applied to faster-cycling types of bipolar disorder. People with the rapid cycling or faster-cycling subtypes of bipolar disorder tend to be more difficult to treat and less responsive to medications than other people with bipolar disorder.
Coexisting psychiatric conditions
The diagnosis of bipolar disorder can be complicated by coexisting (comorbid) psychiatric conditions including obsessive–compulsive disorder, substance-use disorder, eating disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, social phobia, premenstrual syndrome (including premenstrual dysphoric disorder), or panic disorder. A thorough longitudinal analysis of symptoms and episodes, assisted if possible by discussions with friends and family members, is crucial to establishing a treatment plan where these comorbidities exist. Children of parents with bipolar disorder more frequently have other mental health problems.
Children
is the only medication approved by the FDA for treating mania in children.]]
In the 1920s, Kraepelin noted that manic episodes are rare before puberty. The diagnosis of childhood bipolar disorder, while formerly controversial, American children and adolescents diagnosed with bipolar disorder in community hospitals increased 4-fold reaching rates of up to 40% in 10 years around the beginning of the 21st century, while in outpatient clinics it doubled reaching 6%. distinct from irritability in bipolar disorder that is restricted to discrete mood episodes. Adults with Bipolar report having a lower quality of life, even outside of a manic or depressive episode. Bipolar can put strain on marriage and other relationships, having a job, and everyday functioning. Bipolar is associated with having higher rates of unemployment. Most have trouble keeping a job, leading to trouble with healthcare access, leading to more decline in their mental health due to not receiving treatment such as medicine and therapy.
Elderly
Bipolar disorder is uncommon in older patients, with a measured lifetime prevalence of 1% in over 60s and a 12-month prevalence of 0.10.5% in people over 65. Despite this, it is overrepresented in psychiatric admissions, making up 48% of inpatient admission to aged care psychiatry units, and the incidence of mood disorders is increasing overall with the aging population. Depressive episodes more commonly present with sleep disturbance, fatigue, hopelessness about the future, slowed thinking, and poor concentration and memory; the last three symptoms are seen in what is known as pseudodementia. Clinical features also differ between those with late-onset bipolar disorder and those who developed it early in life; the former group present with milder manic episodes, more prominent cognitive changes and have a background of worse psychosocial functioning, while the latter present more commonly with mixed affective episodes, Older people with bipolar disorder experience cognitive changes, particularly in executive functions such as abstract thinking and switching cognitive sets, as well as concentrating for long periods and decision-making.
Prevention
Attempts at prevention of bipolar disorder have focused on stress (such as childhood adversity or highly conflictual families) which, although not a diagnostically specific causal agent for bipolar, does place genetically and biologically vulnerable individuals at risk for a more severe course of illness. Longitudinal studies have indicated that full-blown manic stages are often preceded by a variety of prodromal clinical features, providing support for the occurrence of an at-risk state of the disorder when an early intervention might prevent its further development and/or improve its outcome. Management
The aim of management is to treat acute episodes safely with medication and work with the patient in long-term maintenance to prevent further episodes and optimise function using a combination of pharmacological and psychotherapeutic techniques. Following (or in lieu of) a hospital admission, support services available can include drop-in centers, visits from members of a community mental health team or an Assertive Community Treatment team, supported employment, patient-led support groups, and intensive outpatient programs. These are sometimes referred to as partial-inpatient programs. Compared to the general population, people with bipolar disorder are less likely to frequently engage in physical exercise. Exercise may have physical and mental benefits for people with bipolar disorder, but there is a lack of research.
Psychosocial
Psychotherapy aims to assist a person with bipolar disorder in accepting and understanding their diagnosis, coping with various types of stress, improving their interpersonal relationships, and recognizing prodromal symptoms before full-blown recurrence. Some clinicians emphasize the need to talk with individuals experiencing mania, to develop a therapeutic alliance in support of recovery. Medication Medications are often prescribed to help improve symptoms of bipolar disorder. Medications approved for treating bipolar disorder including mood stabilizers, antipsychotics, and certain antidepressants. Sometimes a combination of medications may also be suggested. Lithium reduces the risk of suicide, self-harm, and death in people with bipolar disorder. Lithium is preferred for long-term mood stabilization. Lithium treatment is also associated with adverse effects and it has been shown to erode kidney and thyroid function over extended periods.
* Carbamazepine is less effective in preventing relapse than lithium or valproate. Carbamazepine effectively treats manic episodes, with some evidence it has greater benefit in rapid-cycling bipolar disorder, or those with more psychotic symptoms or more symptoms similar to that of schizoaffective disorder.
* Lamotrigine has some efficacy in treating depression, and this benefit is greatest in more severe depression. Lamotrigine may have a similar effectiveness to lithium for treating bipolar disorder, however, there is evidence to suggest that lamotrigine is less effective at preventing recurrent mania episodes. Lamotrigine treatment has been shown to be safer compared to lithium treatment, with less adverse effects.
Valproate and carbamazepine are teratogenic and should be avoided as a treatment in women of childbearing age, but discontinuation of these medications during pregnancy is associated with a high risk of relapse.
The effectiveness of topiramate is unknown.
Mood stabilizers are used for long-term maintenance but have not demonstrated the ability to quickly treat acute bipolar depression. A 2006 review found that haloperidol was an effective treatment for acute mania, limited data supported no difference in overall efficacy between haloperidol, olanzapine or risperidone, and that it could be less effective than aripiprazole.
Antidepressants
Antidepressant monotherapy is not recommended in the treatment of bipolar disorder and does not provide any benefit over mood stabilizers. Atypical antipsychotic medications (e.g., aripiprazole) are preferred over antidepressants to augment the effects of mood stabilizers due to the lack of efficacy of antidepressants in bipolar disorder. Treatment of bipolar disorder using antidepressants may carry a risk of affective switches where a person switches from depression to manic or hypomanic phases or mixed states.
Combined treatment approaches
Antipsychotics and mood stabilizers used together are quicker and more effective at treating mania than either class of drug used alone. Some analyses indicate antipsychotics alone are also more effective at treating acute mania. Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is an effective form of treatment for acute mood disturbances in those with bipolar disorder, especially when psychotic or catatonic features are displayed. ECT is also recommended for use in pregnant women with bipolar disorder. Gabapentin and pregabalin are not proven to be effective for treating bipolar disorder.ChildrenTreating bipolar disorder in children involves medication and psychotherapy. The literature and research on the effects of psychosocial therapy on bipolar spectrum disorders are scarce, making it difficult to determine the efficacy of various therapies. Psychological treatment combines normally education on the disease, group therapy, and cognitive behavioral therapy. Guidelines to the definition of treatment-resistant bipolar disorder and evidence-based options for its management were reviewed in 2020.
Management of obesity
A large proportion (approximately 68%) of people who seek treatment for bipolar disorder are obese or overweight and managing obesity is important for reducing the risk of other health conditions that are associated with obesity. Management approaches include non-pharmacological, pharmacological, and surgical. Examples of non-pharmacological include dietary interventions, exercise, behavioral therapies, or combined approaches. Pharmacological approaches include weight-loss medications or changing medications already being prescribed. Some people with bipolar disorder who have obesity may also be eligible for bariatric surgery. bipolar disorder is considered to be a major health problem worldwide because of the increased rates of disability and premature mortality.
Compliance with medications is one of the most significant factors that can decrease the rate and severity of relapse and have a positive impact on overall prognosis. Of the various types of the disorder, rapid cycling (four or more episodes in one year) is associated with the worst prognosis due to higher rates of self-harm and suicide. as well as subtypes that are nonresponsive to lithium.
Functioning
Changes in cognitive processes and abilities are seen in mood disorders, with those of bipolar disorder being greater than those in major depressive disorder. These include reduced attentional and executive capabilities and impaired memory. People with bipolar disorder often experience a decline in cognitive functioning during (or possibly before) their first episode, after which a certain degree of cognitive dysfunction typically becomes permanent, with more severe impairment during acute phases and moderate impairment during periods of remission. As a result, two-thirds of people with BD continue to experience impaired psychosocial functioning in between episodes even when their mood symptoms are in full remission. A similar pattern is seen in both BD-I and BD-II, but people with BD-II experience a lesser degree of impairment.
When bipolar disorder occurs in children, it severely and adversely affects their psychosocial development. Early intervention can slow the progression of cognitive impairment, while treatment at later stages can help reduce distress and negative consequences related to cognitive dysfunction. Depressive symptoms during and between episodes, which occur much more frequently for most people than hypomanic or manic symptoms over the course of illness, are associated with lower functional recovery in between episodes, including unemployment or underemployment for both BD-I and BD-II. Recovery and recurrence A naturalistic study in 2003 by Tohen and coworkers from the first admission for mania or mixed episode (representing the hospitalized and therefore most severe cases) found that 50% achieved syndromal recovery (no longer meeting criteria for the diagnosis) within six weeks and 98% within two years. Within two years, 72% achieved symptomatic recovery (no symptoms at all) and 43% achieved functional recovery (regaining of prior occupational and residential status). However, 40% went on to experience a new episode of mania or depression within 2 years of syndromal recovery, and 19% switched phases without recovery.
Symptoms preceding a relapse (prodromal), especially those related to mania, can be reliably identified by people with bipolar disorder. There have been intents to teach patients coping strategies when noticing such symptoms with encouraging results.
Suicide
Bipolar disorder can cause suicidal ideation that leads to suicide attempts. Individuals whose bipolar disorder begins with a depressive or mixed affective episode seem to have a poorer prognosis and an increased risk of suicide. One out of two people with bipolar disorder attempt suicide at least once during their lifetime and many attempts are successfully completed. The lifetime risk of suicide is much higher in those with bipolar disorder, with an estimated 34% of people attempting suicide and 15–20% dying by suicide. However, a reanalysis of data from the National Epidemiological Catchment Area survey in the United States suggested that 0.8% of the population experience a manic episode at least once (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar I) and a further 0.5% have a hypomanic episode (the diagnostic threshold for bipolar II or cyclothymia). Including sub-threshold diagnostic criteria, such as one or two symptoms over a short time-period, an additional 5.1% of the population, adding up to a total of 6.4%, were classified as having a bipolar spectrum disorder. A more recent analysis of data from a second US National Comorbidity Survey found that 1% met lifetime prevalence criteria for bipolar I, 1.1% for bipolar II, and 2.4% for subthreshold symptoms. Estimates vary about how many children and young adults have bipolar disorder.
The incidence of bipolar disorder is similar in men and women as well as across different cultures and ethnic groups. Within the United States, Asian Americans have significantly lower rates than their African American and European American counterparts. In 2017, the Global Burden of Disease Study estimated there were 4.5 million new cases and a total of 45.5 million cases globally.
History
first distinguished between manic–depressive illness and "dementia praecox" (now known as schizophrenia) in the late 19th century.]]
In the early 1800s, French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol's lypemania, one of his affective monomanias, was the first elaboration on what was to become modern depression. The basis of the current conceptualization of bipolar illness can be traced back to the 1850s. In 1850, Jean-Pierre Falret described "circular insanity" (, ); the lecture was summarized in 1851 in the ("Hospital Gazette"). Three years later, in 1854, Jules-Gabriel-François Baillarger (1809–1890) described to the French Imperial Académie Nationale de Médecine a biphasic mental illness causing recurrent oscillations between mania and melancholia, which he termed (, "madness in double form"). Baillarger's original paper, "", appeared in the medical journal Annales médico-psychologiques (Medico-psychological annals) in 1854.
The term "manic–depressive reaction" appeared in the first version of the DSM in 1952, influenced by the legacy of Adolf Meyer. Subtyping into "unipolar" depressive disorders and bipolar disorders has its origin in Karl Kleist's concept – since 1911 – of unipolar and bipolar affective disorders, which was used by Karl Leonhard in 1957 to differentiate between unipolar and bipolar disorder in depression. These subtypes have been regarded as separate conditions since publication of the DSM-III. The subtypes bipolar II and rapid cycling have been included since the DSM-IV, based on work from the 1970s by David Dunner, Elliot Gershon, Frederick Goodwin, Ronald Fieve, and Joseph Fleiss.
Society and culture
's public revelation of bipolar disorder made her an early celebrity spokesperson for mental illness.]]
Cost
The United States spent approximately $202.1 billion on people diagnosed with bipolar I disorder (excluding other subtypes of bipolar disorder and undiagnosed people) in 2015. One analysis estimated that the United Kingdom spent approximately £5.2 billion on the disorder in 2007. In addition to the economic costs, bipolar disorder is a leading cause of disability and lost productivity worldwide. The decrease in the productivity seen in those who care for people with bipolar disorder also significantly contributes to these costs.AdvocacyThere are widespread issues with social stigma, stereotypes, and prejudice against individuals with a diagnosis of bipolar disorder. In 2000, actress Carrie Fisher went public with her bipolar disorder diagnosis. She became one of the most well-recognized advocates for people with bipolar disorder in the public eye and fiercely advocated to eliminate the stigma surrounding mental illnesses, including bipolar disorder. Stephen Fried, who has written extensively on the topic, noted that Fisher helped to draw attention to the disorder's chronicity, relapsing nature, and that bipolar disorder relapses do not indicate a lack of discipline or moral shortcomings. In an effort to ease the social stigma associated with bipolar disorder, the orchestra conductor Ronald Braunstein cofounded the ME/2 Orchestra with his wife Caroline Whiddon in 2011. Braunstein was diagnosed with bipolar disorder in 1985 and his concerts with the ME/2 Orchestra were conceived in order to create a welcoming performance environment for his musical colleagues, while also raising public awareness about mental illness.
Notable cases
Numerous authors have written about bipolar disorder and many successful people have openly discussed their experience with it. Kay Redfield Jamison, a clinical psychologist and professor of psychiatry at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, profiled her own bipolar disorder in her memoir An Unquiet Mind (1995). It is likely that Grigory Potemkin, Russian statesman and alleged husband of Catherine the Great, suffered from some kind of bipolar disorder. Several celebrities have also publicly shared that they have bipolar disorder; in addition to Carrie Fisher and Stephen Fry these include Catherine Zeta-Jones, Mariah Carey, Kanye West, Jane Pauley, Demi Lovato, and Russell Brand.
Media portrayals
Several dramatic works have portrayed characters with traits suggestive of the diagnosis which have been the subject of discussion by psychiatrists and film experts alike.
In Mr. Jones (1993), (Richard Gere) swings from a manic episode into a depressive phase and back again, spending time in a psychiatric hospital and displaying many of the features of the syndrome. In The Mosquito Coast (1986), Allie Fox (Harrison Ford) displays some features including recklessness, grandiosity, increased goal-directed activity and mood lability, as well as some paranoia. Psychiatrists have suggested that Willy Loman, the main character in Arthur Miller's classic play Death of a Salesman, has bipolar disorder.
The 2009 drama 90210 featured a character, Silver, who was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. Stacey Slater, a character from the BBC soap EastEnders, has been diagnosed with the disorder. The storyline was developed as part of the BBC's Headroom campaign. The Channel 4 soap Brookside had earlier featured a story about bipolar disorder when the character Jimmy Corkhill was diagnosed with the condition. 2011 Showtime's political thriller drama Homeland protagonist Carrie Mathison has bipolar disorder, which she has kept secret since her school days. The 2014 ABC medical drama, Black Box, featured a world-renowned neuroscientist with bipolar disorder.
In the TV series Dave, the eponymous main character, played by Lil Dicky as a fictionalized version of himself, is an aspiring rapper. Lil Dicky's real-life hype man GaTa also plays himself. In one episode, after being off his medication and having an episode, GaTa tearfully confesses to having bipolar disorder. GaTa has bipolar disorder in real life but, like his character in the show, he is able to manage it with medication.
Creativity
A link between mental illness and professional success or creativity has been suggested, including in accounts by Socrates, Seneca the Younger, and Cesare Lombroso. Despite prominence in popular culture, the link between creativity and bipolar has not been rigorously studied. This area of study also is likely affected by confirmation bias. Some evidence suggests that some heritable component of bipolar disorder overlaps with heritable components of creativity. Probands of people with bipolar disorder are more likely to be professionally successful, as well as to demonstrate temperamental traits similar to bipolar disorder. Furthermore, while studies of the frequency of bipolar disorder in creative population samples have been conflicting, full-blown bipolar disorder in creative samples is rare.ResearchResearch directions for bipolar disorder in children include optimizing treatments, increasing the knowledge of the genetic and neurobiological basis of the pediatric disorder and improving diagnostic criteria.See also
* List of people with bipolar disorder
* Outline of bipolar disorder
* Bipolar I disorder
* Bipolar II disorder
* Bipolar NOS
* Cyclothymia
* Bipolar disorders research
* Borderline personality disorder
* Major depressive disorder
* Emotional dysregulation
* Mood (psychology)
* Mood swing
* International Society for Bipolar Disorders
* Comparison of bipolar disorder and schizophrenia
Explanatory notes
Citations
Cited texts
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
*
,
| ICD10 =
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| OMIM_mult =
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| eMedicineSubj = med
| eMedicineTopic = 229
| MeshID = D001714
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Category:Depression (mood)
Category:Mood disorders
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Blitz
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Blitz, German for "lightning", may refer to:
Military uses
Blitzkrieg, blitz campaign, or blitz, a type of military campaign
The Blitz, the German aerial campaign against Britain in the Second World War
, several ships of the Prussian, Imperial German, and Austro-Hungarian navies
Computing
Blitz (software), a cloud-based load-and performance-testing service
Blitz BASIC, a dialect of the BASIC programming language
Blitz++, a C++ class library for scientific computing
BlitzMail, the internal e-mail network at Dartmouth College
Blitz Research, a New Zealand software company
Film and television
Blitz (2011 film), a film starring Jason Statham
Blitz (2024 film), a World War II-themed historical drama film
Blitz or Killing Cars, a 1986 Michael Verhoeven film
Blitz, a fictional anthropomorphic doberman from Road Rovers
Blitz, a robot dog from the cartoon C.O.P.S.
The Blitz, in the "Blitzgiving" episode of How I Met Your Mother
Games
Blitz (game), a card game
Blitz (video game), a VIC-20 game
NFL Blitz, a series of American football video games featuring over-the-top action
Blitz: The League, a 2005 American football video game extension of the NFL Blitz series
Blitz chess, fast chess in which each player is allotted from three to five minutes (as noted chess.com) but loosely defined as from one to ten minutes (see bullet chess and rapid chess for clarification)
Blitz Games, a British computer games company
Blitz, a playable character in Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege
World of Tanks Blitz, a mobile game based on the PC version (WoT) World of Tanks
Literature
Blitz (British magazine), an influential British "style" magazine of the 1980s
Blitz (Portuguese magazine), a Portuguese music magazine, started in 1984 as a newspaper
Blitz (newspaper), Indian investigative newspaper, started in 1941 by Russi Karanjia
Weekly Blitz, a weekly Bangladeshi newspaper
Blitz (Big Bang Comics), a Flash-based Big Bang Comics hero
Blitz (Marvel Comics)
Blitz, the alter-ego of George in the web comic Bob and George
Music
Blitz (British band), a punk rock band
Blitz (Brazilian band), a new-wave band from the 1980s
Bobby Ellsworth or Blitz, American heavy metal singer
Blitz (Étienne Daho album) (2017)
Blitz (KMFDM album) (2009)
The Blitz (Krokus album) (1984)
The Blitz (Thebandwithnoname album) (2002)
Blitz!, a musical by Lionel Bart
"Blitz", a song by Audio Adrenaline from Some Kind of Zombie (1997)
"Blitz" and "Blitz V2", songs by American rapper SoFaygo (2022)
Nightclubs
Blitz Club, a techno nightclub in Munich, Germany
Blitz, a 1980s night club in London frequented by the Blitz Kids
Sports
American football
Blitz (gridiron football), a type of defensive tactic
The Blitz (ESPNEWS), a TV show on ESPNEWS
Blitz (mascot), the mascot of the Seattle Seahawks
Bakersfield Blitz, a former arena football team
Chicago Blitz, a United States Football League team in the 1980s
Chicago Blitz (indoor football), a defunct professional indoor football team
Chicago Blitz (X League), an American women's gridiron football team
London Blitz (American football), a London-based team
Montreal Blitz, a women's team
Syracuse Blitz, a former Professional Indoor Football League team
Other sports
Blitz defence, a defensive technique used in rugby union
SV Blitz Breslau, a defunct German association football team
Blitz (company), a Japanese tuning company which competes in the D1 Grand Prix
Other uses
Blitz (surname), a surname and list of people with the name
Opel Blitz, various German lorries built by Opel from 1930 to 1975
Blitz (movement), a radical youth movement in Norway
Blitz campaign, or blitz, a type of marketing campaign
See also
Blitzkrieg (disambiguation)
Blitzer (disambiguation)
Blits (disambiguation)
Utah Blitzz, former professional soccer team
Blitzy, a fictional dog character from Mona the Vampire
Bristol Blitz, the German bombing raids on Bristol, England in 1940 and 1941
Hull Blitz, the German Second World War bombing campaign targeting Kingston upon Hull
Rotterdam Blitz, the German bombing raid on Rotterdam, Netherlands in 1940
World of Tanks Blitz, an online game
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Burt Lancaster
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| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Los Angeles, California, U.S.
| resting_place = Pierce Brothers Westwood Village Memorial Park and Mortuary
| years_active = 1935–1991
| occupation =
| spouse =
*
*
}}
| children = 5; including Bill
| party = Democratic
| module
}}
Burton Stephen Lancaster (November 2, 1913 – October 20, 1994) was an American actor. Initially known for playing tough guys with a tender heart, he went on to achieve success with more complex and challenging roles over a 45-year career in films and television series. He was a four-time nominee for the Academy Award for Best Actor (winning once), and he also won two BAFTA Awards and one Golden Globe Award for Best Lead Actor. The American Film Institute ranks Lancaster as of the greatest male stars of classic Hollywood cinema.
Lancaster performed as a circus acrobat in the 1930s. At the age of 32, and after serving in World War II, he landed a role in a Broadway play and drew the attention of a Hollywood agent. His appearance in film noir The Killers in 1946 alongside Ava Gardner was a critical success and launched both of their careers. In 1948, Lancaster starred alongside Barbara Stanwyck in the commercially and critically acclaimed film Sorry, Wrong Number, where he portrayed the husband to her bedridden invalid character. In 1953, Lancaster played the illicit lover of Deborah Kerr in the military drama From Here to Eternity. A box office smash, it won eight Academy Awards, including Best Picture, and landed a Best Actor nomination for Lancaster.
Later in the 1950s, he starred in The Rainmaker (1956), with Katharine Hepburn, earning a Best Actor Golden Globe nomination, and in 1957 he starred in Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) with frequent co-star Kirk Douglas. During the 1950s, his production company, Hecht-Hill-Lancaster, was highly successful, with Lancaster acting in films such as: Trapeze (1956), a box office smash in which he used his acrobatic skills and for which he won the Silver Bear for Best Actor; Sweet Smell of Success (1957), a dark drama today considered a classic; Run Silent, Run Deep (1958), a WWII submarine drama with Clark Gable; and Separate Tables (1958), a hotel-set drama which received seven Oscar nominations.
In the early 1960s, Lancaster starred in a string of critically successful films, each in very disparate roles. Playing a charismatic biblical con-man in Elmer Gantry in 1960 won him the Academy Award and the Golden Globe for Best Actor. He played a Nazi war criminal in 1961 in the all-star, war-crime-trial film, Judgment at Nuremberg. Playing a bird expert prisoner in Birdman of Alcatraz in 1962, he earned the BAFTA Award for Best Foreign Actor and his third Oscar nomination. In 1963, Lancaster traveled to Italy to star as an Italian prince in Visconti's epic period drama The Leopard. In 1964, he played a US Air Force General who, opposed by a Colonel played by Douglas, tries to overthrow the President in Seven Days in May. Then, in 1966, he played an explosives expert in the western The Professionals. Although the reception of his 1968 film The Swimmer was initially lackluster upon release, in the years after it has grown in stature critically and attained a cult following.
In 1970, Lancaster starred in the box-office hit, air-disaster drama Airport. In 1974, he again starred in a Visconti film, Conversation Piece. He experienced a career resurgence in 1980 with the crime-romance Atlantic City, winning the BAFTA for Best Actor and landing his fourth Oscar nomination. Starting in the late 1970s, he also appeared in television mini-series, including the award-winning Separate but Equal with Sidney Poitier. He continued acting into his late 70s, until a stroke in 1990 forced him to retire; four years later he died from a heart attack. His final film role was in the Oscar-nominated Field of Dreams.
Early life
Lancaster was born on November 2, 1913, in New York City, at his parents' home at 209 East 106th Street, the son of Elizabeth (née Roberts) and mailman James Lancaster. Both of his parents were Protestants of working-class background. All four of his grandparents were Scots-Irish immigrants from the province of Ulster, Ireland. His maternal side was from Belfast, the descendants of English dissenters who had colonized Ireland as part of the Plantation of Ulster.
Circus career
At the age of 9, Lancaster met Nick Cravat with whom he developed a lifelong partnership. Together, they learned to act in local theatre productions and circus arts at Union Settlement, one of the city's oldest settlement houses.
World War II service
After the United States entered World War II, Lancaster joined the United States Army in January 1943 and performed with the Army's 21st Special Services Division, one of the military groups organized to follow the troops on the ground and provide USO entertainment to keep up morale. He served in the Fifth Army in Italy under General Mark Clark from 1943 to 1945. He was discharged October 1945 and was an entertainment specialist with the rank of technician fifth grade.
Acting career
Broadway
Lancaster returned to New York after his Army service. Although initially unenthusiastic about acting, Lancaster was encouraged to audition for a Broadway play by a producer who saw him in an elevator while he was visiting his then-girlfriend at work. The audition was successful and Lancaster was cast in Harry Brown's A Sound of Hunting (1945). The show only ran three weeks, but his performance attracted the interest of a Hollywood agent, Harold Hecht. Lancaster had other offers but Hecht promised him the opportunity to produce their own movies within five years of hitting Hollywood.
Through Hecht, Lancaster was brought to the attention of producer Hal B. Wallis. Lancaster left New York and moved to Los Angeles. Wallis signed him to a non-exclusive eight-movie contract.
Hal Wallis
in The Killers, 1946]]
Lancaster's first filmed movie was Desert Fury for Wallis in 1947, where Lancaster was billed after John Hodiak and Lizabeth Scott. It was directed by Lewis Allen.
Then producer Mark Hellinger approached him to star in 1946's The Killers, which was completed and released prior to Desert Fury. Directed by Robert Siodmak, it was a great commercial and critical success and launched Lancaster and his co-star Ava Gardner to stardom. It has since come to be regarded as a classic.
Hellinger used Lancaster again on Brute Force in 1947, a prison drama written by Richard Brooks and directed by Jules Dassin. It was also well received.
In 1948, Lancaster had a change of pace with the film adaptation of Arthur Miller's All My Sons, made at Universal Pictures with Edward G. Robinson. His third film for Wallis was an adaptation of Sorry, Wrong Number in 1948, with Barbara Stanwyck.
Norma Productions
Hecht kept to his promise to Lancaster to turn producer. The two of them formed a company, Norma Productions, and did a deal with Universal to make a thriller about a disturbed G.I. in London, Kiss the Blood Off My Hands in 1948, with Joan Fontaine and directed by Norman Foster. It made a profit of only $50,000, but was critically acclaimed.
Lancaster was borrowed by 20th Century Fox for Mister 880 in 1950, a comedy crime romance film with Edmund Gwenn. MGM put him in a popular Western, Vengeance Valley in 1951, then he went to Warners to play the title role in the biopic Jim Thorpe – All-American, also in 1951.
Halburt
Norma signed a deal with Columbia Pictures to make two films through a Norma subsidiary, Halburt. The first film was 1951's Ten Tall Men, where Lancaster was a member of the French Foreign Legion. Robert Aldrich worked on the movie as a production manager.
The second was 1952's The First Time, a comedy which was the directorial debut of Frank Tashlin. It was meant to star Lancaster but he wound up not appearing in the filmthe first of their productions in which he did not act.
Hecht-Lancaster Productions
In 1951, the actor/producer duo changed the company's name to Hecht-Lancaster Productions. The first film under the new name was another swashbuckler: 1952's The Crimson Pirate, directed by Siodmak. Again, co-starring Nick Cravat, it was extremely popular. Taking the premise of The Flame and the Arrow a step further, it allowed the pair to, not only emphasise the absurdity of the story with more spectacle and comical situations but to demonstrate they were able to perform their own circus skills-based stunts without relying on stuntmen quite as much a most Hollywood stars. As if to down play this, Lancaster himself speaks to the audience in the opening scene over footage of Lancaster performing a dangerous rope swing from one of his pirate ship's masts to the other. "…in a pirate world, believe only what you see." The footage is then reversed to show a near impossible backwards swing to the first mast again, from which he proclaims "No, believe HALF of what you see."
Lancaster changed pace once more by doing a straight dramatic part in 1952's Come Back, Little Sheba, based on a Broadway hit, with Shirley Booth, produced by Wallis and directed by Daniel Mann.
Alternating with adventure films, he went into South Sea Woman in 1952 at Warners. Part of the Norma-Warners contract was that Lancaster had to appear in some non-Norma films, of which this was one.
in From Here to Eternity, 1953]]
In 1954, for his own company, Lancaster produced and starred in ''His Majesty O'Keefe'', a South Sea island tale shot in Fiji. It was co-written by James Hill, who would soon become a part of the Hecht-Lancaster partnership.
United Artists
Hecht and Lancaster left Warners for United Artists, for what began as a two-picture deal, the first of which was to be 1954's Apache, starring Lancaster as a Native American.
They followed it with another Western in 1954, Vera Cruz, co-starring Gary Cooper and produced by Hill. Both films were directed by Robert Aldrich and were hugely popular.
United Artists signed Hecht-Lancaster to a multi-picture contract, to make seven films over two years. These included films in which Lancaster did not act. Their first was Marty in 1955, based on Paddy Chayefsky's TV play starring Ernest Borgnine and directed by Delbert Mann. It won both the Best Picture Oscar and the Palme d'Or award at Cannes and Borgnine an Best Actor Oscar. It also earned $2 million on a budget of $350,000. Vera Cruz had been a huge success, but Marty secured Hecht-Lancaster as one of the most successful independent production companies in Hollywood at the time. Marty star Borgnine was under contract to Hecht-Lancaster and was unhappy about his lack of upcoming roles, especially after only receiving some seven lines in 1957's Sweet Smell of Success and half of his normal pay for Marty. He eventually sued for breach of contract to gain back some of this money in 1957.
Without Hill, Hecht and Lancaster produced The Kentuckian in 1955. It was directed by Lancaster in his directorial debut, and he also played a lead role. Lancaster disliked directing and only did it once more, on 1974's The Midnight Man.
Lancaster still had commitments with Wallis, and made The Rose Tattoo for him in 1955, starring with Anna Magnani and Daniel Mann directing. It was very popular at the box office and critically acclaimed, winning Magnani an Oscar.
Hecht-Hill-Lancaster
In 1955, Hill was made an equal partner in Hecht-Lancaster, with his name added to the production company. Hecht-Hill-Lancaster (HHL) released their first film Trapeze in 1956, with Lancaster performing many of his own stunts. The film, co-starring Tony Curtis and Gina Lollobrigida, went on to become the production company's top box office success, and United Artists expanded its deal with HHL.
In 1956, Lancaster and Hecht partnered with Loring Buzzell and entered the music industry with the music publishing companies Leigh Music, Hecht-Lancaster & Buzzell Music, Calyork Music and Colby Music and the record labels Calyork Records and Maine Records.
The HHL team impressed Hollywood with its success; as Life wrote in 1957, "[a]fter the independent production of a baker's dozen of pictures, it has yet to have its first flop ... (They were also good pictures.)." In late 1957, they announced they would make ten films worth $14 million in 1958.
Lancaster made two films for Wallis to complete his eight-film commitment for that contract: The Rainmaker (1956) with Katharine Hepburn, which earned Lancaster a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor; and Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957) with Kirk Douglas, which was a huge commercial hit directed by John Sturges.
Lancaster re-teamed with Tony Curtis in 1957 for Sweet Smell of Success, a co-production between Hecht-Hill-Lancaster and Curtis' own company with wife Janet Leigh, Curtleigh Productions. The movie, directed by Alexander Mackendrick, was a critical success but a commercial disappointment. Over the years it has come to be regarded as one of Lancaster's greatest films.
HHL produced seven additional films in the late 1950s. Four starred Lancaster: Run Silent, Run Deep (1958), a Robert Wise directed war film with Clark Gable, which was mildly popular; Separate Tables (1958) a hotel-set drama with Kerr and Rita Hayworth (who married James Hill), which received an Oscar nomination for Best Picture and Oscar awards for lead actor David Niven and supporting actress Wendy Hiller, and was both a critical and commercial success; ''The Devil's Disciple (1959), with Douglas and Laurence Olivier, which lost money (and saw Lancaster fire Mackendrick during shooting); and the Western The Unforgiven (1960), with Audrey Hepburn, which was a critical and commercial disappointment.
Three were made without Lancaster, all of which lost money: The Bachelor Party (1957), from another TV play by Chayefsky, and directed by Delbert Mann; Take a Giant Step (1959), about a black student; and Summer of the Seventeenth Doll (1960), from an Australian play, shot on location in Australia and Britain. Lancaster was originally announced as the lead for Doll but did not appear in the final film.
The Hecht-Hill-Lancaster Productions company dissolved in 1960 after Hill ruptured his relationship with both Hecht and Lancaster. Hill went on to produce a single additional film, The Happy Thieves, in a new production company, Hillworth Productions, co-owned with his wife Rita Hayworth.
Hecht and Lancaster
]]
Lancaster played the title role in Elmer Gantry (1960), written and directed by Richard Brooks for United Artists. The film received five Academy Award nominations, including Best Picture and Best Actor. Lancaster won the 1960 Academy Award for Best Actor, a Golden Globe Award, and the New York Film Critics Award for his performance.
Hecht and Lancaster worked together on The Young Savages (1961), directed by John Frankenheimer and produced by Hecht. Sydney Pollack worked as a dialogue coach.
Lancaster starred in Judgment at Nuremberg (1961) for Stanley Kramer, alongside Spencer Tracy, Richard Widmark and a number of other stars. The film was both a commercial and critical success, receiving eleven Oscar nominations, including Best Picture.
He then did another film with Hecht and Frankenheimer (replacing Charles Crichton), Birdman of Alcatraz'' (1962), a largely fictionalized biography. In it he plays Robert Stroud, a federal prisoner incarcerated for life for two murders, who begins to collect birds and over time becomes an expert in bird diseases, even publishing a book. The film shows Stroud transferred to the maximum security Alcatraz prison where he is not allowed to keep birds and as he ages he gets married, markets bird remedies, helps stop a prison rebellion, and writes a book on the history of the U.S. penal system, but never gets paroled.
The sympathetic performance earned Lancaster a Best Actor Oscar nomination, a BAFTA Award for Best Actor, and a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Dramatic Role. Hecht went on to produce five films without Lancaster's assistance, through his company Harold Hecht Films Productions between 1961 and 1967, including another Academy Award winner, Cat Ballou, starring Lee Marvin and Jane Fonda.
Collaborations with younger filmmakers
Lancaster made A Child Is Waiting (1963) with Judy Garland. It was produced by Kramer and directed by John Cassavetes.
He went to Italy to star in The Leopard (1963) for Luchino Visconti, co-starring Alain Delon and Claudia Cardinale. It was one of Lancaster's favorite films and was a big hit in France but failed in the US (though the version released was much truncated).
He had a small role in The List of Adrian Messenger (1963) for producer/star Kirk Douglas, and then did two for Frankenheimer: Seven Days in May (1964), a political thriller with Douglas, and The Train (1964), a World War Two action film (Lancaster had Frankenheimer replace Arthur Penn several days into filming).
Lancaster starred in The Hallelujah Trail (1965), a comic Western produced and directed by John Sturges which failed to recoup its large cost.
He had a big hit with The Professionals (1966), a Western directed by Brooks and also starring Lee Marvin.
In 1966, at the age of 52, Lancaster appeared nude in director Frank Perry's film The Swimmer (1968), in what the critic Roger Ebert called "his finest performance". Prior to working on The Swimmer, Lancaster was terrified of the water because he did not know how to swim. In preparation for the film, he took swimming lessons from UCLA swim coach Bob Horn. Filming was difficult and clashes between Lancaster and Perry led to Sydney Pollack coming in to do some filming. The film was not released until 1968, when it proved to be a commercial failure, though Lancaster remained proud of the movie and his performance.Norlan Productions
in The Unforgiven, 1960]]
In 1967, Lancaster formed a new partnership with Roland Kibbee, who had already worked as a writer on five Lancaster projects: Ten Tall Men, The Crimson Pirate, Three Sailors and a Girl (in which Lancaster made a cameo appearance), Vera Cruz, and ''The Devil's Disciple.
Through Norlan Productions, Lancaster and Kibbee produced The Scalphunters in 1968, directed by Sydney Pollack.
Lancaster followed it with another film from Pollack, Castle Keep in 1969, which was a big flop. So was The Gypsy Moths, for Frankenheimer, also in 1969.
1970s
during documentary filming "The Unknown War", episode 9 War in the Air. Moscow, USSR, 1978, photo: Leo Medvedev]]
Lancaster had one of the biggest successes of his career with Airport in 1970, starring alongside Dean Martin, George Kennedy, Van Heflin, Helen Hayes, Maureen Stapleton, Barbara Hale, Jean Seberg, and Jacqueline Bisset. The Ross Hunter film received nine Academy Award nominations, including one for Best Picture. It became one of the biggest box-office hits of 1970 and, at that time, reportedly the highest-grossing film in the history of Universal Pictures.
He then went into a series of Westerns: Lawman in 1971, directed by Michael Winner; Valdez Is Coming in 1971, for Norlan; and Ulzana's Raid in 1972, directed by Aldrich and produced by himself and Hecht. None were particularly popular but Ulzana's Raid'' has become a cult film.
Lancaster did two thrillers, both 1973: Scorpio with Winner and Executive Action.
Lancaster returned to directing in 1974 with The Midnight Man, which he also wrote and produced with Kibee.
He made a second film with Visconti, Conversation Piece in 1974 and played the title role in the TV series Moses the Lawgiver, also in 1974.
Lancaster was one of many names in 1975's 1900, directed by Bernardo Bertolucci, and he had a cameo in 1976's ''Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson for Robert Altman.
He played Shimon Peres in the TV movie Victory at Entebbe in 1977 and had a supporting role in The Cassandra Crossing in 1976. He made a fourth and final film with Aldrich, Twilight's Last Gleaming'' in 1977, and had the title role in 1977's The Island of Dr. Moreau.
Lancaster was top-billed in Go Tell the Spartans in 1978, a Vietnam War film; Lancaster admired the script so much that he took a reduced fee and donated money to help the movie to be completed. He was in Zulu Dawn in 1979.
1980s
Lancaster began the 1980s with a highly acclaimed performance alongside Susan Sarandon in Atlantic City in 1980, directed by Louis Malle. The film received five Oscar nominations, including Best Picture and a Best Actor nomination for Lancaster.
He had key roles in Cattle Annie and Little Britches in 1981, The Skin in 1982 with Cardinale, Marco Polo, also in 1982, and Local Hero in 1983.
By now, Lancaster was mostly a character actor in features, as in The Osterman Weekend in 1983, but he was the lead in the TV movie Scandal Sheet in 1985.
He was in Little Treasure in 1985, directed by Alan Sharp, who had written ''Ulzana's Raid; On Wings of Eagles'' for TV in 1986, as Bull Simons; 1986's made for TV Barnum starred him in the title role; Tough Guys reunited him on the big screen with Kirk Douglas in 1986; Fathers and Sons: A German Tragedy (in German Väter und Söhne – Eine deutsche Tragödie) in 1986 for German TV; 1987's Control made in Italy; Rocket Gibraltar in 1988, and ''The Jeweller's Shop in 1989.
His first critical success in a while was Field of Dreams in 1989, in which he played a supporting role as Moonlight Graham. He was also in the miniseries The Betrothed'' in 1989.
Later career
Lancaster's final performances included TV miniseries The Phantom of the Opera (1990); Voyage of Terror: The Achille Lauro Affair (1990) as Leon Klinghoffer based on the 1985 hijacking incident; and Separate But Equal (1991) with Sidney Poitier.Frequent collaborators
'', 1961]]
Lancaster appeared in a total of seventeen films produced by his agent, Harold Hecht. Eight of these were co-produced by James Hill. He also appeared in eight films produced by Hal B. Wallis and two with producer Mark Hellinger. Although Lancaster's work alongside Kirk Douglas was known as that of a successful pair of actors, Douglas, in fact, produced four films for the pair, through his production companies Bryna Productions and Joel Productions. Roland Kibbee also produced three Lancaster films, and Lancaster was also cast in two Stanley Kramer productions.
Kirk Douglas
Kirk Douglas starred in seven films across the decades with Burt Lancaster: I Walk Alone (1948), Gunfight at the O.K. Corral (1957), ''The Devil's Disciple (1959), The List of Adrian Messenger (1963), Seven Days in May (1964), Victory at Entebbe (1976) and Tough Guys (1986), which fixed the notion of the pair as something of a team in the public imagination. Douglas was always billed under Lancaster in these movies but, with the exception of I Walk Alone, in which Douglas played a villain, their roles were usually more or less the same size. Both actors arrived in Hollywood at about the same time, and first appeared together in the fourth film for each, albeit with Douglas in a supporting role. They both became actor-producers who sought out independent Hollywood careers.
John Frankenheimer
John Frankenheimer directed five films with Lancaster: The Young Savages (1961), Birdman of Alcatraz (1962), Seven Days in May (1964), The Train (1964), and The Gypsy Moths'' (1969).
Other repeat collaborators
He was directed four times by Robert Aldrich, three times each by Robert Siodmak and Sydney Pollack, and twice each by Byron Haskin, Daniel Mann, John Sturges, John Huston, Richard Brooks, Alexander Mackendrick, Luchino Visconti, and Michael Winner.
Roland Kibbee wrote for seven Lancaster films. Lancaster used makeup veteran Robert Schiffer in twenty credited films, hiring Schiffer on nearly all of the films he produced.
Political activism
Lancaster was a vocal supporter of progressive and liberal political causes. He frequently spoke out in support of racial and other minorities. As a result, he was often a target of FBI investigations. He was named in President Richard Nixon's 1973 "Enemies List".
A vocal opponent of the Vietnam War, he helped pay for the successful defense of a soldier accused of "fragging" (i.e., murdering) another soldier during war-time. In 1968, Lancaster actively supported the presidential candidacy of anti-war Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota, and frequently spoke on his behalf during the Democratic primaries.
Lancaster was also active in anti-death penalty activism. He campaigned heavily for George McGovern in the 1972 United States presidential election.
In 1985, Lancaster joined the fight against AIDS after fellow movie star Rock Hudson contracted the disease. Lancaster delivered Hudson's last words at the Commitment to Life fundraiser at a time when the stigma surrounding AIDS was at its height. Many members faced blacklisting and backlash due to their involvement in the committee. Lancaster was listed in anti-communist literature as a fellow traveler.Civil rights movementHe and his second wife, Norma, hosted a fundraiser for Martin Luther King Jr. and the Student Diversity Leadership Conference (SDLC) ahead of the historic March on Washington in 1963. He flew in from France for the event, where he was shooting The Train, and flew back again the next day, despite a reported fear of flying.
On August 28, 1963, at the March on Washington Lancaster "read the speech that James Baldwin was supposed to make," because (as Malcolm X said in a speech delivered in Detroit at the King Solomon Baptist Church in late 1963) "they wouldn't let Baldwin get up there because they know Baldwin is liable to say anything."
ACLU
In 1968, Lancaster was elected to serve as chairman of the Roger Baldwin Foundation, a newly formed fund-raising arm of the American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California. His co-chairs were Frank Sinatra and Irving L. Lichtenstein. In October 1968, he hosted a party at his home to raise money for the ACLU to use for the defense of the more than four hundred people arrested at the 1968 Democratic National Convention. He also campaigned for Michael Dukakis in the 1988 United States presidential election.Personal lifein The Big Valley, 1967. He later became a screenwriter.]]Marriages and relationships
Lancaster guarded his personal life and attempted to keep it private despite his stardom. He was married three times and had five children.
His first marriage was to June Ernst, a trapeze acrobat. Ernst was the daughter of a renowned female aerialist and an accomplished acrobat herself. After they were married, he performed with her family and her until their separation in the late 1930s. When they divorced is unclear. Contemporary reports listed 1940, but subsequent biographers have suggested dates as late as 1946, delaying his marriage to his second wife.
He met second wife Norma Anderson (1917–1988) when the stenographer substituted for an ill actress in a USO production for the troops in Italy. Reportedly, on seeing Lancaster in the crowd on her way to town from the airport, she turned to an officer and asked, "Who is that good-looking officer and is he married?" The officer set up a blind date between the two for that evening. All five of his children were with Anderson: Bill (who became an actor and screenwriter), James, Susan, Joanna (who worked as a film producer), and Sighle (pronounced "Sheila"). It was a troubled marriage. The pair separated in 1966, and divorced in 1969.
In 1966, Lancaster began a long-term relationship with hairdresser Jackie Bone, who worked on The Professionals. The relationship was tempestuous, with Bone once smashing a wine bottle over Lancaster's head at a dinner with Sydney Pollack and Peter Falk. Reportedly, they eventually split up after her religious conversion, which Lancaster believed he could not share with her.Possible affairsSome media outlets and authors have written that Lancaster was bisexual, and had relationships with both men and women. Friends said he claimed he was romantically involved with Deborah Kerr during the filming of From Here to Eternity in 1953. However, Kerr stated that while there was a spark of attraction, nothing ever happened. He reportedly had an affair with Joan Blondell.
In her 1980 autobiography, Shelley Winters claimed to have had a two-year affair with him, during which time he was considering separation from his wife. In his Hollywood memoirs, friend Farley Granger recalled an incident when Lancaster and he had to come to Winters' rescue one evening when she had inadvertently overdosed on alcohol and sleeping pills. She broke up with him for "cheating on her with his wife" after she heard reports of his wife's third or fourth pregnancy.
Religion
Despite his Protestant background and upbringing, Lancaster identified as an atheist later in life.
Later years
As Lancaster reached his 60s, he began to be affected by cardiovascular disease. In January 1980, he had complications from a routine gall bladder operation (that he barely survived). In 1983, following two minor heart attacks, he underwent an emergency quadruple coronary bypass. He continued to act, however, and to engage in public activism. In 1988, he attended a congressional hearing in Washington, DC, with former colleagues who included James Stewart and Ginger Rogers to protest against media magnate Ted Turner's plan to colorize various black-and-white films from the 1930s and 1940s. On November 30, 1990, when he was 77, a stroke left him partially paralyzed and largely unable to speak, ending his acting career.
Death
Lancaster died at his apartment in Century City, Los Angeles, after having a third heart attack at 4:50 am on October 20, 1994. His body was cremated, and his ashes were scattered under a large oak tree in Westwood Memorial Park, which is located in Westwood Village, California. A small, square ground plaque amid several others, inscribed "Burt Lancaster 1913–1994", marks the location. As he had requested, no memorial or funeral service was held for him.LegacyThe centennial of Lancaster's birth was honored at New York City's Film Society of Lincoln Center in May 2013 with the screening of 12 of the actor's best-known films, from The Killers to Atlantic City.
Lancaster has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard.<!-- see below Lancaster has appeared in Spanish rock band Hombres G's album cover in 1986. -->
Filmography and awards
Lancaster was nominated for the Oscar for Best Actor in a Leading Role in 1954 for From Here to Eternity, in 1961 for Elmer Gantry, in 1964 for Birdman of Alcatraz, and in 1982 for Atlantic City. He won the Oscar in 1961. Lancaster's leading role in Luchino Visconti's 1963 canonical The Leopard began a series of roles with important European art film directors that included roles in Bernardo Bertolucci's 1900 and Louis Malle's Atlantic City as well as Visconti's Conversation Piece.
Box office ranking
For a number of years exhibitors voted Lancaster among the most popular stars:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year!!US Rank!!UK Rank
|-
||1950|| 16th||
|-
||1951 || 25th||
|-
||1952 || 24th||
|-
||1953 || 17th||
|-
||1954 || 13th||7th
|-
||1955 ||16th||
|-
||1956 ||4th||3rd
|-
||1957 ||15th||3rd
|-
||1958 || 20th||
|-
||1960 || 19th||
|-
||1961 || 11th||
|-
||1962||10th||
|}
In other media
Spanish music group Hombres G released an album named La cagaste, Burt Lancaster (You messed up, Burt Lancaster) in 1986.
Thomas Hart Benton painted a scene from The Kentuckian as part of the film's marketing. Lancaster posed for the painting, also known as The Kentuckian.
References
Bibliography
* Andreychuk, Ed. Burt Lancaster: A Filmography And Biography. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers, 2005. .
* Buford, Kate. Burt Lancaster: An American Life. London: Aurum Press, 2008. .
* Winters, Shelley. Shelley: Also known as Shirley. New York: Morrow, 1980. .
* Karney, Robyn. Burt Lancaster: A Singular Man. Trafalgar Square Pub, 1997
External links
*
*
*
*
* [http://www.virtual-history.com/movie/person/58/burt-lancaster Literature on Burt Lancaster]
* [http://versewisconsin.org/Issue110/poems/balassone.html "The Rainmaker"], a poem for Lancaster
}}
Category:1913 births
Category:1994 deaths
Category:20th-century American male actors
Category:Activists for African-American civil rights
Category:Activists from California
Category:Activists from New York (state)
Category:American anti-racism activists
Category:American anti–Vietnam War activists
Category:American atheists
Category:American film producers
Category:American male film actors
Category:American people of English descent
Category:American people of Irish descent
Category:American people of Scotch-Irish descent
Category:Best Actor Academy Award winners
Category:Best Actor BAFTA Award winners
Category:Best Drama Actor Golden Globe (film) winners
Category:Best Foreign Actor BAFTA Award winners
Category:Burials at Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery
Category:California Democrats
Category:David di Donatello winners
Category:DeWitt Clinton High School alumni
Category:Federal Theatre Project people
Category:Male actors from Manhattan
Category:Male Western (genre) film actors
Category:Military personnel from New York City
Category:New York (state) Democrats
Category:Norma Productions people
Category:People from East Harlem
Category:Screen Actors Guild Life Achievement Award
Category:Silver Bear for Best Actor winners
Category:United States Army personnel of World War II
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Category:Universal Pictures contract players
Category:Volpi Cup for Best Actor winners
Category:American film production company founders
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burt_Lancaster
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Balts
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}}
| population 6.5–7.0 million<br />(including the diaspora) <!-- sum of Lithuanian and Latvian populations per country-->
| region1 =
| pop1 2,397,418
| region2 =
| pop2 1,175,902
| langs = Baltic languages
| rels = Predominantly Roman Catholicism and Protestantism; minority Eastern Orthodoxy and Baltic neopaganism
| related = Slavs
}}
The Balts or Baltic peoples (, ) are a group of peoples inhabiting the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea who speak Baltic languages. Among the Baltic peoples are modern-day Lithuanians (including Samogitians) and Latvians (including Latgalians) — all East Balts — as well as the Old Prussians, Curonians, Sudovians, Skalvians, Yotvingians and Galindians — the West Balts — whose languages and cultures are now extinct, but made a large influence on the living branches, especially on literary Lithuanian language.
The Balts are descended from a group of Proto-Indo-European tribes who settled the area between the lower Vistula and southeast shore of the Baltic Sea and upper Daugava and Dnieper rivers, and which over time became differentiated into West and East Balts. In the fifth century CE, parts of the eastern Baltic coast began to be settled by the ancestors of the Western Balts, whereas the East Balts lived in modern-day Belarus, Ukraine and Russia. In the first millennium CE, large migrations of the Balts occurred. By the 13th and 14th centuries, the East Balts shrank to the general area that the present-day Balts and Belarusians inhabit.
Baltic languages belong to the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European languages. One of the features of Baltic languages is the number of conservative or archaic features retained.
Etymology
Medieval German chronicler Adam of Bremen in the latter part of the 11th century AD was the first writer to use the term "Baltic" in reference to the sea of that name. Before him various ancient places names, such as Balcia, were used in reference to a supposed island in the Baltic Sea.
In 1845, Georg Heinrich Ferdinand Nesselmann proposed a distinct language group for Latvian, Lithuanian, and Old Prussian, which he termed Baltic. The term became prevalent after Latvia and Lithuania gained independence in 1918. Up until the early 20th century, either "Latvian" or "Lithuanian" could be used to mean the entire language family.HistoryOrigins
thumb|275px|right|Baltic archaeological cultures in the Iron Age from 600 BC to 200 BC
]]
The Balts or Baltic peoples, defined as speakers of one of the Baltic languages, a branch of the Indo-European language family, are descended from a group of Indo-European tribes who settled the area between the lower Vistula and southeast shore of the Baltic Sea and upper Daugava and Dnieper rivers. The Baltic languages, especially Lithuanian, retain a number of conservative or archaic features, perhaps because the areas in which they are spoken are geographically consolidated and have low rates of immigration.
Some of the major authorities on Balts, such as Kazimieras Būga, Max Vasmer, Vladimir Toporov and Oleg Trubachyov, in conducting etymological studies of eastern European river names, were able to identify in certain regions names of specifically Baltic provenance, which most likely indicate where the Balts lived in prehistoric times. According to Vladimir Toporov and Oleg Trubachyov, the eastern boundary of the Balts in the prehistoric times were the upper reaches of the Volga, Moskva, and Oka rivers, while the southern border was the Seym river. This information is summarized and synthesized by Marija Gimbutas in The Balts (1963) to obtain a likely proto-Baltic homeland. Its borders are approximately: from a line on the Pomeranian coast eastward to include or nearly include the present-day sites of Berlin, Warsaw, Kyiv, and Kursk, northward through Moscow to the River Berzha, westward in an irregular line to the coast of the Gulf of Riga, north of Riga.
However, other scholars such as Endre Bojt (1999) reject the presumption that there ever was such a thing as a clear, single "Baltic Urheimat": <blockquote>'The references to the Balts at various Urheimat locations across the centuries are often of doubtful authenticity, those concerning the Balts furthest to the West are the more trustworthy among them. (...) It is wise to group the particulars of Baltic history according to the interests that moved the pens of the authors of our sources.'
Over time the Balts became differentiated into West and East Balts. In the fifth century AD parts of the eastern Baltic coast began to be settled by the ancestors of the Western Balts: Brus/Prūsa ("Old Prussians"), Sudovians/Jotvingians, Scalvians, Nadruvians, and Curonians. The East Balts, including the hypothesised Dniepr Balts, were living in modern-day Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.
Germanic peoples lived to the west of the Baltic homelands; by the first century AD, the Goths had stabilized their kingdom from the mouth of the Vistula, south to Dacia. As Roman domination collapsed in the first half of the first millennium CE in Northern and Eastern Europe, large migrations of the Balts occurred — first, the Galindae or Galindians towards the east, and later, East Balts towards the west. In the eighth century, Slavic tribes from the Volga regions appeared. By the 13th and 14th centuries, they reached the general area that the present-day Balts and Belarusians inhabit. Many other Eastern and Southern Balts either assimilated with other Balts, or Slavs in the fourth–seventh centuries and were gradually slavicized.
Middle Ages
(). The East Balts are shown in brown hues while the West Balts are shown in green. The boundaries are approximate. Baltic territory was extensive inland.]]
In the 12th and 13th centuries, internal struggles and invasions by Ruthenians and Poles, and later the expansion of the Teutonic Order, resulted in an almost complete annihilation of the Galindians, Curonians, and Yotvingians. Gradually, Old Prussians became Germanized or Lithuanized between the 15th and 17th centuries, especially after the Reformation in Prussia. The cultures of the Lithuanians and Latgalians/Latvians survived and became the ancestors of the populations of the modern-day countries of Latvia and Lithuania.
Old Prussian was closely related to the other extinct Western Baltic languages, Curonian, Galindian and Sudovian. It is more distantly related to the surviving Eastern Baltic languages, Lithuanian and Latvian. Compare the Prussian word seme (zemē), Latvian zeme, the Lithuanian žemė (land in English).
Culture
The Balts originally practiced Baltic religion. They were gradually Christianized as a result of the Northern Crusades of the Middle Ages. Baltic peoples such as the Latvians, Lithuanians and Old Prussians had their distinct mythologies. The Lithuanians have close historic ties to Poland, and many of them are Roman Catholic. The Latvians have close historic ties to Northern Germany and Scandinavia, and many of them are irreligious. In recent times, the Baltic religion has been revived in Baltic neopaganism.
Genetics
The Balts are included in the "North European" gene cluster together with the Germanic peoples, some Slavic groups (the Poles and Northern Russians) and Baltic Finnic peoples.
Saag et a. (2017) detected that the eastern Baltic in the Mesolithic was inhabited primarily by Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHGs). Their paternal haplogroups were mostly types of I2a and R1b, while their maternal haplogroups were mostly types of U5, U4 and U2. These people carried a high frequency of the derived HERC2 allele which codes for light eye color and possess an increased frequency of the derived alleles for SLC45A2 and SLC24A5, coding for lighter skin color.
Baltic hunter-gatherers still displayed a slightly larger amount of WHG ancestry than Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHGs). WHG ancestry in the Baltic was particularly high among hunter-gatherers in Latvia and Lithuania. Unlike other parts of Europe, the hunter-gatherers of the eastern Baltic do not appear to have mixed much with Early European Farmers (EEFs) arriving from Anatolia.
During the Neolithic, increasing admixture from Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs) is detected. The paternal haplogroups of EHGs was mostly types of R1a, while their maternal haplogroups appears to have been almost exclusively types of U5, U4, and U2.
The rise of the Corded Ware culture in the eastern Baltic in the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age is accompanied by a significant infusion of steppe ancestry and EEF ancestry into the eastern Baltic gene pool. In the aftermath of the Corded Ware expansion, local hunter-gatherer ancestry experienced a resurgence.
Haplogroup N reached the eastern Baltic only in the Late Bronze Age, probably with the speakers of the Uralic languages.
Modern-day Balts have a lower amount of EEF ancestry, and a higher amount of WHG ancestry, than any other population in Europe. }}
List of Baltic peoples
Modern-day Baltic peoples
*East Baltic peoples
**Latvians
***Latgalians
**Lithuanians
***Aukštaitija ("highlanders")
***Samogitians ("lowlanders")
See also
* East Baltic languages
* West Baltic languages
* Baltic studies
* Baltic Unity Day
Notes
References
Further reading
Lithuanian language
*
*
* French language* English language*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Polish language
*
*
*
*
*
*
External links
* E-book of the original.
*
*
*
Category:Indo-European peoples
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Burnt-in timecode
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thumb|250px|EBU colour bars with burnt-in timecode
Burnt-in timecode (often abbreviated to BITC by analogy to VITC) is a human-readable on-screen version of the timecode information for a piece of material superimposed on a video image. BITC is sometimes used in conjunction with "real" machine-readable timecode but more often used in copies of original material onto a nonbroadcast format such as VHS so that the VHS copies can be traced back to their master tape and the original timecodes easily located.
Many professional VTRs can "burn" (overlay) the tape timecode onto one of their outputs. This output (which usually also displays the setup menu or on-screen display) is known as the super out or monitor out. The character switch or menu item turns this behaviour on or off. The character function also displays the timecode on the preview monitors in linear editing suites.
Videotapes that are recorded with timecode numbers overlaid on the video are referred to as window dubs, named after the "window" that displays the burnt-in timecode on-screen.
When editing was done using magnetic tapes that were subject to damage from excessive wear, it was common to use a window dub as a working copy for the majority of the editing process. Editing decisions would be made using a window dub, and no specialized equipment was needed to write down an edit decision list, which would then be replicated from the high-quality masters.
Timecode can also be superimposed on video using a dedicated overlay device, often called a "window dub inserter". This inputs a video signal and its separate timecode audio signal, reads the timecode, superimposes the timecode display over the video, and outputs the combined display (usually via composite), all in real time. Stand-alone timecode generators/readers often have the window dub function built in.
Some consumer cameras, in particular DV cameras, can "burn" (overlay) the tape timecode onto the composite output. This output is typically semitransparent and may include other tape information. It is usually activated by turning on the "display" info in one of the camera's submenus. While not as "professional" as an overlay created by a professional VCR, it is a cheap alternative that is just as accurate.
Timecode is stored in the metadata areas of captured DV AVI files, and some software is able to "burn" (overlay) this into the video frames. For example, DVMP Pro is able to "burn" timecode or other items of DV metadata (such as date and time, iris, shutter speed, gain, white balance mode, etc.) into DV AVI files.
OCR techniques can be used to read BITC in situations where other forms of timecode are not available.
See also
Linear timecode
Vertical interval timecode
SMPTE time code
MIDI timecode
CTL timecode
AES-EBU embedded timecode
Rewritable consumer timecode
References
Category:Timecodes
Category:Film and video technology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burnt-in_timecode
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Bra–ket notation
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Bra–ket notation, also called Dirac notation, is a notation for linear algebra and linear operators on complex vector spaces together with their dual space both in the finite-dimensional and infinite-dimensional case. It is specifically designed to ease the types of calculations that frequently come up in quantum mechanics. Its use in quantum mechanics is quite widespread.
Bra–ket notation was created by Paul Dirac in his 1939 publication A New Notation for Quantum Mechanics. The notation was introduced as an easier way to write quantum mechanical expressions. The name comes from the English word "bracket".Quantum mechanics
In quantum mechanics, bra–ket notation is used ubiquitously to denote quantum states. The notation uses angle brackets, and , and a vertical bar , to construct "bras" and "kets".
A ket is of the form <math>|v \rangle</math>. Mathematically it denotes a vector, <math>\boldsymbol v</math>, in an abstract (complex) vector space <math>V</math>, and physically it represents a state of some quantum system.
A bra is of the form <math>\langle f|</math>. Mathematically it denotes a linear form <math>f:V \to \Complex</math>, i.e. a linear map that maps each vector in <math>V</math> to a number in the complex plane <math>\Complex</math>. Letting the linear functional <math> \langle f|</math> act on a vector <math>|v\rangle</math> is written as <math>\langle f | v\rangle \in \Complex</math>.
Assume that on <math>V</math> there exists an inner product <math>(\cdot,\cdot)</math> with antilinear first argument, which makes <math>V</math> an inner product space. Then with this inner product each vector <math>\boldsymbol \phi \equiv |\phi\rangle</math> can be identified with a corresponding linear form, by placing the vector in the anti-linear first slot of the inner product: <math>(\boldsymbol\phi,\cdot) \equiv \langle\phi|</math>. The correspondence between these notations is then <math>(\boldsymbol\phi, \boldsymbol\psi) \equiv \langle\phi|\psi\rangle</math>. The linear form <math>\langle\phi|</math> is a covector to <math>|\phi\rangle</math>, and the set of all covectors forms a subspace of the dual vector space <math> V^\vee</math>, to the initial vector space <math>V</math>. The purpose of this linear form <math>\langle\phi|</math> can now be understood in terms of making projections onto the state <math>\boldsymbol \phi,</math> to find how linearly dependent two states are, etc.
For the vector space <math>\Complex^n</math>, kets can be identified with column vectors, and bras with row vectors. Combinations of bras, kets, and linear operators are interpreted using matrix multiplication. If <math>\Complex^n</math> has the standard Hermitian inner product <math>(\boldsymbol v, \boldsymbol w) = v^\dagger w</math>, under this identification, the identification of kets and bras and vice versa provided by the inner product is taking the Hermitian conjugate (denoted <math> \dagger</math>).
It is common to suppress the vector or linear form from the bra–ket notation and only use a label inside the typography for the bra or ket. For example, the spin operator <math>\hat \sigma_z</math> on a two-dimensional space <math>\Delta</math> of spinors has eigenvalues <math display"inline">\pm \frac{1}{2}</math> with eigenspinors <math>\boldsymbol \psi_+,\boldsymbol \psi_- \in \Delta</math>. In bra–ket notation, this is typically denoted as <math>\boldsymbol \psi_+ |+\rangle</math>, and <math>\boldsymbol \psi_- = |-\rangle</math>. As above, kets and bras with the same label are interpreted as kets and bras corresponding to each other using the inner product. In particular, when also identified with row and column vectors, kets and bras with the same label are identified with Hermitian conjugate column and row vectors.
Bra–ket notation was effectively established in 1939 by Paul Dirac; it is thus also known as Dirac notation, despite the notation having a precursor in Hermann Grassmann's use of <math>[\phi{\mid}\psi]</math> for inner products nearly 100 years earlier.Vector spacesVectors vs kets
In mathematics, the term "vector" is used for an element of any vector space. In physics, however, the term "vector" tends to refer almost exclusively to quantities like displacement or velocity, which have components that relate directly to the three dimensions of space, or relativistically, to the four of spacetime. Such vectors are typically denoted with over arrows (<math>\vec r</math>), boldface (<math>\mathbf{p}</math>) or indices (<math>v^\mu</math>).
In quantum mechanics, a quantum state is typically represented as an element of a complex Hilbert space, for example, the infinite-dimensional vector space of all possible wavefunctions (square integrable functions mapping each point of 3D space to a complex number) or some more abstract Hilbert space constructed more algebraically. To distinguish this type of vector from those described above, it is common and useful in physics to denote an element <math>\phi</math> of an abstract complex vector space as a ket <math>|\phi\rangle</math>, to refer to it as a "ket" rather than as a vector, and to pronounce it "ket-<math>\phi</math>" or "ket-A" for }}.
Symbols, letters, numbers, or even words—whatever serves as a convenient label—can be used as the label inside a ket, with the <math>|\ \rangle</math> making clear that the label indicates a vector in vector space. In other words, the symbol "}}" has a recognizable mathematical meaning as to the kind of variable being represented, while just the "" by itself does not. For example, + }} is not necessarily equal to }}. Nevertheless, for convenience, there is usually some logical scheme behind the labels inside kets, such as the common practice of labeling energy eigenkets in quantum mechanics through a listing of their quantum numbers. At its simplest, the label inside the ket is the eigenvalue of a physical operator, such as <math>\hat x</math>, <math>\hat p</math>, <math>\hat L_z</math>, etc.
Notation
Since kets are just vectors in a Hermitian vector space, they can be manipulated using the usual rules of linear algebra. For example:
:<math>\begin{align}
|A \rangle &= |B\rangle + |C\rangle \\
|C \rangle &= (-1+2i)|D \rangle \\
|D \rangle &= \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} e^{-x^2} |x\rangle \, \mathrm{d}x \,.
\end{align}</math>
Note how the last line above involves infinitely many different kets, one for each real number .
Since the ket is an element of a vector space, a bra <math>\langle A|</math> is an element of its dual space, i.e. a bra is a linear functional which is a linear map from the vector space to the complex numbers. Thus, it is useful to think of kets and bras as being elements of different vector spaces (see below however) with both being different useful concepts.
A bra <math>\langle\phi|</math> and a ket <math> |\psi\rangle</math> (i.e. a functional and a vector), can be combined to an operator <math>|\psi\rangle\langle\phi|</math> of rank one with outer product
:<math>|\psi\rangle\langle\phi| \colon |\xi\rangle \mapsto |\psi\rangle\langle\phi|\xi\rangle ~.</math>
Inner product and bra–ket identification on Hilbert space
The bra–ket notation is particularly useful in Hilbert spaces which have an inner product that allows Hermitian conjugation and identifying a vector with a continuous linear functional, i.e. a ket with a bra, and vice versa (see Riesz representation theorem). The inner product on Hilbert space <math>(\ , \ )</math> (with the first argument anti linear as preferred by physicists) is fully equivalent to an (anti-linear) identification between the space of kets and that of bras in the bra ket notation: for a vector ket <math>\psi |\psi\rangle </math> define a functional (i.e. bra) <math>f_\phi \langle\phi|</math> by
:<math>(\phi,\psi) (|\phi\rangle, |\psi\rangle): f_\phi(\psi) \langle\phi| \, \bigl(|\psi\rangle\bigr): \langle\phi{\mid}\psi\rangle </math>
Bras and kets as row and column vectors
In the simple case where we consider the vector space <math>\Complex^n</math>, a ket can be identified with a column vector, and a bra as a row vector. If, moreover, we use the standard Hermitian inner product on <math>\Complex^n</math>, the bra corresponding to a ket, in particular a bra }} and a ket }} with the same label are conjugate transpose. Moreover, conventions are set up in such a way that writing bras, kets, and linear operators next to each other simply imply matrix multiplication. In particular the outer product <math>|\psi\rangle\langle\phi| </math> of a column and a row vector ket and bra can be identified with matrix multiplication (column vector times row vector equals matrix).
For a finite-dimensional vector space, using a fixed orthonormal basis, the inner product can be written as a matrix multiplication of a row vector with a column vector:
<math display"block"> \langle A | B \rangle \doteq A_1^* B_1 + A_2^* B_2 + \cdots + A_N^* B_N
\begin{pmatrix} A_1^* & A_2^* & \cdots & A_N^* \end{pmatrix}
\begin{pmatrix} B_1 \\ B_2 \\ \vdots \\ B_N \end{pmatrix}</math>
Based on this, the bras and kets can be defined as:
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\langle A | &\doteq \begin{pmatrix} A_1^* & A_2^* & \cdots & A_N^* \end{pmatrix} \\
| B \rangle &\doteq \begin{pmatrix} B_1 \\ B_2 \\ \vdots \\ B_N \end{pmatrix}
\end{align}</math>
and then it is understood that a bra next to a ket implies matrix multiplication.
The conjugate transpose (also called Hermitian conjugate) of a bra is the corresponding ket and vice versa:
<math display"block">\langle A |^\dagger |A \rangle, \quad |A \rangle^\dagger = \langle A |</math>
because if one starts with the bra
<math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} A_1^* & A_2^* & \cdots & A_N^* \end{pmatrix} \,,</math>
then performs a complex conjugation, and then a matrix transpose, one ends up with the ket
<math display="block">\begin{pmatrix} A_1 \\ A_2 \\ \vdots \\ A_N \end{pmatrix}</math>
Writing elements of a finite dimensional (or mutatis mutandis, countably infinite) vector space as a column vector of numbers requires picking a basis. Picking a basis is not always helpful because quantum mechanics calculations involve frequently switching between different bases (e.g. position basis, momentum basis, energy eigenbasis), and one can write something like "}}" without committing to any particular basis. In situations involving two different important basis vectors, the basis vectors can be taken in the notation explicitly and here will be referred simply as "}}" and "}}".
Non-normalizable states and non-Hilbert spaces
Bra–ket notation can be used even if the vector space is not a Hilbert space.
In quantum mechanics, it is common practice to write down kets which have infinite norm, i.e. non-normalizable wavefunctions. Examples include states whose wavefunctions are Dirac delta functions or infinite plane waves. These do not, technically, belong to the Hilbert space itself. However, the definition of "Hilbert space" can be broadened to accommodate these states (see the Gelfand–Naimark–Segal construction or rigged Hilbert spaces). The bra–ket notation continues to work in an analogous way in this more general context.
Banach spaces are a different generalization of Hilbert spaces. In a Banach space }}, the vectors may be notated by kets and the continuous linear functionals by bras. Over any vector space without a given topology, we may still notate the vectors by kets and the linear functionals by bras. In these more general contexts, the bracket does not have the meaning of an inner product, because the Riesz representation theorem does not apply.
Usage in quantum mechanics
The mathematical structure of quantum mechanics is based in large part on linear algebra:
*Wave functions and other quantum states can be represented as vectors in a separable complex Hilbert space. (The exact structure of this Hilbert space depends on the situation.) In bra–ket notation, for example, an electron might be in the "state" }}. (Technically, the quantum states are rays of vectors in the Hilbert space, as }} corresponds to the same state for any nonzero complex number .)
*Quantum superpositions can be described as vector sums of the constituent states. For example, an electron in the state + }} is in a quantum superposition of the states }} and }}.
*Measurements are associated with linear operators (called observables) on the Hilbert space of quantum states.
*Dynamics are also described by linear operators on the Hilbert space. For example, in the Schrödinger picture, there is a linear time evolution operator with the property that if an electron is in state }} right now, at a later time it will be in the state }}, the same for every possible }}.
*Wave function normalization is scaling a wave function so that its norm is 1.
Since virtually every calculation in quantum mechanics involves vectors and linear operators, it can involve, and often does involve, bra–ket notation. A few examples follow:
Spinless position–space wave function
<div class="skin-invert-image">
and continuous . Two particular components out of infinitely many are highlighted.
| width1 = 225
| image1 = Discrete complex vector components.svg
| caption1 Discrete components of a complex vector = Σ<sub>k</sub> A<sub>k</sub> }}.
| width2 = 230
| image2 = Continuous complex vector components.svg
| caption2 Continuous components of a complex vector = ∫ dx ψ(x)}}.
}}
</div>
The Hilbert space of a spin-0 point particle can be represented in terms of a "position basis" }<nowiki/>}}, where the label extends over the set of all points in position space. These states satisfy the eigenvalue equation for the position operator:
<math display"block"> \hat{\mathbf{r}}|\mathbf{r}\rangle \mathbf{r}|\mathbf{r}\rangle.</math>
The position states are "generalized eigenvectors", not elements of the Hilbert space itself, and do not form a countable orthonormal basis. However, as the Hilbert space is separable, it does admit a countable dense subset within the domain of definition of its wavefunctions. That is, starting from any ket }} in this Hilbert space, one may define a complex scalar function of , known as a wavefunction,
<math display"block">\Psi(\mathbf{r}) \ \stackrel{\text{def}}{}\ \lang \mathbf{r}|\Psi\rang \,.</math>
On the left-hand side, is a function mapping any point in space to a complex number; on the right-hand side,
<math display"block">\left|\Psi\right\rangle \int d^3\mathbf{r} \, \Psi(\mathbf{r}) \left|\mathbf{r}\right\rangle</math>
is a ket consisting of a superposition of kets with relative coefficients specified by that function.
It is then customary to define linear operators acting on wavefunctions in terms of linear operators acting on kets, by
<math display"block">\hat A(\mathbf{r}) ~ \Psi(\mathbf{r}) \ \stackrel{\text{def}}{}\ \lang \mathbf{r}|\hat A|\Psi\rang \,.</math>
For instance, the momentum operator <math>\hat \mathbf {p}</math> has the following coordinate representation,
<math display"block">\hat{\mathbf{p} } (\mathbf{r}) ~ \Psi(\mathbf{r}) \ \stackrel{\text{def}}{}\ \lang \mathbf{r} |\hat \mathbf{p}|\Psi\rang = - i \hbar \nabla \Psi(\mathbf{r}) \,.</math>
One occasionally even encounters an expression such as <math >\nabla |\Psi\rang </math>, though this is something of an abuse of notation. The differential operator must be understood to be an abstract operator, acting on kets, that has the effect of differentiating wavefunctions once the expression is projected onto the position basis, <math>\nabla \lang\mathbf{r}|\Psi\rang \,,</math>
even though, in the momentum basis, this operator amounts to a mere multiplication operator (by ). That is, to say,
<math display"block"> \langle \mathbf{r} |\hat \mathbf{p} - i \hbar \nabla \langle \mathbf{r}| ~,</math>
or
<math display"block"> \hat \mathbf{p} \int d^3 \mathbf{r} ~| \mathbf{r}\rangle ( - i \hbar \nabla) \langle \mathbf{r}| ~.</math>
Overlap of states
In quantum mechanics the expression }} is typically interpreted as the probability amplitude for the state to collapse into the state . Mathematically, this means the coefficient for the projection of onto . It is also described as the projection of state onto state .
Changing basis for a spin-1/2 particle
A stationary spin- particle has a two-dimensional Hilbert space. One orthonormal basis is:
<math display="block">|{\uparrow}_z \rangle \,, \; |{\downarrow}_z \rangle</math>
where }} is the state with a definite value of the spin operator equal to + and }} is the state with a definite value of the spin operator equal to −.
Since these are a basis, any quantum state of the particle can be expressed as a linear combination (i.e., quantum superposition) of these two states:
<math display"block">|\psi \rangle a_{\psi} |{\uparrow}_z \rangle + b_{\psi} |{\downarrow}_z \rangle</math>
where and are complex numbers.
A different basis for the same Hilbert space is:
<math display="block">|{\uparrow}_x \rangle \,, \; |{\downarrow}_x \rangle</math>
defined in terms of rather than .
Again, any state of the particle can be expressed as a linear combination of these two:
<math display"block">|\psi \rangle c_{\psi} |{\uparrow}_x \rangle + d_{\psi} |{\downarrow}_x \rangle</math>
In vector form, you might write
<math display="block">|\psi\rangle \doteq \begin{pmatrix} a_\psi \\ b_\psi \end{pmatrix} \quad \text{or} \quad |\psi\rangle \doteq \begin{pmatrix} c_\psi \\ d_\psi \end{pmatrix} </math>
depending on which basis you are using. In other words, the "coordinates" of a vector depend on the basis used.
There is a mathematical relationship between <math>a_\psi</math>, <math>b_\psi</math>, <math>c_\psi</math> and <math>d_\psi</math>; see change of basis.
Pitfalls and ambiguous uses
There are some conventions and uses of notation that may be confusing or ambiguous for the non-initiated or early student.
Separation of inner product and vectors
A cause for confusion is that the notation does not separate the inner-product operation from the notation for a (bra) vector. If a (dual space) bra-vector is constructed as a linear combination of other bra-vectors (for instance when expressing it in some basis) the notation creates some ambiguity and hides mathematical details. We can compare bra–ket notation to using bold for vectors, such as <math>\boldsymbol \psi</math>, and <math>(\cdot,\cdot)</math> for the inner product. Consider the following dual space bra-vector in the basis <math>\{|e_n\rangle\}</math>, where <math>\{\psi_n\}</math> are the complex number coefficients of <math>\langle \psi | </math>:
<math display"block">\langle\psi| \sum_n \langle e_n| \psi_n</math>
It has to be determined by convention if the complex numbers <math>\{\psi_n\}</math> are inside or outside of the inner product, and each convention gives different results.
<math display"block">\langle\psi| \equiv (\boldsymbol\psi, \cdot ) \sum_n (\boldsymbol e_n, \cdot ) \, \psi_n</math>
<math display"block">\langle\psi| \equiv (\boldsymbol\psi, \cdot ) \sum_n (\boldsymbol e_n \psi_n, \cdot ) \sum_n (\boldsymbol e_n, \cdot ) \, \psi_n^*</math>Reuse of symbolsIt is common to use the same symbol for labels and constants. For example, <math>\hat \alpha |\alpha\rangle \alpha |\alpha \rangle</math>, where the symbol <math>\alpha</math> is used simultaneously as the name of the operator <math>\hat \alpha</math>, its eigenvector <math>|\alpha\rangle</math> and the associated eigenvalue <math>\alpha</math>. Sometimes the hat is also dropped for operators, and one can see notation such as <math>A |a\rangle a |a \rangle</math>.Hermitian conjugate of ketsIt is common to see the usage <math>|\psi\rangle^\dagger \langle\psi|</math>, where the dagger (<math>\dagger</math>) corresponds to the Hermitian conjugate. This is however not correct in a technical sense, since the ket, <math>|\psi\rangle</math>, represents a vector in a complex Hilbert-space <math>\mathcal{H}</math>, and the bra, <math>\langle\psi|</math>, is a linear functional on vectors in <math>\mathcal{H}</math>. In other words, <math>|\psi\rangle</math> is just a vector, while <math>\langle\psi|</math> is the combination of a vector and an inner product.
Operations inside bras and kets
This is done for a fast notation of scaling vectors. For instance, if the vector <math>|\alpha \rangle</math> is scaled by <math>1/\sqrt{2}</math>, it may be denoted <math>|\alpha/\sqrt{2} \rangle</math>. This can be ambiguous since <math>\alpha</math> is simply a label for a state, and not a mathematical object on which operations can be performed. This usage is more common when denoting vectors as tensor products, where part of the labels are moved outside the designed slot, e.g. <math>|\alpha \rangle |\alpha/\sqrt{2} \rangle_1 \otimes |\alpha/\sqrt{2} \rangle_2</math>.Linear operatorsLinear operators acting on kets
A linear operator is a map that inputs a ket and outputs a ket. (In order to be called "linear", it is required to have certain properties.) In other words, if <math>\hat A</math> is a linear operator and <math>|\psi\rangle</math> is a ket-vector, then <math>\hat A |\psi\rangle</math> is another ket-vector.
In an <math>N</math>-dimensional Hilbert space, we can impose a basis on the space and represent <math>|\psi\rangle</math> in terms of its coordinates as a <math>N \times 1</math> column vector. Using the same basis for <math>\hat A</math>, it is represented by an <math>N \times N</math> complex matrix. The ket-vector <math>\hat A |\psi\rangle</math> can now be computed by matrix multiplication.
Linear operators are ubiquitous in the theory of quantum mechanics. For example, observable physical quantities are represented by self-adjoint operators, such as energy or momentum, whereas transformative processes are represented by unitary linear operators such as rotation or the progression of time.
Linear operators acting on bras
Operators can also be viewed as acting on bras from the right hand side. Specifically, if is a linear operator and }} is a bra, then A}} is another bra defined by the rule
<math display"block">\bigl(\langle\phi|\boldsymbol{A}\bigr) |\psi\rangle \langle\phi| \bigl(\boldsymbol{A}|\psi\rangle\bigr) \,,</math>
(in other words, a function composition). This expression is commonly written as (cf. energy inner product)
<math display="block">\langle\phi| \boldsymbol{A} |\psi\rangle \,.</math>
In an -dimensional Hilbert space, }} can be written as a row vector, and (as in the previous section) is an matrix. Then the bra A}} can be computed by normal matrix multiplication.
If the same state vector appears on both bra and ket side,
<math display="block">\langle\psi|\boldsymbol{A}|\psi\rangle \,,</math>
then this expression gives the expectation value, or mean or average value, of the observable represented by operator for the physical system in the state }}.
Outer products
A convenient way to define linear operators on a Hilbert space }} is given by the outer product: if }} is a bra and }} is a ket, the outer product
<math display="block"> |\phi\rang \, \lang \psi| </math>
denotes the rank-one operator with the rule
<math display"block"> \bigl(|\phi\rang \lang \psi|\bigr)(x) \lang \psi | x \rang |\phi \rang.</math>
For a finite-dimensional vector space, the outer product can be understood as simple matrix multiplication:
<math display="block"> |\phi \rangle \, \langle \psi | \doteq
\begin{pmatrix} \phi_1 \\ \phi_2 \\ \vdots \\ \phi_N \end{pmatrix}
\begin{pmatrix} \psi_1^* & \psi_2^* & \cdots & \psi_N^* \end{pmatrix}
= \begin{pmatrix}
\phi_1 \psi_1^* & \phi_1 \psi_2^* & \cdots & \phi_1 \psi_N^* \\
\phi_2 \psi_1^* & \phi_2 \psi_2^* & \cdots & \phi_2 \psi_N^* \\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots \\
\phi_N \psi_1^* & \phi_N \psi_2^* & \cdots & \phi_N \psi_N^* \end{pmatrix}
</math>
The outer product is an matrix, as expected for a linear operator.
One of the uses of the outer product is to construct projection operators. Given a ket }} of norm 1, the orthogonal projection onto the subspace spanned by }} is
<math display="block">|\psi\rangle \, \langle\psi| \,.</math>
This is an idempotent in the algebra of observables that acts on the Hilbert space.
Hermitian conjugate operator
Just as kets and bras can be transformed into each other (making }} into }}), the element from the dual space corresponding to }} is A<sup>†</sup>}}, where denotes the Hermitian conjugate (or adjoint) of the operator . In other words,
<math display"block"> |\phi\rangle A |\psi\rangle \quad \text{if and only if} \quad \langle\phi| = \langle \psi | A^\dagger \,.</math>
If is expressed as an matrix, then is its conjugate transpose.
Properties
Bra–ket notation was designed to facilitate the formal manipulation of linear-algebraic expressions. Some of the properties that allow this manipulation are listed herein. In what follows, and denote arbitrary complex numbers, denotes the complex conjugate of , and denote arbitrary linear operators, and these properties are to hold for any choice of bras and kets.
Linearity
* Since bras are linear functionals, <math display"block">\langle\phi| \bigl( c_1|\psi_1\rangle + c_2|\psi_2\rangle \bigr) c_1\langle\phi|\psi_1\rangle + c_2\langle\phi|\psi_2\rangle \,. </math>
* By the definition of addition and scalar multiplication of linear functionals in the dual space, <math display"block">\bigl(c_1 \langle\phi_1| + c_2 \langle\phi_2|\bigr) |\psi\rangle c_1 \langle\phi_1|\psi\rangle + c_2 \langle\phi_2|\psi\rangle \,. </math>
Associativity
Given any expression involving complex numbers, bras, kets, inner products, outer products, and/or linear operators (but not addition), written in bra–ket notation, the parenthetical groupings do not matter (i.e., the associative property holds). For example:
:<math>\begin{align}
\lang \psi| \bigl(A |\phi\rang\bigr) \bigl(\lang \psi|A\bigr)|\phi\rang \, &\stackrel{\text{def}}{} \, \lang \psi | A | \phi \rang \\
\bigl(A|\psi\rang\bigr)\lang \phi| A\bigl(|\psi\rang \lang \phi|\bigr) \, &\stackrel{\text{def}}{} \, A | \psi \rang \lang \phi |
\end{align}</math>
and so forth. The expressions on the right (with no parentheses whatsoever) are allowed to be written unambiguously because of the equalities on the left. Note that the associative property does not hold for expressions that include nonlinear operators, such as the antilinear time reversal operator in physics.
Hermitian conjugation
Bra–ket notation makes it particularly easy to compute the Hermitian conjugate (also called dagger, and denoted ) of expressions. The formal rules are:
* The Hermitian conjugate of a bra is the corresponding ket, and vice versa.
* The Hermitian conjugate of a complex number is its complex conjugate.
* The Hermitian conjugate of the Hermitian conjugate of anything (linear operators, bras, kets, numbers) is itself—i.e., <math display"block">\left(x^\dagger\right)^\daggerx \,.</math>
* Given any combination of complex numbers, bras, kets, inner products, outer products, and/or linear operators, written in bra–ket notation, its Hermitian conjugate can be computed by reversing the order of the components, and taking the Hermitian conjugate of each.
These rules are sufficient to formally write the Hermitian conjugate of any such expression; some examples are as follows:
* Kets: <math display="block">
\bigl(c_1|\psi_1\rangle + c_2|\psi_2\rangle\bigr)^\dagger = c_1^* \langle\psi_1| + c_2^* \langle\psi_2| \,.
</math>
* Inner products: <math display"block">\langle \phi | \psi \rangle^* \langle \psi|\phi\rangle \,.</math> Note that }} is a scalar, so the Hermitian conjugate is just the complex conjugate, i.e., <math display"block">\bigl(\langle \phi | \psi \rangle\bigr)^\dagger \langle \phi | \psi \rangle^*</math>
* Matrix elements: <math display="block">\begin{align}
\langle \phi| A | \psi \rangle^\dagger &= \left\langle \psi \left| A^\dagger \right|\phi \right\rangle \\
\left\langle \phi\left| A^\dagger B^\dagger \right| \psi \right\rangle^\dagger &= \langle \psi | BA |\phi \rangle \,.
\end{align}</math>
* Outer products: <math display"block">\Big(\bigl(c_1|\phi_1\rangle\langle \psi_1|\bigr) + \bigl(c_2|\phi_2\rangle\langle\psi_2|\bigr)\Big)^\dagger \bigl(c_1^* |\psi_1\rangle\langle \phi_1|\bigr) + \bigl(c_2^*|\psi_2\rangle\langle\phi_2|\bigr) \,.</math>
Composite bras and kets
Two Hilbert spaces and may form a third space by a tensor product. In quantum mechanics, this is used for describing composite systems. If a system is composed of two subsystems described in and respectively, then the Hilbert space of the entire system is the tensor product of the two spaces. (The exception to this is if the subsystems are actually identical particles. In that case, the situation is a little more complicated.)
If }} is a ket in and }} is a ket in , the tensor product of the two kets is a ket in . This is written in various notations:
:<math>|\psi\rangle|\phi\rangle \,,\quad |\psi\rangle \otimes |\phi\rangle\,,\quad|\psi \phi\rangle\,,\quad|\psi ,\phi\rangle\,.</math>
See quantum entanglement and the EPR paradox for applications of this product.
The unit operator
Consider a complete orthonormal system (basis),
<math display="block">\{ e_i \ | \ i \in \mathbb{N} \} \,,</math>
for a Hilbert space , with respect to the norm from an inner product }}.
From basic functional analysis, it is known that any ket <math>|\psi\rangle </math> can also be written as
<math display"block">|\psi\rangle \sum_{i \in \mathbb{N}} \langle e_i | \psi \rangle | e_i \rangle,</math>
with }} the inner product on the Hilbert space.
From the commutativity of kets with (complex) scalars, it follows that
<math display"block">\sum_{i \in \mathbb{N}} | e_i \rangle \langle e_i | \mathbb{I}</math>
must be the identity operator, which sends each vector to itself.
This, then, can be inserted in any expression without affecting its value; for example
<math display="block">\begin{align}
\langle v | w \rangle &= \langle v | \left( \sum_{i \in \mathbb{N}} | e_i \rangle \langle e_i| \right) | w \rangle \\
&= \langle v | \left( \sum_{i \in \mathbb{N}} | e_i \rangle \langle e_i| \right) \left( \sum_{j \in \mathbb{N}} | e_j \rangle \langle e_j |\right)| w \rangle \\
&= \langle v | e_i \rangle \langle e_i | e_j \rangle \langle e_j | w \rangle \,,
\end{align}</math>
where, in the last line, the Einstein summation convention has been used to avoid clutter.
In quantum mechanics, it often occurs that little or no information about the inner product }} of two arbitrary (state) kets is present, while it is still possible to say something about the expansion coefficients *}} and }} of those vectors with respect to a specific (orthonormalized) basis. In this case, it is particularly useful to insert the unit operator into the bracket one time or more.
For more information, see Resolution of the identity,
<math display"block"> {\mathbb I} \int\! dx~ | x \rangle \langle x |\int\! dp ~| p \rangle \langle p |,</math> where <math display"block">|p\rangle = \int dx \frac{e^{ixp / \hbar} |x\rangle}{\sqrt{2\pi\hbar}}.</math>
Since |x}} δ(x − x)}}, plane waves follow, <math display"block"> \langle x | p \rangle \frac{e^{ixp / \hbar}}{\sqrt{2\pi\hbar}}.</math>
In his book (1958), Ch. III.20, Dirac defines the standard ket which, up to a normalization, is the translationally invariant momentum eigenstate <math display"inline">|\varpi\rangle\lim_{p\to 0} |p\rangle</math> in the momentum representation, i.e., <math>\hat{p}|\varpi\rangle0</math>. Consequently, the corresponding wavefunction is a constant, <math> \langle x|\varpi\rangle \sqrt{2\pi \hbar}1</math>, and
<math display"block">|x\rangle \delta(\hat{x}-x) |\varpi\rangle \sqrt{2\pi \hbar},</math> as well as <math display"block">|p\rangle \exp (ip\hat{x}/\hbar ) |\varpi\rangle.</math>
Typically, when all matrix elements of an operator such as <math display="block"> \langle x| A |y\rangle </math> are available, this resolution serves to reconstitute the full operator,
<math display"block"> \int dx \, dy \, |x\rangle \langle x| A |y\rangle \langle y | A \,. </math>
Notation used by mathematicians
The object physicists are considering when using bra–ket notation is a Hilbert space (a complete inner product space).
Let <math>(\mathcal H, \langle\cdot,\cdot\rangle)</math> be a Hilbert space and }} a vector in }}. What physicists would denote by }} is the vector itself. That is,
<math display="block"> |h\rangle\in \mathcal{H} .</math>
Let *}} be the dual space of }}. This is the space of linear functionals on }}. The embedding <math>\Phi:\mathcal H \hookrightarrow \mathcal H^*</math> is defined by <math>\Phi(h) \varphi_h</math>, where for every }} the linear functional <math>\varphi_h:\mathcal H\to\mathbb C</math> satisfies for every }} the functional equation <math>\varphi_h(g) \langle h, g\rangle = \langle h\mid g\rangle</math>.
Notational confusion arises when identifying and with }} and }} respectively. This is because of literal symbolic substitutions. Let <math>\varphi_h H \langle h\mid</math> and let }}. This gives
<math display"block"> \varphi_h(g) H(g) H(G)\langle h|(G) = \langle h|\bigl(|g\rangle\bigr) \,. </math>
One ignores the parentheses and removes the double bars.
Moreover, mathematicians usually write the dual entity not at the first place, as the physicists do, but at the second one, and they usually use not an asterisk but an overline (which the physicists reserve for averages and the Dirac spinor adjoint) to denote complex conjugate numbers; i.e., for scalar products mathematicians usually write
<math display"block">\langle\phi ,\psi\rangle\int \phi (x)\overline{\psi(x)}\, dx \,,</math>
whereas physicists would write for the same quantity
<math display"block"> \langle\psi |\phi \rangle \int dx \, \psi^*(x) \phi(x)~.</math>
See also
* Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)
* -slit interferometric equation
* Quantum state
* Inner product space
Notes
References
* Also see his standard text, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, IV edition, Clarendon Press (1958),
*
*
*
*
*External links
*Richard Fitzpatrick, [https://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/ "Quantum Mechanics: A graduate level course"], The University of Texas at Austin. Includes:
** 1. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node7.html Ket space]
** 2. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node8.html Bra space]
** 3. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node9.html Operators]
** 4. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node10.html The outer product]
** 5. [http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/qm/lectures/node11.html Eigenvalues and eigenvectors]
*Robert Littlejohn, [http://bohr.physics.berkeley.edu/classes/221/0708/notes/hilbert.pdf Lecture notes on "The Mathematical Formalism of Quantum mechanics", including bra–ket notation.] University of California, Berkeley.
*
Category:Information theory
Category:Quantum information science
Category:Linear algebra
Category:Mathematical notation
Category:Paul Dirac
Category:Linear functionals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bra–ket_notation
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| caption = Clockwise, from top left: A Ukrainian Police officer on duty; Tiles of the Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque, Iran; Red-legged honeycreeper; Copper(II) sulfate; Sea at Ponta de São Lourenço; The Pacific Ocean seen from space
| wavelength=approx. 450–495
| Wavelength=45–49.5 Ångström
| frequency=~670–610
| hex=0000FF
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<!-- first para - Science and optics-->
Blue is one of the three primary colours in the RYB colour model (traditional colour theory), as well as in the RGB (additive) colour model. It lies between violet and cyan on the spectrum of visible light. The term blue generally describes colours perceived by humans observing light with a dominant wavelength that's between approximately 450 and 495 nanometres. Most blues contain a slight mixture of other colours; azure contains some green, while ultramarine contains some violet. The clear daytime sky and the deep sea appear blue because of an optical effect known as Rayleigh scattering. An optical effect called the Tyndall effect explains blue eyes. Distant objects appear more blue because of another optical effect called aerial perspective.
Blue has been an important colour in art and decoration since ancient times. The semi-precious stone lapis lazuli was used in ancient Egypt for jewellery and ornament and later, in the Renaissance, to make the pigment ultramarine, the most expensive of all pigments. In the eighth century Chinese artists used cobalt blue to colour fine blue and white porcelain. In the Middle Ages, European artists used it in the windows of cathedrals. Europeans wore clothing coloured with the vegetable dye woad until it was replaced by the finer indigo from America. In the 19th century, synthetic blue dyes and pigments gradually replaced organic dyes and mineral pigments. Dark blue became a common colour for military uniforms and later, in the late 20th century, for business suits. Because blue has commonly been associated with harmony, it was chosen as the colour of the flags of the United Nations and the European Union.
In the United States and Europe, blue is the colour that both men and women are most likely to choose as their favourite, with at least one recent survey showing the same across several other countries, including China, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Past surveys in the US and Europe have found that blue is the colour most commonly associated with harmony, confidence, masculinity, knowledge, intelligence, calmness, distance, infinity, the imagination, cold, and sadness.Etymology and linguisticsThe modern English word blue comes from Middle English or , from the Old French , a word of Germanic origin, related to the Old High German word (meaning 'shimmering, lustrous'). In heraldry, the word azure is used for blue''.
In Russian, Spanish, Mongolian, Irish, and some other languages, there is no single word for blue, but rather different words for light blue (, ; ) and dark blue (, ; ) (see Colour term).
Several languages, including Japanese and Lakota Sioux, use the same word to describe blue and green. For example, in Vietnamese, the colour of both tree leaves and the sky is . In Japanese, the word for blue (, ) is often used for colours that English speakers would refer to as green, such as the colour of a traffic signal meaning "go". In Lakota, the word is used for both blue and green, the two colours not being distinguished in older Lakota (for more on this subject, see Blue–green distinction in language).
Linguistic research indicates that languages do not begin by having a word for the colour blue. Colour names often developed individually in natural languages, typically beginning with black and white (or dark and light), and then adding red, and only much later – usually as the last main category of colour accepted in a language – adding the colour blue, probably when blue pigments could be manufactured reliably in the culture using that language. Blues with a higher frequency and thus a shorter wavelength gradually look more violet, while those with a lower frequency and a longer wavelength gradually appear more green. Purer blues are in the middle of this range, e.g., around 470 nanometres.
Isaac Newton included blue as one of the seven colours in his first description of the visible spectrum. He chose seven colours because that was the number of notes in the musical scale, which he believed was related to the optical spectrum. He included indigo, the hue between blue and violet, as one of the separate colours, though today it is usually considered a hue of blue.
In painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments (red, yellow, blue), which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green. Mixing all three primary colours together produces a dark brown. From the Renaissance onward, painters used this system to create their colours (see RYB colour model).
The RYB model was used for colour printing by Jacob Christoph Le Blon as early as 1725. Later, printers discovered that more accurate colours could be created by using combinations of cyan, magenta, yellow, and black ink, put onto separate inked plates and then overlaid one at a time onto paper. This method could produce almost all the colours in the spectrum with reasonable accuracy.
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File:AdditiveColorMixing.svg|Additive colour mixing. The combination of primary colours produces secondary colours where two overlap; the combination red, green, and blue each in full intensity makes white.
File:Closeup of pixels.JPG|Red, green, and blue subpixels on a liquid-crystal display.
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On the HSV colour wheel, the complement of blue is yellow; that is, a colour corresponding to an equal mixture of red and green light. On a colour wheel based on traditional colour theory (RYB) where blue was considered a primary colour, its complementary colour is considered to be orange (based on the Munsell colour wheel).
LED
In 1993, high-brightness blue LEDs were demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation. In parallel, Isamu Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano of Nagoya University were working on a new development which revolutionized LED lighting.
Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention.
Nakamura, Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2014 for the invention of an efficient blue LED.
Lasers
Lasers emitting in the blue region of the spectrum became widely available to the public in 2010 with the release of inexpensive high-powered 445–447 nm laser diode technology. Previously the blue wavelengths were accessible only through DPSS which are comparatively expensive and inefficient, but still widely used by scientists for applications including optogenetics, Raman spectroscopy, and particle image velocimetry, due to their superior beam quality. Blue gas lasers are also still commonly used for holography, DNA sequencing, optical pumping, among other scientific and medical applications.
Shades and variations
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Blue is the colour of light between violet and cyan on the visible spectrum. Hues of blue include indigo and ultramarine, closer to violet; pure blue, without any mixture of other colours; Azure, which is a lighter shade of blue, similar to the colour of the sky; Cyan, which is midway in the spectrum between blue and green, and the other blue-greens such as turquoise, teal, and aquamarine.
Blue also varies in shade or tint; darker shades of blue contain black or grey, while lighter tints contain white. Darker shades of blue include ultramarine, cobalt blue, navy blue, and Prussian blue; while lighter tints include sky blue, azure, and Egyptian blue (for a more complete list see the List of colours).
As a structural colour
In nature, many blue phenomena arise from structural colouration, the result of interference between reflections from two or more surfaces of thin films, combined with refraction as light enters and exits such films. The geometry then determines that at certain angles, the light reflected from both surfaces interferes constructively, while at other angles, the light interferes destructively. Diverse colours therefore appear despite the absence of colourants.Colourants
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File:Egyptian blue.jpg|Egyptian blue
File:Cobalt Blue.JPG|Cobalt blue
File:Bleu phtalo.jpg|Copper phthalocyanine
File:YInMn_Blue_-_cropped.jpg|YInMn blue
File:Prussian blue.jpg|Prussian blue, Fe[Fe(CN)], is the blue of blueprints.
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Artificial blues
Egyptian blue, the first artificial pigment, was produced in the third millennium BC in Ancient Egypt. It is produced by heating pulverized sand, copper, and natron. It was used in tomb paintings and funereal objects to protect the dead in their afterlife. Prior to the 1700s, blue colourants for artwork were mainly based on lapis lazuli and the related mineral ultramarine. A breakthrough occurred in 1709 when German druggist and pigment maker Johann Jacob Diesbach discovered Prussian blue. The new blue arose from experiments involving heating dried blood with iron sulphides and was initially called Berliner Blau. By 1710 it was being used by the French painter Antoine Watteau, and later his successor Nicolas Lancret. It became immensely popular for the manufacture of wallpaper, and in the 19th century was widely used by French impressionist painters. Beginning in the 1820s, Prussian blue was imported into Japan through the port of Nagasaki. It was called bero-ai, or Berlin blue, and it became popular because it did not fade like traditional Japanese blue pigment, ai-gami, made from the dayflower. Prussian blue was used by both Hokusai, in his wave paintings, and Hiroshige.
In 1799 a French chemist, Louis Jacques Thénard, made a synthetic cobalt blue pigment which became immensely popular with painters.
In 1824 the Societé pour l'Encouragement d'Industrie in France offered a prize for the invention of an artificial ultramarine which could rival the natural colour made from lapis lazuli. The prize was won in 1826 by a chemist named Jean Baptiste Guimet, but he refused to reveal the formula of his colour. In 1828, another scientist, Christian Gmelin then a professor of chemistry in Tübingen, found the process and published his formula. This was the beginning of new industry to manufacture artificial ultramarine, which eventually almost completely replaced the natural product.
In 1878 German chemists synthesized indigo. This product rapidly replaced natural indigo, wiping out vast farms growing indigo. It is now the blue of blue jeans. As the pace of organic chemistry accelerated, a succession of synthetic blue dyes were discovered including Indanthrone blue, which had even greater resistance to fading during washing or in the sun, and copper phthalocyanine.
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File:The Blue Boy.jpg|The Blue Boy (1770), featuring lapis lazuli, indigo, and cobalt colourants,
File:Great Wave off Kanagawa2.jpg|The Great Wave off Kanagawa illustrates the use of Prussian blue
File:Indigoproduktion BASF 1890.JPG|A synthetic indigo dye factory in Germany in 1890.
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Dyes for textiles and food
Woad and true indigo were once used but since the early 1900s, all indigo is synthetic. Produced on an industrial scale, indigo is the blue of blue jeans. Blue dyes are organic compounds, both synthetic and natural.
For food, the triarylmethane dye Brilliant blue FCF is used for candies. The search continues for stable, natural blue dyes suitable for the food industry. The company ICEE used Blue No. 1 for their blue raspberry ICEEs.
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File:Blue Raspberry Frozen Yogurt with White Chocolate Chips, Coconut, and Cherries.jpg|Blue Raspberry Frozen Yogurt with White Chocolate Chips, Coconut, and Cherries.
File:Blue haribo jelly beans.jpg|Blue haribo jelly beans. Raspberry flavour. Bought in the UK.
File:2019-11-09 19 29 30 A blue raspberry-flavored Jolly Rancher Hard Candy Stix after being unwrapped in the Dulles section of Sterling, Loudoun County, Virginia.jpg|A blue raspberry-flavoured Jolly Rancher Hard Candy Stix after being unwrapped in the Dulles section of Sterling, Loudoun County, Virginia.
File:Indigo skeletal.svg|Chemical structure of indigo dye, a widely produced blue dye. Blue jeans consist of 1–3% by weight of this organic compound.
File:C.I. Acid Blue 9.svg|upright=1.15|Chemical structure of C.I. Acid Blue 9, a dye commonly used in candies.
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Pigments for painting and glass
Blue pigments were once produced from minerals, especially lapis lazuli and its close relative ultramarine. These minerals were crushed, ground into powder, and then mixed with a quick-drying binding agent, such as egg yolk (tempera painting); or with a slow-drying oil, such as linseed oil, for oil painting. Two inorganic but synthetic blue pigments are cerulean blue (primarily cobalt(II) stanate: ) and Prussian blue (milori blue: primarily ). The chromophore in blue glass and glazes is cobalt(II). Diverse cobalt(II) salts such as cobalt carbonate or cobalt(II) aluminate are mixed with the silica prior to firing. The cobalt occupies sites otherwise filled with silicon.
Inks
Methyl blue is the dominant blue pigment in inks used in pens. Blueprinting involves the production of Prussian blue in situ.
Inorganic compounds
Certain metal ions characteristically form blue solutions or blue salts. Of some practical importance, cobalt is used to make the deep blue glazes and glasses. It substitutes for silicon or aluminum ions in these materials. Cobalt is the blue chromophore in stained glass windows, such as those in Gothic cathedrals and in Chinese porcelain beginning in the Tang dynasty. Copper(II) (Cu<sup>2+</sup>) also produces many blue compounds, including the commercial algicide copper(II) sulfate (CuSO<sub>4</sub><sup>.</sup>5H<sub>2</sub>O). Similarly, vanadyl salts and solutions are often blue, e.g. vanadyl sulfate.
In nature
Sky and sea
When sunlight passes through the atmosphere, the blue wavelengths are scattered more widely by the oxygen and nitrogen molecules, and more blue comes to our eyes. This effect is called Rayleigh scattering, after Lord Rayleigh and confirmed by Albert Einstein in 1911.
The sea is seen as blue for largely the same reason: the water absorbs the longer wavelengths of red and reflects and scatters the blue, which comes to the eye of the viewer. The deeper the observer goes, the darker the blue becomes. In the open sea, only about 1% of light penetrates to a depth of 200 metres (see underwater and euphotic depth).
The colour of the sea is also affected by the colour of the sky, reflected by particles in the water; and by algae and plant life in the water, which can make it look green; or by sediment, which can make it look brown.
The farther away an object is, the more blue it often appears to the eye. For example, mountains in the distance often appear blue. This is the effect of atmospheric perspective; the farther an object is away from the viewer, the less contrast there is between the object and its background colour, which is usually blue. In a painting where different parts of the composition are blue, green and red, the blue will appear to be more distant, and the red closer to the viewer. The cooler a colour is, the more distant it seems. Blue light is scattered more than other wavelengths by the gases in the atmosphere, hence our "blue planet".
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File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|Earth's blue halo when seen from space
File:Aerial perspective 1.JPG|Another example of Rayleigh scattering
File:LightningVolt Deep Blue Sea.jpg|The sea
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<!-- tangential, almost irrelevantAstronomy
Blue giants are hot and luminous stars with surface temperatures exceeding 10,000 K. The largest blue supergiant stars are extremely massive and energetic, and are usually unstable. They are generally short-lived, either exploding in a supernova or periodically shedding their outer layers to become red giants.
-->
Minerals
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Lapis-lazuli hg.jpg|Lapis-lazuli
Azurite - New Nevada Lode, La Sal, Utah, USA.jpg|Azurite
Natural ultramarine pigment.jpg|Natural ultramarine pigment
Logan Sapphire SI.jpg|Logan sapphire
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Some of the most desirable gems are blue, including sapphire and tanzanite. Compounds of copper(II) are characteristically blue and so are many copper-containing minerals.
Azurite (, with a deep blue colour, was once employed in medieval years, but it is unstable pigment, losing its colour especially under dry conditions. Lapis lazuli, mined in Afghanistan for more than three thousand years, was used for jewelry and ornaments, and later was crushed and powdered and used as a pigment. The more it was ground, the lighter the blue colour became. Natural ultramarine, made by grinding lapis lazuli into a fine powder, was the finest available blue pigment in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It was extremely expensive, and in Italian Renaissance art, it was often reserved for the robes of the Virgin Mary.
Plants and fungi
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File:Blaue Primeln.JPG|Primula acaulis
File:Ipomoea August 2007-1.jpg|Morning glory (Ipomoea acuminata)
File:Vaccinium corymbosum Beeren.jpg|Vaccinium corymbosum
File:Vinca minor Nashville.jpg|Vinca minor
File:Delphinium denudatum 1.jpg|Blue Delphinium flower
Lupinus-pilosus-2015-Zachi-Evenor-cropped02.jpg|Blue Lupme flower Lupinus pilosus
File:Lactarius indigo 48568 edit.jpg|Lactarius indigo
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Intense efforts have focused on blue flowers and the possibility that natural blue colourants could be used as food dyes. In the few plants that exploit structural colouration, brilliant colours are produced by structures within cells. The most brilliant blue colouration known in any living tissue is found in the marble berries of Pollia condensata, where a spiral structure of cellulose fibrils scattering blue light. The fruit of quandong (Santalum acuminatum) can appear blue owing to the same effect. Examples of which include butterflies of the genus Nessaea, where blue is created by pterobilin. Other blue pigments of animal origin include phorcabilin, used by other butterflies in Graphium and Papilio (specifically P. phorcas and P. weiskei), and sarpedobilin, which is used by Graphium sarpedon. Blue-pigmented organelles, known as "cyanosomes", exist in the chromatophores of at least two fish species, the mandarin fish and the picturesque dragonet. More commonly, blueness in animals is a structural colouration; an optical interference effect induced by organized nanometre-sized scales or fibres. Examples include the plumage of several birds like the blue jay and indigo bunting, the scales of butterflies like the morpho butterfly, collagen fibres in the skin of some species of monkey and opossum, and the iridophore cells in some fish and frogs.Eyes
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Blue eyes do not actually contain any blue pigment. Eye colour is determined by two factors: the pigmentation of the eye's iris and the scattering of light by the turbid medium in the stroma of the iris. In humans, the pigmentation of the iris varies from light brown to black. The appearance of blue, green, and hazel eyes results from the Tyndall scattering of light in the stroma, an optical effect similar to what accounts for the blueness of the sky. The irises of the eyes of people with blue eyes contain less dark melanin than those of people with brown eyes, which means that they absorb less short-wavelength blue light, which is instead reflected out to the viewer. Eye colour also varies depending on the lighting conditions, especially for lighter-coloured eyes.
Blue eyes are most common in Ireland, the Baltic Sea area and Northern Europe, In Estonia, 99% of people have blue eyes. In Denmark in 1978, only 8% of the population had brown eyes, though through immigration, today that number is about 11%.
History
In the ancient world
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File:Lapis bowl Iran, AO 26477.jpg|Lapis lazuli bowl from Iran, end of 3rd – beginning of 2nd millennium BC (Louvre Museum)
File:Tripodic goblet Louvre AO4079.jpg|Egyptian blue tripodic beaker imitating lapis lazuli. South Mesopotamia. (1399-1200 BC)
File:WLA metmuseum Wall painting Polyphemus and Galaltea 4.jpg|Fresco of Polyphemus and Galatea, Pompei, using Egyptian blue (1st c. BC) (Metropolitan Museum)
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As early as the 7th millennium BC, lapis lazuli was mined in the Sar-i Sang mines, in Shortugai, and in other mines in Badakhshan province in northeast Afghanistan.
Lapis lazuli artifacts, dated to 7570 BC, have been found at Bhirrana, which is the oldest site of Indus Valley civilisation. Lapis was highly valued by the Indus Valley Civilisation (7570–1900 BC). Lapis beads have been found at Neolithic burials in Mehrgarh, the Caucasus, and as far away as Mauritania. It was used in the funeral mask of Tutankhamun (1341–1323 BC).
A term for Blue was relatively rare in many forms of ancient art and decoration, and even in ancient literature. The Ancient Greek poets described the sea as green, brown or "the colour of wine". The colour is mentioned several times in the Hebrew Bible as 'tekhelet'. Reds, blacks, browns, and ochres are found in cave paintings from the Upper Paleolithic period, but not blue. Blue was also not used for dyeing fabric until long after red, ochre, pink, and purple. This is probably due to the perennial difficulty of making blue dyes and pigments. On the other hand, the rarity of blue pigment made it even more valuable.
The earliest known blue dyes were made from plants – woad in Europe, indigo in Asia and Africa, while blue pigments were made from minerals, usually either lapis lazuli or azurite, and required more. Blue glazes posed still another challenge since the early blue dyes and pigments were not thermally robust. In , the blue glaze Egyptian blue was introduced for ceramics, as well as many other objects. The Greeks imported indigo dye from India, calling it indikon, and they painted with Egyptian blue. Blue was not one of the four primary colours for Greek painting described by Pliny the Elder (red, yellow, black, and white). For the Romans, blue was the colour of mourning, as well as the colour of barbarians. The Celts and Germans reportedly dyed their faces blue to frighten their enemies, and tinted their hair blue when they grew old. The Romans made extensive use of indigo and Egyptian blue pigment, as evidenced, in part, by frescos in Pompeii.
The Romans had many words for varieties of blue, including , , , , , , , and , but two words, both of foreign origin, became the most enduring; , from the Germanic word blau, which eventually became bleu or blue; and , from the Arabic word , which became azure.
Blue was widely used in the decoration of churches in the Byzantine Empire. By contrast, in the Islamic world, blue was of secondary to green, believed to be the favourite colour of the Prophet Mohammed. At certain times in Moorish Spain and other parts of the Islamic world, blue was the colour worn by Christians and Jews, because only Muslims were allowed to wear white and green. In the Middle Ages <gallery mode"packed" heights="180px">
File:Vitraux Saint-Denis 190110 19.jpg|Stained glass window at Saint Denis Basilica (1130–1140), coloured with cobalt blue
File:Vitrail Chartres Notre-Dame 210209 1.jpg|Detail of the Blue Virgin Window, Chartres Cathedral (12th c.)
File:Wilton diptych.jpg|The Wilton Diptych (1395–1399). The Virgin Mary was traditionally shown in blue(14th c.)
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In the art and life of Europe during the early Middle Ages, blue played a minor role. This changed dramatically between 1130 and 1140 in Paris, when the Abbe Suger rebuilt the Saint Denis Basilica. Suger considered that light was the visible manifestation of the Holy Spirit. He installed stained glass windows coloured with cobalt, which, combined with the light from the red glass, filled the church with a bluish violet light. The church became the marvel of the Christian world, and the colour became known as the . In the years that followed even more elegant blue stained glass windows were installed in other churches, including at Chartres Cathedral and Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.
In the 12th century the Roman Catholic Church dictated that painters in Italy (and the rest of Europe consequently) to paint the Virgin Mary with blue, which became associated with holiness, humility and virtue. In medieval paintings, blue was used to attract the attention of the viewer to the Virgin Mary.<!-- lapis lazuli, from the mines of Badakshan, in the mountains of Afghanistan, near the source of the Oxus River. The mines were visited by Marco Polo in about 1271; he reported, "here is found a high mountain from which they extract the finest and most beautiful of blues." Ground lapis was used in Byzantine manuscripts as early as the 6th century, but it was impure and varied greatly in colour. Ultramarine refined out the impurities through a long and difficult process, creating a rich and deep blue. It was called in French and in Italian, since it came from the other side of the sea. It cost far more than any other colour, and it became the luxury colour for the kings and princes of Europe.--> Paintings of the mythical King Arthur began to show him dressed in blue. The coat of arms of the kings of France became an azure or light blue shield, sprinkled with golden fleur-de-lis or lilies. Blue had come from obscurity to become the royal colour.
Renaissance through 18th century
Blue came into wider use beginning in the Renaissance, when artists began to paint the world with perspective, depth, shadows, and light from a single source. In Renaissance paintings, artists tried to create harmonies between blue and red, lightening the blue with lead white paint and adding shadows and highlights. Raphael was a master of this technique, carefully balancing the reds and the blues so no one colour dominated the picture.
Ultramarine was the most prestigious blue of the Renaissance, being more expensive than gold. Wealthy art patrons commissioned works with the most expensive blues possible. In 1616 Richard Sackville commissioned a portrait of himself by Isaac Oliver with three different blues, including ultramarine pigment for his stockings.
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File:Oliver Richard Sackville Earl of Dorset 1616.jpg|Portrait of Richard Sackville (1616), using three expensive blues, including ultramarine for his stockings
File:MET DP251168.jpg|Ming dynasty, Porcelain vase painted with cobalt blue under transparent glaze. (15th c.) (Metropolitan Museum)
File:Delftware plaque with New Testament scene 002.jpg|Delftware plaque with cobalt blue painting (1683) (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam)
File:Portrait of Louis XIV of France in Coronation Robes (by Hyacinthe Rigaud) - Louvre Museum.jpg|Portrait of King Louis XIV of France in coronation robes, by Hyacinthe Rigaud (c. 1700) (Louvre Museum)
File:Urn with cover MET DP104608.jpg|Urn by Josiah Wedgwood (1780s) (Metropolitan Museum)
File:Queen Maria I of Portugal (1734-1816) in an 18th century painting.jpg|Queen Maria I of Portugal (late 1700s)
File:Johannes Vermeer - Girl with a Pearl Earring - WGA24666.jpg|Girl with a Pearl Earring by Johannes Vermeer features ultramarine pigment
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An industry for the manufacture of fine blue and white pottery began in the 14th century in Jingdezhen, China, using white Chinese porcelain decorated with patterns of cobalt blue, imported from Persia. It was first made for the family of the Emperor of China, then was exported around the world, with designs for export adapted to European subjects and tastes. The Chinese blue style was also adapted by Dutch craftsmen in Delft and English craftsmen in Staffordshire in the 17th-18th centuries. in the 18th century, blue and white porcelains were produced by Josiah Wedgwood and other British craftsmen.
19th-20th century
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File:BrummellDighton1805.jpg|Beau Brummel (1776–1840) introduced the ancestor of the modern blue suit
File:D. Maria II (1834) - Joaquim Rafael (Museu Militar de Lisboa).png|Queen Maria II of Portugal in a blue and gold embroidered gown (1835)
File:A Miner in His Cabin.jpg|A California gold miner in blue jeans (1853)
File:Ferdinand Krumholz Isabel do Brasil 1853.jpg|Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil in light blue gown (1853)
File:New York Metropolitan Police Uniforms 1871.jpg|New York City police in 1871
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The early 19th century saw the ancestor of the modern blue business suit, created by Beau Brummel (1776–1840), who set fashion at the London Court. It also saw the invention of blue jeans, a highly popular form of workers's costume, invented in 1853 by Jacob W. Davis who used metal rivets to strengthen blue denim work clothing in the California gold fields. The invention was funded by San Francisco entrepreneur Levi Strauss, and spread around the world. Henri Matisse expressed deep emotions with blue, "A certain blue penetrates your soul." In the second half of the 20th century, painters of the abstract expressionist movement use blues to inspire ideas and emotions. Painter Mark Rothko observed that colour was "only an instrument;" his interest was "in expressing human emotions tragedy, ecstasy, doom, and so on". In society and culture Uniforms <gallery mode"packed" heights="180">
File:HoratioNelson1.jpg|Navy blue derives its name from the uniform of Royal Navy officers
File:TSA agents, ca. 2016.jpg|Transportation Security Administration agents
File:2010. Донецк. Карнавал на день города 010.jpg|Ukrainian police officer in Donetsk
File:PM do Rio muda o comando de 25 UPPs.jpg|Officers of the Military Police of Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil
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In the 17th century. The Prince-Elector of Brandenburg, Frederick William I of Prussia, chose Prussian blue as the new colour of Prussian military uniforms, because it was made with Woad, a local crop, rather than Indigo, which was produced by the colonies of Brandenburg's rival, England. It was worn by the German army until World War I, with the exception of the soldiers of Bavaria, who wore sky-blue.
In 1748, the Royal Navy adopted a dark shade of blue for the uniform of officers. It was first known as marine blue, now known as navy blue. The militia organized by George Washington selected blue and buff, the colours of the British Whig Party. Blue continued to be the colour of the field uniform of the US Army until 1902, and is still the colour of the dress uniform.
In the 19th century, police in the United Kingdom, including the Metropolitan Police and the City of London Police also adopted a navy blue uniform. Similar traditions were embraced in France and Austria. It was also adopted at about the same time for the uniforms of the officers of the New York City Police Department.
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File:ANAB767300Restroomsign.jpg|This restroom sign on an All Nippon Airways Boeing 767-300 uses pink for the female gender and blue for the male gender.
File:Gender Reveal Cake (28005690402).jpg|Cake using blue to represent the male sex.
File:Fynn Esser 2013-11-18 21-47.jpg|Baby blue newborn male clothing
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Religion
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File:Sri Mariamman Temple Singapore 2 amk.jpg|In Hinduism, Krishna is depicted with blue skin
File:Reknown blue domes of the Church dedicated to St. Spirou in Firostefani, Santorini island (Thira), Greece.jpg|Blue domes of the Church dedicated to St. Spirou in Firostefani, Santorini island (Thira), Greece.
File:Mezquita Shah, Isfahán, Irán, 2016-09-20, DD 64.jpg|Persian blue in Shah mosque (16th c.) in Isfahan, Iran
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* Blue in Judaism: In the Torah, the Israelites were commanded to put fringes, tzitzit, on the corners of their garments, and to weave within these fringes a "twisted thread of blue (tekhelet)". In ancient days, this blue thread was made from a dye extracted from a Mediterranean snail called the hilazon. Maimonides claimed that this blue was the colour of "the clear noonday sky"; Rashi, the colour of the evening sky. According to several rabbinic sages, blue is the colour of God's Glory. Staring at this colour aids in mediation, bringing us a glimpse of the "pavement of sapphire, like the very sky for purity", which is a likeness of the Throne of God. (The Hebrew word for glory) Many items in the Mishkan, the portable sanctuary in the wilderness, such as the menorah, many of the vessels, and the Ark of the Covenant, were covered with blue cloth when transported from place to place.
* Blue in Christianity: Blue is particularly associated with the Virgin Mary. This was the result of a decree of Pope Gregory I (540–601) who ordered that all religious paintings should tell a story which was clearly comprehensible to all viewers, and that figures should be easily recognizable, especially that of the figure of Mary. If she was alone in the image, her costume was usually painted with the finest blue, ultramarine. If she was with Christ, her costume was usually painted with a less expensive pigment, to avoid outshining him.
* Blue in Hinduism: Many of the gods are depicted as having blue-coloured skin, particularly those associated with Vishnu, who is said to be the preserver of the world, and thus intimately connected to water. Krishna and Rama, Vishnu's avatars, are usually depicted with blue skin. Shiva, the destroyer deity, is also depicted in a light-blue hue, and is called Nīlakaṇṭha, or blue-throated, for having swallowed poison to save the universe during the Samudra Manthana, the churning of the ocean of milk. Blue is used to symbolically represent the fifth, and the throat, chakra (Vishuddha).
* Blue in Sikhism: The Akali Nihangs warriors wear all-blue attire. Guru Gobind Singh also has a blue roan horse. The Sikh Rehat Maryada states that the Nishan Sahib hoisted outside every Gurudwara should be xanthic (Basanti in Punjabi) or greyish blue (modern day navy blue) (Surmaaee in Punjabi) colour.
*Blue in Paganism: Blue is associated with peace, truth, wisdom, protection, and patience. It helps with healing, psychic ability, harmony, and understanding. Sports <gallery mode"packed" heights="180">
File:Italy Team - Rome, 1965.jpg|The Italian national football team
File:Serbia national volleyball team at the 2012 Summer Olympics (7913882066).jpg|Serbian national volleyball team, 2012 Olympics
File:Jack White, Duke Blue Devils.jpg|Basketball player for the Blue Devils at Cassell Coliseum
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In sports, blue is widely represented in uniforms in part because the majority of national teams wear the colours of their national flag. For example, the national men's football team of France are known as Les Bleus (the Blues). Similarly, Argentina, Italy, and Uruguay wear blue shirts. The Asian Football Confederation and the Oceania Football Confederation use blue text on their logos. Blue is well represented in baseball (Blue Jays), basketball, and American football, and Ice hockey. The Indian national cricket team wears blue uniform during One day international matches, as such the team is also referred to as "Men in Blue".
Politics
<gallery mode"packed" heights"150">
File:Flag of the United Nations.svg|Flag of the United Nations, approximates "sky blue"
File:Flag of Europe.svg|Flag of the European Union is "reflex blue", a medium dark blue
File:Red states and blue states of the US based on data from the 2008, 2012, 2016 and 2020 presidential elections.svg|A presidential-election map of the US, 2008–2020. States that consistently vote for Democrats are termed "blue states".
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Unlike red or green, blue was not strongly associated with any particular country, religion or political movement. As the colour of harmony, it was chosen as the colour for the flags of the United Nations, the European Union, and NATO. In politics, blue is often used as the colour of conservative parties, contrasting with the red associated with left-wing parties. Some conservative parties that use the colour blue include the Conservative Party (UK), Conservative Party of Canada, Liberal Party of Australia, Liberal Party of Brazil, and Likud of Israel. However, in some countries, blue is not associated main conservative party. In the United States, the liberal Democratic Party is associated with blue, while the conservative Republican Party with red. US states which have been won by the Democratic Party in four consecutive presidential elections are termed "blue states", while those that have been won by the Republican Party are termed "red states". South Korea also uses this colour model, with the Democratic Party on the left using blue and the People Power Party on the right using red.See also
* Engineer's blue
* Lists of colours
* Non-photo blue
* Blue pigments
References
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* [http://theconversation.com/friday-essay-from-the-great-wave-to-starry-night-how-a-blue-pigment-changed-the-world-81031 "Friday essay: from the Great Wave to Starry Night, how a blue pigment changed the world", By Hugh Davies, theconversation.com]
}}
Category:Optical spectrum
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Category:Rainbow colors
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Category:Shades of violet
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Category:Masculinity
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Blind Willie McTell
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| birth_place = Thomson, Georgia, U.S.
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| death_place = Milledgeville, Georgia, U.S.
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Blind Willie McTell (born William Samuel McTier; May 5, 1898 – August 19, 1959) was an American Piedmont blues and ragtime singer, songwriter and guitarist. He played in a fluid, syncopated finger picking guitar style common among many East Coast, Piedmont blues players. Like his Atlanta contemporaries, he came to use twelve-string guitars exclusively. McTell was also adept at slide guitar, unusual among ragtime bluesmen. He sang in a smooth and often laid-back tenor which differed greatly from the harsher voices of many Delta bluesmen such as Charley Patton. He performed in various musical styles including blues, ragtime, religious music, and hokum and recorded more than 120 titles during fourteen recording sessions.
He was born William Samuel McTier in the Happy Valley community outside Thomson, Georgia. In his recordings of "Lay Some Flowers on My Grave", "Lord, Send Me an Angel" and "Statesboro Blues", he pronounces his surname MacTell with the stress on the first syllable. He learned to play the guitar in his early teens from his mother and from relatives and neighbors in Statesboro where his family had moved. He was a popular performer on the streets of several Georgia cities, including Augusta and Atlanta where he made his first recordings, eight songs, for Victor Records in 1927 including "Statesboro Blues." . He never had a major hit record but he had a prolific recording career with different labels and under different names in the 1920s and '30s. McTell was active in the 1940s and '50s playing at house rent parties, on street corners, at fish fries, on the medicine and tent show circuit, playing on the streets of Atlanta, often with his longtime friend, Curley Weaver as well as hoboing through the South and East. He made his last recordings in 1956 at an impromptu session recorded by an Atlanta record store owner. He died three years later, having lived for years with diabetes and alcoholism. Despite his lack of commercial success, he was one of the few blues musicians of his generation who continued to actively play and record during the 1940s and '50s. He did not live to see the American folk music revival when many other bluesmen were rediscovered. McTell was born blind in one eye and lost his remaining vision by late childhood. He attended schools for the blind in Georgia, New York and Michigan and showed proficiency in music from an early age, learning to read and write music in braille, The name "Pig & Whistle" was a reference to a chain of barbecue restaurants in Atlanta; McTell often played for tips in the parking lot of a Pig 'n Whistle restaurant. He also played behind a nearby building that later became Ray Lee's Blue Lantern Lounge.
McTell married Ruth Kate Williams, These recordings captured McTell's distinctive musical style which bridges the gap between the country blues of the early part of the 20th century and the more conventionally melodious, ragtime-influenced East Coast, Piedmont blues sound. The Lomaxes also elicited from him traditional songs (such as "The Boll Weevil" and "John Henry") and spirituals (such as "Amazing Grace"), which were not part of his usual repertoire. In the interview, John Lomax is heard asking if McTell knows any "complaining" songs (an earlier term for protest songs), to which he replies somewhat uncomfortably and evasively that he does not. The Library of Congress paid McTell $10, the equivalent of $154.56 in 2011, for this two-hour session. From 1957 to 1959, McTell was a preacher at Mt. Zion Baptist Church in Atlanta. McTell was inducted into the Blues Foundation's Blues Hall of Fame in 1981 and the Georgia Music Hall of Fame in 1990. It also shows up on Canned Heat's "Goin' Up the Country" album. A short list of some of the artists who have performed the song includes David Bromberg, Dave Van Ronk, The Devil Makes Three, Chris Smither and Ralph McTell, who changed his name because he liked the song. Ry Cooder covered McTell's "Married Man's a Fool" on his 1973 album, Paradise and Lunch. Jack White, of the White Stripes, considers McTell an influence; the White Stripes album De Stijl (2000) is dedicated to him and features a cover of his song "Southern Can Is Mine". The White Stripes also covered McTell's "Lord, Send Me an Angel", releasing it as a single in 2000. In 2013, Jack White's Third Man Records teamed up with Document Records to issue The Complete Recorded Works in Chronological Order of Charley Patton, Blind Willie McTell and the Mississippi Sheiks.
Bob Dylan paid tribute to McTell on at least four occasions. In his 1965 song "Highway 61 Revisited", the second verse begins, "Georgia Sam, he had a bloody nose", an allusion to one of McTell's many recording names (Note: there is no evidence that he used this name on any recordings). Dylan's song "Blind Willie McTell" was recorded in 1983 and released in 1991 on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3. Dylan also recorded covers of McTell's "Broke Down Engine" and "Delia" on his 1993 album, World Gone Wrong;."}} Dylan's song "Po' Boy", on the album Love and Theft (2001), contains the lyric "had to go to Florida dodging them Georgia laws", which comes from McTell's "Kill It Kid".
The Bath-based band Kill It Kid is named after the song of the same title.
A billiards bar and concert venue in Statesboro, Georgia, was named Blind Willie's in the 1990s. The venue is now closed but remains a fond memory for Georgia Southern University students at the time.
Another Blind Willie's bar in the Virginia-Highlands neighborhood of Atlanta named after McTell that features blues musicians and bands. The Blind Willie McTell Blues Festival is held annually in Thomson, Georgia.CitationsWorks cited*
General references
*Bastin, Bruce. Red River Blues: The Blues Tradition in the Southeast. Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1986, 1995. , .
*Charters, Samuel, ed. Sweet as the Showers of Rain. Oak Publications, 1977, pp, 120–131.
External links
* [https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/blind-willie-mctell-1898-1959/ New Georgia Encyclopedia – Blind Willie McTell article]
* [http://www.wirz.de/music/mctell.htm Illustrated Blind Willie McTell discography]
*
* [https://archive.org/details/Blind_Willie_Mctell-Statesboro "Statesboro Blues" MP3 file on the Internet Archive]
* [http://www.davidfulmer.com David Fulmer, producer "Blind Willie's Blues" Documentary film, 1996]
* [http://www.davidfulmer.com/DCBPraise.html "The Dying Crapshooter's Blues" Novel by David Fulmer featuring McTell as a character]
* [http://www.thegeneralist.co.uk/audio/michael.gray.2007.07.25.mp3 John May interviews biographer] Michael Gray
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100226194447/http://atlanta.creativeloafing.com/gyrobase/retracing_blind_willie_s_blues/Content?oid=1095308 Review of Hand Me My Travelin' Shoes: In Search of Blind Willie McTell by Michael Gray]
Category:1898 births
Category:1959 deaths
Category:African-American male singer-songwriters
Category:American male singer-songwriters
Category:American acoustic guitarists
Category:American blues guitarists
Category:American blues harmonica players
Category:American blues singer-songwriters
Category:American male guitarists
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Category:Blind musicians
Category:Blind singers
Category:Bluebird Records artists
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Category:Country blues musicians
Category:East Coast blues musicians
Category:People from Thomson, Georgia
Category:Piedmont blues musicians
Category:Ragtime composers
Category:Songster musicians
Category:20th-century American guitarists
Category:Guitarists from Georgia (U.S. state)
Category:Prestige Records artists
Category:Transatlantic Records artists
Category:Third Man Records artists
Category:African-American guitarists
Category:20th-century African-American male singers
Category:20th-century American male singers
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Category:Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)
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Category:American musicians with disabilities
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BDSM
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BDSM is a variety of often erotic practices or roleplaying involving bondage, discipline, dominance and submission, sadomasochism, and other related interpersonal dynamics. Given the wide range of practices, some of which may be engaged in by people who do not consider themselves to be practising BDSM, inclusion in the BDSM community or subculture often is said to depend on self-identification and shared experience.
The initialism BDSM is first recorded in a Usenet post from 1991, and is interpreted as a combination of the abbreviations B/D (Bondage and Discipline), D/s (Dominance and submission), and S/M (Sadism and Masochism). BDSM is now used as a catch-all phrase covering a wide range of activities, forms of interpersonal relationships, and distinct subcultures. BDSM communities generally welcome anyone with a non-normative streak who identifies with the community; this may include cross-dressers, body modification enthusiasts, animal roleplayers, rubber fetishists, and others.
Activities and relationships in BDSM are often characterized by the participants' taking on roles that are complementary and involve inequality of power; thus, the idea of informed consent of both the partners is essential. The terms submissive and dominant are often used to distinguish these roles: the dominant partner ("dom") takes psychological control over the submissive ("sub"). The terms top and bottom are also used; the top is the instigator of an action while the bottom is the receiver of the action. The two sets of terms are subtly different: for example, someone may choose to act as bottom to another person, for example, by being whipped, purely recreationally, without any implication of being psychologically dominated, and submissives may be ordered to massage their dominant partners. Although the bottom carries out the action and the top receives it, they have not necessarily switched roles.
The abbreviations sub and dom are frequently used instead of submissive and dominant. Sometimes the female-specific terms mistress, domme, and dominatrix are used to describe a dominant woman, instead of the sometimes gender-neutral term dom. Individuals who change between top/dominant and bottom/submissive roles—whether from relationship to relationship or within a given relationship—are called switches. The precise definition of roles and self-identification is a common subject of debate among BDSM participants.
Fundamentals
BDSM is an umbrella term for certain kinds of erotic behaviour between consenting adults, encompassing various subcultures. Terms for roles vary widely among the subcultures. Top and dominant are widely used for those partner(s) in the relationship or activity who are, respectively, the physically active or controlling participants. Bottom and submissive are widely used for those partner(s) in the relationship or activity who are, respectively, the physically receptive or controlled participants. The interaction between tops and bottoms—where physical or mental control of the bottom is surrendered to the top—is sometimes known as "power exchange", whether in the context of an encounter or a relationship.
BDSM actions can often take place during a specific period of time agreed to by both parties, referred to as "play", a "scene", or a "session". Participants usually derive pleasure from this, even though many of the practices—such as inflicting pain or humiliation or being restrained—would be unpleasant under other circumstances. Explicit sexual activity, such as sexual penetration, may occur within a session, but is not essential. For legal reasons, such explicit sexual interaction is seen only rarely in public play spaces and is sometimes banned by the rules of a party or playspace. Whether it is a public "playspace"—ranging from a party at an established community dungeon to a hosted play "zone" at a nightclub or social event—the parameters of allowance can vary. Some have a policy of panties/nipple sticker for women (underwear for men) and some allow full nudity with explicit sexual acts. Mutual consent makes a clear legal and ethical distinction between BDSM and such crimes as sexual assault and domestic violence.
as seen in this New York street fair is a common practice in BDSM.]]
Some BDSM practitioners prefer a code of behaviour that differs from SSC. Described as "risk-aware consensual kink" (RACK), this code shows a preference for a style in which the individual responsibility of the involved parties is emphasized more strongly, with each participant being responsible for their own well-being. Advocates of RACK argue that SSC can hamper discussion of risk because no activity is truly "safe", and that discussion of even low-risk possibilities is necessary for truly informed consent. They further argue that setting a discrete line between "safe" and "not-safe" activities ideologically denies consenting adults the right to evaluate risks versus rewards for themselves; that some adults will be drawn to certain activities regardless of the risk; and that BDSM play—particularly higher-risk play or edgeplay—should be treated with the same regard as extreme sports, with both respect and the demand that practitioners educate themselves and practice the higher-risk activities to decrease risk. RACK may be seen as focusing primarily upon awareness and informed consent, rather than accepted safe practices.
Consent is the most important criterion. The consent and compliance for a sadomasochistic situation can be granted only by people who can judge the potential results. For their consent, they must have relevant information (the extent to which the scene will go, potential risks, if a safeword will be used, what that is, and so on) at hand and the necessary mental capacity to judge. The resulting consent and understanding is occasionally summarized in a written "contract", which is an agreement of what can and cannot take place.
BDSM play is usually structured such that it is possible for the consenting partner to withdraw their consent at any point during a scene; for example, by using a safeword that was agreed on in advance. Use of the agreed safeword (or occasionally a "safe symbol" such as dropping a ball or ringing a bell, especially when speech is restricted) is seen by some as an explicit withdrawal of consent. Failure to honor a safeword is considered serious misconduct and could constitute a crime, depending on the relevant law,]]
The initialism BDSM appeared for the first time in 1983 in the scientific paper "S and M: Studies in Dominance and Submission" by Thomas Weinberg. It was later popularized in a list of frequent questions for the site alt.sex.bondageFAQ and reposted between 1995 and 1997 in the forum soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm. It stands for:
* Bondage and discipline (B&D)
* Dominance and submission (D&s)
* Sadomasochism (or S&M)
These terms replaced sadomasochism, as they more broadly cover BDSM activities and focus on the submissive roles instead of psychological pain. While bondage is a very popular variation within the larger field of BDSM, it is nevertheless sometimes differentiated from the rest of this field. A 2015 study of over 1,000 Canadians showed that about half of all men held fantasies of bondage, and almost half of all women did as well. In a strict sense, bondage means binding the partner by tying their appendages together; for example, by the use of handcuffs or ropes, or by lashing their arms to an object. Bondage can also be achieved by spreading the appendages and fastening them with chains or ropes to a St. Andrew's cross or spreader bars.
The term discipline describes the use of rules and punishment to control overt behaviour. Punishment can be pain caused physically (such as caning), humiliation caused psychologically (such as a public flagellation) or loss of freedom caused physically (for example, chaining the submissive partner to the foot of a bed). Another aspect is the structured training of the bottom.
Dominance and submission (also known as D&s, Ds or D/s) is a set of behaviours, customs and rituals relating to the giving and accepting of control of one individual over another in an erotic or lifestyle context. It explores the more mental aspect of BDSM. This is also the case in many relationships not considering themselves as sadomasochistic; it is considered to be a part of BDSM if it is practiced purposefully. The range of its individual characteristics is thereby wide.
with rope and a spreader bar. This practice has a distinct effect of immobilization and pain.]]
Often, BDSM contracts are set out in writing to record the formal consent of the parties to the power exchange, stating their common vision of the relationship dynamic.
In D/s, the dominant is the top and the submissive is the bottom. In S/M, the sadist is usually the top and the masochist the bottom, but these roles are frequently more complicated or jumbled (as in the case of being dominant, masochists who may arrange for their submissive to carry out S/M activities on them). As in B/D, the declaration of the top/bottom may be required, though sadomasochists may also play without any power exchange at all, with both partners equally in control of the play. Etymology The term sadomasochism is derived from the words sadism and masochism. These terms differ somewhat from the same terms used in psychology since those require that the sadism or masochism cause significant distress or involve non-consenting partners. Sadomasochism refers to the aspects of BDSM surrounding the exchange of physical or emotional pain. Sadism describes sexual pleasure derived by inflicting pain, degradation, humiliation on another person or causing another person to suffer. On the other hand, the masochist enjoys being hurt, humiliated, or suffering within the consensual scenario. BDSM is solely based on consensual activities, and based on its system and laws. The concepts presented by de Sade are not in accordance with the BDSM culture, even though they are sadistic in nature. In 1843, the Ruthenian physician Heinrich Kaan published (Psychopathy of Sex), a writing in which he converts the sin conceptions of Christianity into medical diagnoses. With his work, the originally theological terms perversion, aberration and deviation became part of the scientific terminology for the first time. The German psychiatrist Richard von Krafft-Ebing introduced the terms sadism and masochism to the medical community in his work (New research in the area of Psychopathy of Sex) in 1890.
In 1905, Sigmund Freud described sadism and masochism in his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality as diseases developing from an incorrect development of the child psyche and laid the groundwork for the scientific perspective on the subject in the following decades. This led to the first time use of the compound term sado-masochism (German ) by the Viennese psychoanalytic Isidor Isaak Sadger in their work, "" ("Regarding the sadomasochistic complex") in 1913.
In the later 20th century, BDSM activists have protested against these conceptual models, as they were derived from the philosophies of two singular historical figures. Both Freud and Krafft-Ebing were psychiatrists; their observations on sadism and masochism were dependent on psychiatric patients, and their models were built on the assumption of psychopathology. BDSM activists argue that it is illogical to attribute human behavioural phenomena as complex as sadism and masochism to the "inventions" of two historic individuals. Advocates of BDSM have sought to distinguish themselves from widely held notions of antiquated psychiatric theory by the adoption of the term BDSM as a distinction from the now common usage of those psychological terms, abbreviated as S&M. Behavioural and physiological aspects
and female submission.]]
BDSM is commonly mistaken as being "all about pain". Freud was confounded by the complexity and counterintuitiveness of practitioners' doing things that are self-destructive and painful. Rather than pain, BDSM practitioners are primarily concerned with power, humiliation, and pleasure. In psychology, this aspect becomes a deviant behaviour once the act of inflicting or experiencing pain becomes a substitute for or the main source of sexual pleasure. In its most extreme, the preoccupation on this kind of pleasure can lead participants to view humans as insensate means of sexual gratification.
Dominance and submission of power are an entirely different experience, and are not always psychologically associated with physical pain. Many BDSM activities involve no pain or humiliation, but just the exchange of power and control. The corresponding trance-like mental state is also called subspace, for the submissive, and domspace, for the dominant. Some use body stress to describe this physiological sensation. The experience of algolagnia is important, but is not the only motivation for many BDSM practitioners. The philosopher Edmund Burke called the sensation of pleasure derived from pain "sublime". Couples engaging in consensual BDSM tend to show hormonal changes that indicate decreases in stress and increases in emotional bonding.
There is an array of BDSM practitioners who take part in sessions in which they do not receive any personal gratification. They enter such situations solely with the intention to allow their partners to indulge their own needs or fetishes. Professional dominants do this in exchange for money, but non-professionals do it for the sake of their partners.
In some BDSM sessions, the top exposes the bottom to a range of sensual experiences, such as pinching; biting; scratching with fingernails; erotic spanking; erotic electrostimulation; and the use of crops, whips, liquid wax, ice cubes, and Wartenberg wheels. Fixation by handcuffs, ropes, or chains may occur. The repertoire of possible "toys" is limited only by the imagination of both partners. To some extent, everyday items, such as clothespins, wooden spoons, and plastic wrap, are used in sex play. It is commonly considered that a pleasurable BDSM experience during a session depends strongly on the top's competence and experience and the bottom's physical and mental state. Trust and sexual arousal help the partners enter a shared mindset.
Types of play
: A submissive woman publicly caged at the Folsom Street Fair in U.S., with cane markings on her body.]]
Following are some of the types of BDSM play:
* Animal roleplay
* Bondage (BDSM)
* Breast torture
* Cock and ball torture
* Diaper play
* Edgeplay
* Erotic electrostimulation
* Erotic sexual denial
* Spanking
* Flogging
* Human furniture
* Japanese bondage
* Medical play
* Omorashi and bathroom use control
* Paraphilic infantilism
* Play piercing
* Predicament bondage
* Pussy torture
* Salirophilia
* Sexual roleplay
* Suspension
* Tickle torture
* Urolagnia
* Wax play
Safety
at BoundCon, Germany, 2013. Since the submissive is vulnerable to a potential fall, it is important that great care is taken.]]
Besides safe sex, BDSM sessions often require a wider array of safety precautions than vanilla sex (sexual behaviour without BDSM elements). This kind of discussion is a typical "unique selling proposition" of BDSM sessions and quite commonplace. Additionally, safewords are often arranged to provide for an immediate stop of any activity if any participant should so desire.
Safewords are words or phrases that are called out when things are either not going as planned or have crossed a threshold one cannot handle. They are something both parties can remember and recognize and are, by definition, not words commonly used playfully during any kind of scene. Words such as no, stop, and don't, are often inappropriate as a safeword if the roleplaying aspect includes the illusion of non-consent.
The traffic light system (TLS) is the most commonly used set of safewords.
* Red – meaning: stop immediately and check the status of your partner
* Yellow – meaning: slow down, be careful
* Green – meaning: I'm all good, we can start. If used it's normally uttered by everyone involved before the scene can start.
At most clubs and group-organized BDSM parties and events, dungeon monitors (DMs) provide an additional safety net for the people playing there, ensuring that house rules are followed and safewords respected.
BDSM participants are expected to understand practical safety aspects, such as the potential for harm to body parts. Contusion or scarring of the skin can be a concern. Using crops, whips, or floggers, the top's fine motor skills and anatomical knowledge can make the difference between a satisfying session for the bottom and a highly unpleasant experience that may even entail severe physical harm. The very broad range of BDSM "toys" and physical and psychological control techniques often requires a far-reaching knowledge of details related to the requirements of the individual session, such as anatomy, physics, and psychology. Despite these risks, BDSM activities usually result in far less severe injuries than sports like boxing and football, and BDSM practitioners do not visit emergency rooms any more often than the general population.
It is necessary to be able to identify each person's psychological "squicks" or triggers in advance to avoid them. Such losses of emotional balance due to sensory or emotional overload are a fairly commonly discussed issue. It is important to follow participants' reactions empathetically and continue or stop accordingly. For some players, sparking "freakouts" or deliberately using triggers may be the desired outcome. Safewords are one way for BDSM practices to protect both parties. However, partners should be aware of each other's psychological states and behaviours to prevent instances where the "freakouts" prevent the use of safewords.
After any BDSM activities, it is important that the participants go through sexual aftercare, to process and calm down from the activity. After the sessions, participants can need aftercare because their bodies have experienced trauma and they need to mentally come out of the role play. Social aspects Types of relationships
;Long term
A 2003 study, the first to look at these relationships, fully demonstrated that "quality long-term functioning relationships" exist among practitioners of BDSM, with either sex being the top or bottom (the study was based on 17 heterosexual couples). Respondents in the study expressed their BDSM orientation to be built into who they are, but considered exploring their BDSM interests an ongoing task, and showed flexibility and adaptability in order to match their interests with their partners. The "perfect match" where both in the relationship shared the same tastes and desires was rare, and most relationships required both partners to take up or put away some of their desires. The most reported issue amongst respondents was not finding enough time to be in role with most adopting a lifestyle wherein both partners maintain their dominant or submissive role throughout the day.
Amongst the respondents, it was typically the bottoms who wanted to play harder, and be more restricted into their roles when there was a difference in desire to play in the relationship. The author of the study, Bert Cutler, speculated that tops may be less often in the mood to play due to the increased demand for responsibility on their part: being aware of the safety of the situation and prepared to remove the bottom from a dangerous scenario, being conscious of the desires and limits of the bottom, and so on. There was a lot of discussion by the respondents on the amount of control the top possessed in the relationships but "no discussion of being better, or smarter, or of more value" than the bottom. Couples were generally of the same mind of whether or not they were in an ongoing relationship, but in such cases, the bottom was not locked up constantly, but that their role in the context of the relationship was always present, even when the top was doing non-dominant activities such as household chores, or the bottom being in a more dominant position.}}
The study further goes on to list three aspects that made the successful relationships work: early disclosure of interests and continued transparency, a commitment to personal growth, and the use of the dominant/submissive roles as a tool to maintain the relationship. In closing remarks, the author of the study theorizes that due to the serious potential for harm, couples in BDSM relationships develop increased communication that may be higher than in mainstream relationships.
;Professional services
A professional dominatrix or professional dominant, often referred to within the culture as a pro-dom(me), offers services encompassing the range of bondage, discipline, and dominance in exchange for money. The term dominatrix is little-used within the non-professional BDSM scene. A non-professional dominant woman is more commonly referred to simply as a domme, dominant, or femdom (short for female dominance). Professional submissives ("pro-subs"), although far more rare, do exist.
Scenes
In BDSM, a "scene" is the stage or setting where BDSM activity takes place, as well as the activity itself. The physical place where a BDSM activity takes place is usually called a dungeon, though some prefer less dramatic terms, including playspace or club. A BDSM activity can, but need not, involve sexual activity or sexual roleplay. A characteristic of many BDSM relationships is the power exchange from the bottom to the dominant partner, and bondage features prominently in BDSM scenes and sexual roleplay.
"The Scene" (including use of the definite article the) is also used in the BDSM community to refer to the BDSM community as a whole. Thus someone who is on "the Scene", and prepared to play in public, might take part in "a scene" at a public play party.
A scene can take place in private between two or more people and can involve a domestic arrangement, such as servitude or a casual or committed lifestyle master/slave relationship. BDSM elements may involve settings of slave training or punishment for breaches of instructions.
A scene can also take place in a club, where the play can be viewed by others. When a scene takes place in a public setting, it may be because the participants enjoy being watched by others, or because of the equipment available, or because having third parties present adds safety for play partners who have only recently met. Etiquette Most standard social etiquette rules still apply when at a BDSM event, such as not intimately touching someone you do not know, not touching someone else's belongings (including toys), and abiding by dress codes. Many events open to the public also have rules addressing alcohol consumption, recreational drugs, cell phones, and photography.
A specific scene takes place within the general conventions and etiquette of BDSM, such as requirements for mutual consent and agreement as to the limits of any BDSM activity. This agreement can be incorporated into a formal contract. In addition, most clubs have additional rules which regulate how onlookers may interact with the actual participants in a scene. As is common in BDSM, these are founded on the catchphrase "safe, sane, and consensual". Parties and clubs BDSM play parties are events in which BDSM practitioners and other similarly interested people meet in order to communicate, share experiences and knowledge, and to "play" in an erotic atmosphere. BDSM parties show similarities to ones in the dark culture, being based on a more or less strictly enforced dress code; often clothing made of latex, leather or vinyl/PVC, lycra and so on, emphasizing the body's shape and the primary and secondary sexual characteristics. The requirement for such dress codes differ. While some events have none, others have a policy in order to create a more coherent atmosphere and to prevent outsiders from taking part.
At these parties, BDSM can be publicly performed on a stage, or more privately in separate "dungeons". A reason for the relatively fast spread of this kind of event is the opportunity to use a wide range of "playing equipment", which in most apartments or houses is unavailable. Slings, St. Andrew's crosses (or similar restraining constructs), spanking benches, and punishing supports or cages are often made available. The problem of noise disturbance is also lessened at these events, while in the home setting many BDSM activities can be limited by this factor. In addition, such parties offer both exhibitionists and voyeurs a forum to indulge their inclinations without social criticism. Sexual intercourse is not permitted within most public BDSM play spaces or not often seen in others, because it is not the emphasis of this kind of play. In order to ensure the maximum safety and comfort for the participants, certain standards of behaviour have evolved; these include aspects of courtesy, privacy, respect and safewords. It has its roots in the gay leather movement. The weekend-long festivities include a wide range of sadomasochistic erotica in a public clothing optional space between 8th and 13th streets with nightly parties associated with the organization.
There are also conventions such as Living in Leather and Black Rose.
Psychology
Research indicates that there is no evidence that a preference for BDSM is a consequence of childhood abuse. Some reports suggest that people abused as children may have more BDSM injuries and have difficulty with safe words being recognized as meaning stop the previously consensual behaviour; thus, it is possible that people choosing BDSM as part of their lifestyle, who also were previously abused, may have had more police or hospital reports of injuries. In one study of three online surveys, many transgender adults remarked that BDSM influenced their individual experience of gender.
Joseph Merlino, author and psychiatry adviser to the New York Daily News, said in an interview that a sadomasochistic relationship, as long as it is consensual, is not a psychological problem:
Some psychologists agree that experiences during early sexual development can have a profound effect on the character of sexuality later in life. Sadomasochistic desires, however, seem to form at a variety of ages. Some individuals report having had them before puberty, while others do not discover them until well into adulthood. According to one study, the majority of male sadomasochists (53%) developed their interest before the age of 15, while the majority of females (78%) developed their interest afterward (Breslow, Evans, and Langley 1985). The prevalence of sadomasochism within the general population is unknown. Despite female sadists being less visible than males, some surveys have resulted in comparable amounts of sadistic fantasies between females and males. The results of such studies demonstrate that one's sex does not determine preference for sadism.
Following a phenomenological study of nine individuals involved in sexual masochistic sessions who regarded pain as central to their experience, sexual masochism was described as an addiction-like tendency, with several features resembling that of drug addiction: craving, intoxication, tolerance and withdrawal. It was also demonstrated how the first masochistic experience is placed on a pedestal, with subsequent use aiming at retrieving this lost sensation, much as described in the descriptive literature on addiction.
Prevalence
of a bound man by a dominatrix at the Exxxotica adult event at the Jersey Shore, New Jersey, U.S.]]
—full transcript.</ref>]]
BDSM occurs among people of all genders and sexual orientations, and in varied occurrences and intensities. The spectrum ranges from couples with no connections to the subculture outside of their bedrooms or homes, without any awareness of the concept of BDSM, playing "tie-me-up-games", to public scenes on St. Andrew's crosses at large events such as the Folsom Street Fair in San Francisco. Estimation on the overall percentage of BDSM-related sexual behaviour varies.
Alfred Kinsey stated in his 1953 nonfiction book Sexual Behavior in the Human Female that 12% of females and 22% of males reported having an erotic response to a sadomasochistic story. In that book erotic responses to being bitten were given as:
A representative study done from 2001 to 2002 in Australia found that 1.8% of sexually active people (2.2% men, 1.3% women but no significant sex difference) had engaged in BDSM activity in the previous year. Of the entire sample, 1.8% of men and 1.3% of women had been involved in BDSM. BDSM activity was significantly more likely among bisexuals and homosexuals of both sexes. But among men in general, there was no relationship effect of age, education, language spoken at home or relationship status. Among women, in this study, activity was most common for those between 16 and 19 years of age and least likely for females over 50 years. Activity was also significantly more likely for women who had a regular partner they did not live with, but was not significantly related with speaking a language other than English or education. A 1976 study in the general US population suggests three per cent have had positive experiences with Bondage or master-slave roleplaying. Overall 12% of the interviewed females and 18% of the males were willing to try it. A 1990 Kinsey Institute report stated that 5% to 10% of Americans occasionally engage in sexual activities related to BDSM, 11% of men and 17% of women reported trying bondage. Some elements of BDSM have been popularized through increased media coverage since the middle 1990s. Thus both black leather clothing, sexual jewelry such as chains and dominance roleplay appear increasingly outside of BDSM contexts.
According to yet another survey of 317,000 people in 41 countries, about 20% of the surveyed have at least used masks, blindfolds or other bondage utilities once, and 5% explicitly connected themselves with BDSM. In 2004, 19% mentioned spanking as one of their practices and 22% confirmed the use of blindfolds or handcuffs.
;Recent surveys
A 2009 study on two separate samples of male undergraduate students in Canada found that 62 to 65%, depending on the sample, had entertained sadistic fantasies, and 22 to 39% engaged in sadistic behaviours during sex. The figures were 62 and 52% for bondage fantasies, and 14 to 23% for bondage behaviours. A 2014 study involving a mixed sample of Canadian college students and online volunteers, both male and female, reported that 19% of male samples and 10% of female samples rated the sadistic scenarios described in a questionnaire as being at least "slightly arousing" on a scale that ranged from "very repulsive" to "very arousing"; the difference was statistically significant. 24.8% self-reported any such fantasy and/or behavior. A 2017 cross-sectional representative survey among the general Belgian population demonstrated a substantial prevalence of BDSM fantasies and activities; 12.5% of the population performed one of more BDSM-practices on a regular basis.
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1"; style="text-align:center; width:80%"
|-
!Lifetime BDSM behaviors among North American medical students
!Straight men
!Gay men
!Bisexual men
!Straight women
!Gay women
!Bisexual women
|-
|Has been restrained for pleasure
|12%
|20%
|13%
|19%
|38%
|55%
|-
|Has restrained someone else for pleasure
|17.5%
|17%
|13%
|13%
|36%
|51%
|-
|Has received pain for pleasure
|4%
|6.5%
|18%
|8%
|10%
|36%
|-
|Has inflicted pain for pleasure
|5%
|6%
|9%
|4%
|6.5%
|26%
|}
Recent surveys on the spread of BDSM fantasies and practices show strong variations in the range of their results. Researchers believe that 5 to 25 per cent of the population practices sexual behaviour related to pain or dominance and submission. The population with related fantasies is believed to be even larger. DSM In the past, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), the American Psychiatric Association's manual, defined some BDSM activities as sexual disorders. Following campaigns from advocacy organizations including the National Coalition for Sexual Freedom,
ICD
The World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD) has changed in regard to BDSM in recent years.
In Europe, an organization called :de:ReviseF65 worked to remove sadomasochism from the ICD.
On 18 June 2018, the WHO (World Health Organization) published ICD-11, in which sadomasochism, together with fetishism and fetishistic transvestism (cross-dressing for sexual pleasure) are now removed as psychiatric diagnoses. Moreover, discrimination against fetish-having and BDSM individuals is considered inconsistent with human rights principles endorsed by the United Nations and The World Health Organization. Coming out
2005, Taipei]]
cart drawn by a pony-girl, an example of petplay at the Folsom Parade, 2012. She is wearing a bit gag and a neck collar, to which are attached a ring of O and a leash. Bells are hung from her pierced nipples. All these symbols indicate she is roleplaying a 'pet slave'.]]
shoot in the U.S., 2011]]
Some people who are interested in or curious about BDSM decide to come out of the closet, although many sadomasochists remain closeted. Depending upon a survey's participants, about 5 to 25 per cent of the US population show affinity to the subject. Other than a few artists and writers, practically no celebrities are publicly known as sadomasochists.
Public knowledge of one's BDSM lifestyle can have detrimental vocational and social effects for sadomasochists. Many face severe professional consequences or social rejection if they are exposed, either voluntarily or involuntarily, as sadomasochists.
Within feminist circles, the discussion is split roughly into two camps: some who see BDSM as an aspect or reflection of oppression (for example, Alice Schwarzer) and, on the other side, pro-BDSM feminists, often grouped under the banner of sex-positive feminism (see Samois); both of them can be traced back to the 1970s. Some feminists have criticized BDSM for eroticizing power and violence and reinforcing misogyny. They argue that women who engage in BDSM are making a choice that is ultimately bad for women. Feminist defenders of BDSM argue that consensual BDSM activities are enjoyed by many women and validate the sexual inclinations of these women. They argue that there is no connection between consensual kinky activities and sex crimes, and that feminists should not attack other women's sexual desires as being "anti-feminist". They also state that the main point of feminism is to give an individual woman free choices in her life; which includes her sexual desire. While some feminists suggest connections between consensual BDSM scenes and non-consensual rape and sexual assault, other sex-positive ones find the notion insulting to women.
Roles are not fixed to gender, but personal preferences. The dominant partner in a heterosexual relationship may be the woman rather than the man, or BDSM may be part of male/male or female/female sexual relationships. Finally, some people switch, taking either a dominant or submissive role on different occasions. Several studies investigating the possibility of a correlation between BDSM pornography and the violence against women also indicate a lack of correlation. In 1991, a lateral survey came to the conclusion that between 1964 and 1984, despite the increase in amount and availability of sadomasochistic pornography in the U.S., Germany, Denmark and Sweden, there is no correlation with the national number of rapes to be found.
Operation Spanner in the U.K. proves that BDSM practitioners still run the risk of being stigmatized as criminals. In 2003, the media coverage of Jack McGeorge showed that simply participating and working in BDSM support groups poses risks to one's job, even in countries where no law restricts it. Here a clear difference can be seen to the situation of homosexuality. The psychological strain appearing in some individual cases is normally neither articulated nor acknowledged in public. Nevertheless, it leads to a difficult psychological situation in which the person concerned can be exposed to high levels of emotional stress.
In the stages of "self-awareness", he or she realizes their desires related to BDSM scenarios or decides to be open for such. Some authors call this internal coming-out. Two separate surveys on this topic independently came to the conclusion that 58 per cent and 67 per cent of the sample respectively, had realized their disposition before their 19th birthday. Other surveys on this topic show comparable results. Independent of age, coming-out can potentially result in a difficult life crisis, sometimes leading to thoughts or acts of suicide. While homosexuals have created support networks in the last decades, sadomasochistic support networks are just starting to develop in most countries. In German-speaking countries they are only moderately more developed. The Internet is the prime contact point for support groups today, allowing for local and international networking. In the U.S., Kink Aware Professionals (KAP) a privately funded, non-profit service provides the community with referrals to psychotherapeutic, medical, and legal professionals who are knowledgeable about and sensitive to the BDSM, fetish, and leather community. In the U.S. and the U.K., the Woodhull Freedom Foundation & Federation, National Coalition for Sexual Freedom (NCSF) and Sexual Freedom Coalition (SFC) have emerged to represent the interests of sadomasochists. The German Bundesvereinigung Sadomasochismus is committed to the same aim of providing information and driving press relations. In 1996, the website and mailing list Datenschlag went online in German and English providing the largest bibliography, as well as one of the most extensive historical collections of sources related to BDSM. Social (non-medical) research Richters et al. (2008) found that people who engaged in BDSM were more likely to have experienced a wider range of sexual practices (e.g., oral or anal sex, more than one partner, group sex, phone sex, viewed pornography, used a sex toy, fisting, etc.). They were, however, not any more likely to have been coerced, unhappy, anxious, or experiencing sexual difficulties. On the contrary, men who had engaged in BDSM scored lower on a psychological distress scale than men who did not. In 1940 psychoanalyst Theodor Reik reached implicitly the same conclusion in his standard work Aus Leiden Freuden. Masochismus und Gesellschaft.
Moser's results are further supported by a 2008 Australian study by Richters et al. on the demographic and psychosocial features of BDSM participants. The study found that BDSM practitioners were no more likely to have experienced sexual assault than the control group, and were not more likely to feel unhappy or anxious. The BDSM males reported higher levels of psychological well-being than the controls. It was concluded that "BDSM is simply a sexual interest or subculture attractive to a minority, not a pathological symptom of past abuse or difficulty with 'normal' sex."
Gender differences in research
Several recent studies have been conducted on the gender differences and personality traits of BDSM practitioners. Wismeijer and van Assen (2013) found that "the association of BDSM role and gender was strong and significant" with only 8% of women in the study being dominant compared to 75% being submissive.; Hébert and Weaver (2014) found that 9% of women in their study were dominant compared to 88% submissive; Weierstall1 and Giebel (2017) likewise found a significant difference, with 19% of women in the study as dominant compared to 74% as submissive, and a study from Andrea Duarte Silva (2015) indicated that 61.7% of females who are active in BDSM expressed a preference for a submissive role, 25.7% consider themselves a switch, while 12.6% prefer the dominant role. In contrast, 46.6% of men prefer the submissive role, 24% consider themselves to be switches and 29.5% prefer the dominant role. They concluded that "men more often display an engagement in dominant practices, whereas females take on the submissive part. This result is inline with a recent study about mate preferences that has shown that women have a generally higher preference for a dominant partner than men do (Giebel, Moran, Schawohl, & Weierstall, 2015). Women also prefer dominant men, and even men who are aggressive, for a short-term relationship and for the purpose of sexual intercourse (Giebel, Weierstall, Schauer, & Elbert, 2013)". Similarly, studies on sexual fantasy differences between men and women show the latter prefer submissive and passive fantasies over dominant and active ones, with rape and force being common. Gender differences in masochistic scripts One common belief of BDSM and kink is that women are more likely to take on masochistic roles than men. Roy Baumeister (2010) had more male masochists in his study than female, and fewer male dominants than female. The lack of statistical significance in these gender differences suggests that no assumptions should be made regarding gender and masochistic roles in BDSM. One explanation why we might think otherwise lies in our social and cultural ideals about femininity; masochism may emphasize certain stereotypically feminine elements through activities like feminization of men and ultra-feminine clothing for women. But such tendencies of the submissive masochistic role should not be interpreted as a connection between it and the stereotypical female role—many masochistic scripts do not include any of these tendencies.
Baumeister found that masochistic males experienced greater: severity of pain, frequency of humiliation (status-loss, degrading, oral), partner infidelity, active participation by other persons, and cross-dressing. Trends also suggested that male masochism included more bondage and oral sex than female (though the data was not significant). Female masochists, on the other hand, experienced greater: frequency in pain, pain as punishment for 'misdeeds' in the relationship context, display humiliation, genital intercourse, and presence of non-participating audiences. The exclusiveness of dominant males in a heterosexual relationship happens because, historically, men in power preferred multiple partners. Finally, Baumeister observes a contrast between the 'intense sensation' focus of male masochism to a more 'meaning and emotion' centred female masochistic script.
Women in S/M culture
Levitt, Moser, and Jamison's 1994 study provides a general, if outdated, description of characteristics of women in the sadomasochistic (S/M) subculture. They state that women in S/M tend to have higher education, become more aware of their desires as young adults, are less likely to be married than the general population. The researchers found the majority of females identified as heterosexual and submissive, a substantial minority were versatile—able to switch between dominant and submissive roles—and a smaller minority identified with the dominant role exclusively. Oral sex, bondage and master-slave script were among the most popular activities, while feces/watersports were the least popular. Orientation observances in research BDSM is considered by some of its practitioners to be a sexual orientation. The BDSM and kink scene is more often seen as a diverse pansexual community. Often this is a non-judgmental community where gender, sexuality, orientation, preferences are accepted as is or worked at to become something a person can be happy with. In research, studies have focused on bisexuality and its parallels with BDSM, as well as gay-straight differences between practitioners. Asexuality It has been suggested that some asexual people have found a language for navigating relationships through BDSM.
Bisexuality
In Steve Lenius' original 2001 paper, he explored the acceptance of bisexuality in a supposedly pansexual BDSM community. The reasoning behind this is that 'coming-out' had become primarily the territory of the gay and lesbian, with bisexuals feeling the push to be one or the other (and being right only half the time either way). What he found in 2001, was that people in BDSM were open to discussion about the topic of bisexuality and pansexuality and all controversies they bring to the table, but personal biases and issues stood in the way of actively using such labels. A decade later, Lenius (2011) looks back on his study and considers if anything has changed. He concluded that the standing of bisexuals in the BDSM and kink community was unchanged, and believed that positive shifts in attitude were moderated by society's changing views towards different sexualities and orientations. But Lenius (2011) does emphasize that the pansexual promoting BDSM community helped advance greater acceptance of alternative sexualities.
Brandy Lin Simula (2012), on the other hand, argues that BDSM actively resists gender-conforming and identified three different types of BDSM bisexuality: gender-switching, gender-based styles (taking on a different gendered style depending on the gender of partner when playing), and rejection of gender (resisting the idea that gender matters in their play partners). Simula (2012) explains that practitioners of BDSM routinely challenge our concepts of sexuality by pushing the limits on pre-existing ideas of sexual orientation and gender norms. For some, BDSM and kink provides a platform in creating identities that are fluid, ever-changing.
Comparison between gay and straight men in S/M
Demographically, Nordling et al.'s (2006) study found no differences in age, but 43% of gay male respondents compared to 29% of straight males had university-level education. The gay men also had higher incomes than the general population and tended to work in white-collar jobs while straight men tended toward blue-collar ones. Because there were not enough female respondents (22), no conclusions could be drawn from them.
Sexually speaking, the same 2006 study by Nordling et al. found that gay males were aware of their S/M preferences and took part in them at an earlier age, preferring leather, anal sex, rimming, dildos and special equipment or uniform scenes. In contrast, straight men preferred verbal humiliation, mask and blindfolds, gags, rubber/latex outfits, caning, vaginal sex, straitjackets, and cross-dressing among other activities. From the questionnaire, researchers were able to identify four separate sexual themes: hyper-masculinity, giving and receiving pain, physical restriction (i.e. bondage), and psychological humiliation. Gay men preferred activities that tended towards hyper-masculinity while straight men showed greater preference for humiliation, significantly higher master/madame-slave role play at ≈84%. Though there were not enough female respondents to draw a similar conclusion with, the fact that there is a difference in gay and straight men suggests strongly that S/M (and BDSM in general) can not be considered a homogenous phenomenon. As Nordling et al. (2006) puts it, "People who identify as sadomasochists mean different things by these identifications." (54) History of psychotherapy and current recommendations Psychiatry has an insensitive history in the area of BDSM. There have been many involvements by institutions of political power to marginalize subgroups and sexual minorities. This negative assumption has not changed significantly which is evident in the continued inclusion of Sexual Sadism and Sexual Masochism as paraphilias in the DSM-IV-TR. The DSM-V, however, has depathologized the language around paraphilias in a way that signifies "the APA’s intent to not demand treatment for healthy consenting adult sexual expression". Still, biases and misinformation can result in pathologizing and unintentional harm to clients who identify as sadists and/or masochists and medical professionals who have been trained under older editions of the DSM can be slow to change in their ways of clinical practice.
According to Kolmes et al. (2006), major themes of biased and inadequate care to BDSM clients are:
* Considering BDSM to be unhealthy
* Requiring a client to give up BDSM activities in order to continue in treatment
* Confusing BDSM with abuse
* Having to educate the therapist about BDSM
* Assuming that BDSM interests are indicative of past family/spousal abuse
* Therapists misrepresenting their expertise by stating that they are BDSM-positive when they lack knowledge of BDSM practices
These same researchers suggested that therapists should be open to learning more about BDSM, to show comfort in talking about BDSM issues, and to understand and promote "safe, sane, consensual" BDSM.
Countertransference is a common problem in clinical settings. Despite having no evidence, therapists may find themselves believing that their client's pathology is "self-evident". Therapists may feel intense disgust and aversive reactions. Feelings of countertransference can interfere with therapy. Another common problem is when clients conceal their sexual preferences from their therapists. This can compromise any therapy. To avoid non-disclosure, therapists are encouraged to communicate their openness in indirect ways with literature and artworks in the waiting room. Therapists can also deliberately bring up BDSM topics during the course of therapy. With less informed therapists, sometimes they over-focus on clients' sexuality which detracts from original issues such as family relationships, depression, etc. A special subgroup that needs counselling is the "newbie". Individuals just coming out might have internalized shame, fear, and self-hatred about their sexual preferences. Therapists need to provide acceptance, care, and model positive attitude; providing reassurance, psychoeducation, and bibliotherapy for these clients is crucial. The average age when BDSM individuals realize their sexual preference is around 26 years.
During the 9th century BC, ritual flagellations were performed in Artemis Orthia, one of the most important religious areas of ancient Sparta, where the Cult of Orthia, a pre-Olympic religion, was practiced. Here, ritual flagellation called diamastigosis took place, in which young adolescent men were whipped in a ceremony overseen by the priestess. These are referred to by a number of ancient authors, including Pausanius (III, 16: 10–11).
One of the oldest graphical proofs of sadomasochistic activities is found in the Etruscan Tomb of the Whipping near Tarquinia, which dates to the 5th century BC. Inside the tomb, there is a fresco which portrays two men who flagellate a woman with a cane and a hand during an erotic situation. Another reference related to flagellation is to be found in the sixth book of the Satires'' of the ancient Roman Poet Juvenal (1st–2nd century A.D.), further reference can be found in Petronius's Satyricon where a delinquent is whipped for sexual arousal. Anecdotal narratives related to humans who have had themselves voluntary bound, flagellated or whipped as a substitute for sex or as part of foreplay reach back to the 3rd and 4th century BC.
In Pompeii, a whip-mistress figure with wings is depicted on the wall of the Villa of Mysteries, as part of an initiation of a young woman into the Mysteries. The whip-mistress role drove the sacred initiation of ceremonial death and rebirth. The archaic Greek Aphrodite may too once have been armed with an implement, with archaeological evidence of armed Aphrodites known from a number of locations in Cythera, Acrocorinth and Sparta, and which may have been a whip.
There are anecdotal reports of people willingly being bound or whipped, as a prelude to or substitute for sex, during the 14th century. The medieval phenomenon of courtly love in all of its slavish devotion and ambivalence has been suggested by some writers to be a precursor of BDSM. Some sources claim that BDSM as a distinct form of sexual behavior originated at the beginning of the 18th century when Western civilization began medically and legally categorizing sexual behavior (see Etymology).
Flagellation practiced within an erotic setting has been recorded from at least the 1590s evidenced by a John Davies epigram, and references to "flogging schools" in Thomas Shadwell's The Virtuoso (1676) and Tim Tell-Troth's Knavery of Astrology (1680). Visual evidence such as mezzotints and print media is also identified revealing scenes of flagellation, such as "The Cully Flaug'd" from the British Museum collection.
John Cleland's novel Fanny Hill, published in 1749, incorporates a flagellation scene between the character's protagonist Fanny Hill and Mr Barville. A large number of flagellation publications followed, including Fashionable Lectures: Composed and Delivered with Birch Discipline (), promoting the names of women offering the service in a lecture room with rods and cat o' nine tails.
of one of the feet of a dominatrix by a submissive man. Her other foot rests over the man's head, using it as a footstool (human furniture). This sketch is from a 1950 work named Bizarre Honeymoon.]]
Other sources give a broader definition, citing BDSM-like behavior in earlier times and other cultures, such as the medieval flagellates and the physical ordeal rituals of some Native American societies.
BDSM ideas and imagery have existed on the fringes of Western culture throughout the 20th century. Robert Bienvenu attributes the origins of modern BDSM to three sources, which he names as "European Fetish" (from 1928), "American Fetish" (from 1934), and "Gay Leather" (from 1950). Another source are the sexual games played in brothels, which go back to the 19th century, if not earlier. Charles Guyette was the first American to produce and distribute fetish related material (costumes, footwear, photography, props and accessories) in the U.S. His successor, Irving Klaw, produced commercial sexploitation film and photography with a BDSM theme (most notably with Bettie Page) and issued fetish comics (known then as "chapter serials") by the now-iconic artists John Willie, Gene Bilbrew, and Eric Stanton.
Stanton's model Bettie Page became at the same time one of the first successful models in the area of fetish photography and one of the most famous pin-up girls of American mainstream culture. Italian author and designer Guido Crepax was deeply influenced by him, coining the style and development of European adult comics in the second half of the 20th century. The artists Helmut Newton and Robert Mapplethorpe are the most prominent examples of the increasing use of BDSM-related motives in modern photography and the public discussions still resulting from this.
Alfred Binet first coined the term erotic fetishism in his 1887 book, ''Du fétichisme dans l'amour Richard von Krafft-Ebing saw BDSM interests as the end of a continuum. Leather movement
, 2014]]
Leather has been a predominantly gay male term to refer to one fetish, but it can stand for many more. Members of the gay male leather community may wear leathers such as motorcycle leathers, or may be attracted to men wearing leather. Leather and BDSM are seen as two parts of one whole. Much of the BDSM culture can be traced back to the gay male leather culture, which formalized itself out of the group of men who were soldiers returning home after World War II (1939–1945). World War II was the setting where countless homosexual men and women tasted the life among homosexual peers. Post-war, homosexual individuals congregated in larger cities such as New York, Chicago, San Francisco, and Los Angeles. They formed leather clubs and bike clubs; some were fraternal services. The establishment of Mr. Leather Contest and Mr. Drummer Contest were made around this time. This was the genesis of the gay male leather community. Many of the members were attracted to extreme forms of sexuality, for which peak expression was in the pre-AIDS 1970s. This subculture is epitomized by the Leatherman's Handbook by Larry Townsend, published in 1972, which describes in detail the practices and culture of gay male sadomasochists in the late 1960s and early 1970s.
In the early 1980s, lesbians also joined the leathermen as a recognizable element of the gay leather community. They also formed leather clubs, but there were some gender differences, such as the absence of leatherwomen's bars. In 1981, the publication of Coming to Power by lesbian-feminist group Samois led to a greater knowledge and acceptance of BDSM in the lesbian community. By the 1990s, the gay men's and women's leather communities were no longer underground and played an important role in the kink community. The LA&M has an extensive collection of leather- and BDSM-related artifacts, including one of three original leather pride flags.
The San Francisco South of Market Leather History Alley consists of four works of art along Ringold Alley honoring leather culture; it opened in 2017. One of the works of art is metal bootprints along the curb which honor 28 people (including Steve McEachern, owner of the Catacombs, a gay and lesbian S/M fisting club, and Cynthia Slater, a founder of the Society of Janus, the second oldest BDSM organization in the United States) who were an important part of the leather communities of San Francisco. This brought about an explosion of interest and knowledge of BDSM, particularly on the usenet group alt.sex.bondage. When that group became too cluttered with spam, the focus moved to [https://groups.google.com/groups?qsoc.subculture.bondage-bdsm&btnG=Google+Search soc.subculture.bondage-bdsm]. With an increased focus on forms of social media, FetLife was formed, which advertises itself as "a social network for the BDSM and fetish community". It operates similarly to other social media sites, with the ability to make friends with other users, events, and pages of shared interests.
In addition to traditional sex shops, which sell sex paraphernalia, there has also been an explosive growth of online adult toy companies that specialize in leather/latex gear and BDSM toys. Once a very niche market, there are now very few sex toy companies that do not offer some sort of BDSM or fetish gear in their catalog. Kinky elements seem to have worked their way into "vanilla" markets. The former niche expanded to an important pillar of the business with adult accessories. Today practically all suppliers of sex toys do offer items which originally found usage in the BDSM subculture. Padded handcuffs, latex and leather garments, as well as more exotic items like soft whips for fondling and TENS for erotic electro stimulation, can be found in catalogs aiming at classical vanilla target groups, indicating that former boundaries increasingly seem to shift.
During the last years, the Internet also provides a central platform for networking among individuals who are interested in the subject. Besides countless private and commercial choices, there is an increasing number of local networks and support groups emerging. These groups often offer comprehensive background and health-related information for people who have been unwillingly outed as well as contact lists with information on psychologists, physicians and lawyers who are familiar with BDSM-related topics. Legal status Austria , Canada
In 2004, a judge in Canada ruled that videos seized by the police featuring BDSM activities were not obscene and did not constitute violence, but a "normal and acceptable" sexual activity between two consenting adults.
In 2011, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in R. v. J.A. that a person must have an active mind during the specific sexual activity in order to legally consent. The Court ruled that it is a criminal offence to perform a sexual act on an unconscious person—whether or not that person consented in advance. Germany may occur in BDSM, but it is not essential part of BDSM.
Following cases in which sado-masochistic practices had been repeatedly used as pressure tactics against former partners in custody cases, the Appeals Court of Hamm ruled in February 2006 that sexual inclinations toward sado-masochism are no indication of a lack of capabilities for successful child-raising.
Italy
In Italian law, BDSM is right on the border between crime and legality, and everything lies in the interpretation of the legal code by the judge. This concept is that anyone willingly causing "injury" to another person is to be punished. In this context, though, "injury" is legally defined as "anything causing a condition of illness", and "illness" is ill-defined itself in two different legal ways. The first is "any anatomical or functional alteration of the organism" (thus technically including little scratches and bruises too); the second is "a significant worsening of a previous condition relevant to organic and relational processes, requiring any kind of therapy". This could make it somewhat risky to play with someone, as later the "victim" may call foul play citing even an insignificant mark as evidence against the partner. Also, any injury requiring over 20 days of medical care must be denounced by the professional medic who discovers it, leading to automatic indictment of the person who caused it.
Nordic countries
In September 2010, a Swedish court acquitted a 32-year-old man of assault for engaging in consensual BDSM play with a 16-year-old girl (the age of consent in Sweden is 15). Norway's legal system has likewise taken a similar position, that safe and consensual BDSM play should not be subject to criminal prosecution. This parallels the stance of the mental health professions in the Nordic countries which have removed sadomasochism from their respective lists of psychiatric illnesses. Switzerland The age of consent in Switzerland is 16 years, which also applies to BDSM play. Minors (i.e., those under 16) are not subject to punishment for BDSM play as long as the age difference between them is less than three years. Certain practices, however, require granting consent for light injuries, with only those over 18 permitted to give consent. On 1 April 2002, Articles 135 and 197 of the Swiss Criminal Code were tightened to make ownership of "objects or demonstrations [...] which depict sexual acts with violent content" a punishable offense. This law amounts to a general criminalization of sado-masochism since nearly every sado-masochist will have some kind of media that fulfills this criterion. Critics also object to the wording of the law which puts sado-masochists in the same category as pedophiles and pederasts. United Kingdom In British law, consent is an absolute defense to common assault, but not necessarily to actual bodily harm, where courts may decide that consent is not valid, as occurred in the case of R v Brown. Accordingly, consensual activities in the U.K. may not constitute "assault occasioning actual or grievous bodily harm" in law. The Spanner Trust states that this is defined as activities which have caused injury "of a lasting nature" but that only a slight duration or injury might be considered "lasting" in law. The decision contrasts with the later case of R v Wilson in which conviction for non-sexual consensual branding within a marriage was overturned, the appeal court ruling that R v Brown was not an authority in all cases of consensual injury and criticizing the decision to prosecute.
Following Operation Spanner, the European Court of Human Rights ruled in January 1999 in Laskey, Jaggard and Brown v. United Kingdom that no violation of Article 8 occurred because the amount of physical or psychological harm that the law allows between any two people, even consenting adults, is to be determined by the jurisdiction the individuals live in, as it is the State's responsibility to balance the concerns of public health and well-being with the amount of control a State should be allowed to exercise over its citizens. In the Criminal Justice and Immigration Bill 2007, the British Government cited the Spanner case as justification for criminalizing images of consensual acts, as part of its proposed criminalization of possession of "extreme pornography". Another contrasting case was that of Stephen Lock in 2013, who was cleared of actual bodily harm on the grounds that the woman consented. In this case, the act was deemed to be sexual. United States
in a BDSM dungeon in Lower Manhattan]]
The United States Federal law does not list a specific criminal determination for consensual BDSM acts. Many BDSM practitioners cite the legal decision of People v. Jovanovic, 95 N.Y.2d 846 (2000), or the "Cybersex Torture Case", which was the first U.S. appellate decision to hold (in effect) that one does not commit assault if the victim consents. However, many individual states do criminalize specific BDSM actions within their state borders. Some states specifically address the idea of "consent to BDSM acts" within their assault laws, such as the state of New Jersey, which defines "simple assault" to be "a disorderly persons offense unless committed in a fight or scuffle entered into by mutual consent, in which case it is a petty disorderly persons offense".
Oregon Ballot Measure 9 was a ballot measure in the U.S. state of Oregon in 1992, concerning sadism, masochism, gay rights, pedophilia, and public education, that drew widespread national attention. It would have added the following text to the Oregon Constitution:
It was defeated in the 3 November 1992 general election with 638,527 votes in favor, 828,290 votes against.
The National Coalition for Sexual Freedom collects reports about punishment for sexual activities engaged in by consenting adults, and about its use in child custody cases. Cultural aspects
Today, the BDSM culture exists in most Western countries. This offers BDSM practitioners the opportunity to discuss BDSM relevant topics and problems with like-minded people. This culture is often viewed as a subculture, mainly because BDSM is often still regarded as "unusual" by some of the public. Many people hide their leaning from society since they are afraid of the incomprehension and of social exclusion.
In contrast to frameworks seeking to explain sadomasochism through psychological, psychoanalytic, medical or forensic approaches, which seek to categorize behaviour and desires and find a root "cause", Romana Byrne suggests that such practices can be seen as examples of "aesthetic sexuality", in which a founding physiological or psychological impulse is irrelevant. Rather, sadism and masochism may be practiced through choice and deliberation, driven by certain aesthetic goals tied to style, pleasure, and identity. These practices, in certain circumstances and contexts, can be compared with the creation of art.
Symbols
One of the most commonly used symbols of the BDSM community is a derivation of a triskelion shape within a circle. Various forms of triskele have had many uses and many meanings in many cultures; its BDSM usage derives from the Ring of O in the classic book Story of O. The BDSM Emblem Project claims copyright over one particular specified form of the triskelion symbol; other variants of the triskelion are free from such copyright claims.
The triskelion as a BDSM symbol can easily be perceived as the three separate parts of the acronym BDSM; which are BD, DS, and SM (Bondage & Discipline, Dominance & Submission, Sadism & Masochism). They are three separate items, that are normally associated together.
, a symbol of the BDSM and leather subculture]]
The leather pride flag, shown to the right, is a symbol for the leather subculture and also widely used within BDSM. In continental Europe, the Ring of O is widespread among BDSM practitioners.
-type emblem]]
The BDSM rights flag, shown to the right, was designed by Tanos, a Master from the United Kingdom. It is partially loosely based on the design of the leather pride flag, and also includes a version of the BDSM Emblem (but not similar enough to fall within Steve Quagmyr's specific copyright claims for the Emblem). The BDSM rights flag is intended to represent the belief that people whose sexuality or relationship preferences include BDSM practices deserve the same human rights as everyone else, and should not be discriminated against for pursuing BDSM with consenting adults.
The flag is inspired by the leather pride flag and BDSM emblem but is specifically intended to represent the concept of BDSM rights and to be without the other symbols' restrictions against commercial use. It is designed to be recognizable by people familiar with either the leather pride flag or BDSM triskelion (or triskele) as "something to do with BDSM"; and to be distinctive whether reproduced in full colour, or in black and white (or another pair of colours).
BDSM and fetish items and styles have been spread widely in Western societies' everyday life by different factors, such as avant-garde fashion, heavy metal, goth subculture, and science fiction TV series, and are often not consciously connected with their BDSM roots by many people. While it was mainly confined to the punk and BDSM subcultures in the 1990s, it has since spread into wider parts of Western societies.
Film and music
* In music: The Romanian singer-songwriter :ro:NAVI featured BDSM and Shibari scenes in her music video "Picture Perfect" (2014). The video was banned in Romania for its explicit content. In 2010, Rihanna's song "S&M" and Christina Aguilera's single "Not Myself Tonight" appeared, both full of BDSM imagery.
* In movies: While BDSM activity appeared initially in subtle form, in the 1960s famous works of literature like Story of O and Venus in Furs were filmed explicitly. With the release of the 1986 film 9½ Weeks, the topic of BDSM was transferred to mainstream cinema. From the 1990s, cinematic representation of alternative sexualities, including BDSM, increased dramatically, as seen in documentary productions such as Graphic Sexual Horror (a 2009 film based on the website Insex), Kink (a 2013 film based on the website Kink.com), and movies such as Fifty Shades of Grey (2015) and its two sequels Fifty Shades Darker (2017) and Fifty Shades Freed (2018).
** However, mistakenly considered in mainstream society as having BDSM activities that are, rather, abusive are the movies Fifty Shades of Grey (2015) and its two sequels Fifty Shades Darker (2017) and Fifty Shades Freed (2018). "A lot of what happens in the main relationship of Fifty Shades of Grey is domestic abuse, both physical and emotional, and for people whose entire understanding of BDSM now comes from jiggle balls and rooms of pain this is a dangerous misconception to foster."
Theater
Although it would be possible to establish certain elements related to BDSM in classical theater, not until the emergence of contemporary theater would some plays have BDSM as the main theme. Exemplifying this are two works: one Austrian, one German, in which BDSM is not only incorporated but integral to the storyline of the play.
* Worauf sich Körper kaprizieren, Austria. Peter Kern directed and wrote the script for this comedy which is a present-day adaption of Jean Genet's 1950 film, . It is about a marriage in which the wife (film veteran Miriam Goldschmidt) submits her husband (Heinrich Herkie) and the butler (Günter Bubbnik) to her sadistic treatment until two new characters take their places.
* Ach, Hilde (Oh, Hilda), Germany. This play by Anna Schwemmer premiered in Berlin. A young Hilde becomes pregnant, and after being abandoned by her boyfriend she decides to become a professional dominatrix to earn money. The play carefully crafts a playful and frivolous picture of the field of professional dominatrices.
Literature
Although examples of literature catering to BDSM and fetishistic tastes were created in earlier periods, BDSM literature as it exists today cannot be found much earlier than World War II.
The word sadism originates from the works of Donatien Alphonse François, Marquis de Sade, and the word masochism originates from Leopold von Sacher-Masoch, the author of Venus in Furs. However, it is worth noting that the Marquis de Sade describes non-consensual abuse in his works, such as in Justine. Venus in Furs describes a consensual dom-sub relationship.
A central work in modern BDSM literature is undoubtedly Story of O (1954) by Anne Desclos under the pseudonym Pauline Réage.
Other notable works include 9½ Weeks (1978) by Elizabeth McNeill, some works of the writer Anne Rice (Exit to Eden, and her Claiming of Sleeping Beauty series of books), Jeanne de Berg (''L'Image (1956) dedicated to Pauline Réage), the Gor series by John Norman, and naturally all the works of Patrick Califia, Gloria Brame, the group Samois and many of the writer Georges Bataille (Histoire de l'oeil-Story of the Eye, Madame Edwarda, 1937), as well as those of Bob Flanagan (Slave Sonnets (1986), Fuck Journal (1987), A Taste of Honey (1990)). A common part of many of the poems of Pablo Neruda is a reflection on feelings and sensations arising from the relations of EPE or erotic exchange of power. The Fifty Shades'' trilogy is a series of very popular erotic romance novels by E. L. James which involves BDSM; however, the novels have been criticized for their inaccurate and harmful depiction of BDSM.
In the 21st century, a number of prestigious university presses, such as Duke University, Indiana University and University of Chicago, have published books on BDSM written by professors, thereby lending academic legitimacy to this once taboo topic.
Art
* In photography: Eric Kroll and Irving Klaw (with Bettie Page, the first well-known bondage model), and Japanese photographer Araki Nobuyoshi, whose works are exhibited in several major art museums, galleries and private collections, such as the Baroness Marion Lambert, the world's largest holder of contemporary photographic art. Also Robert Mapplethorpe, whose most controversial work is that of the underground BDSM scene in the late 1960s and early 1970s of New York. The homoeroticism of this work fuelled a national debate over the public funding of controversial artwork.
* Comic book drawings: Guido Crepax with ''Histoire d'O (1975), Justine (1979) and Venere in Pelliccia (1984); inspired by the work of Pauline Réage, the Marquis de Sade and Leopold von Sacher-Masoch. John Willie and The Adventures of Sweet Gwendoline (1984) which was the basis for the film The Perils of Gwendoline in the Land of the Yik-Yak. The Sunstone/Mercy (2011-ongoing) books by Stjepan Sejic have become very popular and are found in many conventional bookstores around the world.
* In graphic design: Eric Stanton and his work on dominance and female bondage, as well as Hajime Sorayama and Robert Bishop.
* In art deco sculpture: Bruno Zach produced perhaps his best known sculpture—called "The Riding Crop" ()—which features a scantily clad dominatrix wielding a riding crop.
See also
* Autosadism
* Dominance hierarchy
* Index of BDSM articles
* Glossary of BDSM
* List of BDSM equipment
* List of BDSM organizations
* List of bondage positions
* Leather subculture
* Outline of BDSM
* Vulnerability and care theory of love
References
Further reading
*
* Baldwin, Guy. Ties That Bind: SM/Leather/Fetish Erotic Style: Issues, Communication, and Advice, Daedalus Publishing, 1993. .
*
* Brame, Gloria G., Brame, William D., and Jacobs, Jon. Different Loving: An Exploration of the World of Sexual Dominance and Submission Villard Books, New York, 1993.
* Brame, Gloria. Come Hither: A Commonsense Guide to Kinky Sex, Fireside, 2000. .
* Califia, Pat. Sensuous Magic. New York, Masquerade Books, 1993.
*
*
* Dollie Llama. Diary of an S&M Romance., PEEP! Press (California), 2006,
* Henkin, Wiliiam A., Sybil Holiday. Consensual Sadomasochism: How to Talk About It and How to Do It Safely, Daedalus Publishing, 1996. .
* Janus, Samuel S., and Janus, Cynthia L. The Janus Report on Sexual Behavior, John Wiley & Sons, 1994.
* Masters, Peter. This Curious Human Phenomenon: An Exploration of Some Uncommonly Explored Aspects of BDSM. The Nazca Plains Corporation, 2008.
* Phillips, Anita. A Defence of Masochism, Faber and Faber, new edition 1999.
* Newmahr, Staci (2011). Playing on the Edge: Sadomasochism, Risk and Intimacy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. .
* Nomis, Anne O. (2013) The History & Arts of the Dominatrix. Mary Egan Publishing & Anna Nomis Ltd, U.K.
* Rinella, Jack. The Complete Slave: Creating and Living an Erotic Dominant/submissive Lifestyle, Daedalus Publishing, 2002. .
* Saez, Fernando y Viñuales, Olga, Armarios de Cuero, Ed. Bellaterra, 2007. .
* Townsend, Larry. Leatherman's Handbook, first edition 1972.
* Tupper, Peter. A Lover's Pinch: A Cultural History of Sadomasochism. United States: Rowman & Littlefield, 2018. .
* Wiseman, Jay. SM 101: A Realistic Introduction (1st ed., 1992); 2nd ed. Greenery Press, 2000. .
* Byrne, Romana (2013) [https://books.google.com/books/about/Aesthetic_Sexuality.html?iduccTAgAAQBAJ Aesthetic Sexuality: A Literary History of Sadomasochism] , New York: Bloomsbury.
* Dominari, Rajan (2019). Welcome to the Darkside: A BDSM Primer''. AKO Publishing Company. .
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085120/http://www.wellcome.ac.uk/en/pain/microsite/culture1.html "Pain and the erotic" by Lesley Hall] (archived 17 December 2008)
*
Category:Spoken articles
Category:Control (social and political)
Category:Sexual acts
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Bash (Unix shell)
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In computing, Bash (short for "Bourne Again SHell,") is an interactive command interpreter and command programming language developed for UNIX-like operating systems. Created in 1989 by Brian Fox for the GNU Project, it is supported by the Free Software Foundation and designed as a 100% free alternative for the Bourne shell (<code>sh</code>) and other proprietary Unix shells.
Since its inception, Bash has gained widespread adoption and is commonly used as the default login shell for numerous Linux distributions. It holds historical significance as one of the earliest programs ported to Linux by Linus Torvalds, alongside the GNU Compiler (GCC). It is available on nearly all modern operating systems, making it a versatile tool in various computing environments.
As a command-line interface (CLI), Bash operates within a terminal emulator, or text window, where users input commands to execute various tasks. It also supports the execution of commands from files, known as shell scripts, facilitating automation. In keeping with Unix shell conventions, Bash incorporates a rich set of features. The keywords, syntax, dynamically scoped variables, and other basic features of the language are all copied from the Bourne shell, (<code>sh</code>). Other features, e.g., history, are copied from the C shell, (<code>csh</code>), and the Korn Shell, (<code>ksh</code>). It is a POSIX-compliant shell with extensions.
History
While Bash was developed for UNIX and UNIX-like operating systems, such as GNU/Linux, it is also available on Android, macOS, Windows, and numerous other current and historical operating systems. "Although there have been attempts to create specialized shells, the Bourne shell derivatives continue to be the primary shells in use." Timeline
|2While at MIT developing for the Compatible Time-Sharing System operating system, Louis Pouzin wrote 'RUNCOM', "a sort of shell driving the execution of command scripts, with argument substitution." He "felt that commands should be usable as building blocks for writing more commands, just like subroutine libraries."
* "There was a facility that would execute a bunch of commands stored in a file; it was called <code>runcom</code> for "run commands", and the file began to be called "a runcom". <code>rc</code> in Unix is a fossil from that usage."
}}
|2=
Development began on MULTICS at MIT.
}}
|2=
<!-- Suggestion 2 / 8 -- 06 Jan 2025 -->
|eventMIT publishes "The SHELL, A Global Tool for Calling and Chaining Procedures in the System," by Louis Pouzin. The paper describes many features found in Bash.
}}
|2The MULTICS operating system was introduced as a collaboration between MIT, GE and Bell Labs. "It is also the first to have a command processor implemented as ordinary user code – an idea later used in the Unix shell."Multics Wikipage It was called exec_com or ec.
}}
|2"Ken Thompson (of Bell Labs) developed the first shell for UNIX called the 'V6 shell'." Its sole purpose was to serve as an interactive shell. It supported external commands called <code>glob</code>, for pattern matching, and <code>if</code>, for conditional expressions. "The shell introduced a compact syntax for redirection (<code><</code> <code>></code> and <code>>></code>) and piping (<code></code> or <code>^</code>) that has survived into modern shells. You can also find support for invoking sequential commands (with <code>;</code>) and asynchronous commands (with <code>&</code>)."
}}
|2Pipelines were introduced in Unix. The ASCII character set is still with us today as a core component of writing portable shell scripts.
* "The Bourne shell was introduced.... Created by Stephen Bourne at AT&T Bell Labs for V7 UNIX, [it] remains a useful shell today (in some cases, as the default root shell)." "Bourne introduced control flows, loops, and variables into scripts, providing a more functional language to interact with the operating system (both interactively and noninteractively). The shell also permitted you to use shell scripts as filters, providing integrated support for handling signals, but lacked the ability to define functions. Finally, it incorporated a number of features we use today, including command substitution (using back quotes) and HERE documents to embed preserved string literals within a script." It included Bash at some later point.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* C shell - Initial release. Created by Bill Joy while he was at Berkeley, and released with 2BSD. "A useful feature introduced by Bill Joy in the C shell was command history. This feature maintained a history of the previously executed commands and allowed the user to review and easily select previous commands to execute. For example, typing the command history would show the previously executed commands. The up and down arrow keys could be used to select a command, or the previous command could be executed using !!. It's also possible to refer to arguments of the prior command; for example, !* refers to all arguments of the prior command, where !$ refers to the last argument of the prior command."
}}
|2The documents which would become known as "POSIX" started out as a trial use standard by the IEEE. By some it is considered a de facto standard.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |event Brian Fox began coding Bash after Richard Stallman became dissatisfied with the lack of progress being made by a prior developer. Stallman and the FSF considered a free shell that could run existing shell scripts so strategic to a completely free system built from BSD and GNU code that this was one of the few projects they funded themselves. Fox undertook the work as an employee of FSF.}}
* "The first version of the IEEE Std 1003 was published in 1988 with the reference 'IEEE IX'," but these standards would not specify requirements for a "command interpreter," or "Shell and Utilities," until later. "At the suggestion of Richard Stallman, this was changed to POSIX for 'portable operating system interface'." The POSIX "interface enables application writers to write portable applications it was developed with that goal in mind."
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventKenneth Almquist's ash shell - Initial release.}}
* |eventFox released Bash as a beta, version 0.99. Eventually it supported "regular expressions (similar to Perl), and associative arrays."}}
* Microsoft/IBM DOS via the DJGPP project - Initial release.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* POSIX.2: Shell and Utilities (IEEE Std 1003.2-1992) was published.
* Brian Fox remained the primary maintainer until sometime between mid-1992 and mid-1994. His responsibility was then transitioned to another early contributor, Chet Ramey. Since then, Bash has become the most popular default interactive shell among the major GNU/Linux distributions, such as Fedora, Debian, and openSUSE, as well as among their derivatives and competitors.
}}
|2"The first eight entries in (POSIX) Portable Character Set are defined in the ISO/IEC 6429:1992 standard." They are null, alert, backspace, tab, carriage-return, newline, vertical-tab and form-feed.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventDebian - initial release. Bash is the default interactive and non-interactive shell.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |event Chet Ramey released bash 2.0. The license was GPL-2.0-or-later.}}
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventBash 2.01 is released.}}
* Almquist shell, ash, ported from NetBSD to Debian by Herbert Xu.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventBash 2.02 is released.}}
* MinGW (32-bit) - Initial release.
* A group of Standards Committees from the IEEE, the Open Group and the ISO/IEC began working on the Single UNIX Specification v 3; they together became known as the Austin Group. A Technical Standard for Shell and Utilities was created in The Open Group Base Specifications, Issue 6, which is itself a part of the Single UNIX Specification v 3. A focus of their work was to "collect into a single document" practices which had been proven to work in industry and academia while making "minimal changes to existing application code."}}
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventBash 2.05 released.}}
* A POSIX-2001 Standard is published which includes a "Commands and Utilities" section. The Austin Group and the Single Unix Specification is involved. It was available on OS X 10.2 Jaguar as well where the default shell was tcsh.
* A POSIX-2003 Shell and Utilities standard is published by the IEEE. "This is a component product standard for the mandatory shell and utilities related functionality;" a POSIX Certification Program exists.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventBash 3.0 is released.}}
* POSIX-2004 is published.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventBash 3.1 is released.}}
* Mingw-w64 Initial release.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventBash 3.2 released. The license was GPL-2.0-or-later.}}
* Ubuntu adopts dash as its default shell.
}}
| 2POSIX-2008 is released by the IEEE. "This standard defines a standard source level interface to the shell and utility functionality required by application programs, including shell scripts." Its license is GPL-3.0-or-later.
}}
* Novell Netware - final release
*
| event Haiku (operating system) - Initial release. "Haiku's interface to the shell, by default," is bash. As of September 13, 2024, Haiku remains in beta.
}}
}}
| 2 = <nowiki/>
*
| event Bash 4.1 is released.
}}
}}
| 2 = <nowiki/>
*
| event Debian Lenny is released with Bash as its default interactive shell, and dash as its default non-interactive shell.
}}
*
| event Bash 4.2 is released.
}}
}}
| 2 On Solaris 11, "the default user shell is the Bourne-again (bash) shell."
}}
| 2 POSIX-2013 is released by the IEEE.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |event Bash 4.3 is released.}}
* |eventShellshock (software bug). Patches to fix the bugs were made available soon after the bugs were identified.}}
}}
|2=
Termux and other terminal emulation applications provide availability of Bash on Android.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |event Windows 10 Insider Preview Build 14332 supports installation of Bash on Ubuntu in the newly released Windows Subsystem for Linux.}}
* POSIX-2016 is released by the IEEE.
* |eventBash 4.4 is released.}}
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* A new version of the POSIX Standard is released.
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventThe IEEE published the POSIX 2017 Standard.}}
* Apple packaged Bash as their default interactive shell through until macOS Mojave (c.2018). However, for explicit licensing reasons with Catalina (c.2019), Apple replaced its default shell, Bash version 3.2 (c.2006), with Z Shell version 5.7 (c.2019). "The bash binary bundled with macOS has been stuck on version 3.2 for a long time now. bash v4 was released in 2009 and bash v5 in January 2019. The reason Apple has not switched to these newer versions is that they are licensed with GPL v3. bash v3 is still GPL v2."
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |event Bash 5.0 is released.}}
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* With release 2020.4, Kali Linux switched to zsh as its default shell for desktop images, but its ARM, containers, NetHunter and WSL images still use Bash.
* |event Bash 5.1 is released.}}
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventBash 5.2 is released.}}
* "At this point, 2022, a significant number of POSIX compatible or influenced systems exist in servers, cloud computing centers, high performance computers, Apple systems (initially BSD variations), and many cell phone systems. The number of devices measuring into the billions."
}}
}}
|2=<nowiki/>
* |eventPOSIX-2024 is published by the IEEE.}}
}}
Features
List of Short Descriptions
<!-- Suggestion 3 / 8 -- 06 Jan 2025 -->
As a command processor, Bash operates within a text window where users input commands to execute various tasks. It also supports the execution of commands from files, known as shell scripts, facilitating automation. In keeping with Unix shell conventions, Bash incorporates a rich set of features, including:
* A [https://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/index.html User Manual] provided by the GNU Project, also available at <code>info bash</code>, and a technical manual available at <code>man bash</code>.
* Invocation as a...
** Interactive shell,
** Non-interactive shell, or
** Login shell;
* A command-line interface;
* Exit status codes;
* Control structures for
** Condition testing,
*** <code>if</code>, <code>case</code>, <code>select</code>,
*** logical AND (<code>&&</code>) and OR (<code>||</code>), and
** Iteration:
*** <code>for</code>, <code>while</code>, <code>until</code> loops, and
*** Arithmetic C-style loop: <code>for ((</code>;
* Syntaxes for Boolean testing of file attributes, string and integer values, etc.:
** Traditional <code>test</code> command,
** Traditional single bracket test: <code>[</code>,
** Modern double bracket test: <code> [[ ... ]]</code>, which includes advanced features:
*** Extended regular expression and extglob matching
*** Lexicographic sorting with <code><</code> and <code>></code>;
* UNIX-style pipelines: <code>|</code>;
* Subshells: <code>( ... )</code>;
* Signaling as a means of inter-process communication using the <code>trap</code> builtin;
* Asynchronous execution, i.e., Jobs and job control:
** <code>job_spec &</code> where <code>job_spec</code> can be one of:
*** A full commandline: <code><command_name> <options> <operands> <arguments> &</code>, or
*** A job control identifier as denoted by a leading percent symbol: <code>%1 &</code>;
* A shell portability mode where command lines can be interpreted in conformance with the POSIX standard;
* Command parsing:
** Comments are ignored:
*** Bourne-style <code>#</code> hashtag comments, and
*** Thompson-style <code>:</code> colon comments;
** Commands are parsed one line at a time:
*** Control structures are honored, and
*** Backslash <code>\</code> escapes are also honored at the ends of lines;
** Split into words (i.e., word splitting) according to quoting rules,
*** Including ANSI-C quoting <code>$'...'</code>;
** Seven kinds of expansions are performed in the following order on the resulting string:
*** (Step 1) Brace expansion <code>kernel{-headers}</code>,
*** (Step 2) Tilde expansion <code>~</code>,
*** (Step 3) In a left-to-right fashion:
**** Parameter and variable expansion <code>$foo</code> or <code>${bar}</code>, including
***** Dynamically scoped variables,
***** Indexed arrays of unlimited size,
***** Associative arrays via <code>declare -A</code>, and
***** Expansion syntaxes which can perform some tasks more quickly than external utilities, including, among others:
****** Pattern Substitution
******* <code>${foo//x/y}</code> for <code>sed 's/x/y/g'</code>,
****** Remove Matching Prefix or Suffix Pattern
******* <code>${bar##[a-zA-Z0-9]*}</code> for <code>cut -c8-</code>,
****** Print Array Keys
******* <code>${!array[@]}</code>, and
****** Display Error if Null or Unset
******* <code>${var:?error message}</code>,
**** Command substitution: <code>$( ... )</code>,
**** Process substitution, <code><()</code> or <code>>()</code>, when a system supports it:
**** Arithmetic expansion, <code>(( ... ))</code> or <code>$(( ... ))</code>, including
***** Integer arithmetic in any base from two to sixty-four, although
***** Floating-point arithmetic is not available from within the shell itself (for this functionality, see current versions of <code>bc</code> and <code>awk</code>, among others),
*** (Step 4) Word splitting (again),
*** (Step 5) Pathname expansion, i.e., shell-style globbing and pattern matching using <code>*</code>, <code>?</code>, <code>[...]</code>, and
**** (Although they can be used in conjunction, the use of brackets in pattern matching, <code>[...]</code>, and the use of brackets in the testing commands, <code>[</code> and <code> [[ ... ]]</code>, are each one different things.)
*** Quote removal;
** Redirections of Standard Input, Standard Output and Standard Error data streams are performed, including
*** File writing, <code>></code>, and appending, <code>>></code>,
*** Here documents, <code><<</code>,
*** Here strings, <code><<<</code>, which allow parameters to be used as input, and
*** A redirection operator, <code>>|</code>, which can force overwriting of a file when a shell's "noclobber" setting is enabled;
** Command name lookup is performed, in the following order:
*** Commands internal to the shell:
**** Shell aliases,
**** Shell reserved words,
**** Shell functions, and
**** Shell built-in commands;
*** Commands external to the shell:
**** Separate UNIX-style programs such as <code>ls</code> or <code>ln</code>, and
**** Shell scripts, which are files containing executable commands. (Shell scripts do not require compilation before execution and, when certain requirements are met, can be invoked as commands by using their filename.)
** The resulting string is executed as a command.
Bash also offers...
* Configurable execution environment(s):
** Shell and session startup files such as <code>~/.bashrc</code> and <code>~/.profile</code> (i.e., dotfiles);
** Settings (<code>set</code> built-in) and shell options (<code>shopt</code> built-in) which alter shell behavior;
* Support for Unicode;
* With interactive invocation only,
** Unlimited size command history,
** A directory stack (see <code>pushd</code> and <code>popd</code> built-ins),
** Tab completion,
** Configurable prompts, and
** Command line editing with GNU readline;
* Lightweight logging for debugging purposes (xtrace), and other lightweight debugging options (errexit, noexec, nounset, pipefail, etc.);
* Shell compatibility modes: bash 5.1 can operate as if it were bash 4.2, etc.;
* Various Built-In Commands:
** <code>cd</code>
** <code>pwd</code>
* Documentation:
** A built-in <code>help</code> command.
** A man page, and
** An info page which is the same as the GNU manual;
* Informal avenues of support via:
** IRC at libera.chat #bash
** Mailing lists at [https://www.gnu.org/software/bash/ Bash - GNU Project - Free Software Foundation]
General Discussion
The Bash command syntax is a superset of the Bourne shell command syntax. Bash supports brace expansion, command line completion (Programmable Completion), basic debugging and signal handling (using <code>trap</code>) since bash 2.05a among other features. Bash can execute the vast majority of Bourne shell scripts without modification, with the exception of Bourne shell scripts stumbling into fringe syntax behavior interpreted differently in Bash or attempting to run a system command matching a newer Bash builtin, etc. Bash command syntax includes ideas drawn from the Korn Shell (ksh) and the C shell (csh) such as command line editing, command history (<code>history</code> command), the directory stack, the <code>$RANDOM</code> and <code>$PPID</code> variables, and POSIX command substitution syntax <code>$(...)</code>.
When a user presses the tab key within an interactive command-shell, Bash automatically uses command line completion, since beta version 2.04, to match partly typed program names, filenames and variable names. The Bash command-line completion system is very flexible and customizable, and is often packaged with functions that complete arguments and filenames for specific programs and tasks.
Bash's syntax has many extensions lacking in the Bourne shell. Bash can perform integer calculations ("arithmetic evaluation") without spawning external processes. It uses the <code>((...))</code> command and the <code>$((...))</code> variable syntax for this purpose. Its syntax simplifies I/O redirection. For example, it can redirect standard output (stdout) and standard error (stderr) at the same time using the <code>&></code> operator. This is simpler to type than the Bourne shell equivalent '<code>command > file 2>&1</code>'. Bash supports process substitution using the <code><(command)</code> and <code>>(command)</code>syntax, which substitutes the output of (or input to) a command where a filename is normally used. (This is implemented through /proc/fd/ unnamed pipes on systems that support that, or via temporary named pipes where necessary).
When using the 'function' keyword, Bash function declarations are not compatible with Bourne/Korn/POSIX scripts (the KornShell has the same problem when using 'function'), but Bash accepts the same function declaration syntax as the Bourne and Korn shells, and is POSIX-conformant. Because of these and other differences, Bash shell scripts are rarely runnable under the Bourne or Korn shell interpreters unless deliberately written with that compatibility in mind, which is becoming less common as Linux becomes more widespread. But in POSIX mode, Bash conforms with POSIX more closely.
Bash supports here documents. Since version 2.05b Bash can redirect standard input (stdin) from a "here string" using the <code><<<</code> operator.
Bash 3.0 supports in-process regular expression matching using a syntax reminiscent of Perl.
In February 2009, Bash 4.0 introduced support for associative arrays. They can be used to emulate multidimensional arrays. Bash 4 also switches its license to GPL-3.0-or-later.
<!--
Exit Codes
-->
Control Structures
<!--
+++ <code>if</code>
+++ <code>case</code>
+++ <code>for</code>
+++ <code>for ((</code>
+++ <code>while</code> and <code>until</code>
+++ <code>&&</code> and <code>||</code>
-->
Bash supplies "conditional execution" command separators that make execution of a command contingent on the exit code set by a precedent command. For example:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
cd "$SOMEWHERE" && ./do_something || echo "An error occurred" >&2
</syntaxhighlight>
Where is only executed if the (change directory) command was "successful" (returned an exit status of zero) and the command would only be executed if either the or the command return an "error" (non-zero exit status).
For all commands the exit status is stored in the special variable <code>$?</code>. Bash also supports and forms of conditional command evaluation.
<!--
Boolean Testing
+++ <code>test</code> Built-In and Binary
+++ Single Bracket <code>[</code> Built-In and Binary
+++ Double Bracket <code> ... |</code>
--><!--
Signals
-->
Process Management (a.k.a., "Job control")
The Bash shell has two modes of execution for commands: batch (asynchronous), and concurrent (synchronous).
To execute commands in batch mode (i.e., in sequence) they must be separated by the character ";", or on separate lines:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
command1; command2
command3
</syntaxhighlight>
In this example, when command1 is finished, command2 is executed, and when command2 has completed, command3 will execute.
A [[Background process|background execution of command1 can occur using (symbol &) at the end of an execution command, and process will be executed in background while immediately returning control to the shell and allowing continued execution of commands.
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">command1 &</syntaxhighlight>
Or to have a concurrent execution of command1 and command2, they must be executed in the Bash shell in the following way:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
command1 & command2
</syntaxhighlight>
In this case command1 is executed in the background & symbol, returning immediately control to the shell that executes command2 in the foreground.
A process can be stopped and control returned to bash by typing while the process is running in the foreground.
A list of all processes, both in the background and stopped, can be achieved by running <code>jobs</code>:
<syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ jobs
[1]- Running command1 &
[2]+ Stopped command2
</syntaxhighlight>
In the output, the number in brackets refers to the job id. The plus sign signifies the default process for <code>bg</code> and <code>fg</code>. The text "Running" and "Stopped" refer to the process state. The last string is the command that started the process.
The state of a process can be changed using various commands. The <code>fg</code> command brings a process to the foreground, while <code>bg</code> sets a stopped process running in the background. <code>bg</code> and <code>fg</code> can take a job id as their first argument, to specify the process to act on. Without one, they use the default process, identified by a plus sign in the output of <code>jobs</code>. The <code>kill</code> command can be used to end a process prematurely, by sending it a signal. The job id must be specified after a percent sign:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
kill %1
</syntaxhighlight>
Portability with POSIX
Invoking Bash with the <code>--posix</code> option or stating <code>set -o posix</code> in a script causes Bash to conform very closely with the POSIX 1003.2 standard. Bash shell scripts intended for portability should take into account at least the POSIX shell standard. Some bash features not found in POSIX are:
* Certain extended invocation options
* Brace expansion
* Arrays and associative arrays
* The double bracket extended test construct and its regex matching
* The double-parentheses arithmetic-evaluation construct (only ; is POSIX)
* Certain string-manipulation operations in parameter expansion
* for scoped variables
* Process substitution
* Bash-specific builtins
* Coprocesses
* $EPOCHSECONDS and $EPOCHREALTIME variables
If a piece of code uses such a feature, it is called a "bashism" – a problem for portable use. Debian's and Vidar Holen's can be used to make sure that a script does not contain these parts. The list varies depending on the actual target shell: Debian's policy allows some extensions in their scripts (as they are in the dash shell),
<!--
Comments
Word Splitting & Quoting
+++ Backslash <code>\</code>
+++ Double Quotes <code>"..."</code>
'''+++ Single Quotes <code>'...'</code>
+++ ANSI-C Quoting <code>$'...'</code>'''
-->
Brace Expansion
Brace expansion, also called alternation, is a feature copied from the C shell. It generates a set of alternative combinations. Generated results need not exist as files. The results of each expanded string are not sorted and left to right order is preserved:
<syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ echo a{p,c,d,b}e
ape ace ade abe
$ echo {a,b,c}{d,e,f}
ad ae af bd be bf cd ce cf
</syntaxhighlight>
Users should not use brace expansions in portable shell scripts, because the Bourne shell does not produce the same output.
<syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ # bash shell
$/bin/bash -c 'echo a{p,c,d,b}e'
ape ace ade abe
$ # A traditional shell does not produce the same output
$ /bin/sh -c 'echo a{p,c,d,b}e'
a{p,c,d,b}e
</syntaxhighlight>
When brace expansion is combined with wildcards, the braces are expanded first, and then the resulting wildcards are substituted normally. Hence, a listing of JPEG and PNG images in the current directory could be obtained using:
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
ls *.{jpg,jpeg,png} # expands to *.jpg *.jpeg *.png - after which,
# the wildcards are processed
echo *.{png,jp{e,}g} # echo just shows the expansions -
# and braces in braces are possible.
</syntaxhighlight>
In addition to alternation, brace expansion can be used for sequential ranges between two integers or characters separated by double dots. Newer versions of Bash allow a third integer to specify the increment.
<syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ echo {1..10}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
$ echo {01..10}
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
$ echo file{1..4}.txt
file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt file4.txt
$ echo {a..e}
a b c d e
$ echo {1..10..3}
1 4 7 10
$ echo {a..j..3}
a d g j
</syntaxhighlight>
When brace expansion is combined with variable expansion (A.K.A. parameter expansion and parameter substitution) the variable expansion is performed after the brace expansion, which in some cases may necessitate the use of the <code>eval</code> built-in, thus:
<syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ start1; end10
$ echo {$start..$end} # fails to expand due to the evaluation order
{1..10}
$ eval echo {$start..$end} # variable expansion occurs then resulting string is evaluated
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
</syntaxhighlight>
<!--
Tilde Expansion
--><!--
Parameter and Variable Expansion
+++ Attributes
+++ Scalar Variables
+++ Array Variables
++++++ Indexed Arrays
++++++ Associative Arrays
+++ Shell Variables
++++++ Positional Parameters
++++++ Special Variables
++++++ POSIX Variables
++++++ Non-POSIX Variables
+++ <code>export</code> and Environment Variables
--><!--
Command Substitution (again)
+++ Modern <code>$(...)</code>
+++ Deprecated <code>`...`</code>
--><!--
Process Substitution (again)
+++ <code><(...)</code> and <code>>(...)</code>
--><!--
Arithmetic Expansion
+++ <code>((..))</code>
+++ <code>$((...))</code>
+++ Other Arithmetic Contexts
+++ Integer Variables
--><!--
Redirections
+++ Standard
+++ Here Documents
+++ Here Strings
--><!--
Aliases
--><!--
Reserved Words and Grammar
--><!--
Functions
--><!--
Built-Ins
--><!--
Command Lookup
-->
Configurable execution environment(s)
Shell and Session Startup Files (a.k.a., "Dot Files")
<!-- Suggestion 4 / 8 -- 06 Jan 2025 -->
When Bash starts, it executes the commands in a variety of dot files. Unlike Bash shell scripts, dot files do typically have neither the execute permission enabled nor an interpreter directive like <code>#!/bin/bash</code>.
Legacy-compatible Bash startup example
The example <code>~/.bash_profile</code> below is compatible with the Bourne shell and gives semantics similar to csh for the <code>~/.bashrc</code> and <code>~/.bash_login</code>. The <code>[ -r filename ] && cmd</code> is a short-circuit evaluation that tests if filename exists and is readable, skipping the part after the <code>&&</code> if it is not.
<syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
[ -r ~/.profile ] && . ~/.profile # set up environment, once, Bourne-sh syntax only
if [ -n "$PS1" ] ; then # are we interactive?
[ -r ~/.bashrc ] && . ~/.bashrc # tty/prompt/function setup for interactive shells
[ -r ~/.bash_login ] && . ~/.bash_login # any at-login tasks for login shell only
fi # End of "if" block
</syntaxhighlight>
Operating system issues in Bash startup
Some versions of Unix and Linux contain Bash system startup scripts, generally under the <code>/etc</code> directory. Bash executes these files as part of its standard initialization, but other startup files can read them in a different order than the documented Bash startup sequence. The default content of the root user's files may also have issues, as well as the skeleton files the system provides to new user accounts upon setup. The startup scripts that launch the X window system may also do surprising things with the user's Bash startup scripts in an attempt to set up user-environment variables before launching the window manager. These issues can often be addressed using a <code>~/.xsession</code> or <code>~/.xprofile</code> file to read the <code>~/.profile</code> — which provides the environment variables that Bash shell windows spawned from the window manager need, such as xterm or Gnome Terminal.
Settings and Shell Options
The <code>set</code> Built-in
* Xtrace: [ <code>set -x</code> | <code>set -o xtrace</code> ]
The shell's primary means of debugging. Both xtrace and verbose can be turned off at the same time with the command <code>set -</code>.
* Verbose: [ <code>set -v</code> | <code>set -o verbose</code> ]
Prints a command to the terminal as Bash reads it. Bash reads constructs all at once, such as compound commands which include if-fi and case-esac blocks. If a <code>set -v</code> is included within a compound command, then "verbose" will be enabled the next time Bash reads code as input, ie, after the end of the currently executing construct. Both xtrace and verbose can be turned off at the same time with the command <code>set -</code>.
The <code>shopt</code> Built-in
* expand-aliases
On by default in interactive shells. Some developers discourage its use in scripts.
<!--
Localization
+++ Environment Variables beginning with <code>LC_*</code>
+++ Locale-specific Expansion <code>$"..."</code>
--><!--
Reporting the Time
+++ <code>SECONDS</code>, <code>EPOCHSECONDS</code> and <code>EPOCHREALTIME</code>
+++ The <code>printf</code> Builtin (and not the Binary)
+++ The <code>date</code> Binary and <code>LC_TIME</code>
--><!--
Command History
--><!--
Tab Completion
-->
Programmable Completion
Bash supports programmable completion via built-in <code>complete</code>, , and <code>compgen</code> commands. The feature has been available since the beta version of 2.04 released in 2000. These commands enable complex and intelligent completion specification for commands (i.e. installed programs), functions, variables, and filenames.
The <code>complete</code> and two commands specify how arguments of some available commands or options are going to be listed in the readline input. As of version 5.1 completion of the command or the option is usually activated by the keystroke after typing its name.
<!--
Observability
+++ <code>set</code> and <code>env</code>
+++ <code>getconf</code>
+++ <code>compgen</code>
+++ Exit Codes (again?)
+++ Xtrace and Verbose Modes'''
--><!--
Programming Paradigm
-->
Documentation
As the standard upon which bash is based, the POSIX Standard, or IEEE Std 1003.1, et seq, is especially informative.
The Linux "man page" is intended to be the authoritative explanatory technical document for the understanding of how <code>bash</code> operates. It is usually available by running <code>man bash</code>.
The GNU [https://www.gnu.org/software/bash/manual/index.html manual] is sometimes considered more user-friendly for reading. "You may also find information about Bash by running <code>info bash</code> ... or by looking at <code>/usr/share/doc/bash/</code>, <code>/usr/local/share/doc/bash/</code>, or similar directories on your system. A brief summary is available by running <code>bash --help</code>.
" If a user invoke RUNCOM without any arguments it prints some instructions on how to use it and stops, returning the user to the supervisor's (system's) command line.(RUNCOM)"
On modern Linuxes, information on shell built-in commands can be found by executing <code>help</code>, <code>help [built-in name]</code> or <code>man builtins</code> at a terminal prompt where bash is installed. Some commands, such as <code>echo</code>, <code>false</code>, <code>kill</code>, <code>printf</code>, <code>test</code> or <code>true</code>, depending on your system and on your locally installed version of bash, can refer to either a shell built-in or a system binary executable file. When one of these command name collisions occurs, bash will by default execute a given command line using the shell built-in. Specifying a binary executable's absolute path (i.e., <code>/bin/printf</code>) is one way of ensuring that the shell uses a system binary. This name collision issue also effects any "help summaries" viewed with <code>kill --help</code> and <code>/bin/kill --help</code>. Shell built-ins and system binary executable files of the same name often have differing options.
"The project maintainer also has a Bash page which includes Frequently Asked Questions",
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || BASH_ARGC
| align=left | {{code|"${BASH_ARGC[@]}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "An array variable whose values are the number of parameters in each frame of the current bash execution call stack."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || BASH_ARGV
| align=left | {{code|"${BASH_ARGV[@]}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "An array variable containing all of the parameters in the current bash execution call stack."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || BASH_LINENO
| align=left | {{code|"${BASH_LINENO[@]}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "An array variable whose members are the line numbers in source files where each corresponding member of FUNCNAME was invoked."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || BASH_REMATCH
| align=left | {{code|"${BASH_REMATCH[@]}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "An array variable whose members are assigned by the~ binary operator to the <nowiki>[[</nowiki> conditional command."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || BASH_SOURCE
| align=left | {{code|"${BASH_SOURCE}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "An array variable whose members are the source filenames where the corresponding shell function names in the FUNCNAME array variable are defined."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || BASH_XTRACEFD
| align=left | {{code|"${BASH_XTRACEFD}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "If set to an integer corresponding to a valid file descriptor, Bash will write the trace output generated when ‘set -x’ is enabled to that file descriptor."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || EPOCHREALTIME
| align=left | {{code|"${EPOCHREALTIME}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "Each time this parameter is referenced, it expands to the number of seconds since the Unix Epoch (see time(3)) as a floating point value with micro-second granularity."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || FUNCNAME
| align=left | {{code|"${FUNCNAME[@]}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "An array variable containing the names of all shell functions currently in the execution call stack."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || LINENO
| align=left | {{code|"${LINENO}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "Each time this parameter is referenced, the shell substitutes a decimal number representing the current sequential line number (starting with 1) within a script or function."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || PIPESTATUS
| align=left | {{code|"${PIPESTATUS[@]}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "An array variable containing a list of exit status values from the processes in the most-recently-executed foreground pipeline (which may contain only a single command)."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || PPID
| align=left | {{code|"${PPID}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "The process ID of the shell's parent."
|
|-
| align=left | Bash Variables || PS4
| align=left | {{code|"${PS4}"|bash}}
|
| alignleft | "The value of this parameter is expanded as with PS1 and the value is printed before each command bash displays during an execution trace."
|
|-
| align=left | Shell Builtin || set :: restricted
| align=left |
|
| align=left | Restricted mode is intended to improve the security of an individual shell instance from a malicious human with physical access to a machine. As threat models have changed, it has become less commonly used now than it once was.
|
|-
| align=left | Shell Builtin || shopt :: extdebug
| align=left |
|
| align=left | "Behavior intended for use by debuggers."
|
|-
| align=left | Shell Builtin || trap :: DEBUG
| align=left |
|
| align=left | "If a sigspec is DEBUG, the command arg is executed before" certain kinds of commands.
|
|-
| align=left | Shell Builtin || trap :: ERR
| align=left |
|
| align=left | "If a sigspec is ERR, the command arg is executed whenever..." certain kinds of commands "return a non-zero exit status," subject to similar restrictions as with ErrExit.
|
|-
| align=left | Shell Builtin || trap :: RETURN
| align=left |
|
| align=left | "If a sigspec is RETURN, the command arg is executed each time a shell function or a script executed with the . or source builtins finishes executing."
|
<!-- Format of table entries
|-
| align=left | foo ||
| align=left |
| align=center |
| align=left |
| -->
|}
<!-- End of Table -->
<!-- Kinds of references -->
<!-- Traditional license
-->
<!-- ! colspan 1 rowspan 2 | End of support
-->
* Shell features specified by POSIX:
** Parameter Expansions:
** Special Parameters:
** Special Built-In Utility :
** Special Built-In Utility :
** Shell Builtin :
** Bashdb: The Bash symbolic debugger.
<!--
Other possibly relevant packages:
shfmt
libatf-sh
pcp-pmda-bash
pcp-pmda-shping
-->
Examples
With the parameter expansion, an unset or null variable can halt a script.
* ex.sh
*: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
#!/bin/bash
bar="foo is not defined"
echo "${foo:?$bar}"
echo this message doesn't print
</syntaxhighlight>
*: <syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ ./ex.sh
./ex.sh: line 3: foo: foo is not defined
</syntaxhighlight>
Reliably printing the contents of an array that contains spaces and newlines first in a portable syntax, and then the same thing in Bash. Note that in Bash, the number of spaces before the newline is made clear.
: <syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ # In POSIX shell:
$ array=( "a " " b" "
> c " )
$ printf ',%s,\n' "${array[@]}"
,a ,
, b,
,
c ,
</syntaxhighlight>
: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
# In Bash:
declare -p array
declare -a array([0]"a " [1]" b" [2]$' \n c ')
</syntaxhighlight>
Printing an error message when there's a problem.
* error.sh
*: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
if ! lsblk | grep sdb
then
echo Error, line $LINENO
fi
</syntaxhighlight>
*: <syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ ./error.sh
Error, line 130
</syntaxhighlight>
Using xtrace. If errexit had been enabled, then would not have been executed.
* test.sh
*: <syntaxhighlight lang="bash">
#!/bin/bash
set -x
foo=bar; echo $foo
false
echo quux
</syntaxhighlight>
*: <syntaxhighlight lang="console">
$ ./test.sh
+ foo=bar
+ echo bar
bar
+ false
+ echo quux
quux
</syntaxhighlight>
Deprecated syntax
* Back-tick style command substitutions: <code>`...`</code> is deprecated in favor of <code>$(...)</code>;
* Use of -a or -o in <code>test</code>/<code>[</code>/<code>[[</code> commands,
** for example, <code>[ -r ./file -a ! -l ./file ]</code> is deprecated in favor of <code>[ -r ./file ] && ! [ -l ./file ]</code>;
* Use of the arithmetic syntax <code>$[...]</code> is deprecated in favor of <code>$((...))</code> or <code>((...))</code>, as appropriate;
* Use of <code>^</code> as a pipeline is deprecated in favor of <code>|</code>;
* Any uses of <code>expr</code> or <code>let</code>.
Shellshock
In September 2014, a security bug was discovered in the program. It was dubbed "Shellshock." Public disclosure quickly led to a range of attacks across the Internet.
Exploitation of the vulnerability could enable arbitrary code execution in CGI scripts executable by certain versions of Bash. The bug involved how Bash passed function definitions to subshells through environment variables. The bug had been present in the source code since August 1989 (version 1.03) and was patched in September 2014 (version 4.3).
Patches to fix the bugs were made available soon after the bugs were identified. Upgrading to a current version is strongly advised.
It was assigned the Common Vulnerability identifiers , among others. Under CVSS Metrics 2.x and 3.x, the bug is regarded as "high" and "critical," respectively.
Bug reporting
An external command called bashbug reports Bash shell bugs. When the command is invoked, it brings up the user's default editor with a form to fill in. The form is mailed to the Bash maintainers (or optionally to other email addresses).
See also
* Comparison of command shells
* , exec_com: the first command processor.
* osh - "Oil Shell is a Bash-compatible UNIX command-line shell;" available on Arch.
* Mashey or Programmer's Workbench shell
* Qshell for IBM i
* rc from Plan 9
* RUNCOM
* rush - Restricted User Shell, available on Debian.
* Stand-alone shell (sash)
* scsh - The Scheme Shell.
* TENEX C shell (tcsh)
* Thompson shell (tsh)
* Toybox
* yash - Yet Another Shell, aims "to be the most POSIX-compliant shell in the world;" available on Arch.
* Z shell (zsh)
Further reading
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
<!-- Syntax for Notes, ie, footnotes / endnotes.
2009: GPL-3.0-or-later<br />1997: GPL-2.0-or-later<br />1994: GPL-1.0-or-later
-->
References
Category:1989 software
Category:Cross-platform free software
Category:Domain-specific programming languages
Category:Dynamically scoped programming languages
Category:Free software programmed in C
Category:GNU Project software
Category:Scripting languages
Category:Text-oriented programming languages
Category:Unix shells
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bash_(Unix_shell)
|
2025-04-05T18:26:53.179963
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Blizzard
|
A blizzard is a severe snowstorm characterized by strong sustained winds and low visibility, lasting for a prolonged period of time—typically at least three or four hours. A ground blizzard is a weather condition where snow that has already fallen is being blown by wind. Blizzards can have an immense size and usually stretch to hundreds or thousands of kilometres.
thumb|Blizzard at the Tochal Skiing resort, Tehran and affected skiers.
thumb|A late night heavy blizzard in Ontario, Canada.
Definition and etymology
In the United States, the National Weather Service defines a blizzard as a severe snow storm characterized by strong winds causing blowing snow that results in low visibilities. The difference between a blizzard and a snowstorm is the strength of the wind, not the amount of snow. To be a blizzard, a snow storm must have sustained winds or frequent gusts that are greater than or equal to with blowing or drifting snow which reduces visibility to or less and must last for a prolonged period of time—typically three hours or more.
Environment Canada defines a blizzard as a storm with wind speeds exceeding accompanied by visibility of or less, resulting from snowfall, blowing snow, or a combination of the two. These conditions must persist for a period of at least four hours for the storm to be classified as a blizzard, except north of the arctic tree line, where that threshold is raised to six hours.thumb|Drifted snow near Burrow-with-Burrow, Lancashire, England, January 1963
The Australia Bureau of Meteorology describes a blizzard as, "Violent and very cold wind which is laden with snow, some part, at least, of which has been raised from snow covered ground."
thumb|A view of Jätkäsaari, Helsinki, Finland, during a brief but intense blizzard on a March evening.
While severe cold and large amounts of drifting snow may accompany blizzards, they are not required. Blizzards can bring whiteout conditions, and can paralyze regions for days at a time, particularly where snowfall is unusual or rare.
A severe blizzard has winds over , near zero visibility, and temperatures of or lower. In Antarctica, blizzards are associated with winds spilling over the edge of the ice plateau at an average velocity of .
United States storm systems
thumb|Near-whiteout conditions dim the far end of Times Square in New York City, 2015.
thumb|March blizzard in North Dakota, 1966.
thumb|right|The Brooklyn Bridge during the Great Blizzard of 1888.
In the United States, storm systems powerful enough to cause blizzards usually form when the jet stream dips far to the south, allowing cold, dry polar air from the north to clash with warm, humid air moving up from the south.
When cold, moist air from the Pacific Ocean moves eastward to the Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains, and warmer, moist air moves north from the Gulf of Mexico, all that is needed is a movement of cold polar air moving south to form potential blizzard conditions that may extend from the Texas Panhandle to the Great Lakes and Midwest. A blizzard also may be formed when a cold front and warm front mix together and a blizzard forms at the border line.
Another storm system occurs when a cold core low over the Hudson Bay area in Canada is displaced southward over southeastern Canada, the Great Lakes, and New England. When the rapidly moving cold front collides with warmer air coming north from the Gulf of Mexico, strong surface winds, significant cold air advection, and extensive wintry precipitation occur.
thumb|Conditions approaching a blizzard whiteout in Minnesota, on March 1, 2007. Note the unclear horizon near the center.
Low pressure systems moving out of the Rocky Mountains onto the Great Plains, a broad expanse of flat land, much of it covered in prairie, steppe and grassland, can cause thunderstorms and rain to the south and heavy snows and strong winds to the north. With few trees or other obstructions to reduce wind and blowing, this part of the country is particularly vulnerable to blizzards with very low temperatures and whiteout conditions. In a true whiteout, there is no visible horizon. People can become lost in their own front yards, when the door is only away, and they would have to feel their way back. Motorists have to stop their cars where they are, as the road is impossible to see.
Nor'easter blizzards
thumb|left|200 px|Illustration of the Great Blizzard of 1888
A nor'easter is a macro-scale storm that occurs off the New England and Atlantic Canada coastlines. It gets its name from the direction the wind is coming from. The usage of the term in North America comes from the wind associated with many different types of storms, some of which can form in the North Atlantic Ocean and some of which form as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. The term is most often used in the coastal areas of New England and Atlantic Canada. This type of storm has characteristics similar to a hurricane. More specifically, it describes a low-pressure area whose center of rotation is just off the coast and whose leading winds in the left-forward quadrant rotate onto land from the northeast. High storm waves may sink ships at sea and cause coastal flooding and beach erosion. Notable nor'easters include The Great Blizzard of 1888, one of the worst blizzards in U.S. history. It dropped of snow and had sustained winds of more than that produced snowdrifts in excess of . Railroads were shut down and people were confined to their houses for up to a week. It killed 400 people, mostly in New York.
Historic events
1972 Iran blizzard
The 1972 Iran blizzard, which caused 4,000 reported deaths, was the deadliest blizzard in recorded history. Dropping as much as of snow, it completely covered 200 villages. After a snowfall lasting nearly a week, an area the size of Wisconsin was entirely buried in snow.
2008 Afghanistan blizzard
The 2008 Afghanistan blizzard, was a fierce blizzard that struck Afghanistan on 10 January 2008. Temperatures fell to a low of , with up to of snow in the more mountainous regions, killing at least 926 people. The weather also claimed more than 100,000 sheep and goats, and nearly 315,000 cattle died.
The Snow Winter of 1880–1881
thumb|left|A snow blockade in southern Minnesota, central US. On March 29, 1881, snowdrifts in Minnesota were higher than locomotives.
The winter of 1880–1881 is widely considered the most severe winter ever known in many parts of the United States.
The initial blizzard in October 1880 brought snowfalls so deep that two-story homes experienced accumulations, as opposed to drifts, up to their second-floor windows. No one was prepared for deep snow so early in the winter. Farmers from North Dakota to Virginia were caught flat with fields unharvested, what grain that had been harvested unmilled, and their suddenly all-important winter stocks of wood fuel only partially collected. By January train service was almost entirely suspended from the region. Railroads hired scores of men to dig out the tracks but as soon as they had finished shoveling a stretch of line a new storm arrived, burying it again.
right|thumb|263x263px|Stereoscopic view card showing "Blasting ice with dynamite from in front of steamer on the ways, by Stanley J. Morrow" ~ A view of Yankton's riverfront after the flood of March 1881.
There were no winter thaws and on February 2, 1881, a second massive blizzard struck that lasted for nine days. In towns the streets were filled with solid drifts to the tops of the buildings and tunneling was necessary to move about. Homes and barns were completely covered, compelling farmers to construct fragile tunnels in order to feed their stock.
When the snow finally melted in late spring of 1881, huge sections of the plains experienced flooding. Massive ice jams clogged the Missouri River, and when they broke the downstream areas were inundated. Most of the town of Yankton, in what is now South Dakota, was washed away when the river overflowed its banks after the thaw.
Novelization
Many children—and their parents—learned of "The Snow Winter" through the children's book The Long Winter by Laura Ingalls Wilder, in which the author tells of her family's efforts to survive. The snow arrived in October 1880 and blizzard followed blizzard throughout the winter and into March 1881, leaving many areas snowbound throughout the winter. Accurate details in Wilder's novel include the blizzards' frequency and the deep cold, the Chicago and North Western Railway stopping trains until the spring thaw because the snow made the tracks impassable, the near-starvation of the townspeople, and the courage of her future husband Almanzo and another man, Cap Garland, who ventured out on the open prairie in search of a cache of wheat that no one was even sure existed.
The Storm of the Century
thumb|Under the weight of snow, a tree falls next to a car in Asheville, North Carolina
The Storm of the Century, also known as the Great Blizzard of 1993, was a large cyclonic storm that formed over the Gulf of Mexico on March 12, 1993, and dissipated in the North Atlantic Ocean on March 15. It is unique for its intensity, massive size and wide-reaching effect. At its height, the storm stretched from Canada towards Central America, but its main impact was on the United States and Cuba. The cyclone moved through the Gulf of Mexico, and then through the Eastern United States before moving into Canada. Areas as far south as northern Alabama and Georgia received a dusting of snow and areas such as Birmingham, Alabama, received up to with hurricane-force wind gusts and record low barometric pressures. Between Louisiana and Cuba, hurricane-force winds produced high storm surges across northwestern Florida, which along with scattered tornadoes killed dozens of people. In the United States, the storm was responsible for the loss of electric power to over 10 million customers. It is purported to have been directly experienced by nearly 40 percent of the country's population at that time. A total of 310 people, including 10 from Cuba, perished during this storm. The storm cost $6 to $10 billion in damages.
List of blizzards
North America
1700 to 1799
The Great Snow 1717 series of four snowstorms between February 27 and March 7, 1717. There were reports of about five feet of snow already on the ground when the first of the storms hit. By the end, there were about ten feet of snow and some drifts reaching , burying houses entirely. In the colonial era, this storm made travel impossible until the snow simply melted.
Blizzard of 1765. March 24, 1765. Affected area from Philadelphia to Massachusetts. High winds and over of snowfall recorded in some areas.
Blizzard of 1772. "The Washington and Jefferson Snowstorm of 1772". January 26–29, 1772. One of largest D.C. and Virginia area snowstorms ever recorded. Snow accumulations of recorded.
The "Hessian Storm of 1778". December 26, 1778. Severe blizzard with high winds, heavy snows and bitter cold extending from Pennsylvania to New England. Snow drifts reported to be high in Rhode Island. Storm named for stranded Hessian troops in deep snows stationed in Rhode Island during the Revolutionary War.
The Long Storm of 1798. November 19–21, 1798. Heavy snowstorm produced snow from Maryland to Maine.
New York City Blizzard of 1811. December 23–24, 1811. Severe blizzard conditions reported on Long Island, in New York City, and southern New England. Strong winds and tides caused damage to shipping in harbor.
Great Snowstorm of 1821. January 5–7, 1821. Extensive snowstorm and blizzard spread from Virginia to New England.
"The Great Snowstorm of 1831" January 14–16, 1831. Produced snowfall over widest geographic area that was only rivaled, or exceeded by, the 1993 Blizzard. Blizzard raged from Georgia, to Ohio Valley, all the way to Maine.
"The Cold Storm of 1857" January 18–19, 1857. Produced severe blizzard conditions from North Carolina to Maine. Heavy snowfalls reported in east coast cities.
Midwest Blizzard of 1864. January 1, 1864. Gale-force winds, driving snow, and low temperatures all struck simultaneously around Chicago, Wisconsin and Minnesota.
Plains Blizzard of 1873. January 7, 1873. Severe blizzard struck the Great Plains. Many pioneers from the east were unprepared for the storm and perished in Minnesota and Iowa.
Great Plains Easter Blizzard of 1873. April 13, 1873
Seattle Blizzard of 1880. January 6, 1880. Seattle area's greatest snowstorm to date. An estimated fell around the town. Many barns collapsed and all transportation halted.
Kansas Blizzard of 1886. First week of January 1886. Reported that 80 percent of the cattle were frozen to death in that state alone from the cold and snow.
Great Plains Blizzard of 1887. January 9–11, 1887. Reported 72-hour blizzard that covered parts of the Great Plains in more than of snow. Winds whipped and temperatures dropped to around . So many cows that were not killed by the cold soon died from starvation. When spring arrived, millions of the animals were dead, with around 90 percent of the open range's cattle rotting where they fell. Those present reported carcasses as far as the eye could see. Dead cattle clogged up rivers and spoiled drinking water. Many ranchers went bankrupt and others simply called it quits and moved back east. The "Great Die-Up" from the blizzard effectively concluded the romantic period of the great Plains cattle drives.
Schoolhouse Blizzard of 1888 North American Great Plains. January 12–13, 1888. What made the storm so deadly was the timing (during work and school hours), the suddenness, and the brief spell of warmer weather that preceded it. In addition, the very strong wind fields behind the cold front and the powdery nature of the snow reduced visibilities on the open plains to zero. People ventured from the safety of their homes to do chores, go to town, attend school, or simply enjoy the relative warmth of the day. As a result, thousands of people—including many schoolchildren—got caught in the blizzard.
Great Blizzard of March 1888 March 11–14, 1888. One of the most severe recorded blizzards in the history of the United States. On March 12, an unexpected northeaster hit New England and the mid-Atlantic, dropping up to of snow in the space of three days. New York City experienced its heaviest snowfall recorded to date at that time, all street railcars were stranded, and the storm led to the creation of the NYC subway system. Snowdrifts reached up to the second story of some buildings. Some 400 people died from this blizzard, including many sailors aboard vessels that were beset by gale-force winds and turbulent seas.
Great Blizzard of 1899 February 11–14, 1899. An extremely unusual blizzard in that it reached into the far southern states of the US. It hit in February, and the area around Washington, D.C., experienced 51 hours straight of snowfall. The port of New Orleans was totally iced over; revelers participating in the New Orleans Mardi Gras had to wait for the parade routes to be shoveled free of snow. Concurrent with this blizzard was the extremely cold arctic air. Many city and state record low temperatures date back to this event, including all-time records for locations in the Midwest and South. State record lows: Nebraska reached , Ohio experienced , Louisiana bottomed out at , and Florida dipped below zero to .
1901 to 1939
Great Lakes Storm of 1913 November 7–10, 1913. "The White Hurricane" of 1913 was the deadliest and most destructive natural disaster ever to hit the Great Lakes Basin in the Midwestern United States and the Canadian province of Ontario. It produced wind gusts, waves over high, and whiteout snowsqualls. It killed more than 250 people, destroyed 19 ships, and stranded 19 others.
Blizzard of 1918. January 11, 1918. Vast blizzard-like storm moved through Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. Youtube video Storm of the Century - the Blizzard of '49 Storm of the Century - the Blizzard of '49
1950 to 1959
Great Appalachian Storm of November 1950 November 24–30, 1950
March 1958 Nor'easter blizzard March 18–21, 1958.
The Mount Shasta California Snowstorm of 1959 – The storm dumped of snow on Mount Shasta. The bulk of the snow fell on unpopulated mountainous areas, barely disrupting the residents of the Mount Shasta area. The amount of snow recorded is the largest snowfall from a single storm in North America.
1960 to 1969
March 1960 Nor'easter blizzard March 2–5, 1960
December 1960 Nor'easter blizzard December 12–14, 1960. Wind gusts up to .
March 1962 Nor'easter Great March Storm of 1962 – Ash Wednesday. North Carolina and Virginia blizzards. Struck during Spring high tide season and remained mostly stationary for almost 5 days causing significant damage along eastern coast, Assateague island was under water, and dumped of snow in Virginia.
North American blizzard of 1966 January 27–31, 1966
Chicago Blizzard of 1967 January 26–27, 1967
February 1969 nor'easter February 8–10, 1969
March 1969 Nor'easter blizzard March 9, 1969
December 1969 Nor'easter blizzard December 25–28, 1969.
1970 to 1979
The Great Storm of 1975 known as the "Super Bowl Blizzard" or "Minnesota's Storm of the Century". January 9–12, 1975. Wind chills of to recorded, deep snowfalls.
Chicago Blizzard of 1979 January 13–14, 1979
1980 to 1989
February 1987 Nor'easter blizzard February 22–24, 1987
1990 to 1999
1991 Halloween blizzard Upper Mid-West US, October 31 – November 3, 1991
December 1992 Nor'easter blizzard December 10–12, 1992
1993 Storm of the Century March 12–15, 1993. While the southern and eastern U.S. and Cuba received the brunt of this massive blizzard, the Storm of the Century impacted a wider area than any in recorded history.
February 1995 Nor'easter blizzard February 3–6, 1995
Blizzard of 1996 January 6–10, 1996
April Fool's Day Blizzard March 31 – April 1, 1997. US East Coast
1997 Western Plains winter storms October 24–26, 1997
Mid West Blizzard of 1999 January 2–4, 1999
2000 to 2009
January 25, 2000 Southeastern United States winter storm January 25, 2000. North Carolina and Virginia
December 2000 Nor'easter blizzard December 27–31, 2000
North American blizzard of 2003 February 14–19, 2003 (Presidents' Day Storm II)
December 2003 Nor'easter blizzard December 6–7, 2003
North American blizzard of 2005 January 20–23, 2005
North American blizzard of 2006 February 11–13, 2006
Early winter 2006 North American storm complex Late November 2006
Colorado Holiday Blizzards (2006–07) December 20–29, 2006 Colorado
February 2007 North America blizzard February 12–20, 2007
January 2008 North American storm complex January, 2008 West Coast US
North American blizzard of 2008 March 6–10, 2008
2009 Midwest Blizzard 6–8 December 2009, a bomb cyclogenesis event that also affected parts of Canada
North American blizzard of 2009 December 16–20, 2009
2009 North American Christmas blizzard December 22–28, 2009
2010 to 2019
February 5–6, 2010 North American blizzard February 5–6, 2010 Referred to at the time as Snowmageddon was a Category 3 ("major") nor'easter and severe weather event.
February 9–10, 2010 North American blizzard February 9–10, 2010
February 25–27, 2010 North American blizzard February 25–27, 2010
October 2010 North American storm complex October 23–28, 2010
December 2010 North American blizzard December 26–29, 2010
January 31 – February 2, 2011 North American blizzard January 31 – February 2, 2011. Groundhog Day Blizzard of 2011
2011 Halloween nor'easter October 28 – Nov 1, 2011
Hurricane Sandy October 29–31, 2012. West Virginia, western North Carolina, and southwest Pennsylvania received heavy snowfall and blizzard conditions from this hurricane
November 2012 nor'easter November 7–10, 2012
December 17–22, 2012 North American blizzard December 17–22, 2012
Late December 2012 North American storm complex December 25–28, 2012
February 2013 nor'easter February 7–20, 2013
February 2013 Great Plains blizzard February 19 – March 6, 2013
March 2013 nor'easter March 6, 2013
October 2013 North American storm complex October 3–5, 2013
Buffalo, NY blizzard of 2014. Buffalo got over of snow during November 18–20, 2014.
January 2015 North American blizzard January 26–27, 2015
Late December 2015 North American storm complex December 26–27, 2015 Was one of the most notorious blizzards in the state of New Mexico and West Texas ever reported. It had sustained winds of over and continuous snow precipitation that lasted over 30 hours. Dozens of vehicles were stranded in small county roads in the areas of Hobbs, Roswell, and Carlsbad New Mexico. Strong sustained winds destroyed various mobile homes.
January 2016 United States blizzard January 20–23, 2016
February 2016 North American storm complex February 1–8, 2016
February 2017 North American blizzard February 6–11, 2017
March 2017 North American blizzard March 9–16, 2017
Early January 2018 nor’easter January 3–6, 2018
March 2019 North American blizzard March 8–16, 2019
April 2019 North American blizzard April 10–14, 2019
2020 to present
December 5–6, 2020 nor'easter December 5–6, 2020
January 31 – February 3, 2021 nor'easter January 31 – February 3, 2021
February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm February 13–17, 2021
March 2021 North American blizzard March 11–14, 2021
January 2022 North American blizzard January 27–30, 2022
December 2022 North American winter storm December 21–26, 2022
March 2023 North American winter storm March 12–15, 2023
January 8–10, 2024 North American storm complex January 8–10, 2024
January 10–13, 2024 North American storm complex January 10–13, 2024
January 5–6, 2025 United States blizzard January 5–6, 2025
2025 Gulf Coast blizzard January 20–22, 2025
Canada
The Eastern Canadian Blizzard of 1971 – Dumped a foot and a half (45.7 cm) of snow on Montreal and more than elsewhere in the region. The blizzard caused the cancellation of a Montreal Canadiens hockey game for the first time since 1918.
Saskatchewan blizzard of 2007 – January 10, 2007, Canada
United Kingdom
Great Frost of 1709
Blizzard of January 1881
Winter of 1894–95 in the United Kingdom
Winter of 1946–1947 in the United Kingdom
Winter of 1962–1963 in the United Kingdom
January 1987 Southeast England snowfall
Winter of 1990–91 in Western Europe
February 2009 Great Britain and Ireland snowfall
Winter of 2009–10 in Great Britain and Ireland
Winter of 2010–11 in Great Britain and Ireland
Early 2012 European cold wave
Other locations
1954 Romanian blizzard
1972 Iran blizzard
Winter of 1990–1991 in Western Europe
July 2007 Argentine winter storm
2008 Afghanistan blizzard
2008 Chinese winter storms
Winter storms of 2009–2010 in East Asia
See also
Cold wave
Lake-effect snow
Nor'easter
European windstorm
Whiteout (weather)
Blowing snow advisory
Ground blizzard
Severe weather terminology (Canada)
Snowsquall
Blowing snow
List of blizzards
References
External links
Digital Snow Museum Photos of historic blizzards and snowstorms.
Farmers Almanac List of Worst Blizzards in the United States
United States Search and Rescue Task Force: About Blizzards
A Historical Review On The Origin and Definition of the Word Blizzard Dr Richard Wild
Category:Snow or ice weather phenomena
Category:Storm
Category:Weather hazards
Category:Hazards of outdoor recreation
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blizzard
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Bikini
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posing in a publicity photograph for the film In Caliente (1935). Del Río was a pioneer in wearing a two piece swimsuit.]]
wearing a black bikini at a beach in 2009]]
A bikini is a two-piece swimsuit primarily worn by women that features one piece on top that covers the breasts, and a second piece on the bottom: the front covering the pelvis but usually exposing the navel, and the back generally covering the intergluteal cleft and some or all of the buttocks. The size of the top and bottom can vary, from bikinis that offer full coverage of the breasts, pelvis, and buttocks, to more revealing designs with a thong or G-string bottom that covers only the mons pubis, but exposes the buttocks, and a top that covers only the areolae. Bikini bottoms covering about half the buttocks may be described as "Brazilian-cut".
The modern bikini swimsuit was introduced by French clothing designer Louis Réard in July 1946, and was named after the Bikini Atoll, where the first public test of a nuclear bomb had taken place four days before.
Due to its revealing design, the bikini was once considered controversial, facing opposition from a number of groups and being accepted only very slowly by the general public. In many countries, the design was banned from beaches and other public places: in 1949, France banned the bikini from being worn on its coastlines; Germany banned the bikini from public swimming pools until the 1970s, and some communist groups condemned the bikini as a "capitalist decadence". The minimalist bikini design became common in most Western countries by the mid-1960s as both swimwear and underwear. By the late 20th century, it was widely used as sportswear in beach volleyball and bodybuilding. There are a number of modern stylistic variations of the design used for marketing purposes and as industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, skirtini, thong, and g-string. A man's single piece brief swimsuit may also be called a bikini or "bikini brief", particularly if it has slimmer sides. Similarly, a variety of men's and women's underwear types are described as bikini underwear. The bikini has gradually gained wide acceptance in Western society. By the early 2000s, bikinis had become a US$811 million business annually, and boosted spin off services such as bikini waxing and sun tanning. Etymology and terminology While the two-piece swimsuit as a design existed in classical antiquity, the modern design first attracted public notice in Paris on July 5, 1946.
was a nuclear test series at the Bikini Atoll, and the inspiration for the naming of two French swimsuit designs at the time, including the bikini.]]
In May 1946, Parisian fashion designer Jacques Heim released a two-piece swimsuit design that he named the ('Atom') and advertised as "the smallest swimsuit in the world". Like swimsuits of the era, it covered the wearer's belly button, and it failed to attract much attention. French automotive engineer Louis Réard introduced a design he named the "Bikini", adopting the name from the Bikini Atoll in the Pacific Ocean, which was the colonial name the Germans gave to the atoll, borrowed from the Marshallese name for the island, . Four days earlier, on 1 July 1946, the United States had initiated its first peacetime nuclear weapons test at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads. Unlike the prior Trinity test, or most subsequent nuclear test series, the United States allowed both international observers and the global press to observe Crossroads, creating an intense international interest in the new weapon and its testing. Réard never explained why he chose the name "Bikini" for the swimsuit. Various motivations have been attributed to his choosing of the name, including the idea that he hoped it would create "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" similar to the explosion at Bikini Atoll, that it was meant to be associated with the "exotic allure of the tropical Pacific", from the "comparison of the effects of a scantily clad woman to the atomic bomb," and the idea that Reard's design had out-done Heim's design and "split the atome". Réard's advertising slogan was that the Bikini was "smaller than the smallest bathing suit in the world." The swimsuit's name was typically capitalized for several years after its coining.
It has been frequently cited as a major example of a "psychological link between atomic destruction and sexuality" in popular culture, which includes the stenciling of Rita Hayworth onto one of the bombs detonated at Crossroads, and its persistence in language has been argued as having "trivialized and downplayed the reality of nuclear testing," given the contamination done by especially later US thermonuclear tests at Bikini and other Marshallese atolls.
By making an analogy with words like bilingual and bilateral containing the Latin prefix "bi-" (meaning "two" in Latin), the word bikini was first back-derived as consisting of two parts, [bi + kini] by Rudi Gernreich, who introduced the monokini in 1964. Later swimsuit designs like the tankini and trikini further cemented this derivation. Over time the "–kini family" (as dubbed by author William Safire), including the "–ini sisters" (as dubbed by designer Anne Cole), expanded into a variety of swimwear including the monokini (also known as a numokini or unikini), seekini, tankini, camikini, (also hipkini), minikini, face-kini, burkini, and microkini. The Language Report, compiled by lexicographer Susie Dent and published by the Oxford University Press (OUP) in 2003, considers lexicographic inventions like bandeaukini and camkini, two variants of the tankini, important to observe. Although "bikini" was originally a registered trademark of Réard, it has since become genericized.
Variations of the term are used to describe stylistic variations for promotional purposes and industry classifications, including monokini, microkini, tankini, trikini, pubikini, bandeaukini and skirtini. A man's brief swimsuit may also be referred to as a bikini. The two-piece swimsuit can be traced back to the Greco-Roman world, where bikini-like garments worn by women athletes are depicted on urns and paintings dating back to 1400 BCE.
In Coronation of the Winner, a mosaic in the floor of a Roman villa in Sicily that dates from the Diocletian period (286–305 CE), young women participate in weightlifting, discus throwing, and running ball games dressed in bikini-like garments (technically bandeaukinis in modern lexicon). The mosaic, found in the Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale, features ten maidens who have been anachronistically dubbed the "Bikini Girls".
Other Roman archaeological finds depict the goddess Venus in a similar garment. In Pompeii, depictions of Venus wearing a bikini were discovered in the Casa della Venere, in the tablinum of the House of Julia Felix, and in an atrium garden of Via Dell'Abbondanza. Precursors in the West
Swimming or bathing outdoors was discouraged in the Christian West, so there was little demand or need for swimming or bathing costumes until the 18th century. The bathing gown of the 18th century was a loose ankle-length full-sleeve chemise-type gown made of wool or flannel that retained coverage and modesty.
In 1907, Australian swimmer and performer Annette Kellermann was arrested on a Boston beach for wearing form-fitting sleeveless one-piece knitted swimming tights that covered her from neck to toe, a costume she adopted from England, In 1913, designer Carl Jantzen made the first functional two-piece swimwear. Inspired by the introduction of females into Olympic swimming he designed a close-fitting costume with shorts for the bottom and short sleeves for the top.
During the 1920s and 1930s, people began to shift from "taking in the water" to "taking in the sun", at bathhouses and spas, and swimsuit designs shifted from functional considerations to incorporate more decorative features. Rayon was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits, but durability issues, especially when wet, proved problematic. Jersey and silk were also sometimes used. By the 1930s, manufacturers had lowered necklines in the back, removed sleeves, and tightened the sides. With the development of new clothing materials, particularly latex and nylon, swimsuits gradually began hugging the body through the 1930s, with shoulder straps that could be lowered for tanning.
Women's swimwear of the 1930s and 1940s incorporated increasing degrees of midriff exposure. The 1932 Hollywood film Three on a Match featured a midriff-baring two-piece bathing suit. Actress Dolores del Río was the first major star to wear a two-piece women's bathing suit onscreen in Flying Down to Rio (1933).
Teen magazines of late 1940s and 1950s featured similar designs of midriff-baring suits and tops. However, midriff fashion was stated as only for beaches and informal events and considered indecent to be worn in public. Hollywood endorsed the new glamor in films like 1949's ''Neptune's Daughter'' in which Esther Williams wore provocatively named costumes such as "Double Entendre" and "Honey Child".
Wartime production during World War II required vast amounts of cotton, silk, nylon, wool, leather, and rubber. In 1942, the United States War Production Board issued Regulation L-85, cutting the use of natural fibers in clothing and mandating a 10% reduction in the amount of fabric in women's beachwear. At the same time, demand for all swimwear declined as there was not much interest in going to the beach, especially in Europe. and in an endeavor to resurrect swimwear sales, two French designers – Jacques Heim and Louis Réard – almost simultaneously launched new two-piece swimsuit designs in 1946. Heim launched a two-piece swimsuit design in Paris that he called the atome'', after the smallest known particle of matter. He announced that it was the "world's smallest bathing suit." Although briefer than the two-piece swimsuits of the 1930s, the bottom of Heim's new two-piece beach costume still covered the wearer's navel.
Soon after, Louis Réard created a competing two-piece swimsuit design, which he called the bikini. He noticed that women at the beach rolled up the edges of their swimsuit bottoms and tops to improve their tan. On 5 July, Réard introduced his design at a swimsuit review held at a popular Paris public pool, Piscine Molitor, four days after the first test of a US nuclear weapon at the Bikini Atoll. The newspapers were full of news about it and Réard hoped for the same with his design. Réard's bikini undercut Heim's atome in its brevity. His design consisted of two side-by-side triangles of fabric forming a bra, and two front-and-back triangular pieces of fabric covering the mons pubis and the buttocks, respectively, connected by string. When he was unable to find a fashion model willing to showcase his revealing design, Réard hired Micheline Bernardini, an 18-year old nude dancer from the Casino de Paris. He announced that his swimsuit, was "smaller than the world's smallest bathing suit". Réard said that "like the [atom] bomb, the bikini is small and devastating". Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion". French newspaper Le Figaro wrote, "People were craving the simple pleasures of the sea and the sun. For women, wearing a bikini signaled a kind of second liberation. There was really nothing sexual about this. It was instead a celebration of freedom and a return to the joys in life." As competing designs emerged, he declared in advertisements that a swimsuit could not be a genuine bikini "unless it could be pulled through a wedding ring." Social resistance
bikini contest in Jacksonville, Florida, 2009, featuring popular modern designs such as triangle tops and thong-style bottoms]]
Despite the garment's initial success in France, women worldwide continued to wear traditional one-piece swimsuits. When his sales stalled, Réard went back to designing and selling orthodox knickers. In 1950, American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole, Réard himself would later describe it as a "two-piece bathing suit which reveals everything about a girl except for her mother's maiden name." Fashion magazine Modern Girl Magazine in 1957 stated that "it is hardly necessary to waste words over the so-called bikini since it is inconceivable that any girl with tact and decency would ever wear such a thing". a name Morley registered as a trademark. The winner was Kiki Håkansson of Sweden, who was crowned in a bikini. After the crowning, Håkansson was condemned by Pope Pius XII, while Spain and Ireland threatened to withdraw from the pageant. In 1952, bikinis were banned from the pageant and replaced by evening gowns. As a result of the controversy, the bikini was explicitly banned from many other beauty pageants worldwide. Although some regarded the bikini and beauty contests as bringing freedom to women, they were opposed by some feminists as well as religious and cultural groups who objected to the degree of exposure of the female body.
Paula Stafford was an Australian fashion designer credited with introducing the bikini to Australia; in a famous incident in 1952, model Ann Ferguson was asked to leave a beach in Surfers Paradise because her Paula Stafford bikini was too revealing. The bikini was banned in Australia, on the French Atlantic coastline, in Spain, in Italy, The United States Motion Picture Production Code, also known as the Hays Code, enforced from 1934, allowed two-piece gowns but prohibited the display of navels in Hollywood films. The National Legion of Decency, a Roman Catholic body overseeing American media content, also pressured Hollywood and foreign film producers to keep bikinis from being featured in Hollywood movies. As late as 1959 one of the United States' largest swimsuit designers, Anne Cole of the Anne Cole brand, said, "It's nothing more than a G-string. It's at the razor's edge of decency." The Hays Code was abandoned by the mid-1960s, and with it the prohibition of female navel exposure, as well as other restrictions. The influence of the National Legion of Decency also waned by the 1960s.
Rise to popularity
Increasingly common glamour shots of popular actresses and models on either side of the Atlantic played a large part in bringing the bikini into the mainstream. During the 1950s, Hollywood stars such as Ava Gardner, Rita Hayworth, Lana Turner, Elizabeth Taylor, took advantage of the risqué publicity associated with the bikini by posing for photographs wearing them—pin-ups of Hayworth and Williams in costume were especially widely distributed in the United States.
In Europe, 17-year-old Brigitte Bardot wore scanty bikinis (by contemporary standards) in the French film Manina, la fille sans voiles ("Manina, the girl unveiled"). The promotion for the film, released in France in March 1953, drew more attention to Bardot's bikinis than to the film itself. By the time the film was released in the United States in 1958, it was re-titled Manina, the Girl in the Bikini. Bardot was also photographed wearing a bikini on the beach during the 1957 Cannes Film Festival. Working with her husband and agent Roger Vadim, she garnered significant attention with photographs of her wearing a bikini on every beach in the south of France.
Similar photographs were taken of Anita Ekberg and Sophia Loren, among others. According to The Guardian, Bardot's photographs in particular turned Saint-Tropez into the beachwear capital of the world, Bardot's photography helped to enhance the public profile of the festival, and Cannes in turn played a crucial role in her career.
Brian Hyland's novelty-song hit "Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polka Dot Bikini" became a Billboard No. 1 hit during the summer of 1960: the song tells a story about a young girl who is too shy to wear her new bikini on the beach, thinking it too risqué. Playboy first featured a bikini on its cover in 1962; the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue debut two years later featured Babette March in a white bikini on the cover. This has been credited with making the bikini a legitimate piece of clothing.
Ursula Andress, appearing as Honey Ryder in the 1962 British James Bond film, Dr. No, wore a white bikini, which became known as the "Dr. No bikini". It became one of the most famous bikinis of all time and an iconic moment in cinematic and fashion history. Andress said that she owed her career to that white bikini, remarking, "This bikini made me into a success. As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl, I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent."
The bikini finally caught on, and in 1963, the movie Beach Party, starring Annette Funicello and Frankie Avalon, led a wave of films that made the bikini a pop-culture symbol, though Funicello was barred from wearing Réard's bikini unlike the other young females in the films. In 1965, a woman told Time that it was "almost square" not to wear a bikini; the magazine wrote two years later that "65% of the young set had already gone over".
Raquel Welch's fur bikini in One Million Years B.C. (1966) gave the world the most iconic bikini shot of all time and the poster image became an iconic moment in cinema history. Her deer skin bikini in One Million Years B.C., advertised as "mankind's first bikini", (1966) was later described as a "definitive look of the 1960s". Her role wearing the leather bikini made Welch a fashion icon DuPont introduced lycra (DuPont's name for spandex) in the same decade. "The advent of Lycra allowed more women to wear a bikini," wrote Kelly Killoren Bensimon, a former model and author of The Bikini Book, "It didn't sag, it didn't bag, and it concealed and revealed. It wasn't so much like lingerie anymore." Increased reliance on stretch fabric led to simplified construction. Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet, leather, and crocheted squares surfaced in the early '70s. four years after his death. Meanwhile, the bikini had become the most popular beachwear around the globe. According to French fashion historian Olivier Saillard, this was due to "the power of women, and not the power of fashion". Actresses in action films like Blue Crush (2002) and ''Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle (2003) made the two-piece "the millennial equivalent of the power suit", according to Gina Bellafonte of The New York Times.'' The development of swimwear from 1880 to the present is presented on 2,000 square metres of exhibition space.
By 2017, the global swimwear market was valued at US$18,5 billion with a compound annual growth rate of 6.2%. Part of the increased consumption of bikinis and swimwears can be attributed to influencers who promote and endorse various brands around the year. Soccer player and best selling author Mo Isom describes it as, "We're flooded with Instagram bikini pics." It was estimated in 2016 that in 2019 the USA would be the largest swimwear market (US$10 billion), followed by Europe (US$5 billion), Asia–Pacific (US$4 billion) and Middle East and Africa (about 1 billion).
Outside the Western world
The 1967 Bollywood film An Evening in Paris is mostly remembered because it featured actress Sharmila Tagore as the first Indian actress to wear a bikini on film. She also posed in a bikini for the glossy Filmfare magazine. The costume shocked a conservative Indian audience, but it also set in motion a trend carried forward by Zeenat Aman in Heera Panna (1973) and Qurbani (1980), Indonesian actress Nurnaningsih's bikini clad photos were widely distributed in early 1950s, though she was banned in Kalimantan.
Indian women generally wear bikinis when they vacation abroad or in Goa without the family. But, despite the conservative ideas prevalent in India, bikinis also become more popular in summer when women, from Bollywood stars to the middle class, take up swimming, often in a public space. A lot of tankinis, shorts and single-piece swimsuits are sold in the summer,
By the end of the first decade of the 21st century, the Chinese bikini industry became a serious international threat for the Brazilian bikini industry. Huludao, Liaoning, China set the world record for the largest bikini parade in 2012, with 1,085 participants and a photo shoot involving 3,090 women. "Beijing bikini" refers to the Chinese urban practice of men rolling up their shirts to expose their midriff to cool off in public in the summer. In Japan, wearing a bikini is common on the beach and at baths or pools. But, according to a 2013 study, 94% women are not body confident enough to wear a bikini in public without resorting to sarongs, zip-up sweatshirts, T-shirts, or shorts. Japanese women also often wear a "facekini" to protect their face from sunburns.
In most parts of the Middle East, bikinis are either banned or are highly controversial. On March 18, 1973, when Lebanese magazine Ash-Shabaka printed a bikini-clad woman on the cover, they had to make a second version with only the face of the model. In 2011, when Huda Naccache (Miss Earth 2011) posed for the cover of Lilac (based in Israel), she became the first bikini-clad Arab model on the cover of an Arabic magazine. Lebanese-Australian fashion designer Aheda Zanetti created the "burkini" as a modest option to the bikini, which has become very popular among Muslims. Rehab Shaaban, an Egyptian designer, tried an even more abaya-like design, but her design was banned due to safety reasons.
Variants
While the name "bikini" was at first applied only to beachwear that revealed the wearer's navel, today the fashion industry considers any two-piece swimsuit a bikini. Modern bikini fashions are characterized by a simple, brief design: two triangles of fabric that form a bra and cover the woman's breasts and a third that forms a panty cut below the navel that covers the groin and the intergluteal cleft. Modern bikinis were first made of cotton and jersey, but in the 1960s, Lycra became the common material. Alternative swimwear fabrics such as velvet, leather, and crocheted squares surfaced in the early 1970s. Metal and stone jewelry pieces are now often used to dress up look and style according to tastes. To meet the fast pace of demands, some manufacturers now offer made-to-order bikinis ready in as few as seven minutes. The world's most expensive bikini was designed in February 2006 by Susan Rosen; containing of diamond, it was valued at £20 million.
Major styles
There is a range of distinct bikini styles available — string/tie-side bikinis, monokinis (topless or top and bottom connected), trikinis (three pieces instead of two), tankinis (tank top, bikini bottom), camikinis (camisole top, bikini bottom), bandeaukinis (bandeau top, bikini bottom), skirtinis (bikini top, skirt bottom), microkinis, sling bikinis (or suspender bikinis), thong and g-string bikinis, and teardrop bikinis. is a bandeau top (no straps going over the shoulders) worn with any bikini bottom. It is the oldest form of bikini, with one of the earliest examples found in Sicilian Villa Romana del Casale (dubbed the "Bikini Girls"), dating back to the 4th century AD. Reintroduced, its appeal grew fast among young women, with bandeau tops edging into the sales of the classic tankini.
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| Microkini || || 1995 || A microkini, also known as a micro bikini, is an exceptionally meager bikini. The designs for both women and men typically use only enough fabric to cover the genitals and, for women, the nipples. Some variations of the microkini use adhesive or wire to hold the fabric in place over the genitals. Microkinis keep the wearer just within legal limits of decency and fill a niche between nudism and conservative swimwear. They are often accepted in Western cultures, including in Europe and the United States; however, they are considered inappropriate in more conservative nations and/or in family settings.
|-
| Monokini || || 1964 || A monokini (also called topless swimsuit, unikini or numokini) is a women's one-piece garment equivalent to the lower half of a bikini. The design was originally conceived by Rudi Gernreich in 1964. An extreme version of the monokini, the thong-style pubikini (which exposed the pubic region), was also designed by Gernreich in 1985. Today, monokinis usually refer to swimsuits in which the top and bottom are connected but provide coverage of the breasts as to be accepted in most western cultures.
|-
| Skirtini || || || The skirtini, which features a bikini top and a small, skirted bottom, is also an innovation for bikini-style clothes with more coverage. Two-piece swimsuits with skirt panels were popular in the US before the government ordered a 10% reduction in fabric used in woman's swimwear in 1943 as wartime rationing.
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| Sling bikini || || || The sling bikini (also known as sling-kini, onepiecekini or sling swimsuit) is an unbroken suit, technically one-piece, which resembles a bikini bottom with the side straps extending upwards to cover the breasts and go over the shoulders, or encircling the neck while a second set of straps pass around the midriff (also known as pretzel bikini or pretzel swimsuit). Sling swimsuits emerged in the early 1990s, and were introduced into the mainstream in 1994. When designed for or worn by a man, it is called a mankini, popularized by Sacha Baron Cohen in the film Borat.
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| String bikini || || 1974 || A string bikini (or a tie-side bikini) gets its name from its design that consists of two triangular shaped pieces connected at the groin but not at the sides, where a thin "string" wraps around the waist tied together to connect the two parts. The structure of the side tie bottom leaves the hips bare. The first formal presentation of string bikini was done by fashion model Brandi Perret-DuJon, for the opening of Le Petite Centre, a shopping area in the French Quarter of the New Orleans, Louisiana in 1974. String bikinis are one of the most popular variations of bikini.
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| Tankini || || 1998 || The tankini is a swimsuit combining a tank top and a bikini bottom. Tankinis can be made of spandex-and-cotton or Lycra-and-nylon. Designer Anne Cole, the US swimwear mogul, was the originator of this style in 1998. A variation is named camkini, with spaghetti straps instead of tank-shaped straps over a bikini bottom.
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| Trikini || || 1967 || The trikini appeared briefly in 1967, defined as "a handkerchief and two small saucers." It reappeared in the 1990s as a bikini bottom with a stringed halter of two triangular pieces covering the breasts, and in the 2000s as a costume of three separate pieces. The trikini top comes essentially in two separate parts. The name of this woman's bathing suit is formed from the word "bikini", replacing "bi-", meaning "two", with "tri-", meaning "three". In a variation the three pieces are sold as part of one continuous garment.
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In sport
Bikinis have become a major component of marketing various women's sports. It is an official uniform for beach volleyball and is widely worn in athletics and other sports. Sports bikinis have gained popularity since the 1990s. However, the trend has raised significant criticism in recent years among people who view it as an attempt to sell sex. The International Swimming Federation (FINA) voted to prohibit female swimmers from racing in bikinis in its meeting at Rome in 1960. Beach volleyball team has cited several advantages to bikini uniforms, such as comfort while playing on sand during hot weather. Photo shows US beach volleyball players Jennifer Fopma and Brooke Sweat in their uniforms.]]
In 1994, the bikini became the official uniform of women's Olympic beach volleyball. In 1999, the International Volleyball Federation (FIVB) standardized beach volleyball uniforms, with the bikini becoming the required uniform for women. That regulation bottom is called a "bun-hugger", It was the fifth largest television audience of all the sports at the 2000 Games. Much of the interest was because of the sex appeal of bikini-clad players along with their athletic ability. Bikini-clad dancers and cheerleaders entertain the audience during match breaks in many beach volleyball tournaments, including the Olympics. Even indoor volleyball costumes followed suit to become smaller and tighter. At the 2006 Asian Games at Doha, Qatar, only one Muslim country – Iraq – fielded a team in the beach volleyball competition because of concerns that the uniform was inappropriate. They refused to wear bikinis. The weather during the evening games in 2012 London Olympics was so cold that the players sometimes had to wear shirts and leggings. Earlier in 2012, FIVB had announced it would allow shorts (maximum length above the knee) and sleeved tops at the games. Richard Baker, the federation spokesperson, said that "many of these countries have religious and cultural requirements so the uniform needed to be more flexible".
The bikini remains preferred by most players and corporate sponsors. US women's team has cited several advantages of bikini uniforms, such as comfort while playing on sand during hot weather. Competitors Natalie Cook and Holly McPeak Many female beach volleyball players have sustained injuries by over-training the abdominal muscles while many others have gone through augmentation mammoplasty to look appealing in their uniforms.
Sports journalism expert Kimberly Bissell conducted a study on the camera angles used during the 2004 Summer Olympics beach volleyball games. Bissell found that 20% of the camera angles were focused on the women's chests, and 17% on their buttocks. Bissell theorized that the appearance of the players draws fans attention more than their actual athleticism.
Sports commentator Jeanne Moos commented, "Beach volleyball has now joined go-go girl dancing as perhaps the only two professions where a bikini is the required uniform." British Olympian Denise Johns argues that the regulation uniform is intended to be "sexy" and to attract attention. Rubén Acosta, president of the FIVB, says that it makes the game more appealing to spectators. In the 1980s, the Ms Olympia competition started in the US and in the UK the NABBA (National Amateur Body Building Association) renamed Miss Bikini International to Ms Universe. In 1986, the Ms Universe competition was divided into two sections – "physique" (for a more muscular physique) and "figure" (traditional feminine presentation in high heels). In November 2010 the IFBBF (International Federation of BodyBuilding & Fitness) introduced a women's bikini contest for women who do not wish to build their muscles to figure competition levels.
Costumes are regulation "posing trunks" (bikini briefs) for both men and women. Female bodybuilders in America are prohibited from wearing thongs or T-back swimsuits in contests filmed for television, though they are allowed to do so by certain fitness organizations in closed events. Runner Florence Griffith-Joyner mixed bikini bottoms with one-legged tights at the 1988 Summer Olympics, earning her more attention than her record-breaking performance in the women's 200 meters event. In the 2007 South Pacific Games, the rules were adjusted to allow players to wear less revealing shorts and cropped sports tops instead of bikinis. At the 2006 Asian Games, organizers banned bikini-bottoms for female athletes and asked them to wear long shorts.
String bikinis and other revealing clothes are common in surfing, though most surfing bikinis are more robust with more coverage than sunning bikinis. Surfing Magazine printed a pictorial of Kymberly Herrin, Playboy Playmate March 1981, surfing in a revealing bikini, and eventually started an annual bikini issue. The Association of Surfing Professionals often pairs female surf meets with bikini contests, an issue that divides the female pro-surfing community into two parts. It has often been more profitable to win the bikini contest than the female surfing event.
In 2021, the Norway women's national beach handball team was fined €1500 for being improperly dressed after the women wore bike shorts instead of bikini bottoms at a European championship match in Bulgaria. Critics derided the fine and the underlying rule. Norway's minister for culture and sport Abid Raja described the fine as being "completely ridiculous". Former tennis champion Billie Jean King supported the team tweeting "The sexualisation of women athletes must stop". Although the Norwegian Handball Federation announced they would pay the fines, pop singer Pink offered to pay for them. Later, in November 2021, the International Handball Federation changed their dress rules to allow female players to wear some kinds of shorts, specifying "Female athletes must wear short tight pants with a close fit".
Body ideals
cover model Elle Macpherson, epitomized the bikini body ideal (Note this is not an image of Elle McPherson, but seems to be a photo of one of her lingerie products) ]]
In 1950, American swimsuit mogul Fred Cole, owner of Cole of California, told Time that bikinis were designed for "diminutive Gallic women", as because "French girls have short legs... swimsuits have to be hiked up at the sides to make their legs look longer." In the 1960s etiquette writer Emily Post decreed that "[A bikini] is for perfect figures only, and for the very young." In The Bikini Book by Kelly Killoren Bensimon, swimwear designer Norma Kamali says, "Anyone with a tummy" should not wear a bikini. The 1970s saw the rise of the lean ideal of female body and figures like Cheryl Tiegs. Her figure remained in vogue in the 21st century.
The fitness boom of the 1980s led to one of the biggest leaps in the evolution of the bikini. According to Mills, "The leg line became superhigh, the front was superlow, and the straps were superthin." Women's magazines used terms like "Bikini Belly", and workout programs were launched to develop a "bikini-worthy body". The tiny "fitness-bikinis" made of lycra were launched to cater to this hardbodied ideal. Movies like Blue Crush and TV reality shows like Surf Girls merged the concepts of bikini models and athletes together, further accentuating the toned body ideal. Motivated by yearly Spring Break festivities that mark the start of the bikini season in North America, many women diet in an attempt to achieve the ideal bikini body; some take this to extremes including self-starvation, leading to eating disorders.
Bikini underwear
Certain types of underwear are described as bikini underwear and are designed for men and women. For women, bikini or bikini-style underwear is underwear that is similar in size and form to a regular bikini. It can refer to virtually any undergarment that provides less coverage to the midriff than lingerie, panties or knickers, especially suited to clothing such as crop tops. For men, bikini briefs are underpants that resemble women's bikini bottoms, being smaller and more revealing than men's classic briefs. Men's bikini briefs can be low- or high-side that are usually lower than the true waist, often at hips, and usually have no access pouch or flap, nor leg bands at tops of thighs. String bikini briefs have front and rear sections that meet in the crotch but not at the waistband, with no fabric on the side of the legs.
Swimwear and underwear have similar design considerations, both being form-fitting garments. The main difference is that, unlike underwear, swimwear is open to public view. The swimsuit was, and is, following underwear styles, and at about the same time that attitudes towards the bikini began to change, underwear underwent a redesign towards a minimal, unboned design that emphasized comfort first.
History
As the swimsuit was evolving, underwear also started to change. Between 1900 and 1940, swimsuit lengths followed the changes in underwear designs. In the 1920s women started discarding the corset, while the Cadole company of Paris started developing something they called the "breast girdle". During the Great Depression, panties and bras became softly constructed and were made of various elasticized yarns making underwear fit like a second skin. By the 1930s underwear styles for both women and men were influenced by the new brief models of swimwear from Europe. Although the waistband was still above the navel, the leg openings of the panty brief were cut in an arc to rise from the crotch to the hip joint. The brief served as a template for most variations of panties for the rest of the century. Warner standardized the concept of Cup size in 1935. The first underwire bra was developed in 1938.). As with the bra and other type of lingerie, manufacturers of the last quarter of the century marketed panty styles that were designed primarily for their sexual allure. Male bodies and men's undergarments were commodified and packaged for mass consumption, and swimwear and sportswear were influenced by sports photography and fitness.
Men's bikini
The term ''men's bikini'' is sometimes used to describe swim briefs. Men's bikinis can have high or low side panels, and string sides or tie sides. Most lack a button or flap front. Unlike swim briefs, bikinis are not designed for drag reduction and generally lack a visible waistband. Suits less than 1.5 inches wide at the hips are less common for sporting purposes and are most often worn for recreation, fashion, and sun tanning. The posing brief standard to bodybuilding competitions is an example of this style. Male punk rock musicians have performed on stage wearing bikini briefs. The 2000 Bollywood film Hera Pheri shows men sunbathing in bikinis, who were mistakenly believed to be women from a distance.
Male bikini tops also exist and are often used as visual gags. A mankini is a type of sling swimsuit worn by men. The term is inspired by the word bikini. It was popularized by English comedian Sacha Baron Cohen when he donned one for comic effect in the film Borat.
Bikini waxing
| align = right
| image1 = Bikini lines.jpg
| width1 = 100
| caption1 = American waxing (also: triangle, regular)
| image2 = Landing strip.svg
| width2 = 100
| caption2 = French waxing (also: Mohican, landing strip)
| image3 = Brazilian hollywood.jpg
| width3 = 100
| caption3 = Brazilian waxing (also: Hollywood, full monty)
}}
Bikini waxing is the epilation of pubic hair beyond the bikini line by use of waxing. The bikini line delineates the part of a woman's pubic area to be covered by the bottom part of a bikini, which means any pubic hair visible beyond the boundaries of a swimsuit. Visible pubic hair is widely culturally disapproved, considered to be embarrassing, and often removed. But, with certain styles of women's swimwear, pubic hair may become visible around the crotch area of a swimsuit. pubic hair may be styled into several styles: American waxing (removal of pubic hair from the sides, top of the thighs, and under the navel), French waxing (leaving only a vertical strip in front), or Brazilian waxing (removal of all hair in the pelvic area, particularly suitable for thong bottoms).
Bikini tan
The tan lines created by the wearing of a bikini while tanning are known as a bikini tan. These tan lines separate pale breasts, crotch, and buttocks from otherwise tanned skin. Prominent bikini tan lines were popular in the 1990s, and a spa in Brazil started offering perfect bikini tan lines using masking tapes in 2016.
As bikini-style swimsuits leave most of the body exposed to potentially dangerous UV radiation, overexposure can cause sunburn, skin cancer, as well as other acute and chronic health effects on the skin, eyes, and immune system. As a result, medical organizations recommend that bikini wearers protect themselves from UV radiation by using broad-spectrum sunscreen, which has been shown to protect against sunburn, skin cancer, wrinkling and sagging skin.
A 1969 innovation of tan-through swimwear uses fabric which is perforated with thousands of micro holes that are nearly invisible to the naked eye, but which let enough sunlight through to produce a line-free tan. See also
* Cultural views on the navel
*Bikini in popular culture
References
External links
<!-- Do not add links to shops or other commercial sites here, they will just be removed. Wikipedia is not a marketing channel, advertising service or web directory. -->
* [http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/biki/hd_biki.htm Metropolitan Museum of Art exhibition—The Bikini]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041124201914/http://www.cmp.ucr.edu/exhibitions/ocean-view/essays/lothrop/ The California Swimsuit]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140113031238/http://life.time.com/culture/the-bikini-photos-of-a-summer-fashion-staple/ Two-Piece Be With You: LIFE Celebrates the Bikini]
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Category:1940s fashion
Category:1990s fashion
Category:2000s fashion
Category:2010s fashion
Category:1946 clothing
Category:1940s neologisms
Category:Bikini Atoll
Category:Women's clothing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bikini
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2025-04-05T18:26:53.320609
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4551
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Babur
|
| predecessor = Ibrahim Lodi (as Sultan of Delhi)
| successor = Humayun
| succession1 = Emir of Kabul
| reign1 October 1504 – 21 April 1526
| predecessor1 = Mukin Begh
| successor1 = Himself as the Mughal Emperor
| succession2 = Emir of Fergana
| reign2 = 10 June 1494 – February 1497
| successor2 = Jahangir Mirza II
| predecessor2 = Umar Shaikh Mirza II
| succession3 = Emir of Samarkand
| reign3 = November 1496 – February 1497
| predecessor3 = Baysonqor Mirza
| successor3 = Ali Mirza
| birth_date
| birth_place = Andijan, Timurid Empire
| death_date
| death_place = Agra, Mughal Empire
| burial_place = Gardens of Babur, Kabul, Afghanistan
| spouse =
| spouse-type = Consort
| spouses =
*
*
*
}}
| spouses-type = Wives <br /> more...
| issue =
| issue-link = #Issue
| issue-pipe = more...
| full name = Zahīr ud-Dīn Muhammad Bābur
| posthumous name = Firdaws Makani (Dwelling in Paradise)
| house = House of Babur
| dynasty = Timurid dynasty
| father = Umar Shaikh Mirza II
| mother = Qutlugh Nigar Khanum
| signature = Detail of Babur's dynastic seal, from a Mughal land grant dating from August 1527.jpg
| signature_type = Seal
| religion Sunni Islam
}}
Babur (; 14 February 148326 December 1530; born Zahīr ud-Dīn Muhammad) was the founder of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent. He was a descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan through his father and mother respectively. He was also given the posthumous name of Firdaws Makani ('Dwelling in Paradise').
Born in Andijan in the Fergana Valley (now in Uzbekistan), Babur was the eldest son of Umar Shaikh Mirza II (1456–1494, governor of Fergana from 1469 to 1494) and a great-great-great-grandson of Timur (1336–1405). Babur ascended the throne of Fergana in its capital Akhsikath in 1494 at the age of twelve and faced rebellion. He conquered Samarkand two years later, only to lose Fergana soon after. In his attempt to reconquer Fergana, he lost control of Samarkand. In 1501, his attempt to recapture both the regions failed when the Uzbek prince Muhammad Shaybani defeated him and founded the Khanate of Bukhara.
In 1504, he conquered Kabul, which was under the putative rule of Abdur Razaq Mirza, the infant heir of Ulugh Beg II. Babur formed a partnership with the Safavid emperor Ismail I and reconquered parts of Turkestan, including Samarkand, only to again lose it and the other newly conquered lands to the Shaybanids.
After losing Samarkand for the third time, Babur turned his attention to India and employed aid from the neighbouring Safavid and Ottoman empires. He defeated Ibrahim Lodi, the Sultan of Delhi, at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526 and founded the Mughal Empire. Before the defeat of Lodi at Delhi, the Sultanate of Delhi had been a spent force, long in a state of decline.
The rival adjacent Kingdom of Mewar under the rule of Rana Sanga had become one of the most powerful states in North India. Sanga unified several Rajput clans for the first time after Prithviraj Chauhan and advanced on Babur with a grand coalition of 80,000-100,000 Rajputs, engaging Babur in the Battle of Khanwa. Babur arrived at Khanwa with 40,000-50,000 soldiers. Nonetheless, Sanga suffered a major defeat due to Babur's skillful troop positioning and use of gunpowder, specifically matchlocks and small cannons.
The Battle of Khanwa was one of the most decisive battles in Indian history, more so than the First Battle of Panipat, as the defeat of Rana Sanga was a watershed event in the Mughal conquest of North India.
Religiously, Babur started his life as a staunch Sunni Muslim, but he underwent significant evolution. Babur became more tolerant as he conquered new territories and grew older, allowing other religions to peacefully coexist in his empire and at his court. He also displayed a certain attraction to theology, poetry, geography, history, and biology—disciplines he promoted at his court—earning him a frequent association with representatives of the Timurid Renaissance. His religious and philosophical stances are characterized as humanistic.
Babur married several times. Notable among his children are Humayun, Kamran Mirza, Hindal Mirza, Masuma Sultan Begum, and the author Gulbadan Begum.
Babur died in 1530 in Agra and Humayun succeeded him. Babur was first buried in Agra but, as per his wishes, his remains were moved to Kabul and reburied. The difficulty of pronouncing the name for his Central Asian Turco-Mongol army may have been responsible for the greater popularity of his nickname Babur, also variously spelled Baber, Babar, and Bābor. The word repeatedly appears in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh and was borrowed into the Turkic languages of Central Asia. Background Babur's memoirs form the main source for details of his life. They are known as the Baburnama and were written in Chagatai, his first language, though, according to Dale, "his Turkic prose is highly Persianized in its sentence structure, morphology or word formation and vocabulary." Baburnama was translated into Persian during the rule of Babur's grandson Akbar. ruler of the Fergana Valley, the son of Abū Saʿīd Mirza (and grandson of Miran Shah, who was himself son of Timur) and his wife Qutlugh Nigar Khanum, daughter of Yunus Khan, the ruler of Moghulistan (a descendant of Genghis Khan).
Babur hailed from the Turkic Barlas tribe, which was of Mongol origin and had embraced the Turco-Persian tradition
Some of Babur's relatives, such as his uncles Mahmud Khan (Moghul Khan) and Ahmad Khan, continued to identify as Mongols, and allowed him to use their Mongol troops to help recover his fortunes in the turbulent years that followed.
Hence, Babur, though nominally a Mongol (or Moghul in Persian language), drew much of his support from the local Turkic and Iranian people of Central Asia, and his army was diverse in its ethnic makeup. It included Sarts, Tajiks, ethnic Afghans, Arabs, as well as Barlas and Chaghatayid Turko-Mongols from Central Asia.
Ruler of Central Asia
As ruler of Fergana
In 1494, eleven-year-old Babur became the ruler of Fergana, in present-day Uzbekistan, after Umar Sheikh Mirza died "while tending pigeons in an ill-constructed dovecote that toppled into the ravine below the palace". During this time, two of his uncles from the neighbouring kingdoms, who were hostile to his father, and a group of nobles who wanted his younger brother Jahangir to be the ruler, threatened his succession to the throne. His uncles were relentless in their attempts to dislodge him from this position as well as from many of his other territorial possessions to come. Babur was able to secure his throne mainly because of help from his maternal grandmother, Aisan Daulat Begum, although there was also some luck involved.
Most territories around his kingdom were ruled by his relatives, who were descendants of either Timur or Genghis Khan, and were constantly in conflict. At that time, rival princes were fighting over the city of Samarkand to the west, which was ruled by his paternal cousin. Babur had a great ambition to capture the city. In 1497, he besieged Samarkand for seven months before eventually gaining control over it. He was fifteen years old and for him the campaign was a huge achievement. Babur was able to hold the city despite desertions in his army, but he later fell seriously ill. Meanwhile, a rebellion back home, approximately away, amongst nobles who favoured his brother, robbed him of Fergana. The situation became such that Babar was compelled to give his sister, Khanzada, to Shaybani in marriage as part of the peace settlement. Only after this were Babur and his troops allowed to depart the city in safety. Samarkand, his lifelong obsession, was thus lost again. He then tried to reclaim Fergana, but lost the battle there also and, escaping with a small band of followers, he wandered the mountains of central Asia and took refuge with hill tribes. By 1502, he had resigned all hopes of recovering Fergana; he was left with nothing and was forced to try his luck elsewhere. He finally went to Tashkent, which was ruled by his maternal uncle, but he found himself less than welcome there. Babur wrote, "During my stay in Tashkent, I endured much poverty and humiliation. No country, or hope of one!" Thus, during the ten years since becoming the ruler of Fergana, Babur suffered many short-lived victories and was without shelter and in exile, aided by friends and peasants.
At Kabul
. Dated 1507/8]]
Kabul was ruled by Babur's paternal uncle Ulugh Beg II, who died leaving only an infant as heir. The city was then claimed by Mukin Begh, who was considered to be a usurper and was opposed by the local populace. In 1504, Babur was able to cross the snowy Hindu Kush mountains and capture Kabul from the remaining Arghunids, who were forced to retreat to Kandahar. However, this venture did not take place because Husayn Mirza died in 1506 and his two sons were reluctant to go to war. Babur instead stayed at Herat after being invited by the two Mirza brothers. It was then the cultural capital of the eastern Muslim world. Though he was disgusted by the vices and luxuries of the city, he marvelled at the intellectual abundance there, which he stated was "filled with learned and matched men". He became acquainted with the work of the Chagatai poet Mir Ali Shir Nava'i, who encouraged the use of Chagatai as a literary language. Nava'i's proficiency with the language, which he is credited with founding, may have influenced Babur in his decision to use it for his memoirs. He spent two months there before being forced to leave because of diminishing resources;
Babur and the remaining Timurids used this opportunity to reconquer their ancestral territories. Over the following few years, Babur and Shah Ismail formed a partnership in an attempt to take over parts of Central Asia. In return for Ismail's assistance, Babur permitted the Safavids to act as a suzerain over him and his followers. Thus, in 1513, after leaving his brother Nasir Mirza to rule Kabul, he managed to take Samarkand for the third time; he also took Bokhara but lost both again to the Uzbeks. Babur returned to Kabul after three years in 1514. The following 11 years of his rule mainly involved dealing with relatively insignificant rebellions from Afghan tribes, his nobles and relatives, in addition to conducting raids across the eastern mountains. Babur began to modernise and train his army despite it being, for him, relatively peaceful times. Foreign relations
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Determined to conquer the Uzbeks and recapture his ancestral homeland, Babur was wary of their allies the Ottomans, and made no attempt to establish formal diplomatic relations with them. He did, however, employ the matchlock commander Mustafa Rumi and several other Ottomans. From them, he adopted the tactic of using matchlocks and cannons in the field (rather than only in sieges), which gave him an important advantage in India.
Formation of the Mughal Empire
's standard, Qila Agra, AH 936|170x170px]]
Babur still wanted to escape from the Uzbeks, and he chose India as a refuge instead of Badakhshan, which was to the north of Kabul. He wrote, "In the presence of such power and potency, we had to think of some place for ourselves and, at this crisis and in the crack of time there was, put a wider space between us and the strong foeman." After his third loss of Samarkand, Babur gave full attention to the conquest of North India, launching a campaign; he reached the Chenab River, now in Pakistan, in 1519. He sent an ambassador to Ibrahim, claiming himself the rightful heir to the throne, but the ambassador was detained at Lahore, Punjab, and released months later. When Babur arrived at Lahore, the Lodi army marched out and his army was routed. In response, Babur burned Lahore for two days, then marched to Dibalpur, placing Alam Khan, another rebel uncle of Lodi, as governor. Alam Khan was quickly overthrown and fled to Kabul. In response, Babur supplied Alam Khan with troops who later joined up with Daulat Khan Lodi, and together with about 30,000 troops, they besieged Ibrahim Lodi at Delhi. The sultan easily defeated and drove off Alam's army, and Babur realised that he would not allow him to occupy the Punjab.
Babur marched on to Delhi via Sirhind. He reached Panipat on 20 April 1526 and there met Ibrahim Lodi's numerically superior army of about 100,000 soldiers and 100 elephants.
Many of Babur's men allegedly wanted to leave India due to its warm climate, but Babur motivated them to stay and expand his empire. Battle of Khanwa
in Gwalior in 1527. He ordered them to be destroyed]]
The Battle of Khanwa was fought between Babur and the Rajput ruler of Mewar, Rana Sanga on 16 March 1527. Rana Sanga wanted to overthrow Babur, whom he considered to be a foreigner ruling in India, and also to extend the Rajput territories by annexing Delhi and Agra. He was supported by Afghan chiefs who felt Babur had been deceptive by refusing to fulfil promises made to them. Upon receiving news of Rana Sangha's advance towards Agra, Babur after annexing Gwalior and Bayana took a defensive position at Khanwa (currently in the Indian state of Rajasthan), from where he hoped to launch a counterattack later. According to K.V. Krishna Rao, Babur won the battle because of his "superior generalship" and modern tactics; the battle was one of the first in India that featured cannons and muskets. Rao also notes that Rana Sanga faced "treachery" when the Hindu chief Silhadi joined Babur's army with a garrison of 6,000 soldiers.
Babur recognised Sanga's skill in leadership, calling him one of the two greatest non-Muslim Indian kings of the time, the other being Krishnadevaraya of Vijayanagara.
Battle of Chanderi
The Battle of Chanderi took place the year after the Battle of Khanwa. On receiving news that Rana Sanga had made preparations to renew the conflict with him, Babur decided to isolate the Rana by defeating one of his staunchest allies, Medini Rai, who was the ruler of Malwa.
Upon reaching Chanderi, on 20 January 1528, The violence of Babur in the 1520s was witnessed by Guru Nanak, who commented upon it in four hymns. Historians suggest the early Mughal period of religious violence contributed to introspection and then the transformation in Sikhism from pacifism to militancy for self-defense. In Babur's secret will, in the year 935AH, 1529 AD, to Humayun, Babur advises Humayun to administer justice according to the ways of every religion, avoid sacrifice of the cow, not to ruin the temples and shrines of any law obeying community, overlook the dissensions of the Shias and the Sunnis.
Personal life and relationships
There are no descriptions about Babur's physical appearance, except from the paintings in the translation of the Baburnama prepared during the reign of Akbar. In his autobiography, Babur claimed to be strong and physically fit, and that he had swum across every major river he encountered, including twice across the Ganges River in North India.
Babur did not initially know Old Hindi; however, his Turkic poetry indicates that he picked up some of its vocabulary later in life.
Unlike his father, he had ascetic tendencies and did not have any great interest in women. In his first marriage, he was "bashful" towards Aisha Sultan Begum, later losing his affection for her. Babur showed similar shyness in his interactions with Baburi, a boy in his camp with whom he had an infatuation around this time, recounting that:
However, Babur acquired several more wives and concubines over the years, and as required for a prince, he was able to ensure the continuity of his line.
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Babur's first wife, Aisha Sultan Begum, was his paternal cousin, the daughter of Sultan Ahmad Mirza, his father's brother. She was an infant when betrothed to Babur, who was himself five years old. They married eleven years later, . The couple had one daughter, Fakhr-un-Nissa, who died within a year in 1500. Three years later, after Babur's first defeat at Fergana, Aisha left him and returned to her father's household. In 1504, Babur married Zaynab Sultan Begum, who died childless within two years. In the period 1506–08, Babur married four women, Maham Begum (in 1506), Masuma Sultan Begum, Gulrukh Begum and Dildar Begum.
Babur was opposed to the blind obedience towards the Chinggisid laws and customs that were influential in Turco-Mongol society:<blockquote>"Previously our ancestors had shown unusual respect for the Chingizid code (). They did not violate this code sitting and rising at councils and court, at feasts and dinners. [However] Chingez Khan's code is not a nass qati (categorical text) that a person must follow. Whenever one leaves a good custom, it should be followed. If ancestors leave a bad custom, however it is necessary to substitute a good one."</blockquote>Making clear that to him, the categorical text (i.e. the Quran) had displaced Genghis Khan's Yassa in moral and legal matters.
Poetry
Babur was an acclaimed writer, who had a profound love for literature. His library was one of his most beloved possessions that he always carried around with him, and books were one of the treasures he searched for in new conquered lands. In his memoirs, when he listed sovereigns and nobles of a conquered land, he also mentioned poets, musicians and other educated people.
During his 47-year life, Babur left a rich literary and scientific heritage. He authored his famous memoir the Bāburnāma, as well as beautiful lyrical works or ghazals, treatises on Muslim jurisprudence (Mubayyin), poetics (Aruz risolasi), music, and a special calligraphy, known as khatt-i Baburi.
Babur's Bāburnāma is a collection of memoirs, written in the Chagatai language and later translated into Persian, the usual literary language of the Mughal court, during the rule of emperor Akbar. However, Babur's Turkic prose in Bāburnāma is already highly Persianized in its sentence structure, vocabulary, and morphology, and also consists of several phrases and minor poems in Persian.
Babur wrote most of his poems in Chagatai Turkic, known to him as Türki, but he also composed in Persian. However, he was mostly praised for his literary works written in Turkic, which drew comparison with the poetry of Ali-Shir Nava'i.
<poem>
</poem>
<poem>
I am become a desert wanderer for Islam,
Having joined battle with infidels and Hindus
I readied myself to become a martyr,
God be thanked I am become a ghazi.</poem>
Family
Consorts
*Aisha Sultan Begum ( 1499; 1503), daughter of Sultan Ahmed Mirza — First wife of Babur
*Zainab Sultan Begum ( 1504; 1506–07), daughter of Sultan Mahmud Mirza
*Maham Begum ( 1506) — Babur's chief and favourite consort
*Masuma Sultan Begum ( 1507; 1508), daughter of Sultan Ahmed Mirza and half-sister of Aisha Sultan Begum
*Bibi Mubarika ( 1519), Pashtun of the Yusufzai tribe
*Gulrukh Begum (not to be confused with Babur's daughter Gulrukh Begum, who was also known as Gulbarg Begum)
*Dildar Begum
*Gulnar Aghacha, Circassian concubine
*Nargul Aghacha, Circassian concubine
The identity of the mother of one of Babur's daughters, Gulrukh Begum is disputed. Gulrukh's mother may have been the daughter of Sultan Mahmud Mirza by his wife Pasha Begum who is referred to as Saliha Sultan Begum in certain secondary sources, however this name is not mentioned in the Baburnama or the works of Gulbadan Begum, which casts doubt on her existence. This woman may never have existed at all or she may even be the same woman as Dildar Begum.
Issue
The sons of Babur were:
*Humayun ( 1508; 1556) — with Maham Begum — succeeded Babur as the second Mughal Emperor
*Kamran Mirza ( 1512; 1557) — with Gulrukh Begum
*Askari Mirza ( 1518; 1557) — with Gulrukh Begum
*Hindal Mirza ( 1519; 1551) — with Dildar Begum
*Ahmad Mirza ( young) — with Gulrukh Begum
*Shahrukh Mirza ( young) — with Gulrukh Begum
*Barbul Mirza ( infancy) — with Maham Begum
*Alwar Mirza ( young) — with Dildar Begum
*Faruq Mirza ( infancy) — with Maham Begum
The daughters of Babur were:
*Fakhr-un-Nissa Begum ( & 1501) — with Aisha Sultan Begum
*Aisan Daulat Begum ( infancy) — with Maham Begum
*Mehr Jahan Begum ( infancy) — with Maham Begum
*Masuma Sultan Begum ( 1508) — with Masuma Sultan Begum — Married to Muhammad Zaman Mirza.
*Gulzar Begum ( infancy) — with Gulrukh Begum
*Gulrukh Begum (Gulbarg Begum) — Identity of mother is disputed, may have been Dildar Begum or Saliha Sultan Begum — Married to Nuruddin Muhammad Mirza, son of Khwaja Hasan Naqshbandi, with whom she had Salima Sultan Begum, wife of Bairam Khan and later the Mughal Emperor Akbar.
*Gulbadan Begum ( – 1603) — with Dildar Begum — Married Khizr Khwaja Khan, son of her father's cousin Aiman Khwajah Sultan of Moghulistan, son of Ahmad Alaq of Moghulistan, the maternal uncle of Emperor Babur.
*Gulchehra Begum ( – 1557) — with Dildar Begum — Married firstly in 1530 to Sultan Tukhta Bugha Khan, son of Ahmad Alaq of Moghulistan, the maternal uncle of Emperor Babur. Married secondly to Abbas Sultan Uzbeg.
*Gulrang Begum — with Dildar Begum — Married in 1530 to Isan Timur Sultan, ninth son of Ahmad Alaq of Moghulistan, the maternal uncle of Emperor Babur.
Death and legacy
|thumb]]
Babur died in Agra at the age of 47 on and was succeeded by his eldest son, Humayun. He was first buried in Chauburji, Agra. Later as per his wishes, his mortal remains were moved to Kabul and reburied in Bagh-e Babur in Kabul sometime between 1539 and 1544.
For example, F. Lehmann states in the Encyclopædia Iranica:
Although all applications of modern Central Asian ethnicities to people of Babur's time are anachronistic, Soviet and Uzbek sources regard Babur as an ethnic Uzbek. At the same time, during the Soviet Union Uzbek scholars were censored for idealising and praising Babur and other historical figures such as Ali-Shir Nava'i.
|176x176px]]Babur is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan. On 14 February 2008, stamps in his name were issued in the country to commemorate his 525th birth anniversary. Many of Babur's poems have become popular Uzbek folk songs, especially by Sherali Joʻrayev. Some sources claim that Babur is a national hero in Kyrgyzstan too. In October 2005, Pakistan developed the Babur Cruise Missile, named in his honour.
Shahenshah Babar, an Indian film about the emperor directed by Wajahat Mirza was released in 1944. The 1960 Indian biographical film Babar by Hemen Gupta covered the emperor's life with Gajanan Jagirdar in the lead role.
One of the enduring features of Babur's life was that he left behind the lively and well-written autobiography known as Baburnama. Quoting Henry Beveridge, Stanley Lane-Poole writes:
In his own words, "The cream of my testimony is this, do nothing against your brothers even though they may deserve it." Also, "The new year, the spring, the wine and the beloved are joyful. Babur make merry, for the world will not be there for you a second time."
Babri Masjid
The Babri Masjid ("Babur's Mosque") in Ayodhya, was constructed by Mir Baqi (commander of the Babur), according to the mosque's inscriptions, in 1528–29 (935 AH). On 6 December 1992, Babri Masjid was demolished by a large group of activists of the Vishva Hindu Parishad and allied organisations.
In 2003 the Allahabad High Court ordered the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) to conduct a more in-depth study and an excavation to ascertain the type of structure beneath the mosque. The excavation was conducted from 12 March 2003 to 7 August 2003, resulting in 1360 discoveries.
The summary of the ASI report indicated the presence of a 10th-century temple under the mosque. The ASI team said that, human activity at the site dates back to the 13th century BCE. The next few layers date back to the Shunga period (second-first century BCE) and the Kushan period. During the early medieval period (11–12th century CE), a huge but short-lived structure of nearly 50 metres north–south orientation was constructed. On the remains of this structure, another massive structure was constructed: this structure had at least three structural phases and three successive floors attached with it. The report concluded that it was over the top of this construction that the disputed structure was constructed during the early 16th century. Archaeologist KK Muhammed, the only Muslim member in the team of people surveying the excavation, also confirmed individually that there existed a temple like structure before the Babri Masjid was constructed over it.
Several archaeologists disputed ASI findings. According to archaeologist Supriya Verma and Jaya Menon, who observed the excavations on behalf of the Sunni Waqf Board, "the ASI was operating with a preconceived notion of discovering the remains of a temple beneath the demolished mosque, even selectively altering the evidence to suit its hypothesis." this allegation particularly focused on the "pillar bases" central to the claim of a temple, which Verma and Menon alleged were irregularly shaped, irregularly spaced and largely the result of selective excavation, rather than representing genuine evidence of pillars.
The Supreme Court judgement of 2019 granted the entire disputed land to the Hindus for construction of a temple, stating that Hindus continue to worship at the site and continued to hold the land outside the yard. It also held that there is nothing to prove that the structure, which was present before the construction of the mosque, was demolished for the purpose of building mosque or was already in ruins.
Citations
References
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Category:1483 births
Category:1530 deaths
Category:People from Andijan
Category:1530 in India
Category:Timurid dynasty
Category:16th-century Indian monarchs
Category:Indian Sunni Muslims
Category:Emperors of the Mughal Empire
Category:16th-century Indian Muslims
Category:Turkic culture
Category:Founding monarchs
Category:16th-century Mughal Empire people
Category:Chagatai-language writers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babur
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Bernard of Clairvaux
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, Madrid, Spain}}
| titles =
| birth_name | birth_date
| birth_place = Fontaine-lès-Dijon, Burgundy,
| home_town | residence
| death_date = 20 August 1153 (aged 62–63)
| death_place = Clairvaux Abbey, Clairvaux, Champagne,
| venerated_in Bernard's example was so convincing that scores (among them his own father) followed him into the monastic life. As a result, he is considered the patron of religious vocations.
Abbot of Clairvaux
, ]]
, ]]
The little community of reformed Benedictines at Cîteaux grew rapidly. Three years after entering, Bernard was sent with a group of twelve monks to found a new house at Vallée d'Absinthe, in the Diocese of Langres. This Bernard named Claire Vallée, or Clairvaux, on 25 June 1115, and the names of Bernard and Clairvaux soon became inseparable. Bernard was made abbot by William of Champeaux, Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne. From then on a strong friendship grew between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at Notre Dame of Paris and the founder of St. Victor Abbey in Paris.
The beginnings of Clairvaux Abbey were austere and Bernard even more so. He had often been ill since his noviciate, due to extreme fasting. Nonetheless, candidates for the monastic life flocked to him in great numbers. Clairvaux soon started founding new communities.
Bernard spent extended time outside of the abbey as a preacher and a diplomat in the service of the pope. Described by Jean-Baptiste Chautard as "the most contemplative and yet at the same time the most active man of his age," Bernard described the disparate parts of his personality when he called himself the "chimera of his age."
In addition to successes, Bernard also had his trials. Once, when he was absent from Clairvaux, the prior of the rival Abbey of Cluny went to Clairvaux and convinced Bernard's cousin, Robert of Châtillon, to become a Benedictine. This was the occasion of the longest and most emotional of Bernard's letters. When his brother Gerard died, Bernard was devastated, and his deep mourning was the inspiration for one of his most moving sermons.
The Cluny Benedictines were unhappy to see Cîteaux gain such prominence so quickly, particularly since many Benedictines were becoming Cistercians. They criticized the Cistercian way of life. At the solicitation of William of St.-Thierry, Bernard defended the Cistercians with his Apology. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, answered Bernard and assured him of his admiration and friendship. In the meantime, Cluny launched a reform and Bernard befriended Abbot Suger.Doctor of the Church
]]
Although acknowledged as "a difficult saint," Bernard has remained influential in the centuries since his death and was named a Doctor of the Church in 1830. In 1953, on the 800th anniversary of his death, Pope Pius XII devoted the encyclical Doctor Mellifluus to him. He labeled the abbot "the last of the Fathers."
In opposition to the rational approach to understanding God used by the scholastics, Bernard preached in a poetic manner, using appeals to affect and conversion to nurture a more immediate faith experience. He is considered to be a master of Christian rhetoric: "His use of language remains perhaps his most universal legacy." He contributed lyrics to the Cistercian Hymnal.
As a mariologist, Bernard insisted on Mary's central role in Christian theology and preached effectively on Marian devotions. He developed the theology of her role as Co-Redemptrix and mediator.
As a master of prayer, the abbot emphasized the value of personal, experiential friendship with Christ.
Schism
Bernard made a self-confident impression and had an undeniable charisma in the eyes of his contemporaries; "his first and greatest miracle," wrote the historian Holdsworth, "was himself." He defended the rights of the church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henri Sanglier, archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis, bishop of Paris. When Honorius II died in 1130, a schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes, Pope Innocent II and Antipope Anacletus II. Innocent, having been banished from Rome by Anacletus, took refuge in France. King Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Étampes and Bernard, summoned there by the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. He decided in favour of Innocent.
Bernard travelled on to Italy and reconciled Pisa with Genoa, and Milan with the pope. The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II. He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William X, Duke of Aquitaine, from the cause of Anacletus.
]]
Germany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten, who was a friend of Bernard's. Pope Innocent, however, insisted on Bernard's company when he met with Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor. Lothair II became Innocent's strongest ally among the nobility. Although the councils of Étampes, Würzburg, Clermont, and Rheims all supported Innocent, large portions of the Christian world still supported Anacletus.
In a letter by Bernard to German Emperor Lothair regarding Antipope Anacletus, Bernard wrote, "It is a disgrace for Christ that a Jew sits on the throne of St. Peter's" and "Anacletus has not even a good reputation with his friends, while Innocent is illustrious beyond all doubt." (One of Anacletus' great-great-grandparents, Benedictus, maybe Baruch in Hebrew, was a Jew who had converted to Christianity - but Anacletus himself was not a Jew, and his family had been Christians for three generations).
Bernard wrote to Gerard of Angoulême (a letter known as Letter 126), which questioned Gerard's reasons for supporting Anacletus. Bernard later commented that Gerard was his most formidable opponent during the whole schism. After persuading Gerard, Bernard travelled to visit William X, Duke of Aquitaine. He was the hardest for Bernard to convince. He did not pledge allegiance to Innocent until 1135. After that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy persuading the Italians to pledge allegiance to Innocent.
In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny, the pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to that abbey. This action gave rise to a quarrel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which lasted 20 years. In May of that year, the pope, supported by the army of Lothair III, entered Rome, but Lothair III, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September 1133. Bernard had returned to France in June and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130.
Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism. Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre. At the Eucharist, he "admonished the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants". William yielded and the schism ended.
Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent. He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to the pope as they had followed the deposed Anselm V, Archbishop of Milan. For this, he was offered, and he refused, the see of Milan. He then returned to Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, Bernard devoted himself to the composition of the works which won him the title of "Doctor of the Church". He wrote at this time his sermons on the Song of Songs.}}
In 1137, he was again forced to leave the abbey by order of the pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothair and Roger of Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II. He also silenced the final supporters who sustained the schism. Anacletus died of "grief and disappointment" in 1138, and with him, the schism ended.
In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, in which the surviving adherents of the schism were definitively condemned. About the same time, Bernard was visited at Clairvaux by Malachy, Primate of All Ireland, and a very close friendship formed between them. Malachy wanted to become a Cistercian, but the pope would not give his permission. Malachy died at Clairvaux in 1148.
Conflict with Abelard
Towards the close of the 11th century, a spirit of independence flourished within schools of philosophy and theology. The movement found an ardent and powerful advocate in Peter Abelard. Abelard's treatise on the Trinity had been condemned as heretical in 1121, and he was compelled to throw his own book into a fire. However, Abelard continued to develop his controversial teachings. Bernard is said to have held a meeting with Abelard intending to persuade him to amend his writings, during which Abelard repented and promised to do so. But once out of Bernard's presence, he reneged.
Bernard then denounced Abelard to the pope and cardinals of the Curia. Abelard sought a debate with Bernard, but Bernard initially declined, saying he did not feel matters of such importance should be settled by logical analyses. Bernard's letters to William of St-Thierry also express his apprehension about confronting the preeminent logician. Abelard continued to press for a public debate, and made his challenge widely known, making it hard for Bernard to decline. In 1141, at the urgings of Abelard, the archbishop of Sens called a council of bishops, where Abelard and Bernard were to put their respective cases so Abelard would have a chance to clear his name.
Bernard lobbied the prelates on the evening before the debate, swaying many of them to his view. The next day, after Bernard made his opening statement, Abelard decided to retire without attempting to answer. The council found in favour of Bernard and their judgment was confirmed by the pope. Abelard submitted without resistance, and he retired to Cluny to live under the protection of Peter the Venerable, where he died two years later.The challenge of heresyBernard had occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his overcrowded monastery into Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy. Some of these, at the command of Innocent II, took possession of Tre Fontane Abbey, from which Eugene III was chosen in 1145. Pope Innocent II died in the year 1143. His two successors, Pope Celestine II and Pope Lucius II, reigned only a short time, and then Bernard saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, known thereafter as Eugene III, raised to the Chair of Saint Peter. Bernard sent him, at the pope's own request, various instructions which comprise the often-quoted De consideratione. Its main argument is that church reform ought to start with the pope. Temporal matters are merely accessories; Bernard insists that piety and meditation were to precede action.
Having previously helped end the schism within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk, had adopted the teachings of the Petrobrusians, followers of Peter of Bruys and spread them in a modified form after Peter's death. Henry of Lausanne's followers became known as Henricians. In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard travelled in southern France. His preaching, aided by his ascetic looks and simple attire, helped doom the new sects. Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian faiths began to die out by the end of that year. Soon afterwards, Henry of Lausanne was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. He also preached against Catharism. Prior to the second hearing of Gilbert of Poitiers at the Council of Reims 1148, Bernard held a private meeting with a number of the attendees, attempting to pressure them to condemn Gilbert. This offended the various cardinals in attendance, who then proceeded to insist that they were the only persons who could judge the case, and no verdict of heresy was placed against Gilbert.
Monastic and clerical preaching
As abbot, Bernard often addressed his community, but he also spoke to other monastics and, in one particularly famous case, to students of Theology in Paris. He gave the sermon Ad clericos de conversione (to clerics on conversion) in 1139 or early 1140, to a group of scholars and student clerics. His many sermons on the Song of Songs belong to the often-studied sermons he addressed to the monks at Clairvaux.
Crusade preaching
Second Crusade (1146–1149)
in 1146]]
News came at this time from the Holy Land that alarmed Christendom. Christians had been defeated at the Siege of Edessa and most of the county had fallen into the hands of the Seljuk Turks. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states were threatened with similar disaster. Deputations of the bishops of Armenia solicited aid from the pope, and the King of France also sent ambassadors. In 1144 Eugene III commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade<!--what were they? 1st Crusade article doesn't mention-->.
There was at first virtually no popular enthusiasm for the crusade as there had been in 1095. Bernard found it expedient to dwell upon taking the cross as a potent means of gaining absolution for sin and attaining grace. On 31 March, with King Louis VII of France present, he preached to an enormous crowd in a field at Vézelay, making "the speech of his life". When he had finished, many of his listeners enlisted; they supposedly ran out of the cloth used to make crosses for the new recruits.
Unlike the First Crusade, the new venture attracted royalty, such as the French queen Eleanor of Aquitaine and scores of high aristocrats and bishops. But an even greater show of support came from the common people. Bernard wrote Pope Eugene a few days afterwards, "Cities and castles are now empty. There is not left one man to seven women, and everywhere there are widows to still-living husbands."
Bernard then passed into Germany, with reported miracles contributing to the success of his mission. King Conrad III of Germany and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, received the cross from the hand of Bernard. Pope Eugenius came in person to France to encourage the enterprise. As in the First Crusade, the preaching led to attacks on Jews; a fanatical French monk named Radulf was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, and Speyer, with Radulf claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land. The archbishop of Cologne and the archbishop of Mainz were vehemently opposed to these attacks and asked Bernard to denounce them. This he did, but when the campaign continued, Bernard travelled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problems in person. He then found Radulf in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning him to his monastery.
The last years of Bernard's life were saddened by the failure of the Second Crusade he had preached, and the entire responsibility which was thrown upon him. Bernard sent an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his "Book of Considerations". There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures.
Wendish Crusade (1147)
Bernard did not actually preach the Wendish Crusade, but he did write a letter that advocated subduing this group of Western Slavs so that they should not be an obstacle to the Second Crusade. He was for battling them "until such a time as, by God's help, they shall either be converted or deleted". A decree issued in Frankfurt stated that the letter should be proclaimed widely and read aloud, so that "the letter functioned as a sermon."Final years (1149–1153)
in 1146.]]
The death of his contemporaries served as a warning to Bernard of his own approaching end. The first to die was Suger in 1152, of whom Bernard wrote to Eugene III, "If there is any precious vase adorning the palace of the King of Kings it is the soul of the venerable Suger." Conrad III and his son Henry died the same year. Bernard died at age sixty-three on 20 August 1153, after forty years of monastic life. He was buried at Clairvaux Abbey. After its destruction in 1792 by the French Revolutionary government his remains were transferred to Troyes Cathedral.
Legacy
Bernard's theology and Mariology continue to be of major importance. Bernard helped found 163 monasteries in different parts of Europe. Cistercians honour him as one of the greatest early Cistercians. His feast day is 20 August.
Bernard is Dante Alighieri's last guide, in Divine Comedy, as he travels through the Empyrean.
John Calvin and Martin Luther quoted Bernard several times in support of the doctrine of Sola Fide. Calvin also quotes him in setting forth his doctrine of forensic alien righteousness, or as it is commonly called imputed righteousness. Bernard introduced a major shift, a "fundamental reorientation" into medieval theology.
The Couvent et Basilique Saint-Bernard, a collection of buildings dating from the 12th, 17th, and 19th centuries, is dedicated to Bernard and stands in his birthplace of Fontaine-lès-Dijon.
*
* Addressed to Pope Eugene III.
*
* De moribus et officio episcoporum (in Latin). A letter to Henri Sanglier, Archbishop of Sens on the duties of bishops.).}}
His sermons are also numerous:
* Most famous are his (Sermons on the Song of Songs). They may have found their origins in sermons preached to the monks of Clairvaux, but theories differ.}} These sermons contain an autobiographical passage, sermon 26, mourning the death of his brother, Gerard. After Bernard died, the English Cistercian Gilbert of Hoyland continued Bernard's incomplete series of 86 sermons on the biblical Song of Songs.
* There are 125 surviving (Sermons on the Liturgical Year).
* There are also (Sermons on Different Topics).
* 547 letters survive.Misattributions
Numerous letters, treatises, and other works were falsely attributed to him. These include:
*
* This was probably written at some point in the thirteenth century. It circulated extensively in the Middle Ages under Bernard's name and was one of the most popular religious works of the later Middle Ages. Its theme is self-knowledge as the beginning of wisdom; it begins with the phrase "Many know much, but do not know themselves".
*
* The hymn Jesu dulcis memoria.
* L’enfer est plein de bonnes volontés ou désirs [<nowiki/>hell is full of good intentions and wills]. Francis de Sales, in a letter to Madame de Chantal in 1604. No works have been found with this proverb.
Translations
* On consideration, translated by George Lewis, (Oxford, 1908) https://books.google.com/books?id=kkoJAQAAIAAJ
* Select treatises of S. Bernard of Clairvaux: De diligendo Deo & De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae, (Cambridge: CUP, 1926)
* On loving God, and selections from sermons, edited by Hugh Martin, (London: SCM Press, 1959) [reprinted as (Westport, CO: Greenwood Press, 1981)]
* ''Cistercians and Cluniacs: St. Bernard's Apologia to Abbot William, translated by Michael Casey. Cistercian Fathers series no. 1, (Kalamazoo: Cistercian Publications, 1970)
* The works of Bernard of Clairvaux. Vol.1, Treatises, 1, edited by M. Basil Pennington. Cistercian Fathers Series, no. 1. (Spencer, Mass.: Cistercian Publications, 1970) [contains the treatises Apologia to Abbot William and On Precept and Dispensation, and two shorter liturgical treatises]
* Bernard of Clairvaux, On the Song of Songs, 4 vols, Cistercian Fathers series nos 4, 7, 31, 40, (Spencer, MA: Cistercian Publications, 1971–80)
* Letter of Saint Bernard of Clairvaux on revision of Cistercian chant = Epistola S[ancti] Bernardi de revisione cantus Cisterciensis, edited and translated by Francis J. Guentner, (American Institute of Musicology, 1974)
* Treatises II: The steps of humility and pride on loving God, Cistercian Fathers series no. 13 (Washington: Cistercian Publications, 1984)
* Five books on consideration: advice to a Pope, translated by John D. Anderson & Elizabeth T. Kennan. Cistercian Fathers Series no. 37. (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1976)
* The Works of Bernard of Clairvaux. Volume Seven, Treatises III: On Grace and free choice. In praise of the new knighthood, translated by Conrad Greenia. Cistercian Fathers Series no. 19, (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications Inc., 1977)
* The life and death of Saint Malachy, the Irishman translated and annotated by Robert T. Meyer, (Kalamazoo, Mich.: Cistercian Publications, 1978)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, Homiliae in laudibus Virginis Matris, in Magnificat: homilies in praise of the Blessed Virgin Mary translated by Marie-Bernard Saïd and Grace Perigo, Cistercian Fathers Series no. 18, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1979)
* Sermons on Conversion: on conversion, a sermon to clerics and Lenten sermons on the psalm "He Who Dwells", Cistercian Fathers Series no. 25, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1981)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, Song of Solomon, translated by Samuel J. Eales, (Minneapolis, MN: Klock & Klock, 1984)
* St. Bernard's sermons on the Blessed Virgin Mary, translated from the original Latin by a priest of Mount Melleray, (Chumleigh: Augustine, 1984)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, The twelve steps of humility and pride; and, On loving God, edited by Halcyon C. Backhouse, (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1985)
* St. Bernard's sermons on the Nativity, translated from the original Latin by a priest of Mount Melleray, (Devon: Augustine, 1985)
* Bernard of Clairvaux : selected works, translation and foreword by G.R. Evans; introduction by Jean Leclercq; preface by Ewert H. Cousins (New York: Paulist Press, 1987) [contains the treatises On conversion, On the steps of humility and pride, On consideration, and On loving God; extracts from Sermons on The song of songs, and a selection of letters]
* Conrad Rudolph, The 'Things of Greater Importance': Bernard of Clairvaux's Apologia and the Medieval Attitude Toward Art, (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990) [Includes the Apologia'' in both Leclercq's Latin text and English translation]
* Love without measure: extracts from the writings of St Bernard of Clairvaux, introduced and arranged by Paul Diemer, Cistercian studies series no. 127, (Kalamazoo, Mich. : Cistercian Publications, 1990)
* Sermons for the summer season: liturgical sermons from Rogationtide and Pentecost, translated by Beverly Mayne Kienzle; additional translations by James Jarzembowski, (Kalamazoo, Mich: Cistercian Publications, 1991)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, On loving God, Cistercian Fathers series no. 13B, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1995)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, The parables & the sentences, edited by Maureen M. O'Brien. Cistercian Fathers Series no. 55, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2000)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, On baptism and the office of bishops, on the conduct and office of bishops, on baptism and other questions: two letter-treatises, translated by Pauline Matarasso. Cistercian Fathers Series no. 67, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2004)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermons for Advent and the Christmas season translated by Irene Edmonds, Wendy Mary Beckett, Conrad Greenia; edited by John Leinenweber; introduction by Wim Verbaal. Cistercian Fathers Series no. 51, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2007)
* Bernard of Clairvaux, Sermons for Lent and the Easter Season, edited by John Leinenweber and Mark Scott, OCSO. Cistercian Fathers Series no. 52, (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 2013)
References
Notes
Citations
Sources
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* Pierre Aubé: Saint Bernard de Clairvaux, Paris, éd. Fayard, 2003, 812 pages.
* |isbn9780879077075}}
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* }} 6 tomes in 4 volumes.
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External links
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* [http://www.bartleby.com/210/8/201.html "St. Bernard, Abbot"], ''Butler's Lives of the Saints
* [http://www.binetti.ru/bernardus/ Opera omnia Sancti Bernardi Claraevallensis] his complete works, in Latin
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070930020043/http://www.waysideaudio.com/audio/bernard/bernard.html Audio on the life of St. Bernard of Clairvaux] from waysideaudio.com
* [https://cistopedia.org/imagesofbernard/startpage.htm Database with all known medieval representations of Bernard]
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/bernard.html Saint Bernard of Clairvaux] at the [http://www.christianiconography.info/index.html Christian Iconography] web site.
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/bernard.htm "Here Followeth the Life of St. Bernard, the Mellifluous Doctor"] from the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend''
* [http://www.fordham.edu/Halsall/source/1150bernard-2accs.asp "Two Accounts of the Early Career of St. Bernard"] by William of Thierry and Arnold of Bonneval
* [http://www.ewtn.com/library/mary/bernard2.htm Saint Bernard of Clairvaux Abbot, Doctor of the Church-1153] at EWTN Global Catholic Network
* [http://www.stpetersbasilica.info/Exterior/Colonnades/Saints/St%20Bernard-18/StBernard.htm Colonnade Statue St Peter's Square]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_026.html Lewis E 26 De consideratione (On Consideration) at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0028/html/ms_484_011.html MS 484/11 Super cantica canticorum at OPenn]
}}
Category:1090 births
Category:1153 deaths
Category:12th-century Christian mystics
Category:12th-century Christian saints
Category:12th-century French Roman Catholic priests
Category:12th-century Roman Catholic theologians
Category:Christian ethicists
Category:Christians of the Second Crusade
Category:Cistercian saints
Category:Doctors of the Church
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Category:French Cistercians
Category:French male writers
Category:French religious writers
Category:French Roman Catholic saints
Category:Knights Templar
Category:Medieval French saints
Category:Medieval French theologians
Category:People from Fontaine-lès-Dijon
Category:Pre-Reformation saints of the Lutheran liturgical calendar
Category:Catholic Mariology
Category:Roman Catholic mystics
Category:Christian miracle workers
Category:12th-century French writers
Category:12th-century writers in Latin
Category:Anglican saints
Category:Monastic theologians
Category:Characters in the Divine Comedy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux
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Bishkek
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| imagesize | image_caption Clockwise from top: view from Bishkek south towards the Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range; Bishkek Central Mosque; Residential Area of the City; Victory Square and Bishkek City Hall
| image_flag = Flag of Bishkek.svg
| image_shield = Coat of arms of Bishkek Kyrgyzstan.svg
| pushpin_map = Kyrgyzstan#Asia
| pushpin_relief = 1
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_mapsize = 250
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Kyrgyzstan
| coordinates
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = City
| subdivision_name1 Bishkek
| established_title = Founded
| established_date = 1825
| parts_type District
| parts_style = list
| parts = Districts
| p1 = Birinchi May
| p2 = Lenin
| p3 = Oktyabr
| p4 = Sverdlov
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Aibek Junushaliev
| area_footnotes
| area_total_km2 = 386.0
| area_total_sq_mi | elevation_footnotes
| elevation_m = 800
| elevation_ft | population_total 1145044
| population_as_of = 2023
| population_footnotes =
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi = auto
| population_est | pop_est_as_of
| timezone = KGT
| utc_offset = +06:00
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 720000–720085
| area_code = (+996) 312
| area_code_type | registration_plate B, E, 01
| blank_name_sec1 = HDI (2021)
| blank_info_sec1 0.739<br /> · 1st
| website =
| flag_size = 120px
| shield_size = 75px
| flag_link = Flag of Bishkek
| shield_link = Coat of Arms
| footnotes | translit_lang1_type1 ISO 9
| translit_lang1_info1 = Biškek
| translit_lang1_type2 = BGN/PCGN
| translit_lang1_info2 = Bishkek
| translit_lang1_type3 = ALA-LC
| translit_lang1_info3 = Bishkek
| official_name =
}}
Bishkek,, ; , }} formerly known as Pishpek (until 1926),.}} and then Frunze (1926–1991),.}} is the capital and largest city of Kyrgyzstan. Bishkek is also the administrative centre of the Chüy Region. Bishkek is situated near the border with Kazakhstan and has a population of 1,074,075, as of 2021.
The Khanate of Kokand established the fortress of Pishpek in 1825 to control local caravan routes and to collect tribute from Kyrgyz tribes. On 4 September 1860, with the approval of the Kyrgyz, Russian forces led by Colonel Apollon Zimmermann destroyed the fortress. In the present day, the fortress ruins can be found just north of Jibek Jolu Street, near the new main mosque. A Russian settlement was established in 1868 on the site of the fortress under its original name, Pishpek. It lay within the General Governorship of Russian Turkestan and its Semirechye Oblast.
The Kara-Kirghiz Autonomous Oblast was established in 1925 in Russian Turkestan, promoting Pishpek to its capital. In 1926, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union renamed the city Frunze, after Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze (1885–1925), who was born there. Frunze became the capital of the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, during the final stages of national delimitation in the Soviet Union. In 1991, the Kyrgyz parliament changed the capital's name to a modified original name of Pishpek as Bishkek.
Bishkek is situated at an altitude of about , just off the northern fringe of the Kyrgyz Ala-Too Range, an extension of the Tian Shan mountain range. These mountains rise to a height of . North of the city, a fertile and gently undulating steppe extends far north into neighboring Kazakhstan. The river Chüy drains most of the area. Bishkek is connected to the Turkestan–Siberia Railway by a spur line.
Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings combined with numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks surrounding interior courtyards. There are also thousands of smaller, privately built houses, mostly outside the city centre. Streets follow a grid pattern, with most flanked on both sides by narrow irrigation channels, which provide water to trees which provide shade during the hot summers.
Etymology
Bishkek is supposedly named after the paddle used to churn fermenting milk.
The official website of the Bishkek's city hall provides the following etymological justification for the name of the city: the pregnant wife of a hero lost a paddle used to churn kumis. While looking for it, she suddenly gave birth to a boy, who she named Bishkek. Bishkek would grow up to be a noble figure and after his death, was buried on a mound near the banks of the Alamüdün. There, a tombstone was erected. The building was seen and described by travelers of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Under Soviet rule, from 1926 to 1991, the city was named Frunze in honor of Bolshevik Mikhail Frunze.
History
Based on DNA evidence, the area near Bishkek is considered one of the possible origins of the Black Death between AD 1346 and 1353.
Kokhand rule
Originally a caravan rest stop, possibly founded by the Sogdians, on one of the branches of the Silk Road through the Tian Shan range, the location was fortified in 1825 by the khan of Kokand with a mud fort. In the last years of Kokhand rule, the Pishpek fortress was led by Atabek, the Datka. In 1844, the forces of Ormon Khan, the leader of the , briefly captured the fortress.
Tsarist era
In 1860, Imperial Russia annexed the area, and the military forces of Colonel Apollon Zimmerman took and razed the fort. Colonel Zimmermann rebuilt the town over the destroyed fort and appointed field-Poruchik Titov as head of a new Russian garrison. The Imperial Russian government redeveloped the site from 1877 onward, encouraging the settlement of Russian peasants by giving them fertile land to develop.
Soviet era
near the railway station]]
In 1926, the city became the capital of the newly established Kirghiz ASSR and was renamed Frunze after Mikhail Frunze, Lenin's close associate who was born in Bishkek and played key roles during the revolutions of 1905 and 1917 and during the Russian Civil War of the early 1920s.
Independence era
The early 1990s were a tumultuous time for Bishkek. In June 1990, a state of emergency was declared following severe ethnic riots in southern Kyrgyzstan that threatened to spread to the capital. The city was renamed Bishkek on 5 February 1991, and Kyrgyzstan achieved independence later that year during the breakup of the Soviet Union. Before independence, the majority of Bishkek's population were ethnic Russians. In 2004, Russians made up approximately 20% of the city's population, and about in 2011.
Bishkek is Kyrgyzstan's financial centre, with all of the country's 21 commercial banks headquartered there. During the Soviet era, the city was home to many industrial plants, but most have been shut down since 1991 or now operate on a much-reduced scale. One of Bishkek's largest employment centres today is the Dordoy Bazaar open market, where many of the Chinese goods imported to CIS countries are sold.
Geography
, 1948)]]
Orientation
Although Bishkek itself is relatively young, its surrounding area has some sites of interest dating to prehistoric times. There are also sites from the Greco-Buddhist period, the period of Nestorian influence, the era of the Central Asian khanates, and the Soviet period.
The central part of the city is laid out on a rectangular grid plan. The city's main street is the east-west Chüy Avenue (Chüy Prospekti), named after the region's main river. In the Soviet era, it was called Lenin Avenue. Along or near it are many important government buildings and universities. These include the Academy of Sciences compound. The westernmost section of the avenue is known as Deng Xiaoping Avenue.
The main north–south street is Yusup Abdrakhmanov Street, still commonly referred to by its old name, Sovietskaya Street. Its northern and southern sections are called, respectively, Yelebesov and Baityk Batyr Streets. Several major shopping centres are located along with it, and in the north, it provides access to Dordoy Bazaar.
Erkindik ("Freedom") Boulevard runs from north to south, from the main railroad station (Bishkek II) south of Chüy Avenue to the museum quarter and sculpture park just north of Chüy Avenue, and further north toward the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In the past, it was called Dzerzhinsky Boulevard, named after a Communist revolutionary, Felix Dzerzhinsky, and its northern continuation is still called Dzerzhinsky Street.
An important east–west street is Jibek Jolu ('Silk Road'). It runs parallel to Chüy Avenue about north of it and is part of the main east–west road of Chüy Region. Both the eastern and western bus terminals are located along Jibek Jolu.
There is a Roman Catholic church located at ul. Vasiljeva 197 (near Rynok Bayat). It is the only Catholic cathedral in Kyrgyzstan.
A stadium named in honour of Dolon Omurzakov is located near the centre of Bishkek. This is the largest stadium in the Kyrgyz Republic.
City centre
* Kyrgyz State Historical Museum, located in Ala-Too Square, the main city square.
* State Museum of Applied Arts, containing examples of traditional Kyrgyz handicrafts.
* Frunze House Museum.
* Statue of Ivan Panfilov in the park near the White House.
* An equestrian statue of Mikhail Frunze stands in a large park (Boulevard Erkindik) across from the train station.
* The train station was built in 1946 by German prisoners of war and has survived since then without further renovation or repairs; most of those who built it perished and were buried in unmarked pits near the station.
* The main government building, the White House, is a large seven-story marble building and the former headquarters of the Communist Party of the Kirghiz SSR.
* At Ala-Too Square there is an independence monument where the changing of the guards may be watched.
*Osh Bazaar, west of the city centre, is a large, picturesque produce market.
*Kyrgyz National Philharmonic, concert hall.
Outer neighbourhoods
The Dordoy Bazaar, just inside the bypass highway on the north-eastern edge of the city, is a major retail and wholesale market.
Outside the city
The Kyrgyz Ala-Too mountain range, some away, provides a spectacular backdrop to the city; the Ala Archa National Park is only a 30 to 45 minutes drive away.
Distances
Bishkek is about 300 km away directly from the country's second largest city Osh. However, its nearest large city is Almaty of Kazakhstan, which is 190 km to the east. Furthermore, it is 470 km from Tashkent (Uzbekistan), 680 km from Dushanbe (Tajikistan), and about 1,000 km each from Astana (Kazakhstan), Ürümqi (China), Islamabad (Pakistan), and Kabul (Afghanistan).
Climate
Bishkek has a Mediterranean-influenced humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dsa), as the average mean temperature in the winter is below . Average precipitation is around per year. Average daily high temperatures range from in January to about during July.
|source 2 NOAA (sun, 1961–1990)
|date=August 2010
}}
Demographics
Bishkek is the most populated city in Kyrgyzstan. Its population, estimated in 2021, was 1,074,075. Despite this fact, Russian is the main language while Kyrgyz continues losing ground, especially among the younger generations.
Culture Bishkek is culturally the country's most important city. It is home to the National Library of the Kyrgyz Republic as well as a number of museums, e.g. the Kyrgyz State Historical Museum or the M. V. Frunze Museum. The national public broadcasting service KTRK or Kyrgyz Television is based in Bishkek. Newspapers in Bishkek include the English-language Bishkek Observer, the world's only dungan-language newspaper called Huimin bao and the Russian-language Vecherniy Bishkek newspaper.ReligionThe largest religion is Sunni Islam, but since many Russians live in Kyrgyzstan, there is also a large Russian Orthodox community. The Bishkek Central Mosque is one of the largest in Central Asia. Bishkek is home to the Roman Catholic Apostolic Administration of Kyrgyzstan.Sports
Bishkek is home to Dolen Omurzakov Stadium, the largest football stadium in Kyrgyzstan and the only one eligible to host international matches. Several Bishkek-based football teams play on this pitch, including six-time Kyrgyzstan League champions, Dordoi Bishkek. Others include Alga Bishkek, Ilbirs Bishkek, and RUOR-Guardia Bishkek.
Bishkek hosted the 2014 IIHF Challenge Cup of Asia – Division I.
Education
Educational institutions in Bishkek include:
* Kyrgyz International University NRZ
* APAP KR
* American University of Central Asia
* Arabaev Kyrgyz State University
* Bishkek Humanities University
* International Atatürk-Alatoo University
* International University of Kyrgyzstan
* Kyrgyz International University NRZ
* Kyrgyz-Russian Slavic University
* I.K. Akhunbaev Kyrgyz State Medical Academy
* Kyrgyz State National University
* Kyrgyz Technical University
* Kyrgyz-Russian State University
* Kyrgyz-Turkish Manas University
* Kyrgyz Uzbek University
* Plato University of Management and Design
* University of Central Asia
In addition, the following international schools serve the expatriate community in Bishkek:
* European School in Central Asia
* Oxford International School Bishkek
* Hope Academy of Bishkek
* QSI International School of Bishkek
* Silk Road International SchoolTransportation]]Mass public transportPublic transportation includes buses, electric trolleybuses, and public vans (known in Russian as marshrutka). The first bus and trolley bus services in Bishkek were introduced in 1934 and 1951, respectively.
Taxi cabs can be found throughout the city.
The city is considering designing and building a light rail system.
Commuter and long-distance buses
There are two main bus stations in Bishkek. The smaller old Eastern Bus Station is primarily the terminal for minibusses to various destinations within or just beyond the eastern suburbs, such as Kant, Tokmok, Kemin, Issyk Ata, or the Korday border crossing.
Long-distance regular bus and minibus services to all parts of the country, as well as to Almaty (the largest city in neighbouring Kazakhstan) and Kashgar, China, run mostly from the newer grand Western Bus Station; only a smaller number run from the Eastern Station.
The Dordoy Bazaar on the north-eastern outskirts of the city also contains makeshift terminals for frequent minibusses to suburban towns in all directions (from Sokuluk in the west to Tokmak in the east) and to some buses taking traders to Kazakhstan and Siberia.
Rail
, the Bishkek-2 railway station sees only a few trains a day. It offers a popular three-day train service from Bishkek to Moscow.
There are also long-distance trains that leave for Siberia (Novosibirsk and Novokuznetsk), via Almaty, over the TurkSib route, and to Yekaterinburg (Sverdlovsk) in the Urals, via Astana. These services are remarkably slow (over 48 hours to Yekaterinburg), due to long stops at the border and the indirect route (the trains first have to go west for more than a before they enter the main TurkSib line and can continue to the east or north). For example, as of the fall of 2008, train No. 305 Bishkek-Yekaterinburg was scheduled to take 11 hours to reach the Shu junction—a distance of some by rail, and less than half of that by road.Air
The city is served by Manas International Airport (IATA code FRU), located approximately north-west of the city centre.
In 2001, the United States obtained the right to use Manas International Airport as an air base for its military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq. Russia subsequently (2003) established an airbase of its own (Kant Air Base) near Kant, some east of Bishkek. It is based at a facility that used to be home to a major Soviet military pilot training school; one of its students, Hosni Mubarak, later became president of Egypt.
Notable people
* Chinghiz Aitmatov (1928–2008), writer
* Altynai Botoyarova (born 2004), model
* Igor Chudinov (born 1961), politician
* Tugolbay Sydykbekov (1912–1997), writer
* Talant Dujshebaev (born 1968), handball coach and former handball player
* Mikhail Frunze (1885–1925), after whom the city was named from 1926 to 1991
* Nasirdin Isanov (1943–1991), first prime minister of Kyrgyzstan
** Kamchy Kolbayev (1974–2023), crime boss
* Sergei B. Korolev (born 1962), First Deputy Director of the Federal Security Service
* Felix Kulov (born 1948), politician
* Orzubek Nazarov (born 1966), former WBA lightweight boxing champion
* Roza Otunbayeva (born 1950), third president of Kyrgyzstan
* Vladimir Perlin (born 1942), cellist
* Denis Petrashov (born 2000), swimmer, Youth Games and Maccabiah Games medalist
* Salizhan Sharipov (born 1964), first cosmonaut of independent Kyrgyzstan
* Antonina Shevchenko (born 1984), kickboxer
* Valentina Shevchenko (born 1988), kickboxer and UFC champion
* Iasyr Shivaza (1906–1988), poet and activist
* Natalya Tsyganova (born 1971), 800m medallist at the World and European championships, representing Russia
* Daniar Usenov (born 1960), banker and politician
Twin towns – sister cities
Bishkek is twinned with:
* Almaty, Kazakhstan (1994)
* Ankara, Turkey (1992)
* Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (2018)
* Colorado Springs, United States (1994)
* Doha, Qatar (2014)
* Gumi, South Korea (1991)
* İzmir, Turkey (1994)
* Kyiv, Ukraine (1997)
* Lianyungang, China (2015)
* Astana, Kazakhstan (2011)
* Qazvin, Iran (2003)
* Samsun, Turkey
* Liège, Belgium (2012)
* Shenzhen, China (2016)
* Tashkent, Uzbekistan
* Tehran, Iran (1994)
* Trabzon, Turkey (2014)
* Ufa, Russia (2017)
* Ürümqi, China (1993)
* Wuhan, China (2016)
* Yinchuan, China (2000)
See also
* List of monuments of Bishkek
* Outline of Kyrgyzstan
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
* [https://bishkekspektator.com/ The Spektator – society, culture, and travel articles on Kyrgyzstan and Bishkek city guide] (archived)
Category:1825 establishments in Asia
Category:Capitals in Asia
Category:Cities in Central Asia
Category:Populated places along the Silk Road
Category:Populated places established in 1825
Category:Populated places in Kyrgyzstan
Category:Regions of Kyrgyzstan
Category:Semirechye Oblast
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishkek
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Braveheart
|
| writer = Randall Wallace
| starring =
| music = James Horner
| cinematography = John Toll
| editing = Steven Rosenblum
| studio =
| distributor =
| released =
| runtime = 178 minutes
| country United States
| language = English
| budget = $53–72million
| gross = $209million
}}
Braveheart is a 1995 American epic historical war drama film directed and produced by Mel Gibson, who portrays Scottish warrior William Wallace in the First War of Scottish Independence against King Edward I of England. The film also stars Sophie Marceau, Patrick McGoohan, Catherine McCormack and Angus Macfadyen. The story is inspired by Blind Harry's 15th century epic poem The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace and was adapted for the screen by Randall Wallace.
Development on the film initially started at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) when producer Alan Ladd Jr. picked up the project from Wallace, but when MGM was going through new management, Ladd left the studio and took the project with him. Despite initially declining, Gibson eventually decided to direct the film, and to star as Wallace. Braveheart was filmed in Scotland and Ireland from June to October 1994. The film, which was produced by Gibson's Icon Productions and The Ladd Company, was distributed by Paramount Pictures in the United States and Canada and by 20th Century Fox internationally.
Released on May 24, 1995, Braveheart received generally positive reviews, with praise for its action scenes and score, and was a critical and commercial success, though it was criticized for its historical inaccuracies. The film also garnered numerous awards. A legacy sequel, Robert the Bruce, was released in 2019.
Plot
In 1280, Edward I of England, known as "Longshanks", conquers Scotland following the death of the Scots' king, who left no heir. Young William Wallace witnesses the aftermath of Longshanks' execution of several Scottish nobles, then loses his father and brother when they resist the English. He leaves home to be raised by his uncle, Argyle.
Years later, Longshanks grants his noblemen land and privileges in Scotland, including jus primae noctis, while his son marries French princess Isabelle.<!--- name per credits ---> Meanwhile, a grown Wallace returns home and secretly marries his childhood friend Murron MacClannough. Soon after, Wallace rescues Murron from a soldier, but Murron is subsequently captured and executed. In retribution, Wallace and the locals overthrow the garrison, beginning a rebellion that soon spreads. Longshanks orders his son to stop Wallace while he campaigns in France. Wallace defeats an army sent by the prince at Stirling, then invades England by sacking York. He also meets Robert the Bruce, a contender for the Scottish crown.
After returning to England, Longshanks sends Isabelle to negotiate with Wallace as a distraction from the movement of Longshanks' forces. Meeting Wallace, Isabelle becomes enamored with him and warns him of Longshanks' plans. Wallace faces Longshanks at Falkirk. During the battle, nobles Mornay and Lochlan withdraw, having been bribed by Longshanks, resulting in Wallace's army being overwhelmed. Wallace also discovers Robert the Bruce had joined Longshanks. After helping Wallace escape, Robert vows to not be on the wrong side again. Wallace kills Mornay and Lochlan for their betrayal and foils an assassination plot with Isabelle's help. Wallace and Isabelle spend the following night together, while Longshanks' health declines. At a meeting in Edinburgh, Wallace is captured. Realizing his father's responsibility, Robert disowns him. In England, Wallace is condemned to execution. After a final meeting with Wallace, Isabelle tells Longshanks, who can no longer speak, that his bloodline will end upon his death as she is pregnant with Wallace's child and will ensure that Longshanks' son spends as short a time as possible as monarch. At his execution, Wallace refuses to submit, even while being disemboweled. The magistrate encourages Wallace to seek mercy and be granted a quick death. Wallace instead shouts, "Freedom!", while Longshanks dies. Before being beheaded, Wallace sees a vision of Murron in the crowd.
In 1314, Robert, now Scotland's king, faces the English at Bannockburn, and implores his men to fight with him as they did with Wallace. After Wallace's sword is thrown to land point-down in the ground, Robert leads the Scots to a final victory.
Cast
<!--- WP:NOTDATABASE - cast and order per Main Cast closing tombstone stand-alone credits, roles per closing credits scroll --->
Production
Development
Producer Alan Ladd Jr. initially had the project at MGM-Pathé Communications when he picked up the script from Randall Wallace. When Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) was going through new management in 1993, Ladd left the studio and took some of its top properties, including Braveheart. Mel Gibson came across the script and even though he liked it, he initially passed on it. However, the thought of it kept coming back to him, and he ultimately decided to take on the project. Gibson was initially interested in directing only and considered Brad Pitt in the role of Sir William Wallace, but later reluctantly agreed to play Wallace as well. He also considered Jason Patric for the role. Sean Connery was approached to play King Edward, but he declined due to other commitments. Gibson said that Connery's pronunciation of "Goulash" helped him for the Scottish accent for the film.
Gibson and his production company, Icon Productions, had difficulty raising enough money for the film. Warner Bros. was willing to fund the project on the condition that Gibson sign for another Lethal Weapon sequel, which he refused. Gibson eventually gained enough financing for the film, with Paramount Pictures financing a third of the budget in exchange for North American distribution rights to the film, and 20th Century Fox putting up the other two-thirds in exchange for international distribution rights. Principal photography on the film began on June 6, 1994. To lower costs, Gibson had the same extras portray both armies. The reservists had been given permission to grow beards and swapped their military uniforms for medieval garb. Principal photography ended on October 28, 1994. Gibson also later said that while filming a battle scene a horse nearly "killed him" but his stunt double was able to save him as the horse fell.
Gibson had to tone down the film's battle scenes to avoid an NC-17 rating from the MPAA; the final version was rated R for "brutal medieval warfare". Gibson and editor Steven Rosenblum initially had a film at 195 minutes, but Sherry Lansing, who was the head of Paramount at the time, requested Gibson and Rosenblum to cut the film down to 177 minutes. According to Gibson in a 2016 interview with Collider, there is a four-hour version of the film, and he expressed interest in reassembling it if both Paramount and Fox were interested. Soundtrack
The score was composed and conducted by James Horner and performed by the London Symphony Orchestra. It is Horner's second of three collaborations with Mel Gibson as director. The score has gone on to be one of the most commercially successful soundtracks of all time. It received considerable acclaim from film critics and audiences and was nominated for a number of awards, including the Academy Award, Saturn Award, BAFTA Award, and Golden Globe Award.
Release
Braveheart premiered at the Seattle International Film Festival on May 18, 1995, and received its wide release in U.S. cinemas six days later.
Home media
Braveheart was released on LaserDisc in both pan and scan and widescreen on March 12, 1996. That same day, it also was made available on VHS in pan and scan only and was re-issued in widescreen on August 27.
The film was released on DVD on August 29, 2000. This edition included the film only in widescreen, a commentary track by Gibson, a behind-the-scenes featurete, along the trailers.
It was released on Blu-ray as part of the Paramount Sapphire Series on September 1, 2009. It included the DVD features along with new bonus material. It was released on 4K UHD Blu-ray as part of the 4K upgrade of the Paramount Sapphire Series on May 15, 2018.
Critical response
|||Distractingly violent and historically dodgy, Mel Gibson's Braveheart justifies its epic length by delivering enough sweeping action, drama, and romance to match its ambition.|refyes|access-date}}
.]]
Caryn James of The New York Times praised the film, calling it "one of the most spectacular entertainments in years." Roger Ebert gave the film three and a half out of four stars, calling it "An action epic with the spirit of the Hollywood swordplay classics and the grungy ferocity of The Road Warrior." In a positive review, Gene Siskel wrote that "in addition to staging battle scenes well, Gibson also manages to recreate the filth and mood of 700 years ago." Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt that "though the film dawdles a bit with the shimmery, dappled love stuff involving Wallace with a Scottish peasant and a French princess, the action will pin you to your seat." The depiction of the Battle of Stirling Bridge was listed by CNN as one of the best battles in cinema history.
Not all reviews were positive. Richard Schickel of Time magazine argued that "everybody knows that a non-blubbering clause is standard in all movie stars' contracts. Too bad there isn't one banning self-indulgence when they direct." Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle felt "at times the film seems an obsessive ode to Mel Gibson machismo." In a 2005 poll by British film magazine Empire, Braveheart was No. 1 on their list of "The Top 10 Worst Pictures to Win Best Picture Oscar". Empire readers had previously voted Braveheart the best film of 1995.
Alex von Tunzelmann of The Guardian gave the film a grade of C−, saying: "Seemingly intended as a piece of anti-English propaganda, Braveheart offers an even greater insult to Scotland by making a total pig's ear of its heritage. "Historians from England will say I am a liar," intones the voiceover, "but history is written by those who have hanged heroes." Well, that's me told: but, regardless of whether you read English or Scottish historians on the matter, Braveheart still serves up a great big steaming haggis of lies.."
In a 2012 article, Nathan Kamal called the film "hugely overrated", criticizing the characters as one-dimensional. Effect on tourism The European premiere was on September 3, 1995, in Stirling.
In 1996, the year after the film was released, the annual three-day "Braveheart Conference" at Stirling Castle attracted fans of Braveheart, increasing the conference's attendance to 167,000 from 66,000 in the previous year. In the following year, research on visitors to the Stirling area indicated that 55% of the visitors had seen Braveheart. Of visitors from outside Scotland, 15% of those who saw Braveheart said it influenced their decision to visit the country. Of all visitors who saw Braveheart, 39% said the film influenced in part their decision to visit Stirling, and 19% said the film was one of the main reasons for their visit. In the same year, a tourism report said that the "Braveheart effect" earned Scotland £7 million to £15 million in tourist revenue, and the report led to various national organizations encouraging international film productions to take place in Scotland.
The film generated huge interest in Scotland and in Scottish history, not only around the world, but also in Scotland itself. At a Braveheart Convention in 1997, held in Stirling the day after the Scottish Devolution vote and attended by 200 delegates from around the world, Braveheart author Randall Wallace, Seoras Wallace of the Wallace Clan, Scottish historian David Ross and Bláithín FitzGerald from Ireland gave lectures on various aspects of the film. Several of the actors also attended including James Robinson (Young William), Andrew Weir (Young Hamish), Julie Austin (the young bride) and Mhairi Calvey (Young Murron). Awards and honors Braveheart was nominated for many awards during the 1995 awards season, though it was not viewed by many as a major competitor to films such as Apollo 13, Il Postino: The Postman, Leaving Las Vegas, Sense and Sensibility, and The Usual Suspects. It wasn't until after the film won the Golden Globe Award for Best Director at the 53rd Golden Globe Awards that it was viewed as a serious Oscar contender. Braveheart became the ninth film to win Best Picture with no acting nominations and is one of only four films to win Best Picture without being nominated for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture, the others being The Shape of Water in 2017, Green Book in 2018, and Nomadland in 2020.
The film also won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay. In 2010, the Independent Film & Television Alliance selected the film as one of the 30 Most Significant Independent Films of the last 30 years.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Award
! Category
! Recipient(s)
! Result
|-
| rowspan="5"| 20/20 Awards
| Best Cinematography
| John Toll
|
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Charles Knode
|
|-
| Best Makeup
| Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell
|
|-
| Best Original Score
| James Horner
|
|-
| colspan="2"| Best Sound
|
|-
| rowspan="10"| Academy Awards
| Best Picture
| Mel Gibson, Bruce Davey and Alan Ladd Jr.
|
|-
| Best Director
| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Best Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screen
| Randall Wallace
|
|-
| Best Cinematography
| John Toll
|
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Charles Knode
|
|-
| Best Film Editing
| Steven Rosenblum
|
|-
| Best Makeup
| Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell
|
|-
| Best Original Dramatic Score
| James Horner
|
|-
| Best Sound
| Andy Nelson, Scott Millan, Anna Behlmer and Brian Simmons
|
|-
| Best Sound Effects Editing
| Lon Bender and Per Hallberg
|
|-
| American Cinema Editors Awards
| Best Edited Feature Film
| Steven Rosenblum
|
|-
| American Cinema Foundation Awards
| colspan="2"| Feature Film
|
|-
| American Society of Cinematographers Awards
| Outstanding Achievement in Cinematography in Theatrical Releases
| John Toll
|
|-
| rowspan="10"| Awards Circuit Community Awards
| Best Director
| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Best Original Screenplay
| Randall Wallace
|
|-
| Best Art Direction
| Thomas E. Sanders and Peter Howitt
|
|-
| Best Cinematography
| John Toll
|
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Charles Knode
|
|-
| Best Film Editing
| Steven Rosenblum
|
|-
| Best Makeup & Hairstyling
| Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell
|
|-
| Best Original Score
| James Horner
|
|-
| colspan="2"| Best Sound
|
|-
| colspan="2"| Best Stunt Ensemble
|
|-
| rowspan="7"| British Academy Film Awards
| Best Direction
| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Best Cinematography
| John Toll
|
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Charles Knode
|
|-
| Best Film Music
| James Horner
|
|-
| Best Makeup
| Peter Frampton, Paul Pattison and Lois Burwell
|
|-
| Best Production Design
| Thomas E. Sanders
|
|-
| Best Sound
| Andy Nelson, Scott Millan, Anna Behlmer and Brian Simmons
|
|-
| Camerimage
| Golden Frog
| John Toll
|
|-
| Cinema Audio Society Awards
| Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for Motion Pictures
| Andy Nelson, Scott Millan, Anna Behlmer and Brian Simmons
|
|-
| Cinema Writers Circle Awards
| Best Foreign Film
| rowspan="2"| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Critics' Choice Awards
| Best Director
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| Dallas-Fort Worth Film Critics Association Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Picture
|
|-
| Best Cinematography
| John Toll
|
|-
| Directors Guild of America Awards
| Outstanding Directorial Achievement in Motion Pictures
| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Empire Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Film
|
|-
| Flaiano Prizes
| Best Foreign Actress
| Catherine McCormack
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| Golden Globe Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Motion Picture – Drama
|
|-
| Best Director – Motion Picture
| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Best Screenplay – Motion Picture
| Randall Wallace
|
|-
| Best Original Score – Motion Picture
| James Horner
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| Golden Reel Awards
| Best Sound Editing – Dialogue
| Mark LaPointe
|
|-
| Best Sound Editing – Sound Effects
| Lon Bender and Per Hallberg
|
|-
| International Film Music Critics Association Awards
| Best Archival Release of an Existing Score – Re-Release or Re-Recording
| James Horner, Dan Goldwasser, Mike Matessino, Jim Titus and Jeff Bond
|
|-
| Jupiter Awards
| Best International Director
| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Movieguide Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Movie for Mature Audiences
|
|-
| rowspan="4"| MTV Movie Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Movie
|
|-
| Best Male Performance
| rowspan="2"| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Most Desirable Male
|
|-
| Best Action Sequence
| Battle of Stirling
|
|-
| rowspan="2"| National Board of Review Awards
| colspan="2"| Top Ten Films
|
|-
| Special Filmmaking Achievement
| Mel Gibson
|
|-
| Publicists Guild of America Awards
| colspan="2"| Motion Picture
|
|-
| rowspan="3"| Saturn Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Action/Adventure Film
|
|-
| Best Costume Design
| Charles Knode
|
|-
| Best Music
| James Horner
|
|-
| Southeastern Film Critics Association Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Picture
|
|-
| Turkish Film Critics Association Awards
| colspan="2"| Best Foreign Film
|
|-
| Writers Guild of America Awards
| Best Screenplay – Written Directly for the Screenplay
| Randall Wallace
|
|}
;American Film Institute lists
* AFI's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – No. 91
* AFI's 100 Years...100 Cheers – No. 62
Cultural effects and accusations of Anglophobia
Lin Anderson, author of Braveheart: From Hollywood To Holyrood, credits the film with playing a significant role in affecting the Scottish political landscape in the mid- to late 1990s. Peter Jackson cited Braveheart as an influence in making the Lord of the Rings film trilogy.
Sections of the English media accused the film of harbouring Anti-English sentiment. The Economist called it "xenophobic", and John Sutherland writing in The Guardian stated that: "Braveheart gave full rein to a toxic Anglophobia". In The Times, Colin McArthur said "the political effects are truly pernicious. It's a xenophobic film." Wallace Monument In 1997, a , sandstone statue depicting Mel Gibson as William Wallace in Braveheart was placed in the car park of the Wallace Monument near Stirling, Scotland. The statue, which was the work of Tom Church, a monumental mason from Brechin, included the word 'Braveheart' on Wallace's shield. The installation became the cause of much controversy; one local resident stated that it was wrong to "desecrate the main memorial to Wallace with a lump of crap".
In 1998, someone wielding a hammer vandalized the statue's face. After repairs were made, the statue was encased in a cage every night to prevent further vandalism. This only incited more calls for the statue to be removed, as it then appeared that the Gibson/Wallace figure was imprisoned. The statue was described as "among the most loathed pieces of public art in Scotland". In 2008, the statue was returned to its sculptor to make room for a new visitor centre being built at the foot of the Wallace Monument.
Historical inaccuracy
Randall Wallace, who wrote the screenplay, has acknowledged Blind Harry's 15th-century epic poem The Acts and Deeds of Sir William Wallace, Knight of Elderslie as a major inspiration for the film. In defending his script, Randall Wallace has said, "Is Blind Harry true? I don't know. I know that it spoke to my heart and that's what matters to me, that it spoke to my heart." there are large parts that are based neither on history nor Blind Harry (e.g. Wallace's affair with Princess Isabella).
Elizabeth Ewan describes Braveheart as a film that "almost totally sacrifices historical accuracy for epic adventure". It has been described as one of the most historically inaccurate modern films.
Sharon Krossa noted that the film contains numerous historical inaccuracies, beginning with the wearing of belted plaid (feileadh mór léine), which was not introduced until the 16th century, by Wallace and his men. In that period "no Scots [...] wore belted plaids (let alone kilts of any kind)." Moreover, when Highlanders finally did begin wearing the belted plaid, it was not "in the rather bizarre style depicted in the film". She compares the inaccuracy to "a film about Colonial America showing the colonial men wearing 20th-century business suits, but with the jackets worn back-to-front instead of the right way around." In a previous essay about the film, she wrote, "The events aren't accurate, the dates aren't accurate, the characters aren't accurate, the names aren't accurate, the clothes aren't accurate—in short, just about nothing is accurate." Peter Traquair has referred to Wallace's "farcical representation as a wild and hairy highlander painted with woad (1,000 years too late) running amok in a tartan kilt (500 years too early)."
Caroline White of The Times described the film as being made up of a "litany of fibs."
Irish historian Seán Duffy remarked that "the battle of Stirling Bridge could have done with a bridge."
In 2009, the film was second on a list of "most historically inaccurate movies" in The Times.
In the DVD audio commentary of Braveheart, Mel Gibson acknowledged the historical inaccuracies but defended his choices as director, noting that the way events were portrayed in the film was much more "cinematically compelling" than the historical fact or conventional mythos. Occupation and independence The film suggests Scotland had been under English occupation for some time, at least during Wallace's childhood, and in the run-up to the Battle of Falkirk Wallace says to the younger Bruce, "[W]e'll have what none of us have ever had before, a country of our own." In fact, Scotland had been invaded by England only the year before Wallace's rebellion; before the death of King Alexander III it had been a fully separate kingdom. Portrayal of William Wallace
As John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett writes, "Because [William] Wallace is one of Scotland's most important national heroes and because he lived in the very distant past, much that is believed about him is probably the stuff of legend. But there is a factual strand that historians agree to", summarized from Scots scholar Matt Ewart:
A. E. Christa Canitz writes about the historical William Wallace further: "[He] was a younger son of the Scottish gentry, usually accompanied by his own chaplain, well-educated, and eventually, having been appointed Guardian of the Kingdom of Scotland, engaged in diplomatic correspondence with the Hanseatic cities of Lübeck and Hamburg". She finds that in Braveheart, "any hint of his descent from the lowland gentry (i.e., the lesser nobility) is erased, and he is presented as an economically and politically marginalized Highlander and 'a farmer'—as one with the common peasant, and with a strong spiritual connection to the land which he is destined to liberate."
Colin McArthur writes that Braveheart "constructs Wallace as a kind of modern, nationalist guerrilla leader in a period half a millennium before the appearance of nationalism on the historical stage as a concept under which disparate classes and interests might be mobilised within a nation state." Writing about Bravehearts "omissions of verified historical facts", McArthur notes that Wallace made "overtures to Edward I seeking less severe treatment after his defeat at Falkirk", as well as "the well-documented fact of Wallace's having resorted to conscription and his willingness to hang those who refused to serve." Canitz posits that depicting "such lack of class solidarity" as the conscriptions and related hangings "would contaminate the movie's image of Wallace as the morally irreproachable primus inter pares among his peasant fighters."
Portrayal of Robert the Bruce
Robert the Bruce did change sides between the Scots loyalists and the English more than once in the earlier stages of the Wars of Scottish Independence, but he probably did not fight on the English side at the Battle of Falkirk (although this claim does appear in a few medieval sources). Later, the Battle of Bannockburn was not a spontaneous battle soon after Wallace's execution; he had already been fighting a guerrilla campaign against the English for eight years. His title before becoming king was Earl of Carrick, not Earl of Bruce. Bruce's father is portrayed as an infirm leper, although it was Bruce himself who allegedly suffered from leprosy in later life. The actual Bruce's machinations around Wallace, rather than the meek idealist in the film, suggests the father–son relationship represent different aspects of the historical Bruce's character. In the film, Bruce's father betrays Wallace to his son's disgust, calling it the price of his son's crown, when in real life Wallace was betrayed by the nobleman John de Menteith.
Portrayal of Longshanks and Prince Edward
The actual Edward I was ruthless and temperamental, but the film exaggerates his negative aspects for effect. Edward enjoyed poetry and harp music, was a devoted and loving husband to his wife Eleanor of Castile, and as a religious man, he gave generously to charity; the film's scene where he scoffs cynically at Isabella for distributing gold to the poor after Wallace refuses it as a bribe would have been unlikely. Furthermore, Edward died almost two years after Wallace's execution, not on the same day.
The depiction of the future Edward II as an effeminate homosexual drew accusations of homophobia against Gibson.
Gibson defended his depiction of Prince Edward as weak and ineffectual, saying:
In response to Longshanks's murder of the Prince's male lover Phillip, Gibson replied: "The fact that King Edward throws this character out a window has nothing to do with him being gay ... He's terrible to his son, to everybody."
Gibson asserted that the reason Longshanks kills his son's lover is that the king is a "psychopath".
Wallace's military campaign
"MacGregors from the next glen" joining Wallace shortly after the action at Lanark is dubious, since it is questionable whether Clan Gregor existed at that stage, and when they did emerge their traditional home was Glen Orchy, some distance from Lanark.
Wallace did win an important victory at the Battle of Stirling Bridge, but the version in Braveheart is highly inaccurate, as it has no bridge (or Andrew Moray, joint commander of the Scots army, who was fatally injured in the battle). Later, Wallace did carry out a large-scale raid into the north of England, but he did not get as far south as York, nor did he kill Edward I's nephew.
The "Irish conscripts" at the Battle of Falkirk are unhistorical; there were no Irish troops at Falkirk (although many of the English army were, in fact, Welsh).
The two-handed long swords used by Gibson in the film were not in wide use in the period. A one-handed sword and shield would have been more accurate and more efficient, since in the enemy army there were a lot of archers.Sequel
A sequel, Robert the Bruce (2019), continues directly on from Braveheart and features Robert the Bruce, with Angus Macfadyen reprising his role from Braveheart.See also
*Outlaw King; which depicts events that occurred immediately after the events in Braveheart
*Rob Roy; a historical action drama film featuring Robert Roy MacGregor, an 18th-century Scottish clan chief, also released in 1995
References
Notes
External links
*
*
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braveheart
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Brian Aldiss
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| image = Brian Aldiss 2005.JPG
| caption = Aldiss at Interaction in Glasgow, 2005
| birth_name = Brian Wilson Aldiss
| birth_date
| birth_place = East Dereham, Norfolk, England
| death_date
| death_place = Oxford, England
| pseudonym =
| occupation =
| nationality | period 1954–2017
| genre = Science fiction
| movement | notableworks
| website =
}}
Brian Wilson Aldiss (; 18 August 1925 – 19 August 2017) was an English writer, artist and anthology editor, best known for science fiction novels and short stories. His byline reads either Brian W. Aldiss or simply Brian Aldiss, except for occasional pseudonyms during the mid-1960s.
Greatly influenced by science fiction pioneer H. G. Wells, Aldiss was a vice-president of the international H. G. Wells Society. He was (with Harry Harrison) co-president of the Birmingham Science Fiction Group. Aldiss was named a Grand Master by the Science Fiction Writers of America in 1999 and inducted by the Science Fiction Hall of Fame in 2004. He received two Hugo Awards, one Nebula Award and one John W. Campbell Memorial Award.Life and careerEarly life, education and military serviceBrian Wilson Aldiss was born on 18 August 1925, above his paternal grandfather's draper's shop in Dereham, Norfolk. When Aldiss's grandfather died, his father, Bill (the younger of two sons), sold his share in the shop and the family left Dereham. Aldiss's mother, Dot, was the daughter of a builder. He had an older sister who was stillborn and a younger sister.
At the age of 6, Aldiss went to Framlingham College, but moved to Devon and was sent to board at West Buckland School in 1939 after the outbreak of World War II. In 1943, he joined the Royal Signals and saw military action in Burma.Writing and publishingHis army experience inspired the novel Hothouse and the Horatio Stubbs second and third books, A Soldier Erect and A Rude Awakening, respectively.
After the war, he worked as a bookseller in Oxford. He also wrote a number of short pieces for a booksellers' trade journal about life in a fictitious bookshop, which attracted the attention of Charles Monteith, an editor at the publisher Faber and Faber. As a result, Faber and Faber published Aldiss's first book, The Brightfount Diaries (1955), a 200-page novel in diary form about the life of a sales assistant in a bookshop.
About this time he also began to write science fiction for various magazines. According to ISFDB, his first speculative fiction in print was the short story Criminal Record, published by John Carnell in the July 1954 issue of Science Fantasy.
The Brightfount Diaries had been a minor success, and Faber asked Aldiss if he had any more writing they could look at with a view to publishing. Aldiss confessed to being a science fiction author, to the delight of the publishers, who had a number of science fiction fans in high places, and so his first science fiction book was published, a collection of short stories entitled Space, Time and Nathaniel (Faber, 1957). By this time, his earnings from writing matched his wages in the bookshop, and he made the decision to become a full-time writer.
Aldiss led the voting for Most Promising New Author of 1958 at the next year's Worldcon, but finished behind "no award". and an interview with William S. Burroughs in the second. In 1967 Algis Budrys listed Aldiss, J. G. Ballard, Roger Zelazny and Samuel R. Delany as "an earthshaking new kind of" writers, and leaders of the New Wave. Aldiss supported the New Wave movement, helping the magazine New Worlds to get financial backing from a 1967 Arts Council grant and publishing some of his more experimental work in the magazine.
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Besides his own writings, he edited a number of anthologies. For Faber he edited Introducing SF, a collection of stories typifying various themes of science fiction, and Best Fantasy Stories. In 1961, he edited an anthology of reprinted short science fiction for the British paperback publisher Penguin Books under the title Penguin Science Fiction. This was remarkably successful, went into numerous reprints, and was followed up by two further anthologies: More Penguin Science Fiction (1963) and Yet More Penguin Science Fiction (1964). The later anthologies enjoyed the same success as the first, and all three were eventually published together as The Penguin Science Fiction Omnibus (1973), which also went into a number of reprints. In the 1970s, he produced several large collections of classic grand-scale science fiction, under the titles Space Opera (1974), Space Odysseys (1975), Galactic Empires (1976), Evil Earths (1976) and Perilous Planets (1978). Around this time, he edited a large-format volume Science Fiction Art (1975), with selections of artwork from the magazines and pulps.
In response to the results from the planetary probes of the 1960s and 1970s, which showed that Venus was completely unlike the hot, tropical jungle usually depicted in science fiction, Aldiss and Harrison edited an anthology Farewell, Fantastic Venus, reprinting stories based on the pre-probe ideas of Venus. He also edited, with Harrison, a series of anthologies ''The Year's Best Science Fiction (Nos. 1–9, 1968–1976).
Aldiss invented a form of extremely short story called the mini-saga. The Daily Telegraph hosted a competition for the best mini-saga for several years, and Aldiss was the judge. He edited several anthologies of the best mini-sagas.
Aldiss travelled to Yugoslavia, where he met fans in Ljubljana, Slovenia and published a travel book about Yugoslavia entitled Cities and Stones (1966), his only work in the genre. He published an alternative-history fantasy story, "The Day of the Doomed King" (1968), about Serbian kings in the Middle Ages, and wrote a novel called The Malacia Tapestry, about an alternative Dalmatia.ArtIn addition to a highly successful career as a writer, Aldiss was an accomplished artist. His first solo exhibition, The Other Hemisphere'', was held in Oxford, August–September 2010, and the exhibition's centrepiece Metropolis (see figure) has since been released as a limited edition fine art print. (The exhibition title denotes the writer/artist's notion, "words streaming from one side of his brain inspiring images in what he calls 'the other hemisphere'".)
In 1965, he married his second wife, Margaret Christie Manson (daughter of John Alexander Christie Manson, an aeronautical engineer), a Scot and secretary to the editor of the Oxford Mail; Aldiss was 40, and she 31.
Awards and honours
He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1990.
Aldiss was the "Permanent Special Guest" at the annual International Conference on the Fantastic in the Arts (ICFA) from 1989 through 2008. He was also the Guest of Honor at the conventions in 1986 and 1999.
The Science Fiction Writers of America made him its 18th SFWA Grand Master in 1999
In January 2007 he appeared on Desert Island Discs. His choice of record to 'save' was "Old Rivers" sung by Walter Brennan, his choice of book was John Heilpern's biography of John Osborne, and his luxury a banjo. The full selection of eight favourite records is on the BBC website.
On 1 July 2008 he was awarded an honorary doctorate by the University of Liverpool in recognition of his contribution to literature. The Brian W Aldiss Archive at the university holds manuscripts from the period 1943–1995.
In 2013, Aldiss was recipient of the World Fantasy Convention Award at the World Fantasy Convention in Brighton, England.
Aldiss sat on the Council of the Society of Authors.
He won two Hugo awards: in 1962 for the Hothouse series; and in 1987 for Trillion Year Spree. Aldiss also won a Nebula award in 1965 for "The Saliva Tree".WorksAldiss was the author of over 80 books and 300 short stories, as well as several volumes of poetry.
Novels
* The Brightfount Diaries (1955, Faber)
* Non-Stop (1958, Faber), (1959, Digit), (1976, Pan), (2000, Millennium), US title Starship (1960, Signet S1779), (1969, Avon V2321)
*: On a massive generation ship whose inhabitants have descended into primitivism over 23 generations, a member of a culturally primordial tribe investigates the dark, jungle-filled corridors of the ship and slowly uncovers the true nature of the universe he inhabits.
* The Interpreter (1960, Digit R506), (1967, Four Square 1970), US title Bow Down to Nul Ace D-443
*: A short novel about the huge, old galactic empire of Nuls, a giant, three-limbed, civilised alien race. Earth is just a lesser-than-third-class colony ruled by a Nul tyrant whose deceiving devices together with good willing but ineffective attempts of a Nul Signatory (roughly equivalent to Prime Minister) to clarify the abuses and with the disorganised earthling resistance reflect the complex relationship existing between imperialists and subject races which Aldiss himself had the chance of seeing at first hand when serving in India and Indonesia in the forties.
* The Male Response (1959, Beacon 45), (1961, Four Square 1623)
* The Primal Urge (1961, Ballantine F555), (1967, Sphere), (1976, Panther). A satire on sexual reserve, it explores the effects on society of a forehead-mounted "Emotion Register" that glows when the wearer experiences sexual attraction. The book was banned in Ireland.
* Hothouse (1962, Faber), (1965, Four Square 1147), (1979, Panther), published in abridged form in the American market as The Long Afternoon of Earth (1962, Signet D2018). A fix-up novel based on short stories "Hothouse", "Nomansland", "Undergrowth", "Timberline" and "Evergreen". This assemblage of stories won the Hugo Award for short fiction in 1962.
* Earthworks (1965, Faber), (1966, Doubleday), (1967, Four Square), (1967, Signet P3116), (1979, Panther), (1980, Avon)
* An Age (1967, Faber), (1969, Sphere), (1979, Panther), US title Cryptozoic! (1969, Avon), (1978, Panther), a dystopic time-travel novel
* Report on Probability A (serialized 1967), (1968, Faber), (1969, Sphere). (1969, Doubleday), (1970, Lancer), (1980, Avon)
* Barefoot in the Head (1969, Faber), (1970, Doubleday), (1972, Ace), (1974, Corgi), (1981, AVON), (1990, Gollancz VGSF Classics), a fix-up novel based on short stories: "Just Passing Through", "Multi-Value Motorway", "Still Trajectories", "The Serpent of Kundalini", "Drake-Man Route", and novelettes: "Auto-Ancestral Fracture", "Ouspenski's Astrabahn"
*: Perhaps Aldiss's most experimental work, this first appeared in several parts as the Acid Head War series in New Worlds. Set in a Europe some years after a flare-up in the Middle East led to Europe being attacked with bombs releasing huge quantities of long-lived hallucinogenic drugs. Into an England with a population barely maintaining a grip on reality comes a young Serb, who himself starts coming under the influence of the ambient aerosols, and finds himself leading a messianic crusade. The narration and dialogue reflects the shattering of language under the influence of the drugs, in mutating phrases and puns and allusions, in a deliberate echo of Finnegans Wake.
* Horatio Stubbs series:
*# The Hand-Reared Boy (1970, Weidenfeld & Nicolson), Nebula Award finalist In Aldiss's novel, myth and magic are vibrantly real, experienced through an evolving human consciousness. Amidst various competing interpretations of reality, including the appearance of a time-travelling Sophocles, Aldiss provides an alternative explanation of the Sphinx's riddle.
* HARM (2007, del Rey), (2007, Duckworth)
*: Campbell Award nominee
* Walcot (2010, Goldmark)
*: Family saga spanning the 20th century
* Finches of Mars (2012)
* Comfort Zone (2013)
* Neanderthal Planet (1970, Avon), collection of 4 novellas/novelettes:
*: "Neanderthal Planet" (novelette), "Danger: Religion!" (novella), "Intangibles, Inc." (novelette), "Since the Assassination" (novelette)
* Best Science Fiction Stories of Brian W. Aldiss (1971), collection of 14 short stories and 2 novelettes:
*: "Who Can Replace a Man?", "Not for an Age", "Outside", "Poor Little Warrior!", "Man on Bridge", "The Impossible Star" (novelette), "Old Hundredth", "Man in His Time", "Shards", "Girl and Robot with Flowers", "The Moment of Eclipse", "Swastika!", "Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land" (novelette), "Judas Danced", "Still Trajectories", "Another Little Boy"
* The Book of Brian Aldiss (1972, DAW 29), UK title The Comic Inferno (1973, New English Library), collection of 5 short stories and 4 novelettes:
*: "Comic Inferno" (novelette), "The Underprivileged", "Cardiac Arrest" (novelette), "In the Arena", "All the World's Tears", "Amen and Out", "The Soft Predicament" (novelette), "As for Our Fatal Continuity...", "Send Her Victorious" (novelette)
* Last Orders and Other Stories (1977, Jonathan Cape), (1979, Panther), collection of 23 short stories and 1 novelette:
*: "Last Orders", "Creatures of Apogee", Enigma series, Three Deadly Enigmas: V: Year by Year the Evil Gains (#1 "Within the Black Circle", #2 "Killing Off the Big Animals", #3 "What Are You Doing? Why Are You Doing It?"), Enigma series, Diagrams For Three (Enigmatic) Stories (#1 "The Girl in the Tau-Dream", #2 "The Immobility Crew", #3 "A Cultural Side-Effect"), "Live? Our Computers Will Do That for Us", "The Monsters of Ingratitude IV", Enigma series, The Aperture Moment (#1 "Waiting for the Universe to Begin", #2 "But Without Orifices", #3 "Aimez-Vous Holman Hunt?"), "Backwater", Enigma series, Three Enigmas II: The Eternal Theme Of Exile (#1 "The Eternal Theme of Exile", #2 "All Those Enduring Old Charms", #3 "Nobody Spoke Or Waved Goodbye"), "The Expensive Delicate Ship", Enigma series, Three Enigmas IV: Three Coins in [Enigmatic|Clockwork] Fountain (#1 "Carefully Observed Women", #2 "The Daffodil Returns the Smile", #3 "The Year of the Quiet Computer"), "Appearance of Life", "Wired for Sound", "Journey to the Heartland" (novelette)
* Galaxies Like Grains of Sand (1979, Panther), collection of 9 short stories:
*: "The War Millennia", "The Sterile Millennia", "The Robot Millennia", "The Mingled Millennia", "The Dark Millennia", "The Star Millennia", "The Mutant Millennia", "The Megalopolis Millennia", "The Ultimate Millennia"
* Brothers of the Head and Where the Lines Converge (1979), collection of 1 novel, 1 novelette and 6 poems:
*: Brothers of the Head (novel), "Big Lover" (poem), "Love Is a Forest" (poem), "Bacterial Action" (poem), "Star-Time" (poem), "Just for a Moment" (poem), "I Was Never Deaf or Blind to Her Music" (poem), "Where The Lines Converge" (novelette)
* New Arrivals, Old Encounters (1979, Jonathan Cape), (1980, Harper & Row), (1981, Avon), collection of 9 short stories and 3 novelettes:
*: "New Arrivals, Old Encounters", "The Small Stones of Tu Fu", "Three Ways" (novelette), "Amen and Out", "A Spot of Konfrontation", "The Soft Predicament" (novelette), "Non-Isotropic", "One Blink of the Moon", "Space for Reflection", "Song of the Silencer", "Indifference" (novelette), "The Impossible Puppet Show"
* Foreign Bodies (1981), collection of 5 short stories and 1 novelette:
*: "A Romance of the Equator", "Boat Animals", "Foreign Bodies", "Frontiers", "The Skeleton", "Just Back From Java" (novelette)
* Bestsellers Vol. 3 No. 9: Best of Aldiss (1983), collection of 10 short stories and 2 novelettes:
*: "Oh, For a Closer Brush with God", "Appearance of Life", "The Small Stones of Tu Fu", "The Game with the Big Heavy Ball", "A Romance of the Equator", Enigma series, Three Revolutionary Enigmas (#1 "The Fall of Species B", #2 "In the Halls of the Hereafter", #3 "The Ancestral Home of Thought"), "The Blue Background", "A Private Whale" (novelette), "Consolations of Age", "The Girl Who Sang" (novelette)
* Seasons in Flight (1984, Jonathan Cape), (1986, Atheneum), (1986, Grafton), (1988, Ace), collection of 8 short stories (10 in 1986) and 1 novelette:
*: "The Gods in Flight", "A Romance of the Equator", "The Blue Background", "The Girl Who Sang" (novelette), "Igur and the Mountain", "The O in José", "The Other Side of the Lake", "The Plain, the Endless Plain", "Incident in a Far Country"
*: Added in 1986: "Consolations of Age", "Juniper"
* Science Fiction Blues Programme Book (1987), collection of 3 short stories and 2 poems:
*: "Traveller, Traveller, Seek Your Wife in the Forests of This Life", "The Ascent of Humbelstein", "At the Caligula Hotel" (poem), "Rhine Locks are Closed in Battle Against Poison" (poem), "Those Shouting Nights"
* The Magic of the Past (1987), collection of 2 short stories:
*: "North Scarning", "The Magic of the Past"
* Best SF Stories of Brian W. Aldiss (1988), collection of 18 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:
*: "Outside", "All the World's Tears", "Poor Little Warrior!", "Who Can Replace a Man?", "Man on Bridge", "The Girl and the Robot with Flowers", "The Saliva Tree" (novella), "Man in His Time", "Heresies of the Huge God", "Confluence", "Working in the Spaceship Yards", The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 "Supertoys Last All Summer Long"), "Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land" (novelette), "The Dark Soul of the Night", "Appearance of Life", "Last Orders", "Door Slams in Fourth World", "The Gods in Flight", "My Country 'Tis Not Only of Thee" (novelette), "Infestation", "The Difficulties Involved in Photographing Nix Olympica"
* Best SF Stories (1988), collection of 18 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:
*: "Outside", "The Failed Men", "Poor Little Warrior!", "Who Can Replace a Man?", "Man on Bridge", "Girl and Robot with Flowers", "The Saliva Tree" (novella), "Man in His Time", "Heresies of the Huge God", "Confluence", "Working in the Spaceship Yards", The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 "Supertoys Last All Summer Long"), "Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land" (novelette), "The Dark Soul of the Night", "Appearance of Life", "Last Orders", "Door Slams in Fourth World", "The Gods in Flight", "My Country 'Tis Not Only of Thee" (novelette), "Infestation", "The Difficulties Involved in Photographing Nix Olympica"
* Man in His Time: The Best Science Fiction Stories of Brian W. Aldiss (1988, Atheneum) , (1990, Collier), collection of 19 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:
*: "Outside", "The Failed Men", "All the World's Tears", "Poor Little Warrior!", "Who Can Replace a Man?", "Man on Bridge", "The Girl and the Robot with Flowers", "The Saliva Tree" (novella), "Man in His Time", "Heresies of the Huge God", "Confluence", "Working in the Spaceship Yards", The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 "Supertoys Last All Summer Long"), "Sober Noises of Morning in a Marginal Land" (novelette), "The Dark Soul of the Night", "Appearance of Life", "Last Orders", "Door Slams in Fourth World", "The Gods in Flight", "My Country 'Tis Not Only of Thee" (novelette), "Infestation", "The Difficulties Involved in Photographing Nix Olympica"
* Science Fiction Blues (1988), collection of 3 short stories, 15 poems and 11 plays:
*: "Science Fiction Blues (play)" (play), "Supertoys Last All Summer Long (play)" (play), "The Death of Art? (play)" (play), "The Expensive Delicate Ship (play)" (play), "Don't Go To Jupiter" (poem), "Star-Time" (poem), "The Cat Improvement Company" (poem), "Progression of the Species" (poem), "Juniper (play)" (play), "Conversation on Progress (play)" (play), "Drinks with the Spider King (play)" (play), "Three Serials (play)" (play), "Last Orders (play)" (play), "Bill Carter Takes Over (play)" (play), "Talking Heads (play)" (play), "Traveller, Traveller, Seek Your Wife in the Forests of This Life", "The Ascent of Humbelstein", "Those Shouting Nights", "The Lying Truth" (poem), "Destruction of the Fifth Planet" (poem), "The Expanding Universe" (poem), "Bacterial Action" (poem), "To a Triceratops Skull in the British Museum" (poem), "Femalien" (poem), "Space Burial" (poem), "Taking Leave of a Northern Institution" (poem), "Thomas Hardy Considers the Newly-Published Special Theory of Relativity" (poem), "Parting Late in Life" (poem), "Happiness and Suffering" (poem)
* A romance of the Equator. Best Fantasy Stories (1989, Gollancz), (1990, Atheneum / Macmillan) , collection of 22 short stories and 4 novelettes:
*: "Old Hundredth", "Day of the Doomed King", "The Source", "The Village Swindler", "The Worm That Flies", "The Moment of Eclips", "So Far from Prague", "The Day We Embarked for Cythera", "Castle Scene with Penitents", "The Game with the Big Heavy Ball", "Creatures of Apogee", "The Small Stones of Tu Fu", "Just Back From Java" (novelette), "A Romance of the Equator", "Journey to the Goat Star" (novelette), "The Girl Who Sang" (novelette), "Consolations of Age", "The Blue Background", "The Plain, the Endless Plain", "You Never Asked My Name", "Lies!" (novelette), "North Scarning", "The Big Question", "The Ascent of Humbelstein", "How an Inner Door Opened to My Heart", "Bill Carter Takes Over"
* Bodily Functions (1991), collection of 2 short stories, 2 novelettes, 2 poems and 1 essay:
*: "To Sam" (poem), "Three Degrees Over" (novelette), "A Tupolev Too Far" (novelette), "Going for a Pee", "Better Morphosis", "Letter on the subject of Bowel Movement" (essay), "Envoi" (poem)
* A Tupolev Too Far and Other Stories (1993, HarperCollins UK), (1994, St. Martin's), collection of 6 short stories, 5 novelettes and 2 poems:
*: "Short Stories" (poem), "A Tupolev Too Far" (novelette), "Ratbird", "FOAM" (novelette), "Summertime Was Nearly Over", "Better Morphosis", "Three Degrees Over" (novelette), "A Life of Matter and Death" (novelette), "A Day in the Life of a Galactic Empire", "Confluence", "Confluence Revisited", "North of the Abyss" (novelette), "Alphabet of Ameliorating Hope" (poem)
* The Secret of This Book (1995, HarperCollins UK), US title Common Clay: 20-Odd Stories (1996, St. Martin's), collection of 20 short stories and 3 novelettes:
*: "Common Clay", "The Mistakes, Miseries and Misfortunes of Mankind", "How the Gates Opened and Closed", "Headless", "Travelling Towards Humbris", "If Hamlet's Uncle Had Been a Nicer Guy", "Else the Isle with Calibans", "A Swedish Birthday Present", Enigma series, Three Moon Enigmas (#1 "His Seventieth Heaven", #2 "Rose in the Evening", #3 "On the Inland Sea"), "A Dream of Antigone", "The God Who Slept With Women" (novelette), "Evans in His Moment of Glory", "Horse Meat" (novelette), "An Unwritten Love Note", "Making My Father Read Revered Writings", "Sitting With Sick Wasps", "Becoming the Full Butterfly" (novelette), "Traveller, Traveller, Seek Your Wife in the Forests of This Life", Enigma series, Her Toes Were Beautiful on the [Hilltops|Mountains] (#1 "Another Way Than Death", #2 "That Particular Green of Obsequies"), Enigma series, Three Revolutionary Enigmas (#3 "The Ancestral Home of Thought")
* Supertoys Last All Summer Long and Other Stories of Future Time (2001, Orbit), (2001, St. Martin's), collection of 18 short stories and 1 novelette:
*: The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 "Supertoys Last All Summer Long", #2 "Supertoys When Winter Comes", #3 "Supertoys in Other Seasons"), "Apogee Again", "III", "The Old Mythyology", "Headless", "Beef", "Nothing in Life Is Ever Enough", "A Matter of Mathematics", "The Pause Button", "Three Types of Solitude", "Steppenpferd", "Cognitive Ability and the Light Bulb", "Dark Society", "Galaxy Zee", "Marvells of Utopia", "Becoming the Full Butterfly" (novelette), "A Whiter Mars: A Socratic Dialogue of Times to Come"
* Cultural Breaks (2005, Tachyon Publications), collection of 9 short stories and 3 novellas/novelettes:
*: "Tarzan of the Alps", "Tralee of Man Young", "The Eye Opener", "Aboard the Beatitude" (novelette), "The Man and a Man with His Mule", "Dusk Flight", "Commander Calex Killed, Fire and Fury at the Edge of World, Scones Perfect", "The Hibernators", "The National Heritage", "How the Gates Opened and Closed", "Total Environment" (novelette), "A Chinese Perspective" (novella)
* A Prehistory of Mind (2008, Mayapple Press), collection of
*: 55 poems in three sections:
*:* Far Away: "The Deceptive Truth", "Flight 063", "Breugel's Hunters in the Snow", "Tien Shan", "The Kremlin, Moscow, ca. 1950", "Of All the Places", "The Moment", "Winter", "Journeying", "Rapide des morts", "The Cynar, Istanbul", "Exmoor in September", "On Passing a Roadside Auction of Featherbeds", "April in East Coker", "Gaughin's Tahiti", "Monemvasia"
*:* Affection: "The Heavy Cup", "Spinal Metaphors", "Comfort Me, Sweetheart", "Get Out of My Life", "Being a Little Well", "This Brown Leaf", "Leaving Our Common Bed", "Rest Your Weary Head Upon Your Pillow", "The Empty Boxes", "Greed", "The First of March 1998", "Margaret's Questions", "Song: In Bed She Like a Lily Lay", "Jocasta", "Lu Tai", "Rondeau After Leigh Hunt", "A Piece of Cleopatra", "Aral Seasons", "At the Caligula Hotel"
*:* Observation: "The Prehistory of the Mind", "Volcano", "Perspectives", "The Cat Improvement Company", "Winter Bites Deep", "The Bonfire of Time", "Iceberg Music", "The Bellowings", "Jackie", "The Bare Facts", "Nocturne", "An Interval", "Fairy Tales", "The Foot Speaks", "The Women", "Bosom Friends", "Colour Contrasts", "Uzbecks in London", "Antigone's Song", "A. E. van Vogt"
*: 1 short story: "Mortistan"
* The Invention of Happiness (2013), collection of 33 short stories:
*: "The Invention of Happiness", "Beyond Plato's Cave", "Old Mother", "Belief", "After the Party", "Our Moment of Appearance", "The Bone Show", "The Great Plains", "What Befell the Tadpole", "The Sand Castle", "The Village of Stillthorpe", "Peace and War", "The Vintage Cottage", "Moderns on Ancient Ancestors", "The Hungers of an Old Language", "How High is a Cathedral?", "A Middle Class Dinner", "Flying Singapore Airlines", "The Apology", "Camões", "The Question of Atmosphere", "Illusions of Reality", "Lady with Apple Trees", "Flying and Bombing", "Molly Smiles Forever", "Days Gone By", "The Last of the Hound-Folk", "Munch", "The Music of Sound", "The Silent Cosmos", "Writings on the Rock", "The Light Really", "The Mistake They Made"
* The Brian Aldiss Collection:
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1950s (2013), collection of 57 short stories and 8 novellas/novelettes:
*#: "A Book in Time", "Criminal Record", "Breathing Space", "The Great Time Hiccup", "Not for an Age", "Our Kind of Knowledge", "Outside", "Panel Game", "Pogsmith", "Conviction", "Dumb Show", "The Failed Men", "Non-Stop" (novelette), "Psyclops", "T", "There Is a Tide", "Tradesman's Exit", "With Esmond in Mind", "The Flowers of the Forest", "Gesture of Farewell" (novelette), "The Ice Mass Cometh", "Let's Be Frank", "No Gimmick", "The War Millennia", "Out of Reach", "The Sterile Millennia", "All the World's Tears", "The Dark Millennia", "O Ishrail!", "The Ultimate Millennia", "Visiting Amoeba" (novelette), "The Shubshub Race", "Supercity", "Judas Danced", "Ten-Storey Jigsaw", "[https://archive.org/details/New_Worlds_067v23_1958-01/page/n44/mode/1up?view=theater The Pit My Parish]" (novelette), "Blighted Profile", "Who Can Replace a Man?", "The Carp That Once ...", "Carrion Country", "Equator" (novella), "Fourth Factor" (novelette), "The Megalopolis Millennia", "Secret of a Mighty City", "The Star Millennia", "Incentive", "The Mutant Millennia", "Gene-Hive", "The New Father Christmas", "Ninian's Experiences", "Poor Little Warrior!", "Sector Diamond", "Sight of a Silhouette", "They Shall Inherit", "Are You an Android?", "The Arm", "The Bomb-Proof Bomb", "Fortune's Fool", "Intangibles, Inc." (novelette), "Sector Yellow", "The Lieutenant", "The Other One" (novelette), "Safety Valve", "The Towers of San Ampa", "Three's a Cloud"
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 1) (2015), collection of 11 short stories and 6 novellas/novelettes:
*#: "Faceless Card", "Neanderthal Planet" (novelette), "Old Hundredth", "Original Sinner", "Sector Grey", "Stage-Struck!", "Under an English Heaven", "Hen's Eyes", "Sector Azure" (novelette), "A Pleasure Shared", "Basis for Negotiation" (novelette), "Conversation Piece", "Danger: Religion!" (novella), "The Green Leaves of Space", "Sector Green", "Sector Vermilion" (novelette), "Tyrants' Territory" (novelette)
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 2) (2015), collection of 10 short stories and 6 novellas/novelettes:
*#: "Comic Inferno" (novelette), "The Impossible Star" (novelette), "In the Arena", "The International Smile", "Sector Violet", "Skeleton Crew" (novella), "The Thing Under the Glacier", "Counter-Feat", "Jungle Substitute" (novelette), "Lazarus", "Man on Bridge", "Never Let Go of My Hand!", "No Moon To-night!" (novelette), "One-Way Strait", "Pink Plastic Gods", "Unauthorised Persons" (novelette)
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 3) (2015), collection of 18 short stories, 3 novellas/novelettes and 1 essay:
*#: "The Day of the Doomed King", "The Girl and the Robot with Flowers", "How are they All on Deneb IV?" (essay), "The Impossible Smile" (novelette), "Man in His Time", "Old Time's Sake", "The Saliva Tree" (novella), "Scarfe's World", "The Small Betraying Detail", "The Source", "Amen and Out", "Another Little Boy", "Burning Question", Clement Yale series (#1 "The Circulation of the Blood" (novelette)), "The Eyes of the Blind King", "Heresies of the Huge God", "Lambeth Blossom", "The Lonely Habit", "The O in José", "One Role with Relish", "Paternal Care", "The Plot Sickens"
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1960s (Part 4) (2015), collection of 28 short stories, 7 novellas/novelettes and 1 essay:
*#: "A Difficult Age", "A Taste for Dostoevsky", "Auto-Ancestral Fracture" (novelette), "Confluence", "The Dead Immortal", "Down the Up Escalation", "Full Sun", "Just Passing Through", "Multi-Value Motorway", "The Night That All Time Broke Out", "Randy's Syndrome" (novelette), "Still Trajectories", "Two Modern Myths: Reflection on Mars and Ultimate Construction", "Wonder Weapon", Clement Yale series (#2 "...And the Stagnation of the Heart"), "Drake-Man Route", "Dreamer, Schemer", "Dream of Distance" (essay), "Send Her Victorious" (novelette), "The Serpent of Kundalini", "The Tell-Tale Heart-Machine", "Total Environment" (novelette), "The Village Swindler", "When I Was Very Jung", "The Worm That Flies", Jerry Cornelius series ("The Firmament Theorem"), "Greeks Bringing Knee-High Gifts", "The Humming Heads", "The Moment of Eclipse", "Ouspenski's Astrabahn" (novelette), "Since the Assassination" (novella), "So Far from Prague", "The Soft Predicament" (novelette), The Supertoys Trilogy (#1 "Supertoys Last All Summer Long"), "That Uncomfortable Pause Between Life and Art", "Working in the Spaceship Yards"
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1970s (Part 1) (2016)
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1970s (Part 2) (2016)
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1980s (Part 1) (2016)
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1980s (Part 2) (2016)
*# The Complete Short Stories: The 1990s (2016)
Uncollected short stories:
* "Index to Life" (1954)
* "Ultimate Construction" (1967), as C. C. Shackleton
* "The Hunter at His Ease" (1970)
* "The Secret of Holman Hunt and the Crude Death Rate" (1970)
* "The Weather on Demansky Island" (1970)
* "The Day Equality Broke Out" (1971)
* "Manuscript Found in a Police State" (1972)
* "The Ergot Show" (1972)
* "Strange in a Familiar Way" (1973)
* "The Planet at the Bottom of the Garden" (1973)
* "Serpent Burning on an Altar" (1973)
* "The Young Soldier's Horoscope" (1973)
* "Woman in Sunlight with Mandolin" (1973)
* Enigma series:
** Three Enigmas I:
**# "The Enigma of Her Voyage" (1973)
**# "I Ching, Who You?" (1973)
**# "The Great Chain of Being What?" (1973)
** Three Enigmas II: The Eternal Theme Of Exile:
**# "The Eternal Theme of Exile" (1973)
**# "All Those Enduring Old Charms" (1973)
**# "Nobody Spoke Or Waved Goodbye" (1973)
** ''Three Enigmas III: All in God's Mind:
**# "The Unbearableness of Other Lives" (1974)
**# "The Old Fleeing and Fleeting Images" (1974)
**# "Looking on the Sunny Side of an Eclipse" (1974)
** Diagrams For Three (Enigmatic) Stories:
**# "The Girl in the Tau-Dream" (1974)
**# "The Immobility Crew" (1974)
**# "A Cultural Side-Effect" (1974)
** Three Songs for Enigmatic Lovers:
**# "A One-Man Expedition Through Life" (1974)
**# "The Taste of Shrapnel" (1974)
**# "40 Million Miles from the Nearest Blonde" (1974)
** Three Enigmas IV: Three Coins in [Enigmatic|Clockwork] Fountain:
**# "Carefully Observed Women" (1975)
**# "The Daffodil Returns the Smile" (1975)
**# "The Year of the Quiet Computer" (1975)
** Three Deadly Enigmas: V: Year by Year the Evil Gains:
**# "Within the Black Circle" (1975)
**# "Killing Off the Big Animals" (1975)
**# "What Are You Doing? Why Are You Doing It?" (1975)
** The Aperture Moment:
**# "Waiting for the Universe to Begin" (1975)
**# "But Without Orifices" (1975)
**# "Aimez-Vous Holman Hunt?" (1975)
** Three Revolutionary Enigmas:
**# "The Fall of Species B" (1980)
**# "In the Halls of the Hereafter" (1980)
**# "The Ancestral Home of Thought" (1980)
** Her Toes Were Beautiful on the [Hilltops|Mountains]:
**# "Another Way Than Death" (1992)
**# "That Particular Green of Obsequies" (1992)
** Three Moon Enigmas'':
**# "His Seventieth Heaven" (1995)
**# "Rose in the Evening" (1995)
**# "On the Inland Sea" (1995)
* "I dreamed I was Jung last night" (1974)
* "Melancholia has a Plastic Core" (1974)
* "Always Somebody There" (1975)
* "Excommunication" (1975)
* "How Did the Dinosaurs Do It?" (1976)
* "In the Mist of Life" (1977)
* "The Bang-Bang" (1977), novelette
* "My Lady of the Psychiatric Sorrows" (1977)
* "Yin, Yang and Jung: Three Galactic Enigmas" (1978)
* "Modernisation" (1980)
* "End Game" (1981)
* "Call Yourself a Christian" (1982)
* "How the Boy Icarus Grew Up and, After a Legendary Disaster, Learnt New Things About Himself and the External World, Until He Was Able to Comprehend the Magic That Had Been His in His Earliest Years /or/ Second Flight" (1982)
* "Parasites of Passion" (1982)
* "The Captain's Analysis" (1982)
* "An Admirer of Einstein" (1983)
* "The Immortal Storm Strikes Again" (1983)
* "Another Story on the Theme of the Last Man on Earth" (1985)
* "Domestic Catastrophe" (1985)
* "Operation Other Cheek" (1985)
* "Possessed by Love" (1985)
* "Silence After the Silence" (1985)
* "The Greatest Saga of All Time" (1985), as C. C. Shackleton
* "The Monster of Loch Awe" (1985)
* "The Fatal Break" (1987)
* "The Hero" (1987)
* "The Merdeka Hotel" (1987)
* "The Price of Cabbages" (1987)
* "Thursday" (1987)
* "Tourney" (1987)
* "Conversation on Progress" (1988)
* "Hess" (1988)
* "Sex and the Black Machine" (1988)
* "Wordsworth Halucinates" (1988)
* "The Day the Earth Caught Fire" (1989)
* "Adventures in the Fur Trade" (1990)
* "People—Alone—Injury—Artwork" (1991)
* "Kindred Blood in Kensington Gore" (1992)
* "Softly – As in an Evening Sunrise" (1992)
* "English Garden" (1993)
* "Friendship Bridge" (1993), novelette
* "The Servant Problem" (1994)
* "The Monster of Everyday Life" (1994)
* "The Madonna of Futurity" (1994), novella
* "Into the Tunnel!" (1995)
* "Compulsory Holidays For All" (1995)
* "The Law Against Trivia" (1996)
* "The Enigma of the Three Moons" (1997)
* "Death, Shit, Love, Transfiguration" (1997)
* "An Apollo Asteroid" (1999)
* "The Rain Will Stop" (2000, The Pretentious Press), written in 1942
* "A Single-Minded Artist" (2001)
* "Happiness in Reverse" (2001)
* "Talking Cubes" (2001)
* Supertoys series:
** "Supertoys: Play Can Be So Deadly" (2001)
** "Supertoys: What Fun to Be Reborn" (2001)
* "A New (governmental) Father Christmas", or "A New (governmental) Father Christmas: A Moral Tale for All in Headington" (2002)
* "Near Earth Object" (2002)
* "Ten Billion of Them" (2005)
* "Pipeline" (2005), novelette
* "Building Sixteen" (2006)
* "Tiger in the Night" (2006)
* "Safe!" (2006)
* "Life, Learning, Leipzig and a Librarian" (2007)
* "Four Ladies of the Apocalypse" (2007)
* "Peculiar Bone, Unimaginable Key" (2008)
* "Fandom at the Palace" (2008)
* "The First-Born" (2010)
* "Hapless Humanity" (2010)
* Doctor Who series:
** "Umwelts for Hire" (2010), Doctor Who Brilliant Book 2011 (2010, BBC Books, )
* "Benkoelen" (2011)
* "Less Than Kin, More Than Kind" (2011)
* "The Mighty Mi Tok of Beijing" (2013)
* "Abundances Above" (2016)
Poems
Collections:
* Farewell to a Child (1982), collection of 10 poems:
*: "Found", "Lost", "The Commitment", "When We Were Four", "With Vacant Possession", "The Child Departs: a dialogue", "The Eternal Child", "The Frozen Boy", "The Haunting", "The Malediction"
* Home Life With Cats (1992), collection of 34 poems:
*: "Out of the Night", "The Cats' Heaven", "Kittens (Two)", "Slaves", "Where Have You Been?", "Yum-Yum", "Heatwave", "Cats' Nerves", "Foxie", "Jackson", "Town-Life", "Nickie", "The Two-Kitten Problem", "Macramé's Lament", "Travelling Cats", "The Cat Improvement Company", "On a Favourite Goldfish Drowned in a Bowl of Cats", "Portrait of a Cat with Lady", "An Evening at Home", "Tatty's Tie-Shop", "Snacks", "Who Owns the House?", "A Riddle", "How I Swam Out to Sea with My Cat", "A Lion for Tea", "The Cat in the Cathedral", "The Poor Man's Cat", "Mutual Regard", "First Birthday", "Rules", "Relating to the Pet", "The Cat Speaks", "Michael, the Cycling Cat", "The Lost Grave"
* At the Caligula Hotel and Other Poems (1995), collection of 74 poems, grouped in four sections:
*: I. Imagery?: "At the Caligula Hotel", Chinese Exercises ("Lu Tai", "Nocturne", "Interval", "Indecision", "Journeying", "Poems from a Later Dynasty III: Who Hears My Voice?"), "Exit Aquascutum", "While Feeding Parrots", "Winter Bites Deep", "Breughel's Hunters in the Snow", "Anau: The Well", "The Cynar, Istanbul", "Dawn in Kuala Lumpur", "Gauguin's Tahiti"
*: II. Everyday?: "No, I was Never Deaf or Blind to Her Music", "Toledo: Three Ladies", "Government", "Moonglow: for Margaret", "Alfie Cogitates on Life", "Memories of Palic", "Boars Hill: the Sycamores and the Oaks", "All Things Transfigure", "Trapped in the Present", "The Path", "Suburban Sunday", "Nature Notes: Early September", "Willow Cottage", "Cold Snap", "Stoney Ground", "The Triumph of the Superficial", "The Twentieth Camp", "Good Fortune", "Communication", "A Summery Meditation on Money", "A Moment of Suspense", "Fragment of a Longer Poem"
*: III. Literary?: "Short Stories", "What Did the Policeman Say?", "Hamlet Folk", "The Poor", "On Reading Poetry in Berkhamsted", "Poem Inspired by Scott Meredith", Two Painters ("I: Francis Bacon", "II: Fernand Khnopff"), "Light of Ancient Days", "Mary Shelley, 1916", "Victor Frankenstein on the Mer de Glace", "The Shelleys – To a Lady who spoke of their 'Mystery", "The Created One Speaks", "Mary in Italy", "Looking It Up", "Rice Pudding", "Writer's Life"
*: IV. Scientific?: "Greenhouse Sex", "Lunar Anatomy", "Monemvasia", "Found", "Destruction of the Fifth Planet", "Femalien", "Thomas Hardy Considers the Newly-Published Special Theory of Relativity", "Rhine Locks are Closed in Battle Against Poison", "The Cat Improvement Company", "The Expanding Universe", "To a Triceratops Skull in the British Museum", "The Light", "Flight 063", Precarious Passions ("I: A Brain Pursues its Vanished Dream", "II: A Woman Marries the Southern Ocean", "III: Ascension Island Courts a Whale", "IV: A Refrigerator Proposes to a Musk Ox", "V: A Book Falls in Love with its Reader", "VI: A Lamp Standard Courts the Stars"), "Alphabet of Ameliorating Hope"
* Songs from the Steppes of Central Asia: The Collected Poems of Makhtumkuli: Eighteenth Century Poet-Hero of Turkmenistan (1995)
* ''A Plutonian Monologue on His Wife's Death (2000,
Uncollected poems:
* "There Are No More Good Stories About Mars Because We Need No More Good Stories About Mars" (1963)
* "Bridging Hours in Wesciv" (1969)
* "Drama on the River Cherwell" (1974)
* "Epitaph for a Writer" (1974)
* "In Another Town: Bologna" (1974)
* "Innovation in the Arts" (1974)
* "Mon Frère" (1974)
* "Taking Leave of a Cold Country" (1974)
* "The Lady Literary Agent" (1974)
* "Verse in a Country Garden" (1974)
* "Summer: 1773" (1976)
* "Pile: Petals from St. Klaed's Computer" (1979)
* "Sleep" (1983)
* "Tra La" (1994)
Plays
* ''Patagonia's Delicious Filling Station: Three One-act Plays (1975), collection
* Enigma series:
** The Bones of Bertrand Russell: A Tryptich of Absurd Enigmatic Plays:
**# "Futurity Takes a Hand" (1976)
**# "Through a Galaxy Backwards" (1976)
**# "Where Walls Are Hung with Multi-Media Portraits" (1976)
* Distant Encounters (1978)
Not categorised fiction
* Courageous New Planet (c. 1984)
Non-fiction
;Autobiographies:
* ... And the Lurid Glare of the Comet (1986), articles and autobiography
* Bury My Heart at W.H. Smith's: A Writing Life (1990)
* SF Horizons (1975), with Harry Harrison
* Science Fiction as Science Fiction (1978)
* Science Fiction Quiz (1983)
* The Pale Shadow of Science, or Pale Shadow of Science (1985), collected essays
* The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy (1995)
<!-- some awards refs -->
}}
External links
*
*
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130123174923/http://literature.britishcouncil.org/brian-aldiss Brian Aldiss] at British Council: Literature
*
*
*
* [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/brian-aldiss-author-science-fiction-writer-norfolk-supertoys-last-all-summer-long-a7908846.html Obituary] in The Independent by Marcus Williamson
* [https://www.theguardian.com/Archive/Article/0,4273,4204853,00.html Guardian newspaper profile]
* [https://www.freesfonline.net/authors/Brian%20W._Aldiss.html Brian Aldiss's online fiction] at Free Speculative Fiction Online
* [https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/5.01/ffsupertoys.html "Supertoys Last All Summer Long"] story by Brian Aldiss (January 1997)
* [http://digital.lib.usf.edu/SFS0032041/00001 Brian Aldiss Collection] at the University of South Florida
* [http://hdl.handle.net/10407/9180887429 Brian Aldiss Papers] at the [https://spencer.lib.ku.edu Kenneth Spencer Research Library], University of Kansas
* [https://tercerafundacion.net/biblioteca/ver/persona/59 Works of Brian W. Aldiss] at [https://tercerafundacion.net/ La Tercera Fundación]
* [https://thealdissaward.com/ The Aldiss Award for World Building in speculative fiction & gaming] at [https://thealdissaward.com/ The Aldiss Award]
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Battle of Jutland
|
<!--
Please do NOT change the following result WITHOUT FIRST consulting the talk page; yes, it is controversial!
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| result = Inconclusive, see
| combatant1 =
| combatant2 =
| commander1 = John Jellicoe
* David Beatty}}
| commander2 = Reinhard Scheer
* Franz Hipper}}
| strength1 =
| strength2 = }}
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 = ) and destruction of Allied and neutral shipping, which—with the Zimmermann Telegram—by April 1917 triggered the United States of America's declaration of war on Germany. Reviews by the Royal Navy generated disagreement between supporters of Jellicoe and Beatty concerning their performance in battle; debate over this and the significance of the battle continues.
Background and planningGerman planning
With 16 dreadnought-type battleships, compared with the Royal Navy's 28, the German High Seas Fleet stood little chance of winning a head-to-head clash. The Germans therefore adopted a divide-and-conquer strategy. They would stage raids into the North Sea and bombard the English coast, with the aim of luring out small British squadrons and pickets, which could then be destroyed by superior forces or submarines.
In January 1916, Admiral von Pohl, commander of the German fleet, fell ill. He was replaced by Scheer, who believed that the fleet had been used too defensively, had better ships and men than the British, and ought to take the war to them. According to Scheer, the German naval strategy should be:
, German fleet commander]]
On 25 April 1916, a decision was made by the German Imperial Admiralty to halt indiscriminate attacks by submarines on merchant shipping. This followed protests from neutral countries, notably the United States, that their nationals had been the victims of attacks. Germany agreed that future attacks would only take place in accord with internationally agreed prize rules, which required an attacker to give a warning and allow the crews of vessels time to escape, and not to attack neutral vessels at all. Scheer believed that it would not be possible to continue attacks on these terms, which took away the advantage of secret approach by submarines and left them vulnerable to even relatively small guns on the target ships. Instead, he set about deploying the submarine fleet against military vessels.
It was hoped that, following a successful German submarine attack, fast British escorts, such as destroyers, would be tied down by anti-submarine operations. If the Germans could catch the British in the expected locations, good prospects were thought to exist of at least partially redressing the balance of forces between the fleets. "After the British sortied in response to the raiding attack force", the Royal Navy's centuries-old instincts for aggressive action could be exploited to draw its weakened units towards the main German fleet under Scheer. The hope was that Scheer would thus be able to ambush a section of the British fleet and destroy it.
Submarine deployments
A plan was devised to station submarines offshore from British naval bases, and then stage some action that would draw out the British ships to the waiting submarines. The battlecruiser had been damaged in a previous engagement, but was due to be repaired by mid-May, so an operation was scheduled for 17 May 1916. At the start of May, difficulties with condensers were discovered on ships of the third battleship squadron, so the operation was put back to 23 May. Ten submarines—, , , , , , , , , and —were given orders first to patrol in the central North Sea between 17 and 22 May, and then to take up waiting positions. U-43 and U-44 were stationed in the Pentland Firth, which the Grand Fleet was likely to cross when leaving Scapa Flow, while the remainder proceeded to the Firth of Forth, awaiting battlecruisers departing Rosyth. Each boat had an allocated area, within which it could move around as necessary to avoid detection, but was instructed to keep within it. During the initial North Sea patrol the boats were instructed to sail only north–south so that any enemy who chanced to encounter one would believe it was departing or returning from operations on the west coast (which required them to pass around the north of Britain). Once at their final positions, the boats were under strict orders to avoid premature detection that might give away the operation. It was arranged that a coded signal would be transmitted to alert the submarines exactly when the operation commenced: "Take into account the enemy's forces may be putting to sea".
Additionally, UB-27 was sent out on 20 May with instructions to work its way into the Firth of Forth past May Island. U-46 was ordered to patrol the coast of Sunderland, which had been chosen for the diversionary attack, but because of engine problems it was unable to leave port and U-47 was diverted to this task. On 13 May, U-72 was sent to lay mines in the Firth of Forth; on the 23rd, U-74 departed to lay mines in the Moray Firth; and on the 24th, U-75 was dispatched similarly west of the Orkney Islands. UB-21 and UB-22 were sent to patrol the Humber, where (incorrect) reports had suggested the presence of British warships. U-22, U-46 and U-67 were positioned north of Terschelling to protect against intervention by British light forces stationed at Harwich.
On 22 May 1916, it was discovered that Seydlitz was still not watertight after repairs and would not now be ready until the 29th. The ambush submarines were now on station and experiencing difficulties of their own: visibility near the coast was frequently poor due to fog, and sea conditions were either so calm the slightest ripple, as from the periscope, could give away their position, or so rough as to make it very hard to keep the vessel at a steady depth. The British had become aware of unusual submarine activity, and had begun counter-patrols that forced the submarines out of position. UB-27 passed Bell Rock on the night of 23 May on its way into the Firth of Forth as planned, but was halted by engine trouble. After repairs it continued to approach, following behind merchant vessels, and reached Largo Bay on 25 May. There the boat became entangled in nets that fouled one of the propellers, forcing it to abandon the operation and return home. U-74 was detected by four armed trawlers on 27 May and sunk south-east of Peterhead. U-75 laid its mines off the Orkney Islands, which, although they played no part in the battle, were responsible later for sinking the cruiser carrying Lord Kitchener, the Secretary of State for War on 5 June, killing him and all but 12 of the crew. U-72 was forced to abandon its mission without laying any mines when an oil leak meant it was leaving a visible surface trail astern.
Zeppelins
, the strategic gateway to the Baltic and North Atlantic, waters off Jutland, Norway and Sweden]]
The Germans maintained a fleet of Zeppelins that they used for aerial reconnaissance and occasional bombing raids. The planned raid on Sunderland intended to use Zeppelins to watch out for the British fleet approaching from the north, which might otherwise surprise the raiders.
By 28 May, strong north-easterly winds meant that it would not be possible to send out the Zeppelins, so the raid again had to be postponed. The submarines could only stay on station until 1 June before their supplies would be exhausted and they had to return, so a decision had to be made quickly about the raid.
By 14:00 on 30 May, the wind was still too strong and the final decision was made to use the alternative plan. The coded signal "31 May G.G.2490" was transmitted to the ships of the fleet to inform them the Skagerrak attack would start on 31 May. The pre-arranged signal to the waiting submarines was transmitted throughout the day from the E-Dienst radio station at Bruges, and the U-boat tender Arcona anchored at Emden. Only two of the waiting submarines, U-66 and U-32, received the order.
British response
Unfortunately for the German plan, the British had obtained a copy of the main German codebook from the light cruiser , which had been boarded by the Russian Navy after the ship ran aground in Russian territorial waters in 1914. German naval radio communications could therefore often be quickly deciphered, and the British Admiralty usually knew about German activities.
The British Admiralty's Room 40 maintained direction finding and interception of German naval signals. It had intercepted and decrypted a German signal on 28 May that provided "ample evidence that the German fleet was stirring in the North Sea". Further signals were intercepted, and although they were not decrypted it was clear that a major operation was likely. At 11:00 on 30 May, Jellicoe was warned that the German fleet seemed prepared to sail the following morning. By 17:00, the Admiralty had intercepted the signal from Scheer, "31 May G.G.2490", making it clear something significant was imminent.
Not knowing the Germans' objective, Jellicoe and his staff decided to position the fleet to head off any attempt by the Germans to enter the North Atlantic or the Baltic through the Skagerrak, by taking up a position off Norway where they could potentially cut off any German raid into the shipping lanes of the Atlantic or prevent the Germans from heading into the Baltic. A position further west was unnecessary, as that area of the North Sea could be patrolled by air.
, British fleet commander]]
Consequently, Admiral Jellicoe led the sixteen dreadnought battleships of the 1st and 4th Battle Squadrons of the Grand Fleet and three battlecruisers of the 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron eastwards out of Scapa Flow at 22:30 on 30 May. He was to meet the 2nd Battle Squadron of eight dreadnought battleships commanded by Vice-Admiral Martyn Jerram coming from Cromarty. Beatty's force of six ships of the 1st and 2nd Battlecruiser Squadrons plus the 5th Battle Squadron of four fast battleships left the Firth of Forth at around the same time; Jellicoe intended to rendezvous with him west of the mouth of the Skagerrak off the coast of Jutland and wait for the Germans to appear or for their intentions to become clear. The planned position would give him the widest range of responses to likely German moves. Hipper's raiding force did not leave the Outer Jade Roads until 01:00 on 31 May, heading west of Heligoland Island following a cleared channel through the minefields, heading north at . The main German fleet of sixteen dreadnought battleships of 1st and 3rd Battle Squadrons left the Jade at 02:30, being joined off Heligoland at 04:00 by the six pre-dreadnoughts of the 2nd Battle Squadron coming from the Elbe River.Naval tactics in 1916The principle of concentration of force was fundamental to the fleet tactics of this time. As outlined by Captain Reginald Hall in 1914, tactical doctrine called for a fleet approaching battle to be in a compact formation of parallel columns, allowing relatively easy manoeuvring, and giving shortened sight lines within the formation, which simplified the passing of the signals necessary for command and control.
A fleet formed in several short columns could change its heading faster than one formed in a single long column. Since most command signals were made with flags or signal lamps between ships, the flagship was usually placed at the head of the centre column so that its signals might be more easily seen by the many ships of the formation. Wireless telegraphy was in use, though security (radio direction finding), encryption, and the limitation of the radio sets made their extensive use more problematic. Command and control of such huge fleets remained difficult.
Thus, it might take a very long time for a signal from the flagship to be relayed to the entire formation. It was usually necessary for a signal to be confirmed by each ship before it could be relayed to other ships, and an order for a fleet movement would have to be received and acknowledged by every ship before it could be executed. In a large single-column formation, a signal could take 10 minutes or more to be passed from one end of the line to the other, whereas in a formation of parallel columns, visibility across the diagonals was often better (and always shorter) than in a single long column, and the diagonals gave signal "redundancy", increasing the probability that a message would be quickly seen and correctly interpreted. Jellicoe achieved this twice in one hour against the High Seas Fleet at Jutland, but on both occasions, Scheer managed to turn away and disengage, thereby avoiding a decisive action.
Ship design
Within the existing technological limits, a trade-off had to be made between the weight and size of guns, the weight of armour protecting the ship, and the maximum speed. Battleships sacrificed speed for armour and heavy naval guns ( or larger). British battlecruisers sacrificed weight of armour for greater speed (their purpose being to catch and destroy cruisers while avoiding battleships), while their German counterparts were armed with lighter guns and heavier armour. These weight savings allowed them to escape danger or catch other ships. Generally, the larger guns mounted on British ships allowed an engagement at greater range. In theory, a lightly armoured ship could stay out of range of a slower opponent while still scoring hits. The fast pace of development in the pre-war years meant that every few years, a new generation of ships rendered its predecessors obsolete. Thus, fairly young ships could still be obsolete compared with the newest ships, and fare badly in an engagement against them. Some research has also shown that the chemicals used in British naval ammunition increased the chances of internal explosions.
Admiral John Fisher, responsible for reconstruction of the British fleet in the pre-war period, favoured large guns, fuel oil, and speed. Admiral Tirpitz, responsible for the German fleet, favoured ship survivability and chose to sacrifice some gun size for improved armour. The German battlecruiser had belt armour equivalent in thickness—though not as comprehensive—to the British battleship , significantly better than on the British battlecruisers such as Tiger. German ships had better internal subdivision and had fewer doors and other weak points in their bulkheads, but with the disadvantage that space for crew was greatly reduced.Order of battle
{| class"wikitable floatright" style"text-align:right;"
|-
!
!British
!German
|-
|Dreadnought<br />battleships
|28
|16
|-
|Pre-dreadnoughts
|0
|6
|-
|Battlecruisers
|9
|5
|-
|Armoured cruisers
|8
|0
|-
|Light cruisers
|26
|11
|-
|Destroyers
|79
|61
|-
|Seaplane carrier
|1
|0
|}
Warships of the period were armed with guns firing projectiles of varying weights, bearing high explosive warheads. The sum total of weight of all the projectiles fired by all the ship's broadside guns is referred to as "weight of broadside". At Jutland, the total of the British ships' weight of broadside was , while the German fleet's total was . This does not take into consideration the ability of some ships and their crews to fire more or less rapidly than others, which would increase or decrease amount of fire that one combatant was able to bring to bear on their opponent for any length of time.
Jellicoe's Grand Fleet was split into two sections. The dreadnought Battle Fleet, with which he sailed, formed the main force and was composed of 24 battleships and three battlecruisers. The battleships were formed into three squadrons of eight ships, further subdivided into divisions of four, each led by a flag officer. Accompanying them were eight armoured cruisers (classified by the Royal Navy since 1913 as "cruisers"), eight light cruisers, four scout cruisers, 51 destroyers, and one destroyer-minelayer.
, commander of the British battlecruiser fleet]]
The Grand Fleet sailed without three of its battleships: in refit at Invergordon, dry-docked at Rosyth and in refit at Devonport. The brand new was left behind; with only three weeks in service, her untrained crew was judged unready for battle. had been sunk by a German mine on 27 October 1914.
British reconnaissance was provided by the Battlecruiser Fleet under David Beatty: six battlecruisers, four fast s, 14 light cruisers and 27 destroyers. Air scouting was provided by the attachment of the seaplane tender , one of the first aircraft carriers in history to participate in a naval engagement.
The German High Seas Fleet under Scheer was also split into a main force and a separate reconnaissance force. Scheer's main battle fleet was composed of 16 battleships and six pre-dreadnought battleships arranged in an identical manner to the British. With them were six light cruisers and 31 torpedo-boats, (the latter being roughly equivalent to a British destroyer). The only German battleship missing was .
, commander of the German battlecruiser squadron]]
The German scouting force, commanded by Franz Hipper, consisted of five battlecruisers, five light cruisers and 30 torpedo-boats. The Germans had no equivalent to Engadine and no heavier-than-air aircraft to operate with the fleet but had the Imperial German Naval Airship Service's force of rigid airships available to patrol the North Sea.
All of the battleships and battlecruisers on both sides carried torpedoes of various sizes, as did the lighter craft. On the British side, the eight armoured cruisers were deficient in both speed and armour protection.Battlecruiser action
The route of the British battlecruiser fleet took it through the patrol sector allocated to U-32. After receiving the order to commence the operation, the U-boat moved to a position east of the Isle of May at dawn on 31 May. At 03:40, it sighted the cruisers and leaving the Forth at . It launched one torpedo at the leading cruiser at a range of , but its periscope jammed 'up', giving away the position of the submarine as it manoeuvred to fire a second. The lead cruiser turned away to dodge the torpedo, while the second turned towards the submarine, attempting to ram. U-32 crash dived, and on raising its periscope at 04:10 saw two battlecruisers (the 2nd Battlecruiser Squadron) heading south-east. They were too far away to attack, but Kapitänleutnant von Spiegel reported the sighting of two battleships and two cruisers to Germany.
U-66 was also supposed to be patrolling off the Firth of Forth but had been forced north to a position off Peterhead by patrolling British vessels. This now brought it into contact with the 2nd Battle Squadron, coming from the Moray Firth. At 05:00, it had to crash dive when the cruiser appeared from the mist heading toward it. It was followed by another cruiser, , and eight battleships. U-66 got within of the battleships preparing to fire, but was forced to dive by an approaching destroyer and missed the opportunity. At 06:35, it reported eight battleships and cruisers heading north.
The courses reported by both submarines were incorrect, because they reflected one leg of a zigzag being used by British ships to avoid submarines. Taken with a wireless intercept of more ships leaving Scapa Flow earlier in the night, they created the impression in the German High Command that the British fleet, whatever it was doing, was split into separate sections moving apart, which was precisely as the Germans wished to meet it.
Jellicoe's ships proceeded to their rendezvous undamaged and undiscovered. However, he was now misled by an Admiralty intelligence report advising that the German main battle fleet was still in port. The Director of Operations Division, Rear Admiral Thomas Jackson, had asked the intelligence division, Room 40, for the current location of German call sign DK, used by Admiral Scheer. They had replied that it was currently transmitting from Wilhelmshaven. It was known to the intelligence staff that Scheer deliberately used a different call sign when at sea, but no one asked for this information or explained the reason behind the query—to locate the German fleet.
The German battlecruisers cleared the minefields surrounding the Amrum swept channel by 09:00. They then proceeded north-west, passing west of the Horn's Reef lightship heading for the Little Fisher Bank at the mouth of the Skagerrak. The High Seas Fleet followed some behind. The battlecruisers were in line ahead, with the four cruisers of the II scouting group plus supporting torpedo boats ranged in an arc ahead and to either side. The IX torpedo boat flotilla formed close support immediately surrounding the battlecruisers. The High Seas Fleet similarly adopted a line-ahead formation, with close screening by torpedo boats to either side and a further screen of five cruisers surrounding the column away. The wind had finally moderated so that Zeppelins could be used, and by 11:30 five had been sent out: L14 to the Skagerrak, L23 east of Noss Head in the Pentland Firth, L21 off Peterhead, L9 off Sunderland, and L16 east of Flamborough Head. Visibility, however, was still bad, with clouds down to .
Contact
By around 14:00, Beatty's ships were proceeding eastward at roughly the same latitude as Hipper's squadron, which was heading north. Had the courses remained unchanged, Beatty would have passed between the two German fleets, south of the battlecruisers and north of the High Seas Fleet at around 16:30, possibly trapping his ships just as the German plan envisioned. His orders were to stop his scouting patrol when he reached a point east of Britain and then turn north to meet Jellicoe, which he did at this time. Beatty's ships were divided into three columns, with the two battlecruiser squadrons leading in parallel lines apart. The 5th Battle Squadron was stationed to the north-west, on the side furthest away from any expected enemy contact, while a screen of cruisers and destroyers was spread south-east of the battlecruisers. After the turn, the 5th Battle Squadron was now leading the British ships in the westernmost column, and Beatty's squadron was centre and rearmost, with the 2nd BCS to the west.
At 14:20 on 31 May, despite heavy haze and scuds of fog giving poor visibility,
Beatty began to move his battlecruisers and supporting forces south-eastwards and then east to cut the German ships off from their base and ordered Engadine to launch a seaplane to try to get more information about the size and location of the German forces. This was the first time in history that a carrier-based aeroplane was used for reconnaissance in naval combat. Engadines aircraft did locate and report some German light cruisers just before 15:30 and came under anti-aircraft gunfire but attempts to relay reports from the aeroplane failed.
Unfortunately for Beatty, his initial course changes at 14:32 were not received by Sir Hugh Evan-Thomas's 5th Battle Squadron (the distance being too great to read his flags), because the battlecruiser —the last ship in his column—was no longer in a position where she could relay signals by searchlight to Evan-Thomas, as she had previously been ordered to do. Whereas before the north turn, Tiger had been the closest ship to Evan-Thomas, she was now further away than Beatty in Lion. Matters were aggravated because Evan-Thomas had not been briefed regarding standing orders within Beatty's squadron, as his squadron normally operated with the Grand Fleet. Fleet ships were expected to obey movement orders precisely and not deviate from them. Beatty's standing instructions expected his officers to use their initiative and keep station with the flagship. As a result, the four Queen Elizabeth-class battleships—which were the fastest and most heavily armed in the world at that time—remained on the previous course for several minutes, ending up behind rather than five. Beatty also had the opportunity during the previous hours to concentrate his forces, and no reason not to do so, whereas he steamed ahead at full speed, faster than the battleships could manage. Dividing the force had serious consequences for the British, costing them what would have been an overwhelming advantage in ships and firepower during the first half-hour of the coming battle.Run to the south
Beatty's conduct during the next 15 minutes has received a great deal of criticism, as his ships out-ranged and outnumbered the German squadron, yet he held his fire for over 10 minutes with the German ships in range. He also failed to use the time available to rearrange his battlecruisers into a fighting formation, with the result that they were still manoeuvring when the battle started.
At 15:48, with the opposing forces roughly parallel at , with the British to the south-west of the Germans (i.e., on the right side), Hipper opened fire, followed by the British ships as their guns came to bear upon targets <span style"background:lightblue">(position 2)</span>. Thus began the opening phase of the battlecruiser action, known as the Run to the South, in which the British chased the Germans, and Hipper intentionally led Beatty toward Scheer. During the first minutes of the ensuing battle, all the British ships except Princess Royal fired far over their German opponents, due to adverse visibility conditions, before finally getting the range. Only Lion and Princess Royal had settled into formation, so the other four ships were hampered in aiming by their own turning. Beatty was to windward of Hipper, and therefore funnel and gun smoke from his own ships tended to obscure his targets, while Hipper's smoke blew clear. Also, the eastern sky was overcast and the grey German ships were indistinct and difficult to range.
's flagship HMS Lion burning after being hit by a salvo from SMS Lützow]]
Beatty had ordered his ships to engage in a line, one British ship engaging with one German and his flagship doubling on the German flagship . However, due to another mistake with signalling by flag, and possibly because Queen Mary and Tiger were unable to see the German lead ship because of smoke, the second German ship, Derfflinger, was left un-engaged and free to fire without disruption. drew fire from two of Beatty's battlecruisers, but still fired with great accuracy during this time, hitting Tiger 9 times in the first 12 minutes. The Germans drew first blood. Aided by superior visibility, Hipper's five battlecruisers quickly registered hits on three of the six British battlecruisers. Seven minutes passed before the British managed to score their first hit.
The first near-kill of the Run to the South occurred at 16:00, when a shell from Lützow wrecked the "Q" turret amidships on Beatty's flagship Lion. Dozens of crewmen were instantly killed, but far larger destruction was averted when the mortally wounded turret commander—Major Francis Harvey of the Royal Marines—promptly ordered the magazine doors shut and the magazine flooded. This prevented a magazine explosion at 16:28, when a flash fire ignited ready cordite charges beneath the turret and killed everyone in the chambers outside "Q" magazine. Lion was saved. was not so lucky; at 16:02, just 14 minutes into the gunnery exchange, she was hit aft by three shells from , causing damage sufficient to knock her out of line and detonating "X" magazine aft. Soon after, despite the near-maximum range, Von der Tann put another shell on Indefatigables "A" turret forward. The plunging shells probably pierced the thin upper armour, and seconds later Indefatigable was ripped apart by another magazine explosion, sinking immediately and leaving only two survivors from her crew of 1,019 officers and men. <span style="background:lightblue">(position 3)</span>.
Hipper's position deteriorated somewhat by 16:15 as the 5th Battle Squadron finally came into range, so that he had to contend with gunfire from the four battleships astern as well as Beatty's five remaining battlecruisers to starboard. But he knew his baiting mission was close to completion, as his force was rapidly closing with Scheer's main body. At 16:08, the lead battleship of the 5th Battle Squadron, , caught up with Hipper and opened fire at extreme range, scoring a hit on Von der Tann within 60 seconds. Still, it was 16:15 before all the battleships of the 5th were able to fully engage at long range.
At 16:25, the battlecruiser action intensified again when was hit by what may have been a combined salvo from Derfflinger and Seydlitz; she disintegrated when both forward magazines exploded, sinking with all but nine of her 1,275 man crew lost. <span style"background:lightblue">(position 4)</span>. <!-- Campbell p. 47 says 20 survivors picked up but that would mean a crew of 1,286 since he says 1,266 were lost. -->Commander von Hase, the first gunnery officer aboard Derfflinger, noted:
During the Run to the South, from 15:48 to 16:54, the German battlecruisers made an estimated total of forty-two hits on the British battlecruisers (nine on Lion, six on Princess Royal, seven on Queen Mary, 14 on Tiger, one on New Zealand, five on Indefatigable), and two more on the battleship Barham, compared with only eleven hits by the British battlecruisers (four on Lützow, four on Seydlitz, two on Moltke, one on von der Tann), and six hits by the battleships (one on Seydlitz, four on Moltke, one on von der Tann).
Shortly after 16:26, a salvo struck on or around , which was obscured by spray and smoke from shell bursts. A signalman promptly leapt on to the bridge of Lion and announced "Princess Royals blown up, Sir." Beatty famously turned to his flag captain, saying "Chatfield, there seems to be something wrong with our bloody ships today." (In popular legend, Beatty also immediately ordered his ships to "turn two points to port", i.e., two points nearer the enemy, but there is no official record of any such command or course change.) Princess Royal, as it turned out, was still afloat after the spray cleared.
At 16:30, Scheer's leading battleships sighted the distant battlecruiser action; soon after, of Beatty's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron led by Commodore William Goodenough sighted the main body of Scheer's High Seas Fleet, dodging numerous heavy-calibre salvos to report in detail the German strength: 16 dreadnoughts with six older battleships. This was the first news that Beatty and Jellicoe had that Scheer and his battle fleet were even at sea. Simultaneously, an all-out destroyer action raged in the space between the opposing battlecruiser forces, as British and German destroyers fought with each other and attempted to torpedo the larger enemy ships. Each side fired many torpedoes, but both battlecruiser forces turned away from the attacks and all escaped harm except Seydlitz, which was hit forward at 16:57 by a torpedo fired by the British destroyer . Though taking on water, Seydlitz maintained speed. The destroyer , under the command of Captain Barry Bingham, led the British attacks. The British disabled the German torpedo boat , which the Germans soon abandoned and sank, and Petard then torpedoed and sank , her second score of the day. and rescued the crews of their sunken sister ships. But Nestor and another British destroyer——were immobilised by shell hits, and were later sunk by Scheer's passing dreadnoughts. Bingham was rescued, and awarded the Victoria Cross for his leadership in the destroyer action.Run to the northAs soon as he himself sighted the vanguard of Scheer's distant battleship line away, at 16:40, Beatty turned his battlecruiser force 180°, heading north to draw the Germans toward Jellicoe. <span style"background:lightblue">(position 5)</span>. Beatty's withdrawal toward Jellicoe is called the "Run to the North", in which the tables turned and the Germans chased the British. Because Beatty once again failed to signal his intentions adequately, the battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron—which were too far behind to read his flags—found themselves passing the battlecruisers on an opposing course and heading directly toward the approaching main body of the High Seas Fleet. At 16:48, at extreme range, Scheer's leading battleships opened fire.
Meanwhile, at 16:47, having received Goodenough's signal and knowing that Beatty was now leading the German battle fleet north to him, Jellicoe signalled to his own forces that the fleet action they had waited so long for was finally imminent; at 16:51, by radio, he informed the Admiralty so in London.
The difficulties of the 5th Battle Squadron were compounded when Beatty gave the order to Evan-Thomas to "turn in succession" (rather than "turn together") at 16:48 as the battleships passed him. Evan-Thomas acknowledged the signal, but Lieutenant-Commander Ralph Seymour, Beatty's flag lieutenant, aggravated the situation when he did not haul down the flags (to execute the signal) for some minutes. At 16:55, when the 5BS had moved within range of the enemy battleships, Evan-Thomas issued his own flag command warning his squadron to expect sudden manoeuvres and to follow his lead, before starting to turn on his own initiative. The order to turn in succession would have resulted in all four ships turning in the same patch of sea as they reached it one by one, giving the High Seas Fleet repeated opportunity with ample time to find the proper range. However, the captain of the trailing ship () turned early, mitigating the adverse results.
For the next hour, the 5th Battle Squadron acted as Beatty's rearguard, drawing fire from all the German ships within range, while by 17:10 Beatty had deliberately eased his own squadron out of range of Hipper's now-superior battlecruiser force. Since visibility and firepower now favoured the Germans, there was no incentive for Beatty to risk further battlecruiser losses when his own gunnery could not be effective. Illustrating the imbalance, Beatty's battlecruisers did not score any hits on the Germans in this phase until 17:45, but they had rapidly received five more before he opened the range (four on Lion, of which three were by Lützow, and one on Tiger by Seydlitz). Now the only targets the Germans could reach, the ships of the 5th Battle Squadron, received simultaneous fire from Hipper's battlecruisers to the east (which HMS Barham and engaged) and Scheer's leading battleships to the south-east (which and Malaya engaged). Three took hits: Barham (four by Derfflinger), Warspite (two by Seydlitz), and Malaya (seven by the German battleships). Only Valiant was unscathed.
The four battleships were far better suited to take this sort of pounding than the battlecruisers, and none were lost, though Malaya suffered heavy damage, an ammunition fire, and heavy crew casualties. At the same time, the fire of the four British ships was accurate and effective. As the two British squadrons headed north at top speed, eagerly chased by the entire German fleet, the 5th Battle Squadron scored 13 hits on the enemy battlecruisers (four on Lützow, three on Derfflinger, six on Seydlitz) and five on battleships (although only one, on , did any serious damage). <span style"background:lightblue">(position 6)</span>.
The fleets converge
Jellicoe was now aware that full fleet engagement was nearing, but had insufficient information on the position and course of the Germans. To assist Beatty, early in the battle at about 16:05, Jellicoe had ordered Rear-Admiral Horace Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron to speed ahead to find and support Beatty's force, and Hood was now racing SSE well in advance of Jellicoe's northern force. Rear-Admiral Arbuthnot's 1st Cruiser Squadron patrolled the van of Jellicoe's main battleship force as it advanced steadily to the south-east.
At 17:33, the armoured cruiser of Arbuthnot's squadron, on the far southwest flank of Jellicoe's force, came within view of , which was about ahead of Beatty with the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron, establishing the first visual link between the converging bodies of the Grand Fleet. At 17:38, the scout cruiser , screening Hood's oncoming battlecruisers, was intercepted by the van of the German scouting forces under Rear-Admiral Boedicker.
Heavily outnumbered by Boedicker's four light cruisers, Chester was pounded before being relieved by Hood's heavy units, which swung westward for that purpose. Hood's flagship disabled the light cruiser shortly after 17:56. Wiesbaden became a sitting target for most of the British fleet during the next hour, but remained afloat and fired some torpedoes at the passing enemy battleships from long range. Meanwhile, Boedicker's other ships turned toward Hipper and Scheer in the mistaken belief that Hood was leading a larger force of British capital ships from the north and east. A chaotic destroyer action in mist and smoke ensued as German torpedo boats attempted to blunt the arrival of this new formation, but Hood's battlecruisers dodged all the torpedoes fired at them. In this action, after leading a torpedo counter-attack, the British destroyer was disabled, but continued to return fire at numerous passing enemy ships for the next hour.Fleet actionDeploymentIn the meantime, Beatty and Evan-Thomas had resumed their engagement with Hipper's battlecruisers, this time with the visual conditions to their advantage. With several of his ships damaged, Hipper turned back toward Scheer at around 18:00, just as Beatty's flagship Lion was finally sighted from Jellicoe's flagship Iron Duke. Jellicoe twice demanded the latest position of the German battlefleet from Beatty, who could not see the German battleships and failed to respond to the question until 18:14. Meanwhile, Jellicoe received confused sighting reports of varying accuracy and limited usefulness from light cruisers and battleships on the starboard (southern) flank of his force.
Jellicoe was in a worrying position. He needed to know the location of the German fleet to judge when and how to deploy his battleships from their cruising formation (six columns of four ships each) into a single battle line. The deployment could be on either the westernmost or the easternmost column, and had to be carried out before the Germans arrived; but early deployment could mean losing any chance of a decisive encounter. Deploying to the west would bring his fleet closer to Scheer, gaining valuable time as dusk approached, but the Germans might arrive before the manoeuvre was complete. Deploying to the east would take the force away from Scheer, but Jellicoe's ships might be able to cross the "T", and visibility would strongly favour British gunnery—Scheer's forces would be silhouetted against the setting sun to the west, while the Grand Fleet would be indistinct against the dark skies to the north and east, and would be hidden by reflection of the low sunlight off intervening haze and smoke. Deployment would take twenty irreplaceable minutes, and the fleets were closing at full speed. In one of the most critical and difficult tactical command decisions of the entire war, Jellicoe ordered deployment to the east at 18:15.
Windy Corner
Meanwhile, Hipper had rejoined Scheer, and the combined High Seas Fleet was heading north, directly toward Jellicoe. Scheer had no indication that Jellicoe was at sea, let alone that he was bearing down from the north-west, and was distracted by the intervention of Hood's ships to his north and east. Beatty's four surviving battlecruisers were now crossing the van of the British dreadnoughts to join Hood's three battlecruisers; at this time, Arbuthnot's flagship, the armoured cruiser , and her squadron-mate both charged across Beatty's bows, and Lion narrowly avoided a collision with Warrior. Nearby, numerous British light cruisers and destroyers on the south-western flank of the deploying battleships were also crossing each other's courses in attempts to reach their proper stations, often barely escaping collisions, and under fire from some of the approaching German ships. This period of peril and heavy traffic attending the merger and deployment of the British forces later became known as "Windy Corner".
Arbuthnot was attracted by the drifting hull of the crippled Wiesbaden. With Warrior, Defence closed in for the kill, only to blunder right into the gun sights of Hipper's and Scheer's oncoming capital ships. Defence was deluged by heavy-calibre gunfire from many German battleships, which detonated her magazines in a spectacular explosion viewed by most of the deploying Grand Fleet. She sank with all hands (903 officers and men). Warrior was also hit badly, but was spared destruction by a mishap to the nearby battleship Warspite. Warspite had her steering gear overheat and jam under heavy load at high speed as the 5th Battle Squadron made a turn to the north at 18:19. Steaming at top speed in wide circles, Warspite attracted the attention of German dreadnoughts and took 13 hits, inadvertently drawing fire away from the hapless Warrior. Warspite was brought back under control and survived the onslaught, but was badly damaged, had to reduce speed, and withdrew northward; later (at 21:07), she was ordered back to port by Evan-Thomas. Warspite went on to a long and illustrious career, serving also in World War II. Warrior, on the other hand, was abandoned and sank the next day after her crew was taken off at 08:25 on 1 June by Engadine, which towed the sinking armoured cruiser during the night.
As Defence sank and Warspite circled, at about 18:19, Hipper moved within range of Hood's 3rd Battlecruiser Squadron, but was still also within range of Beatty's ships. At first, visibility favoured the British: hit Derfflinger three times and Seydlitz once, while Lützow quickly took 10 hits from Lion, and Invincible, including two below-waterline hits forward by Invincible that would ultimately doom Hipper's flagship. But at 18:30, Invincible abruptly appeared as a clear target before Lützow and Derfflinger. The two German ships then fired three salvoes each at Invincible, and sank her in 90 seconds. A shell from the third salvo struck Invincibles Q-turret amidships, detonating the magazines below and causing her to blow up and sink. All but six of her crew of 1,032 officers and men, including Rear-Admiral Hood, were killed. Of the remaining British battlecruisers, only Princess Royal received heavy-calibre hits at this time (two by the battleship Markgraf). Lützow, flooding forward and unable to communicate by radio, was now out of action and began to attempt to withdraw; therefore Hipper left his flagship and transferred to the torpedo boat , hoping to board one of the other battlecruisers later.Crossing the TBy 18:30, the main battle fleet action was joined for the first time, with Jellicoe effectively "crossing Scheer's T". The officers on the lead German battleships, and Scheer himself, were taken completely by surprise when they emerged from drifting clouds of smoky mist to suddenly find themselves facing the massed firepower of the entire Grand Fleet main battle line, which they did not know was even at sea. Jellicoe's flagship Iron Duke quickly scored seven hits on the lead German dreadnought, , but in this brief exchange, which lasted only minutes, as few as 10 of the Grand Fleet's 24 dreadnoughts actually opened fire. The Germans were hampered by poor visibility, in addition to being in an unfavourable tactical position, just as Jellicoe had intended. Realising he was heading into a death trap, Scheer ordered his fleet to turn and disengage at 18:33. Under a pall of smoke and mist, Scheer's forces succeeded in disengaging by an expertly executed 180° turn in unison ("battle about turn to starboard", German Gefechtskehrtwendung nach Steuerbord), which was a well-practised emergency manoeuvre of the High Seas Fleet. Scheer declared:
with gunfire, but was eventually torpedoed and sunk at 19:02 by the German destroyer . Sharks Captain Loftus Jones was awarded the Victoria Cross for his heroism in continuing to fight against all odds.Death RideCommodore Goodenough's 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron dodged the fire of German battleships for a second time to re-establish contact with the High Seas Fleet shortly after 19:00. By 19:15, Jellicoe had crossed Scheer's "T" again. This time his arc of fire was tighter and deadlier, causing severe damage to the German battleships, particularly Rear-Admiral Behncke's leading 3rd Squadron (SMS König, , Markgraf, and all being hit, along with of the 1st Squadron), while on the British side, only the battleship was hit (twice, by Seydlitz but with little damage done).
At 19:17, for the second time in less than an hour, Scheer turned his outnumbered and out-gunned fleet to the west using the "battle about turn" (German: Gefechtskehrtwendung), but this time it was executed only with difficulty, as the High Seas Fleet's lead squadrons began to lose formation under concentrated gunfire. To deter a British chase, Scheer ordered a major torpedo attack by his destroyers and a potentially sacrificial charge by Scouting Group I's four remaining battlecruisers. Hipper was still aboard the torpedo boat G39 and was unable to command his squadron for this attack. Therefore, Derfflinger, under Captain Hartog, led the already badly damaged German battlecruisers directly into "the greatest concentration of naval gunfire any fleet commander had ever faced", at ranges down to .
In what became known as the "death ride", all the battlecruisers except Moltke were hit and further damaged, as 18 of the British battleships fired at them simultaneously. Derfflinger had two main gun turrets destroyed. The crews of Scouting Group I suffered heavy casualties, but survived the pounding and veered away with the other battlecruisers once Scheer was out of trouble and the German destroyers were moving in to attack.
While his battlecruisers drew the fire of the British fleet, Scheer slipped away, laying smoke screens. Meanwhile, from about 19:16 to about 19:40, the British battleships were also engaging Scheer's torpedo boats, which executed several waves of torpedo attacks to cover his withdrawal. Jellicoe's ships turned away from the attacks and successfully evaded all 31 of the torpedoes launched at them—though, in several cases, only barely—and sank the German destroyer S35, attributed to a salvo from Iron Duke. British light forces also sank V48, which had previously been disabled by HMS Shark. This action, and the turn away, cost the British critical time and range in the last hour of daylight—as Scheer intended, allowing him to get his heavy ships out of immediate danger.
The last major exchanges between capital ships in this battle—and in the war—took place just after sunset, from about 20:19 to about 20:35, as the surviving British battlecruisers caught up with their German counterparts, which were briefly relieved by Rear-Admiral Mauve's obsolete pre-dreadnoughts (the German 2nd Squadron). The British received one heavy hit on Princess Royal but scored five more on Seydlitz and three on other German ships.
Night action and German withdrawal
At 21:00, Jellicoe, conscious of the Grand Fleet's deficiencies in night fighting, decided to try to avoid a major engagement until early dawn. He placed a screen of cruisers and destroyers behind his battle fleet to patrol the rear as he headed south to guard Scheer's expected escape route. In reality, Scheer opted to cross Jellicoe's wake and escape via Horns Reef. Luckily for Scheer, most of the light forces in Jellicoe's rearguard failed to report the seven separate encounters with the German fleet during the night; the very few radio reports that were sent to the British flagship were never received, possibly because the Germans were jamming British frequencies. Many of the destroyers failed to make the most of their opportunities to attack discovered ships, despite Jellicoe's expectations that the destroyer forces would, if necessary, be able to block the path of the German fleet.
Jellicoe and his commanders did not understand that the furious gunfire and explosions to the north (seen and heard for hours by all the British battleships) indicated that the German heavy ships were breaking through the screen astern of the British fleet. The most powerful British ships of all (the 15-inch-guns of the 5th Battle Squadron) directly observed German battleships crossing astern of them in action with British light forces, at ranges of or less, and gunners on HMS Malaya made ready to fire, but her captain declined, deferring to the authority of Rear-Admiral Evan-Thomas—and neither commander reported the sightings to Jellicoe, assuming that he could see for himself and that revealing the fleet's position by radio signals or gunfire was unwise.
While the nature of Scheer's escape, and Jellicoe's inaction, indicate the overall German superiority in night fighting, the results of the night action were no more clear-cut than were those of the battle as a whole. In the first of many surprise encounters by darkened ships at point-blank range, Southampton, Commodore Goodenough's flagship, which had scouted so proficiently, was heavily damaged in action with a German Scouting Group composed of light cruisers, but managed to torpedo , which went down at 22:23 with all but 9 hands (320 officers and men).
From 23:20 to approximately 02:15, several British destroyer flotillas launched torpedo attacks on the German battle fleet in a series of violent and chaotic engagements at extremely short range (often under ). At the cost of five destroyers sunk and some others damaged, they managed to torpedo the light cruiser , which sank several hours later, and the pre-dreadnought , which blew up and sank with all hands (839 officers and men) at 03:10 during the last wave of attacks before dawn. Spitfire survived and made it back to port. Another German cruiser, Elbing, was accidentally rammed by the dreadnought and abandoned, sinking early the next day. Of the British destroyers, , , , and were lost during the night fighting.
Just after midnight on 1 June, and other German battleships sank Black Prince of the ill-fated 1st Cruiser Squadron, which had blundered into the German battle line. Deployed as part of a screening force several miles ahead of the main force of the Grand Fleet, Black Prince had lost contact in the darkness and took a position near what she thought was the British line. The Germans soon identified the new addition to their line and opened fire. Overwhelmed by point-blank gunfire, Black Prince blew up (all 857 officers and men were lost), as her squadron leader Defence had done hours earlier. Lost in the darkness, the battlecruisers Moltke and Seydlitz had similar point-blank encounters with the British battle line and were recognised, but were spared the fate of Black Prince when the captains of the British ships, again, declined to open fire, reluctant to reveal their fleet's position.
At 01:45, the sinking battlecruiser Lützow – fatally damaged by Invincible during the main action – was torpedoed by the destroyer on orders of Lützows Captain Viktor von Harder after the surviving crew of 1,150 transferred to destroyers that came alongside. At 02:15, the German torpedo boat suddenly had its bow blown off; V2 and V6 came alongside and took off the remaining crew, and the V2 then sank the hulk. Since there was no enemy nearby, it was assumed that she had hit a mine or had been torpedoed by a submarine.
At 02:15, five British ships of the 13th Destroyer Flotilla under Captain James Uchtred Farie regrouped and headed south. At 02:25, they sighted the rear of the German line. inquired of the leader as to whether he thought they were British or German ships. Answering that he thought they were German, Farie then veered off to the east and away from the German line. All but Moresby in the rear followed, as through the gloom she sighted what she thought were four pre-dreadnought battleships away. She hoisted a flag signal indicating that the enemy was to the west and then closed to firing range, letting off a torpedo set for high running at 02:37, then veering off to rejoin her flotilla. The four pre-dreadnought battleships were in fact two pre-dreadnoughts, Schleswig-Holstein and , and the battlecruisers Von der Tann and Derfflinger. Von der Tann sighted the torpedo and was forced to steer sharply to starboard to avoid it as it passed close to her bows. Moresby rejoined Champion convinced she had scored a hit. Seydlitz, critically damaged and very nearly sinking, barely survived the return voyage: after grounding and taking on even more water on the evening of 1 June, she had to be assisted stern first into port, where she dropped anchor at 07:30 on the morning of 2 June.
The Germans were helped in their escape by the failure of the British Admiralty in London to pass on seven critical radio intercepts obtained by naval intelligence indicating the true position, course and intentions of the High Seas Fleet during the night. One message was transmitted to Jellicoe at 23:15 that accurately reported the German fleet's course and speed as of 21:14. However, the erroneous signal from earlier in the day that reported the German fleet still in port, and an intelligence signal received at 22:45 giving another unlikely position for the German fleet, had reduced his confidence in intelligence reports. Had the other messages been forwarded, which confirmed the information received at 23:15, or had British ships reported accurately sightings and engagements with German destroyers, cruisers and battleships, then Jellicoe could have altered course to intercept Scheer at the Horns Reef. The unsent intercepted messages had been duly filed by the junior officer left on duty that night, who failed to appreciate their significance. By the time Jellicoe finally learned of Scheer's whereabouts at 04:15, the German fleet was too far away to catch and it was clear that the battle could no longer be resumed.OutcomeAs both the Grand Fleet and the High Seas Fleet could claim to have at least partially satisfied their objectives, both Britain and Germany have at various points claimed victory in the Battle of Jutland. There is no consensus over which nation was victorious, or if there was a victor at all.Reporting
At midday on 2 June, German authorities released a press statement claiming a victory, including the destruction of a battleship, two battlecruisers, two armoured cruisers, a light cruiser, a submarine and several destroyers, for the loss of Pommern and Wiesbaden. News that Lützow, Elbing and Rostock had been scuttled was withheld, on the grounds this information would not be known to the enemy. The victory of the Skagerrak was celebrated in the press, children were given a holiday and the nation celebrated. The Kaiser announced a new chapter in world history. Post-war, the official German history hailed the battle as a victory and it continued to be celebrated until after World War II.
In Britain, the first official news came from German wireless broadcasts. Ships began to arrive in port, their crews sending messages to friends and relatives both of their survival and the loss of some 6,000 others. The authorities considered suppressing the news, but it had already spread widely. Some crews coming ashore found rumours had already reported them dead to relatives, while others were jeered for the defeat they had suffered. At 19:00 on 2 June, the Admiralty released a statement based on information from Jellicoe containing the bare news of losses on each side. The following day British newspapers reported a German victory. The Daily Mirror described the German Director of the Naval Department telling the Reichstag: "The result of the fighting is a significant success for our forces against a much stronger adversary". The British population was shocked that the long anticipated battle had been a victory for Germany. On 3 June, the Admiralty issued a further statement expanding on German losses, and another the following day with exaggerated claims. However, on 7 June the German admission of the losses of Lützow and Rostock started to redress the sense of the battle as a loss. International perception of the battle began to change towards a qualified British victory, the German attempt to change the balance of power in the North Sea having been repulsed. In July, bad news from the Somme campaign swept concern over Jutland from the British consciousness.Assessments
Jutland was the third fleet action between steel battleships, following the Battle of the Yellow Sea in 1904 and the Battle of Tsushima in 1905, during the Russo-Japanese War.
At Jutland, the Germans, with a 99-strong fleet, sank of British ships, while a 151-strong British fleet sank of German ships. The British lost 6,094 seamen; the Germans 2,551. Several other ships were badly damaged, such as Lion and Seydlitz.
As of the summer of 1916, the High Seas Fleet's strategy was to whittle away the numerical advantage of the Royal Navy by bringing its full strength to bear against isolated squadrons of enemy capital ships whilst declining to be drawn into a general fleet battle until it had achieved something resembling parity in heavy ships. In tactical terms, the High Seas Fleet had clearly inflicted significantly greater losses on the Grand Fleet than it had suffered itself at Jutland, and the Germans never had any intention of attempting to hold the site of the battle, so some historians support the German claim of victory at Jutland. The Germans declared a great victory immediately afterwards, while the British by contrast had only reported short and simple results. In response to public outrage, the First Lord of the Admiralty Arthur Balfour asked Winston Churchill to write a second report that was more positive and detailed.
However, Scheer seems to have quickly realised that further battles with a similar rate of attrition would exhaust the High Seas Fleet long before they reduced the Grand Fleet. Further, after the 19 August advance was nearly intercepted by the Grand Fleet, he no longer believed that it would be possible to trap a single squadron of Royal Navy warships without having the Grand Fleet intervene before he could return to port. Therefore, the High Seas Fleet abandoned its forays into the North Sea and turned its attention to the Baltic for most of 1917 whilst Scheer switched tactics against Britain to unrestricted submarine warfare in the Atlantic.
At a strategic level, the outcome has been the subject of a huge amount of literature with no clear consensus. The battle was widely viewed as indecisive in the immediate aftermath, and this view remains influential.
Despite numerical superiority, the British had been disappointed in their hopes for a decisive battle comparable to Trafalgar and the objective of the influential strategic doctrines of Alfred Mahan. The High Seas Fleet survived as a fleet in being. Most of its losses were made good within a month—even Seydlitz, the most badly damaged ship to survive the battle, was repaired by October and officially back in service by November. However, the Germans had failed in their objective of destroying a substantial portion of the British Fleet, and no progress had been made towards the goal of allowing the High Seas Fleet to operate in the Atlantic Ocean.
Subsequently, there has been considerable support for the view of Jutland as a strategic victory for the British. While the British had not destroyed the German fleet and had lost more ships and lives than their enemy, the Germans had retreated to harbour; at the end of the battle, the British were in command of the area. Britain enforced the blockade, reducing Germany's vital imports to 55%, affecting the ability of Germany to fight the war.
The German fleet would only sortie into the North Sea thrice more, with a raid on 19 August, one in October 1916, and another in April 1918. All three were unopposed by capital ships and quickly aborted as neither side was prepared to take the risks of mines and submarines.
Apart from these three abortive operations the High Seas Fleet—unwilling to risk another encounter with the British fleet—confined its activities to the Baltic Sea for the remainder of the war. Jellicoe issued an order prohibiting the Grand Fleet from steaming south of the line of Horns Reef owing to the threat of mines and U-boats. A German naval expert, writing publicly about Jutland in November 1918, commented, "Our Fleet losses were severe. On 1 June 1916, it was clear to every thinking person that this battle must, and would be, the last one".
At the end of the battle, the British had maintained their numerical superiority and had 23 dreadnoughts ready and four battlecruisers still able to fight, while the Germans had only 10 dreadnoughts. One month after the battle, the Grand Fleet was stronger than it had been before sailing to Jutland.
A third view, presented in a number of recent evaluations, is that Jutland, the last major fleet action between battleships, illustrated the irrelevance of battleship fleets following the development of the submarine, mine and torpedo. In this view, the most important consequence of Jutland was the decision of the Germans to engage in unrestricted submarine warfare. Although large numbers of battleships were constructed in the decades between the wars, it has been argued that this outcome reflected the social dominance among naval decision-makers of battleship advocates who constrained technological choices to fit traditional paradigms of fleet action. Battleships played a relatively minor role in World War II, in which the submarine and aircraft carrier emerged as the dominant offensive weapons of naval warfare.British self-critique
The official British Admiralty examination of the Grand Fleet's performance recognised two main problems:
* British armour-piercing shells exploded outside the German armour rather than penetrating and exploding within. As a result, some German ships with only -thick armour survived hits from projectiles. Had these shells penetrated the armour and then exploded, German losses would probably have been far greater.
* Communication between ships and the British commander-in-chief was comparatively poor. For most of the battle, Jellicoe had no idea where the German ships were, even though British ships were in contact. They failed to report enemy positions, contrary to the Grand Fleet's Battle Plan. Some of the most important signalling was carried out solely by flag instead of wireless or using redundant methods to ensure communications—a questionable procedure, given the mixture of haze and smoke that obscured the battlefield, and a foreshadowing of similar failures by habit-bound and conservatively minded professional officers of rank to take advantage of new technology in World War II.
Shell performance
German armour-piercing shells were far more effective than the British ones, which often failed to penetrate heavy armour. The issue particularly concerned shells striking at oblique angles, which became increasingly the case at long range. Germany had adopted trinitrotoluene (TNT) as the explosive filler for artillery shells in 1902, while the United Kingdom was still using a picric acid mixture (Lyddite). The shock of impact of a shell against armour often prematurely detonated Lyddite in advance of fuze function while TNT detonation could be delayed until after the shell had penetrated and the fuze had functioned in the vulnerable area behind the armour plate. Some 17 British shells hit the side armour of the German dreadnoughts or battlecruisers. Of these, four would not have penetrated under any circumstances. Of the remaining 13, one penetrated the armour and exploded inside. This showed a 7.5% chance of proper shell function on the British side, a result of overly brittle shells and Lyddite exploding too soon. Beatty discovered the problem at a party aboard Lion a short time after the battle, when a Swedish Naval officer was present. He had recently visited Berlin, where the German navy had scoffed at how British shells had broken up on their ships' armour. The question of shell effectiveness had also been raised after the Battle of Dogger Bank, but no action had been taken. Hipper later commented, "It was nothing but the poor quality of their bursting charges which saved us from disaster."
Admiral Dreyer, writing later about the battle, during which he had been captain of the British flagship Iron Duke, estimated that effective shells as later introduced would have led to the sinking of six more German capital ships, based upon the actual number of hits achieved in the battle. The system of testing shells, which remained in use up to 1944, meant that, statistically, a batch of shells of which 70% were faulty stood an even chance of being accepted. Indeed, even shells that failed this relatively mild test had still been issued to ships. Analysis of the test results afterwards by the Ordnance Board suggested the likelihood that 30–70% of shells would not have passed the standard penetration test specified by the Admiralty. New shells were designed, but did not arrive until April 1918, and were never used in action. Lützow sustained 24 hits and her flooding could not be contained. She was eventually sunk by her escorts' torpedoes after most of her crew had been safely removed (though six trapped stokers died when the ship was scuttled). Derfflinger and Seydlitz sustained 22 hits each but reached port (although in Seydlitz's case only just).
Jellicoe and Beatty, as well as other senior officers, gave an impression that the loss of the battlecruisers was caused by weak armour, despite reports by two committees and earlier statements by Jellicoe and other senior officers that Cordite and its management were to blame. This led to calls for armour to be increased, and an additional was placed over the relatively thin decks above magazines. To compensate for the increase in weight, ships had to carry correspondingly less fuel, water and other supplies. Whether or not thin deck armour was a potential weakness of British ships, the battle provided no evidence that it was the case. At least amongst the surviving ships, no enemy shell was found to have penetrated deck armour anywhere. The design of the new battlecruiser (which was being built at the time of the battle) was altered to give her of additional armour.
Ammunition handling
British and German propellant charges differed in packaging, handling, and chemistry. The British propellant was of two types, MK1 and MD. The Mark 1 cordite had a formula of 37% nitrocellulose, 58% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly. It was a good propellant but burned hot and caused an erosion problem in gun barrels. The petroleum jelly served as both a lubricant and a stabiliser. Cordite MD was developed to reduce barrel wear, its formula being 65% nitrocellulose, 30% nitroglycerine, and 5% petroleum jelly. While cordite MD solved the gun-barrel erosion issue, it did nothing to improve its storage properties, which were poor. Cordite was very sensitive to variations of temperature, and acid propagation/cordite deterioration would take place at a very rapid rate. Cordite MD also shed micro-dust particles of nitrocellulose and iron pyrite. While cordite propellant was manageable, it required a vigilant gunnery officer, strict cordite lot control, and frequent testing of the cordite lots in the ships' magazines.
British cordite propellant (when uncased and exposed in the silk bag) tended to burn violently, causing uncontrollable "flash fires" when ignited by nearby shell hits. In 1945, a test was conducted by the U.S.N. Bureau of Ordnance (Bulletin of Ordnance Information, No. 245, pp. 54–60) testing the sensitivity of cordite to then-current U.S. Naval propellant powders against a measurable and repeatable flash source. It found that cordite would ignite at from the flash, the current U.S. powder at , and the U.S. flashless powder at .
This meant that about 75 times the propellant would immediately ignite when exposed to flash, as compared to the U.S. powder. British ships had inadequate protection against these flash fires. German propellant (RP C/12, handled in brass cartridge cases and used in German artillery because their sliding wedge breeches were hard to obturate with smokeless powder,) was less vulnerable and less volatile in composition. German propellants were not that different in composition from cordite—with one major exception: centralite. This was symmetrical diethyl diphenyl urea, which served as a stabiliser that was superior to the petroleum jelly used in British practice. It stored better and burned but did not explode. Stored and used in brass cases, it proved much less sensitive to flash. RP C/12 was composed of 64.13% nitrocellulose, 29.77% nitroglycerine, 5.75% centralite, 0.25% magnesium oxide and 0.10% graphite. This 'bad safety habit' carried over into real battle practices.
The British cordite charges were stored two silk bags to a metal cylindrical container, with a 16-oz gunpowder igniter charge, which was covered with a thick paper wad, four charges being used on each projectile. The gun crews were removing the charges from their containers and removing the paper covering over the gunpowder igniter charges. The effect of having eight loads at the ready was to have of exposed explosive, with each charge leaking small amounts of gunpowder from the igniter bags. In effect, the gun crews had laid an explosive train from the turret to the magazines, and one shell hit to a battlecruiser turret was enough to end a ship.
A diving expedition during the summer of 2003 provided corroboration of this practice. It examined the wrecks of Invincible, Queen Mary, Defence, and Lützow to investigate the cause of the British ships' tendency to suffer from internal explosions. From this evidence, a major part of the blame may be laid on lax handling of the cordite propellant for the shells of the main guns. The wreck of the Queen Mary revealed cordite containers stacked in the working chamber of the X turret instead of the magazine.
There was a further difference in the propellant itself. While the German RP C/12 burned when exposed to fire, it did not explode, as opposed to cordite. RP C/12 was extensively studied by the British and, after World War I, would form the basis of the later Cordite SC.
The memoirs of Alexander Grant, Gunner on Lion, suggest that some British officers were aware of the dangers of careless handling of cordite:
Grant had already introduced measures onboard Lion to limit the number of cartridges kept outside the magazine and to ensure doors were kept closed, probably contributing to her survival.
On 5 June 1916, the First Lord of the Admiralty advised Cabinet Members that the three battlecruisers had been lost due to unsafe cordite management.
After the battle, the B.C.F. Gunnery Committee issued a report (at the command of Admiral David Beatty) advocating immediate changes in flash protection and charge handling. It reported, among other things, that:
* Some vent plates in magazines allowed flash into the magazines and should be retro-fitted to a new standard.
* Bulkheads in HMS Lions magazine showed buckling from fire under pressure (overpressure)—despite being flooded and therefore supported by water pressure—and must be made stronger.
* Doors opening inward to magazines were an extreme danger.
* Current designs of turrets could not eliminate flash from shell bursts in the turret from reaching the handling rooms.
* Ignition pads must not be attached to charges but instead be placed just before ramming.
* Better methods must be found for safe storage of ready charges than the current method.
* Some method for rapidly drowning charges already in the handling path must be devised.
* Handling scuttles (special flash-proof fittings for moving propellant charges through ship's bulkheads), designed to handle overpressure, must be fitted.Gunnery
British gunnery control systems, based on Dreyer tables, were well in advance of the German ones, as demonstrated by the proportion of main calibre hits made on the German fleet. Because of its demonstrated advantages, it was installed on ships progressively as the war went on, had been fitted to a majority of British capital ships by May 1916, and had been installed on the main guns of all but two of the Grand Fleet's capital ships. The Royal Navy used centralised fire-control systems on their capital ships, directed from a point high up on the ship where the fall of shells could best be seen, utilising a director sight for both training and elevating the guns. In contrast, the German battlecruisers controlled the fire of turrets using a training-only director, which also did not fire the guns at once. The rest of the German capital ships were without even this innovation. German range-finding equipment was generally superior to the British FT24, as its operators were trained to a higher standard due to the complexity of the Zeiss range finders. Their stereoscopic design meant that in certain conditions they could range on a target enshrouded by smoke. The German equipment was not superior in range to the British Barr & Stroud rangefinder found in the newest British capital ships, and, unlike the British range finders, the German range takers had to be replaced as often as every thirty minutes, as their eyesight became impaired, affecting the ranges provided to their gunnery equipment.
The results of the battle confirmed the value of firing guns by centralised director. The battle prompted the Royal Navy to install director firing systems in cruisers and destroyers, where it had not thus far been used, and for secondary armament on battleships.
German ships were considered to have been quicker in determining the correct range to targets, thus obtaining an early advantage. The British used a 'bracket system', whereby a salvo was fired at the best-guess range and, depending where it landed, the range was progressively corrected up or down until successive shots were landing in front of and behind the enemy. The Germans used a 'ladder system', whereby an initial volley of three shots at different ranges was used, with the centre shot at the best-guess range. The ladder system allowed the gunners to get ranging information from the three shots more quickly than the bracket system, which required waiting between shots to see how the last had landed. British ships adopted the German system.
It was determined that range finders of the sort issued to most British ships were not adequate at long range and did not perform as well as the range finders on some of the most modern ships. In 1917, range finders of base lengths of were introduced on the battleships to improve accuracy.
Signalling
Throughout the battle, British ships experienced difficulties with communications, whereas the Germans did not suffer such problems. The British preferred signalling using ship-to-ship flag and lamp signals, avoiding wireless, whereas the Germans used wireless successfully. One conclusion drawn was that flag signals were not a satisfactory way to control the fleet. Experience using lamps, particularly at night when issuing challenges to other ships, demonstrated this was an excellent way to advertise your precise location to an enemy, inviting a reply by gunfire. Recognition signals by lamp, once seen, could also easily be copied in future engagements.
British ships both failed to report engagements with the enemy but also, in the case of cruisers and destroyers, failed to actively seek out the enemy. A culture had arisen within the fleet of not acting without orders, which could prove fatal when any circumstances prevented orders being sent or received. Commanders failed to engage the enemy because they believed other, more senior officers must also be aware of the enemy nearby, and would have given orders to act if this was expected. Wireless, the most direct way to pass messages across the fleet (although it was being jammed by German ships), was avoided either for perceived reasons of not giving away the presence of ships or for fear of cluttering up the airwaves with unnecessary reports.
Fleet Standing Orders
Naval operations were governed by standing orders issued to all the ships. These attempted to set out what ships should do in all circumstances, particularly in situations where ships would have to react without referring to higher authority, or when communications failed. A number of changes were introduced as a result of experience gained in the battle.
A new signal was introduced instructing squadron commanders to act independently as they thought best while still supporting the main fleet, particularly for use when circumstances would make it difficult to send detailed orders. The description stressed that this was not intended to be the only time commanders might take independent action, but was intended to make plain times when they definitely should. Similarly, instructions on what to do if the fleet was instructed to take evasive action against torpedoes were amended. Commanders were given discretion that if their part of the fleet was not under immediate attack, they should continue engaging the enemy rather than turning away with the rest of the fleet. In this battle, when the fleet turned away from Scheer's destroyer attack covering his retreat, not all the British ships had been affected, and could have continued to engage the enemy.
A number of opportunities to attack enemy ships by torpedo had presented themselves but had been missed. All ships, not just the destroyers armed principally with torpedoes but also battleships, were reminded that they carried torpedoes intended to be used whenever an opportunity arose. Destroyers were instructed to close the enemy fleet to fire torpedoes as soon as engagements between the main ships on either side would keep enemy guns busy directed at larger targets. Destroyers should also be ready to immediately engage enemy destroyers if they should launch an attack, endeavouring to disrupt their chances of launching torpedoes and keep them away from the main fleet.
To add some flexibility when deploying for attack, a new signal was provided for deploying the fleet to the centre, rather than as previously only either to left or right of the standard closed-up formation for travelling. The fast and powerful 5th Battle Squadron was moved to the front of the cruising formation so it would have the option of deploying left or right depending upon the enemy position. In the event of engagements at night, although the fleet still preferred to avoid night fighting, a destroyer and cruiser squadron would be specifically detailed to seek out the enemy and launch destroyer attacks.
Controversy
At the time, Jellicoe was criticised for his caution and allowing Scheer to escape. Beatty, in particular, was convinced Jellicoe had missed a tremendous opportunity to annihilate the High Seas Fleet and win what would amount to another Trafalgar. Jellicoe was promoted away from active command to become First Sea Lord, the professional head of the Royal Navy, while Beatty replaced him as commander of the Grand Fleet.
The controversy raged within the navy and in public for about a decade after the war. Criticism focused on Jellicoe's decision at 19:15. Scheer had ordered his cruisers and destroyers forward in a torpedo attack to cover the turning away of his battleships. Jellicoe chose to turn to the south-east, and so keep out of range of the torpedoes. Supporters of Jellicoe, including the historian Cyril Falls, pointed to the folly of risking defeat in battle when one already has command of the sea. Jellicoe himself, in a letter to the Admiralty seventeen months before the battle, said that he intended to turn his fleet away from any mass torpedo attack (that being the universally accepted proper tactical response to such attacks, practised by all the major navies of the world
The stakes were high, the pressure on Jellicoe immense, and his caution it may be argued was understandable. Jellicoe had not only the responsibility of immediate command of the Grand Fleet, the defence of the British waters and British trade; but also of the maintenance of the blockade of Germany which hinged on the continuing presence and superiority of the Grand Fleet. Therefore, Jellicoe had to consider the wider strategic consequences of his actions and results of the battle; which outweighed the short term benefits of a more outright victory. Churchill said of the battle that Jellicoe "was the only man on either side who could have lost the war in an afternoon."
The criticism of Jellicoe also fails to sufficiently credit Scheer, who was determined to preserve his fleet by avoiding the full British battle line, and who showed great skill in effecting his escape.Beatty's actionsOn the other hand, some of Jellicoe's supporters condemned the actions of Beatty for the British failure to achieve a complete victory. Although Beatty was undeniably brave, his mismanagement of the initial encounter with Hipper's squadron and the High Seas Fleet cost him a considerable advantage in the first hours of the battle. His most glaring failure was in not providing Jellicoe with periodic information on the position, course, and speed of the High Seas Fleet. Beatty, aboard the battlecruiser Lion, left behind the four fast battleships of the 5th Battle Squadron—the most powerful warships in the world at the time—engaging with six ships when better control would have given him 10 against Hipper's five. Though Beatty's larger guns out-ranged Hipper's guns by thousands of yards, Beatty held his fire for 10 minutes and closed the German squadron until within range of the Germans' superior gunnery, under lighting conditions that favoured the Germans. Most of the British losses in tonnage occurred in Beatty's force.Death toll
The total loss of life on both sides was 9,823 personnel: the British losses numbered 6,784 and the German 3,039. Counted among the British losses were two members of the Royal Australian Navy and one member of the Royal Canadian Navy. Six Australian nationals serving in the Royal Navy were also killed.British113,300 tons sunk: After the Second World War some of the wrecks seem to have been commercially salvaged. For instance, the Hydrographic Office record for SMS Lützow (No. 32344) shows that salvage operations were taking place on the wreck in 1960.
During 2000–2016 a series of diving and marine survey expeditions involving veteran shipwreck historian and archaeologist Innes McCartney located all of the wrecks sunk in the battle. It was discovered that over 60 per cent of them had suffered from metal theft. In 2003 McCartney led a detailed survey of the wrecks for the Channel 4 documentary "Clash of the Dreadnoughts". The film examined the last minutes of the lost ships and revealed for the first time how both 'P' and 'Q' turrets of Invincible had been blasted out of the ship and tossed into the sea before she broke in half. This was followed by the Channel 4 documentary "Jutland: WWI's Greatest Sea Battle", broadcast in May 2016, which showed how several of the major losses at Jutland had actually occurred and just how accurate the "Harper Record" actually was.
On the 90th anniversary of the battle, in 2006, the UK Ministry of Defence belatedly announced that the 14 British vessels lost in the battle were being designated as protected places under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986. This legislation only affects British ships and citizens and in practical terms offers no real protection from non-British salvors of the wreck sites. In May 2016 a number of British newspapers named the Dutch salvage company "Friendship Offshore" as one of the main salvors of the Jutland wrecks in recent years and depicted leaked photographs revealing the extent of their activities on the wreck of Queen Mary.
The last surviving veteran of the battle, Henry Allingham, a British RAF (originally RNAS) airman, died on 18 July 2009, aged 113, by which time he was the oldest documented man in the world and one of the last surviving veterans of the whole war. Also among the combatants was the then 20-year-old Prince Albert, serving as a junior officer aboard . He was second in the line to the throne, but would become king as George VI following his brother Edward's abdication in 1936.
One ship from the battle survives and is still (in 2024) afloat: the light cruiser . Decommissioned in 2011, she is docked at the Alexandra Graving Dock in Belfast, Northern Ireland and is a museum ship.Remembrance
The Battle of Jutland was annually celebrated as a great victory by the right wing in Weimar Germany. This victory was used to repress the memory that the Kiel sailors' mutiny initiated the German Revolution of 1918–1919, as well as the memory of the defeat in World War I in general. (The celebrations of the Battle of Tannenberg played a similar role.) This is especially true for the city of Wilhelmshaven, where wreath-laying ceremonies and torch-lit parades were performed until the end of the 1960s.
In 1916 Contreadmiral Friedrich von Kühlwetter (1865–1931) wrote a detailed analysis of the battle and published it in a book under the title Skagerrak (first anonymously published), which was reprinted in large numbers until after WWII and had a huge influence in keeping the battle in public memory amongst Germans as it was not tainted by the ideology of the Third Reich. Kühlwetter built the School for Naval Officers at Mürwik near Flensburg, where he is still remembered.
May 2016 marked the 100th-anniversary of the Battle of Jutland. On 29 May, a commemorative service was held at St Mary's Church, Wimbledon, where the ensign from HMS Inflexible is on permanent display. On 31 May, the main service was held at St Magnus Cathedral in Orkney, attended by the British prime minister, David Cameron, and the German president, Joachim Gauck, along with Princess Anne and Vice Admiral Sir Tim Laurence. Another service was held on board HMS Duncan, attended by both British and German sailors, while the German frigate Brandenburg laid a flower wreath at the site of the sinking of HMS Invincible. A centennial exposition was held at the Deutsches Marinemuseum in Wilhemshaven from 29 May 2016 to 28 February 2017.
Film
* Wrath of the Seas (Die versunkene Flotte), 1926, director Manfred Noa
See also
* Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions
* Naval warfare of World War I
* Sea War Museum Jutland
Notes
CitationsBibliography
*
* Black, Jeremy. "Jutland's Place in History," Naval History (June 2016) 30#3, pp. 16–21.
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*
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* Corbett, J. S. (2009) [1938]. Naval Operations: To the Battle of the Falklands December 1914. History of the Great War based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Vol. I (2nd facs. repr. Imperial War Museum and Naval & Military Press, Ukfield ed.). London: Longmans. ISBN 978-1-84342-489-5 – via 1920 edition at The Internet Archive.
* Corbett, Sir Julian. (2015) Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. Vol. 1, originally published Jan 1914. Naval Institute Press;
* Corbett, Sir Julian. (2015) Maritime Operations In The Russo-Japanese War 1904–1905. Vol. 2, originally published Oct 1915. Naval Institute Press;
* Costello, John (1976) Jutland 1916 with Terry Hughes
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* Friedman, Norman. (2013) Naval Firepower, Battleship Guns And Gunnery In The Dreadnaught Era. Seaforth Publishing;
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Further reading
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* H.W. Fawcett & G.W.W. Hooper, RN (editors), [https://archive.org/details/fightingatjutlan00fawcuoft The fighting at Jutland (abridged edition); the personal experiences of forty-five officers and men of the British Fleet] London: MacMillan & Co, 1921
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* Lambert, Andrew. "Writing Writing the Battle: Jutland in Sir Julian Corbett's Naval Operations," ''Mariner's Mirror'' 103#2 (2017) 175–95, Historiography..
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External links
* [http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20160303100016/http%3A//www.centenarynews.com/article/centenary%2Dnews%2Dlookahead%2Dbattle%2Dof%2Djutland WW1 Centenary News – Battle of Jutland]
* [http://www.jutland1916.com/ Jutland Centenary Initiative]
* [http://www.jutland.org.uk/ Jutland Commemoration Exhibition]
* Beatty's [http://www.gwpda.org/1916/jutlandb.html official report]
* Jellicoe's [http://www.gwpda.org/naval/jut02.htm official despatch]
* Jellicoe, [http://www.richthofen.com/jellicoe/ extract from The Grand Fleet], published 1919
* [http://www.worldwar1.co.uk/despatches.html World War I Naval Combat – Despatches]
* Scheer, [http://www.richthofen.com/scheer/ ''Germany's High Seas Fleet in the World War] , published 1920
* Henry Allingham [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/southern_counties/5044206.stm Last known survivor of the Battle of Jutland]
* [http://www.northeastmedals.co.uk/britishguide/jutland/jellicoe_dispatch_1916.htm Table of Jutland Casualties Listed by Ship]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180910131407/http://germannavalwarfare.info/indexJUT.htm germannavalwarfare.info] Some Original Documents from the British Admiralty, Room 40, regarding the Battle of Jutland: Photocopies from The National Archives, Kew, Richmond, UK.
* [https://jutland1916.org Sailors, with biographies, plotted on the Jutland Interactive Map of the NMRN]
* [https://www.jutlandcrewlists.org/ Battle of Jutland Crew Lists Project]
* [https://battleofjutlandcrewlists.miraheze.org/wiki/Main_Page Battle of Jutland Crew Lists Project Wiki]
* [http://www.jutlandbattlememorial.com/english.html Memorial park for the Battle of Jutland]
* [http://www.battle-of-jutland.com/ Battle-of-Jutland.com] The website owner has a package of original documents
* Transcript of post-battle correspondence between the Grand Fleet and the Admiralty concerning the loss of the battlecruisers.Notable accounts
* [http://wwi.lib.byu.edu/index.php/Kiplings%27_Reporting_on_The_Battle_of_Jutland by Rudyard Kipling] Retrieved 2009-10-31.
* [http://www.worldwar1.co.uk/grant.htm by Alexander Grant], a gunner aboard HMS Lion
* [https://archive.org/stream/northseadiary00kingiala/northseadiary00kingiala_djvu.txt A North Sea diary, 1914–1918], by Stephen King-Hall, a junior officer on the light cruiser
* [http://www.familyletters.co.uk/31-may-1916-the-battle-of-jutland/ by Paul Berryman], a junior officer on
* [http://www.gwpda.org/naval/jut01.htm by Moritz von Egidy], captain of SMS Seydlitz
* [http://www.gwpda.org/naval/foeseyd.htm by Richard Foerster], gunnery officer on Seydlitz
* [http://www.wtj.com/archives/hase_03.htm by Georg von Hase], gunnery officer on Derfflinger''
:(Note: Due to the time difference, entries in some of the German accounts are one hour ahead of the times in this article.)
Category:Battles in 1916
Category:1916 in Denmark
Category:1916 in Germany
Category:1916 in the United Kingdom
Category:Naval battles of World War I involving Australia
Category:Naval battles of World War I involving Germany
Category:Naval battles of World War I involving the United Kingdom
Category:North Sea operations of World War I
Category:Protected wrecks of the United Kingdom
Category:Military history of the North Sea
Category:May 1916 in Europe
Category:June 1916 in Europe
Category:Germany–United Kingdom military relations
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4565
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Bambara language
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Bamanan (album)}}
| states = Mali
| region = central southern Mali
| ethnicity = Bamana
| speakers = L1: million
| date = 2012
| ref = e27
| speakers2 L2: million (2012) Varieties of Manding are generally considered (among native speakers) to be mutually intelligible – dependent on exposure or familiarity with dialects between speakers – and spoken by 9.1 million people in the countries Burkina Faso, Senegal, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Liberia, Ivory Coast and the Gambia. Manding is part of the larger Mandé family of languages.
Geographical distribution
Bambara is spoken throughout Mali as a lingua franca. The language is most widely spoken in the areas east, south, and north of Bamako, where native speakers and/or those that identify as members of the Bambara ethnic group are most densely populated. These regions are also usually considered to be the historical geographical origin of Bambara people, particularly Ségou, after diverging from other Manding groups.
Dialects
The main dialect is Standard Bamara, which has significant influence from Maninkakan. Bambara has many local dialects: Kaarta, Tambacounda (west); Beledugu, Bananba, Mesekele (north); Jitumu, Jamaladugu, Segu (center); Cakadugu, Keleyadugu, Jalakadougu, Kurulamini, Banimɔncɛ, Cɛmala, Cɛndugu, Baninkɔ, Shɛndugu, Ganadugu (south); Kala, Kuruma, Saro, dialects to the northeast of Mopti (especially Bɔrɛ); Zegedugu, Bɛndugu, Bakɔkan, Jɔnka (southeast).
Vowels
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Writing
Since 1967, Bambara has mostly been written in the Latin script, using some additional phonetic characters from the Africa Alphabet. The vowels are a, e, ɛ (formerly è<span style"margin-left:3px">)</span>, i, o, ɔ (formerly ò<span style"margin-left:3px">)</span>, u<span style="margin-left:2px">;</span> accents can be used to indicate tonality. The former digraph ny is now written ɲ when it designates a palatal nasal; the ny spelling is kept for the combination of a nasal vowel with a subsequent oral palatal glide. Following the 1966 Bamako spelling conventions, a velar nasal "ŋ" is written as "ŋ", although in early publications it was often transcribed as ng or nk.
The N'Ko () alphabet is a script devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for the Manding languages of West Africa; N’Ko means 'I say' in all Manding languages. Kante created N’Ko in response to what he felt were beliefs that Africans were a "cultureless people" since prior to this time there had been no indigenous African writing system for his language. N'ko first gained a strong user base around the Maninka-speaking area of Kante's hometown of Kankan, Guinea and disseminated from there into other Manding-speaking parts of West Africa. N'ko and the Arabic script are still in use for Bambara, although only the Latin-based orthography is officially recognized in Mali.
Additionally, a script known as Masaba or Ma-sa-ba was developed for the language beginning in 1930 by Woyo Couloubayi (-1982) of Assatiémala. Named for the first characters in Couloubayi's preferred collation order, Masaba is a syllabary which uses diacritics to indicate vowel qualities such as tone, length, and nasalization. Though not conclusively demonstrated to be related to other writing systems, Masaba appears to draw on traditional Bambara iconography and shares some similarities with the Vai syllabary of Liberia and with Arabic-derived secret alphabets used in Hodh (now Hodh El Gharbi and Hodh Ech Chargui Regions of Mauritania). As of 1978, Masaba was in limited use in several communities in Nioro Cercle for accounting, personal correspondence, and the recording of Muslim prayers; the script's current status and prevalence is unknown.
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There are some or just one? G-u-a-k-@ hasn't found any yet, after nearly 3 months in Bamako.. :( newspapers in Bambara. -->
Latin orthography
It uses seven vowels a, e, ɛ, i, o, ɔ and u, each of which can be nasalized, pharyngealized and murmured, giving a total number of 21 vowels (the letters approximate their IPA equivalents).
Writing with the Latin alphabet began during the French colonization, and the first orthography was introduced in 1967. Literacy is limited, especially in rural areas. Although written literature is only slowly evolving (due to the predominance of French as the "language of the educated"), there exists a wealth of oral literature, which is often tales of kings and heroes. This oral literature is mainly passed on by the griots (Jeliw in Bambara) who are a mixture of storytellers, praise singers, and human history books who have studied the trade of singing and reciting for many years. Many of their songs are very old and are said to date back to the old empire of Mali.
Alphabet
* A – a – [a]
* B – be – [b]
* C – ce – [t͡ʃ]
* D – de – [d]
* E – e – [e]
* Ɛ – ɛ – [ɛ]
* F – ef – [f]
* G – ge – [g]
* H – ha – [h]
* I – i – [i]
* J – je – [d͡ʒ]
* K – ka – [k]
* L – ɛl – [l]
* M – ɛm – [m]
* N – ɛn – [n]
* Ɲ – ɲe – [ɲ]
* Ŋ – ɛŋ – [ŋ]
* O – o – [o]
* Ɔ – ɔ – [ɔ]
* P – pe – [p]
* R – ɛr – [r]
* S – ɛs – [s]
* T – te – [t]
* U – u – [u]
* W – wa – [w]
* Y – ye – [j]
* Z – ze – [z]
Other letters
* kh – [ɣ] (used for loanwords from other African languages)
* -n – nasalises vowel
* sh – she – [ʃ] (regional variant of s)
N'ko orthography
Vowels
* ߊ – a – [a]
* ߋ – e – [e]
* ߌ – i – [i]
* ߍ – ɛ – [ɛ]
* ߎ – u – [u]
* ߏ – o – [o]
* ߐ – ɔ – [ɔ]
Consonants
* ߓ – ba – [b]
* ߔ – pa – [p]
* ߕ – ta – [t]
* ߖ – ja – [d͡ʒ]
* ߗ – ca – [t͡ʃ]
* ߘ – da – [d]
* ߚ/ߙ – ra – [r]
* ߛ – sa – [s]
* ߜ? – ga – [g/ʀ/ɣ]
* ߜ – gba – [ɡ͡b]
* ߝ – fa – [f]
* ߞ – ka – [k]
* ߟ – la – [l]
* ߡ – ma – [m]
* ߢ – nya or ɲa – [ɲ]
* ߒ – nga or ŋa – [ŋ]
* ߣ – na – [n]
* ߥ – wa – [w]
* ߦ – ya – [j]
* ߤ – ha – [h]
* ߲ – nasal vowel – [-̃]
Tones
* ߫ – short high
* ߬ – short low
* ߯ – long high
* ߰ – long low Grammar
The basic sentence structure is subject–object–verb (SOV). Take the phrase, ''n t'a lon'' (I don't know [it]). n is the subject (I), a is the object (it), and [ta] lon is the verb ([to] know). The ''t' is from the negative present tense marker té, bé being the affirmative present tense marker (n b'a don would mean "I know it"). Like many SOV languages, Bambara uses postpositions rather than prepositions - their role being similar to English prepositions but placed after the noun.
The language has two (mid/standard and high) tones; e.g. sa'' 'die' vs. sá 'snake.' The typical argument structure of the language consists of a subject, followed by an aspectival auxiliary, followed by the direct object, and finally a transitive verb.
Bambara does not inflect for gender. Gender for a noun can be specified by adding a suffix, -cɛ or -kɛ for male and -muso for female. The plural is formed by attaching a vocalic suffix -u, most often with a low tone (in the orthography, -w) to nouns or adjectives.
Loan words
In urban areas, many Bamanankan conjunctions have been replaced in everyday use by French borrowings that often mark code-switches. The Bamako dialect makes use of sentences like: ''N taara Kita mais il n'y avait personne là-bas. : I went to Kita [Bamanankan ] but there was no one there [French]. The sentence in Bamanankan alone would be Ń taara Kita nka mɔkɔ si tun tɛ yen. The French proposition "est-ce que" is also used in Bamanankan ; however, it is pronounced more slowly and as three syllables, .
Bamanankan uses many French loan words. For example, some people might say: I ka kurusi ye nere ye: "Your skirt is yellow" (using a derivation of jaune, the French word for yellow, they often use joni.)
However, one could also say: I ka kulosi ye nɛrɛmukuman ye, also meaning "your skirt is yellow." The original Bamanankan word for yellow comes from "nɛrɛmuku," being flour (muku'') made from néré (locust bean), a seed from a long seed pod. Nɛrɛmuku is often used in sauces in Southern Mali.
Most French loan words are suffixed with the sound 'i'; this is particularly common when using French words which have a meaning not traditionally found in Mali. For example, the Bamanankan word for snow is niegei, based on the French word for snow neige. As there has never been snow in Mali, there was no unique word in Bamanankan to describe it.
Examples
Bambara hear small-small
|I understand/hear a little bit of Bambara}}
{{interlinear|number=ex:
|{Du Mara} be ameriki hali bi wa?
|{Dou Mara} aux America even today Q
|Is Dou Mara still living in the United States?}}
Music
Malian artists such as Oumou Sangaré, Sidiki Diabaté, Fatoumata Diawara, Rokia Traoré, Ali Farka Touré, Habib Koité and the married duo Amadou & Mariam often sing in Bambara. Lyrics in Bambara occur on ''Stevie Wonder's Journey Through "The Secret Life of Plants". In 2010, Spanish rock group Dover released its 7th studio album I Ka Kené with the majority of lyrics in Bambara, Spanish, English and French. American rapper Nas also released a track titled "Patience" in 2010, which featured Damian Marley and extensively sampled the Amadou & Mariam song "Sabali", as sabali is a Bambara word meaning patience.
Legal status
Bambara was until 2023 one of several languages designated by Mali as a national language.
In 2023, after a new constitution was approved by a majority of voters, Bambara became co-official, together with 12 other languages spoken in the country. French was removed as the official language and was kept only as a working language.ReferencesCitationSources
* Bailleul Ch. Dictionnaire Bambara-Français. 3e édition corrigée. Bamako : Donniya, 2007, 476 p.
* Bird, Charles, Hutchison, John & Kanté, Mamadou (1976) An Ka Bamanankan Kalan: Beginning Bambara. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Linguistics Club.
* Bird, Charles & Kanté, Mamadou (1977) Bambara-English, English-Bambara student lexicon. Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Linguistics Club.
* Dumestre Gérard. Grammaire fondamentale du bambara. Paris : Karthala, 2003.
* Dumestre, Gérard. Dictionnaire bambara-français suivi d’un index abrégé français-bambara. Paris : Karthala, 2011. p. 1189
* Eidelberg, Joseph "[https://josepheidelberg.com/blog/ Bambara (A PROTO-HEBREW LANGUAGE?)]"
* Kastenholz, Raimund (1998) Grundkurs Bambara (Manding) mit Texten (second revised edition) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 1). Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
* Konaré, Demba (1998) Je parle bien bamanan. Bamako: Jamana.
* Morales, José (2010) J'apprends le bambara. 61 conversations, (book + CD-ROM). Paris: Editions Karthala.
* Touré, Mohamed & Leucht, Melanie (1996) Bambara Lesebuch: Originaltexte mit deutscher und französischer Übersetzung = Chrestomathie Bambara: textes originaux Bambara avec traductions allemandes et françaises'' (with illustrations by Melanie Leucht) (Afrikawissenschaftliche Lehrbücher Vol. 11) . Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.
*
External links
Descriptions
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160115094600/http://mali.pwnet.org/history/history_language.htm Mali – History – Language]
Dictionaries
* [https://www.maliyiri.com/ Maliyiri.com] is a website which provides English-Bambara-French translations and is a community-based project where users can add new words, comments, provide feedback and follow one another.
* [http://cormand.huma-num.fr/bamadaba.html Corpus Bambara de Référence - Etiquetage] online and downloadable Bambara-French Dictionary (about 11,500 entries by the end of 2014), with a French-Bambara index, linked with the Corpus Bambara de Référence
* An ka taa's [http://dictionary.ankataa.com Mobile-friendly Bambara-English dictionary] that includes French and Jula.
* Bambara entries (mouse) (>2300) in the French Wiktionary
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081004120230/http://www.bambara.org/en/ Bambara-French-English dictionary] online and downloadable lexicons for language learners
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081108005847/http://www.bisharat.net/Demos/jiriwso.htm Bambara tree names (scientific name -> common name)]
Learning materials
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181226225516/http://www.iub.edu/~celtie/bambara.html Online Bambara Course from the Indiana University]
* on peacecorps.govOther
* [http://cormand.huma-num.fr/ Corpus Bambara de Référence] Corpus Bambara de Référence, an electronic corpus of Bambara texts (about 2,000,000 words end 2014)
* Maliyiri.com's [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?idml.maliyiri.bambaradictionary&hlen_US Android application], with thousands of daily users, provides English-Bambara-French translations and users can choose to get daily/weekly word notifications for continuous learning.
* [http://cormand.huma-num.fr/biblio/index.jsp Bambara Electronic Library, AMALAN – LLACAN]
* [https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2024/24248-masaba.pdf Proposal for encoding the Masaba script], Unicode
* [http://www.ankataa.com An ka taa]: a website with a dictionary, resources and media for learning Bambara and Manding more generally.
* [http://fr.wikibooks.org/wiki/Bambara Bambara at French Wikibooks] contains more material
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140703141254/http://www.vjf.cnrs.fr/clt/php/va/Page_revue.php?ValCodeRev=MDK Mandenkan Journal]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130516204859/http://www.panafril10n.org/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/Manding PanAfriL10n page on Manding] (includes information on Bambara)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090916112516/http://www.maneno.org/bam/ Maneno in Bambara] (a blogging platform with a full Bambara interface)
}}
Category:Languages of Burkina Faso
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bambara_language
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2025-04-05T18:26:53.660665
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Baku
|
Baki}}
| settlement_type = Capital city
| nickname = City of Winds<br />()
| image_skyline =
| image_shield = Coat of arms of Baku.svg
| image_flag = Flag of Baku, Azerbaijan.svg
| seal_size = 80px
| image_map = Baku City in Azerbaijan.svg
| mapsize = 230px
| map_caption = Location of Baku in the Republic of Azerbaijan
| pushpin_map = Azerbaijan#Asia
| pushpin_map_caption = Location of Baku in Azerbaijan##Location of Baku in Asia
| pushpin_relief = 1
| coordinates
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name =
| subdivision_type1 = Region
| subdivision_name1 = BIR
| established_title | established_date
| parts_type = Districts (raion)
| parts = 12 districts
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Eldar Azizov
| area_total_km2 = 2,140
| area_footnotes
| area_land_km2 | area_water_km2
| population_as_of = 2019
| population_footnotes | population_total 2,616,948
| population_urban | population_metro 3,675,000
| population_rank = 1st
| population_density_km2 = 1214
| population_demonym Bakuvian
()
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes
| demographics2_title1 = Capital city
| demographics2_info1 = AZN 55.4 billion<br />(US$32.2 billion) (2017)
| demographics2_title2 = Per capita
| demographics2_info2 = AZN 20,700<br />(US$12,045) (2017)
| timezone = AZT
| utc_offset = +4
| elevation_m = −28
| area_code = +994 12
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = AZ1000
| iso_code = AZ-BA
| registration_plate = 10, 90, 99, 77
| website =
| footnotes
| name | blank_info_sec1 0.824<br />
| flag_size = 130px
}}
Baku (, ; ) is the capital and largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and in the Caucasus region. Baku is below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and also the largest city in the world below sea level. Baku lies on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula, on the Bay of Baku. Baku's urban population was estimated at two million people as of 2009. Baku is the primate city of Azerbaijan—it is the sole metropolis in the country, and about 25% of all inhabitants of the country live in Baku's metropolitan area.
Baku is divided into twelve administrative raions and 48 townships. Among these are the townships on the islands of the Baku Archipelago, as well as the industrial settlement of Neft Daşları built on oil rigs away from Baku city in the Caspian Sea. The Old City, containing the Palace of the Shirvanshahs and the Maiden Tower, was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000.
The city is the scientific, cultural, and industrial centre of Azerbaijan. Many sizeable Azerbaijani institutions have their headquarters there. In the 2010s, Baku became a venue for major international events. It hosted the 57th Eurovision Song Contest in 2012, the 2015 European Games, 4th Islamic Solidarity Games, the European Grand Prix in 2016, the Azerbaijan Grand Prix since 2017, the final of the 2018–19 UEFA Europa League, UEFA Euro 2020 and 2024 United Nations Climate Change Conference. The Baku International Sea Trade Port is capable of handling two million tonnes of general and dry bulk cargoes per year. Baku is renowned for its harsh winds, reflected in its nickname, the "City of Winds".
Etymology
Baku is long attested under the Perso-Arabic name باکو (Bākū). Early Arabic sources also refer to the city as Bākuh and Bākuya, all of which seem to come from a Persian name. The further etymology is unclear.
A popular etymology in the 19th century considered it to be derived from Persian بادکوبه (Bâd-kube, meaning "wind-pounded city", a compound of bād, "wind", and kube, which is rooted in the verb کوبیدن kubidan, "to pound", thus referring to a place where wind would be strong and pounding, as is the case of Baku, which is known to experience fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds). This popular name (Badkubə in modern Azerbaijani script) gained currency as a nickname for the city by the 19th century (e.g., it is used in Akinchi, volume 1, issue 1, p. 1), and is also reflected in the city's modern nickname as the "City of Winds" (). Another and even less probable folk etymology explains the name as deriving from Baghkuy, meaning "God's town". Baga (now بغ bagh) and kuy are the Old Persian words for "god" and "town" respectively; the name Baghkuy may be compared with Baghdād ("God-given") in which dād is the Old Persian word for "give".
During Soviet rule, the city was spelled in Cyrillic as "Бакы" in Azerbaijani (while the Russian spelling was and still is "Баку", ). The modern Azerbaijani spelling, which has been using the Latin alphabet since 1991, is ; the shift from the Perso-Arabic letter و (ū) to Cyrillic "ы" and, later, Latin "ı" may be compared to that in other Azerbaijani words (e.g. compare qāpū in old Perso-Arabic spelling with modern Azerbaijani , "door") or in suffixes, as و was often used to transcribe the vowel harmony in Azerbaijani (which was also the practice in Ottoman Turkish). (See also Azerbaijani alphabet.)
History
Antiquity
dating back to AD 84–96]]
Traces of human settlement in the region of present-day Baku date back to the Stone Age. Bronze Age rock carvings have been discovered near Bayil, and a bronze figure of a small fish in the territory of the Old City. These have led some to suggest the existence of a Bronze-Age settlement within the city's territory. Near Nardaran, a place called Umid Gaya features a prehistoric observatory, where images of the sun and of various constellations are carved into rock together with a primitive astronomic table. Further archeological excavations have revealed various prehistoric settlements, native temples, statues and other artifacts within the territory of the modern city and around it.
In the 1st century AD, the Romans organised two Caucasian campaigns and reached what is today Baku. Near the city, in what is today Gobustan, Roman inscriptions dating from AD 84 to 96 survive – some of the earliest written evidences for a city there.
According to the 6th-century archbishop and historian St. Sophronius of Cyprus, in 71, St. Bartholomew the Apostle was preaching Christianity in the city of Albana or Albanopolis, associated with present-day Baku or Derbent, both located by the Caspian Sea. St. Bartholomew managed to convert even members of the local royal family who had worshipped the idol Astaroth, but was later martyred by being flayed alive and crucified head down on orders from the pagan king Astyages. The remains of St. Bartholomew were secretly transferred to Mesopotamia.Rise of the Shirvanshahs and the Safavid era
marking the downfall of the Shirvanshahs at the hands of the Safavids]]
Baku was the realm of the Shirvanshahs during the 8th century AD. The city frequently came under assault from the Khazars and (starting from the 10th century) from the Rus'. Akhsitan I built a navy in Baku and successfully repelled a Rus' assault in 1170. After a devastating earthquake struck Shamakhi, the capital of Shirvan, Shirvanshah's court moved to Baku in 1191.
]]
The Shirvan era greatly influenced Baku and the remainder of present-day Azerbaijan. Between the 12th and 14th centuries, massive fortifications were built in Baku and the surrounding towns. The Maiden Tower, the Ramana Tower, the Nardaran Fortress, the Shagan Castle, the Mardakan Castle, the Round Castle and also the Sabayil Castle on the island of the Bay of Baku date from this period. The city walls of Baku were also rebuilt and strengthened.
By the early 16th century, Baku's wealth and strategic position attracted the attention of its larger neighbours; in the previous two centuries, it was under the rule of the Iran-centred Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu. The fall of the Ak Koyunlu brought the city immediately into the sphere of the newly formed Iranian Safavid dynasty, led by king (shah) Ismail I (). Ismail I laid siege to Baku in 1501 and captured it; he allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power, under Safavid suzerainty. His successor, king Tahmasp I (), completely removed the Shirvanshahs from power and made Baku a part of the Shirvan province. Baku remained as an integral part of his empire and of successive Iranian dynasties for the next centuries, until ceded to the Russian Empire through the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan. The House of Shirvan, which had ruled Baku since the 9th century, was extinguished in the course of Safavid rule.
At this time, the city was enclosed within lines of strong walls, which were washed by the sea on one side and protected by a wide trench on land. The Ottomans briefly gained control over Baku as a result of the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578–1590; by 1607, it came under Iranian control again. In 1604 Shah Abbas I () destroyed Baku fortress.
is a temple built by Indian traders before 1745, west of the Caspian Sea. The inscription invokes Lord Shiva in Sanskrit at the Atashgah.]]
Baku had a reputation as a focal point for traders from across the world during the Early modern period; commerce was active and the area prospered. Notably, traders from the Indian subcontinent established themselves in the region. These Indian traders built the Ateshgah of Baku during 17th–18th centuries; the temple was used as a Hindu, Sikh, and Zoroastrian place of worship.
Downfall of the Safavids and the Khanate of Baku
The Safavids temporarily lost power in Iran in 1722; Emperor Peter the Great of Russia took advantage of the situation and invaded. As a result of the Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723, the Safavids were forced to cede Baku to Russia. By 1730 the situation had deteriorated for the Russians; the successes of Nader Shah () led them to sign the Treaty of Ganja near Ganja on 10 March 1735, ceding the city and all other conquered territories in the Caucasus back to Iran.
The eruption of instability following Nader Shah's death in 1747 gave rise to the various Caucasian khanates. The semi-autonomous Persian-ruled Russo-Persian Wars and Iran's cession
]]
From the late 18th century, Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geopolitical stance towards its two neighbours and rivals to the south, namely Iran and the Ottoman Empire. In the spring of 1796, by Catherine II's order, General Valerian Zubov's troops started a large campaign against Qajar Persia. Zubov had sent 13,000 men to capture Baku, and it was overrun subsequently without any resistance. On 13 June 1796, a Russian flotilla entered Baku Bay, and a garrison of Russian troops was stationed inside the city. Later, however, Emperor Paul I of Russia ordered the cessation of the campaign and the withdrawal of Russian forces following the death of his predecessor, Catherine the Great. In March 1797 the tsarist troops left Baku and the city became part of Qajar Iran again.
In 1813, following the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813, Qajar Iran had to sign the Treaty of Gulistan with Russia this provided for the cession of Baku and of most of Iran's territories in the North Caucasus and South Caucasus to Russia. During the next and final bout of hostilities between the two, the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, the Iranians briefly recaptured Baku. However, the militarily superior Russians ended this war with a victory as well, and the resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828) made Baku's inclusion in the Russian Empire definite. When Baku was occupied by the Russian troops during the war of 1804–13, nearly the entire population of some 8,000 people was ethnic Tat. Baku within Russia was the administrative center of the Baku Uyezd, Baku Governorate, and the Baku Gradonachalstvo.
Discovery of oil
The Russians built the first oil-distilling factory in Balaxani in 1837. The first person to drill oil in Baku was an ethnic Armenian Ivan Mirzoev, who is also known as a 'founding father of Baku's oil industry.' Digging for oil began in the 1840s, with the first oil well drilled in the Bibi-Heybat suburb of Baku in 1846. Large-scale oil exploration started in 1872 when the Russian imperial authorities auctioned parcels of oil-rich land around Baku to private investors. The pioneer of oil extracting from the bottom of the sea was the Polish geologist Witold Zglenicki. Soon after, investors appeared in Baku, including the Nobel Brothers in 1873 and the Rothschilds in 1882. An industrial area of oil refineries, better known as Black Town (), developed near Baku by the early 1880s.
Professor A. V. Williams Jackson of Columbia University wrote in his work From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam (1911):
By the beginning of the 20th century, half of the oil sold in international markets was extracted in Baku. The oil boom contributed to the massive growth of Baku. Between 1856 and 1910 Baku's population grew at a faster rate than that of London, Paris, New York, or Tokyo.
World War I
]]
in Baku, ]]
In 1917, after the October Revolution and amidst the turmoil of World War I and the Russian Revolution, Baku came under the control of the Baku Commune, led by the veteran Bolshevik Stepan Shahumyan. Seeking to capitalize on the existing ethnic conflicts, by spring 1918, Bolsheviks inspired and condoned civil war in and around Baku. During the March Days of 1918, Bolsheviks and Dashnaks, seeking to establish control over Baku streets, faced armed Azerbaijani groups. The Azerbaijanis suffered defeat from the united forces of the Baku Soviet and were massacred by Dashnak teams in what was called the March Days. An estimated 3,000–12,000 Azerbaijanis were killed in their own capital. After the massacre, on 28 May 1918, the Azerbaijani faction of the Transcaucasian Sejm proclaimed the independence of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) in Ganja, thereby founding the first Muslim-majority democratic and secular republic. The newly independent Azerbaijani republic, being unable to defend the independence of the country on their own, asked the Ottoman Empire for military support in accordance with clause 4 of the treaty between the two countries. Shortly after, Azerbaijani forces, with support of the Ottoman Army of Islam led by Nuru Pasha, started their advance on Baku, eventually capturing the city from the loose coalition of Bolsheviks, SRs, Dashnaks, Mensheviks and British forces under the command of General Lionel Dunsterville on 15 September 1918.
After the Battle of Baku of August–September 1918, the Azerbaijani irregular troops, with the tacit support of the Turkish command, conducted four days of pillaging and killing 10,000–30,000 Armenians of Baku. This pogrom became known as the "September Days". Shortly after this, Baku was proclaimed the new capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic.
The Ottoman Empire, recognising defeat in World War I by October 1918, signed the Armistice of Mudros with the British (30 October 1918); this meant the evacuation of Turkish forces from Baku. Headed by General William Thomson, some 5,000 British troops, including parts of the former Dunsterforce, arrived in Baku on 17 November. Thomson declared himself military governor of Baku and implemented martial law in the city until "the civil power would be strong enough to release the forces from the responsibility to maintain the public order". British forces left before the end of 1919. Soviet period
The independence of the Azerbaijani republic was a significant but short-lived chapter in Baku's history. On 28 April 1920, the 11th Red Army invaded Baku and reinstalled the Bolsheviks, making Baku the capital of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic.
The city underwent many major changes. As a result, Baku played a great role in many branches of Soviet life. Baku was the major oil city of the Soviet Union. From about 1921 the city was headed by the Baku City Executive Committee, commonly known in Russian as Bakgorispolkom. Together with Baku Party Committee (known as the Baksovet), it developed the economic significance of the Caspian metropolis. From 1922 to 1930 Baku became the venue for one of the major trade fairs of the Soviet Union, serving as a commercial bridgehead to Iran and the Middle East.
World War II
The major powers continued to note Baku's growing importance as a major energy hub. During World War II (1939–1945) and particularly during the 1942 Nazi German invasion of the southwestern Soviet Union, Baku became of vital strategic importance to the Axis powers. In fact, capturing the oil fields of Baku was a primary goal of the Wehrmacht's Operation Edelweiss, carried out between May and November 1942. However, the German Army reached only a point some northwest of Baku in November 1942, falling far short of the city's capture before being driven back during the Soviet Operation Little Saturn in mid-December 1942. Fall of the Soviet Union and later After the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, Baku embarked on a process of restructuring on a scale unseen in its history. Thousands of panel buildings from the Soviet period were demolished to make way for a green belt on its shores; parks and gardens were built on the land reclaimed by filling up the beaches of the Baku Bay. Improvements were made in general cleaning, maintenance, and garbage collection to bring these services up to Western European standards. The city is growing dynamically and developing at pace on an east–west axis along the shores of the Caspian Sea. Sustainability has become a key factor in future urban development.
Geography
, 6 September 2010]]
Baku is situated on the western coast of the Caspian Sea. In the vicinity of the city there are a number of mud volcanoes (Keyraki, Bogkh-bogkha, Lokbatan and others) and salt lakes (Boyukshor, Khodasan, etc.).
Climate
Baku has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk) with hot and humid summers, cool and occasionally wet winters, and strong winds all year long. However, unlike many other cities with such climate features, Baku does not see extremely hot summers and substantial sunshine hours. This is largely because of its northerly latitude and the fact that it is located on a peninsula on the shore of the Caspian Sea.
Baku, and the Absheron Peninsula on which it is situated, is the most arid part of Azerbaijan (precipitation here is around or less than a year). This is largely due to the rain shadow effect from the Caucasus Mountains, with corresponding latitudes on the Black Sea on average receiving or more.<!-- Batumi and Rize among others. --> The majority of the light annual precipitation occurs in seasons other than summer, but none of these seasons is particularly wet.
During Soviet times, Baku, with its long hours of sunshine and dry healthy climate, was a vacation destination where citizens could enjoy beaches or relax in now-dilapidated spa complexes overlooking the Caspian Sea. The city's past as a Soviet industrial centre left it one of the most polluted cities in the world, .
At the same time, Baku is noted as a very windy city throughout the year, hence the city's nickname the "City of Winds", and gale-force winds, the cold northern wind khazri and the warm southern wind gilavar are typical here in all seasons. Indeed, the city is renowned for its fierce winter snow storms and harsh winds.
The daily mean temperature in July and August averages , and there is very little rainfall during that season. During summer, the khazri sweeps through, bringing desired coolness. Winter is cool and occasionally wet, with the daily mean temperature in January and February averaging . During winter, the khazri sweeps through, driven by polar air masses; temperatures on the coast frequently drop below freezing and make it feel bitterly cold. Winter snow storms are occasional; snow usually melts within a few days after each snowfall.
}}
Administrative divisions
Baku is divided into 12 rayonlar (sub-rayons) (administrative districts) and 5 settlements of city type.
* Binagadi (Binəqədi) raion
* Garadagh (Qaradağ) raion
* Khatai (Xətai) raion
* Khazar (Xəzər) raion
* Narimanov (Nərimanov) raion
* Nasimi (Nəsimi) raion
* Nizami raion
* Pirallahi (Pirallahı) raion
* Sabail (Səbail) raion
* Sabunchu (Sabunçu) raion
* Surakhani (Suraxanı) raion
* Yasamal raion
Demographics
Until 1988, Baku had very large Russian, Armenian, and Jewish populations which contributed to cultural diversity and added in various ways (music, literature, architecture and progressive outlook) to Baku's history. With the onset of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War and the pogrom against Armenians starting in January 1990, the city's large Armenian population was expelled. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijani President Heydar Aliyev returned several synagogues and a Jewish college, nationalised by the Soviets, to the Jewish community; he encouraged the restoration of these buildings. Seven of the original 11 synagogues, including the Gilah synagogue, built in 1896, and the large Kruei Synagogue, were renovated.
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"float:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Year
! colspan="2" | Tatars
! colspan="2" | Russians
! colspan="2" | Armenians
! colspan="2" | Jews
! colspan="2" | Others
! rowspan="2" | TOTAL
|-
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
|-
|1851
|5,000+
|67.3
|
|
|405
|5.5
|
|
|
|
|7,431
|-
|1886
|37,530
|43.3
|21,390
|24.7
|24,490
|28.3
|391
|0.5
|2,810
|3.2
|86,611
|-
|1897
|40,341
|36.0
|37,399
|33.4
|19,099
|17.1
|3,369
|3.0
|11,696
|10.5
|111,904
|-
|1903
|44,257
|28.4
|59,955
|38.5
|26,151
|16.8
|
|
|28,513
|18.3
|155,876
|-
|1913
|69,366
|26.4
|79,702
|30.4
|62,357
|23.8
|6,412
|2.4
|44,585
|17.0
|262,422
|-
|}
{|class"wikitable" style"float:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Year
! colspan="2" | Turks
! colspan="2" | Russians
! colspan="2" | Armenians
! colspan="2" | Jews
! colspan="2" | Others
! rowspan="2" | TOTAL
|-
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
|-
|1917
|67,190
|28.2
|77,123
|32.4
|52,184
|21.9
|12,427
|5.2
|29,244
|12.3
|238,168
|-
|1926
|118,737
|26.2
|167,373
|36.9
|76,656
|16.9
|19,589
|4.3
|70,978
|15.7
|453,333
|-
|}
{|class"wikitable" style"float:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Year
! colspan="2" | Azerbaijanis
! colspan="2" | Russians
! colspan="2" | Armenians
! colspan="2" | Jews
! colspan="2" | Others
! rowspan="2" | TOTAL
|-
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
|-
|1939
|215,482
|27.4
|343,064
|43.6
|118,650
|15.1
|31,050
|3.9
|79,377
|10.1
|787,623
|-
|1959
|211,372
|32.9
|223,242
|34.7
|137,111
|21.3
|24,057
|3.7
|56,725
|8.7
|652,507
|-
|1970
|586,052
|46.3
|351,090
|27.7
|207,464
|16.4
|29,716
|2.3
|88,193
|6.9
|1,262,515
|-
|1979
|530,556
|52.4
|229,873
|22.7
|167,226
|16.5
|22,916
|2.3
|62,865
|6.2
|1,013,436
|-
| colspan="12" |January 1990: Baku pogrom. Massacre and expulsion of Armenian population
|-
|1999
|1,574,252
|88.0
|119,371
|6.7
|378
|0.02
|5,164
|0.3
|89,689
|5.0
|1,788,854
|-
|2009
|1,848,107
|90.3
|108,525
|5.3
|104
|0.01
|6,056
|0.6
|83,023
|4.1
|2,045,815
|}
Ethnic groups
]]
Today, the vast majority of Baku's population is made up of ethnic Azerbaijanis, and the rest are Talysh, Russians, Lezgi and others. The intensive growth of the population started in the middle of the 19th century when Baku was a small town with a population of about 7,000 people. The population increased again from about 13,000 in the 1860s to 112,000 in 1897 and 215,000 in 1913, making Baku the largest city in the Caucasus region.
Baku has been a cosmopolitan city at certain times during its history, meaning ethnic Azerbaijanis did not constitute the majority of population. It was only in the 1970s that ethnic Azerbaijanis achieved demographic dominance in Baku. In 2003 Baku additionally had 153,400 internally displaced persons and 93,400 refugees. Religion was built over the tomb of a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.]]
The religion with the largest community of followers is Islam. The majority of the Muslims are Shia Muslims, and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest Shia population percentage in the world, after Iran. The city's notable mosques include Juma Mosque, Bibi-Heybat Mosque, Muhammad Mosque and Taza Pir Mosque.
There are some other faiths practised among the different ethnic groups within the country. By article 48 of its Constitution, Azerbaijan is a secular state and ensures religious freedom. Religious minorities include Russian Orthodox Christians, Catholic Levantines, Georgian Orthodox Christians, Albanian-Udi Apostolic Christians, Lutherans, Ashkenazi Jews, and Sufi Muslims. Baku is the seat of the Catholic Apostolic Prefecture of Azerbaijan.
Zoroastrianism, although extinct in the city as well as in the rest of the country by the present time, had a long history in Azerbaijan and the Zoroastrian New Year (Nowruz) continues to be the main holiday in the city as well as in the rest of Azerbaijan.
Economy
owned companies and enterprises in Azerbaijan. Along with the Bay of Baku, it hosts the majority of the country's skyscrapers]]
Baku is the economic hub of Azerbaijan, hosting many of the country's major companies and serving as the center for key industries such as oil and gas, finance, trade, and technology. The city is home to major financial institutions, multinational corporations, and various businesses that contribute to the country’s economy. Baku accounts for approximately 65% of Azerbaijan’s total GDP. Azerbaijani conglomerates such as PASHA Holding which is headquartered in Baku, and AF Holding, operate in the city. Baku also attracts a significant portion of the country’s workforce, with many people relocating for job opportunities and business prospects. As of the end of the first quarter of 2023, 52% of hired workers in Azerbaijan were employed in Baku. In addition to its role as the economic hub, Baku is home to the largest port in the Caspian Sea, the Baku International Sea Trade Port, more commonly known as Port of Baku. It handles a wide range of cargo, including containers, bulk goods, and liquid cargo, with an annual capacity of 15 million tons of cargo. The port also plays an essential role in the Trans-Caspian International Transport Route, facilitating trade between East Asia, Central Asia, Europe, and the Caucasus through integrated sea, rail, and road transport.
, high-rise office buildings located on Neftchiler Avenue]]
Baku's largest industry is petroleum, and its petroleum exports make it a large contributor to Azerbaijan's balance of payments. The existence of petroleum has been known since the 8th century. In the 10th century, the Arabian traveler, Marudee, reported that both white and black oil were being extracted naturally from Baku. By the 15th century, oil for lamps was obtained from hand-dug surface wells. Commercial exploitation began in 1872, and by the beginning of the 20th century the Baku oil fields were the largest in the world. Towards the end of the 20th century, much of the onshore petroleum had been exhausted, and drilling had extended into the sea offshore. By the end of the 19th century skilled workers and specialists flocked to Baku. By 1900 the city had more than 3,000 oil wells, of which 2,000 were producing oil at industrial levels. Baku ranked as one of the largest centres for the production of oil industry equipment before World War II. The World War II Battle of Stalingrad was fought to determine who would have control of Baku oil fields. Fifty years before the battle, Baku produced half of the world's oil supply.]]
The oil economy of Baku is undergoing a resurgence, with the development of the massive Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli field (Shallow water Gunashli by SOCAR, deeper areas by a consortium led by BP), development of the Shah Deniz gas field, the expansion of the Sangachal Terminal and the construction of the BTC Pipeline. The South Caucasus Pipeline (SCP), also known as the Baku-Tbilisi-Erzurum Pipeline, transports natural gas from Azerbaijan's Shah Deniz gas field to Turkey, with further connections to Europe. Spanning over 690 kilometers, the pipeline has been operational since 2007 and plays a central role in the Southern Gas Corridor, which aims to diversify Europe's energy sources with an annual export capacity of up to 25 billion cubic metres of gas.
The Baku Stock Exchange is Azerbaijan's largest stock exchange, and largest in the Caucasian region by market capitalization. A relatively large number of transnational companies are headquartered in Baku. One of the more prominent institutions headquartered in Baku is the International Bank of Azerbaijan, which employs over 1,000 people. International banks with branches in Baku include HSBC, Société Générale and Credit Suisse. Tourism and shopping
]]
of Baku is home to the largest flag ever raised, towering over the skyline of the capital city]]
Baku is one of the most important tourist destinations in the Caucasus, with hotels in the city earning 7 million euros in 2009. Many sizable world hotel chains have a presence in the city. Baku has many popular tourist and entertainment spots, such as the downtown Fountains Square, the One and Thousand Nights Beach, Shikhov Beach and Oil Rocks. Baku's vicinities feature Yanar Dag, an ever-blazing spot of natural gas. On 2 September 2010 with the inauguration of National Flag Square, Baku set the world record for tallest flagpole; on 24 May 2011, the city of Dushanbe in Tajikistan set a new record with a -higher flagpole. A few years later, the Flag Pole was dismantled and the National Flag Square was closed off with fences. It was opened once again after years of repair on On November 8, 2024, to commemorate the Victory Day over Armenia's forces in Nagorno-Karabakh region of Azerbaijan. The National Flag Square features a museum, with a collection of about 400 items, along with flags of Khanates and Empires that have been prevalent in the region.
Baku has several shopping malls, including Ganjlik Mall, Deniz Mall, Crescent Mall, Port Baku Mall, 28 Mall, Park Bulvar, City Park and Metro Park. The retail areas contain shops from chain stores up to high-end boutiques. Ganjlik Mall particularly stands out, as it is the largest mall in the city of Baku. Crescent Mall is the newest shopping center in Baku, opening on May 28, 2024. It adds to the city’s growing collection of malls, bringing a variety of stores, restaurants, and entertainment options to the area.
is considered to be one of the most popular tourist attractions in Baku]]
The city is listed 48th in the 2011 list of the most expensive cities in the world conducted by the Mercer Human Resource Consulting. Nizami Street, also known as Targovaya, and the Neftchilar Avenue, a street known for being home to many luxury and high fashion shops such as Gucci, Dolce & Gabbana, Tom Ford, Burberry, Celine, are among the most expensive streets in the world. Monthly expenses for a single person in Baku are estimated to be around 945 manat without rent ($555 USD), which is significantly lower in comparison to other countries. For example, average cost of living for a person in Los Angeles, California, is about $1308 USD, while in Seoul, South Korea, its $1074 USD. Living costs in Baku per person are below average when comparing to other developed countries, however, average reported salary of a Bakuvian sits at 997 manat, or about $586 USD. Culture
is the oldest area of the capital]]
Baku, often referred to as the "Paris of the East," is a city where Eastern and Western cultural traditions coexist. The city’s core is the historic center, known as Icheri Sheher or the Inner City, commonly referred to as the Old City, which contains various landmarks dating back to at least the 12th century. Among these are the Maiden Tower and the Shirvanshahs' Palace. These buildings reflect the city’s history and the Asian architectural styles that have influenced Baku’s development. The city's skyline showcases a blend of traditional and contemporary architecture, with places like Baku Boulevard and Fountains Square presenting a harmonious mix of historic and modern design elements. The urban landscape of Baku is characterized by a diverse range of buildings that combine the charm of the past with the innovation of the present. Baku also has a variety of museums and galleries, including the National Art Museum of Azerbaijan and the National Museum of History of Azerbaijan, which display both traditional Azerbaijani and contemporary art. The city maintains certain traditional crafts such as carpet-weaving and pottery, of which majority are displayed in Azerbaijan National Carpet Museum, with older techniques still practiced. Baku’s theater scene includes institutions like the Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theater and the Azerbaijan State Academic National Drama Theatre, which host both local and international performances. Music is an important part of Baku’s cultural landscape, with mugham being a traditional genre of music that has been recognized by UNESCO as part of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, which was proclaimed to be a "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity." The city also has a diverse music scene, with genres such as pop, rock, and jazz being represented. Additionally, Baku hosts events like the Baku International Jazz Festival and the Baku International Film Festival.
In 2007, the Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre, designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect Zaha Hadid, was opened. Baku also has many museums such as Baku Museum of Modern Art and National Museum of History, most notably featuring historical artifacts and art. Many of the city's cultural sites were celebrated in 2009 when Baku was designated an Islamic Culture Capital. Baku was chosen to host the Eurovision Dance Contest 2010. It has also become the first city to host the first European Games in 2015.
]]
Theatres
]]
* Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theater
* Azerbaijan State Academic National Drama Theatre
* Azerbaijan State Russian Drama Theatre named after Samad Vurgun
* Baku Puppet Theatre (formally Azerbaijan State Puppet Theatre named after Abdulla Shaig)
* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Young Spectators
* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Musical Comedy
* Baku State Circus
* "Oda" Theatre
* Baku Marionette Theatre
* Baku Municipal Theatre
* Azerbaijan State Pantomime Theatre
* Mugham Azerbaijan National Music Theatre
* Azerbaijan State Theatre of Song named after Rashid Behbudov
* "UNS" Theatre
* "Yugh" Theatre
Among Baku's cultural venues are Azerbaijan State Philharmonic Hall, Azerbaijan State Academic Opera and Ballet Theatre. The main movie theater is Azerbaijan Cinema. Festivals include Baku International Film Festival, Baku International Jazz Festival, Novruz Festival, Gül Bayramı (Flower Festival) and the National Theater Festival. International and local exhibitions are presented at the Baku Expo Centre.
Museums
<gallery class"center" perrow"5" widths"180" heights"120">
File:National Museum of History of Azerbaijan 10.JPG|National Museum of History
File:Nizami Museum of Azerbaijan Literature, Baku, 2015.jpg|Nizami Museum of Literature
File:National Art Museum of Azerbaijan (de Burs House) edited.jpg|National Art Museum
File:Villa Petrolea front.jpg|Villa Petrolea
File:Baku Museum of Modern Art entrance.jpg|Baku Museum of Modern Art
File:“From Waste to Art” Museum.jpg|“From Waste to Art” Museum
</gallery>
* The Museum Centre
* Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography
* Azerbaijan State Carpet Museum
* Azerbaijan Museum of Geology
* “From Waste to Art” Museum
Absheron Museum of History and Local Studies
The Absheron Museum of History and Local Studies() started its activities on 21 November 1983. The area of the museum, which was thoroughly renovated in 2015, is 296 square meters and consists of 5 halls. Currently, about 3000 exhibits are preserved in the museum and 1800 items are displayed in the exposition. Exhibits reflecting the history, geography, nature, everyday life and culture of Absheron region are preserved in the museum. The museum consists of 4 halls, 1 fund room and 1 room for employees. The exhibition area is 250 square meters, the manager's room is 1 square meter, the fund room is 10 square meters, and the staff room is 25 square meters. In 2018, the number of visitors to the museum was 1,932.Libraries
* National Library of Azerbaijan
* ANAS Central Library of Science
* Presidential Library (former Library of the Armenian Philanthropic Society)
Architecture
in Old Baku, a UNESCO World Heritage Site built in the 11th–12th century, recognised as the symbol of the city.]]
, Baku]]
Baku has wildly varying architecture, ranging from the Old City core to modern buildings and the spacious layout of Baku port. Many of the city's landmarks were built during the early 20th century, when architectural elements of the European styles were combined in eclectic style. Baku has an original and unique appearance, earning it a reputation as the Paris of the East. Baku joined UNESCO's Network of Creative Cities as a Design City on 31 October 2019 on the occasion of World Cities' Day. Hamams There are a number of ancient hamams in Baku dating back to the 12th, 14th and 18th centuries. Hamams play a very important role in the architectural appearance of Baku.
Teze Bey Hamam
Teze Bey is the most popular hamam (traditional Islamic bath) in Baku. It was built in 1886 in the centre of Baku, and in 2003 it was fully restored and modernised. Along with its modern amenities, Teze Bey features a swimming pool and architectural details inspired by Oriental, Russian and Finnish baths.
Gum Hamam
Gum Hamam was discovered during archaeological excavations underneath the sand; hence the name: Gum hamam (sand bath). It was built sometime during the 12th–14th centuries.
Bairamali hamam
In ancient times, Bairamali Hamam was called "Bey Hamam". The original structure was built sometime during the 12th–14th centuries and was reconstructed in 1881.
Agha Mikayil Hamam
Agha Mikayil Hamam was constructed in the 18th century by Haji Agha Mikayil on Kichik Gala Street in the Old City (Icherisheher). It is still operating in its ancient setting. The Hamam is open to women on Mondays and Fridays and to men on the other days of the week.
Modern architecture
Late modern and postmodern architecture began to appear in the early 2000s. With economic development, old buildings such as Atlant House were razed to make way for new ones. Buildings with all-glass shells have appeared around the city, the most prominent examples being the International Mugham Center, Azerbaijan Tower, Heydar Aliyev Cultural Centre, Flame Towers, Baku Crystal Hall, Baku White City, SOCAR Tower and DENIZ Mall. These projects also caught the attention of international media as notable programmes such as Discovery Channel's Extreme Engineering did pieces focusing in on changes to the city.
The Old City of Baku, also known as the Walled City of Baku, refers to the ancient Baku settlement. Most of the walls and towers, strengthened after the Russian conquest in 1806, survived. This section is picturesque, with its maze of narrow alleys and ancient buildings: the cobbled streets past the Palace of the Shirvanshahs, two caravansaries, the baths and the Juma Mosque (which used to house the Azerbaijan National Carpet and Arts Museum but is now a mosque again). The old town core also has dozens of small mosques, often without any particular sign to distinguish them as such.
In 2003, UNESCO placed the Inner City on the List of World Heritage in Danger, citing damage from a November 2000 earthquake, poor conservation as well as "dubious" restoration efforts. In 2009 the Inner City was removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger. Visual arts
The three main institutions for exhibiting modern and contemporary art in Baku are:
* Baku Museum of Modern Art
* Heydar Aliyev Centre
* Yarat Contemporary Art Space () Music and media
during the Eurovision Song Contest 2012]]
The music scene in Baku can be traced back to ancient times and villages of Baku, generally revered as the fountainhead of meykhana and mugham in the Azerbaijan.
Recently, the success of Azerbaijani performers such as AySel, Farid Mammadov, Sabina Babayeva, Safura and Elnur Hüseynov in the Eurovision Song Contest has boosted the profile of Baku's music scene, prompting international attention. Following the victory of Azerbaijan's representative Eldar & Nigar at the Eurovision Song Contest 2011, Baku hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2012.
2005 was a landmark in the development of Azerbaijani jazz in the city. It has been home to legendary jazz musicians like Vagif Mustafazadeh, Aziza Mustafa Zadeh, Rafig Babayev and Rain Sultanov. Among Baku's prominent annual fairs and festivals is Baku International Jazz Festival, which features some of the world's most identifiable jazz names.
Baku also has a thriving International Centre of Mugham, which is located in Baku Boulevard, Gulustan Palace and Buta Palace, one of the principal performing arts centres and music venues in the city.
The majority of Azerbaijan's media companies (including television, newspaper and radio, such as, Azad Azerbaijan TV, Ictimai TV, Lider TV and Region TV) are headquartered in Baku. The films The World Is Not Enough and The Diamond Arm, among others, are set in the city, while Amphibian Man includes several scenes filmed in Old City.
The city's radio stations include: Ictimai Radio, Radio Antenn, Burc FM, Avto FM, ASAN Radio and Lider FM Jazz
Some of Baku's newspapers include the daily Azadliq, Zaman (The Time), Bakinskiy Rabochiy (Baku Worker), Echo and the English-language Baku Today.
Baku is also featured in the video game Battlefield 4.
Nightlife
Many clubs that are open until dawn can be found throughout the city. Clubs with an eastern flavour provide special treats from the cuisine of Azerbaijan along with local music. Western-style clubs target younger, more energetic crowds. Most of the public houses and bars are located near Fountains Square and are usually open until the early hours of the morning.
Parks and gardens
Baku has large sections of greenery, either preserved by the National Government or designated as green zones. The city, however, continues to lack a green belt development as economic activity pours into the capital, resulting in massive housing projects along the suburbs.
Baku Boulevard is a pedestrian promenade that runs parallel to Baku's seafront. The boulevard contains an amusement park, yacht club, musical fountain, statues and monuments. The park is popular with dog-walkers and joggers and is convenient for tourists. It is adjacent to the newly built International Centre of Mugham and the musical fountain.
Other parks and gardens include Heydar Aliyev Park, Samad Vurgun Park, Narimanov Park, Alley of Honor and the Fountains Square. The Martyrs' Lane, formerly the Kirov Park, is dedicated to the memory of those who died during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and also to the 137 people killed on Black January.
Sports
]]
playing against Arsenal at Baku Olympic Stadium during the 2019 UEFA Europa League Final]]
Baku hosts a Formula One race on the Baku City Circuit. The first was the 2016 European Grand Prix, with the track going around the old city. The track measures , and it has been on the Formula One calendar since its 2016 debut.
The city also hosted three group games and one quarter-final of the UEFA Euro 2020 European Football Championship.
Since 2002, Baku has hosted 36 major sporting events and selected to host the 2015 European Games. Baku is also to host the fourth edition of the Islamic Solidarity Games in 2017.
Baku is also one of world's leading chess centres, having produced grandmasters like Teimour Radjabov, Vugar Gashimov, Garry Kasparov, Shahriyar Mammadyarov and Rauf Mammadov, as well as the arbiter Faik Hasanov. The city also annually hosts the international tournaments such as Baku Chess Grand Prix, President's Cup, Baku Open and bidding to host 42nd Chess Olympiad in 2014.
First class sporting facilities were built for the indoor games, including the Palace of Hand Games and Heydar Aliyev Sports and Exhibition Complex. It hosted many sporting events, including FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup, Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships in 2007 and 2009, 2005 World Rhythmic Gymnastics Championships, 2007 FILA Wrestling World Championships and 2010 European Wrestling Championships, 2011 World Amateur Boxing Championships, 2009 Women's Challenge Cup and European Taekwondo Championships in 2007. Since 2011 the city annually hosts WTA tennis event called Baku Cup.
The Synergy Baku Cycling Project participates in the Tour d'Azerbaïdjan a 2.2 multi-stage bicycle race on the UCI Europe Tour.
Baku made a bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2020 Summer Olympics, but failed to become a Candidate City both times.
The largest sports hub in the city is Baku Olympic Stadium with 69,870 seating capacity, whose construction was completed in 2015. UEFA Europa League Final 2019 was played at the Olympic Stadium in Baku on 29 May 2019 between English sides Chelsea and Arsenal. The city's main football clubs is Neftçi Baku of who first has nine Premier League titles, making Neftchi the most successful Azerbaijani football club. Baku also has several football clubs in the premier and regional leagues, including AZAL and Ravan in Premier League. The city's second-largest stadium, Tofiq Bahramov Stadium hosts a number of domestic and international competitions and was the main sports centre of the city for a long period until the construction of Baku Olympic Stadium.
In the Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League, Baku is represented by Rabita Baku, Azerrail Baku, Lokomotiv Baku and Azeryol Baku.
Transport
Throughout history, the transport system of Baku used the now-defunct horsecars, trams and narrow gauge railways. , 1,000 black cabs are ordered by Baku Taxi Company, and as part of a programme originally announced by the Transport Ministry of Azerbaijan, there is a plan to introduce London cabs into Baku. The move was part of £16 million agreement between Manganese Bronze subsidiary LTI Limited and Baku Taxi Company.
Local rail transport includes the Baku Funicular and the Baku Metro, a rapid-transit system notable for its art, murals, mosaics and ornate chandeliers. Baku Metro was opened in November 1967 and includes 3 lines and 25 stations at present; 170 million people used Baku Metro over the past five years. In 2008, the Chief of Baku Metro, Taghi Ahmadov, announced plans to construct 41 new stations over the next 17 years. These will serve the new bus complex as well as the international airport. In 2019, the Baku suburban railway opened.
BakuCard is a single Smart Card for payment on all types of city transport. The intercity buses and metro use this type of card-based fare-payment system.
Baku Railway Station is the terminus for national and international rail links to the city. The Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway, which directly connects Turkey, Georgia and Azerbaijan, began to be constructed in 2007 and opened in 2017. The completed branch will connect Baku with Tbilisi in Georgia, and from there trains will continue to Akhalkalaki, and Kars in Turkey.
]]
Sea transport is vital for Baku, as the city is practically surrounded by the Caspian Sea to the east. Shipping services operate regularly from Baku across the Caspian Sea to Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk) in Turkmenistan and to Bandar Anzali and Bandar Nowshar in Iran. The commuter ferries, along with the high-speed catamaran Seabus (Deniz Avtobusu), also form the main connection between the city and the Absheron peninsula.
Baku Port was founded in 1902 and claims to be the largest Caspian Sea port. It has six facilities: the main cargo terminal, the container terminal, the ferry terminal, the oil terminal, the passenger terminal and the port fleet terminal. The port's throughput capacity reaches 15 million tonnes of liquid bulk and up to 10 million tons of dry cargoes. In 2010, the Baku International Sea Trade Port began to be reconstructed. The construction was planned to take place in three stages and to be completed by 2016. The estimated costs were US$400 million. From April to November, Baku Port is accessible to ships loading cargoes for direct voyages from Western European and Mediterranean ports. The State Road M-1 and the European route E60 are the two main motorway connections between Europe and Azerbaijan. The motorway network around Baku is well-developed and is constantly being extended.
The Heydar Aliyev International Airport is the only commercial airport serving Baku. The new Baku Cargo Terminal was officially opened in March 2005. It was constructed to be a major cargo hub in the CIS countries, and is actually now one of the biggest and most technically advanced in the region. There are also several smaller military airbases near Baku, such as Baku Kala Air Base, intended for private aircraft, helicopters and charters. Education
* Baku Oxford School, international school
Secondary schools
* Elite Gymnasium
Health care
According to the Ministry of Healthcare, healthcare facilities in Baku are "highly developed compared with the regions and doctors are waiting to work there. The regions, meanwhile, lack both doctors and clinics providing specialized medical treatment." Resulting in citizens travelling for many hours to Baku to receive adequate medical treatment. Notable residents
<gallery class"center" widths"160px" heights="160px">
File:Lotfi Zadeh Berkeley c.jpg|Lotfi A. Zadeh, artificial intelligence researcher, founder of fuzzy mathematics, fuzzy set theory, and fuzzy logic
File:Landau.jpg|Physicist Lev Landau, Baku State University student, winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1962
File:Stamps of Azerbaijan, 2007-813.jpg|Kerim Kerimov, one of the founders of the Soviet space program
File:Kasparov-34.jpg|Garry Kasparov, chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion
File:Mushfig.JPG|Mikayil Mushfig, Bakuvian poet and victim of the Stalinist purges
File:Tofiq Bahramov.jpg|Tofiq Bahramov, a Soviet footballer and football referee from Azerbaijan
File:Вагит Алекперов.jpg|Vagit Alekperov, President of the leading Russian oil company LUKOIL
File:Muslim Magomaev.jpg|Muslim Magomayev, singer
File:RIAN archive 438589 Mstislav Rostropovich.jpg|Mstislav Rostropovich, Grammy Award–winning cellist
File:Gusman Yliy.jpg|Yuli Gusman, film director and actor, founder and CEO of the Nika Award
File:Natalla Arsieńnieva1927.jpg|Natallia Arsiennieva, Belarusian playwright, poet and translator
File:Владимир Меньшов 2018 (cropped) (cropped).jpg|Vladimir Menshov, Soviet and Russian actor and film director
File:Ələkbər Məmmədov.jpg|Alakbar Mammadov, Soviet footballer, four-time champion player in the Soviet Top League
File:Matvej Skobelev.jpg|Matvey Skobelev, Russian revolutionary and politician
<!-- Deleted image removed: File:Salatyn and Son.JPG|Salatyn Asgarova, Azerbaijani journalist, National Hero of Azerbaijan -->
</gallery>
International relations
Twin towns and sister cities Baku is twinned with:<sup>[in chronological order]</sup>
{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Country
!City
!State / Province / Region / Governorate
!Date
|-
|Senegal
| Dakar
|Dakar Region
|1967
|-
|Italy
| Naples
|Campania
|1972
|-
|Iraq
| Basra
|Basra Governorate
|1972
|-
|France
| Bordeaux
|Aquitaine
|1979
|-
|Iran
| Tabriz
|East Azerbaijan province
|1980
|-
|Vietnam
| Vũng Tàu
|Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu province
|1985
|-
|Turkey
| Sivas
|Sivas Province
|2000
|-
|Brazil
| Rio de Janeiro
|State of Rio de Janeiro
|2013
|-
|Ukraine
| Kyiv
|Kyiv City
|-
|Israel
| Haifa
|Haifa District
|-
|South Africa
| Johannesburg
|Johannesburg City
|-
|South Africa
| Pretoria
|Pretoria City
|-
|Turkey
| Ankara
|Ankara City
|-
|Saudi Arabia
| Jeddah
|Jeddah City
|
|}
Partner cities
* Mainz, Germany
* Paris, France
* Vienna, Austria
* Tbilisi, Georgia
* Astana, Kazakhstan
* Minsk, Belarus
* Moscow, Russia
* Volgograd, Russia
* Kizlyar, Russia
* Tashkent, Uzbekistan
* Chengdu, China
See also
* Baku Gradonachalstvo
* 1920 Baku Congress
* Alexander III visit to Baku
* Administrative divisions of Azerbaijan
* List of cities in Azerbaijan
* Mingachevir
* Nakhchivan
* Sumgait
Notes
References
External links
*
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100424091230/http://www.ovpm.org/en/azerbaijan/baku Baku's profile at the Organization of World Heritage Cities website]
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/958 UNESCO World Heritage Site listing Walled City of Baku]
*
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-t1-5dbtsik Absheron's Museum of History and Country Studies sheds light on the past] on YouTube (in Azerbaijani)
}}
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Category:Capitals in Asia
Category:Capitals in Europe
Category:Cities and towns in Azerbaijan
Category:Populated coastal places in Azerbaijan
Category:Districts of Azerbaijan
Category:Port cities in Azerbaijan
Category:Port cities and towns of the Caspian Sea
Category:World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan
Category:Weather extremes of Earth
Category:Populated places along the Silk Road
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Balalaika
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The balalaika (, ) is a Russian stringed musical instrument with a characteristic triangular wooden, hollow body, fretted neck, and three strings. Two strings are usually tuned to the same note and the third string is a perfect fourth higher. The higher-pitched balalaikas are used to play melodies and chords. The instrument generally has a short sustain, necessitating rapid strumming or plucking when it is used to play melodies. Balalaikas are often used for Russian folk music and dancing.
The balalaika family of instruments includes instruments of various sizes, from the highest-pitched to the lowest: the piccolo balalaika, prima balalaika, secunda balalaika, alto balalaika, bass balalaika, and contrabass balalaika. There are balalaika orchestras which consist solely of different balalaikas; these ensembles typically play Classical music that has been arranged for balalaikas. The prima balalaika is the most common; the piccolo is rare. There have also been descant and tenor balalaikas, but these are considered obsolete. All have three-sided bodies; spruce, evergreen, or fir tops; and backs made of three to nine wooden sections (usually maple).
The prima, secunda, and alto balalaikas are played either with the fingers or a plectrum (pick), depending on the music being played, and the bass and contrabass (equipped with extension legs that rest on the floor) are played with leather plectra. The rare piccolo instrument is usually played with a pick. Etymology The earliest mention of the term balalaika dates back to a 1688 arrest document. Another appearance of the word is found in a claim dated October 1700 in what is now the Verkhotursky district of Russia.
It made its way into literature in the 18th century, first appearing in "Elysei", a 1771 poem by V. Maykov. "Balalaika" also appears in Nikolai Gogol's Dead Souls, written between 1837 and 1842.
Types
The most common solo instrument is the prima, which is tuned E<sub>4</sub>–E<sub>4</sub>–A<sub>4</sub> (thus the two lower strings are tuned to the same pitch). Sometimes the balalaika is tuned "guitar style" by folk musicians to G<sub>3</sub>–B<sub>3</sub>–D<sub>4</sub> (mimicking the three highest strings of the Russian guitar), whereby it is easier to play for Russian guitar players, although classically trained balalaika purists avoid this tuning. It can also be tuned to E<sub>4</sub>–A<sub>4</sub>–D<sub>5</sub>, like its cousin, the domra, to make it easier for those trained on the domra to play the instrument, and still have a balalaika sound. The folk (pre-Andreev) tunings D<sub>4</sub>–F<sub>4</sub>–A<sub>4</sub> and C<sub>4</sub>–E<sub>4</sub>–G<sub>4</sub> were very popular, as this makes it easier to play certain riffs.
Balalaikas have been made in the following sizes:
:{| class="wikitable"
! Name !! Length !! Common tuning
|-
| descant || || E<sub>5</sub> E<sub>5</sub> A<sub>5</sub>
|-
| piccolo || || B<sub>4</sub> E<sub>5</sub> A<sub>5</sub>
|-
| prima || || E<sub>4</sub> E<sub>4</sub> A<sub>4</sub>
|-
| secunda || || A<sub>3</sub> A<sub>3</sub> D<sub>4</sub>
|-
| alto || || E<sub>3</sub> E<sub>3</sub> A<sub>3</sub>
|-
| tenor || || A<sub>2</sub> A<sub>2</sub> D<sub>3</sub>
|-
| bass || || E<sub>2</sub> A<sub>2</sub> D<sub>3</sub>
|-
| contrabass || || E<sub>1</sub> A<sub>1</sub> D<sub>2</sub>
|}
}}
Factory-made six-string prima balalaikas with three sets of double courses are also common. These have three double courses similar to the stringing of the mandolin and often use a "guitar" tuning.
Four-string alto balalaikas are also encountered and are used in the orchestra of the Piatnistky Folk Choir.
The piccolo, prima, and secunda balalaikas were originally strung with gut with the thinnest melody string made of stainless steel. Today, nylon strings are commonly used in place of gut.
Amateur and/or souvenir-style prima balalaikas usually have a total of 16 frets, while in professional orchestra-like ones that number raises to 24. Some theories say that the instrument is descended from the domra, an instrument from the East Slavs. In the Caucasus, similar instruments such as the Mongolian topshur, used in Kalmykia, and the Panduri used in Georgia are played. It is also similar to the Kazakh dombra, which has two strings. Variants of the dombra played by the Bashkirs often have 3 strings and may represent an instrument related to both the dombra and the balalaika.
The pre-Andreyev period
Early representations of the balalaika show it with anywhere from two to six strings. Similarly, frets on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player at will (as is the case with the modern saz, which allows for the playing distinctive to Turkish and Central Asian music).
The first known document mentioning the instrument dates back to 1688. A guard's logbook from the Moscow Kremlin records that two commoners were stopped from playing the Balalaika whilst drunk. Further documents from 1700 and 1714 also mention the instrument. In the early 18th century the term appeared in Ukrainian documents, where it sounded like "Balabaika". Balalaika appeared in "Elysei", a 1771 poem by V. Maikov. In the 19th century, the balalaika evolved into a triangular instrument with a neck that was substantially shorter than that of its Asian counterparts. It was popular as a village instrument for centuries, particularly with the skomorokhs, sort of free-lance musical jesters whose tunes ridiculed the Tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church, and Russian society in general.
in Moscow]]
The Andreyev period
In the 1880s, Vasily Vasilievich Andreyev, who was then a professional violinist in the music salons of St Petersburg, developed what became the standardized balalaika, with the assistance of violin maker V. Ivanov. The instrument began to be used in his concert performances. A few years later, St. Petersburg craftsman Paserbsky further refined the instruments by adding a fully chromatic set of frets and also a number of balalaikas in orchestral sizes with the tunings now found in modern instruments. One of the reasons why the instruments were not standardised, was because people in the outlying areas built their own instruments because there was so little communication for them. There were no roads and weather conditions were generally bad. Andreyev patented the design and arranged numerous traditional Russian folk melodies for the orchestra. He also composed a body of concert pieces for the instrument.
Balalaika orchestra
The result of Andreyev's labours was the establishment of an orchestral folk tradition in Tsarist Russia, which later grew into a movement within the Soviet Union. The balalaika orchestra in its full form consists of balalaikas, domras, gusli, bayan, Vladimir Shepherd's Horns, garmoshkas, and several types of percussion instruments.
With the establishment of the Soviet system and the entrenchment of a proletarian cultural direction, the culture of the working classes (which included that of village labourers) was actively supported by the Soviet establishment. The concept of the balalaika orchestra was adopted wholeheartedly by the Soviet government as something distinctively proletarian (that is, from the working classes) and was also deemed progressive. Significant amounts of energy and time were devoted to support and foster the formal study of the balalaika, from which highly skilled ensemble groups such as the Osipov State Russian Folk Orchestra emerged. Balalaika virtuosi such as Boris Feoktistov and Pavel Necheporenko became stars both inside and outside the Soviet Union. The movement was so powerful that even the renowned Red Army Choir, which initially used a normal symphonic orchestra, changed its instrumentation, replacing violins, violas, and violoncellos with orchestral balalaikas and domras.
in 1861. The scene portrays the old Russian tradition of the bride-show while a balalaika is played.]]
Solo instrument
Often musicians perform solo on the balalaika. In particular, Alexey Arkhipovsky is well known for his solo performances. In particular, he was invited to play at the opening ceremony of the second semi final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow because the organizers wanted to give a "more Russian appearance" to the contest.
Notable players
See Category: Russian balalaika players (English Wikipedia) and a larger one in Russian
*
*Vasily Andreyev
*
*
*
*Alexey Arkhipovsky
*Elina Karokhina
*Pavel Necheporenko
* In popular culture
]]
Through the 20th century, interest in Russian folk instruments grew outside of Russia, likely as a result of western tours by Andreyev and other balalaika virtuosi early in the century. Significant balalaika associations are found in Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, New York, Atlanta and Seattle.
* Ian Anderson plays balalaika on two songs from the 1969 Jethro Tull album Stand Up: "Jeffrey Goes to Leicester Square" and "Fat Man".
* Wes Anderson's 2014 film The Grand Budapest Hotel (winner of the 87th Academy Award for Best Original Score) employs many balalaikas in both Alexandre Desplat's original score and several sound-track recordings by the Osipov State Russian Folk Orchestra.
* Oleg Bernov of the Russian-American rock band the Red Elvises played a red electrified contrabass balalaika during the band's North American tours. Dejah Sandoval currently tours with the Red Elvises and plays the bass balalaika.
* Kate Bush featured the balalaika (played by her brother Paddy Bush) in two of her Top-40 singles, "Babooshka" and "Running Up That Hill".
* Katzenjammer, the Norwegian all-girl pop band, uses two contrabass balalaikas, both of which have cat faces painted on the front. They are named Børge and Akerø.
* David Lean's 1965 film Doctor Zhivago features balalaika prominently in the score and the plot.
* VulgarGrad, an Australian band fronted by actor Jacek Koman, plays songs of the Russian criminal underground, and uses a contrabass balalaika.
*RebbeSoul plays the balalaika on numerous songs on the RebbeSoul albums Fringe Of Blue, RebbeSoul-O, Change The World With A Sound, and From Another World. He also plays the balalaika on the Common Tongue album Step Into My Word and on the Shlomit & RebbeSoul album The Seal Of Solomon.
*The instrument is featured in the episode "The Secret War" of the 2019 Netflix series Love, Death & Robots.
*The instrument is used alongside a piano and a bayan (a type of Russian accordion) in the piece "A Journey" from the soundtrack of the 2013 Japanese animated film The Wind Rises.
*Selo i Ludy, a Ukrainian folk band, utilises the balalaika.
*The instrument makes a brief appearance in Charlie Chaplin's 1931 film City Lights.
*The Beatles' song "Back in the U.S.S.R." includes the lyric "let me hear your balalaikas ringing out".
*"Wind of Change" by Scorpions includes the lyric "let your balalaika sing what my guitar wants to say ".
*The balalaika is played in "Boris the Blade Theme" from the 2000 comedy crime film Snatch directed by Guy Ritchie.
*It is featured in the soundtrack of Furious (2017 film)
*The Vampire Weekend song "Pravda" includes the lyric "I took the family balalaika".
*Featured in B. B. Gabor song "Moscow Drug Club" with the lyrics "You don't hear balalaikas, Because they're playing saxophone".
See also
* Domra
* Gibson Flying V
* Timeline of Russian innovation
References
* Блок В. Оркестр русских народных инструментов. Москва, 1986.
* Имханицкий М. В. В. Андреев – Материалы и документы. Москва, 1986.
* Имханицкий М. У истоков русской народной оркестровой культуры. Москва, 1987.
* Имханицкий М. История исполнительства на русских народных инструментах. Москва, 2002.
* Пересада А. Балалайка. Москва, 1990.
* Попонов В. Оркестр хора имени Пятницкого. Москва, 1979.
* Попонов В. Русская народная инструментальная музыка. Москва, 1984.
* Вертков К. Русские народные музыкальные инструменты. Музыка, Ленинград, 1975.
External links
* [https://ibalalaika.com/balalaika-setup-lesson-1/ Balalaika Part Names And Setup – Balalaika Lesson 1] on ibalalaika.com
* (en) [http://www.skaz1.com/balalaika.engl.html "Balalaika"]—article by Dmitry Belinskiy from the newspaper Krymskaya Pravda. Balalaika music, video
* [http://goshabagpiper.narod.ru/history.htm Russian site about balalaika. History of balalaika], by Georgy Nefyodov
* [http://www.andreaslehmann.com/files/andreaslehmann/downloads/chord-reference-for-balalaika.pdf Chord reference for Prima-Balalaika]
* (rus) [https://balalaika.org.ru/ balalaika.org.ru]: music sheets, video, forum, etc.
*
* (de) [http://www.russische-balalaika.de/ russische-balalaika.de – informative Website]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MTZd6lsd4k An example of a reconstructed pre-Andreyev balalaika with two strings] on YouTube
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Y_-HNU5qag An example of a Bessarabian tune on balalaika, Dieter and Ally Hauptmann] on YouTube.
* [https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=c5T41iRVDrc# The magic] of Alexey Arkhipovsky. Sharmanka ("Hurdy-gurdy"). YouTube.
Category:1680s introductions
Category:Necked bowl lutes
Category:Russian inventions
Category:Guitars
Category:Russian musical instruments
Category:String instruments
Category:Russian words and phrases
Category:Lute family instruments
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4568
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Bank of China Tower (Hong Kong)
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| completion_date =
| opening
| building_type = Commercial offices
| architectural
| antenna_spire =
| roof
| top_floor
| floor_count = 72 <small>(+4 basement floors)</small>
| elevator_count = 49
| cost | floor_area
| architect = I. M. Pei & Partners<br> Sherman Kung & Associates Architects Ltd. Thomas Boada S.L.
| structural_engineer = Leslie E. Robertson Associates RLLP
| main_contractor = HKC (Holdings) Ltd<br>Kumagai HK
| developer | engineer Jaros, Baum & Bolles (MEP Design)
| owner | management
| references
}}
| j = Zung1ngan2 Daai6haa6
| p = Zhōngyín Dàshà
}}
}}
The Bank of China Tower (BOC Tower) is a skyscraper located in Central, Hong Kong. Located at 1 Garden Road on Hong Kong Island, the tower houses the headquarters of the Bank of China (Hong Kong) Limited. One of the most recognisable landmarks in Hong Kong, the building is notable for its distinct shape and design, consisting of triangular frameworks covered by glass curtain walls.
The building was designed by Chinese-American architect I. M. Pei and L. C. Pei of I. M. Pei and Partners. At a height of , reaching high including a spire,
Favouritism controversy
The Government had apparently given preferential treatment to Chinese companies, and was again criticised for the apparent preferential treatment to the BOCHK. The tower is a steel-frame structure.
The Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 interrupted publicity surrounding the building's design and construction. A press conference scheduled for 24 May 1989, two weeks before the incident, was intended to show off the building's "designer socialist furnishings", but was called off as the student demonstrations in Beijing escalated. The public relations firm that organised the conference explained to the South China Morning Post that "under the circumstances, it has been decided to stop any publicity to do with the Bank of China."
Once developed, gross floor area was expected to be . The original project was intended for completion on the auspicious date of 8 August 1988. However, owing to project delays, groundbreaking took place in March 1985, almost two years late, with the completion also facing a nearly two-year delay. It was topped out in 1989, and occupied on 15 June 1990.<!--from Chinese article -->Architecture
model showing the shape of the Bank of China Tower. The labels correspond to the number of 'X' shapes on each outward facing side.]]
Designed by Pritzker Prize-winning architect I. M. Pei, the building is high with two masts reaching high. The 72-storey building is located near Central MTR station. This was the tallest building in Hong Kong and Asia from 1990 to 1992, the first building outside the United States to break the 305 m (1,000 ft) mark, and the first composite space frame high-rise building. That also means it was the tallest outside the United States from its completion year, 1990. It is now the fourth tallest skyscraper in Hong Kong, after International Commerce Centre, Two International Finance Centre and Central Plaza.
A small observation deck on the 43rd floor of the building was once open to the public, but is now closed.
The whole structure is supported by the four steel columns at the corners of the building, with the triangular frameworks transferring the weight of the structure onto these four columns. It is covered with glass curtain walls. Structural engineer Leslie E. Robertson, best known for his work on the Twin Towers of the original World Trade Center, provided the structural engineering design, while Jaros, Baum & Bolles was the mechanical, electrical and plumbing engineer.
While its distinctive look makes it one of Hong Kong's most identifiable landmarks today, it was the source of some controversy at one time, as the bank is the only major building in Hong Kong to have bypassed the convention of consulting with feng shui masters on matters of design prior to construction.
The building has been criticised by some practitioners of feng shui for its sharp edges and its negative symbolism by the numerous 'X' shapes in its original design, though Pei modified the design to some degree before construction following this feedback. The building's profile from some angles resembles that of a meat cleaver and it is sometimes referred to as a "vertical knife". This earned it the nickname () in Cantonese, literally meaning 'one knife'.
Transport
The Bank of China Tower can be accessed by the Mass Transit Railway (MTR) by walking through Chater Garden from Central station Exit J2.
In popular culture
* In the 1988 film Police Story 2, the building was shown during its construction
* In the 2012 film Battleship, the building is torn in half by a crashing alien spaceship and its spire falls into the streets of Hong Kong, killing many people.
* In Star Trek: Voyager, the building is used as the exterior of Starfleet Communications Research Center.
* The building is seen on the attraction It's a Small World at Hong Kong Disneyland.
* The building was featured in the film Transformers: Age of Extinction, where Bumblebee and Dinobot Strafe makes their final stand against the Decepticon drone Stinger.
* The building appears in Cardcaptor Sakura: The Movie for several scenes.
* The building was featured in the city-building games SimCity 3000 and SimCity 4 as a placeable landmark.
* The building was featured in the 2017 mobile game TheoTown as a vanilla landmark.
* The building (renamed to Mortensen Electric) appears in the 2012 action-adventure video game Sleeping Dogs in the Central District.
* In the 2021 movie Godzilla vs. Kong, the building is featured prominently throughout the battle between Godzilla and Kong in Hong Kong. Despite being in close proximity to the battle, the tower is not destroyed and is still standing at the end of the battle.
See also
* Bank of China Building, the old headquarters of the Bank of China
* List of tallest buildings in Hong Kong
* List of buildings and structures in Hong Kong
* List of tallest freestanding structures
References
External links
* [http://www.bochk.com/en/aboutus/corpprofile/boctower.html About BOC Tower] on Bank of China (Hong Kong) website
* [http://www.greatbuildings.com/buildings/Bank_of_China.html Great Buildings Online site on BOC Tower]
* [http://skyscrapermodels.us/models/Bank_China_HKC.html Buildable paper model of the tower]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090329054505/http://www.hku.hk/bse/bbse2001/lift-example02.gif Elevator Layout]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090220182116/http://www.bankofchinalocations.com/china/hong_kong_island_central_western_district.html Branch Details for Hong Kong Bank of China Tower]
Category:1990 establishments in Hong Kong
Category:Bank buildings in Hong Kong
Category:Bank of China
Category:Central, Hong Kong
Category:I. M. Pei buildings
Category:Landmarks in Hong Kong
Category:Office buildings completed in 1990
Category:Skyscraper office buildings in Hong Kong
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Blind Lemon Jefferson
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|folk|ragtime}}
| birth_name = Lemon Henry Jefferson
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Coutchman, Texas, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place = Chicago, Illinois, U.S.
| occupation =
| instrument =
| years_active 1912–1929
| label =
}}
Lemon Henry "Blind Lemon" Jefferson (September 24, 1893 – December 19, 1929) was an American blues and gospel singer-songwriter and musician. He was one of the most popular and successful blues singers of the 1920s and has been called the "Father of the Texas Blues".''
Due mainly to his high-pitched voice and the originality of his guitar playing, Jefferson's performances were distinctive. Later blues and rock and roll musicians, however, did attempt to imitate both his songs and his musical style. (or possibly eight) children born to Clarissa and Alex Jefferson, who were African-American sharecroppers. The 1910 census, taken in May, before his birthday, confirms his year of birth as 1893 and indicated that the family was farming northwest of Wortham, near his birthplace.
In his 1917 draft registration, Jefferson gave his birthday as October 26, 1894, stating that he lived in Dallas, Texas, and had been blind since birth. In the 1920 census, he is recorded as having returned to Freestone County and was living with his half-brother, Kit Banks, on a farm between Wortham and Streetman.
Jefferson began playing the guitar in his early teens and soon after he began performing at picnics and parties. He became a street musician, playing in East Texas towns in front of barbershops and on street corners.
In 1912, Jefferson began traveling frequently to Dallas, where he played with Lead Belly. By the early 1920s, Jefferson was earning enough money for his musical performances to support a wife and, possibly, a child. The first self-accompanied solo performer of a self-composed blues song was Lee Morse, whose "Mail Man Blues" was recorded on October 7, 1924. Jefferson's music is uninhibited and represented the classic sounds of everyday life, from a honky-tonk to a country picnic, to street corner blues, to work in the burgeoning oil fields (a reflection of his interest in mechanical objects and processes).
Jefferson did what few had ever done before him – he became a successful solo guitarist and male vocalist in the commercial recording world. Unlike many artists who were "discovered" and recorded in their normal venues, Jefferson was taken to Chicago in December 1925 or January 1926 to record his first tracks. Uncharacteristically for him, the first two recordings on this session were gospel songs ("I Want to Be Like Jesus in My Heart" and "All I Want Is That Pure Religion"), and they were released under the name Deacon L. J. Bates. A second recording session was held in March 1926. His first releases under his own name, "Booster Blues" and "Dry Southern Blues", were hits. Their popularity led to the release of the other two songs from that session, "Got the Blues" and "Long Lonesome Blues", which became a runaway success, with sales in six figures. He recorded about a hundred tracks between 1926 and 1929; forty-three records were issued, all but one of them on Paramount Records. Almost all of his recordings for Paramount had poor sound quality because Paramount's studio techniques and production were poor during that time. In May 1926, Paramount re-recorded Jefferson performing his hits "Got the Blues" and "Long Lonesome Blues" in the superior facilities at Marsh Laboratories, and their subsequent releases used these newer versions. Both the original and re-recorded versions appear on modern compilation albums.Success with Paramount RecordsLargely because of the popularity of artists such as Jefferson and his contemporaries Blind Blake and Ma Rainey, Paramount became the leading recording company for the blues in the 1920s. Jefferson's earnings reputedly enabled him to buy a car and employ chauffeurs (this information has been disputed); he was given a Ford car "worth over $700" by Mayo Williams, Paramount's connection with the black community. This was a common compensation for recording rights in that market. Jefferson is known to have done an unusual amount of traveling for the time in the American South, which is reflected in the difficulty of placing his music in a single regional category.
Jefferson's "old-fashioned" sound and confident musicianship made it easy to market him. His skillful guitar playing and impressive vocal range opened the door for a new generation of male solo blues performers, such as Furry Lewis, Charlie Patton, and Barbecue Bob.
Jefferson was reputedly unhappy with his royalties (although Williams said that Jefferson had a bank account containing as much as $1,500). In 1927, when Williams moved to Okeh Records, he took Jefferson with him, and Okeh quickly recorded and released Jefferson's "Matchbox Blues", backed with "Black Snake Moan".Death and grave
]]
Jefferson died in Chicago at 10:00 a.m. on December 19, 1929, of what his death certificate said was "probably acute myocarditis". For many years, rumors circulated that a jealous lover had poisoned his coffee, but a more likely explanation is that he died of a heart attack after becoming disoriented during a snowstorm. Some have said that he died of a heart attack after being attacked by a dog in the middle of the night. In his 1983 book ''Tolbert's Texas'', Frank X. Tolbert claims that he was killed while being robbed of a large royalty payment by a guide escorting him to Chicago Union Station to catch a train home to Texas. Paramount Records paid for the return of his body to Texas by train, accompanied by the pianist William Ezell.
Jefferson was buried at Wortham Negro Cemetery (later Wortham Black Cemetery) in Wortham, Freestone County, Texas. His grave was unmarked until 1967, when a Texas historical marker was erected in the general area of his plot; however, the precise location of the grave is still unknown. By 1996, the cemetery and marker were in poor condition, and a new granite headstone was erected in 1997. The inscription reads: "Lord, it's one kind favor I'll ask of you, see that my grave is kept clean." In 2007, the cemetery's name was changed to Blind Lemon Memorial Cemetery, and his gravesite is kept clean by a cemetery committee in Wortham.
Discography and awards
Jefferson had an intricate and fast style of guitar playing and a particularly high-pitched voice. He was a founder of the Texas blues sound and an important influence on other blues singers and guitarists, including Lead Belly and Lightnin' Hopkins.
He was the author of many songs covered by later musicians, including the classic "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean". Another of his songs, "Matchbox Blues", was recorded more than 30 years later by the Beatles, in a rockabilly version credited to Carl Perkins, who did not credit Jefferson on his 1955 recording. Fellow blues artist B.B. King credited Jefferson as one of his biggest musical influences, next to Lonnie Johnson, Louis Jordan and T-Bone Walker.
The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected Jefferson's 1927 recording of "Matchbox Blues" as one of the 500 songs that shaped rock and roll. Jefferson was among the inaugural class of blues musicians inducted into the Blues Hall of Fame in 1980.
Cover versions
*Canned Heat, "One Kind Favor," on "Living the Blues", released in 1968, (credited: "Arr. & Adpt. by L.T.Tatman III")
*Bukka White, "Jack o' Diamonds", on ''1963 Isn't 1962, released in the 1990s
*Bob Dylan, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean", on Bob Dylan
*Grateful Dead, "One Kind Favor" (a version of "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean"), on Birth of the Dead
*Merl Saunders, Jerry Garcia, John Kahn, Bil Vitt, "One Kind Favor", on Keystone Encores Volume I
*John Hammond, "One Kind Favor", on John Hammond Live
*B.B. King, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean", on One Kind Favor
*Peter, Paul & Mary, "One Kind Favor", on In Concert
*Kelly Joe Phelps, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean", on Roll Away the Stone
*The Dream Syndicate, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean", on Ghost Stories
*Counting Crows, "Mean Jumper Blues". Counting Crows lead singer Adam Duritz accidentally claimed credit for "Mean Jumper Blues" in the liner notes of the deluxe edition reissue of the album August and Everything After. The cover was featured as part of a selection of early demo tracks. Immediately after the error was brought to his attention, Duritz apologized in his personal blog.
*Laibach, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean", on SPECTRE''
*Pat Donohue, "One Kind Favor", live on Garrison Keillor's radio program A Prairie Home Companion and later released on the CD Radio Blues
*Corey Harris, "Jack o' Diamonds", on ''Fish Ain't Bitin', released in 1997
*Diamanda Galás, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean", on The Singer
*Phish, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean", live at Madison Square Garden, New York, August 4, 2017
*Scott H. Biram, "Jack of Diamonds" on Nothin' But Blood released in 2014
* Steve Suffet, "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" on Now the Wheel Has Turned, released in 2005In popular culture
* In 2009, the Grammy-nominated R&B act Yarbrough and Peoples were featured in the off-Broadway play Blind Lemon Blues.
* A tribute song, "My Buddy Blind Papa Lemon", was recorded for Paramount Records in 1932 by King Solomon Hill. The record was long considered lost, but a copy was located by John Tefteller in 2002.
* Geoff Muldaur refers to Jefferson in the song "Got to Find Blind Lemon" on the album The Secret Handshake.
* Art Evans portrayed Jefferson in the 1976 film Leadbelly, directed by Gordon Parks.
* Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds recorded the song "Blind Lemon Jefferson" on the album The Firstborn Is Dead.
* The 2010 video game Fallout: New Vegas, in one of its downloadable add-ons Old World Blues, features an AI jukebox named Blind Diode Jefferson. The AI claims to have been a blues musician before his music hard drives were stripped from him. The voicing of the AI can be characterized as a Southern drawl in homage to Jefferson.
* In the 2003 movie Masked and Anonymous'', Bobby Cupid (Luke Wilson) gives his friend Jack Fate (Bob Dylan) Jefferson's guitar, which he claims was used in recording "Matchbox Blues".
* Cheech & Chong parodied Jefferson as "Blind Melon Chitlin'" on their self-titled 1971 album Cheech and Chong, on their 1985 album Get Out of My Room, and in a stage routine that can be seen in their 1983 film Still Smokin'.
* Chet Atkins called Jefferson "one of my first finger-picking influences" in the song "Nine Pound Hammer", on the album The Atkins–Travis Traveling Show.
* A practical joke played on Down Beat magazine editor Gene Lees in the late 1950s took on a life of its own and became a long-running hoax when one of his correspondents included a reference to the blues legend "Blind Orange Adams" in an article published in the magazine, an obvious parody of Jefferson's name. References to the nonexistent Adams appeared in subsequent articles in Down Beat over the next few years.
* The American dramatic film Black Snake Moan was named after one of the only songs Jefferson recorded for Okeh Records.
* Arthur "Big Boy" Crudup took the title of his classic song "That's All Right" (which launched the career of Elvis Presley) from a lyric in Jefferson's "Black Snake Moan".
* According to some sources, the "Jefferson" in the name of the rock group Jefferson Airplane came from "Blind Lemon Jefferson Airplane", a friend's nickname for founding member and blues guitarist Jorma Kaukonen. However, other sources give other origins for the name, that involve Blind Lemon Jefferson either less directly or not at all.
*In June 2021, Jefferson's "See That My Grave Is Kept Clean" plays in the Season 6 finale of Fear the Walking Dead while survivalist character Victor Strand discovers an apartment containing artwork and historical artifacts as he awaits his fate.
See also
*List of nicknames of blues musicians
References
Sources
*Govenar, Alan; Brakefield, Jay F. (1998). Deep Ellum and Central Track: Where the Black and White Worlds of Dallas Converged. Denton: University of North Texas Press. .
*Wolfe, Charles; Lornell, Kip (1992). The Life and Legend of Leadbelly. New York City: HarperCollins Publishers.
*Govenar, Alan. "That Black Snake Moan: The Music and Mystery of Blind Lemon Jefferson." In Bluesland, edited by Peter Welding and Toby Byron. New York: Dutton, 1991
Further reading
* Evans, David (2000). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/779317 "Musical Innovation in the Blues of Blind Lemon Jefferson"]. Black Music Research Journal. Vol. 20, no. 1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000). pp. 83–116.
* Monge, Luigi (2000). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/779316 "The Language of Blind Lemon Jefferson: The Covert Theme of Blindness"]. Black Music Research Journal. Vol. 20, no. 1, Blind Lemon Jefferson (Spring 2000). pp. 35–81.
* Monge, Luigi; Evans, David (2003). [https://gato-docs.its.txstate.edu/center-for-texas-music-history/journals/volume-3-no2/Volume_3_No_2_New-Songs-of-Blind-Lemon-Jefferson/Volume_3_No_2_New%20Songs%20of%20Blind%20Lemon%20Jefferson.pdf "New Songs of Blind Lemon Jefferson"]. Journal of Texas Music History. Vol. 3, no. 2 (Fall 2003).
* Pisigin, Valeriy (2013). [http://pisigin.ru/books/prishestvie-blyuza-tom4/ The Coming of the Blues (Пришествие блюза). Vol. 4. Country Blues. Blind Lemon Jefferson. — M.: 2013. — C.320.] .
* Swinton, Paul. (1997) [http://www.bluesandrhythm.co.uk/documents/121.pdf A Twist of Lemon]. Blues & Rhythm, Issue No. 121, August 1997.
* Uzzel, Robert L. (2002). Blind Lemon Jefferson: His Life, His Death, and His Legacy. Austin, Texas: Eakin Press. .
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20150903212104/http://www.blues.org/awards-search/hall-of-fame-inductees/hall-of-fame-inductees-winners/?y=25 Blues Foundation Hall of Fame induction]
*
*
*[http://www.wirz.de/music/jefferso.htm Illustrated Blind Lemon Jefferson discography]
*[http://wkarrer.webs.com/blindlemonjefferson.htm The lyrics of his songs]
Category:1893 births
Category:1929 deaths
Category:20th-century African-American male singers
Category:20th-century American male singers
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Baku (mythology)
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.]]
}} are Japanese supernatural beings that are said to devour nightmares. They originate from the Chinese Mo. According to legend, they were created by the spare pieces that were left over when the gods finished creating all other animals. They have a long history in Japanese folklore and art, and more recently have appeared in manga and anime.
The Japanese term baku has two current meanings, referring to both the traditional dream-devouring creature and to the Malayan tapir. In recent years, there have been changes in how the baku is depicted.
History and description
The traditional Japanese nightmare-devouring baku originates in Chinese folklore from the mo 貘 (giant panda) and was familiar in Japan as early as the Muromachi period (14th–15th century). Hori Tadao has described the dream-eating abilities attributed to the traditional baku and relates them to other preventatives against nightmare such as amulets. Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database, citing a 1957 paper, and Mizuki also describe the dream-devouring capacities of the traditional baku.
Before its adaptation to the Japanese dream-caretaker myth creature, an early 17th-century Japanese manuscript, the Sankai Ibutsu (), describes the baku as a shy, Chinese mythical chimera with the trunk and tusks of an elephant, the ears of a rhinoceros, the tail of a cow, the body of a bear and the paws of a tiger, which protected against pestilence and evil, although eating nightmares was not included among its abilities. The elephant's head, trunk, and tusks are characteristic of baku portrayed in classical era (pre-Meiji) Japanese wood-block prints (see illustration) and in shrine, temple, and netsuke carvings.
Writing in the Meiji period, Lafcadio Hearn (1902) described a baku with very similar attributes that was also able to devour nightmares.
Legend has it that a person who wakes up from a bad dream can call out to baku. A child having a nightmare in Japan will wake up and repeat three times, "Baku-san, come eat my dream." Legends say that the baku will come into the child's room and devour the bad dream, allowing the child to go back to sleep peacefully. However, calling to the baku must be done sparingly, because if he remains hungry after eating one's nightmare, he may also devour their hopes and desires as well, leaving them to live an empty life. The baku can also be summoned for protection from bad dreams prior to falling asleep at night. In the 1910s, it was common for Japanese children to keep a baku talisman at their bedside.
Gallery
<gallery heights"200" widths"200">
KonnoHachiman-Sculpture-1.jpg|Baku sculpture at the Konnoh Hachimangu Shrine, Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan
KonnoHachiman-Sculpture-3.jpg|Baku and Lion sculpture at the Konnoh Hachimangu Shrine, Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan
</gallery>
See also
* Dreamcatcher
References
Bibliography
* Kaii-Yōkai Denshō Database. International Research Center for Japanese Studies. Retrieved on 2007-05-12. (Summary of excerpt from Warui Yume o Mita Toki (, When You've Had a Bad Dream?) by Keidō Matsushita, published in volume 5 of the journal Shōnai Minzoku (, Shōnai Folk Customs) on June 15, 1957).
External links
* [http://hyakumonogatari.com/2012/10/20/baku-the-dream-eater/ Baku – The Dream Eater] at hyakumonogatari.com (English).
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/90981/rec/1 Netsuke: masterpieces from the Metropolitan Museum of Art], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains many representations of Baku
Category:Chinese legendary creatures
Category:Japanese legendary creatures
Category:Legendary mammals
Category:Mythological hybrids
Category:Fictional tapirs
Category:Sleep in mythology and folklore
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Blackbeard
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<!---->
|death_date
|death_cause=Killed in action (stab wounds & gunshot wounds)
|image= Edward Teach Commonly Call'd Black Beard (bw) (cropped).jpg
|captionBlackbeard ( engraving used to illustrate Johnson's General History)
|nickname=Blackbeard
|type|birth_place(presumed) Bristol, England
|death_place =Ocracoke, North Carolina, British America
|allegiance|serviceyears1716–1718
|base of operations=
|rank=Captain
|commands=''Queen Anne's Revenge, Adventure''
|battles= Battle of Ocracoke (1718)
|wealth|laterwork
}}
Edward Teach (or Thatch; – 22 November 1718), better known as Blackbeard, was an English pirate who operated around the West Indies and the eastern coast of Britain's North American colonies. Little is known about his early life, but he may have been a sailor on privateer ships during Queen Anne's War before he settled on the Bahamian island of New Providence, a base for Captain Benjamin Hornigold, whose crew Teach joined around 1716. Hornigold placed him in command of a sloop that he had captured, and the two engaged in numerous acts of piracy. Their numbers were boosted by the addition to their fleet of two more ships, one of which was commanded by Stede Bonnet, but Hornigold retired from piracy toward the end of 1717, taking two vessels with him.
Teach captured a French slave ship known as , renamed her ''Queen Anne's Revenge,'' equipped her with 40 guns, and crewed her with over 300 men. He became a renowned pirate. His nickname derived from his thick black beard and fearsome appearance. He was reported to have tied lit fuses (slow matches) under his hat to frighten his enemies. He formed an alliance of pirates and blockaded the port of Charles Town, South Carolina, ransoming the port's inhabitants. He then ran ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' aground on a sandbar near Beaufort, North Carolina. He parted company with Stede Bonnet and settled in Bath, North Carolina, also known as Bath Town, where he accepted a royal pardon. However, he was soon back at sea, where he attracted the attention of Alexander Spotswood, the governor of Virginia. Spotswood arranged for a party of soldiers and sailors to capture him. On 22 November 1718, following a ferocious battle, Teach and several of his crew were killed by a small force of sailors led by Lieutenant Robert Maynard.
Teach was a shrewd and calculating leader who spurned the use of violence, relying instead on his fearsome image to elicit the response that he desired from those whom he robbed. He was romanticised after his death and became the inspiration for an archetypal pirate in works of fiction across many genres.
Early life
Little is known about Blackbeard's early life. It is commonly believed that at the time of his death he was between 35 and 40 years old and thus born around 1680. In contemporary records his name is most often given as Blackbeard, Edward Thatch or Edward Teach. The latter is most often used because it is the form used in the dispatches of North America's only newspaper at the time, the Boston News-Letter, but primary sources written by people who had actually met the pirate all refer to him as "Thatch" or variations thereof. Several spellings of his surname exist: Thatch, Thach, Thache, Thack, Tack, Thatche, and Theach. One source claims that his surname was Drummond, but the lack of any supporting documentation makes this unlikely. Pirates habitually used fictitious surnames while engaged in piracy so as not to tarnish the family name, which makes it unlikely that Teach's real name will ever be known.
The 17th-century rise of Britain's American colonies and the rapid 18th-century expansion of the Atlantic slave trade had made Bristol an important international sea port, and Teach was most likely raised in what was then the second-largest city in England. He could almost certainly read and write. He communicated with merchants and, upon his death, had in his possession a letter addressed to him by the Chief Justice and Secretary of the Province of Carolina, Tobias Knight. Author Robert Lee speculated that Teach may therefore have been born into a respectable, wealthy family. He may have arrived in the Caribbean in the last years of the 17th century, on a merchant vessel (possibly a slave ship). The 18th-century author Charles Johnson claimed that Teach was for some time a sailor operating from Jamaica on privateer ships during the War of the Spanish Succession, and that "he had often distinguished himself for his uncommon boldness and personal courage." It is unknown at what point during the war Teach joined the fighting, as with the record of most of his life before he became a pirate.Life as a pirateNew Providence
'', from the "Pirates of the Spanish" series (N19), cigarette card by Allen & Ginter]]
With its history of colonialism, trade and piracy, the West Indies was the setting for many 17th- and 18th-century maritime incidents. The privateer-turned-pirate Henry Jennings and his followers decided, early in the 18th century, to use the uninhabited island of New Providence as a base for their operations since it was within easy reach of the Florida Strait and its busy shipping lanes, which were filled with European vessels crossing the Atlantic. New Providence's harbour could easily accommodate hundreds of ships but was too shallow for the Royal Navy's larger vessels. The author George Woodbury described New Providence as "no city of homes. It was a place of temporary sojourn and refreshment for a literally floating population," continuing, "The only permanent residents were the piratical camp followers, the traders, and the hangers-on. All others were transient." In New Providence, pirates found a welcome respite from the law.
Teach was one of those who came to enjoy the island's benefits. Probably shortly after the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, he moved there from Jamaica, and, along with most privateers once involved in the war, became involved in piracy. Possibly about 1716, he joined the crew of Captain Benjamin Hornigold, a renowned pirate who operated from New Providence's safe waters. In 1716, Hornigold placed Teach in charge of a sloop he had taken as a prize. In early 1717, Hornigold and Teach, each captaining a sloop, set out for the mainland. They captured a boat carrying 120 barrels of flour out of Havana, and shortly thereafter took 100 barrels of wine from a sloop out of Bermuda. A few days later they stopped a vessel sailing from Madeira to Charles Town, South Carolina. Teach and his quartermaster, William Howard, may at this time have struggled to control their crews. By then they had probably developed a taste for Madeira wine, and on 29 September near Cape Charles all they took from the Betty of Virginia was her cargo of Madeira, before they scuttled her with the remaining cargo.
It was during this cruise with Hornigold that the earliest known report of Teach was made, in which he is recorded as a pirate in his own right, in command of a large crew. In a report made by a Captain Mathew Munthe on an anti-piracy patrol for North Carolina, "Thatch" was described as operating "a sloop 6 and about 70 men." In September, Teach and Hornigold encountered Stede Bonnet, a landowner and military officer from a wealthy family who had turned to piracy earlier that year. Bonnet's crew of about 70 were reportedly dissatisfied with his command, so with Bonnet's permission, Teach took control of his ship, Revenge. The pirates' flotilla now consisted of three ships: Teach on Revenge, Teach's old sloop, and Hornigold's Ranger. By October, another vessel had been captured and added to the small fleet. The sloops Robert of Philadelphia and Good Intent of Dublin were stopped on 22 October 1717 and their cargo holds emptied.
As a former British privateer, Hornigold attacked only his old enemies, but for his crew, the sight of British vessels filled with valuable cargo passing by unharmed became too much, and at some point toward the end of 1717 he was demoted. Whether Teach had any involvement in this decision is unknown, but Hornigold quickly retired from piracy. He took Ranger and one of the sloops, leaving Teach with Revenge and the remaining sloop. The two never met again and, as did many other occupants of New Providence, Hornigold accepted the King's pardon.Blackbeard
, a large French Guineaman registered in Saint-Malo and carrying a cargo of slaves. This ship had originally been the English merchantman Concord, captured in 1711 by a French squadron, and then changed hands several times by 1717. Teach and his crews sailed the vessel south along Saint Vincent and the Grenadines to Bequia, where they disembarked her crew and cargo, and converted the ship for their own use. The crew of were given the smaller of Teach's two sloops, which they renamed ("Bad Meeting"), and sailed for Martinique. Teach may have recruited some of their slaves, but the remainder were left on the island and were later recaptured by the returning crew of .
Teach immediately renamed as ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' and equipped her with 40 guns. By this time Teach had placed his lieutenant Richards in command of Bonnet's Revenge. In late November the same year, near Saint Vincent, he attacked the Great Allen. After a lengthy engagement, he forced the large and well-armed merchant ship to surrender. He ordered her to move closer to the shore, disembarked her crew and emptied her cargo holds, and then burned and sank the vessel. The incident was chronicled in the Boston News-Letter, which called Teach the commander of a "French ship of 32 Guns, a Briganteen of 10 guns and a Sloop of 12 guns." It is not known when or where Teach collected the ten-gun briganteen, but by that time he may have been in command of at least 150 men split among three vessels.
On 5 December 1717 Teach stopped the merchant sloop Margaret off the coast of Crab Island, near Anguilla. Her captain, Henry Bostock, and crew, remained Teach's prisoners for about eight hours, and were forced to watch as their sloop was ransacked. Bostock, who had been held aboard ''Queen Anne's Revenge, was returned unharmed to Margaret'' and was allowed to leave with his crew. He returned to his base of operations on Saint Christopher Island and reported the matter to Governor Walter Hamilton, who requested that he sign an affidavit about the encounter. Bostock's deposition details Teach's command of two vessels: a sloop and a large French guineaman, Dutch-built, with 36 cannons and a crew of 300 men. The captain believed that the larger ship carried valuable gold dust, silver plate, and "a very fine cup" supposedly taken from the commander of Great Allen. Teach's crew had apparently informed Bostock that they had destroyed several other vessels, and that they intended to sail to Hispaniola and lie in wait for an expected Spanish armada, supposedly laden with money to pay the garrisons. Bostock also claimed that Teach had questioned him about the movements of local ships, but also that he had seemed unsurprised when Bostock told him of an expected royal pardon from London for all pirates.
the latter apparently to emphasise the fearsome appearance he wished to present to his enemies. Despite his ferocious reputation, there are no verified accounts of his ever having murdered or harmed those he held captive. Teach may have used other aliases; on 30 November, the Monserrat Merchant encountered two ships and a sloop, commanded by a Captain Kentish and Captain Edwards (the latter a known alias of Stede Bonnet).
Enlargement of Teach's fleet
Teach's movements between late 1717 and early 1718 are not known. He and Bonnet were probably responsible for an attack off Sint Eustatius in December 1717. Henry Bostock claimed to have heard the pirates say they would head toward the Spanish-controlled Samaná Bay in Hispaniola, but a cursory search revealed no pirate activity. Captain Hume of reported on 6 February that a "Pyrate Ship of 36 Guns and 250 men, and a Sloop of 10 Guns and 100 men were Said to be Cruizing amongst the Leeward Islands". Hume reinforced his crew with soldiers armed with muskets, and joined up with to track the two ships, to no avail, though they discovered that the two ships had sunk a French vessel off St Christopher Island, and reported also that they had last been seen "gone down the North side of Hispaniola". Although no confirmation exists that these two ships were controlled by Teach and Bonnet, author Angus Konstam believes it very likely they were.
<!-- Teach may have accepted a royal pardon in January 1718. Pardons were often made when England was on the verge of war; the services of pirates were a valuable commodity at such times. Teach may have understood this and surrendered to a pardon of 5 September 1717. The proclamation offered rewards to those persons who captured pirates who refused to surrender, covered incidences
of murder committed during acts of piracy and allowed those who had suffered the theft of their property the right to recover their goods—but only through legal channels. Teach therefore would have been under no obligation to surrender his loot to the Crown. According to Lee (1974), if Teach did surrender, ''Queen Anne's Revenge would likely have been anchored at Ocracoke Inlet, from which place he would have travelled to Bath, North Carolina. -->
In March 1718, while taking on water at Turneffe Island east of Belize, both ships spotted the Jamaican logwood-cutting sloop Adventure making for the harbour. She was stopped and her captain, Harriot, invited to join the pirates. Harriot and his crew accepted the invitation, and Teach sent over a crew to sail Adventure'' making Israel Hands the captain. They sailed for the Bay of Honduras, where they added another ship and four sloops to their flotilla. On 9 April Teach's enlarged fleet of ships looted and burnt Protestant Caesar. His fleet then sailed to Grand Cayman where they captured a "small turtler". Teach probably sailed toward Havana, where he may have captured a small Spanish vessel that had left the Cuban port. They then sailed to the wrecks of the 1715 Spanish fleet, off the eastern coast of Florida. There Teach disembarked the crew of the captured Spanish sloop, before proceeding north to the port of Charles Town, South Carolina, attacking three vessels along the way.
Blockade of Charles Town
By May 1718, Teach had awarded himself the rank of Commodore and was at the height of his power. Late that month his flotilla blockaded the port of Charles Town in the Province of South Carolina. All vessels entering or leaving the port were stopped, and as the town had no guard ship, its pilot boat was the first to be captured. Over the next five or six days about nine vessels were stopped and ransacked as they attempted to sail past Charles Town Bar, where Teach's fleet was anchored. One such ship, headed for London with a group of prominent Charles Town citizens which included Samuel Wragg (a member of the Council of the province of Carolina), was the Crowley. Her passengers were questioned about the vessels still in port and then locked below decks for about half a day. Teach informed the prisoners that his fleet required medical supplies from the colonial government of South Carolina, and that if none were forthcoming, all prisoners would be executed, their heads sent to the Governor and all captured ships burnt.
Wragg agreed to Teach's demands, and a Mr. Marks and two pirates were given two days to collect the drugs. Teach moved his fleet, and the captured ships, to within about five or six leagues from land. Three days later a messenger, sent by Marks, returned to the fleet; Marks's boat had capsized and delayed their arrival in Charles Town. Teach granted a reprieve of two days, but still the party did not return. He then called a meeting of his fellow sailors and moved eight ships into the harbour, causing panic within the town. When Marks finally returned to the fleet, he explained what had happened. On his arrival he had presented the pirates' demands to the Governor and the drugs had been quickly gathered, but the two pirates sent to escort him had proved difficult to find; they had been busy drinking with friends and were finally discovered, drunk.
Teach kept to his side of the bargain and released the captured ships and his prisoners—albeit relieved of their valuables, including the fine clothing some had worn.Beaufort InletWhilst at Charles Town, Teach learned that Woodes Rogers had left England with several men-of-war, with orders to purge the West Indies of pirates. Teach's flotilla sailed northward along the Atlantic coast and into Topsail Inlet (commonly known as Beaufort Inlet), off the coast of North Carolina. There they intended to careen their ships to scrape their hulls, but on 10 June 1718 the ''Queen Anne's Revenge ran aground on a sandbar, cracking her main-mast and severely damaging many of her timbers. Teach ordered several sloops to throw ropes across the flagship in an attempt to free her. A sloop commanded by Israel Hands of Adventure also ran aground, and both vessels appeared to be damaged beyond repair, leaving only Revenge and the captured Spanish sloop.Pardon
Teach had at some stage learnt of the offer of a royal pardon and probably confided in Bonnet his willingness to accept it. The pardon was open to all pirates who surrendered on or before 5 September 1718, but contained a caveat stipulating that immunity was offered only against crimes committed before 5 January. Although in theory this left Bonnet and Teach at risk of being hanged for their actions at Charles Town Bar, most authorities could waive such conditions. Teach thought that Governor Charles Eden was a man he could trust, but to make sure, he waited to see what would happen to another captain. Bonnet left immediately on a small sailing boat for Bath Town, where he surrendered to Governor Eden, and received his pardon. He then travelled back to Beaufort Inlet to collect the Revenge and the remainder of his crew, intending to sail to Saint Thomas Island to receive a commission. Unfortunately for him, Teach had stripped the vessel of its valuables and provisions, and had marooned its crew; Bonnet set out for revenge, but was unable to find him. He and his crew returned to piracy and were captured on 27 September 1718 at the mouth of the Cape Fear River. All but four were tried and hanged in Charles Town. During July and August he travelled between his base in the town and his sloop off Ocracoke. Johnson's account states that he married the daughter of a local plantation owner, although there is no supporting evidence for this. Eden gave Teach permission to sail to St Thomas to seek a commission as a privateer (a useful way of removing bored and troublesome pirates from the small settlement), and Teach was given official title to his remaining sloop, which he renamed Adventure. By the end of August he had returned to piracy, and in the same month the governor of Pennsylvania issued a warrant for his arrest, but by then Teach was probably operating in Delaware Bay, some distance away. He took two French ships leaving the Caribbean, moved one crew across to the other, and sailed the remaining ship back to Ocracoke. In September he told Eden that he had found the French ship at sea, deserted. A Vice Admiralty Court was quickly convened, presided over by Tobias Knight and the Collector of Customs. The ship was judged as a derelict found at sea, and of its cargo twenty hogsheads of sugar were awarded to Knight and sixty to Eden; Teach and his crew were given what remained in the vessel's hold.
Ocracoke Inlet was Teach's favourite anchorage. It was a perfect vantage point from which to view ships travelling between the various settlements of northeast Carolina, and it was from there that Teach first spotted the approaching ship of Charles Vane, another English pirate. Several months earlier Vane had rejected the pardon brought by Woodes Rogers and escaped the men-of-war the English captain brought with him to Nassau. He had also been pursued by Teach's old commander, Benjamin Hornigold, who was by then a pirate hunter. Teach and Vane spent several nights on the southern tip of Ocracoke Island, accompanied by such notorious figures as Israel Hands, Robert Deal and Calico Jack.Alexander SpotswoodAs it spread throughout the neighbouring colonies, the news of Teach and Vane's impromptu party worried the governor of Pennsylvania enough to send out two sloops to capture the pirates. They were unsuccessful, but Governor of Virginia Alexander Spotswood was also concerned that the supposedly retired freebooter and his crew were living in nearby North Carolina. Some of Teach's former crew had already moved into several Virginian seaport towns, prompting Spotswood to issue a proclamation on 10 July, requiring all former pirates to make themselves known to the authorities, to give up their arms and to not travel in groups larger than three. As head of a Crown colony, Spotswood viewed the proprietary colony of North Carolina with contempt; he had little faith in the ability of the Carolinians to control the pirates, who he suspected would be back to their old ways, disrupting Virginian commerce, as soon as their money ran out.
.]]
Spotswood learned that William Howard, the former quartermaster of ''Queen Anne's Revenge'', was in the area, and believing that he might know of Teach's whereabouts had him and his two slaves arrested. Spotswood had no legal authority to have pirates tried, and as a result, Howard's attorney, John Holloway, brought charges against Captain Brand of , where Howard was imprisoned. He also sued on Howard's behalf for damages of £500, claiming wrongful arrest.
Spotswood's council claimed that under a statute of William III the governor was entitled to try pirates without a jury in times of crisis and that Teach's presence was a crisis. The charges against Howard referred to several acts of piracy supposedly committed after the pardon's cut-off date, in "a sloop belonging to ye subjects of the King of Spain", but ignored the fact that they took place outside Spotswood's jurisdiction and in a vessel then legally owned. Another charge cited two attacks, one of which was the capture of a slave ship off Charles Town Bar, from which one of Howard's slaves was presumed to have come. Howard was sent to await trial before a Court of Vice-Admiralty, on the charge of piracy, but Brand and his colleague, Captain Gordon (of ) refused to serve with Holloway present. Incensed, Holloway had no option but to stand down, and was replaced by the Attorney General of Virginia, John Clayton, whom Spotswood described as "an honester man [than Holloway]". Howard was found guilty and sentenced to be hanged, but was saved by a commission from London, which directed Spotswood to pardon all acts of piracy committed by surrendering pirates before 18 August 1718.
Spotswood had obtained from Howard valuable information on Teach's whereabouts, and he planned to send his forces across the border into North Carolina to capture him. He gained the support of two men keen to discredit North Carolina's governor—Edward Moseley and Colonel Maurice Moore. He also wrote to the Lords of Trade, suggesting that the Crown might benefit financially from Teach's capture. Spotswood personally financed the operation, possibly believing that Teach had fabulous treasures hidden away. He ordered Captains Gordon and Brand of HMS Pearl and HMS Lyme to travel overland to Bath. Lieutenant Robert Maynard of HMS Pearl was given command of two commandeered sloops, to approach the town from the sea. An extra incentive for Teach's capture was the offer of a reward from the Assembly of Virginia, over and above any that might be received from the Crown.
Maynard took command of the two armed sloops on 17 November. He was given 57 men—33 from HMS Pearl and 24 from HMS Lyme. Maynard and the detachment from HMS Pearl took the larger of the two vessels and named her Jane; the rest took Ranger, commanded by one of Maynard's officers, a Mister Hyde. Some from the two ships' civilian crews remained aboard. They sailed from Kecoughtan, along the James River, on 17 November. The two sloops moved slowly, giving Brand's force time to reach Bath. Brand set out for North Carolina six days later, arriving within three miles of Bath on 23 November. Included in Brand's force were several North Carolinians, including Colonel Moore and Captain Jeremiah Vail, sent to counter any local objection to the presence of foreign soldiers. Moore went into the town to see if Teach was there, reporting back that he was not, but that he was expected at "every minute." Brand then went to Governor Eden's home and informed him of his purpose. The next day, Brand sent two canoes down Pamlico River to Ocracoke Inlet, to see if Teach could be seen. They returned two days later and reported on what eventually transpired.
Last battle
Maynard found the pirates anchored on the inner side of Ocracoke Island, on the evening of 21 November. He had ascertained their position from ships he had stopped along his journey, but being unfamiliar with the local channels and shoals he decided to wait until the following morning to make his attack. He stopped all traffic from entering the inlet—preventing any warning of his presence—and posted a lookout on both sloops to ensure that Teach could not escape to sea. On the other side of the island, Teach was busy entertaining guests and had not set a lookout. With Israel Hands ashore in Bath with about 24 of Adventures sailors, he also had a much-reduced crew. Johnson (1724) reported Teach had "no more than twenty-five men on board" and that he "gave out to all the vessels that he spoke with that he had forty". "Thirteen white and six Negroes", was the number later reported by Brand to the Admiralty.
| align right | width 33%}}
At daybreak, preceded by a small boat taking soundings, Maynard's two sloops entered the channel. The small craft was quickly spotted by Adventure and fired at as soon as it was within range of her guns. While the boat made a quick retreat to the Jane, Teach cut the Adventures anchor cable. His crew hoisted the sails and the Adventure manoeuvred to point her starboard guns toward Maynard's sloops, which were slowly closing the gap. Hyde moved Ranger to the port side of Jane and the Union flag was unfurled on each ship. Adventure then turned toward the beach of Ocracoke Island, heading for a narrow channel. What happened next is uncertain. Johnson claimed that there was an exchange of small arms fire following which Adventure ran aground on a sandbar, and Maynard anchored and then lightened his ship to pass over the obstacle. Another version claimed that Jane and Ranger ran aground, although Maynard made no mention of this in his log.
The Adventure eventually turned her guns on the two ships and fired. The broadside was devastating; in an instant, Maynard had lost as much as a third of his forces. About 20 on Jane were either wounded or killed and 9 on Ranger. Hyde was dead and his second and third officers either dead or seriously injured. His sloop was so badly damaged that it played no further role in the attack. Contemporary accounts of what happened next are confused, but small-arms fire from Jane may have cut Adventures jib sheet, causing her to lose control and run onto the sandbar. In the aftermath of Teach's overwhelming attack, Jane and Ranger may also have been grounded; the battle would have become a race to see who could float their ship first.
, painted in 1920]]
Maynard had kept many of his men below deck, and in anticipation of being boarded told them to prepare for close fighting. Teach watched as the gap between the vessels closed, and ordered his men to be ready. The two vessels contacted one another as the Adventures grappling hooks hit their target and several grenades, made from powder and shot-filled bottles and ignited by fuses, broke across the sloop's deck. As the smoke cleared, Teach led his men aboard, buoyant at the sight of Maynard's apparently empty ship, his men firing at the small group of men with Maynard at the stern.
The rest of Maynard's men then burst from the hold, shouting and firing. The plan to surprise Teach and his crew worked; the pirates were apparently taken aback at the assault. Teach rallied his men and the two groups fought across the deck, which was already slick with blood from those killed or injured by Teach's broadside. Maynard and Teach fired their flintlocks at each other. Maynard managed to hit Teach, while Teach missed. Both then threw their flintlocks away and drew their cutlasses. Teach broke Maynard's cutlass at the hilt. Against superior training and a slight advantage in numbers, the pirates were pushed back toward the bow, allowing the Janes crew to surround Maynard and Teach, who was by then completely isolated. Teach pressed onward and was about to deliver a killing blow, but was slashed across the neck by one of Maynard's men. This redirected Teach's cutlass to strike Maynard's knuckles instead of killing him. Badly wounded, Teach was then attacked and killed by several more of Maynard's crew. The remaining pirates quickly surrendered. Those left on the Adventure were captured by the Rangers crew, including one who planned to set fire to the powder room and blow up the ship. Varying accounts exist of the battle's list of casualties; Maynard reported that 8 of his men and 12 pirates were killed. Brand reported that 10 pirates and 11 of Maynard's men were killed. Spotswood claimed ten pirates and ten of the King's men dead.
Maynard later examined Teach's body, noting that it had been shot five times and cut about twenty. He also found several items of correspondence, including a letter from Tobias Knight. Teach's corpse was thrown into the inlet and his head was suspended from the bowsprit of Maynard's sloop so that the reward could be collected. On their return to Virginia, Teach's head was placed on a pole at the entrance to the Chesapeake Bay as a warning to other pirates and a greeting to other ships, and it stood there for several years.LegacyLieutenant Maynard remained at Ocracoke for several more days, making repairs and burying the dead. Teach's loot—sugar, cocoa, indigo and cotton—found "in pirate sloops and ashore in a tent where the sloops lay", was sold at auction along with sugar and cotton found in Tobias Knight's barn, for £2,238. Governor Spotswood used a portion of this to pay for the entire operation. The prize money for capturing Teach was to have been about £400 (£ in ), but it was split between the crews of HMS Lyme and HMS Pearl. As Captain Brand and his troops had not been the ones fighting for their lives, Maynard thought this extremely unfair. He lost much of any support he might have had though when it was discovered that he and his crew had helped themselves to about £90 of Teach's booty. The two companies did not receive their prize money for another four years, and despite his bravery Maynard was not promoted, and faded into obscurity.
The remainder of Teach's crew and former associates were found by Brand, in Bath,|group"nb"}} The remaining <!-- 13 – will have to check this number -->pirates were hanged, then left to rot in gibbets along Williamsburg's Capitol Landing Road (known for some time after as "Gallows Road").
Governor Eden was certainly embarrassed by Spotswood's invasion of North Carolina, and Spotswood disavowed himself of any part of the seizure. He defended his actions, writing to Lord Carteret, a shareholder of the province of Carolina, that he might benefit from the sale of the seized property and reminding the Earl of the number of Virginians who had died to protect his interests. He argued for the secrecy of the operation by suggesting that Eden "could contribute nothing to the Success of the Design", and told Eden that his authority to capture the pirates came from the king. Eden was heavily criticised for his involvement with Teach and was accused of being his accomplice. By criticising Eden, Spotswood intended to bolster the legitimacy of his invasion. Lee (1974) concludes that although Spotswood may have thought that the ends justified the means, he had no legal authority to invade North Carolina, to capture the pirates and to seize and auction their goods. Eden doubtless shared the same view. As Spotswood had also accused Tobias Knight of being in league with Teach, on 4 April 1719, Eden had Knight brought in for questioning. Israel Hands had, weeks earlier, testified that Knight had been on board the Adventure in August 1718, shortly after Teach had brought a French ship to North Carolina as a prize. Four pirates had testified that with Teach they had visited Knight's home to give him presents. This testimony and the letter found on Teach's body by Maynard appeared compelling, but Knight conducted his defence with competence. Despite being very sick and close to death, he questioned the reliability of Spotswood's witnesses. He claimed that Israel Hands had talked under duress, and that under North Carolinian law the other witness, an African, was unable to testify. The sugar, he argued, was stored at his house legally, and Teach had visited him only on business, in his official capacity. The board found Knight innocent of all charges. He died later that year.
Eden was annoyed that the accusations against Knight arose during a trial in which he played no part. The goods which Brand seized were officially North Carolinian property and Eden considered him a thief. The argument raged back and forth between the colonies until Eden's death on 17 March 1722. His will named one of Spotswood's opponents, John Holloway, a beneficiary. In the same year, Spotswood, who for years had fought his enemies in the House of Burgesses and the council, was replaced by Hugh Drysdale, once Robert Walpole was convinced to act.
Modern view
<!-- Please see the relevant talk page discussion on Pirates of the Caribbean 4 before adding any information about that film, here. -->
Official views on pirates were sometimes quite different from those held by contemporary authors, who often described their subjects as despicable rogues of the sea. Privateers who became pirates were generally considered by the English government to be reserve naval forces, and were sometimes given active encouragement; as far back as 1581 Francis Drake was knighted by Queen Elizabeth, when he returned to England from a round-the-world expedition with plunder worth an estimated £1,500,000. Royal pardons were regularly issued, usually when England was on the verge of war, and the public's opinion of pirates was often favourable, some considering them akin to patrons. Economist Peter Leeson believes that pirates were generally shrewd businessmen, far removed from the modern, romanticised view of them as barbarians.
Since the end of the Golden Age of Piracy, Teach and his exploits have become the stuff of lore, inspiring books, films and even amusement park rides. Much of what is known about him can be sourced to Charles Johnson's A General Historie of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates, published in Britain in 1724. A recognised authority on the pirates of his time, Johnson's descriptions of such figures as Anne Bonny and Mary Read were for years required reading for those interested in the subject. Neither the log of the Scarborough nor the letters of its captain mention such an encounter; historian Colin Woodard believes that Johnson confused and conflated two actual events: the Scarboroughs battle against John Martel's band and Blackbeard's close encounter with another warship, .|group"nb"}} A General Historie, though, is generally considered to be a reliable source. Johnson may have been an assumed alias. As Johnson's accounts have been corroborated in personal and official dispatches, Lee (1974) considers that whoever he was, he had some access to official correspondence. Konstam speculates further, suggesting that Johnson may have been the English playwright Charles Johnson, the British publisher Charles Rivington, or the writer Daniel Defoe.
(pictured), Treasure hunters have long busied themselves searching for any trace of his rumoured hoard of gold and silver, but nothing found in the numerous sites explored along the east coast of the US has ever been connected to him. Some tales suggest that pirates often killed a prisoner on the spot where they buried their loot, and Teach is no exception in these stories, but that no finds have come to light is not exceptional; buried pirate treasure is often considered a modern myth for which almost no supporting evidence exists. The available records include nothing to suggest that the burial of treasure was a common practice, except in the imaginations of the writers of fictional accounts such as Treasure Island. Such hoards would necessitate a wealthy owner, and their supposed existence ignores the command structure of a pirate vessel, in which the crew served for a share of the profit. The only pirate ever known to bury treasure was William Kidd. The only treasure so far recovered from Teach's exploits is that taken from the wreckage of what is presumed to be the ''Queen Anne's Revenge'', which was found in 1996 by Intersal Inc., a private research firm. As of 2013 around 280,000 artefacts had been recovered from the wreck site, a selection of which is on public display at the North Carolina Maritime Museum.
Various superstitious tales exist of Teach's ghost. Unexplained lights at sea are often referred to as "Teach's light", and some recitals claim that the notorious pirate now roams the afterlife searching for his head, for fear that his friends, and the Devil, will not recognise him. A North Carolinian tale holds that Teach's skull was used as the basis for a silver drinking chalice; a local judge even claimed to have drunk from it one night in the 1930s.
The name of Blackbeard has been attached to many local attractions, such as Charleston's Blackbeard's Cove. His name and persona have also featured heavily in literature. He is the main subject of Matilda Douglas's fictional 1835 work Blackbeard: A page from the colonial history of Philadelphia.
Film renditions of his life include Blackbeard the Pirate (1952) starring West Country native Robert Newton whose exaggerated West Country accent is credited with popularising the stereotypical "pirate voice", ''Blackbeard's Ghost (1968), Blackbeard: Terror at Sea (2005) and the 2006 Hallmark Channel miniseries Blackbeard''. Parallels have also been drawn between Johnson's Blackbeard and the character of Captain Jack Sparrow in the 2003 adventure film Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl. Blackbeard is also portrayed as a central character in three TV series: by John Malkovich in Crossbones (2014), by Ray Stevenson in seasons three and four of Black Sails (2016–2017), and by Taika Waititi in Our Flag Means Death (2022).
In 2013 and 2015, the state government of North Carolina uploaded Nautilus Productions videos of the wreck of the ''Queen Anne's Revenge'' to its website without permission. As a result, Nautilus Productions, the company documenting the recovery since 1998, filed suit in federal court over copyright violations and the passage of "Blackbeard's Law" by the North Carolina General Assembly. Before posting the videos the General Assembly passed "Blackbeard's Law", N.C. Gen Stat §121-25(b), which stated, "All photographs, video recordings, or other documentary materials of a derelict vessel or shipwreck or its contents, relics, artifacts, or historic materials in the custody of any agency of North Carolina government or its subdivisions shall be a public record pursuant to Chapter 132 of the General Statutes." On 5 November 2019, the U.S. Supreme Court heard oral arguments in Allen v. Cooper. The Supreme Court subsequently ruled in the state's favor, and struck down the Copyright Remedy Clarification Act, which Congress passed in 1989 to attempt to curb such infringements of copyright by states.
As a result of the ruling Nautilus filed a motion for reconsideration in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina. On 18 August 2021 Judge Terrence Boyle granted the motion for reconsideration which North Carolina promptly appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit. The 4th Circuit denied the state's motion on 14 October 2022. Nautilus then filed their second amended complaint on 8 February 2023 alleging 5th and 14th Amendment violations of Nautilus' constitutional rights, additional copyright violations, and claiming that North Carolina's "Blackbeard's Law" represents a Bill of Attainder. Eight years after the passage of Blackbeard's Law, on 30 June 2023, North Carolina Gov. Roy Cooper signed a bill repealing the law.
<!-- Please see the relevant talk page discussion on Pirates of the Caribbean 4 before adding any information about that film here. -->
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
*
*
*
* | publisher John Wiley & Sons | year 2007 | isbn = 9780470128213 }}
*
*
* | publisher John F. Blair | year 1989 | isbn = 9780895870704 }}
* | isbn 9780151013029 }}
*
Further reading
*
*
*
*
External links
* [https://www.fayobserver.com/news/20191111/nc-supreme-court-revives-lawsuit-over-blackbeards-ship-and-lost-spanish-treasure-ship N.C Supreme Court revives lawsuit over Blackbeard's ship and lost Spanish treasure ship], Fayetteville Observer
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/nolavconsole/ukfs_news/hi/bb_wm_fs.stm?news1&bbram1&bbwm1&nbram1&nbwm1&nol_storyid5139780 BBC Video about the potential discovery of Teach's ship]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090403083614/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/03/photogalleries/blackbeard-artifacts/ Images of artefacts recovered from the shipwreck thought to be the ''Queen Anne's Revenge]
* [https://archive.today/20160308162912/http://www.fayobserver.com/elite/travel/out-to-sea/article_4f3210cd-21fb-501d-b4a3-6d65e237cd65.html Out to Sea] Elite Magazine''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110925015850/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/08/110829-blackbeard-shipwreck-pirates-archaeology-science Blackbeard's Ship Confirmed off North Carolina] National Geographic News
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080917032435/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/07/blackbeard-shipwreck/bourne-text Blackbeard's Shipwreck] National Geographic
* [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/episodes/blackbeards-lost-ship/212/ Blackbeard's Lost Ship] Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead
* [https://www.military.com/undertheradar/2018/05/16/blackbeard-american-patriot.html Blackbeard: American Patriot?] Military.com
Category:1680s births
Category:1718 deaths
Category:18th-century English criminals
Category:18th-century pirates
Category:1716 crimes
Category:1717 crimes
Category:1718 crimes
Category:Criminals from Bristol
Category:People from American folklore
Category:English folklore
Category:English privateers
Category:English pirates
Category:History of North Carolina
Category:Pardoned pirates
Category:Recipients of British royal pardons
Category:Maritime folklore
Category:People killed in action
Category:Nicknames in crime
Category:British military personnel of the War of the Spanish Succession
Category:English male criminals
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackbeard
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Bugzilla
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| screenshot size = 350px
| screenshot alt = Bugzilla in action on bugzilla.mozilla.org
| collapsible = yes
| author = Terry Weissman
| developer = Mozilla Foundation
| released
| discontinued | latest release version <!-- Release version update? Don't edit this page, just click on the version number! -->
| latest release date <!-- -->
| latest preview version | latest preview date <!-- -->
| programming language = Perl
| operating system = Cross-platform
| platform | size
| language = [http://www.bugzilla.org/download/#localizations Multiple languages]
| status | genre Bug tracking system
| license = Mozilla Public License
| alexa | website
}}
Bugzilla is a web-based general-purpose bug tracking system and testing tool originally developed and used by the Mozilla project, and licensed under the Mozilla Public License.
Released as open-source software by Netscape Communications in 1998, it has been adopted by a variety of organizations for use as a bug tracking system for both free and open-source software and proprietary projects and products. Bugzilla is used, among others, by the Mozilla Foundation, WebKit, Linux kernel, FreeBSD, KDE, Apache, Eclipse and LibreOffice. Red Hat uses it, but is gradually migrating its product to use Jira. It is also self-hosting. History Bugzilla was originally devised by Terry Weissman in 1998 for the nascent Mozilla.org project, as an open source application to replace the in-house system then in use at Netscape Communications for tracking defects in the Netscape Communicator suite. Bugzilla was originally written in Tcl, but Weissman decided to port it to Perl before its release as part of Netscape's early open-source code drops, in the hope that more people would be able to contribute to it, given that Perl seemed to be a more popular language at the time.
Bugzilla 2.0 was the result of that port to Perl, and the first version was released to the public via anonymous CVS. In April 2000, Weissman handed over control of the Bugzilla project to Tara Hernandez. Under her leadership, some of the regular contributors were coerced into taking more responsibility, and Bugzilla development became more community-driven. In July 2001, facing distraction from her other responsibilities in Netscape, Hernandez handed control to Dave Miller, who was still in charge .
Bugzilla 3.0 was released on May 10, 2007, and brought a refreshed UI, an XML-RPC interface, custom fields and resolutions, mod_perl<!-- THE UNDERSCORE IS DELIBERATE --> support, shared saved searches, and improved UTF-8 support, along with other changes.
Bugzilla 4.0 was released on February 15, 2011, and Bugzilla 5.0 was released in July 2015.
Timeline
Bugzilla's release timeline:
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</timeline>
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Bugzilla returns the string "zarro boogs found" instead of "0 bugs found" when a search for bugs returns no results. "Zarro Boogs" is intended as a 'buggy' statement itself (a misspelling of "zero bugs") and is thus a meta-statement about the nature of software debugging, implying that even when no bugs have been identified, some may exist.
The following comment is provided in the Bugzilla source code to developers who may be confused by this behaviour:
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See also
* Comparison of issue-tracking systems
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Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines
Category:Bug and issue tracking software
Category:Cross-platform free software
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugzilla
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4574
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Bangor
|
Bangor may refer to:
Places
Australia
Bangor, New South Wales
Bangor, Tasmania
Canada
Bangor, Nova Scotia
Bangor, Saskatchewan
Bangor, Prince Edward Island
United Kingdom
Northern Ireland
Bangor, County Down
Bangor railway station (Northern Ireland)
Bangor (Northern Ireland Parliament constituency), Bangor's former constituency in the Parliament of Northern Ireland
Bangor (Parliament of Ireland constituency), Bangor's former constituency in the Parliament of Ireland
Bangor (civil parish)
Wales
Bangor, Gwynedd
Bangor railway station (Wales)
Bangor Mountain, Gwynedd
United States
Bangor, Alabama, an unincorporated community
Bangor, California, a census-designated place
Bangor, Iowa, an unincorporated community
Bangor, Maine, a city
Bangor Air National Guard Base
Bangor International Airport
Bangor, Michigan, a city
Bangor (Amtrak station)
Bangor Township, Van Buren County, Michigan
Bangor Township, Bay County, Michigan
Bangor, New York, a town
Bangor, Pennsylvania, a borough
Bangor, Wisconsin, a village
Bangor (town), Wisconsin
Bangor Township (disambiguation)
Elsewhere
Bangor, Morbihan, Brittany, France
Sports
Bangor F.C., a football club in Bangor, County Down, Northern Ireland
Bangor City F.C., a football club in Bangor, Gwynedd
Bangor 1876 F.C., a football club in Bangor, Gwynedd
Bangor RFC, a rugby union team in Bangor, Gwynedd
Transportation
Bangor International Airport, Maine, US
Bangor railway station (Northern Ireland)
Bangor railway station (Wales)
Bangor station (Michigan), US
Other uses
Bangor Cathedral, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales
Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, Wales
Bangor FM, County Down, a local radio station
See also
City of Bangor (disambiguation)
Bangor Erris, County Mayo, Ireland
Bangor-on-Dee ( or ), Wrexham, Wales
Bangor Teifi, Ceredigion, Wales
Bangor Base, Washington, US, a census-designated place
Bangor City Forest, Maine, US
Bangor and Aroostook Railroad, Maine, US
Bangor Mall, Maine, US
The Bangor Aye, an independent online news service for Gwynedd, Wales
Bagnor, a hamlet in England
Banger (disambiguation)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangor
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2025-04-05T18:26:53.850807
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4575
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Ballad
|
}}
, Ballad (1898)]]
A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads were particularly characteristic of the popular poetry and song of Great Britain and Ireland from the Late Middle Ages until the 19th century. They were widely used across Europe, and later in Australia, North Africa, North America and South America.
While ballads have no prescribed structure and may vary in their number of lines and stanzas, many ballads employ quatrains with ABCB or ABAB rhyme schemes, the key being a rhymed second and fourth line. Contrary to a popular conception, it is rare if not unheard-of for a ballad to contain exactly 13 lines. Additionally, couplets rarely appear in ballads.
Many ballads were written and sold as single-sheet broadsides. The form was often used by poets and composers from the 18th century onwards to produce lyrical ballads. In the later 19th century, the term took on the meaning of a slow form of popular love song and is often used for any love song, particularly the sentimental ballad of pop or rock music, although the term is also associated with the concept of a stylized storytelling song or poem, particularly when used as a title for other media such as a film.
Origins
A ballad is a form of verse, often a narrative set to music. Ballads derive from the medieval French chanson balladée or ballade, which were originally "dancing songs" (L: ballare, to dance), yet becoming "stylized forms of solo song" before being adopted in England. As a narrative song, their theme and function may originate from Scandinavian and Germanic traditions of storytelling that can be seen in poems such as Beowulf. Musically they were influenced by the Minnelieder of the Minnesang tradition. The earliest example of a recognizable ballad in form in England is "Judas" in a 13th-century manuscript.
Ballad form
]]
Ballads were originally written to accompany dances, and so were composed in couplets with refrains in alternate lines. These refrains would have been sung by the dancers in time with the dance. Most northern and west European ballads are written in ballad stanzas or quatrains (four-line stanzas) of alternating lines of iambic (an unstressed followed by a stressed syllable) tetrameter (eight syllables) and iambic trimeter (six syllables), known as ballad meter. Usually, only the second and fourth line of a quatrain are rhymed (in the scheme a, b, c, b), which has been taken to suggest that, originally, ballads consisted of couplets (two lines) of rhymed verse, each of 14 syllables. This can be seen in this stanza from "Lord Thomas and Fair Annet":
The horse | fair Ann | et rode | upon |<br />
He amb | led like | the wind |,<br />
With sil | ver he | was shod | before,<br />
With burn | ing gold | behind |.
Ballads usually are heavily influenced by the regions in which they originate and use the common dialect of the people. Scotland's ballads in particular, both in theme and language, are strongly characterised by their distinctive tradition, even exhibiting some pre-Christian influences in the inclusion of supernatural elements such as travel to the Fairy Kingdom in the Scots ballad "Tam Lin". The ballads do not have any known author or correct version; instead, having been passed down mainly by oral tradition since the Middle Ages, there are many variations of each. The ballads remained an oral tradition until the increased interest in folk songs in the 18th century led collectors such as Bishop Thomas Percy (1729–1811) to publish volumes of popular ballads. Another common feature of ballads is repetition, sometimes of fourth lines in succeeding stanzas, as a refrain, sometimes of third and fourth lines of a stanza and sometimes of entire stanzas. More recently scholars have pointed to the interchange of oral and written forms of the ballad.Transmission
Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border'']]
The transmission of ballads comprises a key stage in their re-composition. In romantic terms this process is often dramatized as a narrative of degeneration away from the pure 'folk memory' or 'immemorial tradition'. In the introduction to Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802) the romantic poet and historical novelist Walter Scott argued a need to 'remove obvious corruptions' in order to attempt to restore a supposed original. For Scott, the process of multiple recitations 'incurs the risk of impertinent interpolations from the conceit of one rehearser, unintelligible blunders from the stupidity of another, and omissions equally to be regretted, from the want of memory of a third.' Similarly, John Robert Moore noted 'a natural tendency to oblivescence'.
Classification
European Ballads have been generally classified into three major groups: traditional, broadside and literary. In America a distinction is drawn between ballads that are versions of European, particularly British and Irish songs, and 'Native American ballads', developed without reference to earlier songs. A further development was the evolution of the blues ballad, which mixed the genre with Afro-American music. For the late 20th century the music publishing industry found a market for what are often termed sentimental ballads, and these are the origin of the modern use of the term 'ballad' to mean a slow love song.
Traditional ballads
of the Scots ballad "The Twa Corbies"]]
The traditional, classical or popular (meaning of the people) ballad has been seen as beginning with the wandering minstrels of late medieval Europe.
Early collections of English ballads were made by Samuel Pepys (1633–1703) and in the Roxburghe Ballads collected by Robert Harley, (1661–1724), which paralleled the work in Scotland by Walter Scott and Robert Burns.
Both Northern English and Southern Scots shared in the identified tradition of Border ballads, particularly evinced by the cross-border narrative in versions of "The Ballad of Chevy Chase" sometimes associated with the Lancashire-born sixteenth-century minstrel Richard Sheale.
to Young Bekie.]]
It has been suggested that the increasing interest in traditional popular ballads during the eighteenth century was prompted by social issues such as the enclosure movement as many of the ballads deal with themes concerning rural laborers. James Davey has suggested that the common themes of sailing and naval battles may also have prompted the use (at least in England) of popular ballads as naval recruitment tools.
Key work on the traditional ballad was undertaken in the late 19th century in Denmark by Svend Grundtvig and for England and Scotland by the Harvard professor Francis James Child. There have been many different and contradictory attempts to classify traditional ballads by theme, but commonly identified types are the religious, supernatural, tragic, love ballads, historic, legendary and humorous.
Broadsides
Broadside ballads (also known as 'broadsheet', 'stall', 'vulgar' or 'come all ye' ballads) were a product of the development of cheap print in the 16th century. They were generally printed on one side of a medium to large sheet of poor quality paper. In the first half of the 17th century, they were printed in black-letter or gothic type and included multiple, eye-catching illustrations, a popular tune title, as well as an alluring poem. By the 18th century, they were printed in white letter or roman type and often without much decoration (as well as tune title). These later sheets could include many individual songs, which would be cut apart and sold individually as "slip songs." Alternatively, they might be folded to make small cheap books or "chapbooks" which often drew on ballad stories. They were produced in huge numbers, with over 400,000 being sold in England annually by the 1660s. Tessa Watt estimates the number of copies sold may have been in the millions. Many were sold by travelling chapmen in city streets or at fairs. The subject matter varied from what has been defined as the traditional ballad, although many traditional ballads were printed as broadsides. Among the topics were love, marriage, religion, drinking-songs, legends, and early journalism, which included disasters, political events and signs, wonders and prodigies.
Literary ballads
Literary or lyrical ballads grew out of an increasing interest in the ballad form among social elites and intellectuals, particularly in the Romantic movement from the later 18th century. Respected literary figures Robert Burns and Walter Scott in Scotland collected and wrote their own ballads. Similarly in England William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge produced a collection of Lyrical Ballads in 1798 that included Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Keats were attracted to the simple and natural style of these folk ballads and tried to imitate it. Later important examples of the poetic form included Rudyard Kipling's "Barrack-Room Ballads" (1892–6) and Oscar Wilde's The Ballad of Reading Gaol (1897).Ballad operas
, Act III Scene 2, William Hogarth, ]]
In the 18th century ballad operas developed as a form of English stage entertainment, partly in opposition to the Italian domination of the London operatic scene. It consisted of racy and often satirical spoken (English) dialogue, interspersed with songs that are deliberately kept very short to minimize disruptions to the flow of the story. Rather than the more aristocratic themes and music of the Italian opera, the ballad operas were set to the music of popular folk songs and dealt with lower-class characters. Subject matter involved the lower, often criminal, orders, and typically showed a suspension (or inversion) of the high moral values of the Italian opera of the period.
The first, most important and successful was The Beggar's Opera'' of 1728, with a libretto by John Gay and music arranged by John Christopher Pepusch, both of whom probably influenced by Parisian vaudeville and the burlesques and musical plays of Thomas d'Urfey (1653–1723), a number of whose collected ballads they used in their work. Gay produced further works in this style, including a sequel under the title Polly. Henry Fielding, Colley Cibber, Arne, Dibdin, Arnold, Shield, Jackson of Exeter, Hook and many others produced ballad operas that enjoyed great popularity. Ballad opera was attempted in America and Prussia. Later it moved into a more pastoral form, like Isaac Bickerstaffe's Love in a Village (1763) and Shield's Rosina (1781), using more original music that imitated, rather than reproduced, existing ballads. Although the form declined in popularity towards the end of the 18th century its influence can be seen in light operas like that of Gilbert and Sullivan's early works like The Sorcerer as well as in the modern musical.
In the 20th century, one of the most influential plays, Kurt Weill and Bertolt Brecht's (1928) The Threepenny Opera was a reworking of ''The Beggar's Opera, setting a similar story with the same characters, and containing much of the same satirical bite, but only using one tune from the original. The term ballad opera has also been used to describe musicals using folk music, such as The Martins and the Coys'' in 1944, and Peter Bellamy's The Transports in 1977. The satiric elements of ballad opera can be seen in some modern musicals such as Chicago and Cabaret.
Beyond Europe
American ballads
outside the town of Talcott in Summers County, West Virginia]]
Some 300 ballads sung in North America have been identified as having origins in Scottish traditional or broadside ballads. Examples include 'The Streets of Laredo', which was found in Great Britain and Ireland as 'The Unfortunate Rake'; however, a further 400 have been identified as originating in America, including among the best known, 'The Ballad of Davy Crockett' and 'Jesse James'. The 19th century was the golden age of bush ballads. Several collectors have catalogued the songs including John Meredith whose recording in the 1950s became the basis of the collection in the National Library of Australia. The most famous bush ballad is "Waltzing Matilda", which has been called "the unofficial national anthem of Australia".Sentimental ballads
Sentimental ballads, sometimes called "tear-jerkers" or "drawing-room ballads" owing to their popularity with the middle classes, had their origins in the early "Tin Pan Alley" music industry of the later 19th century. They were generally sentimental, narrative, strophic songs published separately or as part of an opera (descendants perhaps of broadside ballads, but with printed music, and usually newly composed). Such songs include "Little Rosewood Casket" (1870), "After the Ball" (1892) and "Danny Boy".
See also
Citations
References and further reading
* Dugaw, Dianne. Deep Play: John Gay and the Invention of Modernity. Newark, Del.: University of Delaware Press, 2001. Print.
*
* Randel, Don (1986). The New Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. .
*
* Winton, Calhoun. John Gay and the London Theatre. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1993. Print.
*
* Marcello Sorce Keller, "Sul castel di mirabel: Life of a Ballad in Oral Tradition and Choral Practice", Ethnomusicology, XXX(1986), no. 3, 449- 469.
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110311221232/http://literaryballadarchive.com/en.html The British Literary Ballads Archive]
* [http://www.bodley.ox.ac.uk/ballads/ballads.htm The Bodleian Library Ballad Collection: view facsimiles of printed ballads]
* [http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu The English Broadside Ballad Archive: searchable database of ballad images, citations, and recordings]
* [http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/special-collections/subject-guides/welsh-ballads Welsh Ballads resource guide]
* [https://balladindex.org The Traditional Ballad Index]
* [http://www.traditionalmusic.co.uk/broadside-ballads/broadside-ballads.html Black-letter Broadside Ballads Of The years 1595-1639 From the Collection of Samuel Pepys]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070426114919/http://www.smithsonianglobalsound.org/archives_05.aspx Smithsonian Global Sound: The Music of Poetry]—audio samples of poems, hymns and songs in ballad meter.
* [http://www.bartleby.com/243/ The Oxford Book of Ballads, complete 1910 book by Arthur Quiller-Couch]
* [http://ebba.english.ucsb.edu English Broadside Ballad Archive]—an archive of images and recordings of over 4,000 pre-1700 broadside ballads
*
Category:Folk music
Category:Folk poetry
Category:Poetic forms
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballad
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4579
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Blue Öyster Cult
|
Blue Öyster Cult (album)}}
Soft White Underbelly (YouTube channel)}}
| discography = Blue Öyster Cult discography
| years_active =
| label =
| associated_acts =
| alias =
| past_members =
* See members article for others.
| website =
| current_members = * Buck Dharma
* Eric Bloom
* Danny Miranda
* Richie Castellano
* Jules Radino
}}
Blue Öyster Cult ( ; sometimes abbreviated BÖC or BOC) is <!--Article is using USA format. This means 'is' and not 'are a group' -->an American rock band formed on Long Island, New York, in the hamlet of Stony Brook, in 1967.
They have sold 25 million records worldwide, including 7 million in the United States. Their fusion of hard rock with psychedelia and penchant for occult, fantastical and tongue-in-cheek lyrics had a major influence on heavy metal music. They developed a cult following and enjoyed mainstream success with "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" (1976), "Godzilla" (1977), and "Burnin' for You" (1981), which remain classic rock radio staples. They were early adopters of the music video format, and their videos were in heavy rotation on MTV in its early period.
Blue Öyster Cult continued making studio albums and touring throughout the 1980s, although their popularity had declined such that they were dropped from their longtime label CBS/Columbia Records, following the commercial failure of their 11th studio album Imaginos (1988). Other than contributing to the soundtrack of the 1992 film Bad Channels and an album of re-recorded material, Cult Classic, in 1994, the band continued as a live act until releasing its first studio album of original material in 10 years, Heaven Forbid (1998). The lackluster sales of its follow-up Curse of the Hidden Mirror (2001) led to another hiatus from studio recording, but they continued performing live. Two more studio albums were released in the 2020s, The Symbol Remains (2020) and Ghost Stories (2024), the latter of which is said to be the band's last.
Blue Öyster Cult's longest-lasting and the most commercially successful lineup included Donald "Buck Dharma" Roeser (lead guitar, vocals), Eric Bloom (lead vocals, "stun guitar", keyboards, synthesizer), Allen Lanier (keyboards, rhythm guitar), Joe Bouchard (bass, vocals, keyboards), and Albert Bouchard (drums, percussion, vocals, miscellaneous instruments). The band's current lineup still includes Bloom and Roeser, in addition to Danny Miranda (bass, backing vocals), Richie Castellano (keyboards, rhythm guitar, backing vocals), and Jules Radino (drums, percussion). The duo of the band's manager Sandy Pearlman and rock critic Richard Meltzer, who also met at Stony Brook University, played a key role in writing many of the band's lyrics.
History
Early years as Soft White Underbelly (1967–1971)
Blue Öyster Cult was formed in 1967 as Soft White Underbelly (a name the group would occasionally use in the 1970s and 1980s to play small club gigs around the United States and UK) in a communal house at Stony Brook University on Long Island when rock critic Sandy Pearlman overheard a jam session consisting of fellow Stony Brook classmate Donald Roeser and his friends. Pearlman offered to become the band's manager and creative partner, to which the band agreed.
In October 1967, the band made its debut performance as Steve Noonan's backing band at the Stony Brook University Gymnasium, a gig booked by Pearlman. The band's name came from Winston Churchill's description of Italy as "the soft underbelly of the Axis." The band recorded an album's worth of material for Elektra Records in 1968.
Braunstein played his final show as Soft White Underbelly's lead singer in the spring of 1969. Because of this, Bloom was offered the job of lead singer for Soft White Underbelly.
However, a bad review of a 1969 Fillmore East show caused Pearlman to change the name of the band – first to Oaxaca, then to the Stalk-Forrest Group. Pearlman also gave stage names to each of the band members (Jesse Python for Eric Bloom, Buck Dharma for Donald Roeser, Andy Panda for Andy Winters, Prince Omega for Albert Bouchard, La Verne for Allen Lanier) but only Buck Dharma kept his. The band recorded yet another album's worth of material for Elektra, but only one single ("What Is Quicksand?" b/w "Arthur Comics") was released (and only in a promo edition of 300 copies) on Elektra Records (this album was eventually released, with additional outtakes, by Rhino Handmade Records as St. Cecilia: The Elektra Recordings in 2001). The album featured Bloom as their main lead singer, but Roeser also sang lead on a few songs, a pattern of sharing lead vocals that has continued throughout the band's career. With Bloom, Soft White Underbelly/Stalk-Forrest Group became one of Stony Brook University's "house bands," popular on campus.
After a few more temporary band names, including the Santos Sisters, the band settled on Blue Öyster Cult in 1971 (see below for its origin).
New York City producer/composer and jingle writer David Lucas saw the band perform and took them into his Warehouse Recording Studio and produced four demos, with which Pearlman was able to get the renamed band another audition with Columbia Records. Clive Davis liked what he heard, and signed the band to the label. The first album was subsequently produced and recorded by Lucas on eight-track at Lucas' studio. Winters would leave the band and be replaced by Bouchard's brother, Joe Bouchard.
Black-and-white years (1971–1975)
Their debut album Blue Öyster Cult was released in January 1972, with a black-and-white cover designed by artist Bill Gawlik. The album featured the songs "Cities on Flame with Rock and Roll", "Stairway to the Stars", and "Then Came the Last Days of May". By this time, the band's sound had become more oriented toward hard rock, but songs like "She's As Beautiful As a Foot" and "Redeemed" also showed a strong element of the band's psychedelic roots. Pearlman wanted the group to be the American answer to Black Sabbath. All of the band members except for Allen Lanier sang lead, a pattern that would continue on many subsequent albums, although lead singer Eric Bloom sang the majority of the songs. The album sold well, and Blue Öyster Cult toured with artists such as the Byrds, Mahavishnu Orchestra and Alice Cooper. As the band toured, its sound became heavier and more direct.
Their second album Tyranny and Mutation, released in 1973, was written while the band was on tour for their first album. It contained songs such as "The Red and the Black" (an ode to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and a rewrite of "I'm on the Lamb But I Ain't No Sheep" from their debut album, and also a reference to the novel of the same name by Stendhal), "Hot Rails to Hell" and "Baby Ice Dog", the first of the band's many collaborations with Patti Smith. It featured a harder-rocking approach than before, although the band's songs were also growing more complex. The album outsold its predecessor, a trend that would continue with their next few albums.
The band's third album, Secret Treaties (1974), received positive reviews, featuring songs such as "Career of Evil" (co-written by Patti Smith), "Dominance and Submission" and "Astronomy". As a result of constant touring, the band was now capable of headlining shows. The album continued their upward sales trend, and would eventually go gold.
As the three albums during this formative period all had black-and-white covers, the period of their career has been dubbed the "black and white years" by fans and critics.
Commercial success (1975–1981)
The band's first live album On Your Feet or on Your Knees (1975) achieved greater success and went gold. Its success gave the band more time to work on a follow-up. The band members were able to purchase home recording equipment to record demos for their next album.
Their next studio album, Agents of Fortune (1976), was their first to go platinum and was again produced by David Lucas. It contained the hit single "(Don't Fear) The Reaper", which reached number 12 on the Billboard charts and has become a classic of the hard rock genre. Other major songs on the album were "(This Ain't) The Summer of Love", "E.T.I. (Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence)" and "The Revenge of Vera Gemini". Having recorded demos of the songs at home before recording the album, the band's songwriting process had become more individual, with none of the songs featuring the collaborative writing between the band members that had been common on their earlier albums. Although the album still featured their trademark hard rock with sinister lyrics, the songs had become more conventional in structure, and the production was more polished. For the first and only time, the album featured lead vocals from all five band members, with Allen Lanier singing lead on the song "True Confessions." With Albert Bouchard singing lead on three songs and Joe Bouchard and Donald Roeser singing lead on one each, Eric Bloom ended up taking the lead on only four of the album's ten songs.
For the tour, the band added lasers to their light show, for which they became known. They were among the first acts to use lasers in performance.
Their next album, Spectres (1977), had the FM radio hit "Godzilla," and would become one of the band's better-selling albums, with other well-known songs like "I Love the Night" and "Goin' Through the Motions". However, its sales were not as strong as those for the previous album, going gold but not platinum, becoming their first album to sell less than its predecessor. It featured even more polished production, and continued the trend of the lead vocals extensively shared between members, although Allen Lanier did not sing lead. As with the previous album, Eric Bloom sang lead on fewer than half the songs.
The band then released another live album, Some Enchanted Evening (1978). Although it was intended as another double-live album in the vein of On Your Feet or on Your Knees, Columbia insisted that it be edited down to single-album length. It was a resounding commercial success, becoming Blue Öyster Cult's most popular album and eventually selling over two million copies. It also revealed that while the band's studio work was becoming increasingly well-produced, they were still very much a hard rock band on stage.
(bottom); Eric Bloom; Albert Bouchard; Allen Lanier; Joe Bouchard]]
It was followed by the studio album Mirrors (1979). For Mirrors, instead of working with previous producers Sandy Pearlman (who instead went on to manage Black Sabbath) and Murray Krugman, Blue Öyster Cult chose Tom Werman, who had worked with acts such as Cheap Trick and Ted Nugent. It featured the band's glossiest production to date. It also gave Roeser, the lead vocalist on the band's biggest hits, bigger prominence as a vocalist, singing lead on four of the nine songs. However, the resulting album sales were disappointing.
Pearlman's association with Black Sabbath led to Sabbath's Heaven and Hell producer Martin Birch being hired for the next Blue Öyster Cult record. The album found the band returning to their hard rock roots, and although both of the Bouchard brothers and guitarist Roeser all got lead vocal turns, Bloom would sing the majority of the tracks. The result was positive, with Cultösaurus Erectus (1980) receiving good reviews. The album went to number 12 in the United Kingdom, but did not do as well in the United States. The song "Black Blade", which was written by Bloom with lyrics by science fiction and fantasy author Michael Moorcock, is a kind of retelling of Moorcock's epic Elric of Melniboné saga. The band also did a co-headlining tour with Black Sabbath in support of the album, calling the tour "Black and Blue".
Birch produced the band's next album as well, Fire of Unknown Origin (1981), which peaked at number 24 on the Billboard 200, becoming the band's highest-charting album. The biggest hit on this album was the Top 40 hit "Burnin' for You," a song Roeser had written with a Richard Meltzer lyric. He had intended to use it on his solo album, Flat Out (1982), but he was convinced to use it on the Blue Öyster Cult album instead. The revival of the band's heavier sound continued, albeit with fairly heavy use of synthesizers and some noticeable New Wave influence on a few tracks. It contained other fan favorites such as "Joan Crawford" (inspired by the book and film Mommie Dearest) and "Veteran of the Psychic Wars", another song co-written by Moorcock. Several of the songs had been written for the animated film Heavy Metal, but only "Veteran of the Psychic Wars" (which had not been written for Heavy Metal) was actually used in the movie. The album marked a strong commercial resurgence for the band and achieved gold status, their first studio album since Spectres to do so.
During the tour for Fire of Unknown Origin, Albert Bouchard had a falling out with the others and left the band, and Rick Downey (formerly the band's lighting designer) replaced him on drums. This marked the end of the band's original and best-known lineup.
Declining popularity (1982–1989)
After leaving the band, Albert Bouchard spent five years working on a solo album based on Sandy Pearlman's poem "Imaginos". Blue Öyster Cult also released their third live album, Extraterrestrial Live, in 1982.
The band then went to the studio for the next album, The Revölution by Night (1983), with Bruce Fairbairn as producer. After two albums of a return to a harder rocking sound, the band adopted a more radio-friendly, AOR-oriented sound with Fairbairn providing a 1980s-style production. This approach met with some success, especially on its highest-charting single, Roeser's "Shooting Shark", co-written by Patti Smith and featuring Randy Jackson on bass, which reached number 83 on the charts. Bloom's "Take Me Away" achieved some FM radio play. However, the album didn't match sales of its predecessor, failed to achieve gold status, and marked the beginning of the band's second commercial decline. After touring for Revölution, Rick Downey left, leaving Blue Öyster Cult without a drummer.
Blue Öyster Cult re-united with Albert Bouchard for a California tour in February 1985, infamously known as the 'Albert Returns' Tour. This arrangement was only temporary and caused more tensions between the band and Bouchard, since he had thought he would be staying on permanently, which was not the case. The band had intended to use him only as a fill-in until another drummer could come on board, which resulted in Bouchard's leaving after the tour. Allen Lanier also quit the band shortly thereafter, leaving them without a keyboardist and with only three remaining original members. This incarnation of the band would sometimes be referred to as '3ÖC' by fans, which is a pun on the number of original members left.
Blue Öyster Cult hired drummer Jimmy Wilcox and keyboardist Tommy Zvoncheck to finish the album Club Ninja, which was poorly received, with only "Dancin' in the Ruins," one of several songs on the record written entirely by outside songwriters, enjoying minimal success on radio and MTV. The best-known original on the album is "Perfect Water" written by Dharma and Jim Carroll (noted author of The Basketball Diaries). While the band members have generally been disparaging about the album in retrospect, Joe Bouchard has stated that "Perfect Water" is "perfect genius".
The band toured in Germany, after which bassist Bouchard left, leaving only two members of the classic lineup: Eric Bloom and Donald Roeser. Some people referred to the band as "Two Öyster Cult" during this period. Jon Rogers was hired to replace Joe and this version of the band finished out the 1986 tour. After it wound up that year, the band took a temporary break from recording and touring. When Blue Öyster Cult received an offer to tour in Greece in the early summer of 1987, the band reformed. Wilcox quit while Zvoncheck was fired for making excessive financial demands. Allen Lanier then was offered to rejoin and agreed, so the new line-up now featured three founding members, along with Jon Rogers returning on bass and Ron Riddle as their newest drummer.
Columbia Records was not interested in releasing the Imaginos project as an Albert Bouchard solo album so it was arranged for the record to be released in 1988 by Columbia as a Blue Öyster Cult album, with some new lead vocal overdubs from Bloom and Roeser and lead guitar overdubs from Roeser. These replaced most of Albert Bouchard's lead vocals, as well as many lead guitar parts that had been recorded by session musicians. Joe Bouchard and Allen Lanier had earlier contributed some minor keyboard and backing vocal parts to the album, allowing all five original members to be credited. The album did not sell well (despite a positive review in Rolling Stone magazine) and although the then-current Blue Öyster Cult lineup (minus both Bouchard brothers) toured to promote Imaginos, promotion by the label was virtually non-existent. Most songs from the album have not been performed live by the band since at least 1989. When Columbia Records' parent company CBS Records was purchased by Sony and became Sony Music Entertainment, Blue Öyster Cult were dropped from the label.
First studio hiatus, Heaven Forbid and Curse of the Hidden Mirror (1990–2003)
The band spent most of the 1990s touring without releasing an album of new material, although they did contribute two new songs to the Bad Channels movie soundtrack, released in 1992, and also released an album of re-recorded songs from the band's original lineup, called Cult Classic, in 1994. During these years, while the three original members remained constant, there were several changes in the band's rhythm section. Ron Riddle quit in 1991 and was followed by a series of other drummers including
Chuck Burgi (1991–1992, 1992–1995, 1996–1997), John Miceli (1992, 1995), John O'Reilly (1995–1996) and Bobby Rondinelli (1997–2004). As for the bass position, Rogers left in 1995, and was replaced by Danny Miranda.
In the late 1990s, Blue Öyster Cult secured a recording contract with CMC Records (later purchased by Sanctuary Records), and continued to tour frequently. Two studio albums were released, Heaven Forbid (1998) and Curse of the Hidden Mirror (2001). Both albums featured songs co-written by cyberpunk/horror novelist John Shirley. The first mostly featured Miranda on bass and Burgi on drums, although a few tracks feature earlier bassist Jon Rogers and one track features Rondinelli on drums, who had joined the band near the end of the recording. Curse of the Hidden Mirror features Miranda and Rondinelli as the rhythm section, and the pair contributed to the songwriting as well. Neither album sold well.
In 2001, Sony/Columbia's reissue arm, Legacy Records issued expanded versions of the first four Blue Öyster Cult studio albums, including some previously unreleased demos and outtakes from album sessions, live recordings (from the Live 72 EP), and post-St. Cecilia tunes from the Stalk-Forrest Group era.
Another live record and DVD ''A Long Day's Night'' followed in 2002, both drawn from one concert in Chicago. This album also featured the Bloom, Roeser, Lanier, Miranda, Rondinelli lineup.
Live-only activities (2004–2016)
, 2008]]
Although the band's lineup had remained stable from 1997 to 2004, they began to experience personnel changes again in 2004. Rondinelli left in 2004, and was replaced by Jules Radino. Miranda left during the same year to become the bassist for Queen + Paul Rodgers in place of the retired John Deacon. He was replaced by Richie Castellano, who would also take occasional turns as a lead vocalist onstage.
Allen Lanier retired from live performances in 2007 after not appearing with the band since late 2006. Castellano switched to rhythm guitar and keyboards (Castellano also filled in on lead guitar and vocals for an ailing Buck Dharma in two shows in 2005), and the position of bassist was taken up by Rudy Sarzo (previously a member of Quiet Riot, Whitesnake, Ozzy Osbourne and Dio), with the band employing Danny Miranda and Jon Rogers as guest bassists to fill in when Sarzo was unavailable. Sarzo then joined as an official member of the band, although Rogers continued to occasionally fill in when Sarzo was busy.
In February 2007, the Sony Legacy remaster series continued, releasing expanded versions of studio album Spectres and live album Some Enchanted Evening.
In June 2012, the band announced that bassist Rudy Sarzo was leaving the band and was being replaced by former Utopia bassist Kasim Sulton.
In August of the same year, it was announced that Sony Legacy would be releasing a 17-disc boxed set entitled The Complete Columbia Albums Collection on October 30, 2012. The set includes the first round of the remastered series plus the long-awaited remastered versions of On Your Feet or on Your Knees, Mirrors, Cultösaurus Erectus, Fire Of Unknown Origin, Extraterrestrial Live, The Revölution by Night, Club Ninja and Imaginos. Also exclusive to this set are two discs of rare and unreleased B-sides, demos and radio broadcasts.
Also in 2012, celebrating the 40th anniversary of Blue Öyster Cult, the then-current incarnation of the band reunited for the first time in 25 years with other original members Joe and Albert Bouchard and Allen Lanier as guests for a special event in New York.
Founding keyboardist/guitarist Allen Lanier died of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease on August 14, 2013.
In 2016, Albert Bouchard played again as guest with the then-current line-up of the band, playing at shows in New York, Los Angeles, Dublin and London, where Blue Öyster Cult played the album Agents of Fortune in its entirety. The shows featured songs from Agents of Fortune that had either not been played live before ("True Confessions", "The Revenge of Vera Gemini", "Sinful Love", "Tenderloin", "Debbie Denise"), songs that had not been played since the album's debut tour ("Morning Final"), and songs that were no longer/never played frequently ("This Ain't the Summer of Love", "Tattoo Vampire"), as well as the fan favorite "Five Guitars", which had not been played since Albert initially left the band in 1981. Albert played in the following songs at the show: "The Revenge of Vera Gemini" (vocals, guitar), "Sinful Love" (vocals, guitar), "Tattoo Vampire" (guitar), "Morning Final" (guitar), "Tenderloin" (cymbals), "Debbie Denise" (vocals, acoustic guitar), "Cities on Flame with Rock and Roll" (vocals, drums), and "Five Guitars" (guitar).The Symbol Remains and Ghost Stories (2017–present)
, Canada, 2012]]
In a May 2017 appearance on Castellano's "Band Geek" podcast, Bloom confirmed that there were tentative plans to release a new album in 2018 and that the band was currently considering offers from multiple record labels. He also stated that former bassist Danny Miranda would be playing with the band for the remainder of the year due to Sulton's prior touring commitments with Todd Rundgren. During the same year, the band's official website started to list Miranda as an official member, stating that Miranda had "returned to BÖC" in early 2017.
Buck Dharma stated in February 2019 that the band would be recording a new album to be released by fall. On July 10, 2019, it was announced that the band had signed to Frontiers Music, and would in fact be releasing the new album in 2020. "It's been a long time since BÖC's last studio album. Recording with Danny, Richie and Jules should be a great experience as we've been touring together for years, and Buck and I look forward to including them in the creative and recording process," said Bloom. "The current band is GREAT and has never been recorded other than live, so we feel now's the time for new songs to be written and recorded. About half of the songs for the new record exist and the rest will be finished during the process," added Buck Dharma. In February 2020, Richie Castellano posted a short video to Facebook featuring himself and Eric Bloom, stating that the band were working on the new Blue Öyster Cult record remotely by using ConnectionOpen online audio collaboration tool.
In August 2020, the band announced on their website that their fifteenth studio album The Symbol Remains would be released on October 9, 2020. The span of nineteen years between Curse of the Hidden Mirror and The Symbol Remains marks the longest gap between studio albums in Blue Öyster Cult's career. The album was released to a positive critical reception, with tracks such as "Box In My Head" and "The Alchemist" receiving high praise.
In October 2022, during their European headlining tour, Blue Öyster Cult supported Deep Purple at five arena shows in the United Kingdom.
On April 12, 2024, Blue Öyster Cult released their sixteenth and final studio album Ghost Stories, which includes both reimagined tracks and "lost gems" from between 1978 and 2016, as well as studio versions of their covers of MC5's "Kick Out the Jams" and The Animals' "We Gotta Get Out of This Place.". psychedelic rock, occult rock, acid rock, and progressive rock. They have also been recognized for helping pioneer genres such as stoner metal. The band has also experimented with additional genres on specific albums, such as on Mirrors.
They have acknowledged the influence of artists such as Alice Cooper, Jimi Hendrix, and Black Sabbath.
In order to add to their mystique the band would often use out-of-context fragments of Pearlman's unpublished sci-fi poetry cycle The Soft Doctrines of Imaginos as lyrics, rendering their meaning obscure. Band name and logo
symbol in alchemy, also used to represent the planet Saturn in astrology]]
The name "Blue Öyster Cult" also came from Pearlman's Imaginos cycle, explored most extensively on the 1988 album of the same name. Pearlman had also come up with the band's earlier name, "Soft White Underbelly", from a phrase used by Winston Churchill in describing Italy during World War II. In Pearlman's poetry, the "Blue Oyster Cult" is a group of aliens who had assembled secretly to guide Earth's history. "Initially, the band was not happy with the name, but settled for it, and went to work preparing to record their first release..."
In a 1976 interview published in the U.K. music magazine ZigZag, Pearlman claimed the origin of the band's name was as an anagram of "Cully Stout Beer".
The addition of an umlaut was suggested by Allen Lanier, but Richard Meltzer claims to have suggested it just after Pearlman came up with the name, reportedly "because of the Wagnerian aspect of Metal". Other bands later copied the practice of using umlauts or diacritic marks in their own band names, such as Motörhead, Mötley Crüe, Queensrÿche and parodied by Spın̈al Tap.
The hook-and-cross logo was designed by fellow Stony Brook student Bill Gawlik for his master's thesis in January 1972, and appears on all of the band's albums. Sandy Pearlman considered this, along with the "heavy" distorted guitar sound of the band, meant that the description "heavy metal" would be apt for the band's sound. The hook-and-cross symbol also resembled the astrological symbol for Saturn, the Roman god of agriculture, and the sickle, which is associated with both Kronos (Cronus) and Saturn (both the planet and the Roman god). The symbol also closely resembles the astrological symbol for Ceres, which is also a sickle. The logo's "... metaphysical, alchemical and mythological connotations, combined with its similarity to some religious symbols gave it a flair of decadence and mystery ..." Metallica, Fates Warning, Iced Earth, Cirith Ungol, Alice in Chains, Twisted Sister, Ratt, Steel Panther, Green River (and later Mudhoney), Body Count, Possessed, Candlemass, Saint Vitus, Trouble, Opeth, White Zombie, Kvelertak, HIM, Turbonegro, Radio Birdman, The Cult, The Minutemen, Firehose, Hoodoo Gurus, Widespread Panic, Queens of the Stone Age, Umphrey's McGee, Stabbing Westward, Royal Trux, and Moe.
The band's influence has extended beyond the musical sphere. The lyrics of "Astronomy" have been named by author Shawn St. Jean as inspirational to the later chapters of his fantasy novel ''Clotho's Loom'', wherein Sandy Pearlman's "Four Winds Bar" provides the setting for a portion of the action. Titles and lines from the band's songs provided structure and narrative for the third book in Robert Galbraith's (a pseudonym for J. K. Rowling), series of Cormoran Strike novels, Career of Evil.
Their hit single "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" was featured in the famous Saturday Night Live sketch "More Cowbell". The original recording was produced at The Record Plant in New York by David Lucas, who sang background vocals with Roeser, and introduced the now-famous cowbell part, which may have been played by himself, Albert Bouchard, or Eric Bloom.
"(Don't Fear) The Reaper" was also used in writer/director John Carpenter's horror film classic, Halloween (1978). The opening sequence of the miniseries adaptation of The Stand (1994) by Stephen King, and covered by The Mutton Birds for Peter Jackson's horror-comedy film The Frighteners (1996). "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" was also used throughout the comedy film The Stoned Age (1994) and plays a role in its storyline. In the film Gone Girl (2014), the song plays on the radio during a car driving scene with actor Ben Affleck. The song was also used as the opening theme and main story element in the 1996 FMV computer game Ripper, by Take Two Interactive, and was also featured in the 2006 game Prey and the 2021 game Returnal. The lyrics for "(Don't Fear) The Reaper" are featured in the introduction of Stephen King's book The Stand. The song was also used in Orange Is the New Black's season 2 finale.
Members
Current members
* Buck Dharma – lead guitar, lead and backing vocals (1967–1986, 1987–present)
* Eric Bloom – lead and backing vocals, "stun guitar", keyboards, synthesizers (1969–1986, 1987–present)
* Danny Miranda – bass, backing vocals (1995–2004, 2017–present)
* Richie Castellano – keyboards, rhythm guitar, additional lead guitar, backing and additional lead vocals (2007–present), bass (2004–2007)
* Jules Radino – drums, percussion (2004–present)
Discography
;Studio albums
* Blue Öyster Cult (1972)
* Tyranny and Mutation (1973)
* Secret Treaties (1974)
* Agents of Fortune (1976)
* Spectres (1977)
* Mirrors (1979)
* Cultösaurus Erectus (1980)
* Fire of Unknown Origin (1981)
* The Revölution by Night (1983)
* Club Ninja (1985)
* Imaginos (1988)
* Cult Classic (1994) – re-recordings
* Heaven Forbid (1998)
* Curse of the Hidden Mirror (2001)
* The Symbol Remains (2020)
* Ghost Stories (2024)
Bibliography
* Blue Öyster Cult: Secrets Revealed!, by Martin Popoff, Metal Blade Records, 207 pages (US, 2004)
* Blue Öyster Cult: La Carrière du Mal, by Mathieu Bollon and Aurélien Lemant, Camion Blanc, 722 pages (France, 2013)
* Agents of Fortune: The Blue Öyster Cult Story, by Martin Popoff, Wymer Publishing, 245 pages (UK, 2016)
* Blue Öyster Cult: Every Album, Every Song, by Jacob Holm-Lupo, Sonicbond Publishing, 158 pages (UK, 2019)
* Flaming Telepaths: Imaginos Expanded and Specified, by Martin Popoff, Power Chord Press, 200 pages (Canada, 2021)
References
External links
*
Category:1967 establishments in New York (state)
Category:Arena rock musical groups
Category:Articles which contain graphical timelines
Category:Columbia Records artists
Category:Frontiers Records artists
Category:Hard rock musical groups from New York (state)
Category:Heavy metal musical groups from New York (state)
Category:Musical groups established in 1967
Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1986
Category:Musical groups reestablished in 1987
Category:Musical groups from Long Island
Category:Musical quintets from New York (state)
Category:Occult rock musical groups
Category:Psychedelic rock music groups from New York (state)
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Battery Park City
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| map_caption = Location in New York City
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| subdivision_type2 = City
| subdivision_name2 = New York City
| subdivision_type3 = Borough
| subdivision_name3 = Manhattan
| subdivision_type4 = Community District
| subdivision_name4 Manhattan 1
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| population_footnotes It is bounded by the Hudson River on the west, the Hudson River shoreline on the north and south, and the West Side Highway on the east. The neighborhood is named for the Battery, formerly known as Battery Park, located directly to the south.
More than one-third of the development is parkland. The land upon which it is built was created in the 1970s by land reclamation on the Hudson River using over of soil and rock excavated during the construction of the World Trade Center, The neighborhood includes Brookfield Place (formerly the World Financial Center), along with numerous buildings designed for housing, commercial, and retail.
Battery Park City is part of Manhattan Community District 1. Other restaurants located in that hotel, as well as a DSW store and a New York Sports Club branch, were closed in 2009 after the takeover of the property by Goldman Sachs. Former undeveloped lots in the area have been developed into high-rise buildings; for example, Goldman Sachs built a new headquarters at 200 West Street.
Nearby is Brookfield Place, a complex of several commercial buildings formerly known as the World Financial Center.
Current residential neighborhoods of Battery Park City are divided into northern and southern sections, separated by Brookfield Place. The northern section consists entirely of large, 20–45-story buildings, all various shades of orange brick. The southern section, extending down from the Winter Garden, which is located in Brookfield Place, contains residential apartment buildings such as Gateway Plaza and the Rector Place apartment buildings. In this section lies the majority of Battery Park City's residential areas, in three sections: Gateway Plaza, a high-rise building complex; the "Rector Place Residential Neighborhood"; and the" Battery Place Residential Neighborhood". These subsections contain most of the area's residential buildings, along with park space, supermarkets, restaurants, and movie theaters. Construction of residential buildings began north of the World Financial Center in the late 1990s, and completion of the final lots took place in early 2011. Additionally, a park restoration was completed in 2013. History Site and formation Throughout the 19th century and early-20th century, the area adjoining today's Battery Park City was known as Little Syria with Lebanese, Greeks, Armenians, and other ethnic groups. In 1929, the land was the proposed site of a $50 million (equivalent to $ million in ) residential development that would have served workers in the Wall Street area. The Battery Tower project was left unfinished after workers digging the foundation ran into forty feet of old bulkheads, sunken docks, and ships.
By the late-1950s, the once-prosperous port area of downtown Manhattan was occupied by a number of dilapidated shipping piers, casualties of the rise of container shipping which drove sea traffic to Port Elizabeth, New Jersey. The initial proposal to reclaim this area through landfill was offered in the early-1960s by private firms and supported by the mayor, part of a long history of Lower Manhattan expansion. The New York State Urban Development Corporation and ten other public agencies were also involved in the development project. For the next several years, the BPCA made slow progress. In April 1969, it unveiled a master plan for the area, which was approved in October. In early-1972, the BPCA issued $200 million in bonds to fund construction efforts, with Harry B. Helmsley designated as the developer. That same year, the city approved plans to alter the number of apartments designated for lower, middle and upper income renters. Urstadt said the changes were needed to make the financing for the project viable. In addition to the change in the mix of units, the city approved adding nine acres, which extended the northern boundary from Reade Street to Duane Street.
Landfill material from construction of the World Trade Center and other buildings in Lower Manhattan was used to add fill for the southern portion. After removal of the piers, wooden piles and overburden of silt, the northern portion (north of, and including the marina) was filled with sand dredged from areas adjacent to Ambrose Channel in the Atlantic Ocean, as well as stone from the construction of Water Tunnel #3. Construction efforts ground to a halt in 1977, as a result of the city's fiscal crisis. That year, the presidential administration of Jimmy Carter approved mortgage insurance for 1,600 of the development's proposed units. In 1979, the title to the landfill was transferred from the city to the Battery Park City Authority, which financially restructured itself and created a new, more viable master plan, designed by Alex Cooper of Cooper, Robertson & Partners and Stanton Eckstut. By that time, only two of the proposed development's buildings had been built, and the $200 million bond issue was supposed to have been paid off the next year.
The design of BPC to some degree reflects the values of vibrant city neighborhoods championed by Jane Jacobs. The Urban Land Institute (ULI) awarded the Battery Park City Master Plan its 2010 Heritage Award, for having "facilitated the private development of of commercial space, of residential space, and nearly of open space in lower Manhattan, becoming a model for successful large-scale planning efforts and marking a positive shift away from the urban renewal mindset of the time."
Construction and early development
During the late-1970s and early-1980s, the site hosted Creative Time's landmark Art on the Beach sculpture exhibitions. On September 23, 1979, the landfill was the site of an anti-nuclear rally attended by 200,000 people.
In 1978, a temporary heliport operated by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey opened at the southern end of the landfill and was initially used by New York Airways helicopters providing scheduled service to Kennedy, LaGuardia and Newark airports. The helicopter landing pad later accommodated flights diverted from the Downtown Manhattan Heliport while that facility was closed for reconstruction from 1983 to 1987. The Battery Park City Heliport was located on the south side of the future site of the Museum of Jewish Heritage.
Construction began on the first residential building in June 1980. The same year, the World Financial Center started construction; Olympia and York of Toronto was named as the developer for the World Financial Center, who then hired Cesar Pelli as the lead architect. By 1985, construction was completed and the World Financial Center (later renamed Brookfield Place New York) The newly completed development was lauded by The New York Times as "a triumph of urban design", with the World Financial Center being deemed "a symbol of change". The project was a visual contradiction: a golden field of wheat set among the steel skyscrapers of downtown Manhattan. It was created during a six-month period in the spring, summer, and fall of 1982 when Denes, with the support of the Public Art Fund, planted the field of wheat on rubble-strewn land near Wall Street and the World Trade Center site. Denes stated that her "decision to plant a wheatfield in Manhattan, instead of designing just another public sculpture, grew out of a long-standing concern and need to call attention to our misplaced priorities and deteriorating human values."
Throughout the 1980s, the BPCA oversaw a great deal of construction, including the entire Rector Place neighborhood and the river esplanade. It was during that period that Amanda Burden, later City Planning Department Director in the Bloomberg administration, worked on Battery Park City. During the 1980s, a total of 13 buildings were constructed. The Vietnam Veterans Plaza was established by Edward I. Koch in 1985. Constructed at a cost of $150 million (equivalent to $ million in ) and with a capacity for 2,700 students, Battery Park City became the new home of the Stuyvesant High School in 1992. During the 1990s, an additional six buildings were added to the neighborhood. By the turn of the 21st century, Battery Park City was mostly completed, with the exception of some ongoing construction on West Street.
Initially, in the 1980s, 23 buildings were built in the area. By the 1990s, 9 more buildings were built, followed by the construction of 11 buildings in the 2000s and 3 buildings in the 2010s. The Battery Park City Authority, wishing to attract more middle-class residents, started providing subsidies in 1998 to households whose annual incomes were $108,000 or less. By the end of the decade, nearly the entire landfill had been developed.
Early 21st century
The September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001 had a major impact on Battery Park City.
Upon residents' return, the air in the area was still filled with toxic smoke from the World Trade Center fires that persisted until December 2001. More than half of the area's residents moved away permanently from the community after the adjacent World Trade Center towers collapsed and spread toxic dust, debris, and smoke. Gateway Plaza's 600 building, Hudson View East, and Parc Place (now Rector Square) were punctured by airplane parts. The Winter Garden and other portions of the World Financial Center were severely damaged. Environmental concerns regarding dust from the Trade Center are a continuing source of concern for many residents, scientists, and elected officials. Since the attacks, the damage has been repaired. Temporarily reduced rents and government subsidies helped restore residential occupancy in the years following the attacks.
After September 11, 2001, residents of Battery Park City and Tribeca formed the TriBattery Pops Tom Goodkind Conductor in response to the events of the attacks. The "Pops" have been Grammy-nominated and are the first lower Manhattan all-volunteer community band in a century.
Since then, real estate development in the area has continued robustly. Commercial development includes the 200 West Street, the Goldman Sachs global headquarters, which began construction in 2005 and opened for occupancy in October 2009. 200 West Street received in 2010 gold-level certification under the United States Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program by incorporating various water and energy conservation features. As of 2018, there is no new construction planned. It has operated under the authority of the Urban Development Corporation. Its mission is "to plan, create, coordinate and sustain a balanced community of commercial, residential, retail, and park space within its designated 92-acre site on the lower west side of Manhattan". The authority's board is composed of seven uncompensated members who are appointed by the governor and who serve six-year terms. Raju Mann is the president and chief executive officer. The BPCA is invested with substantial powers: it can acquire, hold and dispose of real property, enter into lease agreements, borrow money and issue debt, and manage the project. Like other public benefit corporations, the BPCA is exempt from property taxes and has the ability to issue tax exempt bonds. In 2021, the BPCA has operating expenses of $69.1 million as well as an outstanding debt of $875.09 million, and it employed 200 people.
Under the 1989 agreement between the BPCA and the City of New York, $600 million was transferred by the BPCA to the city. Charles J. Urstadt, the first chairman and CEO of the BPCA, noted in an August 19, 2007, op-ed piece in the New York Post that the aggregate figure of funds transferred to the City of New York is above $1.4 billion, with the BPCA continuing to contribute $200 million a year. The Independent Budget Office of the City of New York also recommended the city take over Battery Park City in a report published in February 2020. The report echoed Urstadt's proposal as a way to increase revenue to the city. An article published by The Broadsheet Daily described the complex shared ownership structure of Battery Park City between the city and state that was set up by Urstadt.
Excess revenue from the area was to be contributed to other housing efforts, typically low-income projects in the Bronx and Harlem. Much of this funding has historically been diverted to general city expenses, under section 3.d of the 1989 agreement. However, in July 2006, Mayor Michael Bloomberg, Governor George Pataki, and Comptroller William C. Thompson Jr. announced the final approval for the New York City Housing Trust Fund derived from $130 million in Battery Park City revenues. The fund aimed to preserve or create 4,300 units of low- and moderate-income housing by 2009. It also provided seed financing for the New York Acquisition Fund, a $230 million initiative that aims to serve as a catalyst for the construction and preservation of more than 30,000 units of affordable housing citywide by 2016. The Acquisition Fund has since established itself as a model for similar funds in cities and states across the country.
By 2018, thirty residential buildings had been built in Battery Park City and no new construction was planned. The Battery Park City Authority's main focus turned to maintenance of existing infrastructure, security and conservancy of the public spaces. The authority was creating over 1,000 free activities per year.
Condo owners in Battery Park City pay higher monthly charges than owners of comparable apartments elsewhere in New York City because residents pay their building's common charges in addition to PILOT (payment in lieu of taxes). The PILOT payments replace real estate taxes and the land lease. The cumulative effect is lower property values for homeowners.
Because none of the properties in Battery Park City own the land they are built on, many banks have refused to write loans when those ground leases are periodically up for renewal. This has been a regular source of anger and frustration for owners in Battery Park City who are looking to sell. Demographics For census purposes, the New York City government classifies Battery Park City as part of a larger neighborhood tabulation area called Battery Park City-Lower Manhattan. Based on data from the 2010 United States census, the population of Battery Park City-Lower Manhattan was 39,699, an increase of 19,611 (97.6%) from the 20,088 counted in 2000. Covering an area of , the neighborhood had a population density of . The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 65.4% (25,965) White, 3.2% (1,288) African American, 0.1% (35) Native American, 20.2% (8,016) Asian, 0.0% (17) Pacific Islander, 0.4% (153) from other races, and 3.0% (1,170) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 7.7% (3,055) of the population.
The entirety of Community District 1, which comprises Battery Park City and other Lower Manhattan neighborhoods, had 63,383 inhabitants as of NYC Health's 2018 Community Health Profile, with an average life expectancy of 85.8 years. This is higher than the median life expectancy of 81.2 for all New York City neighborhoods. Most inhabitants are young to middle-aged adults: half (50%) are between the ages of 25 and 44, while 14% are between 0 and 17, and 18% between 45 and 64. The ratio of college-aged and elderly residents was lower, at 11% and 7% respectively. though the median income in Battery Park City individually was $126,771.
Census
Based on the 2020 census, the racial makeup of Northern Battery Park City (10282) was 66% White, 2% Black, 0% Native American, 16% Asian, 0% Islander, 0% from other races, and 5% from two or more races. Hispanic of Latino of any race were 11% of the population.
Buildings
Residential
The first residential building in Battery Park City, Gateway Plaza, was completed in 1983. It occupies the street addresses 25–39 Battery Place. However, due to the September 11 attacks which hit the nearby World Trade Center, opening of Millennium Point was delayed until January 2002. It was designed by Pelli Clarke Pelli and completed in 2003. The Solaire is located at 20 River Terrace. The developer received funding from the State of New York, which was somewhat controversial as the developer was only required to agree to set aside 10% of the units as "affordable housing" or "moderate income", rather than the usual 80:20 agreement. When the building opened, rents ranged from roughly $2,500 to $9,001 depending on the size of the unit. The building has been rated LEED Platinum. The energy conserving building design is 35% more energy-efficient than code requires, resulting in a 67% lower electricity demand during peak hours, resulting in, among other benefits, lower electric bills for residents. Photovoltaic panels convert sunlight to electricity, supplemented by a computerized building management system and environmentally responsible operating and maintenance practices to further reduce the building's environmental impact.
Other residential condominiums include:
*Battery Pointe, 300 Rector Place
*Cove Club, 2 South End Avenue
*Hudson Tower, 350 Albany Street
*Hudson View East, 250 South End Avenue
*Hudson View West, 300 Albany Street
*Liberty Court, 200 Rector Place
*Liberty Green, 300 North End Avenue
*Liberty House, 377 Rector Place
*Liberty Luxe, 200 North End Avenue
*Liberty Terrace, 380 Rector Place
*Liberty View, 99 Battery Place
*Millennium Tower Residences, 30 West Street
*The Regatta, 21 South End Avenue
*Ritz Carlton Residence, 10 West Street
*Riverhouse, One Rockefeller Park
*The Soundings, 280 Rector Place
*The Visionaire, 70 Little West Street
*212 Warren (formerly 22 River Terrace)
*Gateway Plaza, 345-395 South End Avenue
*The Hallmark, 455 North End Avenue
*Rector Square, 225 Rector Place
*River Watch, 70 Battery Place
*The Solaire, 20 River Terrace
*South Cove Plaza, 50 Battery Place
*Tribeca Bridge Tower, 450 North End Avenue
*Tribeca Green, 325 North End Avenue
*Tribeca Park, 400 Chambers Street
*Tribeca Pointe, River Terrace
*The Verdesian, 211 North End Avenue
Office
Battery Park City, which is mainly residential, also has a few office buildings. The seven buildings including the Brookfield Place complex, as well as 200 West Street, are the neighborhood's only office buildings.
Brookfield Place complex
Located in the middle of Battery Park City and overlooking the Hudson River, Brookfield Place, designed by César Pelli and owned mostly by Toronto-based Brookfield Properties, has been home to offices of various major companies, including Merrill Lynch, RBC Capital Markets, Nomura Group, American Express and Brookfield Asset Management, among others. Brookfield Place also serves as the United States headquarters for Brookfield Properties, which has its headquarters located in 200 Vesey Street. Brookfield Place also has its own zip code, 10281.
Brookfield Place's ground floor and portions of the second floor are occupied by a mall; its center point is a steel-and-glass atrium known as the Winter Garden. Outside of the Winter Garden lies a sizeable yacht harbor on the Hudson known as North Cove.
The building's original developer was Olympia and York of Toronto, Ontario. It used to be named the World Financial Center, but in 2014, the complex was given its current name following the completion of extensive renovations. The World Financial Center complex was built by Olympia and York between 1982 and 1988; It started construction in 2005 and opened in 2009.Police and crimeBattery Park City and Lower Manhattan are patrolled by the 1st Precinct of the NYPD, located at 16 Ericsson Place. The 1st Precinct ranked 63rd safest out of 69 patrol areas for per-capita crime in 2010. Though the number of crimes is low compared to other NYPD precincts, the residential population is also much lower. , with a non-fatal assault rate of 24 per 100,000 people, Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan's rate of violent crimes per capita is less than that of the city as a whole. The incarceration rate of 152 per 100,000 people is lower than that of the city as a whole.
Fire safety
Battery Park City is served by the New York City Fire Department (FDNY)'s Engine Co. 10/Ladder Co. 10 fire station, located at 124 Liberty Street.Health, preterm births and births to teenage mothers are less common in Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan than in other places citywide. In Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan, there were 77 preterm births per 1,000 live births (compared to 87 per 1,000 citywide), and 2.2 teenage births per 1,000 live births (compared to 19.3 per 1,000 citywide), though the teenage birth rate is based on a small sample size.Post office and ZIP CodesBattery Park City is located within two ZIP Codes. The neighborhood north of Brookfield Place is covered by 10282, while much of the neighborhood south of Brookfield Place is covered by 10280. Brookfield Place is part of 10281, and the southernmost tip is part of 10004. The United States Postal Service does not operate any post offices in Battery Park City. The nearest post office is the Church Street Station at 90 Church Street in the Financial District.
Education
Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan generally have a higher rate of college-educated residents than the rest of the city . The vast majority of residents age 25 and older (84%) have a college education or higher, while 4% have less than a high school education and 12% are high school graduates or have some college education. By contrast, 64% of Manhattan residents and 43% of city residents have a college education or higher.
Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan's rate of elementary school student absenteeism is lower than the rest of New York City. In Battery Park City and Lower Manhattan, 6% of elementary school students missed twenty or more days per school year, less than the citywide average of 20%.
*P.S. 89
*I.S. 289
*P.S./I.S. 276 Battery Park City School
*Stuyvesant High School, which moved into a new waterfront building in Battery Park City in 1992
*P.S. M094
*P226M
Library
Battery Park City has a New York Public Library branch at 175 North End Avenue, designed by 1100 Architect and completed in 2010. A , two-story library on the street level of a high-rise residential building, 1100 Architect, in collaboration with Atelier Ten, an international team of environmental design consultants and building services engineers, designed the library's energy-efficient lighting system. The open plan layout and large use of glass allow for ample natural daylight year-round and low-energy LED light illuminates communal spaces. Recycled materials are incorporated into the design including carpet made from re-purposed truck tires, floors made from reclaimed window frame wood, and furniture made from FSC-certified plywood and recycled steel. Design features include a seemingly "floating" origami-style ceiling made up of triangular panels hung at varying angles and a padded reading nook fitted into the library's terrazzo-finished steel and concrete staircase. Additionally, the Downtown Alliance provides a free bus service that runs along North End Avenue and South End Avenue, connecting the various residential complexes with subway stations on the other side of West Street.
There is currently no New York City Subway access in Battery Park City proper; however, the West Street pedestrian bridges, as well as crosswalks across West Street, connect Battery Park City to subway stations and the PATH station in the nearby Financial District. The West Concourse, a tunnel from Brookfield Place passing under West Street, also provides access from Battery Park City to the World Trade Center PATH station, the WTC Cortlandt station, and the Fulton Street station (New York City Subway).
The Battery Park City Ferry Terminal is at the foot of Vesey Street opposite the New York Mercantile Exchange and provides ferry transportation to various points in New Jersey via NY Waterway, Seastreak, and Liberty Water Taxi routes. NYC Ferry's St. George route, to West Midtown Ferry Terminal and St. George Terminal, stops at Battery Park City Ferry Terminal.
The West Thames Street Bridge, one of the West Street pedestrian bridges connecting Battery Park City to the Financial District, was completed in 2019, replacing the older Rector Street Bridge. On June 11, 2021, it was dedicated as the Robert F. Douglass Bridge. Its namesake, who died in 2016, was an early advocate for lower Manhattan as a senior advisor to Governor Nelson Rockefeller and later as a founding member and chairman of the Downtown Alliance and board member of the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. Parks and open spaces
]]
from the Hudson River]]
More than one-third of the neighborhood is parkland. There is also a southern extension to this park.
* Washington Street Plaza, a pedestrian plaza on Washington Street between Carlisle and Albany Streets, opened on May 23, 2013.
In addition, there are:
*Community Ballfields, North End Avenue between Murray and Warren Streets
*The Esplanade, along the Hudson River from Stuyvesant High School to Battery Park
*Monsignor Kowsky Plaza, east of the Esplanade
*Nelson A. Rockefeller State Park, north end of Battery Park City west of River Terrace
*North Cove, on the river between Liberty Street and Vesey Street.
*Oval Lawn, east of the Esplanade
*Rector Park, South End Avenue at Rector Place
*Robert F. Wagner, Jr. Park, north of Battery Park off Battery Place at Vesey Street and North End Avenue. It is dedicated to raising awareness of the Great Irish Famine. Construction began in March 2001, and the memorial was completed and dedicated on July 16, 2002.
* Museum of Jewish Heritage, a memorial to those who were murdered in the Holocaust
*Mother Cabrini Memorial, dedicated on October 12, 2020, honors the patroness of immigrants.
*9/11 Memorial at South Cove, created and dedicated on September 9, 2015.
*NYC Police Memorial is located at Liberty Street and South End Avenue, and was dedicated on October 20, 1997. Notable residents Notable residents include:
*Tyra Banks (born 1973), TV personality
*Leonardo DiCaprio, actor, resident of 1 Rockefeller Park
*Sacha Baron Cohen, actor and comedian, former resident of 1 Rockefeller Park
*Isla Fisher, actress, former resident of 1 Rockefeller Park
*Dave Gahan, musician, resident of 1 Rockefeller Park
*Kris Humphries, basketball player, resident of Liberty Luxe
See also
* Hudson River Park Trust
* New York Convention Center Operating Corporation
* Lower Manhattan Development Corporation
* Municipal Assistance Corporation for the City of NY
* Roosevelt Island Operating Corporation
* United Nations Development Corporation
References
Notes
Further reading
* Gordon, David L.A. (1997) Battery Park City: Politics and Planning on the New York Waterfront, Gordon and Breach Publishers
*Urstadt, Charles J.; Gene Brown (2005). [https://books.google.com/books/about/Battery_Park_City.html?idTfpOPgAACAAJ&sourcekp_book_description Battery Park City: The Early Years.] Bloomington.
External links
* (Hugh L. Carey Battery Park City Authority)
Category:Neighborhoods in Manhattan
Category:Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design certified buildings
Category:Redeveloped ports and waterfronts in the United States
Category:New Urbanism communities
Category:Land reclamation in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_Park_City
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Bacterial vaginosis
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{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Bacterial vaginosis
| image = Normal vaginal flora versus bacterial vaginosis on Pap stain.jpg
| caption = Vaginal squamous cell with normal vaginal flora versus bacterial vaginosis on Pap stain. Normal vaginal flora (left) is predominantly rod-shaped Lactobacilli whereas in bacterial vaginosis (right) there is an overgrowth of bacteria which can be of multiple species.
| field = Gynecology, infectious disease
| synonyms Anaerobic vaginositis, non-specific vaginitis, vaginal bacteriosis, Gardnerella vaginitis Common symptoms include increased vaginal discharge that often smells like fish. Having BV approximately doubles the risk of infection by a number of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS. It also increases the risk of early delivery among pregnant women.
BV is caused by an imbalance of the naturally occurring bacteria in the vagina. Risk factors include douching, new or multiple sex partners, antibiotics, and using an intrauterine device, among others. Diagnosis is suspected based on the symptoms, and may be verified by testing the vaginal discharge and finding a higher than normal vaginal pH, and large numbers of bacteria.
Usually treatment is with an antibiotic, such as clindamycin or metronidazole. It is unclear if the use of probiotics or antibiotics affects pregnancy outcomes.
BV is the most common vaginal infection in women of reproductive age. The percentage of women affected at any given time varies between 5% and 70%. Rates vary considerably between ethnic groups within a country.Signs and symptomsAlthough about 50% of women with BV are asymptomatic, common symptoms include increased vaginal discharge that usually smells like fish.<!-- though others argue that this is often a misdiagnosis.
Complications
Although previously considered a mere nuisance infection, untreated bacterial vaginosis may cause increased susceptibility to sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, and pregnancy complications.
It has been shown that HIV-infected women with bacterial vaginosis (BV) are more likely to transmit HIV to their sexual partners than those without BV.
Pregnant women with BV have a higher risk of chorioamnionitis, miscarriage, preterm birth, premature rupture of membranes, and postpartum endometritis. BV is defined by the disequilibrium in the vaginal microbiota, with decline in the number of lactobacilli. While the infection involves a number of bacteria, it is believed that most infections start with Gardnerella vaginalis creating a biofilm, which allows other opportunistic bacteria, such as Prevotella and Bacteroides, to thrive.
One of the main risks for developing BV is douching, which alters the vaginal microbiota and predisposes women to developing BV. Douching is strongly discouraged by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and various medical authorities, for this and other reasons. It is possible for sexually inactive persons to develop bacterial vaginosis. A longitudinal study published in February 2006, in the American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, showed a link between psychosocial stress and bacterial vaginosis persisted even when other risk factors were taken into account. Exposure to the spermicide nonoxynol-9 does not affect the risk of developing bacterial vaginosis.
The cause of the fishy smell of BV is mainly due to reduction of trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) to trimethylamine (TMA) by bacteria in vaginal secretion. TMA is the same compound that is predominantly responsible for the smell of decomposing fish.
* A characteristic "fishy" odor on wet mount. This test, called the whiff test, is performed by adding a small amount of potassium hydroxide to a microscope slide containing the vaginal discharge. A characteristic fishy odor is considered a positive whiff test and is suggestive of bacterial vaginosis. Addition of a base to vaginal secretion with the diamines putrescine and cadaverine causes them to become volatile and thereby produce a more intense fishy smell.
* Normal vaginal discharge.
* Candidiasis (thrush, or a yeast infection).
* Trichomoniasis, an infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis.
* Aerobic vaginitis
The Center for Disease Control (CDC) defines STIs as "a variety of clinical syndromes and infections caused by pathogens that can be acquired and transmitted through sexual activity." But the CDC does not specifically identify BV as sexually transmitted infection.
# Thin, white, yellow, homogeneous discharge
# Clue cells on microscopy
# pH of vaginal fluid >4.5
# Release of a fishy odor on adding alkali—10% potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution.
At least three of the four criteria should be present for a confirmed diagnosis.
A modification of the Amsel criteria accepts the presence of two instead of three factors and is considered equally diagnostic.
Gram stain
An alternative is to use a Gram-stained vaginal smear, with the Hay/Ison criteria or the Nugent criteria. The Hay/Ison criteria are defined as follows:Nugent scoreThe Nugent score is now rarely used by physicians due to the time it takes to read the slides and requires the use of a trained microscopist.
{| class="wikitable"
|
Lactobacillus morphotypes – average per high powered (1000× oil immersion) field. View multiple fields.
||
Gardnerella / Bacteroides morphotypes – average per high powered (1000× oil immersion) field. View multiple fields.
||
Curved Gram variable rods – average per high powered (1000× oil immersion) field. View multiple fields (note that this factor is less important – scores of only 0–2 are possible)
|-
|
* Score 0 for >30
* Score 1 for 15–30
* Score 2 for 14
* Score 3 for <1 (this is an average, so results can be >0, yet <1)
* Score 4 for 0
||
* Score 0 for 0
* Score 1 for <1 (this is an average, so results can be >0, yet <1)
* Score 2 for 1–4
* Score 3 for 5–30
* Score 4 for >30
||
* Score 0 for 0
* Score 1 for <5
* Score 2 for 5+
|}
DNA hybridization testing with Affirm VPIII was compared to the Gram stain using the Nugent criteria. The Affirm VPIII test may be used for the rapid diagnosis of BV in symptomatic women but uses expensive proprietary equipment to read results, and does not detect other pathogens that cause BV, including Prevotella spp, Bacteroides spp, and Mobiluncus spp. The cervicovaginal microbiome measured using 16S rRNA sequencing has the capacity to increase throughput of the Nugent Score and has demonstrate to be directly comparable to clinical Nugent Score measurement.
Screening
Screening during pregnancy is not recommended in the United States as of 2020 because " the US Preventive Services Task Force concludes that the current evidence is insufficient to assess the balance of benefits and harms of screening for bacterial vaginosis in pregnant persons at increased risk for preterm delivery".
Prevention
Some steps suggested to lower the risk include: not douching, avoiding sex, or limiting the number of sex partners.
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses from 2022 to 2023 have concluded that probiotics may help prevent re-occurrence.
Early evidence suggested that antibiotic treatment of male partners could re-establish the normal microbiota of the male urogenital tract and prevent the recurrence of infection. However, a 2016 Cochrane review found high-quality evidence that treating the sexual partners of women with bacterial vaginosis had no effect on symptoms, clinical outcomes, or recurrence in the affected women. It also found that such treatment may lead treated sexual partners to report increased adverse events. Other antibiotics related to metronidazole, including tinidazole and the newer secnidazole, are also approved and used to treat BV. When clindamycin is given to pregnant women symptomatic with BV before 22 weeks of gestation the risk of pre-term birth before 37 weeks of gestation is lower. Additional antibiotics that are not approved for treatment of BV but might work include macrolides, lincosamides, and penicillins. Recurrence rates are increased with sexual activity with the same pre-/post-treatment partner and inconsistent condom use.
BV is not considered a sexually transmitted infection, and antibiotic treatment of a male sexual partner of a woman with BV is not recommended.AntisepticsTopical antiseptics, for example dequalinium chloride, policresulen, hexetidine, povidone-iodine, or boric acid vaginal suppositories may be applied, if the risk of ascending infections is low (outside of pregnancy and in immunocompetent people without histories of upper genital tract infections). Povidone-iodine is approved as a vaginal gel to treat bacterial vaginosis under the brand name Astrodimer, among others. One study found that vaginal irrigations with hydrogen peroxide (3%) resulted in a slight improvement, but this was much less than with the use of oral metronidazole. Dequalinium chloride and povidone-iodine (as Astrodimer) have the best evidence of effectiveness.
TOL-463, an experimental formulation of boric acid enhanced with ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), is under development as an intravaginal medication for the treatment of BV and has shown preliminary effectiveness in clinical trials.
Probiotics
A 2009 Cochrane review found tentative but insufficient evidence for probiotics as a treatment for BV. A 2013 review found some evidence supporting the use of probiotics during pregnancy. The preferred probiotics for BV are those containing high doses of lactobacilli (around 10<sup>9</sup> ) given in the vagina. Intravaginal administration is preferred to taking them by mouth. LACTIN-V is a live biopharmaceutical medication containing the vaginally important Lactobacillus crispatus which is under development for the treatment of bacterial vaginosis and recurrent urinary tract infections. It has shown initial effectiveness in considerably reducing recurrence of bacterial vaginosis following antibiotic treatment.<ref name"pmid33330916" /><ref name"CDC2021" /> LACTIN-V is not yet Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved or commercially available.<ref name"CDC2021" /><ref name"AdisInsight-LACTIN-V" />MiscellaneousEstrogen-containing contraceptives have been found to decrease recurrence of BV.<ref name"BradshawVodstrcilHocking2013" />
Epidemiology
BV is the most common infection of the vagina in women of reproductive age.<ref nameNIH2013O/> The percentage of women affected at any given time varies between 5% and 70%.<ref nameKen2013/> BV is most common in parts of Africa, and least common in Asia and Europe.<ref nameKen2013/> In the United States, about 30% of those between the ages of 14 and 49 are affected.<ref nameCDC2010Stats/> Rates vary considerably between ethnic groups within a country.<ref nameKen2013/>ReferencesExternal links
* [https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/bacterial-vaginosis WHO fact sheet on bacterial vaginosis]
,
| ICD10 =
| ICD9 =
| ICDO | OMIM
| MedlinePlus | eMedicineSubj
| eMedicineTopic | MeshID D016585
}}
Category:Inflammatory diseases of female pelvic organs
Category:Mycoplasma
Category:Probiotics
Category:Sexually transmitted diseases and infections
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_vaginosis
|
2025-04-05T18:26:54.014470
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