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Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | yes_statement | "humans" can "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/can-people-live-150-probably-not-new-study-finds-n660431 | Can People Live to 150? Probably Not, New Study Finds | Can People Live to 150? Probably Not, New Study Finds
Human beings have a maximum lifespan, and it’s probably 115 years, researchers say.
Jeanne Calment in Arles, France on Feb. 12, 1996. Believed to be the world's oldest person, she died at the age of 122 in 1997.Anonymous / AP
Oct. 5, 2016, 8:06 PM UTC / Updated Oct. 5, 2016, 8:06 PM UTC
By Maggie Fox
Human beings have a maximum lifespan, and it’s probably 115 years, researchers said Wednesday.
While life expectancy continues to increase — that’s a measure of how long any individual can expect to live — maximum lifespan has not, the team at the Einstein College of Medicine in New York found.
And it probably won’t, they predict.
Besse Cooper, 114, right, receives a kiss from her grandson Paul Cooper, 42, during a ceremony in which Guinness World Records recognized her as the word's oldest living person, at her nursing home on March 10, 2011, in Monroe, Ga.John Amis / AP, file
“Our data strongly suggest that the duration of life is limited,” Jan Vijg and colleagues wrote in their report, published in the journal Nature. “Our data seem to say it is really around 115,” Vijg added in an interview.
Vijg is a professor of genetics, but he used simple statistics to come up with his conclusion.
Jeanne Calment set the absolute record for long life. She died when she was 122, in 1997. Since then, no one has lived any longer.
Vijg’s team looked at global databases on lifespan and found it peaks at around 100 and then falls back down again. The limit seems to be about 115, or 125 if you account for the very occasional outlier, like Calment.
“We show that improvements in survival with age tend to decline after age 100, and that the age at death of the world’s oldest person has not increased since the 1990s."
“We show that improvements in survival with age tend to decline after age 100, and that the age at death of the world’s oldest person has not increased since the 1990s. Our results strongly suggest that the maximum lifespan of humans is fixed and subject to natural constraints,” they wrote.
This is not the same thing as improvements in life expectancy, which soared after antibiotics, vaccines and other medical breakthroughs got rid of diseases that kill people when they are young. Even under perfect conditions without disease, everything dies eventually.
And it’s not that there is some genetic time bomb, but more that the mechanisms for keeping the body going wear out.
It’s not a particularly new idea, but the data had not been there to back it up. Now that countries around the world are keeping careful records, Vijg said, it’s possible to prove it.
“Biologists always strongly suspected that maximum lifespan was genetically determined and specific to the species,” he told NBC News.
“A mouse in the wild doesn’t live more than seven, eight months or so. But if you take those mice and keep them in captivity and optimal conditions, they die when they are two years old or so. But they die. And that is because of the aging process.”
Thomas, 5, looks at Jeanne Calment after he brought her flowers at her retirement home in Arles, southern France on Feb. 12, 1997. Calment, believed to be the world's oldest person, died at the age of 122 in 1997. New research published in the journal Nature on Oct. 5, 2016 suggests there's a limit to our life span and that the odds of breaking Calment's record are small.Florian Launette / AP, file
Dr. Thomas Perls of Boston Medical Center and the Boston University School of Medicine agrees.
“This is all stuff many of us in the field knew. It was just a matter of putting it down on paper,” Perls told NBC News.
Perls is studying so-called super-agers — people who live to be 110 or older.
“We now have 150 people over 110. They are very, very rare,” Perls said.
He calculates that one in 5 million people lives to be 110 or older. He thinks there is something different about them.
It’s easy to get to be old, Perls says.
“That is what the Seventh Day Adventist health study has shown us,” he said.
“If you take advantage of this average set of genes that we have — you don’t smoke, you don’t drink, you get regular exercise, you have a vegetarian diet, you’re not overweight and maybe you do things to manage stress well, then you do what Seventh Day Adventists have, which is you have an average life expectancy of 89 if you are a woman, and 86 if you are a man.”
But to become super-old, it looks like you need a unique set of genes, he said.
“These incredibly rare ages that approach the limits of lifespan — 70 to 80 percent of it is explained by a difference in genes and not so much health behaviors.”
“It is not a single gene. It is many, many genes, each with modest effect. It’s kind of like winning the lottery. Getting one or two numbers is not rare. Getting seven is rare,” Perls said.
David Sinclair, a pathologist at Harvard Medical School who also studies aging, disagrees that there's a set limit to lifespan. He’s been working for decades on various compounds that can reverse the aging process in cells.
"It’s kind of like winning the lottery. Getting one or two numbers is not rare. Getting seven is rare."
“We were able a couple of years ago to show we could reverse aging in mice within a week.”
He’s been trying to do the same in humans, with mixed results. One company he set up to develop age-reversing compounds was closed by its big pharma owner, GlaxoSmithKline, in 2013. But Sinclair says the company is continuing the research internally and argues there are no set limits. He doesn’t believe that looking at past patterns can predict the future.
“There are many species that live longer than us,” he said. “A bowhead whale lives to more than 200.”
Nijg doesn’t disagree that drugs may help some people live longer than they normally would, and not just by treating age-related diseases.
He points to studies on the diabetes drug metformin and the immune suppressant drug rapamycin, which suggest the drugs might slow some aging processes.
“They won’t break through the ceiling,” Vijg said. “But if it can get me another 10 years in great health, I’ll take it.” | BC News.
“A mouse in the wild doesn’t live more than seven, eight months or so. But if you take those mice and keep them in captivity and optimal conditions, they die when they are two years old or so. But they die. And that is because of the aging process.”
Thomas, 5, looks at Jeanne Calment after he brought her flowers at her retirement home in Arles, southern France on Feb. 12, 1997. Calment, believed to be the world's oldest person, died at the age of 122 in 1997. New research published in the journal Nature on Oct. 5, 2016 suggests there's a limit to our life span and that the odds of breaking Calment's record are small. Florian Launette / AP, file
Dr. Thomas Perls of Boston Medical Center and the Boston University School of Medicine agrees.
“This is all stuff many of us in the field knew. It was just a matter of putting it down on paper,” Perls told NBC News.
Perls is studying so-called super-agers — people who live to be 110 or older.
“We now have 150 people over 110. They are very, very rare,” Perls said.
He calculates that one in 5 million people lives to be 110 or older. He thinks there is something different about them.
It’s easy to get to be old, Perls says.
“That is what the Seventh Day Adventist health study has shown us,” he said.
“If you take advantage of this average set of genes that we have — you don’t smoke, you don’t drink, you get regular exercise, you have a vegetarian diet, you’re not overweight and maybe you do things to manage stress well, then you do what Seventh Day Adventists have, which is you have an average life expectancy of 89 if you are a woman, and 86 if you are a man.”
But to become super-old, it looks like you need a unique set of genes, he said.
| no |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | yes_statement | "humans" can "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://www.marca.com/en/lifestyle/2022/03/28/6241e20322601db1798b4623.html | Research claims that humans can live up to 150 years | Marca | The average age of humans has increased following improvements in medicine and technology, with researchers and scientists now trying to find ways to extend our lifespan.
Meanwhile, researchers at GERO.AI claim that a human being can live for up to 150 years after analysing 70,000 people up to the age of 85 based on their ability to fight the risk of heart conditions, cognitive impairment and disease.
While The Conversation revealed that none of the aforementioned participants showed the resiliency to reach the 150-year mark, the study underlined that the human lifespan's limit is between 100 and 150 years.
"Our study demonstrates that it's possible to safely reverse the age of complex tissues such as the retina and restore its youthful biological function," said senior author David Sinclair.
"If affirmed through further studies, these findings could be transformative for the care of age-related vision diseases like glaucoma and to the fields of biology and medical therapeutics for disease at large."
Fighting ageing
Meanwhile, there are people such as author and entrepreneur Dave Asprey who has invested more than 1.8 million euros in technologies such as stem cell injections and cryotherapy chambers which could leave their mark on the evolution of biology over the next few years.
"I'm curious, I think there's a lot of things we can fix and improve in the world and I don't feel like I'm at all done yet," he told This Morning's Holly Willoughby back in 2021.
"The things I am working to pioneer, some of them are expensive, some of them are free like fasting. This will be like cell phones, everyone has cell phones - everyone will have anti-ageing.
"Change can happen rapidly in society. "There will be many people who are under 40 right now who [will be] walking around under their own power, perfectly happy, highly functional, who are more than 100 years old." | The average age of humans has increased following improvements in medicine and technology, with researchers and scientists now trying to find ways to extend our lifespan.
Meanwhile, researchers at GERO.AI claim that a human being can live for up to 150 years after analysing 70,000 people up to the age of 85 based on their ability to fight the risk of heart conditions, cognitive impairment and disease.
While The Conversation revealed that none of the aforementioned participants showed the resiliency to reach the 150-year mark, the study underlined that the human lifespan's limit is between 100 and 150 years.
"Our study demonstrates that it's possible to safely reverse the age of complex tissues such as the retina and restore its youthful biological function," said senior author David Sinclair.
"If affirmed through further studies, these findings could be transformative for the care of age-related vision diseases like glaucoma and to the fields of biology and medical therapeutics for disease at large. "
Fighting ageing
Meanwhile, there are people such as author and entrepreneur Dave Asprey who has invested more than 1.8 million euros in technologies such as stem cell injections and cryotherapy chambers which could leave their mark on the evolution of biology over the next few years.
"I'm curious, I think there's a lot of things we can fix and improve in the world and I don't feel like I'm at all done yet," he told This Morning's Holly Willoughby back in 2021.
"The things I am working to pioneer, some of them are expensive, some of them are free like fasting. This will be like cell phones, everyone has cell phones - everyone will have anti-ageing.
"Change can happen rapidly in society. "There will be many people who are under 40 right now who [will be] walking around under their own power, perfectly happy, highly functional, who are more than 100 years old." | no |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | yes_statement | "humans" can "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://studyfinds.org/humans-maximum-lifespan/ | Living to 150? Humans 'not even close' to reaching the maximum ... | Living to 150? Humans ‘not even close’ to reaching the maximum lifespan
ATHENS, Ga. — Human lifespans are capable of soaring past the current record of 122 years, with people possibly reaching the age of 150, a new study explains. According to a researcher at the University of Georgia, we are “not even close” to reaching the maximum potential lifespan.
The findings are based on an analysis of mortality rates going back more than three centuries across 19 countries. Lead author Dr. David McCarthy describes the implications as “profound.” For most of recorded human history, the average life expectancy has been between 20 and 40 years. Today, humans live to be around 80 years-old.
Improved nutrition, clean water, better sanitation, and the application of medical science have been key to prolonging life. Experts suspect genetic manipulation, calorie restriction, and new medicines may extend life even further.
The team in the study combined reasoning and probability – known as Bayesian theory – to work out potential maximum longevity. Results showed mortality limits have only been postponed in recent years due to records being slow to increase.
“As these cohorts attain advanced ages in coming decades, longevity records may therefore increase significantly. Our results confirm prior work suggesting that if there is a maximum limit to the human lifespan, we are not yet approaching it.”
(Credit: Anna Shvets from Pexels)
So, how long can people really live?
Two years ago, another study found life expectancy has the capacity to almost double, going beyond 150. Those findings were based on blood samples from thousands of British and American participants.
“Whether or not there is a limit to the human lifespan has been a subject of debate for millennia,” Dr. McCarthy continues. “Historical estimates of the maximum possible lifespan strongly suggest it has increased substantially over recorded history.”
The Bible famously records the Hebrews as regarding 80 years as the maximum length of a human life. Around 1,000 years later, the ancient Romans set their official estimate at 100 or 110.
The world record is currently held by Jeanne Calment of France, who lived to be 122 years and 164 days-old when she died. The oldest known living person is Maria Branyas of Spain, who is 116. The oldest known living man is Juan Vicente Pérez of Venezuela, age 113.
“We emphasize further that cohorts born before 1950 will only have the potential to break existing longevity records if policy choices continue to support the health and welfare of the elderly and the political, environmental and economic environment remains stable,” Dr. Mccarthy concludes.
“The emergence of COVID-19 and its outsize effect on the mortality of the elderly provides a salutary warning that none of this is certain. If, however, the maximum age does increase as the current mortality experience of incomplete cohorts suggests is likely the implications for human societies, national economies and individual lives will be profound.”
South West News Service writer Mark Waghorn contributed to this report. | Living to 150? Humans ‘not even close’ to reaching the maximum lifespan
ATHENS, Ga. — Human lifespans are capable of soaring past the current record of 122 years, with people possibly reaching the age of 150, a new study explains. According to a researcher at the University of Georgia, we are “not even close” to reaching the maximum potential lifespan.
The findings are based on an analysis of mortality rates going back more than three centuries across 19 countries. Lead author Dr. David McCarthy describes the implications as “profound.” For most of recorded human history, the average life expectancy has been between 20 and 40 years. Today, humans live to be around 80 years-old.
Improved nutrition, clean water, better sanitation, and the application of medical science have been key to prolonging life. Experts suspect genetic manipulation, calorie restriction, and new medicines may extend life even further.
The team in the study combined reasoning and probability – known as Bayesian theory – to work out potential maximum longevity. Results showed mortality limits have only been postponed in recent years due to records being slow to increase.
“As these cohorts attain advanced ages in coming decades, longevity records may therefore increase significantly. Our results confirm prior work suggesting that if there is a maximum limit to the human lifespan, we are not yet approaching it.”
(Credit: Anna Shvets from Pexels)
So, how long can people really live?
Two years ago, another study found life expectancy has the capacity to almost double, going beyond 150. Those findings were based on blood samples from thousands of British and American participants.
“Whether or not there is a limit to the human lifespan has been a subject of debate for millennia,” Dr. McCarthy continues. “Historical estimates of the maximum possible lifespan strongly suggest it has increased substantially over recorded history.”
The Bible famously records the Hebrews as regarding 80 years as the maximum length of a human life. Around 1,000 years later, the ancient Romans set their official estimate at 100 or 110.
| yes |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | yes_statement | "humans" can "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://guardian.ng/features/why-humans-cannot-live-beyond-150-years-by-study/ | Why humans cannot live beyond 150 years, by study | The Guardian ... | Why humans cannot live beyond 150 years, by study
Scientists have provided explanations on why humans are never going to be able to live beyond 150 years of age. They developed an app to predict the maximum lifespan.
Old age
Scientists have provided explanations on why humans are never going to be able to live beyond 150 years of age. They developed an app to predict the maximum lifespan.
The study was published in the journal Nature Communications.
Experts in biology and biophysics fed an artificial intelligence system vast amounts of Deoxy ribonucleic Acid (DNA)/genetic material and medical data, on hundreds of thousands of volunteers in the United Kingdom (UK) and United States (US).
This allowed them to develop an AI-driven iPhone app that, with simple input from a user, can accurately estimate the rate of biological ageing and maximum lifespan.
As part of the big data study, they found there were two key parameters responsible for human lifespan, both covering lifestyle factors and how the body responds.
The first factor is biological age, linked to stress, lifestyle and disease, and the second is resilience, reflecting how quickly the first factor returns to normal.
This allowed the team to determine that the longest any human is likely to ever live is 150 years; almost double the current UK average lifespan of 81 years.
The discovery is based on blood samples from two different longitudinal DNA studies, analysed by the team from Gero, a Singapore-based biotech company and Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York.
When do human brains become “old”? The human brain becomes ‘old’ at just 25, research suggested in February 2017.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is found in the brain and spinal cord, changes its speed of movement in people older than their mid-20s, a Lancaster University study found.
These movements are linked to breathing and heart rates, with CSF changes previously being associated with conditions such as multiple sclerosis and high blood pressure.
It is unclear if these CSF changes are associated with brain disorders that typically affect the elderly, such as dementia.
Previous research suggests the volume and weight of the brain begins to decline by around five per cent per decade when a person reaches 40 years old.
On the back of these findings, study author, Prof. Aneta Stefanovska, added further research “may open up new frontiers in the understanding and diagnosis of various neurodegenerative and ageing-related diseases to improve diagnostic procedures and patient prognosis.”
The discovery came to light during the development of a new method of investigating brain function, which has revealed the stage in life when the brain starts to deteriorate.
Previous research carried out by Imperial College London suggests brains’ grey matter, which enables the organ to function, shrinks during middle age and is related to cell death.
White matter, which enables communication between nerve clusters, also appears to decline at around 40.
This is also when the deterioration of myelin sheath occurs. Myelin sheath is a fatty substance that surrounds nerve cells and ensures proper function of the nervous system.
These changes are thought to occur due to a reduction in the hormones dopamine and serotonin.
Researchers made use of an instrument, called DOSI (dynamic organism state indicator), that takes into account age, illness and lifestyle factors, to work out how resilient our body is, including its ability to recover from injury or disease.
Study first author, Dr. Tim Pyrkov, of Gero, said: “Calculation of resilience based on physical activity data streams has been implemented in the GeroSense iPhone app.
“It shows a complete loss of human body resilience, that is the ability to recover, at some age around 120 to 150 years old.”
The study, published in the journal Nature Communications, also included step count data from around 4,500 adults in the US.
Gero co founder, Dr. Peter Fedichev said: “Ageing in humans exhibits universal features common to complex systems operating on the brink of disintegration.
“This work is a demonstration of how concepts borrowed from physical sciences can be used in biology to probe different aspects of senescence and frailty to produce strong interventions against ageing.”
Senescent – or ‘zombie’ – cells are believed to hold the key to “elixir of youth” pill, the team said, as they are “alive but non-functioning.”
These cells have been linked to everything from arthritis to Alzheimer’s.
For most of recorded human history average life expectancy has been between 20 and 40 years. Today in the UK it is about 80 years and in the US about 78 years.
Improved nutrition, clean water, better sanitation and the application of medical science have been key in significantly raising our average lifespan.
Experts believe that in the future, genetic manipulation, calorie restriction and drugs may extend life much further, but DOSI analysis puts a hard limit on just how far.
The analysis found DOSI fluctuations increase with age, due to an increase in recovery time, and Pyrkov used this to find out how long we can keep running.
The result will disappoint some longevity researchers – who have said it is possible to live to 1,000, finding instead that the cap is about 150 years of age.
Reduced resilience was observed even in those not suffering from major chronic disease, leading to an increased range of fluctuations.
Pyrkov said: “As we age, more and more time is required to recover after a perturbation, and on average we spend less and less time close to the optimal physiological state.”
The predicted weakening in the healthiest, most successfully ageing individuals sheds light on why maximum lifespan has plateaued out.
But it opens the door to new treatments – and clinical trials. Preventing or curing diseases won’t extend it, but there may be future treatments that can.
Pyrkov said: “We do not foresee any laws of nature prohibiting such an intervention.
“Therefore, the aging model presented in this work may guide the development of life-extending therapies with the strongest possible effects on healthspan.”
AVERAGE LIFE EXPECTANCY AROUND THE WORLD
Japan – 84.3 years
Australia – 83 years
France 82.5 years
Canada – 82.2 years
UK – 81.4 years
US – 78.5 years
Somalia – 56.6 years
World – 73.3 years
Europe – 78.2 years
Western Pacific – 77.7 years
Americas – 77.2 years
South-East Asia – 71.4 years
Eastern Mediterranean – 69.7 years
Africa – 64.5 years
The team has also built a wearable DOSI called GeroSense to compute resilience, based on a stream of various data points on a users physical activity.
A population study found resilience increases exponentially with age – and doubles every eight years, matching the “Gompertz mortality law”.
This law, named after 19th century self-educated mathematician and scientist Benjamin Gompertz, who observed the risk doubles every eight years.
Co author Professor Andrei Gudkov, of Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Centre in the US, said this new study is a “conceptual breakthrough.”
“It determines and separates the roles of fundamental factors in human longevity – the ageing, defined as progressive loss of resilience, and age related diseases.
“It explains why even most effective prevention and treatment of age-related diseases could only improve the average but not the maximal lifespan unless true anti ageing therapies have been developed.”
The findings have been published in the journal Nature Communications.
How might scientists use telomerase to reverse the process of ageing?
Scientists decoded an enzyme thought to halt ageing in plants, animals and humans as part of a recent breakthrough study.
Unravelling the structure of the complex enzyme, called telomerase, could lead to drugs that slow or block the ageing process, along with new treatments for cancer, researchers reported in the journal Nature in April.
Elated scientists announced the completion of a 20-year quest to map the enzyme thought to forestall ageing by repairing the tips of chromosomes.
“It has been a long time coming,” lead investigator Kathleen Collins, a molecular biologist at the University of California in Berkeley, said in a statement.
Part protein and part RNA (genetic material that relays instructions for building proteins) telomerase acts on microscopic sheaths, known as telomeres, that cover the tips of the chromosomes found inside all cells.
In humans, each cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, including one pair of sex chromosomes – the ‘X’ and ‘Y’ – that differ between males and females.
Australian-American biologist Elizabeth Blackburn, who shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Medicine for discovering telomeres and their protective function in the 1970s, likened them to the tiny plastic caps that keep shoelaces from fraying.
Eventually, however, shoelace tips and telomeres do break down: every time a cell divides the telomeres get worn a little bit more, until the cell stops dividing and dies. This, biologists agree, is probably central to the natural ageing process.
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Scientists have provided explanations on why humans are never going to be able to live beyond 150 years of age. They developed an app to predict the maximum lifespan.
Old age
Scientists have provided explanations on why humans are never going to be able to live beyond 150 years of age. They developed an app to predict the maximum lifespan.
The study was published in the journal Nature Communications.
Experts in biology and biophysics fed an artificial intelligence system vast amounts of Deoxy ribonucleic Acid (DNA)/genetic material and medical data, on hundreds of thousands of volunteers in the United Kingdom (UK) and United States (US).
This allowed them to develop an AI-driven iPhone app that, with simple input from a user, can accurately estimate the rate of biological ageing and maximum lifespan.
As part of the big data study, they found there were two key parameters responsible for human lifespan, both covering lifestyle factors and how the body responds.
The first factor is biological age, linked to stress, lifestyle and disease, and the second is resilience, reflecting how quickly the first factor returns to normal.
This allowed the team to determine that the longest any human is likely to ever live is 150 years; almost double the current UK average lifespan of 81 years.
The discovery is based on blood samples from two different longitudinal DNA studies, analysed by the team from Gero, a Singapore-based biotech company and Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York.
When do human brains become “old”? The human brain becomes ‘old’ at just 25, research suggested in February 2017.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is found in the brain and spinal cord, changes its speed of movement in people older than their mid-20s, a Lancaster University study found.
These movements are linked to breathing and heart rates, with CSF changes previously being associated with conditions such as multiple sclerosis and high blood pressure.
| no |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | yes_statement | "humans" can "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2016/10/humans-wont-ever-live-far-beyond-115-years/502967/ | Humans Won't Ever Live Far Beyond 115 Years - The Atlantic | Jeanne Louise Calment spent all of her incredibly long life in Arles, France. She was born there in February 1875 and died there in August 1997. At the time of her death, she was the oldest person ever recorded—and she still is.
Perhaps she always will be.
For years, people have been saying that the first human who will live to 150 has already been born. That’s unlikely, say Jan Vijg, Xiao Dong, and Brandon Milholland, from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. After looking at demographic data from the last century, they think that human lifespan has a hard ceiling at around 115 years. A few rare individuals like Calment may surpass that limit, if only slightly, but on average, our species will not.
That seems counter-intuitive. For centuries, our average life expectancy has been going up and up. Our maximum lifespan has too: Although claims of extreme age can be hard to verify, one reliable set of figures from Sweden showed that the very oldest people reached just 101 years in the 1860s but 108 years in the 1990s. “Demographers said that if there’s an end in sight, they couldn’t see it,” says Vijg, who led the new study. “When Calment died at 122, everyone said it’ll only be a matter of time before we have someone who’s 125 or 130. But after Calment, there was no one else. It was 115 … 115 … 115.”
To see if that perceived plateau was real, Dong, Milholland, and Vijg turned to two international databaseson longevity and worked out the oldest individuals who died in any given year. They specifically looked at France, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.—the four countries with the most supercentenarians, people who live to 110 years or more.
The data were clear. Between the 1970s and early 1990s, our maximum age rose from around 110 to 115—and then stopped after 1995, shortly before Jeanne Calment died. In fact, Vijg’s team calculated that in any given year, the odds that at least one person in the world will live past their 125th birthday are less than 1 in 10,000.
Despite sanitation, antibiotics, vaccines, and other medical advances, the oldest living people simply aren’t dying any later. They’re unlikely to either, regardless of calorie restriction, drugs like rapamycin, and all of our other efforts to slow the flow of sand through the hourglass. “In science, you never know,” says Vijg. “But I’ve not seen anything that I think would break through the ceiling.”
The ceiling is probably hardwired into our biology. As we grow older, we slowly accumulate damage to our DNA and other molecules, which turns the intricate machinery of our cells into a creaky, dysfunctional mess. In most cases, that decline leads to diseases of old age, like cancer, heart disease, or Alzheimer’s. But if people live past their 80s or 90s, their odds of getting such illnesses actually start to fall—perhaps because they have protective genes. Supercentenarians don’t tend to die of major diseases—Jeanne Calment died of natural causes—and many of them are physically independent even at the end of their lives. But they still die, “simply because too many of their bodily functions fail,” says Vijg. “They can no longer continue to live.”
Why should life come to such a crashing halt? Imagine that you have an animal that doesn’t age. Despite its immortality, it can still starve, succumb to accidents, or fall to predators. Eventually, its luck always runs out. This imaginary creature should have a demography much like ours—lots of young individuals and fewer old ones. As such, evolution should favor genetic changes that offer advantages during early life—say, in growth or reproduction. By contrast, genetic changes that cause harm during later life would be ignored—they hardly matter when so few individuals reach those ages anyway. That’s why organisms age—evolution naturally and inexorably prioritizes the young in favor of the old.
But if early development and childhood experiences are so important to our future health, it’s notable that today’s centenarians were born in the 1900s. It might be that longevity records “haven’t yet seen the impact of the improved sanitation, healthcare, vaccinations, and hygiene advances that took place in the 1930s and later,” says Holly Brown-Borg from the University of North Dakota. Or perhaps, “our poor diets and lack of exercise have countered those gains.”
That’s unlikely to matter much, says Vijg. “Once you survive your childhood, you’re really more likely to survive over long periods of time. And there have been enormous advances in keeping older people alive much longer. We’ve continued to make progress in medical care and safety standards, and there are more and more people. You can’t explain the fact that there aren’t older people that Jeanne Clement except to say that we’ve hit a ceiling.”
We have pushed that ceiling upward for laboratory animals, like worms, flies, and rodents. But these creatures were specifically bred by scientists to grow fast and reproduce rapidly. Many of the techniques for extending their lives, from drugs to calorie restriction, probably work by simply slowing their artificially inflated growth.
Similar tricks might increase our healthspan, and raise our average life expectancy. But Vijg believes that the most we can hope for is to be very healthy for around 115 years, after which our bodies will just collapse.
“There’s no question that we have postponed aging,” adds Judith Campisi, from the Buck Institute for Research on Aging. “But to engineer an increase in maximum lifespan, we’ll probably have to modify so many genes that it won’t be possible within our lifespan—or even our grandchildren’s lifespan.”
After the paper was published, a few scientists on Twitter questioned the statistics behind it. Leonid Kruglyak, from the University of California, Los Angeles, suspected that the recent “plateau” is driven by a small number of outliers like Calment. If you remove them, it’s “not clear there’s any break in [the] upward trend beyond random fluctuations,” he said. He also questioned Vijg’s choice to analyze the change in maximum age before and after 1995, calling it an “arbitrary breakpoint”.
Vijg stands by the study. His team originally left Jeanne Calment out of the analysis; with or without her, the results are the same—no increase in maximum age after 1995. It didn’t matter which year he picked as the breakpoint either. “There simply is no significant increase from the early 1990s onwards,” he says. “I am sure that some people will argue that the upward trend may continue soon enough. While we agree that the data are noisy, which is to be expected the statistics are clear. Fortunately, all databases are public so everyone who wishes can do the math and disagree with us.” | 108 years in the 1990s. “Demographers said that if there’s an end in sight, they couldn’t see it,” says Vijg, who led the new study. “When Calment died at 122, everyone said it’ll only be a matter of time before we have someone who’s 125 or 130. But after Calment, there was no one else. It was 115 … 115 … 115.”
To see if that perceived plateau was real, Dong, Milholland, and Vijg turned to two international databaseson longevity and worked out the oldest individuals who died in any given year. They specifically looked at France, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the U.S.—the four countries with the most supercentenarians, people who live to 110 years or more.
The data were clear. Between the 1970s and early 1990s, our maximum age rose from around 110 to 115—and then stopped after 1995, shortly before Jeanne Calment died. In fact, Vijg’s team calculated that in any given year, the odds that at least one person in the world will live past their 125th birthday are less than 1 in 10,000.
Despite sanitation, antibiotics, vaccines, and other medical advances, the oldest living people simply aren’t dying any later. They’re unlikely to either, regardless of calorie restriction, drugs like rapamycin, and all of our other efforts to slow the flow of sand through the hourglass. “In science, you never know,” says Vijg. “But I’ve not seen anything that I think would break through the ceiling.”
The ceiling is probably hardwired into our biology. As we grow older, we slowly accumulate damage to our DNA and other molecules, which turns the intricate machinery of our cells into a creaky, dysfunctional mess. In most cases, that decline leads to diseases of old age, like cancer, heart disease, or Alzheimer’s. | no |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | yes_statement | "humans" can "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://www.cnet.com/science/humans-probably-cant-live-past-150-years-research-finds/ | Humans probably can't live longer than 150 years, new research ... | Science is once again casting doubt on the idea that we could live to be nearly as old as the biblical Methuselah or Mel Brooks' famous 2,000-year-old man.
New research from Singapore-base biotech company Gero looks at how well the human body bounces back from disease, accidents or just about anything else that puts stress on its systems. This basic resilience declines as people age, with an 80-year-old requiring three times as long to recover from stresses as a 40-year-old on average.
This should make sense if you've ever known an elderly person who has taken a nasty fall. Recovery from such a spill can be lif- threatening for a particularly frail person, whereas a similar fall might put a person half as old out of commission for just a short time and teenagers might simply dust themselves off and keep going.
Extrapolate this decline further, and human body resilience is completely gone at some age between 120 and 150, according to new analysis performed by the researchers. In other words, at some point your body loses all ability to recover from pretty much any potential stressor.
The researchers arrived at this conclusion by looking at health data for large groups from the US, the UK and Russia. They looked at blood cell counts as well as step counts recorded by wearables. As people experienced different stressors, fluctuations in blood cell and step counts showed that recovery time grew longer as individuals grew older.
The new research contains a certain amount of validation for the idea that humans start dying from the moment we're born, but the process seems to speed up significantly somewhere in the mid-thirties to mid-forties when the body's resilience starts to decline more steeply.
The study's conclusion that the body loses all ability to cope -- or at least to recover -- from stress before age 150 is line with the conclusions of similar studies, including one from last year that pegged the maximum possible human age at 138 years.
"This work ... explains why even most effective prevention and treatment of age-related diseases could only improve the average but not the maximal lifespan unless true antiaging therapies have been developed," adds co-author Andrei Gudkov, from the Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York.
This is the hope of the researchers -- that it might light the way when it comes to not only maximizing life span, but also a higher quality of life across that span.
"The investigation shows that recovery rate is an important signature of aging that can guide the development of drugs to slow the process and extend health span," said David Sinclair, a Harvard Medical School professor of genetics. | Science is once again casting doubt on the idea that we could live to be nearly as old as the biblical Methuselah or Mel Brooks' famous 2,000-year-old man.
New research from Singapore-base biotech company Gero looks at how well the human body bounces back from disease, accidents or just about anything else that puts stress on its systems. This basic resilience declines as people age, with an 80-year-old requiring three times as long to recover from stresses as a 40-year-old on average.
This should make sense if you've ever known an elderly person who has taken a nasty fall. Recovery from such a spill can be lif- threatening for a particularly frail person, whereas a similar fall might put a person half as old out of commission for just a short time and teenagers might simply dust themselves off and keep going.
Extrapolate this decline further, and human body resilience is completely gone at some age between 120 and 150, according to new analysis performed by the researchers. In other words, at some point your body loses all ability to recover from pretty much any potential stressor.
The researchers arrived at this conclusion by looking at health data for large groups from the US, the UK and Russia. They looked at blood cell counts as well as step counts recorded by wearables. As people experienced different stressors, fluctuations in blood cell and step counts showed that recovery time grew longer as individuals grew older.
The new research contains a certain amount of validation for the idea that humans start dying from the moment we're born, but the process seems to speed up significantly somewhere in the mid-thirties to mid-forties when the body's resilience starts to decline more steeply.
The study's conclusion that the body loses all ability to cope -- or at least to recover -- from stress before age 150 is line with the conclusions of similar studies, including one from last year that pegged the maximum possible human age at 138 years.
| no |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | yes_statement | "humans" can "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/health/a37144873/human-life-expectancy-limit-150-years/ | Humans Could Live to Be 150, Science Says | Humans Could Live to Be 150, Science Says
The main factor limiting our lifespan is a loss of the ability to bounce back after a setback, called "physiological resilience."
Even without major health issues, like cancer, your body will eventually run out of energy to help recover from even minor challenges.
Even if you somehow manage to make it through decades of old age without a single major health issue—evading cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and so on—scientists say there's a ceiling on how long you can extend your life, throwing cold water on the ambitious Silicon Valley goal to outsmart death.
But the thing that's keeping the human body from reaching immortality is surprisingly mundane: over time, your body loses the "physiological resilience," or the ability to bounce back, that you once had in your younger years. That, scientists say in a study published earlier this year in Nature Communications, is enough to limit our lives to 120 to 150 years at the most.
Lead researcher Timothy Pyrkov is part of a Singapore-based biotech company called Gero (yes, the name itself is the prefix meaning "old age"). Gero's stated goal is "hacking complex diseases and aging," setting a clear agenda for the research. For this longitudinal analysis, Gero collaborated with Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York and studied large groups of people in the U.S., U.K., and Russia.
You Have to Read These
The team broke down all the age groups in detail, differentiating between "early adulthood" (16- to 35-year-olds), "middle ages" (35- to 65-year-olds), and "older ages" (older than 65). Then, they examined both changes in blood cell counts and the number of steps the groups took, treating the two factors as "hallmarks of aging" that could help them chart the subjects' progress (or deterioration) over several months.
Both blood cells and steps might remain constant, the researchers found, if not for periodic interruptions in the form of health setbacks. Specifically, they noticed the problem wasn't some steady decline with age, but instead, a series of step-downs in which the subjects' bodies could not return to their previous level of health.
Despite the two variables being so different, blood cell counts and steps each decreased at a similar rate in the test subjects over time.
Nature Communications
Let's say when you're younger, your body could normally recover 100 percent from a bad cold, or repair your skin 100 percent of the way after a bad fall. As you age, your ability to claw back to full health may be inhibited to a max of, say, 95 percent. And with more time, that resiliency will only continue to decrease as your body faces repeated obstacles. Basically, it's the opposite of gaining more health in a video game as you progress further—your stamina bar becomes smaller and smaller, even when it's full.
By plotting the "recovery time" for all three age group cohorts over decades' worth of life, the researchers were able to find the point at which the body would ultimately disintegrate as a result of the loss of resiliency. Every year, for example, think of the risk of cancer as a kind of coin toss with a certain likelihood of happening. The longer you live, the more coin flips you must take. The point at which you take that last coin flip, they say, is somewhere between 120 and 150 years—a value that likely puts a hard limit on human life.
"We conclude that the criticality resulting in the end of life is an intrinsic biological property of an organism that is independent of stress factors and signifies a fundamental or absolute limit of human lifespan," the authors note in the paper.\
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Why study those two variables? Blood cell counts, for their part, have a predictable healthy range that is dependent on your age and gender. Generally speaking, the normal range for red blood cells is between 4.5 to 5.5 million cells per cubic millimeter if you're male, and between 4 to 5 million cells per cubic millimeter if you're female, according to the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. For white blood cells, the normal range is between 5,000 and 10,000 cells per cubic millimeter. For platelets, the typical range is 140,000 to 400,000 per cubic millimeter.
Deviations from these ranges could signal some kind of disorder. A low red blood cell count, for example, could point to anemia, while a low white blood cell count could mean you have neutropenia, a disease that damages the bone barrow at puts you at increased risk for infections.
Steps taken is a far murkier variable, though, as it's somewhat subjective. The general consensus, and the recommendation from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), is to aim for 10,000 steps per day. Still, that's highly personal, and the number of steps that a person needs to take to achieve positive health impacts actually declines with age: A 2019 study published in the journal JAMA Internal Medicine showed the more steps a person took, the lower their mortality rate, but the effect leveled off after 7,500 steps per day.
The differences between these two variables make the team's results more interesting. Peter Fedichev—one of the study's coauthors, and a cofounder of Gero—told Scientific American that despite how most biologists would see blood counts and step counts as "pretty different," the sheer fact that both "paint exactly the same future" means the steady decline of physiological resilience is very real.
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So, what does it mean to have a hard limit on human life? Without intervention in the form of body part replacements or other supplemental procedures, it means even the most zealous life-extenders can only do so much. And while 120 to 150 years may not sound superlong, it's still up to nearly twice the life expectancy of people living today in the U.S.
And considering the late Jeanne Louise Calment—who holds the record for the longest-living person—died at the age of 122 years and 164 days, it seems like they're onto something.
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Caroline Delbert is a writer, avid reader, and contributing editor at Pop Mech. She's also an enthusiast of just about everything. Her favorite topics include nuclear energy, cosmology, math of everyday things, and the philosophy of it all. | Humans Could Live to Be 150, Science Says
The main factor limiting our lifespan is a loss of the ability to bounce back after a setback, called "physiological resilience. "
Even without major health issues, like cancer, your body will eventually run out of energy to help recover from even minor challenges.
Even if you somehow manage to make it through decades of old age without a single major health issue—evading cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and so on—scientists say there's a ceiling on how long you can extend your life, throwing cold water on the ambitious Silicon Valley goal to outsmart death.
But the thing that's keeping the human body from reaching immortality is surprisingly mundane: over time, your body loses the "physiological resilience," or the ability to bounce back, that you once had in your younger years. That, scientists say in a study published earlier this year in Nature Communications, is enough to limit our lives to 120 to 150 years at the most.
Lead researcher Timothy Pyrkov is part of a Singapore-based biotech company called Gero (yes, the name itself is the prefix meaning "old age"). Gero's stated goal is "hacking complex diseases and aging," setting a clear agenda for the research. For this longitudinal analysis, Gero collaborated with Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center in Buffalo, New York and studied large groups of people in the U.S., U.K., and Russia.
You Have to Read These
The team broke down all the age groups in detail, differentiating between "early adulthood" (16- to 35-year-olds), "middle ages" (35- to 65-year-olds), and "older ages" (older than 65). Then, they examined both changes in blood cell counts and the number of steps the groups took, treating the two factors as "hallmarks of aging" that could help them chart the subjects' progress (or deterioration) over several months.
| no |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | no_statement | "humans" cannot "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is not possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://www.research.colostate.edu/healthyagingcenter/2022/10/07/humans-cant-live-forever/ | Humans Can't Live Forever - Center for Healthy Aging | Humans Can’t Live Forever
The first known record of humans on earth dates to over two million years ago. Through dedicated anthropological research, it is widely accepted that the earliest known record of humans is Homo habilis, originating from Africa between 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago. Homo habilis could be our direct ancestors, but more anthropological research is needed to truly pin down humans’ prehistoric lineages.
While it is hard to know what life could have possibly been like for these first humans, scientists from multiple disciplines are dedicated to piecing together the past to understand a full history of humankind’s origins.
From these humble origins, the population has grown both physically and cognitively. Technology, medicine, and transportation have boomed alongside the development of the human population. With increased innovation and understanding, the health care field has learned more about human health, well-being, and longevity throughout the years, causing human life expectancy to rise from 48 years in 1850 to 72.9 years in 2019. Humans are living longer on average, but that does not necessarily mean that humans can live forever.
Life expectancy vs. lifespan
It would make sense that with medicine and technological advances, illness and disease are treatable, allowing us to live in better health for longer periods of time. But, the lines are not that clear. Life expectancy and lifespan are two different factors of human well-being that measure longevity.
Lifespan refers to the maximum number of years an individual can live, making lifespan unique to everyone. The longest recorded lifespan was Jeanne Calment who lived for 122 years and 5 months, making the maximum possible human lifespan 122 years and 5 months – that is, until someone outlives Calment.
Life expectancy, on the other hand, refers to the average age an individual can expect to live at different stages of life. As humans age, physical and cognitive challenges can emerge, making life expectancy a dynamic measurement that changes based on different experiences and lifestyles of an individual.
This does not mean that 48 years-old was considered “old” in say, the 1850s. But 48 was the average age that individuals could expect to live to during that time. It turns out that infant mortality rates sharply drive down the average life expectancy in a population (i.e., the number of child deaths in certain regions is so high that there are more childhood deaths than adult deaths, lowering life expectancy for that region).
You might think that, since our ability to safely manage childbirth and provide childcare has vastly improved since the 19th century, then children would have a greater chance of surviving into adolescence and even older adulthood. While yes, this is true, and yes, it has certainly contributed to an increase in the human lifespan, humans have been living well into their 70s and 80s since ancient times.
For instance, a first century writer, Pliny, dedicated a chapter of The Natural History to individuals who had lived the longest during that time. In the first century, three individuals had already lived to be 100. A third century B.C. tombstone read, “She was 80 years-old, but able to weave a delicate weft with the shrill shuttle.” Just like today, humans could live to 70, 80, or 90 years-old in ancient times, so has anything really changed?
However, research suggests that expanding health span – the period of life that humans are in good health without the burden of disease – could help us live longer on average; though, much of maximizing our time here on earth depends on the choices we make in our day-to-day lives from a young age.
Our diet, exercise habits, smoking tendencies, mental health, and many more lifestyle factors all play a role in our overall health. By taking care of ourselves and living a healthier lifestyle, we can live healthier for longer, and aging can become a more gracious, gradual process that does not strip us of well-being.
About the Author:
Grace Weintrob is a senior majoring in Communication Studies with a minor in Stage, Sports, and Film Production and Science Communication at CSU. She is currently working as the digital media intern for the Columbine Health Systems Center for Healthy Aging. | Life expectancy vs. lifespan
It would make sense that with medicine and technological advances, illness and disease are treatable, allowing us to live in better health for longer periods of time. But, the lines are not that clear. Life expectancy and lifespan are two different factors of human well-being that measure longevity.
Lifespan refers to the maximum number of years an individual can live, making lifespan unique to everyone. The longest recorded lifespan was Jeanne Calment who lived for 122 years and 5 months, making the maximum possible human lifespan 122 years and 5 months – that is, until someone outlives Calment.
Life expectancy, on the other hand, refers to the average age an individual can expect to live at different stages of life. As humans age, physical and cognitive challenges can emerge, making life expectancy a dynamic measurement that changes based on different experiences and lifestyles of an individual.
This does not mean that 48 years-old was considered “old” in say, the 1850s. But 48 was the average age that individuals could expect to live to during that time. It turns out that infant mortality rates sharply drive down the average life expectancy in a population (i.e., the number of child deaths in certain regions is so high that there are more childhood deaths than adult deaths, lowering life expectancy for that region).
You might think that, since our ability to safely manage childbirth and provide childcare has vastly improved since the 19th century, then children would have a greater chance of surviving into adolescence and even older adulthood. While yes, this is true, and yes, it has certainly contributed to an increase in the human lifespan, humans have been living well into their 70s and 80s since ancient times.
For instance, a first century writer, Pliny, dedicated a chapter of The Natural History to individuals who had lived the longest during that time. In the first century, three individuals had already lived to be 100. | no |
Gerontology | Can humans live to be over 150 years old? | no_statement | "humans" cannot "live" to be over "150" "years" "old".. it is not possible for "humans" to "live" beyond "150" "years" of age. | https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-10946839/Anti-ageing-living-youre-200-really-isnt-pipe-dream.html | Anti-ageing: Why living until you're 200 really isn't a pipe dream ... | The idea of living for hundreds of years was once thought to be the pipe dream of billionaires and tech moguls.
But scientists at the forefront of anti-ageing research believe they are on the cusp of developing a pill that could lead to people living to the age of 200 and beyond.
Medical advances in the last century have led to humans in wealthy nations living into their 80s, almost double the average life expectancy at the turn of the 20th century.
Improved nutrition, clean water, better sanitation and huge leaps in medicine have been key in prolonging human life. The oldest known person — the Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment, who sold canvases to Vincent Van Gogh when she was a girl in the late 1800s — lived to the age of 122, dying in 1997.
There is some debate about whether humans can naturally live much beyond that age, but it is hoped that science will take human lifespans beyond what is currently thought possible.
Dr Andrew Steele, a British computational biologist and author of a new book on longevity, told MailOnline there is no biological reason humans can't reach the age of 200.
He believes the big breakthrough will come in the form of drugs that remove 'zombie cells' in the body, which are thought to be one of the main culprits of tissue and organ decay as we age.
Pills that flush these cells out of the body are already in human trials in and could be on the market in as little as 10 years, according to Dr Steele, who believes someone reading this could make it to 150 with the help of the drugs.
Another field in particular that piques the interest of anti-ageing scientists is the study of DNA of reptiles and other cold-blooded animals.
Michigan State University experts have begun studying dozens different types of long-living reptiles and amphibians — including crocodiles, salamanders and turtles that can live as long as 120 years. The team hope they will uncover 'traits' that can also be targeted in humans.
Some experts think that eradicating the big killers — cancer, dementia and heart disease — could be the true key to longevity.
Dr Andrew Steele (pictured left), a computational biologist and author of Ageless: The New Science of Getting Older Without Getting Old, told MailOnline scientists are on the cusp of developing a pill that could lead to people living to the age of 200 and beyond — and it could be just a decade away. Dr Peter Fedichev (right), a molecular physicist who is the co-founder of biomedical-artificial intelligence firm Gero, says humans could reach 150 if humans eradicate the main causes of death
The Office for National Statistics predicts the life expectancy of men born in 2070 in the UK will reach the age of 85 on average, while women will be nearly 88 when they die
The oldest living woman, Jeanne Calment (left, enjoying her daily cigarette and glass of red wine on her 117th birthday in 1992) from France, was 122 when she died in 1997. Jiroemon Kimura (right, smiling after receiving the Guinness World Record in 2012) holds the record for men, dying at 116 in Kyoto, Japan in 2013
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WHAT ANIMALS LIVE THE LONGEST AND HOW DO THEY DO IT?
The turritopsis nutricula jellyfish is technically immortal and could live for 1000s of years
Jellyfish
The turritopsis nutricula jellyfish is technically immortal and could live for 1000s of years.
This is because it has a unique trait allowing it to revert its cells back to childhood after reaching sexual maturity.
The jellyfish, which is no longer than a fingernail, is able to reverse its own ageing process.
It means, theoretically, the only thing stopping it living for millennia is predators.
Scientists are still studying the exact way it is able to reverse the ageing process, but it is believed stem cells may play a role in the process.
Stem cells are cells created by the body that can change into any other type of specific cell.
They are the focus of research for several chronic illnesses, like heart disease, because of their potential to turn into healthy blood vessels and repair the organ.
The Galapagos tortoise can live up to 120 years old
Tortoises
The Galapagos tortoise — discovered in the island group where Charles Darwin came up with the theory of evolution — can live up to 120 years old.
Scientists believe one of the reasons behind its long lifespan is the way its cells work.
All cells in the body divide up to a maximum number of times before they stop changing and become a senescent — or 'zombie' — cell.
Scientists believe ageing is caused by having more cells become senescent over time.
If you put a human cell in a petri dish, it would divide around 50 times, whereas a Galapagos tortoise see its cells can divide more than 100 times.
The tortoises also do not suffer any natural predators in their habitat, meaning they regularly enjoy their full lifespans.
Saltwater crocodiles tend to live to the age of around 70 in the wild but can live up to 100 in captivity
Crocodiles
Saltwater crocodiles tend to live to the age of around 70 in the wild but can live up to 100 in captivity.
Like the Galapagos tortoise, crocodile's cells are particularly resistant to senescence.
This means they are unlikely to ever die simply of old age, with limits on their lifespans usually caused by external factors, such as habitat degradation or hunting.
Studies on crocodile gut bacteria also found it to have cancer-fighting properties.
And crocodiles are also apex predators, meaning they are not generally killed by other animals — other than humans.
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Dr Steele, the author of Ageless: The New Science of Getting Older Without Getting Old, told MailOnline: 'I don't think there is any kind of absolute cap on how long we can live.
'Studies come out every few years that propose some kind of fundamental limit on human lifespan, but they're always missing one crucial piece: we've never tried treating the ageing process before.
'I can't see physical or biological reason why people couldn't live to 200 — the challenge is whether we've can develop the biomedical science to make it possible.'
Other experts believe humans could live to 150 naturally, if it wasn't for chronic illnesses, including Dr Peter Fedichev, a Russian molecular physicist who runs a biomedical AI firm Gero.
His company has been studying the genetic data of 500,000 Britons in pursuit of the firm's goal of 'hacking ageing', as they call it.
Researchers at Gero made use of an instrument, called DOSI (dynamic organism state indicator), that takes into account age, illness and lifestyle factors, to work out how resilient the body is, including its ability to recover from injury or disease.
Using mathematical models, it calculated the maximum age the body — if not altered by drugs or gene therapy — can still recover from is between 120 and 150.
But Dr Fedichev warned life extension without improving life quality would be pointless because extremely elderly people would be frail, and prone to illness, meaning new drugs will be vital in the quest for eternal youth.
He told MailOnline: 'Such life extension would increase their lifespan past the end of their health span and thus reduce their quality of life.
'Only addressing the root causes of ageing may help bring humans closer to negligibly senescent animals, intercept aging and increase our productive lifespan by a hundred years or more.
'That is why we are calling on a refocusing of our attention from diseases to ageing, from incremental to more radical solutions using those slow-aging animals as inspiration.'
Dr Steele says new advances in senolytics could extend life span and quality.
Senescent cells — dubbed 'zombie cells' — are cells that eventually stop dividing, then accumulate, releasing compounds in the body that accelerate ageing.
Experts believe younger people with healthy immune systems are better able to clear the damaged cells, but as people age, they aren't removed as effectively and they accumulate causing potential problems.
Dr Steele said if you put a human cell in a petri dish, it would divide around 50 times before stopping, whereas a Galapagos tortoise — which can live for up to 120 years — sees its cells divide more than 100 times.
Studying these sorts of long-living reptiles can help researchers understand more about the way human cells age.
Since the 1960s, scientists have known that, as we age, we accumulate ever-greater numbers of these cells, but it wasn't clear if they were just a product of ageing or whether they caused it.
The breakthrough came in 2016 when scientists found removing the cells from mice, typically with a short lifespan and plagued with a range of age-related conditions, by injecting them with a synthetic drug called AP20187 extended their life by up to 35 per cent — suggesting senescence was behind ageing itself.
Since then, there have been a number of studies confirming the importance of such cells in the ageing process.
In 2019, research in the journal Aging Cell showed that old mice pre-treated with Navitoclax, an experimental anti-cancer drug that kills senescent cells, recovered at similar rates to younger mice from an induced heart attack, raising the prospect of a new type of treatment for people with heart conditions.
Another study, published in the journal EMBO, demonstrated that clearing out senescent cells from the hearts of mice also reduced symptoms of ageing, such as enlargement and thickening of the walls of the heart muscles.
Senolytic drugs are now being safety tested in humans and have attracted investment from several billionaires, including Amazon founder Jeff Bezos and PayPal co-founder Peter Thiel.
Age expectancy has been steadily rising over the last century in Britain, but dipped slightly to 79 in men and 82 in women in 2020 because of the Covid pandemic — which experts expect to be a blip
WHO WAS JEANNE CALMENT?
Jeanne Calment, pictured with her Guinness World Record
Jeanne Louise Calment holds the Guinness World Record for being the oldest person ever.
Born on February 21, 1875, she is reported to have lived to the age of 122 years and 164 days.
She passed away in a nursing home in Arles, in the south of France, on August 4, 1997.
Her unparalleled longevity has been the subject of numerous studies, both before and after her death.
She stunned doctors by continuing to smoke cigarettes and drink alcohol every day.
Jeanne enjoyed good health for the majority of her life, having even taken up fencing as a hobby at the age of 85.
Ms Calment also claimed to have met the artist Vincent van Gogh, to whom she sold painting canvasses in her father's shop as a teenager.
'He was ugly as sin, had a vile temper and smelled of booze,' she said.
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Dr Steele said: 'Scientists have given these drugs to mice, and they basically get biologically younger: they live longer, get less cancer and heart disease, are less frail — they can run further and faster on the tiny mouse-sized treadmills used in these experiments — and, honestly, they just look great, with plumper skin and thicker fur.
'What this shows us is that tackling the hallmarks of ageing can affect the whole ageing process, from disease risk to the cosmetic stuff, and can do so preventatively — this is the holy grail of anti-ageing medicine.'
Both Bezos and Thiel are investors in Unity Biotechnology, which carried out the first human trial of one such drug, aimed at tackling moderate-to-severe osteoarthritis of the knee, in 2019.
In the phase one trial, 78 patients were divided into two groups: one was given a dummy drug, while the other was injected in the knee with a drug codenamed UBX0101, which interferes with two proteins in the body, leading to the elimination of senescent cells.
The study was a success, with UBX0101 'well-tolerated' by the treated patients, who, after a single injection, had experienced 'improvement in several clinical outcomes, including pain and function'.
However, the company faced a setback in 2020 when results from the bigger phase 2 trial found no statistically significant difference between UBX0101 and the placebo groups.
Now, the company is trialling a new drug called UBX1325, which has been designed to combat age-related blindness on 46 adults.
Dr Steele said it only took one trial to be a success to make a breakthrough in the field of anti-ageing.
He told MailOnline: 'We might get unlucky and none of this works but, if it does, every development gives us longer to make the next one, and the first 150-year-old could be someone who's reading this.'
Last week, Michigan State University researchers announced they are studying 77 reptiles and amphibians with the hope of understanding what allows them to be so resilient.
But they have yet to pinpoint any potential longevity targets, meaning a true breakthrough could still be years off.
Dr Alex Zhavoronkov, a biotechnology expert and physicist, said studying animals — particularly those as distantly related to humans as reptiles — has rarely resulted in breakthroughs.
He believes scientists are better placed focusing their efforts on studying ageing in real people, and, in particular, technology.
Implant chips that use electrodes in the brain to ward off illnesses like Parkinson's are currently being trialled on people.
Southmead Hospital in Bristol is believed to be the first in the world to implant the tiny deep brain stimulation (DBS) device when it launched its trial in April. The device works by delivering electrical impulses to damaged areas of the brain.
Dr Zhavoronkov said: 'Many years from now humans will be able to control the biology of aging and many other converging technologies will not only return the lost functions but likely augment our capabilities — as you have seen with the glasses, cars, cell phones, the internet, and robotics.
'Advanced technologies starting from dual-purpose pharmaceuticals — drugs that target fundamental aging pathways and age-associated diseases and are trackable with aging biomarkers, which my team is focusing on— to cell and gene therapy and advances in regenerative medicine, implantables, and augmentation of human function with AI and robotics will allow us to dramatically increase life.
'And right now we are still a few years away from the first generation of intelligently-discovered and designed longevity drugs.'
But he warned the discoveries may be further than a decade away, realistically.
He said: 'After a decade in the biopharmaceutical industry and after seeing many drugs fail, I can say that in the short term we need to be very careful with claims of medication being available five to 15 years from now.
'But in the long term — 25 to 40 years from now — the future is much brighter than we think.' | The idea of living for hundreds of years was once thought to be the pipe dream of billionaires and tech moguls.
But scientists at the forefront of anti-ageing research believe they are on the cusp of developing a pill that could lead to people living to the age of 200 and beyond.
Medical advances in the last century have led to humans in wealthy nations living into their 80s, almost double the average life expectancy at the turn of the 20th century.
Improved nutrition, clean water, better sanitation and huge leaps in medicine have been key in prolonging human life. The oldest known person — the Frenchwoman Jeanne Calment, who sold canvases to Vincent Van Gogh when she was a girl in the late 1800s — lived to the age of 122, dying in 1997.
There is some debate about whether humans can naturally live much beyond that age, but it is hoped that science will take human lifespans beyond what is currently thought possible.
Dr Andrew Steele, a British computational biologist and author of a new book on longevity, told MailOnline there is no biological reason humans can't reach the age of 200.
He believes the big breakthrough will come in the form of drugs that remove 'zombie cells' in the body, which are thought to be one of the main culprits of tissue and organ decay as we age.
Pills that flush these cells out of the body are already in human trials in and could be on the market in as little as 10 years, according to Dr Steele, who believes someone reading this could make it to 150 with the help of the drugs.
Another field in particular that piques the interest of anti-ageing scientists is the study of DNA of reptiles and other cold-blooded animals.
Michigan State University experts have begun studying dozens different types of long-living reptiles and amphibians — including crocodiles, salamanders and turtles that can live as long as 120 years. The team hope they will uncover 'traits' that can also be targeted in humans.
| yes |
Hydrology | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? | yes_statement | "hurricanes" can "cause" "earthquakes".. it is possible for "hurricanes" to "cause" "earthquakes". | https://www.palmbeachpost.com/story/weather/2019/10/28/can-hurricanes-cause-earthquakes-fsu-study-says-absolutely/2426817007/ | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? FSU study says absolutely | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? FSU study says absolutely
The hard crust of Earth’s surface doesn’t know the difference between winter or summer, or spring or fall, so Florida State University earthquake researchers were surprised to find a seasonal rhythm in seismic tremors.
Wenyan Fan, an FSU assistant professor of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science, said he was looking for something else when he stumbled on an annual cycle of seismic signals that he was able to tie to hurricane season, and even individual storms.
“It was just an accident,” Fan said about the discovery. “There was a very strong correlation that whenever extreme storms are present and they are traveling through certain regions, the stormquakes would light up.”
Nor’easters have also been tied to the seismic jostles, which were measured near New England, Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico, as well as Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and British Columbia in Canada.
The magnitude quake is nothing people would feel, but is a reaction to ocean energy being transferred to the Earth as waves interact with sea-floor topography. Florida has shallow hills offshore called banks that would take a repeated pounding by hurricane-whipped seas. The continental shelf can also be a producer of seismic activity.
Hurricane Ike in September 2008 caused intense seismic activity in the Gulf of Mexico as it became a Category 2 storm before making landfall near Galveston, Texas, Fan said. Hurricane Irene skirted along the Bahamas in 2011 creating stormquakes near Little Bahama Bank off Grand Bahama Island and Great Abaco.
Fan said most of the seismic stations he looked at for his study have since been moved to Alaska, so there was no data on September’s Category 5 Hurricane Dorian.
Still, more than 10,000 stormquakes were identified from 2006 to 2015 in the study with no correlation between the size of the storm and the quakes measured.
“We don’t understand much about how the energy transfers,” said Jeff McGuire, a U.S. Geological Survey researcher at the Earthquake Science Center in Moffett Field, Calif. “There’s pressure on the sea floor from the wave field all the time and that’s particularly true in storms. What’s new is the ability to track individual episodes that generate large seismic activity.”
Fan is not the only researcher looking at a tie between hurricanes and earthquakes.
Florida International University professor Shimon Wdowinski has been studying whether earthquakes follow hurricanes that cause landslides in areas where there is a fault line.
His theory is a landslide takes pressure off the top of a mountain, reducing the weight along a fault that can then trigger an earthquake. It’s difficult to prove because it could be years between the hurricane and earthquake.
A study published over the summer in Nature Communications linked tremors in some regions to lower tides. Researchers found when there is less pressure from water sitting on pockets of magma, the magma expands, putting pressure on fault lines.
“It’s interesting how situations on the surface affect the Earth’s interior,” Wdowinski said. “We like to find answers that explain unusual phenomenon because we are curious creatures.”
The significance of the stormquake discovery and how it can be used to further seismic study is yet to be determined. | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? FSU study says absolutely
The hard crust of Earth’s surface doesn’t know the difference between winter or summer, or spring or fall, so Florida State University earthquake researchers were surprised to find a seasonal rhythm in seismic tremors.
Wenyan Fan, an FSU assistant professor of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Science, said he was looking for something else when he stumbled on an annual cycle of seismic signals that he was able to tie to hurricane season, and even individual storms.
“It was just an accident,” Fan said about the discovery. “There was a very strong correlation that whenever extreme storms are present and they are traveling through certain regions, the stormquakes would light up.”
Nor’easters have also been tied to the seismic jostles, which were measured near New England, Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico, as well as Nova Scotia, Newfoundland and British Columbia in Canada.
The magnitude quake is nothing people would feel, but is a reaction to ocean energy being transferred to the Earth as waves interact with sea-floor topography. Florida has shallow hills offshore called banks that would take a repeated pounding by hurricane-whipped seas. The continental shelf can also be a producer of seismic activity.
Hurricane Ike in September 2008 caused intense seismic activity in the Gulf of Mexico as it became a Category 2 storm before making landfall near Galveston, Texas, Fan said. Hurricane Irene skirted along the Bahamas in 2011 creating stormquakes near Little Bahama Bank off Grand Bahama Island and Great Abaco.
Fan said most of the seismic stations he looked at for his study have since been moved to Alaska, so there was no data on September’s Category 5 Hurricane Dorian.
Still, more than 10,000 stormquakes were identified from 2006 to 2015 in the study with no correlation between the size of the storm and the quakes measured.
| yes |
Hydrology | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? | yes_statement | "hurricanes" can "cause" "earthquakes".. it is possible for "hurricanes" to "cause" "earthquakes". | https://stormadvisor.com/do-hurricanes-often-cause-earthquakes/ | Do Hurricanes Often Cause Earthquakes? - Storm Advisor | Do Hurricanes Often Cause Earthquakes?
Hurricanes are much more common than earthquakes and can cause more damage. Can the two occur in the same place within the same time frame? Why would such a thing take place?
Yes, hurricanes can cause earthquakes. The prevalence is not as high, but hurricanes can move the mass of the Earth and deposit in another place. This may lead to movement in plate tectonics and cause an earthquake. Earthquakes caused by hurricanes are called tropical earthquakes.
Let us probe further into how hurricanes and earthquakes take place. We will see what factors relate to the two phenomena and what factors lead to the order in which they occur.
What Are Hurricanes?
A revolving low-pressure weather system is called a tropical cyclone, and cyclones with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph are called hurricanes or tropical storms. Hurricanes are the most violent storms on Earth and usually occur in tropical or subtropical waters, specifically the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, or the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Hurricanes occur when warm, humid air rises and forms a tropical wave, and then low-pressure air moves towards the moisture-rich air resulting in large clouds and thunderstorms. This process continues until an organized system of clouds and thunderstorms forms a hurricane. The possibility of property damage increases with the hurricane category.
What Are Earthquakes?
Any sudden ground trembling brought on by seismic waves moving through the Earth’s lithosphere is called an earthquake. When the energy inside Earth’s crust is abruptly released, typically due to masses of rocks rubbing against one another crack and slide, this results in seismic waves.
Areas along the geologic faults experience these events most frequently, where rock masses and tectonic plates can move about one another.
Can Hurricanes Cause Earthquakes?
As hurricanes are much worse than regular rain and bring along vast masses of water, they may impact the Earth and lead to some changes. But how can this happen?
Landslides
Landslides are a natural process of wear and tear in the mountains. Vast masses of rocks or parts of the mountain break apart from the hill and fall to the flat ground down the slope—some factors result in landslides, including rains, snowfalls, soil erosion, earthquakes, and volcanic activities.
In the case of hurricanes, the heavy rain and the soil erosion cause parts of the mountain to loosen up and move downhill. As this occurs, the weight is shifted on the tectonic plates. The faults may be exposed, and the tectonic plates move, resulting in an earthquake.
Hurricanes can cause earthquakes as they are potent agents that can move mass from one place to another and change landscapes. Hurricane-driven earthquakes are referred to as “tropical earthquakes.” Hurricanes during a storm season release powerful energy in the form of ocean waves that, when encountering solid Earth, produce significant seismic activity.
What Is The Chance Of A Hurricane Causing An Earthquake?
The changes in statistical numbers have yet to be deduced. There has yet to be much research on the theory that declared that hurricanes cause earthquakes. With sufficient data, inferences can be made about the frequency of hurricane-driven earthquakes.
Does every hurricane cause an earthquake? Is there a percentage of hurricanes that cause earthquakes? Does a certain magnitude of a hurricane determine the chance of an earthquake? These are all questions left unanswered unless probed by leading scientists in the field.
Can Earthquakes Be Caused Due To Weather Conditions?
Which weather do you think would cause an earthquake? Cold, hot, dry? The myth of “earthquake weather” is false and not backed by any scientific research.
Research has shown that solid storm systems may cause slight fault slips or slow earthquakes. However, the limitation of the study was that these instances were sporadic. Moreover, earthquakes continued to happen in calm environments with no storms.
The myth was rooted in Aristotle’s theory that earthquakes occur because the wind gets trapped, and when it breaks through, it brings about an earthquake. However, this is just that, a myth.
Frequently Asked Questions
Do Earthquakes Cause Hurricanes?
No, earthquakes do not cause hurricanes. The movement in plate tectonics cannot cause changes in the weather. However, hurricanes can cause earthquakes as the hurricane may move plate tectonics.
Which Occurs First, An Earthquake Or A Hurricane?
A hurricane occurs before an earthquake. Earthquakes may precede hurricanes. However, if hurricanes precede earthquakes, that is just a coincidence and cannot be backed by scientific evidence and knowledge.
What Is The Magnitude Of An Earthquake After A Hurricane?
The hurricane cannot cause enormous changes and generate a strong earthquake which may be capable of intense destruction. The earthquakes that occur in the wake of a hurricane have a magnitude of as high as 3.5.
What Is The Difference Between A Tropical Cyclone And A Hurricane?
There are no differences between the two. A tropical cyclone is a name used in scientific literature when describing storm systems that bring destruction. Hurricanes are the same.
What Is The Difference Between A Typhoon And A Hurricane?
A typhoon and a hurricane are different names for the same phenomena. They are both storm systems. Tropical cyclones are called hurricanes when they originate from the Atlantic and East Pacific. They are called typhoons when they create from the West Pacific. In the Indian Ocean and Australia, tropical cyclones are called cyclones.
Can Hurricanes Cause Tsunamis?
No, they cannot. Hurricanes take place over land, while tsunamis originate from the ocean. An earthquake in the ocean leads to massive waves moving toward the shore and causing a tsunami. A hurricane is unrelated to a tsunami at all, except to the extent of the destruction.
Final Thoughts
Hurricanes are incredibly powerful sources of nature. The strong winds can transform areas and landscapes. They can move tectonic plates and eventually cause earthquakes to happen. Although these earthquakes have lower magnitudes, there is some damage.
It is advised to stay away from regions that are hit by hurricanes. However, if you are stuck, take cover and try to stay safe. | Do Hurricanes Often Cause Earthquakes?
Hurricanes are much more common than earthquakes and can cause more damage. Can the two occur in the same place within the same time frame? Why would such a thing take place?
Yes, hurricanes can cause earthquakes. The prevalence is not as high, but hurricanes can move the mass of the Earth and deposit in another place. This may lead to movement in plate tectonics and cause an earthquake. Earthquakes caused by hurricanes are called tropical earthquakes.
Let us probe further into how hurricanes and earthquakes take place. We will see what factors relate to the two phenomena and what factors lead to the order in which they occur.
What Are Hurricanes?
A revolving low-pressure weather system is called a tropical cyclone, and cyclones with maximum sustained winds of 70 mph are called hurricanes or tropical storms. Hurricanes are the most violent storms on Earth and usually occur in tropical or subtropical waters, specifically the Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, or the eastern Pacific Ocean.
Hurricanes occur when warm, humid air rises and forms a tropical wave, and then low-pressure air moves towards the moisture-rich air resulting in large clouds and thunderstorms. This process continues until an organized system of clouds and thunderstorms forms a hurricane. The possibility of property damage increases with the hurricane category.
What Are Earthquakes?
Any sudden ground trembling brought on by seismic waves moving through the Earth’s lithosphere is called an earthquake. When the energy inside Earth’s crust is abruptly released, typically due to masses of rocks rubbing against one another crack and slide, this results in seismic waves.
Areas along the geologic faults experience these events most frequently, where rock masses and tectonic plates can move about one another.
Can Hurricanes Cause Earthquakes?
As hurricanes are much worse than regular rain and bring along vast masses of water, they may impact the Earth and lead to some changes. | yes |
Hydrology | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? | yes_statement | "hurricanes" can "cause" "earthquakes".. it is possible for "hurricanes" to "cause" "earthquakes". | https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45605013 | Hurricanes might trigger big tropical earthquakes | Hurricanes might trigger big tropical earthquakes
Typhoons and hurricanes can trigger large earthquakes in tropical regions, a new study suggests.
A new study presented at AGU by University of Miami professor Shimon Wdowinski may help scientists identify regions at high risk for earthquakes. Wdowinski shows that earthquakes, including the recent 2010 temblors in Haiti and Taiwan, may be triggered by tropical cyclones and the wet rains that accompany them.Estelle Chaussard / RSMAS
Dec. 8, 2011, 11:43 PM UTC / Source: OurAmazingPlanet
By By Stephanie Pappas
Typhoons and hurricanes can trigger large earthquakes in tropical regions, a new study suggests.
By dumping rain and causing landslides, these storms can change the weight of the Earth in tectonically-stressed regions, releasing loads that had been keeping the faults locked in tight. The result is that faults already under pressure seem more likely to break in the years after very wet tropical cyclones.
Earthquakes including Haiti's 2010 magnitude-7.0 temblor and a 6.4-magnitude quake that struck Kaohsiung, Taiwan, the same year, fit this pattern, according to study researcher Shimon Wdowinski, a professor of marine geology and geophysics at the University of Miami. Wdowinski reported his findings here Thursday at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union (AGU).
These quakes were preceded by drenching storms that wreaked other kinds of havoc.
"The cyclone itself is a disaster, there is a lot of flooding, then there are landslides and then the earthquakes come," Wdowinski said.
Disaster chain reaction Wdowinski and his colleague Igor Tsukanov of Florida International University became interested in whether tropical cyclones interact with earthquakes after noticing that both the 2010 Taiwan earthquake and the 2010 Haiti quake were preceded relatively closely by big storms. In the case of Taiwan, 2008's Typhoon Morakot had dumped 115 inches (292 centimeters) of rain in just five days. In the case of the Haiti quake, the 2008 hurricane season had been brutal, with named storms (hurricanes and tropical storms) Fay, Gustav, Hanna and Ike tearing into the island.
The researchers decided to see if the timing was a coincidence or whether it meant something more. They turned to Taiwan, which has good records of the past 50 years of quakes and storms.
Focusing only on very wet typhoons with the capacity to cause of a lot of erosion, and removing aftershocks that would bias the analysis, the researchers found that 85 percent of magnitude-6-and-above quakes occurred within the first four years after a very wet storm. That was five times what would have been expected from background quake rates, Wdowinski said.
Even smaller quakes followed the same pattern, with 35 percent of magnitude-5-and-above quakes occurring within the first four years after wet storms — twice the expected number.
Timing is everything Previous researchers have suggested that extremely low pressure from storms can trigger quakes in already-strained areas in the very short term, Wdowinski said, but these longer-term linkages are likely caused by a different mechanism. These areas are already tectonically active, with faults building up strain as landmasses creep against one another. These strained faults are destined to rupture and eventually cause quakes, Wdowinski said.
But when a very wet typhoon or hurricane dumps lots of rain, it often causes large landslides in mountainous areas. Extra rain over the following months further erodes mountains and hills scarred by these landslides. This shifting of sediment lifts the weight that keeps faults locked. The burden lifted, the fault suddenly slips, causing a quake.
These quakes are likely not any larger or smaller than they otherwise would have been, Wdowinski said, but the presence of very wet storms may give a hint that a quake-prone region is at higher risk of rupturing in the following years.
"The main engine that's actually responsible for the earthquake is not the wet typhoon," Wdowinski said. "The wet typhoon just determines the timing."
You can follow senior writer Stephanie Pappas on Twitter . Follow LiveScience for the latest in science news and discoveries on Twitter and on . | Hurricanes might trigger big tropical earthquakes
Typhoons and hurricanes can trigger large earthquakes in tropical regions, a new study suggests.
A new study presented at AGU by University of Miami professor Shimon Wdowinski may help scientists identify regions at high risk for earthquakes. Wdowinski shows that earthquakes, including the recent 2010 temblors in Haiti and Taiwan, may be triggered by tropical cyclones and the wet rains that accompany them. Estelle Chaussard / RSMAS
Dec. 8, 2011, 11:43 PM UTC / Source: OurAmazingPlanet
By By Stephanie Pappas
Typhoons and hurricanes can trigger large earthquakes in tropical regions, a new study suggests.
By dumping rain and causing landslides, these storms can change the weight of the Earth in tectonically-stressed regions, releasing loads that had been keeping the faults locked in tight. The result is that faults already under pressure seem more likely to break in the years after very wet tropical cyclones.
Earthquakes including Haiti's 2010 magnitude-7.0 temblor and a 6.4-magnitude quake that struck Kaohsiung, Taiwan, the same year, fit this pattern, according to study researcher Shimon Wdowinski, a professor of marine geology and geophysics at the University of Miami. Wdowinski reported his findings here Thursday at the annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union (AGU).
These quakes were preceded by drenching storms that wreaked other kinds of havoc.
"The cyclone itself is a disaster, there is a lot of flooding, then there are landslides and then the earthquakes come," Wdowinski said.
Disaster chain reaction Wdowinski and his colleague Igor Tsukanov of Florida International University became interested in whether tropical cyclones interact with earthquakes after noticing that both the 2010 Taiwan earthquake and the 2010 Haiti quake were preceded relatively closely by big storms. | yes |
Hydrology | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? | yes_statement | "hurricanes" can "cause" "earthquakes".. it is possible for "hurricanes" to "cause" "earthquakes". | https://www.ecowatch.com/hurricanes-earthquakes-stormquakes-2640999687.html | Scientists Discover 'Stormquakes,' Small Earthquakes Triggered by ... | The study, published Monday in Geophysical Research Letters, documented more than 10,000 stormquakes off of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, New England, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and British Columbia between 2006 and 2019. The quakes can reach a magnitude of 3.5, but no one has noticed them up until now.
Instead, Fan and his colleagues at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the U.S. Geological Survey were looking to trace low frequency earthquakes, according to National Geographic. They developed a method to track them by piecing together data from different regions, which is when they discovered some unusual seismic events. National Geographic explained why they were so strange:
Surprisingly, the events were seasonal, never occurring between May and August. Earthquakes that release energy from Earth’s shifting crust, however, are usually indifferent to the changing seasons. What’s more, the curious quakes radiated from both the east and west coasts of North America. Earthquakes are common out west, rumbling as the earth shifts along a spidery network of fractures in the surface, but the eastern coast largely lacks these quake-generating features.
Eventually, the researchers realized the small earthquakes took place at the same time as major storms.
Hurricane Irene, for example, caused stormquakes near Little Bahama Bank while it was a Category 3 storm near Florida, according to the Tampa Bay Times. Hurricane Ike caused stormquakes in the Gulf of Mexico in 2008 and Hurricane Bill caused several off of New England and Nova Scotia in 2009, according to Florida State University News.
But not every major storm produces stormquakes. Hurricane Sandy, one of the most expensive storms in U.S. history, did not.
The quakes seem to rely on distinct geological features, National Geographic explained. They occur in regions with broad continental shelves off the coast, which allow the waves from the stormquakes time to build on each other. They also occur in regions with ocean banks, flat underwater hills that channel the waves’ energy towards the ground.
Because of these features, Fan thinks Hurricane Michael, which devastated the Florida Panhandle in 2018, probably did cause stormquakes.
“Given the seafloor topography in the Gulf, I would expect Hurricane Michael to have generated stormquakes offshore,” he told the Tampa Bay Times.
For Fan and his fellow scientists, this paper is just the beginning of attempting to understand this newly identified phenomenon.
“This paper is laying the foundation for building up new information about how the world works,” Wendy Bohon, an earthquake geologist at the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology who did not participate in the study, told National Geographic. | The study, published Monday in Geophysical Research Letters, documented more than 10,000 stormquakes off of Florida, the Gulf of Mexico, New England, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia and British Columbia between 2006 and 2019. The quakes can reach a magnitude of 3.5, but no one has noticed them up until now.
Instead, Fan and his colleagues at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Scripps Institution of Oceanography and the U.S. Geological Survey were looking to trace low frequency earthquakes, according to National Geographic. They developed a method to track them by piecing together data from different regions, which is when they discovered some unusual seismic events. National Geographic explained why they were so strange:
Surprisingly, the events were seasonal, never occurring between May and August. Earthquakes that release energy from Earth’s shifting crust, however, are usually indifferent to the changing seasons. What’s more, the curious quakes radiated from both the east and west coasts of North America. Earthquakes are common out west, rumbling as the earth shifts along a spidery network of fractures in the surface, but the eastern coast largely lacks these quake-generating features.
Eventually, the researchers realized the small earthquakes took place at the same time as major storms.
Hurricane Irene, for example, caused stormquakes near Little Bahama Bank while it was a Category 3 storm near Florida, according to the Tampa Bay Times. Hurricane Ike caused stormquakes in the Gulf of Mexico in 2008 and Hurricane Bill caused several off of New England and Nova Scotia in 2009, according to Florida State University News.
But not every major storm produces stormquakes. Hurricane Sandy, one of the most expensive storms in U.S. history, did not.
The quakes seem to rely on distinct geological features, National Geographic explained. They occur in regions with broad continental shelves off the coast, which allow the waves from the stormquakes time to build on each other. They also occur in regions with ocean banks, flat underwater hills that channel the waves’ energy towards the ground.
| yes |
Hydrology | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? | yes_statement | "hurricanes" can "cause" "earthquakes".. it is possible for "hurricanes" to "cause" "earthquakes". | https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/111215-rainfall-hurricanes-typhoons-earthquakes-science-earth | Heavy Rainfall Can Cause Huge Earthquakes | And another large earthquake, a magnitude 6.4 temblor that rocked Taiwan in 2009, occurred only seven months after the area had been hit by Typhoon Morakot, which dropped 9.5 feet (2.9 meters) of rain in five days. Hurricanes are called typhoons in parts of Asia.
To put that in perspective, "that's about five times the average [annual] rainfall of San Francisco ... in five days," Wdowinski said last week at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco.
Quakes Triggered by Rain-Induced Erosion
To test the rainfall-earthquake link, Wdowinski dug through the past 50 years of earthquake and weather records for Taiwan, an island that experiences a lot of severe rainstorms and earthquakes.
He found that a magnitude 7.6 earthquake had struck in 1999, only three years after Typhoon Herb soaked Taiwan with 6.6 feet (2 meters) of rain.
Overall, his analysis revealed that Taiwan's large earthquakes—deemed as magnitude 6 and higher—were five times more likely to occur within four years after such storms than if the storms had had no effect.
The weight of the water itself does not trigger the earthquake—rather, it's the ensuing erosion from landslides, which subsequent storms steadily wash into the sea.
"There's less stress [on the underlying rocks], and it's easier for the fault to move," he said. "These are small changes, but are apparently enough to trigger the earthquake." | And another large earthquake, a magnitude 6.4 temblor that rocked Taiwan in 2009, occurred only seven months after the area had been hit by Typhoon Morakot, which dropped 9.5 feet (2.9 meters) of rain in five days. Hurricanes are called typhoons in parts of Asia.
To put that in perspective, "that's about five times the average [annual] rainfall of San Francisco ... in five days," Wdowinski said last week at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union in San Francisco.
Quakes Triggered by Rain-Induced Erosion
To test the rainfall-earthquake link, Wdowinski dug through the past 50 years of earthquake and weather records for Taiwan, an island that experiences a lot of severe rainstorms and earthquakes.
He found that a magnitude 7.6 earthquake had struck in 1999, only three years after Typhoon Herb soaked Taiwan with 6.6 feet (2 meters) of rain.
Overall, his analysis revealed that Taiwan's large earthquakes—deemed as magnitude 6 and higher—were five times more likely to occur within four years after such storms than if the storms had had no effect.
The weight of the water itself does not trigger the earthquake—rather, it's the ensuing erosion from landslides, which subsequent storms steadily wash into the sea.
"There's less stress [on the underlying rocks], and it's easier for the fault to move," he said. "These are small changes, but are apparently enough to trigger the earthquake." | yes |
Hydrology | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? | yes_statement | "hurricanes" can "cause" "earthquakes".. it is possible for "hurricanes" to "cause" "earthquakes". | https://www.newsweek.com/hurricanes-earthquakes-related-connection-maria-mexico-668305 | Are Hurricane Maria and the Mexico Earthquake Related? Scientists ... | Updated | When multiple natural disasters occur at around the same time, such as the earthquake in Mexico on Tuesday and the arrival of Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico on Wednesday, people might be tempted to think that the timing is more than a coincidence.
Hurricanes arise due to interactions between the atmosphere and the ocean, whereas earthquakes are caused by the motions of solid earth. But scientists have long searched for a connection between the two types of natural events, which often occur in succession—as was also the case earlier in September, when another earthquake struck Mexico around the same time Hurricane Irma made landfall.
One reason that earthquakes and hurricanes often seem to happen around the same time is geographic. Many areas that are prone to the severe storms also have seismic activity, as Slate's Brian Palmer pointed out in 2011.
But some scientists have gone further, suggesting that hurricanes can trigger earthquakes, though perhaps not immediatley. For an area that is "prone to earthquakes," says Shimon Wdowinski, an associate professor in the department of earth and environment at Florida International University, "heavy rain can increase the probability of getting earthquakes after the wet storm."
Wdowinski studied that phenomenon in Taiwan, which had experienced both types of events. "In that particular environment, already prone to earthquakes, a very wet typhoon," which is the same as a hurricane, "can induce the landslides, and then the removal of the land that comes with the landslides can actually induce earthquakes," he says. This does not happen right away. "There is sometimes a delay of months or sometimes years," he says.
He has also looked into whether tropical storms that hit Haiti in 2008 caused erosion of land and triggered the major earthquake that country faced in 2010. He says the results there have been inconclusive because of limited data.
Other scientists say have found that the changes to atmospheric pressure caused by hurricanes can also affect earthquakes, causing them to slow down and wreak havoc for greater lengths of time. In a study published in Nature in 2009, Taiwanese researchers claimed that under certain conditions, typhoons in eastern Taiwan had triggered earthquakes that way.
Another expert who believes there could be a link between earthquakes and hurricanes is University of Maryland physicist A. Surjalal Sharma, who says extreme natural events don't exist in isolation. "We have many events which start and end, and most of the events are like that," he says. But for extreme events such as earthquakes and hurricanes, "they have some memory of how they evolved," which is evident by when those events occurred over time.
Though Sharma says the "memory" concept—which he spoke about in a 2012 interview with the American Geophysical Union—pertains mainly to events of the same type, he says the same could be the case across different types, though more study is needed. "The Earth's system as a whole, in which there are hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, space storms, they all form an interconnected system," he says. "So the memory in this system, the entire earth system, will affect the extreme events in this."
Existing research and theories do not prove that the ongoing disasters are related. Wdowinski, from Florida International University, points out that a storm's causing sediment to erode, leading to an earthquake in the same place months or years later, is not the same as what is happening now in Mexico and Puerto Rico. He says the phenomenon he studied takes time and occurs "in certain tectonic environments. It's not everywhere."
Brian Romans, an associate professor in the geosciences department at Virginia Tech, who has written for Wired about Wdowinski's research, agrees. "It's tempting to explore connections between earth system events that occur at nearly the same time and in the same general region," he says by email. "However, the linkage between the atmosphere-ocean processes that lead to hurricanes and the solid earth processes that lead to large-magnitude and damaging earthquakes, if it exists at all, is not well understood." He adds, "I would conclude that these recent and ongoing events are coincidental and not linked by a common mechanism."
The link between the two types of natural disasters and other types is clearer: Earthquakes can trigger mudslides, tsunamis and volcanoes, while hurricanes can cause floods, tornadoes and landslides.
Correction: This article previously incorrectly stated that a major earthquake happened in Mexico on Monday. The 7.1 magnitude earthquake was on Tuesday. This article was also updated to include current affiliation for Shimon Wdowinski. | Updated | When multiple natural disasters occur at around the same time, such as the earthquake in Mexico on Tuesday and the arrival of Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico on Wednesday, people might be tempted to think that the timing is more than a coincidence.
Hurricanes arise due to interactions between the atmosphere and the ocean, whereas earthquakes are caused by the motions of solid earth. But scientists have long searched for a connection between the two types of natural events, which often occur in succession—as was also the case earlier in September, when another earthquake struck Mexico around the same time Hurricane Irma made landfall.
One reason that earthquakes and hurricanes often seem to happen around the same time is geographic. Many areas that are prone to the severe storms also have seismic activity, as Slate's Brian Palmer pointed out in 2011.
But some scientists have gone further, suggesting that hurricanes can trigger earthquakes, though perhaps not immediatley. For an area that is "prone to earthquakes," says Shimon Wdowinski, an associate professor in the department of earth and environment at Florida International University, "heavy rain can increase the probability of getting earthquakes after the wet storm. "
Wdowinski studied that phenomenon in Taiwan, which had experienced both types of events. "In that particular environment, already prone to earthquakes, a very wet typhoon," which is the same as a hurricane, "can induce the landslides, and then the removal of the land that comes with the landslides can actually induce earthquakes," he says. This does not happen right away. "There is sometimes a delay of months or sometimes years," he says.
He has also looked into whether tropical storms that hit Haiti in 2008 caused erosion of land and triggered the major earthquake that country faced in 2010. He says the results there have been inconclusive because of limited data.
Other scientists say have found that the changes to atmospheric pressure caused by hurricanes can also affect earthquakes, causing them to slow down and wreak havoc for greater lengths of time. | yes |
Hydrology | Can hurricanes cause earthquakes? | no_statement | "hurricanes" cannot "cause" "earthquakes".. there is no correlation between "hurricanes" and "earthquakes". | https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/there-earthquake-weather | Is there earthquake weather? | U.S. Geological Survey | Breadcrumb
Is there earthquake weather?
In the 4th Century B.C., Aristotle proposed that earthquakes were caused by winds trapped in subterranean caves. Small tremors were thought to have been caused by air pushing on the cavern roofs, and large ones by the air breaking the surface. This theory lead to a belief in earthquake weather, that because a large amount of air was trapped underground, the weather would be hot and calm before an earthquake. A later theory stated that earthquakes occurred in calm, cloudy conditions, and were usually preceded by strong winds, fireballs, and meteors.
There is no such thing as "earthquake weather". Statistically, there is approximately an equal distribution of earthquakes in cold weather, hot weather, rainy weather, etc. Very large low-pressure changes associated with major storm systems (typhoons, hurricanes, etc) are known to trigger episodes of fault slip (slow earthquakes) in the Earth’s crust and may also play a role in triggering some damaging earthquakes. However, the numbers are small and are not statistically significant.
Related Content
Solar flares and magnetic storms belong to a set of phenomena known collectively as "space weather". Technological systems and the activities of modern civilization can be affected by changing space-weather conditions. However, it has never been demonstrated that there is a causal relationship between space weather and earthquakes. Indeed, over the course of the Sun's 11-year variable cycle, the...
Do solar flares or magnetic storms (space weather) cause earthquakes?
Solar flares and magnetic storms belong to a set of phenomena known collectively as "space weather". Technological systems and the activities of modern civilization can be affected by changing space-weather conditions. However, it has never been demonstrated that there is a causal relationship between space weather and earthquakes. Indeed, over the course of the Sun's 11-year variable cycle, the...
Electromagnetic variations have been observed after earthquakes, but despite decades of work, there is no convincing evidence of electromagnetic precursors to earthquakes. It is worth acknowledging that geophysicists would actually love to demonstrate the reality of such precursors, especially if they could be used for reliably predicting earthquakes! Learn more: USGS Geomagnetism Program
Are earthquakes associated with variations in the geomagnetic field?
Electromagnetic variations have been observed after earthquakes, but despite decades of work, there is no convincing evidence of electromagnetic precursors to earthquakes. It is worth acknowledging that geophysicists would actually love to demonstrate the reality of such precursors, especially if they could be used for reliably predicting earthquakes! Learn more: USGS Geomagnetism Program
No. Neither the USGS nor any other scientists have ever predicted a major earthquake. We do not know how, and we do not expect to know how any time in the foreseeable future. USGS scientists can only calculate the probability that a significant earthquake will occur (shown on our hazard mapping) in a specific area within a certain number of years. An earthquake prediction must define 3 elements: 1...
Can you predict earthquakes?
No. Neither the USGS nor any other scientists have ever predicted a major earthquake. We do not know how, and we do not expect to know how any time in the foreseeable future. USGS scientists can only calculate the probability that a significant earthquake will occur (shown on our hazard mapping) in a specific area within a certain number of years. An earthquake prediction must define 3 elements: 1...
The earliest reference we have to unusual animal behavior prior to a significant earthquake is from Greece in 373 BC. Rats, weasels, snakes, and centipedes reportedly left their homes and headed for safety several days before a destructive earthquake. Anecdotal evidence abounds of animals, fish, birds, reptiles, and insects exhibiting strange behavior anywhere from weeks to seconds before an...
Can animals predict earthquakes?
The earliest reference we have to unusual animal behavior prior to a significant earthquake is from Greece in 373 BC. Rats, weasels, snakes, and centipedes reportedly left their homes and headed for safety several days before a destructive earthquake. Anecdotal evidence abounds of animals, fish, birds, reptiles, and insects exhibiting strange behavior anywhere from weeks to seconds before an...
A temporary increase or decrease in seismicity is part of the normal fluctuation of earthquake rates. Neither an increase nor decrease worldwide is a positive indication that a large earthquake is imminent. The ComCat earthquake catalog contains an increasing number of earthquakes in recent years--not because there are more earthquakes, but because there are more seismic instruments and they are...
Why are we having so many earthquakes? Has naturally occurring earthquake activity been increasing? Does this mean a big one is going to hit? OR We haven't had any earthquakes in a long time; does this mean that the pressure is building up for a big one?
A temporary increase or decrease in seismicity is part of the normal fluctuation of earthquake rates. Neither an increase nor decrease worldwide is a positive indication that a large earthquake is imminent. The ComCat earthquake catalog contains an increasing number of earthquakes in recent years--not because there are more earthquakes, but because there are more seismic instruments and they are...
No, earthquakes of magnitude 10 or larger cannot happen. The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the length of the fault on which it occurs. That is, the longer the fault, the larger the earthquake. A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the Earth's crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past each other. No fault long enough to generate a magnitude 10 earthquake is known to...
Can "MegaQuakes" really happen? Like a magnitude 10 or larger?
No, earthquakes of magnitude 10 or larger cannot happen. The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the length of the fault on which it occurs. That is, the longer the fault, the larger the earthquake. A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the Earth's crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past each other. No fault long enough to generate a magnitude 10 earthquake is known to...
Shallow crevasses can form during earthquake-induced landslides, lateral spreads, or from other types of ground failures, but faults do not open up during an earthquake. An earthquake occurs when two blocks of the earth’s crust slide past one another after having been stuck together in one place for a long time, because of friction on the fault, while the rest of the crust away from the edges has...
Can the ground open up during an earthquake?
Shallow crevasses can form during earthquake-induced landslides, lateral spreads, or from other types of ground failures, but faults do not open up during an earthquake. An earthquake occurs when two blocks of the earth’s crust slide past one another after having been stuck together in one place for a long time, because of friction on the fault, while the rest of the crust away from the edges has...
No, California is not going to fall into the ocean. California is firmly planted on the top of the earth’s crust in a location where it spans two tectonic plates. The San Andreas Fault System, which crosses California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, is the boundary between the Pacific Plate (that includes the Pacific Ocean) and North American Plate (that includes...
Will California eventually fall into the ocean?
No, California is not going to fall into the ocean. California is firmly planted on the top of the earth’s crust in a location where it spans two tectonic plates. The San Andreas Fault System, which crosses California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, is the boundary between the Pacific Plate (that includes the Pacific Ocean) and North American Plate (that includes...
Several recently published reports have suggested that semi-stationary linear-cloud formations might be causally precursory to earthquakes. We examine the report of Guangmeng and Jie (2013), who claim to have predicted the 2012 M 6.0 earthquake in the Po Valley of northern Italy after seeing a satellite photograph (a digital image) showing a linear-cloud formation over the eastern Apennine Mountai
The magnitude 9.2 Great Alaska Earthquake that struck south-central Alaska at 5:36 p.m. on Friday, March 27, 1964, is the largest recorded earthquake in U.S. history and the second-largest earthquake recorded with modern instruments. The earthquake was felt throughout most of mainland Alaska, as far west as Dutch Harbor in the Aleutian Islands some 480 miles away, and at Seattle, Washington, more
The mission of the USGS in natural hazards is to develop and apply hazard science to help protect the safety, security, and economic well-being of the Nation. The costs and consequences of natural hazards can be enormous, and each year more people and infrastructure are at risk. The USGS conducts hazard research and works closely with stakeholders and cooperators to inform a broad range of plannin
Introduction
Many different types of landslide occur in the Santa Cruz Mountains of San Mateo County, Calif. (Brabb and Pampeyan, 1972); most slope movement is triggered by strong earthquakes, heavy rainfall, or shoreline erosion. In this area, shallow landslides of loose soil and rock, which may transform into debris flows, commonly occur during individual storms when rainfall exceeds a thresh
Earthquakes are one of the most costly natural hazards faced by the Nation, posing a significant risk to 75 million Americans in 39 States. The risks that earthquakes pose to society, including death, injury, and economic loss, can be greatly reduced by (1) better planning, construction, and mitigation practices before earthquakes happen, and (2) providing critical and timely information to improv
On August 1, 1975, at 2020 GMT a magnitude 5.7 (ML) earthquake occurred 15 km south of Oroville, California, in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It was preceded by 61 foreshocks that began on June 7, 1975, and was followed by thousands of aftershocks. Several studies have reported locations or analyses of various subsets of the Oroville sequence, including Morrison and others (1975), Sa
Related Content
Solar flares and magnetic storms belong to a set of phenomena known collectively as "space weather". Technological systems and the activities of modern civilization can be affected by changing space-weather conditions. However, it has never been demonstrated that there is a causal relationship between space weather and earthquakes. Indeed, over the course of the Sun's 11-year variable cycle, the...
Do solar flares or magnetic storms (space weather) cause earthquakes?
Solar flares and magnetic storms belong to a set of phenomena known collectively as "space weather". Technological systems and the activities of modern civilization can be affected by changing space-weather conditions. However, it has never been demonstrated that there is a causal relationship between space weather and earthquakes. Indeed, over the course of the Sun's 11-year variable cycle, the...
Electromagnetic variations have been observed after earthquakes, but despite decades of work, there is no convincing evidence of electromagnetic precursors to earthquakes. It is worth acknowledging that geophysicists would actually love to demonstrate the reality of such precursors, especially if they could be used for reliably predicting earthquakes! Learn more: USGS Geomagnetism Program
Are earthquakes associated with variations in the geomagnetic field?
Electromagnetic variations have been observed after earthquakes, but despite decades of work, there is no convincing evidence of electromagnetic precursors to earthquakes. It is worth acknowledging that geophysicists would actually love to demonstrate the reality of such precursors, especially if they could be used for reliably predicting earthquakes! Learn more: USGS Geomagnetism Program
No. Neither the USGS nor any other scientists have ever predicted a major earthquake. We do not know how, and we do not expect to know how any time in the foreseeable future. USGS scientists can only calculate the probability that a significant earthquake will occur (shown on our hazard mapping) in a specific area within a certain number of years. An earthquake prediction must define 3 elements: 1...
Can you predict earthquakes?
No. Neither the USGS nor any other scientists have ever predicted a major earthquake. We do not know how, and we do not expect to know how any time in the foreseeable future. USGS scientists can only calculate the probability that a significant earthquake will occur (shown on our hazard mapping) in a specific area within a certain number of years. An earthquake prediction must define 3 elements: 1...
The earliest reference we have to unusual animal behavior prior to a significant earthquake is from Greece in 373 BC. Rats, weasels, snakes, and centipedes reportedly left their homes and headed for safety several days before a destructive earthquake. Anecdotal evidence abounds of animals, fish, birds, reptiles, and insects exhibiting strange behavior anywhere from weeks to seconds before an...
Can animals predict earthquakes?
The earliest reference we have to unusual animal behavior prior to a significant earthquake is from Greece in 373 BC. Rats, weasels, snakes, and centipedes reportedly left their homes and headed for safety several days before a destructive earthquake. Anecdotal evidence abounds of animals, fish, birds, reptiles, and insects exhibiting strange behavior anywhere from weeks to seconds before an...
A temporary increase or decrease in seismicity is part of the normal fluctuation of earthquake rates. Neither an increase nor decrease worldwide is a positive indication that a large earthquake is imminent. The ComCat earthquake catalog contains an increasing number of earthquakes in recent years--not because there are more earthquakes, but because there are more seismic instruments and they are...
Why are we having so many earthquakes? Has naturally occurring earthquake activity been increasing? Does this mean a big one is going to hit? OR We haven't had any earthquakes in a long time; does this mean that the pressure is building up for a big one?
A temporary increase or decrease in seismicity is part of the normal fluctuation of earthquake rates. Neither an increase nor decrease worldwide is a positive indication that a large earthquake is imminent. The ComCat earthquake catalog contains an increasing number of earthquakes in recent years--not because there are more earthquakes, but because there are more seismic instruments and they are...
No, earthquakes of magnitude 10 or larger cannot happen. The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the length of the fault on which it occurs. That is, the longer the fault, the larger the earthquake. A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the Earth's crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past each other. No fault long enough to generate a magnitude 10 earthquake is known to...
Can "MegaQuakes" really happen? Like a magnitude 10 or larger?
No, earthquakes of magnitude 10 or larger cannot happen. The magnitude of an earthquake is related to the length of the fault on which it occurs. That is, the longer the fault, the larger the earthquake. A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the Earth's crust, along which rocks on either side have moved past each other. No fault long enough to generate a magnitude 10 earthquake is known to...
Shallow crevasses can form during earthquake-induced landslides, lateral spreads, or from other types of ground failures, but faults do not open up during an earthquake. An earthquake occurs when two blocks of the earth’s crust slide past one another after having been stuck together in one place for a long time, because of friction on the fault, while the rest of the crust away from the edges has...
Can the ground open up during an earthquake?
Shallow crevasses can form during earthquake-induced landslides, lateral spreads, or from other types of ground failures, but faults do not open up during an earthquake. An earthquake occurs when two blocks of the earth’s crust slide past one another after having been stuck together in one place for a long time, because of friction on the fault, while the rest of the crust away from the edges has...
No, California is not going to fall into the ocean. California is firmly planted on the top of the earth’s crust in a location where it spans two tectonic plates. The San Andreas Fault System, which crosses California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, is the boundary between the Pacific Plate (that includes the Pacific Ocean) and North American Plate (that includes...
Will California eventually fall into the ocean?
No, California is not going to fall into the ocean. California is firmly planted on the top of the earth’s crust in a location where it spans two tectonic plates. The San Andreas Fault System, which crosses California from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the north, is the boundary between the Pacific Plate (that includes the Pacific Ocean) and North American Plate (that includes...
Several recently published reports have suggested that semi-stationary linear-cloud formations might be causally precursory to earthquakes. We examine the report of Guangmeng and Jie (2013), who claim to have predicted the 2012 M 6.0 earthquake in the Po Valley of northern Italy after seeing a satellite photograph (a digital image) showing a linear-cloud formation over the eastern Apennine Mountai
The magnitude 9.2 Great Alaska Earthquake that struck south-central Alaska at 5:36 p.m. on Friday, March 27, 1964, is the largest recorded earthquake in U.S. history and the second-largest earthquake recorded with modern instruments. The earthquake was felt throughout most of mainland Alaska, as far west as Dutch Harbor in the Aleutian Islands some 480 miles away, and at Seattle, Washington, more
The mission of the USGS in natural hazards is to develop and apply hazard science to help protect the safety, security, and economic well-being of the Nation. The costs and consequences of natural hazards can be enormous, and each year more people and infrastructure are at risk. The USGS conducts hazard research and works closely with stakeholders and cooperators to inform a broad range of plannin
Introduction
Many different types of landslide occur in the Santa Cruz Mountains of San Mateo County, Calif. (Brabb and Pampeyan, 1972); most slope movement is triggered by strong earthquakes, heavy rainfall, or shoreline erosion. In this area, shallow landslides of loose soil and rock, which may transform into debris flows, commonly occur during individual storms when rainfall exceeds a thresh
Earthquakes are one of the most costly natural hazards faced by the Nation, posing a significant risk to 75 million Americans in 39 States. The risks that earthquakes pose to society, including death, injury, and economic loss, can be greatly reduced by (1) better planning, construction, and mitigation practices before earthquakes happen, and (2) providing critical and timely information to improv
On August 1, 1975, at 2020 GMT a magnitude 5.7 (ML) earthquake occurred 15 km south of Oroville, California, in the western foothills of the Sierra Nevada. It was preceded by 61 foreshocks that began on June 7, 1975, and was followed by thousands of aftershocks. Several studies have reported locations or analyses of various subsets of the Oroville sequence, including Morrison and others (1975), Sa | Breadcrumb
Is there earthquake weather?
In the 4th Century B.C., Aristotle proposed that earthquakes were caused by winds trapped in subterranean caves. Small tremors were thought to have been caused by air pushing on the cavern roofs, and large ones by the air breaking the surface. This theory lead to a belief in earthquake weather, that because a large amount of air was trapped underground, the weather would be hot and calm before an earthquake. A later theory stated that earthquakes occurred in calm, cloudy conditions, and were usually preceded by strong winds, fireballs, and meteors.
There is no such thing as "earthquake weather". Statistically, there is approximately an equal distribution of earthquakes in cold weather, hot weather, rainy weather, etc. Very large low-pressure changes associated with major storm systems (typhoons, hurricanes, etc) are known to trigger episodes of fault slip (slow earthquakes) in the Earth’s crust and may also play a role in triggering some damaging earthquakes. However, the numbers are small and are not statistically significant.
Related Content
Solar flares and magnetic storms belong to a set of phenomena known collectively as "space weather". Technological systems and the activities of modern civilization can be affected by changing space-weather conditions. However, it has never been demonstrated that there is a causal relationship between space weather and earthquakes. Indeed, over the course of the Sun's 11-year variable cycle, the...
Do solar flares or magnetic storms (space weather) cause earthquakes?
Solar flares and magnetic storms belong to a set of phenomena known collectively as "space weather". Technological systems and the activities of modern civilization can be affected by changing space-weather conditions. However, it has never been demonstrated that there is a causal relationship between space weather and earthquakes. Indeed, over the course of the Sun's 11-year variable cycle, the...
Electromagnetic variations have been observed after earthquakes, but despite decades of work, there is no convincing evidence of electromagnetic precursors to earthquakes. | yes |
Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/hypnosis-memory-brain/ | Hypnosis, Memory and the Brain - Scientific American | Hypnosis has long been considered a valuable technique for recreating and then studying puzzling psychological phenomena. A classic example of this approach uses a technique known as posthypnotic amnesia (PHA) to model memory disorders such as functional amnesia, which involves a sudden memory loss typically due to some sort of psychological trauma (rather than to brain damage or disease). Hypnotists produce PHA by suggesting to a hypnotized person that after hypnosis he will forget particular things until he receives a “cancellation,” such as “Now you can remember everything.” PHA typically only happens when it is specifically suggested and it is much more likely to occur in those with high levels of hypnotic ability, or “high hypnotizable” people. Now a new study shows that this hypnotic state actually influences brain activity associated with memory.
High hypnotizable people with PHA typically show impaired explicit memory, or difficulty consciously recalling events or material targeted by the suggestion, and a dissociation between implicit and explicit memory, so that even though they can’t recall the forgotten information it continues to influence their behavior, thoughts and actions. The forgetting is reversible—when the suggestion is cancelled, their memories come flooding back. These last two features—the dissociation and reversibility—confirm that PHA is not the result of poor encoding of the memories or of normal forgetting, because the memories return as soon as PHA is cancelled. Rather, PHA reflects a temporary inability to retrieve information that is safely stored in memory. That makes it a useful tool for research.
Researchers have used PHA as a laboratory analogue of functional amnesia because these conditions share several similar features. Case reports of functional amnesia, for instance, describe men and women who, following a traumatic experience such as a violent sexual assault or the death of a loved one, are unable to remember part or all of their personal past. However, as in PHA, they might still show “implicit” evidence of the forgotten events. For instance, they might unconsciously dial the phone number of a family member whom they can’t consciously recall. (In contrast, explicit memories are those we consciously have access to, such as remembering a childhood birthday or what you had for dinner last night.) And, as suddenly as they lost their memories, they can just as suddenly recover them.
Forgetting in the Brain
But for the comparison between PHA and functional amnesia to be most meaningful, we need to know that they share underlying processes. One way to test this is to identify the brain activity patterns associated with PHA. In a groundbreaking study published in Neuron, neuroscientist Avi Mendelsohn and colleagues at the Weizmann Institute in Israel did just that using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). They carefully selected 25 people to participate in their experiment. Although all were susceptible to hypnosis, earlier testing had shown that half could respond to a PHA suggestion (labelled “the PHA group”) and half could not (the “non-PHA group”). In the Study session of their experiment, participants watched a 45-minute movie. One week later, in the Test session, participants returned to the laboratory and were hypnotized while they lay within the fMRI scanner. During hypnosis, people in both the PHA and non-PHA groups received a suggestion to forget the movie until they heard a specific cancellation cue.
After hypnosis, participants’ memories were tested twice while the fMRI scanner recorded their brain activity. For Test 1, they were asked 40 questions about the content of the movie (for example, the actress knocked on her neighbor’s door on the way home) and 20 questions about the context in which they saw the movie (for instance, during the movie, the door to the study room was closed). These questions required a “yes” or “no” response. For Test 2, participants were asked the same 60 recognition questions, but first they heard the cue to cancel PHA. So Test 1 measured memory performance and brain activity while the PHA suggestion was in effect and Test 2 measured memory performance and brain activity after it was cancelled.
In Test 1 Mendelsohn and colleagues found that people in the PHA group (who could experience PHA) forgot more details from the movie than people in the non-PHA group (who could not experience PHA). But in Test 2, after the suggestion was cancelled, this memory loss was reversed. People in the PHA group correctly recognized just as many details from the movie as people in the non-PHA group. Somewhat surprisingly, however, the suggestion to forget was selective in its impact. Although people in the PHA group had difficulty remembering the content of the movie following the forget suggestion, they had no difficulty remembering the context in which they saw the movie.
This finding—that PHA temporarily disrupted some people’s ability to recall the past—echoes decades of hypnosis research. What is entirely new in Mendelsohn et al.’s study is their demonstration that PHA was associated with a specific pattern of brain activation. Consistent with what normally occurs in remembering, when people in the non-PHA group performed the recognition task and successfully remembered what happened in the movie, fMRI showed high levels of activity in areas responsible for visualizing scenes (the occipital lobes) and for analyzing verbally presented scenarios (the left temporal lobe). In stark contrast, when people in the PHA group performed the recognition task and failed to remember the content of the movie, fMRI showed little or no activity in these areas. Also, fMRI showed enhanced activity in another area (the prefrontal cortex) responsible for regulating activity in other brain areas.
So far, so good. For people in the PHA group, brain activation measured by fMRI correlated with the failure to remember. But what if reduced activation is always found in such people regardless of whether they are remembering or forgetting? We can rule this possibility out because people in the PHA group showed reduced activation only when they (unsuccessfully) answered questions about the content of the movie, not when they (successfully) answered questions about the context of the movie. Indeed, for the context questions, they showed the same activation as people in the non-PHA group. Perhaps then, the reduced activation reflects complete forgetting of the information, not just temporary suppression? We can rule this possibility out also because, in a neat reversal, people in the PHA group showed normal activation—just as those in the non-PHA group did—as soon as the suggestion was cancelled.
Hypnosis Is Real
Mendelsohn et al.’s study is important because it demonstrates that hypnotic suggestions influence brain activity, not just behavior and experience. Hypnotic effects are real! This fact has been demonstrated clearly in earlier work, for instance, by psychologist David Oakley (University College London) and colleagues, who compared brain activation of genuinely hypnotized people given suggestions for leg paralysis with brain activation of people simply asked to fake hypnosis and paralysis.
This latest study is also important because it starts to specify the underlying brain processes, which we assume are shared by PHA and functional amnesia. Mendelsohn et al. argued that the brain activation seen in PHA reflects a dampening—some form of rapid, early inhibition of memory material—due to heightened activity in the prefrontal cortex.
But how does the suppression mechanism decide what to suppress? In this study, movie content but not movie context was influenced by PHA. Memories involve the “what,” “how,” “when” and “where” of an event interwoven together, such that distinctions between content and context may be blurred (for example, “Was the movie shot with a hand-held camera?”). To make such fine discriminations, the brain’s suppressor module presumably needs to process information at a sufficiently high level. Yet this module needs to act quickly, preconsciously suppressing activation of the information before it even enters awareness. Brain imaging technologies with superior temporal resolution to fMRI, such as magnetoencephalography (MEG), might help to resolve this seeming paradox of sophisticated, yet rapid, operations.
We also wonder how the suppression mechanism in PHA relates to the vast array of forgetting in the laboratory and in the world? Whereas some forgetting is seen as strategic, effortful and conscious (say, suppression), other forgetting is seen as automatic, effortless and unconscious (say, repression). Having mapped the common features of PHA and functional amnesia, we now need to explore and compare in greater detail their common processes (such as strategy use, motivation, level of awareness).
Finally, the neural underpinnings of PHA will be even clearer when we incorporate its most important aspect in imaging studies—the dissociation between implicit and explicit memory. In PHA (and in functional amnesia) the person is unable to explicitly recall certain information, yet we see evidence of this material on implicit measures. For instance, a participant given PHA may fail to recall the word “doctor,” learned earlier, but will have no trouble completing the word fragment “d _ _ t _ r”. Mendelsohn et al. did not assess implicit memory. Rather, they tested recognition, which in a sense confounds explicit and implicit memory. We’d like to compare brain scans of a PHA group trying to explicitly recall the movie (they should show reduced activation, as above) with brain scans of the same group completing an implicit memory measure of the movie (they should show normal activation). This would be tricky to do—implicit measures of complex material such as movies and autobiographical memories are hard to find or construct. But it would contribute to a more complete neural picture of the processes involved in these fascinating forms of forgetting.
Scientific American is part of Springer Nature, which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications (many of them can be found at www.springernature.com/us). Scientific American maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers. | Hypnosis has long been considered a valuable technique for recreating and then studying puzzling psychological phenomena. A classic example of this approach uses a technique known as posthypnotic amnesia (PHA) to model memory disorders such as functional amnesia, which involves a sudden memory loss typically due to some sort of psychological trauma (rather than to brain damage or disease). Hypnotists produce PHA by suggesting to a hypnotized person that after hypnosis he will forget particular things until he receives a “cancellation,” such as “Now you can remember everything.” PHA typically only happens when it is specifically suggested and it is much more likely to occur in those with high levels of hypnotic ability, or “high hypnotizable” people. Now a new study shows that this hypnotic state actually influences brain activity associated with memory.
High hypnotizable people with PHA typically show impaired explicit memory, or difficulty consciously recalling events or material targeted by the suggestion, and a dissociation between implicit and explicit memory, so that even though they can’t recall the forgotten information it continues to influence their behavior, thoughts and actions. The forgetting is reversible—when the suggestion is cancelled, their memories come flooding back. These last two features—the dissociation and reversibility—confirm that PHA is not the result of poor encoding of the memories or of normal forgetting, because the memories return as soon as PHA is cancelled. Rather, PHA reflects a temporary inability to retrieve information that is safely stored in memory. That makes it a useful tool for research.
Researchers have used PHA as a laboratory analogue of functional amnesia because these conditions share several similar features. Case reports of functional amnesia, for instance, describe men and women who, following a traumatic experience such as a violent sexual assault or the death of a loved one, are unable to remember part or all of their personal past. However, as in PHA, they might still show “implicit” evidence of the forgotten events. For instance, they might unconsciously dial the phone number of a family member whom they can’t consciously recall. | yes |
Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://www.mentalhelp.net/blogs/recovered-trauma-memories-and-hypnosis/ | Recovered Trauma Memories And Hypnosis | Recovered Trauma Memories and Hypnosis
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Brian Thompson, PhD, is a licensed psychologist at Portland Psychotherapy Clinic, Research, and Training Center in Portland, Oregon, and he also works at the...Read More
Not too long, I came across a request on a professional listserv for a therapist experienced in hypnosis to help someone recover “possible” childhood memories of abuse. This request contained some very serious misunderstandings about abuse memories and hypnosis; as a consequence, I thought it was worth writing about the topic in greater depth.
Perhaps the place to start is addressing what we actually know about how memory works. Up until about 20-30 years ago, many scientists believed our brains kept perfect record of what happens to us. Recent research has suggested this view isn’t accurate. Memory is actually extremely fallible and prone to distortion. Moreover, when we recall something, it’s not like pulling a file out of a cabinet as we used to believe. Instead, memory appears to be a reconstructive process-we take bits of remembered information and recreate what happened in our minds. For these reasons, our memories of a particular event may change over time.
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Laboratory studies have provided evidence of how someone can be influenced to believe something happened to them that didn’t. Researchers have been able to suggest events to people that they denied initially, but began to believe weeks later. These experiences include getting lost in a shopping mall as a child, spilling a punch bowl on the bride at a wedding, an animal attack, medical procedure, and many others. Not everyone is suggestible, but up to a quarter of people will integrate the suggested memory into their own, forgetting where it came from, and coming up with a lot more detail to flesh it out over time.
What about hypnosis? Although not trained in it myself, I believe hypnosis can be a useful clinical tool, and there’s some support for the use of hypnosis in helping people with chronic pain, smoking cessation, and other stress-related problems. But the scientific data suggest that the use of hypnosis in recovering memories is very problematic.
Therapists are Standing By to Treat Your Depression, Anxiety or Other Mental Health Needs
Contrary to the popular notion of hypnosis as a tool to uncover “hidden” memories locked away within the recesses of the brain, there’s no evidence hypnosis improves our ability to remember things that happened to us compared to non-hypnotic or regular recall. Not only is hypnosis no better than regular recall, data suggest that recall during hypnosis can actually result in the creation of more false memories than recall while not under hypnosis. Furthermore, people who recall memories under hypnosis are more likely to believe in the accuracy of these memories, regardless of whether they are true or not. It is for these reasons that many professionals working with individuals who may have been abused as children strongly caution against the use of hypnosis as a tool to try to recover possible unremembered trauma. The American Medical Association took a stand warning against accuracy of memories recovered through hypnosis in 1985. You can read the statement here.
In sum, we can influence some people into believing things that never happened without hypnosis, but hypnosis makes it easier and more believable.
These misunderstandings about memory and hypnosis contributed to a particular destructive period in psychotherapy. In the 1980-1990’s, there was an epidemic of cases with well-meaning therapists, often through hypnosis, “recovering” memories of childhood sexual abuse that never happened. Families were ripped apart and lawsuits were filed. This included a wave of reports of what was called “satanic ritual abuse.” The FBI investigated thousands of reports of abuse reportedly perpetrated by satanic cults and was unable to find any corroborating evidence for it. You can read the FBI report here.
Please don’t misunderstand me: I am not saying people don’t recover memories of childhood abuse later in life. In my own practice, I have had people come to see me after recalling childhood abuse they had previously forgotten. We certainly can forget events, particularly very difficult events and things we don’t understand at the time. And I am very happy to work with individuals who have recalled previously forgotten memories. However, I do not and will not seek out unremembered abuse. The risk of creating the memory of something that never actually happened is too great.
A study by a group of U.S. and international researchers lead by Dr. Gerarts looked at three groups of people with childhood sexual abuse memories: 1.) those who had always remembered their abuse; 2.) those who spontaneously recovered memories outside of therapy; 3.) and those who had recovered memories during therapy. The researchers interviewed other people in the participants’ lives who could corroborate the abuse. Researchers were able to corroborate stories in many cases for people who reported always remembering the abuse (45%) and people who recovered memories outside of therapy (37%). For people, who recovered abuse memories in therapy, researchers were unable to corroborate a single case.
Just because the researchers were unable to corroborate any cases of abuse when memories were recovered in therapy doesn’t mean that they were all false. After all, researchers were able to corroborate less than half of abuse memories for people who had always recalled the abuse. However, the finding is extremely disturbing, as it suggests memories of abuse recovered in therapy are less likely to have actually happened than those spontaneously recovered.
It might be understandable for psychotherapists to be searching for abuse memories if remembrance of trauma was absolutely necessary for improved mental health. However, there is no compelling evidence that unremembered abuse causes mental health problems. I suspect this misunderstanding is a holdover from Freud’s belief that many problems are related to repressed material in the unconscious. When people actively avoid painful thoughts, memories, and feelings, this can cause a lot of problems. This can be worked on in treatment. Searching for unremembered abuse in order to explain current difficulties is simply irresponsible on the part of the therapist.
Gold standard treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder such as Prolonged Exposure and Cognitive Processing Therapy deal with intrusive trauma memories, not hidden ones. There is no empirical evidence that someone needs to remember a previously forgotten traumatic experience to live a healthy and fulfilling life. Problems come when survivors avoid things that remind them of the trauma.
For these reasons, I caution people from looking for trauma memories with a therapist. Using hypnosis to recover memories is especially dangerous. You might find them, but there is no guarantee they are real-no matter how real they seem. | Moreover, when we recall something, it’s not like pulling a file out of a cabinet as we used to believe. Instead, memory appears to be a reconstructive process-we take bits of remembered information and recreate what happened in our minds. For these reasons, our memories of a particular event may change over time.
Ad
Laboratory studies have provided evidence of how someone can be influenced to believe something happened to them that didn’t. Researchers have been able to suggest events to people that they denied initially, but began to believe weeks later. These experiences include getting lost in a shopping mall as a child, spilling a punch bowl on the bride at a wedding, an animal attack, medical procedure, and many others. Not everyone is suggestible, but up to a quarter of people will integrate the suggested memory into their own, forgetting where it came from, and coming up with a lot more detail to flesh it out over time.
What about hypnosis? Although not trained in it myself, I believe hypnosis can be a useful clinical tool, and there’s some support for the use of hypnosis in helping people with chronic pain, smoking cessation, and other stress-related problems. But the scientific data suggest that the use of hypnosis in recovering memories is very problematic.
Therapists are Standing By to Treat Your Depression, Anxiety or Other Mental Health Needs
Contrary to the popular notion of hypnosis as a tool to uncover “hidden” memories locked away within the recesses of the brain, there’s no evidence hypnosis improves our ability to remember things that happened to us compared to non-hypnotic or regular recall. Not only is hypnosis no better than regular recall, data suggest that recall during hypnosis can actually result in the creation of more false memories than recall while not under hypnosis. Furthermore, people who recall memories under hypnosis are more likely to believe in the accuracy of these memories, regardless of whether they are true or not. It is for these reasons that many professionals working with individuals who may have been abused as children strongly caution against the use of hypnosis as a tool to try to recover possible unremembered trauma. | no |
Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/27/opinion/recovered-memory-therapy-mental-health.html | Opinion | The Forgotten Lessons of the Recovered Memory ... | The Forgotten Lessons of the Recovered Memory Movement
Mr. Watters is a journalist and author whose work focuses on psychiatry and social psychology.
Sept. 27, 2022
Most students in psychology and psychiatry programs today are too young to have any firsthand memory of the moral panic engendered by the recovered memory movement in the 1980s and early 1990s. This was a time when therapists proudly advertised their ability to help clients unearth supposedly repressed memories of childhood sexual abuse; the accusations that followed shattered families and communities across the country.
The belief that such memories could be repressed and then recovered through special techniques was widespread among mental health professionals for well over a decade. In books and on television, therapists portrayed themselves as the first generation of healers to understand both these mechanisms of repression and how to unlock them without contaminating the story that emerged. The results were dramatic: Patients often recovered abuse memories that began in infancy and lasted for decades. Some came to believe not only that they had repressed memories but also that their minds had fractured into many personalities to manage the pain and betrayal.
With a few decades’ perspective, it’s clear this level of confidence led to disastrous results. In 2005 a Harvard psychology professor, Richard McNally, called the recovered memory movement “the worst catastrophe to befall the mental health field since the lobotomy era.”
At the height of the controversy in 1994, I co-wrote a book, “Making Monsters,” on the topic with the sociologist Richard Ofshe. In writing it, we hoped to help stop the practice that was harming so many. We also wanted to create a historical record that might help prevent the profession from going down another rabbit hole.
Just what happened to lead so many well-intentioned people down such a road is not a simple story. Understanding the power of recovered memory therapy requires an examination not just of the memory retrieval techniques used by individual therapists but also of how the movement created a tide of popular belief that bordered on mass hysteria. Recovered memory stories were, for a time, pervasive and inescapable. These stories influenced both patients and therapists as they hunted for hidden histories of abuse.
Considering the speed at which ideas spread on the internet and social media, a deep understanding of how cultural trends and psychology interact is more important than ever. We tend not to want to believe that we or our healers are susceptible to social contagions — which is why the recovered memory movement remains a cautionary tale with much to teach us.
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The seeds of recovered memory therapy were planted in the 1970s, as the women’s rights movement brought attention to the subject of sexual abuse. As women began to fill academic and clinical positions, the topics of incest and child sexual exploitation began appearing in scholarly and popular books. The public reckoning revealed that child sexual abuse was far from uncommon and that these horrors had been largely dismissed or ignored for centuries.
Some writers at the time argued that public attention on the topic had unlocked the ability of individuals to recover their abuse memories. “The ordinary response to atrocities is to banish them from consciousness,” wrote Dr. Judith Herman in her book “Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence — From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror.” She argued that the human mind could hold trauma memories in its consciousness only with the support of “political movements that give voice to the disempowered.” If the personal is political, as the popular slogan had it, it made a kind of sense that individuals might have repressed their memories, in the same way society had long repressed collective awareness.
In step with these new ideas, therapists of the time reanimated an early Freudian theory that repressed early experiences of sexual abuse were the root cause of all hysterical symptoms. Freud had subsequently pivoted to argue that symptoms came not from repressed memories but from repressed sexual fantasies — but Dr. Herman and others argued that Freud was right the first time.
What happened during recovered memory therapy sessions is no mystery. Therapists candidly revealed their techniques in books, conference speeches and academic papers and on daytime television talk shows. The process of hunting for abuse memories and overcoming the patient’s “denial” was not a subtle one.
Therapists used relaxation exercises, age regression, dream interpretation, psychodrama, sodium amytal and hypnosis to help clients visualize abuse. All of these techniques, we know now, are much more likely to distort memory than to enhance recall. Still, it is hard to believe that these tactics alone could have persuaded so many people to rewrite the histories of their childhoods so dramatically; what is often underappreciated is that much of the belief-building power of recovered memory therapy came from outside the consultation room.
In the late 1980s, self-help aisles began to fill with books about recovered memory therapy, written mainly by therapists or former patients. This small publishing boom took off with the 1988 success of “The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse” by Ellen Bass and Laura Davis. They were not mental health professionals, but they reflected the certainties of the movement. “So far, no one we’ve talked to thought she might have been abused and then later discovered that she hadn’t been,” they wrote. “The progression always goes the other way, from suspicion to confirmation.”
Lists of the symptoms that supposedly indicated repressed abuse often went on for pages in these texts. E. Sue Blume’s book “Secret Survivors” listed over 70 symptoms indicative of repressed abuse. The psychologist Renee Fredrickson’s book “Repressed Memories” describes over 60. Do you have trouble trusting your intuition? Do you neglect your teeth? Have joint pain? Do certain foods nauseate you? Do you sometimes space out or daydream? If you have some of these warning signals, “you probably do have repressed memories,” wrote Dr. Fredrickson. In their books and papers, therapists described themselves as clever detectives searching patients’ lives for unexplained emotional responses or feelings, which might be the first sign of hidden pasts.
While it often took weeks or months, by all accounts, the therapists were remarkably successful at convincing patients that their minds had hidden horrible abuse memories. The most effective methods appeared to be hypnosis, relaxation exercises and other semitrance states. When the scenes finally surfaced, they were nothing like normal memories of childhood. Therapists expected patients to experience supposedly repressed abuse scenes as if they were living through the experience in real time. Patients “may re-experience the events quite vividly,” wrote one therapist in the journal Women & Therapy. “Physical responses such as vomiting, incontinence or fainting will sometimes occur.” The intensity of the emotional abreactions, as they were termed, often convinced the therapist and the patients of the validity of the recovered memories.
For memory experts like the psychology professor Elizabeth Loftus, the type of recall being described by recovered memory therapists seemed wholly new. Researchers had documented how people experiencing fear or panic will often have diminished or imperfect recall of a disturbing event. They also knew that people can be motivated not to think about a distressing memory and that they could recall an incident from childhood and realize, as an adult, it was sexual abuse.
But these and many other forms of memory distortions were nothing like the repression being described. Therapists across the country were suddenly certain that horrendous and repeated abuse could instantaneously be walled away in the unconscious, where it would remain inaccessible for decades, until unlocked in therapy and re-experienced with perfect clarity. For Dr. Loftus and others, there was simply no support in the scientific literature or in all the historical stories of human suffering that supported this type of repression and retrieval.
*
It was partly because of its novelty that stories about recovered memory therapy were, for a time, everywhere in popular culture. Recovered memory therapists became go-to guests on daytime television talk shows. Well-known celebrities came out to tell their stories of recovering memories of abuse. Promoters of recovered memory therapy held regional and national conferences; states changed their statute of limitation laws to allow for criminal prosecutions based on repressed memories. The movement rode a tide of public belief that therapists helped create.
That popular culture influenced what happened in therapy is clear. Recovered memory therapists themselves recognized that abuse beliefs were, to a degree, contagious. One therapist recommended that patients struggling to uncover memories should continually expose themselves to stories of incest and abuse by reading articles and popular books, attending lectures and seeing movies on the topic.
Pop culture also seemed to drive two of the more incredible outgrowths of the movement: the precipitous rise of multiple personality disorder and the widespread belief that satanic cults were abusing children on an industrial scale. Two best-selling books, “Sybil,” published in 1973, and “Michelle Remembers,” published in 1980, were critical in stoking public interest. Both books tell supposedly true stories of therapists helping their patients recover memories during therapy. Both were later thoroughlydebunked — but not until long after they had their impact.
“Sybil,” which was made into a TV movie in 1976, introduced many Americans to multiple personality disorder — the idea that abuse could cause the psyche to split into many personalities. Before “Sybil,” a handful of split personality cases existed in the medical literature. By the early 1990s, multiple personality clinics could be found across the country, for a disorder that the Cleveland Clinic today describes as very rare, affecting just 0.01 to 1 percent of the population. Over 40,000 patients, by one estimate, had come out of therapy believing they had many individual personalities.
Stories of satanic cults have arisen in different times and places for over a millennium, but “Michelle Remembers” gets credit for kicking off the particular hysteria that struck the 1980s. The book describes the treatment of Michelle Smith, who recovered memories of being held captive in cages filled with snakes and witnessing the butchering of kittens and stillborn babies.
The popularity of “Michelle Remembers” was a precursor to hundreds of stories that began popping up across the country about day cares and preschools suspected of harboring Satan-worshiping child abusers. In a parallel development, patients in recovered memory therapy began to “recover” stories of satanic abuse from their childhoods. These types of memories were far from uncommon: One survey of clinicians taken in 1994revealed that 13 percent reported seeing at least one case of a patient remembering ritualistic abuse. Thousands of patients described truly incredible scenes of ritual murders, cannibalization, gang rapes and forced pregnancies.
For quite a long time, there was a broad consensus in popular opinion that memories recovered in therapy — including the outlandish satanic cult tales — were true. Nearly a decade after the publication of “Michelle Remembers,” Ms. Smith appeared on Oprah Winfrey’s daytime talk show. Her stories of torture and human sacrifice were portrayed by the host as if they were indisputable facts.
Other prominent believers in the validity of recovered memories and satanic ritual abuse ranged from the feminist icon Gloria Steinem to the evangelical preacher Pat Robertson to the talk show host Geraldo Rivera. In 1993, Ms. magazine published a cover story with the warning “Believe it! Cult ritual abuse exists.” These prominent and well-respected public figures were seemingly convinced that an international cult of satanic child abusers would soon be fully exposed.
We’ll never know how many people experienced recovered memory therapy. However, a 2017 poll of adults in the United States conducted by the psychology professor Lawrence Patihis and the author Mark Pendergrast provides some clues. They found that 20 percent of people they surveyed who went to treatment sometime in the past five decades reported being treated by therapists who suggested the possibility that the client had repressed memories of abuse.
Whatever the actual number of patients who came to believe they had unearthed repressed memories, it would drastically understate the number of people affected. Parents, relatives and other accused parties were expected to confess or be shunned. Criminal and civil litigation based on recovered memories tore apart families and sometimes whole communities.
*
How could the mental health profession have had such a catastrophic misadventure?
Across history, patients have shown themselves willing to adopt their healers’ beliefs and manifest expected symptoms accordingly. Doctors and other health professionals can unwittingly engage in what’s been called symptom amplification by focusing on and legitimizing certain symptoms and ideas and ignoring others. Through this process, cultures develop what the historian Edward Shorter calls “symptom pools” — behaviors that healers at a given time and place understand to be a legitimate communication of suffering.
Healers have always been key players in identifying and broadcasting which symptoms or beliefs are valid, creating an interplay among themselves, their patients and the culture at large. The philosopher Ian Hacking calls this the “looping effect” — the process by which emotional distress or unusual sensations are shaped and channeled by social reactions and diagnostic labeling, which, in turn, dramatically affect the course and expression of the illness.
With historical distance, it’s easier to see how this process works. In the 1880s, Jean-Martin Charcot, the leading neurologist of his day, became world famous for the regular performances he held with his hysterical patients. For audiences of other doctors, he had his patients demonstrate the dramatic symptoms of the disorder, including fainting, muscle spasms and semierotic convulsions.
With his prominence in the profession and his gift of showmanship, he deeply impressed other learned men — including the young Sigmund Freud, who idolized Charcot. As more and more healers spread their certainties about hysteria through culture, more and more patients showed up in treatment consciously or unconsciously predisposed to express their distress through those well-known symptoms. Hysteria reigned for several decades as the quintessential mental health malady across Europe and America; a generation later, hysteria in its 19th-century configuration had essentially vanished from the symptom pool.
It’s important to remember that people seeking therapy are a vulnerable population, often entering treatment because they’ve lost a sense of coherence and are looking for a compelling narrative to express their inner turmoil. The troubled human mind appears uniquely attuned to clues from social settings, mirroring behaviors, feelings and beliefs with little or no conscious awareness. In her 2021 book “The Sleeping Beauties,” the neurologist Dr. Suzanne O’Sullivan wrote compellingly of immigrant children falling into comalike states and groups of young women experiencing seizures without organic cause. Her insights into the connection between culture and these unique symptoms of psychopathology are trenchant. “We embody narratives,” she explained. “Some are told to us by powerful people — doctors, politicians, activists, public figures, celebrities.” She continued, “If a model for illness is vivid enough and the basis for the illness is sufficiently salient, it is easily internalized by the individual and then passed from person to person.”
The recovered memory narrative, along with multiple personality disorder, became, for a time, one of those compelling and socially contagious models for illness. Healers, politicians, activists and celebrities were all involved in making the story salient and legitimate. The cultural currents they collectively created were strong.
Sometimes, as with the populations Dr. O’Sullivan studies, cultural influences on patients’ symptoms are entirely unconscious, and the vectors of the contagion are difficult to identify. But the impact of cultural beliefs on the rise of recovered memory therapy is simply impossible to ignore. The process that recovered memory therapists describe in their books was the looping effect on steroids. Patients beganwith vague symptoms of distress and endedup with a compelling story of why they were unhappy — a story that was embraced and promoted in both the mental health profession and popular culture. In the end, the patients hadnew memories, a new designation as a survivor and altered relationships with everyone in their lives. The transformation into a new identity — a new way of being — could hardly have been more dramatic.
But what motivated therapists to buy into recovered memory therapy? Certainly there was the competition for patients and the financial rewards of a treatment regimen that often lasted for years. But I think these reasons are secondary. The therapists’ writings from the period reveal their passion and zeal for the movement. This was a group of healers who believed that they not only had discovered the key to their patients’ suffering but also were exposing a hidden evil across society. The therapists, in short, were as caught up in the cultural currents as their patients.
Concepts like Dr. Hacking’s looping effect and Dr. Shorter’s symptom pools have never caught on in the West. Dr. O’Sullivan found few patients, caregivers or kin willing to entertain the idea that seizures, comalike states or other debilitating symptoms could be caused by something as ephemeral as cultural beliefs and social expectations. Americans, in particular, tend to reject the notion. We believe in the egocentric mind. We are captains of our own ship and abhor the idea that our most profound sense of self might be malleable to cultural forces outside our control.
Beginning around 1994, criticism of recovered memory therapy slowed the movement for a time. With a few notable exceptions, skeptics came from outside the mental health field. Critically, several feminist writers — including Carol Tavris, Wendy Kaminer, Elaine Showalter and Debbie Nathan — began questioning the satanic cult stories and the coercive techniques of recovered memory therapy. They all faced angry accusations that they were revictimizing abused women. When Dr. Tavris challenged some of the movement’s tenets in the pages of The New York Times Book Review, Ms. Blume, the author of “Secret Survivors,” responded that Dr. Tavris had taken the side of those who support molesters, rapists and pedophiles.
But the evidence for the harm done in therapy continued to pile up, and more people and institutions became skeptical. Courts began to reject testimony based on recovered memories as unreliable. Some former patients successfully sued their therapists after realizing they had been badly misled. Dissociative disorder units that specialized in recovered memories and multiple personality disorders were shut down. The stories of cult abuse became too incredible to be believed, and the satanic panic broke like a fever to go dormant for another generation.
Recovered memory therapists, for the most part, never admitted culpability. Some changed their focus from memory recovery, and others conveniently forgot how fervently they had embraced and promoted the trend. Some of the more dogmatic language in books like “The Courage to Heal” was modified in subsequent editions. For the leaders of the movement, however, there was little room for retreat. The idea that they had harmed those they had sought to help created too much cognitive dissonance for them to accept responsibility.
Unfortunately, many of the mistaken assumptions about memory and trauma remain part of popular culture. Among clinical psychologists, the belief that the unconscious mind can block out memories of trauma is commonplace. Memory researchers and scientists, for the most part, remain highly skeptical. In 2019 a group of seven memory scientists, including Dr. Loftus, concluded that therapists were still using techniques that had the potential for creating false memories and that the practice continued to pose a substantial risk, “potentially leading to false accusations and associated miscarriages of justice,” they wrote. While the so-called memory wars rage on over the issue of repression, clinicians and their professional organizations have largely “feigned forgetfulness” of the recovered memory movement’s excesses, as the author and psychology professor Richard Noll once wrote.
Recently, I spent an afternoon watching various TikTok channels under the hashtags #recoveredmemory and #dissociativeidentitydisorder. The ideas and themes I heard, mostly from young adults, were disturbingly familiar. Belief in memory repression and the idea that the mind can split into dozens of distinct personalities are alive and well. Across social networking sites, I also found a maelstrom of information, opinion and conversation about mental health topics, including Tourette’s syndrome, gender dysphoria, attention deficit disorder, self-harm, eating disorders, anxiety, depression and suicide. The internet as we know it didn’t exist during the rise of recovered memory therapy, but it is a powerful cultural force now and may be ground zero for the creation of new symptom pools, new looping effects andnew ways of being.
What takes place on social media will, no doubt, influence what develops during private therapy sessions. Effectively treating this new generation will require an understanding of how culture is once again shaping the symptoms of patients and the certainties of healers. Without that knowledge, mental health professionals will risk engendering new hysterias that they can neither control nor cure.
Ethan Watters is a co-author of “Making Monsters: False Memories, Psychotherapy, and Sexual Hysteria” and the author of “Crazy Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche.”
A version of this article appears in print on , Section SR, Page 8 of the New York edition with the headline: The Forgotten Lessons of the Recovered Memory Movement. Order Reprints | Today’s Paper | Subscribe | Therapists used relaxation exercises, age regression, dream interpretation, psychodrama, sodium amytal and hypnosis to help clients visualize abuse. All of these techniques, we know now, are much more likely to distort memory than to enhance recall. Still, it is hard to believe that these tactics alone could have persuaded so many people to rewrite the histories of their childhoods so dramatically; what is often underappreciated is that much of the belief-building power of recovered memory therapy came from outside the consultation room.
In the late 1980s, self-help aisles began to fill with books about recovered memory therapy, written mainly by therapists or former patients. This small publishing boom took off with the 1988 success of “The Courage to Heal: A Guide for Women Survivors of Child Sexual Abuse” by Ellen Bass and Laura Davis. They were not mental health professionals, but they reflected the certainties of the movement. “So far, no one we’ve talked to thought she might have been abused and then later discovered that she hadn’t been,” they wrote. “The progression always goes the other way, from suspicion to confirmation.”
Lists of the symptoms that supposedly indicated repressed abuse often went on for pages in these texts. E. Sue Blume’s book “Secret Survivors” listed over 70 symptoms indicative of repressed abuse. The psychologist Renee Fredrickson’s book “Repressed Memories” describes over 60. Do you have trouble trusting your intuition? Do you neglect your teeth? Have joint pain? Do certain foods nauseate you? Do you sometimes space out or daydream? If you have some of these warning signals, “you probably do have repressed memories,” wrote Dr. Fredrickson. In their books and papers, therapists described themselves as clever detectives searching patients’ lives for unexplained emotional responses or feelings, which might be the first sign of hidden pasts.
| no |
Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2012/jan/14/truth-about-memories-jarrett | Memory myths | Life and style | The Guardian | Memory myths
As a lifelong user of human memory, you probably feel you've got a good idea of how it works, right? To test your understanding of memory, we compare several commonplace conceptions with insights from psychology ...
Memory acts like a video recorder
In a US survey published in 2011, 63% of 1,838 respondents said they believed "strongly" or "mostly" that memory works like a video camera, "accurately recording events we see and hear so that we can review and inspect them later". Memory is, in fact, a creative, fallible process, highly prone to suggestion and other distorting influences.
Some people have photographic memories
An extension to the memory as video recorder myth is the idea that some people have a "photographic memory"; that they can take a snap shot of a scene or a page in a book, and then bring it to mind whenever they want to.
It's tempting to invoke such an ability to explain the achievements of celebrated memory champions such as Lu Chao. In 2005, he set a new world record (as recognised by the Guinness World Records) by reciting the first 67,890 digits of pi entirely from memory. However, studies of memory champions reveal that they depend on mnemonic devices and thousands of hours of practice.
A related concept is eidetic imagery, in which a person claims to "see" a detailed visual scene that is no longer visible. However, tests of "eidetikers" find their memory of images to be no more accurate than control participants. It seems they just feel as though the image is vivid and still "out there" rather than in their heads.
Forgetting occurs gradually
Some memory misconceptions have serious consequences for the way eye- (and ear-) witness testimony is treated in court. For example, many people, including psychologists (according to a recent Norwegian survey), believe that forgetting occurs gradually, as if memories decay like an ageing reel of film. In fact, most forgetting occurs immediately after an event.
Confidence is a reliable indicator of memory accuracy
While it's true that accuracy and confidence can correlate within a single person's repertoire of recollections, confidence is a poor marker of accuracy when judging a single act of recollection or when comparing across witnesses. One reason is that some factors, such as repeated questioning, can boost confidence without increasing accuracy. Also, we all vary in our baseline levels of memory confidence. So when judging a single witness, we don't know if their confidence is high by their standards. In the legal system, when convicted people are exonerated by DNA evidence, confident testimony from an eye witness is the most common reason they were originally found guilty.
A related myth is that emotional events lead to more ingrained, accurate memories. Memories for dramatic events often feel more vivid and people feel more confident in these memories, but, in fact, they are just as prone to being forgotten as ordinary memories. Furthermore, if an event is stressful, this is likely to interfere with remembering details of that event.
Traumatic memories can be repressed and "recovered" years after they occurred
While subscribing to the erroneous idea that memories of emotive events are highly accurate, many people also often hold the somewhat paradoxical belief that traumatic memories, such as of abuse in childhood, are prone to repression. A related belief is that such memories can be "recovered" later in life, dug out with the help of a skilled therapist, or perhaps a hypnotist.
In fact, studies of child abuse victims suggest strongly that they usually do not forget their experiences. Moreover, research has shown that memories of abuse "recovered" in therapy are far less likely to be corroborated by third parties, or other evidence, than abuse memories recalled later in life outside of therapy, or never-forgotten abuse memories.
The consensus of the American Psychological Association on child abuse memories says that "most people who were sexually abused as children remember all or part of what happened to them, although they may not fully understand or disclose it".
Hypnosis can be used to retrieve forgotten memories
Many people believe that hypnosis can be used to unearth not only past traumas but all manner of long-forgotten memories, including recollections way back to the womb or even to past lives.
In a way, it is a belief that is consistent with the "memory as a video recorder" myth; the mistaken rationale being that because everything we experience is stored, we just need to find a way to reach it. In fact, nearly all the evidence suggests that hypnosis fails to aid recall, but instead has the potentially harmful effect of increasing people's faith in their memories, whether or not they are accurate recollections of events.
Amnesiacs forget who they are
A persistent myth is the idea that people suffering from amnesia have lost their long-term memory, including any recollection of their identity. In fact, amnesia caused by illness or brain damage typically manifests as an inability to lay down new memories. Specifically what is broken is the ability to convert short-term memories into long-term memories. An amnesiac will usually be able to tell you who they are and share stories about their earlier lives, but they won't be able to tell you what they had for breakfast.
Dr Christian Jarrett is author of The Rough Guide to Psychology. He blogs for the British Psychological Society at bps-research-digest.blogspot.com and is currently writing Great Myths of the Brain (Wiley-Blackwell). Follow him on Twitter at @Psych_Writer
This article was corrected on 16 January 2012 because it said Hideaki Tomoyori set a new world record for reciting the first 67,890 digits of pi entirely from memory. Lu Chao set this record. | A related belief is that such memories can be "recovered" later in life, dug out with the help of a skilled therapist, or perhaps a hypnotist.
In fact, studies of child abuse victims suggest strongly that they usually do not forget their experiences. Moreover, research has shown that memories of abuse "recovered" in therapy are far less likely to be corroborated by third parties, or other evidence, than abuse memories recalled later in life outside of therapy, or never-forgotten abuse memories.
The consensus of the American Psychological Association on child abuse memories says that "most people who were sexually abused as children remember all or part of what happened to them, although they may not fully understand or disclose it".
Hypnosis can be used to retrieve forgotten memories
Many people believe that hypnosis can be used to unearth not only past traumas but all manner of long-forgotten memories, including recollections way back to the womb or even to past lives.
In a way, it is a belief that is consistent with the "memory as a video recorder" myth; the mistaken rationale being that because everything we experience is stored, we just need to find a way to reach it. In fact, nearly all the evidence suggests that hypnosis fails to aid recall, but instead has the potentially harmful effect of increasing people's faith in their memories, whether or not they are accurate recollections of events.
Amnesiacs forget who they are
A persistent myth is the idea that people suffering from amnesia have lost their long-term memory, including any recollection of their identity. In fact, amnesia caused by illness or brain damage typically manifests as an inability to lay down new memories. Specifically what is broken is the ability to convert short-term memories into long-term memories. An amnesiac will usually be able to tell you who they are and share stories about their earlier lives, but they won't be able to tell you what they had for breakfast.
Dr Christian Jarrett is author of The Rough Guide to Psychology. | no |
Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/12/this-hypnotist-helps-people-recover-lost-bitcoin-passwords.html | This hypnotist helps people recover lost bitcoin passwords | This hypnotist charges half a bitcoin for helping you remember your lost cryptocurrency password
Known for its volatility, bitcoin reached a record peak near $20,000 in mid-December. Today, the coin hovers just over $9,270, according to digital currency website CoinDesk.
Bitcoin's value has prompted early buyers to check their digital wallets. But some are finding that they've forgotten old passwords. That's where certified professional hypnotist Jason Miller comes in. For the price of half a bitcoin plus a 5 percent recovery fee, Miller claims that he can assist you in recalling your forgotten password from anywhere in the world, as long as you speak and understand English fluently.
The price was less steep for a Valentine's Day special he had going: His services, which include three hypnosis sessions, cost just $1,500 plus 5 percent of the recovered cryptocurrency amount.
Miller, who is based in Greenville, South Carolina, tells CNBC Make It that he has been using hypnosis to help people achieve their goals for over 20 years. He received his professional hypnotist certification from the International Certification Board of Clinical Hypnotherapists. To receive this designation, members must complete 64 hours of continuing education credit.
Stock trading app Robinhood is rolling out trading in bitcoin and ethereum in February for customers in five states.
Source: Robinhood
The hypnotist's bitcoin password recovery service received press in recent months, including a mention in The Wall Street Journal. Yet Miller says bitcoin password recovery makes up a small part of his hypnosis practice. He spends most of his time on other services, such as helping people lose weight and reducing stress and anxiety.
He began this foray into e-wallet password recovery after years in the financial industry during which he conducted hypnosis sessions with day traders or those looking to plan their financial future. He has also worked with medical students who want to enhance their memory and recall for upcoming tasks such as exams.
When it comes to password recovery for bitcoin wallets, "the combination of these skills made it very easy for me to put together a program that helps people with the needs associated with this particular problem," says Miller.
Successful hypnosis is based on mindful meditation and alleviating stress (since stress is the biggest hindrance to recollection), he says.
You've got about a 50 to 80 percent shot at recovering a lost memory.
Jason Miller
hypnotist
"If you've got, you know, $100,000, $200,000, $300,000 worth of bitcoin in a wallet and you can't get access to it, there's a lot of stress there," he says. "So it's not just as simple as saying, okay, we're going to go do a 30-minute hypnosis session and enhance your memory."
Miller declined to specify the exact number of participants in his bitcoin password recovery program or how much money he's recovered, citing client confidentiality. However, he says that there are currently "several people" in his program, who are experiencing varying degrees of success.
Generally, a person who created their password more recently will have an easier time unlocking this memory, he says. Likewise, a client who is feeling low stress will have an easier time remembering their password than one under high stress.
Miller's password-recovery package includes up to three hypnosis sessions, which occur on a weekly basis. But the hypnotist notes that it can take more than three sessions to remember a lost password, and there's no way to guarantee results.
"You've got about a 50 to 80 percent shot at recovering a lost memory," he says. Yet, he adds, it's not his job to be successful at recovering forgotten passwords. That's the client's job.
His role is to guide the person through a process that allows them to enter a hypnotic state. Once that is achieved, he can deliver suggestions that will allow them to access repressed memories and forgotten information.
"What the client does from there is they just allow these processes to occur naturally."
VIDEO1:3701:37
This former GoogleX'er is developing a technology that will make telepathy possible in 8 years
Over the years, there's been controversy surrounding the validity of hypnosis. Though it has never been established as a clear-cut science, experts have tried to understand the mechanism behind hypnosis.
In a 2005 experiment first reported by The New York Times, researchers showed hypnotized subjects English words yet told them that the words were in a foreign language. The subjects were then asked to read out loud the color of the text rather than reading the text itself, which they did effortlessly. Researchers found that not only did the words seem to be in a foreign language to those in the hypnotic state but brain scans showed that the brain even processed the words as if they were.
Not all scientists are sold on the legitimacy of hypnosis. In an article published in Scientific American, psychologists from Emory University and the University of Arizona wrote that "increasingly, evidence is suggesting that the effects of hypnosis result largely from people's expectations about what hypnosis entails rather than from the hypnotic state itself." However, the scientists noted that new research could come out that overturns their conclusion.
Christina Reichi Photography | Flickr | Getty Images
Regardless, Miller stands by the effectiveness of his work. In fact, he says most people have a skewed view of this practice because the hypnosis we see in movies or on television is sensationalized. "Hypnosis isn't a magical state," explains Miller. "Hypnosis is simply utilizing trance as a resource for enhanced learning."
Hypnosis is not comparable to sleep. "Really, you just feel like you're sitting in your chair listening to me talk," says Miller. "You go very, very deeply into trance, but you're still aware."
The hypnotist's argument is supported by David Spiegel, who is the associate chair of psychiatry and behavioral sciences at Stanford University as well as the medical director of the Center for Integrative Medicine at Stanford University School of Medicine.
"Hypnosis is the oldest Western form of psychotherapy, but it's been tarred with the brush of dangling watches and purple capes," he says in a statement. "In fact, it's a very powerful means of changing the way we use our minds to control perception and our bodies."
To start off each password recovery session, normally done by Skype, Miller warms up his client with an interview that he uses to build a rapport. In the background, a meditative beat plays.
Clients go through breathing exercises, followed by the relaxation of each muscle group. This series of steps allows the client to travel back in time and unlock old memories, until one day the person says, "Oh! I got it."
"We honestly don't even try to force the password," he says. As new information is revealed, the hypnotist reviews these key tidbits with the client and reinforces them in their next session.
A typical hypnosis session lasts about 20 to 25 minutes. For the bitcoin password recovery program, an individual session lasts anywhere from 45 minutes to one hour, including the interview and conversation that's held beforehand.
After a session is finished, Miller says that clients feel relaxed and refreshed, even telling him "it was like a spa day for their brain."
The hypnotist says that he runs a busy clinic so the steep price of half a bitcoin (he used to charge one whole bitcoin) for his help ensures that he's targeting the right clientele: those who have a lot of money to lose.
"When people say, 'Oh my God, one bitcoin, screw that guy,' that pretty much takes care of all the tire kickers," says Miller. | Likewise, a client who is feeling low stress will have an easier time remembering their password than one under high stress.
Miller's password-recovery package includes up to three hypnosis sessions, which occur on a weekly basis. But the hypnotist notes that it can take more than three sessions to remember a lost password, and there's no way to guarantee results.
"You've got about a 50 to 80 percent shot at recovering a lost memory," he says. Yet, he adds, it's not his job to be successful at recovering forgotten passwords. That's the client's job.
His role is to guide the person through a process that allows them to enter a hypnotic state. Once that is achieved, he can deliver suggestions that will allow them to access repressed memories and forgotten information.
"What the client does from there is they just allow these processes to occur naturally."
VIDEO1:3701:37
This former GoogleX'er is developing a technology that will make telepathy possible in 8 years
Over the years, there's been controversy surrounding the validity of hypnosis. Though it has never been established as a clear-cut science, experts have tried to understand the mechanism behind hypnosis.
In a 2005 experiment first reported by The New York Times, researchers showed hypnotized subjects English words yet told them that the words were in a foreign language. The subjects were then asked to read out loud the color of the text rather than reading the text itself, which they did effortlessly. Researchers found that not only did the words seem to be in a foreign language to those in the hypnotic state but brain scans showed that the brain even processed the words as if they were.
Not all scientists are sold on the legitimacy of hypnosis. In an article published in Scientific American, psychologists from Emory University and the University of Arizona wrote that "increasingly, evidence is suggesting that the effects of hypnosis result largely from people's expectations about what hypnosis entails rather than from the hypnotic state itself." However, the scientists noted that new research could come out that overturns their conclusion.
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Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://medium.com/@asmansipho007/a-journey-into-lost-memories-1430a3e73328 | A Journey into Lost Memories. Unlocking the Secrets of the ... | A Journey into Lost Memories
Unlocking the Secrets of the Forgotten Later:
## Introduction to the concept of forgotten memories
Memories are the building blocks of our existence, shaping our identities and influencing our actions. They provide us with a sense of self and a connection to our past. But what happens when we can no longer access these memories? What if they become lost in the depths of our subconscious, seemingly forgotten forever?
In this article, we will embark on a journey into the realm of forgotten memories, exploring the science behind their existence, the impact they have on our mental health, and the techniques available to unlock them. Join me as we delve into the mysteries of the forgotten later.
The science behind forgotten memories
Our brains are extraordinary organs, capable of processing immense amounts of information. Memories are formed through a complex network of neurons, creating connections that allow us to recall past experiences. But what happens when these connections weaken or fade away?
The process of forgetting is a natural function of the brain. It helps us filter out irrelevant information and make room for new experiences. However, sometimes memories are unintentionally suppressed or repressed due to traumatic events or emotional distress. These forgotten memories can lurk in the depths of our subconscious, affecting our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors without our conscious awareness.
Common causes of forgotten memories
There are numerous factors that can contribute to the formation of forgotten memories. One common cause is trauma. When we experience a traumatic event, our brains may go into a protective mode, suppressing the memory as a defense mechanism. This can happen in cases of physical or sexual abuse, accidents, or witnessing a traumatic event.
Another common cause of forgotten memories is dissociation. Dissociation is a disconnection between thoughts, emotions, and memories, often occurring as a response to overwhelming stress or trauma. During a dissociative episode, memories may become fragmented or inaccessible, leading to gaps in our recollection of events.
Understanding the impact of forgotten memories on mental health
The impact of forgotten memories on mental health cannot be underestimated. When we are unable to access and process past experiences, it can lead to a range of emotional and psychological issues. Unresolved trauma, for example, can manifest as anxiety, depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Forgotten memories can also affect our relationships and sense of self. We may struggle to form deep emotional connections with others, feeling detached or disconnected. Additionally, without a clear understanding of our past, we may struggle to navigate our present and future, feeling lost or uncertain about who we are and where we are going.
Techniques to unlock forgotten memories
While forgotten memories may seem lost forever, there are techniques available to unlock them. One such technique is hypnosis. Under the guidance of a trained therapist, hypnosis can help access the subconscious mind and retrieve forgotten memories. By bypassing the conscious mind and tapping into the depths of our psyche, hypnosis can bring buried memories to the surface.
Another technique is guided imagery. This involves using visualization exercises to access and explore forgotten memories. Through the power of imagination, we can recreate past events in our minds, allowing us to gain a deeper understanding of our experiences and potentially unlock forgotten memories.
Exploring the role of therapy in recovering forgotten memories
Therapy plays a crucial role in the recovery of forgotten memories. A skilled therapist can create a safe and supportive environment for individuals to explore their past and uncover hidden memories. Through various therapeutic techniques such as talk therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), individuals can gradually unravel the layers of their subconscious and recover forgotten memories.
It is important to note that the process of memory recovery in therapy should be approached with caution and under the guidance of a trained professional. False memories can be inadvertently created or implanted during therapy, leading to inaccurate recollections of events. Therefore, therapists must adhere to ethical guidelines and use evidence-based practices to ensure the integrity of the memory recovery process.
Case studies of individuals who have recovered forgotten memories
The recovery of forgotten memories is not a mere theoretical concept; it has been experienced by many individuals. Let us explore a few case studies to gain a deeper understanding of the process and its impact on the lives of those involved.
Case Study 1: Sarah, a 35-year-old woman, had always struggled with unexplained anxiety and panic attacks. Through therapy, she discovered that her anxiety stemmed from a repressed childhood trauma. By recovering the forgotten memories and working through the associated emotions, Sarah was able to find healing and reclaim control over her life.
Case Study 2: John, a 45-year-old man, had spent years feeling disconnected from his family and experiencing bouts of depression. Through the use of hypnosis, he uncovered forgotten memories of childhood abuse. With the support of therapy, John was able to confront his past, heal from the trauma, and rebuild his relationships.
These case studies illustrate the power of memory recovery in therapy and its potential to bring about profound transformation and healing.
Debunking myths about forgotten memories
There are many myths and misconceptions surrounding the concept of forgotten memories. One common myth is that all forgotten memories are repressed memories of traumatic events. While traumatic memories can indeed be repressed, not all forgotten memories are necessarily related to trauma. Memories can be forgotten due to ordinary everyday experiences or simply the passage of time.
Another myth is that recovered memories are always accurate and reliable. The truth is that memories are fallible and malleable. They can be influenced by external factors, suggestions, or even our own biases. Therefore, it is crucial to approach recovered memories with caution and critically evaluate their accuracy.
The ethical considerations of memory recovery
The recovery of forgotten memories raises important ethical considerations. As mentioned earlier, the process of memory recovery in therapy must be approached with caution to avoid the creation of false memories. Therapists should adhere to ethical guidelines, use evidence-based practices, and prioritize the well-being and safety of their clients.
Additionally, the impact of recovered memories on individuals and their relationships should be carefully considered. The resurgence of traumatic memories can be incredibly distressing and may require ongoing support and therapy to navigate.
Conclusion and reflection on the importance of remembering our past
In conclusion, the exploration of forgotten memories is a fascinating and complex journey. Our memories shape who we are, and when they become lost or forgotten, it can have profound implications for our mental health and well-being. Through therapy and the use of various techniques, we have the potential to unlock these hidden memories, uncovering the truths of our past and finding healing and wholeness.
It is crucial to approach the recovery of forgotten memories with caution, guided by trained professionals who prioritize ethical practices. By doing so, we can navigate the complexities of memory recovery and ensure the integrity of the process.
As we continue to unlock the secrets of the forgotten later, let us not forget the importance of remembering our past. Our memories hold valuable lessons, allowing us to grow, heal, and forge a brighter future.
CTA: If you or someone you know is struggling with forgotten memories or unresolved trauma, consider seeking the guidance of a qualified therapist. Remember, there is hope for healing and reclaiming your story. | Unresolved trauma, for example, can manifest as anxiety, depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
Forgotten memories can also affect our relationships and sense of self. We may struggle to form deep emotional connections with others, feeling detached or disconnected. Additionally, without a clear understanding of our past, we may struggle to navigate our present and future, feeling lost or uncertain about who we are and where we are going.
Techniques to unlock forgotten memories
While forgotten memories may seem lost forever, there are techniques available to unlock them. One such technique is hypnosis. Under the guidance of a trained therapist, hypnosis can help access the subconscious mind and retrieve forgotten memories. By bypassing the conscious mind and tapping into the depths of our psyche, hypnosis can bring buried memories to the surface.
Another technique is guided imagery. This involves using visualization exercises to access and explore forgotten memories. Through the power of imagination, we can recreate past events in our minds, allowing us to gain a deeper understanding of our experiences and potentially unlock forgotten memories.
Exploring the role of therapy in recovering forgotten memories
Therapy plays a crucial role in the recovery of forgotten memories. A skilled therapist can create a safe and supportive environment for individuals to explore their past and uncover hidden memories. Through various therapeutic techniques such as talk therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), or eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR), individuals can gradually unravel the layers of their subconscious and recover forgotten memories.
It is important to note that the process of memory recovery in therapy should be approached with caution and under the guidance of a trained professional. False memories can be inadvertently created or implanted during therapy, leading to inaccurate recollections of events. Therefore, therapists must adhere to ethical guidelines and use evidence-based practices to ensure the integrity of the memory recovery process.
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Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repressed_memory | Repressed memory - Wikipedia | Repressed memory is a controversial, and largely scientifically discredited, psychiatric phenomenon which involves an inability to recall autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature.[1] The concept originated in psychoanalytic theory where repression is understood as a defense mechanism that excludes painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from consciousness.[2] Repressed memory is presently considered largely unsupported by research.[1]Sigmund Freud initially claimed the memories of historical childhood trauma could be repressed, while unconsciously influencing present behavior and emotional responding; he later revised this belief.
While the concept of repressed memories persisted through much of the '90s, insufficient support exists to conclude that memories can become inconspicuously hidden in a way that is distinct from forgetting.[3][4][5][6][7][8] Historically, some psychoanalysts provided therapy based on the belief that alleged repressed memories could be recovered, however, rather than promoting the recovery of a real repressed memory, such attempts could result in the creation of entirely false memories.[9][10][7] Subsequent accusations based on such "recovered memories" led to substantial harm of individuals implicated as perpetrators, sometimes resulting in false convictions and years of incarceration.[1]
Due to a lack of evidence for the concept of repressed and recovered memories, mainstream clinical psychologists have stopped using these terms. Clinical psychologist Richard McNally stated: "The notion that traumatic events can be repressed and later recovered is the most pernicious bit of folklore ever to infect psychology and psychiatry. It has provided the theoretical basis for 'recovered memory therapy'—the worst catastrophe to befall the mental health field since the lobotomy era."[11]
Sigmund Freud discussed repressed memory in his 1896 essay, The Aetiology of Hysteria.[12]
One of the studies published in his essay involved a young woman by the name of Anna O. Among her many ailments, she had stiff paralysis on the right side of her body. Freud stated her symptoms to be attached to psychological traumas. The painful memories had separated from her consciousness and brought harm to her body. Freud used hypnosis to treat Anna O. She is reported to have gained slight mobility on her right side.[13]
The concept received renewed interest in the 1970s in relation to child sexual abuse and incest.[10] Coming to be labelled The Recovered Memory Movement and Memory Wars[14] or The Memory War,[15] it became a major issue in pop culture during the 1980s and 1990s, connected to Satanic panic,[16] and spawned a myriad of legal cases, controversies, and media.[10][17][18]Michelle Remembers (1980), a discredited book by Canadian psychiatrist Lawrence Pazder and his wife/former patient Michelle Smith about Smith's fabricated experiences with repressed memories of childhood Satantic rituals and abuse, gained widespread popularity that persisted after debunking,[16] influenced subsequent claims,[19] and received promotion from media including Oprah, Geraldo Rivera, Sally Jesse Raphael, and 20/20.[20] Starting in the 1980s, repressed memory legal cases increased rapidly.[21] In 1989, a landmark legal case developed when George Franklin was charged and convicted in 1990 for the rape and murder of 8-year-old Susan Kay Nason on September 22, 1969, based on the account of his daughter, Eileen Franklin's recovered memories.[17][22] Originally sentenced to life imprisonment, a district court judge overturned the conviction in 1995 based on several trial errors including the unreliability of hypnosis that was used. Eileen Franklin would further accuse her father of raping and murdering 18-year-old Veronica Cascio and 17-year-old Paula Baxter. George Franklin was released in July 1996 after prosecutors announced they would not retry him, and in 2018, the DNA evidence linked Rodney Lynn Halbower to the Cascio and Baxter murders.[23] He was convicted of both murders and sentenced to life in prison. In 1991, People magazine featured Marilyn Van Derbur and Roseanne Barr's experiences with childhood abuse and repressed memory.[17] Van Derbur's oldest sister Gwen verified her account,[24] though Barr would later moderate her claims.[25] Such cases and reactions led to the definition of false memory syndrome and establishment of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation in 1992.[15] The Ramona false memory case in 1994 was another landmark case, where father Gary Ramona successfully sued for malpractice against Western Medical Center in Anaheim, its chief of psychiatry Richard Rose, and therapist Marche Isabella, for implanting false memories of child abuse while treating his daughter Holly for depression and bulimia.[26] It was also notable for being brought by a third party not involved in the doctor-patient relationship and contributed to continued evaluation of the phenomenon.[27] Skepticism and criticism of repressed memory continued to mount through the 1990s, 2000s, and beyond, emphasizing unreliability, false claims, and lack of examples in historical records.[10][28][29][18]
Psychiatrist David Corwin has claimed that one of his cases provides evidence for the reality of repressed memories. This case involved a patient (the Jane Doe case) who, according to Corwin, had been seriously abused by her mother, had recalled the abuse at age six during therapy with Corwin, then eleven years later was unable to recall the abuse before memories of the abuse returned to her mind again during therapy.[30] An investigation of the case by Elizabeth Loftus and Melvin Guyer, however, raised serious questions about many of the central details of the case as reported by Corwin, including whether or not Jane Doe was abused by her mother at all, suggesting that this may be a case of false memory for childhood abuse with the memory "created" during suggestive therapy at the time that Doe was six. Loftus and Guyer also found evidence that, following her initial "recall" of the abuse during therapy at age six, Doe had talked about the abuse during the eleven years in between the sessions of therapy, indicating that even if abuse had really occurred, memory for the abuse had not been repressed.[31][32] More generally, in addition to the problem of false memories, this case highlights the critical dependence of repression-claims cases on the ability of individuals to recall whether or not they had previously been able to recall a traumatic event; as McNally has noted, people are notoriously poor at making that kind of judgment.[7]
An argument that has been made against the validity of the phenomenon of repressed memories is that there is little (if any) discussion in the historical literature prior to the 19th century of phenomena that would qualify as examples of memory repression or dissociative amnesia.[33] In response to Harrison Pope's 2006 claim that no such examples exist, Ross Cheit, a political scientist at Brown University, cited the case of Nina, a 1786 opera by the French composer Nicolas Dalayrac, in which the heroine, having forgotten that she saw her lover apparently killed in a duel, waits for him daily.[34] Pope claims that even this single fictional description does not clearly meet all criteria for evidence of memory repression, as opposed to other phenomena of normal memory.[35]
Despite the claims by proponents of the reality of memory repression that any evidence of the forgetting of a seemingly traumatic event qualifies as evidence of repression, research indicates that memories of child sexual abuse and other traumatic incidents may sometimes be forgotten through normal mechanisms of memory.[36][37] Evidence of the spontaneous recovery of traumatic memories has been shown,[38][39][40] and recovered memories of traumatic childhood abuse have been corroborated;[41] however, forgetting trauma does not necessarily imply that the trauma was repressed.[36] One situation in which the seeming forgetting, and later recovery, of a "traumatic" experience is particularly likely to occur is when the experience was not interpreted as traumatic when it first occurred, but then, later in life, was reinterpreted as an instance of early trauma.[36]
A review by Alan Sheflin and Daniel Brown in 1996 found 25 previous studies of the subject of amnesia of childhood sexual abuse. All 25 "demonstrated amnesia in a subpopulation", including more recent studies with random sampling and prospective designs.[42] On the other hand, in a 1998 editorial in the British Medical JournalHarrison Pope wrote that "on critical examination, the scientific evidence for repression crumbles." He continued, "asking individuals if they 'remember whether they forgot' is of dubious validity. Furthermore, in most retrospective studies corroboration of the traumatic event was either absent or fell below reasonable scientific standards."[43]
Memories can be accurate, but they are not always accurate. For example, eyewitness testimony even of relatively recent dramatic events is notoriously unreliable.[44] Memories of events are a mix of fact overlaid with emotions, mingled with interpretation and "filled in" with imaginings. Skepticism regarding the validity of a memory as factual detail is warranted.[45] For example, one study where victims of documented child abuse were reinterviewed many years later as adults, 38% of the women denied any memory of the abuse.[46]
Various manipulations are considered to be able to implant false memories (sometimes called "pseudomemories"). Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has noted that some of the techniques that some therapists use in order to supposedly help the patients recover memories of early trauma (including such techniques as age regression, guided visualization, trance writing, dream work, body work, and hypnosis) are particularly likely to contribute to the creation of false or pseudo memories.[47] Such therapy-created memories can be quite compelling for those who develop them, and can include details that make them seem credible to others.[48] In a now classic experiment by Loftus (widely known as the "Lost in the Mall" study), participants were given a booklet containing three accounts of real childhood events written by family members and a fourth account of a wholly fictitious event of being lost in a shopping mall. A quarter of the subjects reported remembering the fictitious event, and elaborated on it with extensive circumstantial detail.[49] This experiment inspired many others, and in one of these, Porter et al. convinced about half of the participants that they had survived a vicious animal attack in childhood.[50]
Critics of these experimental studies[51] have questioned whether their findings generalize to memories for real-world trauma or to what occurs in psychotherapeutic contexts.[52] However, when memories are "recovered" after long periods of amnesia, particularly when extraordinary means were used to secure the recovery of memory, it is now widely (but not universally) accepted that the memories have a high likelihood of being false, i.e. "memories" of incidents that had not actually occurred.[53] It is thus recognised by professional organizations that a risk of implanting false memories is associated with some similar types of therapy. The American Psychological Association advises: "...most leaders in the field agree that although it is a rare occurrence, a memory of early childhood abuse that has been forgotten can be remembered later; however, these leaders also agree that it is possible to construct convincing pseudomemories for events that never occurred."[54]
Not all therapists agree that false memories are a major risk of psychotherapy and they argue that this idea overstates the data and is untested.[38][55][56] Several studies have reported high percentages of the corroboration of recovered memories,[57][58] and some authors have claimed that among skeptics of idea of recovered memory there is a "tendency to conceal or omit evidence of corroboration" of recovered memories.[59]
A difficult issue for the field is that there is no evidence that reliable discriminations can be made between true and false memories.[60][61] Some believe that memories "recovered" under hypnosis are particularly likely to be false.[62]
According to The Council on Scientific Affairs for the American Medical Association, recollections obtained during hypnosis can involve confabulations and pseudomemories and appear to be less reliable than nonhypnotic recall.[63]
Brown et al. estimate that 3 to 5% of laboratory subjects are vulnerable to post-event misinformation suggestions. They state that 5–8% of the general population is the range of high-hypnotizability. Twenty-five percent of those in this range are vulnerable to suggestion of pseudomemories for peripheral details, which can rise to 80% with a combination of other social influence factors. They conclude that the rates of memory errors run 0–5% in adult studies, 3–5% in children's studies and that the rates of false allegations of child abuse allegations run 4–8% in the general population.[55]
Those who argue in favor of the validity of the phenomenon of repressed memory have identified three mechanisms of normal memory that may explain how memory repression may occur: retrieval inhibition, motivated forgetting, and state-dependent remembering.[8]
Retrieval inhibition refers to a memory phenomenon where remembering some information causes forgetting of other information.[64] Anderson and Green have argued that for a linkage between this phenomenon and memory repression; according to this view, the simple decision to not think about a traumatic event, coupled with active remembering of other related experiences (or less traumatic elements of the traumatic experience) may make memories for the traumatic experience itself less accessible to conscious awareness.[65] However, two problems with this viewpoint have been raised: (1) the evidence for the basic phenomenon itself has not consistently replicated, and (2) the phenomenon does not meet all criteria that must be met to support memory repression theory, particularly the lack of evidence that this form of forgetting is particularly likely to occur in the case of traumatic experiences.[8]
The motivated forgetting phenomenon, which is also sometimes referred to as intentional or directed forgetting, refers to forgetting which is initiated by a conscious goal to forget particular information.[66][67] In the classic intentional forgetting paradigm, participants are shown a list of words, but are instructed to remember certain words while forgetting others. Later, when tested on their memory for all of the words, recall and recognition is typically worse for the deliberately forgotten words.[68] A problem for viewing motivated forgetting as a mechanism of memory repression is that there is no evidence that the intentionally forgotten information becomes, first, inaccessible and then, later, retrievable (as required by memory repression theory).[8]
The term state-dependent remembering refers to the evidence that memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed.[69][70] Based upon her research with rats, Radulovic has argued that memories for highly stressful traumatic experiences may be stored in different neural networks than is the case with memories for non-stressful experiences, and that memories for the stressful experiences may then be inaccessible until the organism's brain is in a neurological state similar to the one that occurred when the stressful experience first occurred.[71] At present, however, there is no evidence that what Radulovic found with rats occurs in the memory systems of humans, and it is not clear that human memories for traumatic experiences are typically "recovered" by placing the individual back in the mental state that was experienced during the original trauma.
Amnesia is partial or complete loss of memory that goes beyond mere forgetting. Often it is temporary and involves only part of a person's experience. Amnesia is often caused by an injury to the brain, for instance after a blow to the head, and sometimes by psychological trauma. Anterograde amnesia is a failure to remember new experiences that occur after damage to the brain; retrograde amnesia is the loss of memories of events that occurred before a trauma or injury. Dissociative amnesia is defined in the DSM-5 as the "inability to recall autobiographical information" that is (a) "traumatic or stressful in nature", (b) "inconsistent with ordinary forgetting", (c) "successfully stored", (d) involves a period of time when the patient is unable to recall the experience, (e) is not caused by a substance or neurological condition, and (f) is "always potentially reversible". McNally[7] and others[8] have noted that this definition is essentially the same as the defining characteristics of memory repression, and that all of the reasons for questioning the reality of memory repression apply equally well to claims regarding dissociative amnesia.
The essence of the theory of memory repression is that it is memories for traumatic experiences that are particularly likely to become unavailable to conscious awareness, even while continuing to exist at an unconscious level. A prominent more specific theory of memory repression, "Betrayal Trauma Theory", proposes that memories for childhood abuse are the most likely to be repressed because of the intense emotional trauma produced by being abused by someone the child is dependent on for emotional and physical support; in such situations, according to this theory, dissociative amnesia is an adaptive response because it permits a relationship with the powerful abuser (whom the child is dependent upon) to continue in some form.
Traumatic amnesia; this involves the loss of memories of traumatic experiences. The younger the subject and the longer the traumatic event is, the greater the chance of significant amnesia. He stated that subsequent retrieval of memories after traumatic amnesia is well documented in the literature, with documented examples following natural disasters and accidents, in combat soldiers, in victims of kidnapping, torture and concentration camp experiences, in victims of physical and sexual abuse, and in people who have committed murder.
Global memory impairment; this makes it difficult for subjects to construct an accurate account of their present and past history. "The combination of lack of autobiographical memory, continued dissociation and of meaning schemes that include victimization, helplessness and betrayal, is likely to make these individuals vulnerable to suggestion and to the construction of explanations for their trauma-related affects that may bear little relationship to the actual realities of their lives"
According to van der Kolk, memories of highly significant events are usually accurate and stable over time; aspects of traumatic experiences appear to get stuck in the mind, unaltered by time passing or experiences that may follow. The imprints of traumatic experiences appear to be different from those of nontraumatic events, perhaps because of alterations in attentional focusing or the fact that extreme emotional arousal interferes with memory.[58] van der Kolk and Fisler's hypothesis is that under extreme stress, the memory categorization system based in the hippocampus fails, with these memories kept as emotional and sensory states. When these traces are remembered and put into a personal narrative, they are subject to being condensed, contaminated and embellished upon.
A significant problem for trauma theories of memory repression is the lack of evidence with humans that failures of recall of traumatic experiences result from anything other than normal processes of memory that apply equally well to memories for traumatic and non-traumatic events.[36][7][8] In addition, it is clear that, rather than being pushed out of consciousness, the difficulty with traumatic memories for most people is their inability to forget the traumatic event and the tendency for memories of the traumatic experience to intrude upon consciousness in problematic ways.[73]
Evidence from psychological research suggests that most traumatic memories are well remembered over long periods of time. Autobiographical memories appraised as highly negative are remembered with a high degree of accuracy and detail.[74] This observation is in line with psychological understanding of human memory, which explains that highly salient and distinctive events—common characteristics of negative traumatic experiences—are remembered well.[75] When experiencing highly emotional, stressful events, physiological and neurological responses, such as those involving the limbic system, specifically the amygdala and hippocampus, lead to more consolidated memories.[76] Evidence shows that stress enhances memory for aspects and details directly related to the stressful event.[77] Furthermore, behavioural and cognitive memory-enhancing responses, such as rehearsing or revisiting a memory in one's mind are also more likely when memories are highly emotional.[78] When compared to positive events, memory for negative, traumatic experiences are more accurate, coherent, vivid, and detailed, and this trend persists over time.[79] This sample of what is a vast body of evidence calls into question how it is possible that traumatic memories, which are typically remembered exceptionally well, might also be associated with patterns of extreme forgetting.
The high quality remembering for traumatic events is not just a lab-based finding but has also been observed in real-life experiences, such as among survivors of child sexual abuse and war-related atrocities. For example, researchers who studied memory accuracy in child sexual abuse survivors 12 to 21 years after the event(s) ended found that the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder was positively correlated with the degree of memory accuracy.[75] Further, all persons who identified the child sexual abuse as the most traumatic event of their life, displayed highly accurate memory for the event. Similarly, in a study of World War II survivors, researchers found that participants who scored higher on posttraumatic stress reactions had war memories that were more coherent, personally consequential, and more rehearsed. The researchers concluded that highly distressing events can lead to subjectively clearer memories that are highly accessible.[80]
Serious issues arise when recovered but false memories result in public allegations; false complaints carry serious consequences for the accused. A special type of false allegation, false memory syndrome, arises typically within therapy, when people report the "recovery" of childhood memories of previously unknown abuse. The influence of practitioners' beliefs and practices in the eliciting of false "memories" and of false complaints has come under particular criticism.[81]
Some criminal cases have been based on a witness's testimony of recovered repressed memories, often of alleged childhood sexual abuse. In some jurisdictions, the statute of limitations for child abuse cases has been extended to accommodate the phenomena of repressed memories as well as other factors. The repressed memory concept came into wider public awareness in the 1980s and 1990s followed by a reduction of public attention after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations.[82]
A U.S. District Court accepted repressed memories as admissible evidence in a specific case.[83] Dalenberg argues that the evidence shows that recovered memory cases should be allowed to be prosecuted in court.[56]
The apparent willingness of courts to credit the recovered memories of complainants but not the absence of memories by defendants has been commented on: "It seems apparent that the courts need better guidelines around the issue of dissociative amnesia in both populations."[84]
In 1995, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled, in Franklin v. Duncan and Franklin v. Fox, Murrayet al. (312 F3d. 423, see also 884 FSupp 1435, N.D. Calif.),[85] that repressed memory is not admissible as evidence in a legal action because of its unreliability, inconsistency, unscientific nature, tendency to be therapeutically induced evidence, and subject to influence by hearsay and suggestibility. The court overturned the conviction of a man accused of murdering a nine-year-old girl purely based upon the evidence of a 21-year-old repressed memory by a lone witness, who also held a complex personal grudge against the defendant.[86][87][88]
In a 1996 ruling, a U.S. District Court allowed repressed memories entered into evidence in court cases.[89] Jennifer Freyd writes that Ross E. Cheit's case of suddenly remembered sexual abuse is one of the most well-documented cases available for the public to see. Cheit prevailed in two lawsuits, located five additional victims and tape-recorded a confession.[40]
On December 16, 2005, the Irish Court of Criminal Appeal issued a certificate confirming a Miscarriage of Justice to a former nun, Nora Wall whose 1999 conviction for child rape was partly based on repressed-memory evidence. The judgement stated that:[90]
There was no scientific evidence of any sort adduced to explain the phenomenon of "flashbacks" and/or "retrieved memory", nor was the applicant in any position to meet such a case in the absence of prior notification thereof.
On August 16, 2010, the United States Second Circuit Court of Appeals in a case reversed the conviction that relied on claimed victim memories of childhood abuse stating that "The record here suggests a "reasonable likelihood" that Jesse Friedman was wrongfully convicted. The "new and material evidence" in this case is the post-conviction consensus within the social science community that suggestive memory recovery tactics can create false memories" (pg 27 FRIEDMAN v. REHAL Docket No. 08-0297). The ruling goes on to order all previous convictions and plea bargains relying in repressed memories using common memory recovered techniques be reviewed.[91]
The term "recovered memory therapy" refers to the use of a range of psychotherapy methods that involve guiding the patient's attempts to recall memories of abuse that had previously been forgotten.[92] The term "recovered memory therapy" is not listed in DSM-V nor is recovered memory therapy recommended by mainstream ethical and professional mental health associations.[93] Critics of recovered memory therapy note that the therapy can create false memories through its use of powerful suggestion techniques.[94][95] It has also been found that patients who retract their claims—after deciding their recovered memories are false—may have post-traumatic stress disorder due to the trauma of illusory memories.[96]
^Diagnostic symptoms of PTSD include reexperience such as flashbacks and nightmares, difficulty falling or staying asleep, feelings of panic or fear, depression, headache, and physiological symptoms including irregular heartbeat and diarrhoea. Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). The Royal College of Psychiatrists
^"The Validity of Recovered Memory: Decision of a US District Court" Judge Edward F. Harrington, Presentation by Jim Hopper Ph.D. The legal documentation citation is: 923 Federal Supplement 286 (D. Mass. 1996), United States District Court – District of Massachusetts Ann Shahzade, plaintiff Civil Action No.: V. 92-12139-EFH George Gregory, Defendant. "The Validity of Recovered Memory: Decision of a US District Court". Archived from the original on March 19, 2012. Retrieved June 21, 2012.
^Lambert K, Lilienfeld SO (October 1, 2007). "Brain Stains". Scientific American. Archived from the original on October 25, 2007. Retrieved January 25, 2008.
^"Final conclusions of the American Psychological Association Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Child Abuse". Psychology, Public Policy, and Law. 4 (4): 933–940. 1998. doi:10.1037/1076-8971.4.4.933. | Several studies have reported high percentages of the corroboration of recovered memories,[57][58] and some authors have claimed that among skeptics of idea of recovered memory there is a "tendency to conceal or omit evidence of corroboration" of recovered memories.[59]
A difficult issue for the field is that there is no evidence that reliable discriminations can be made between true and false memories.[60][61] Some believe that memories "recovered" under hypnosis are particularly likely to be false.[62]
According to The Council on Scientific Affairs for the American Medical Association, recollections obtained during hypnosis can involve confabulations and pseudomemories and appear to be less reliable than nonhypnotic recall.[63]
Brown et al. estimate that 3 to 5% of laboratory subjects are vulnerable to post-event misinformation suggestions. They state that 5–8% of the general population is the range of high-hypnotizability. Twenty-five percent of those in this range are vulnerable to suggestion of pseudomemories for peripheral details, which can rise to 80% with a combination of other social influence factors. | no |
Neurology | Can hypnosis allow people to recall forgotten memories? | yes_statement | "hypnosis" can help "people" "recall" "forgotten" "memories".. through "hypnosis", "people" can retrieve "forgotten" "memories". | https://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~jfkihlstrom/HypDelRec.htm | Hypnosis Delayed Recall | Hypnosis, Delayed Recall,
and the Principles of Memory
John F. Kihlstrom
University of Arizona
This paper reviews seven principles of memory function that set limits on the
degree to which any attempt to recover a long-forgotten memory can succeed:
encoding, organization, time-dependency, cue-dependency, encoding specificity,
schematic processing, and reconstruction. In the absence of independent
corroboration, there is no "litmus test" that can reliably distinguish
true from false memories, or memories that are based on perception from those
that are based on imagination. Practicing clinicians should use great caution
when using hypnosis or any other technique to facilitate delayed recall.
Hypnosis, Delayed Recall, and the Principles of Memory
Clinical interest in memory processes has been revived by the claim that a
whole host of problems, including anxiety, depression, and eating disorders,
have their origins in childhood experiences of incest and other sexual trauma,
abuse, neglect, and deprivation -- memories of which have been repressed by the
patient. Therefore, many therapists seek to recover these memories, and bring
them into conscious awareness, so that the patient can deal with them more
adaptively. Sometimes, hypnosis plays a role in this process. However, the very
nature of memory places strict limitations on the degree to which any attempt to
recover memories from the distant past will succeed. In this paper, I wish to
discuss some of these principles and their clinical implications (for fuller
explication of these principles, and documentation of their sources in the
experimental literature, see Kihlstrom & Barnhardt, 1993; for a further
discussion of ostensibly repressed memory, see Kihlstrom, 1993).
Seven Principles of Remembering
In analyzing the causes of remembering and forgetting, it is common to
characterize memory processing as consisting of three stages (Crowder, 1976):
encoding, the process by which a trace of current experience is laid down in
memory; storage, by which an encoded memory trace remains available over time;
and retrieval, the process by which information is recovered from storage and
used in ongoing cognitive activity. Logically, a memory cannot be retrieved from
storage unless it was encoded in the first place, or if it has been lost from
storage. But even the encoding of a memory, and its availability in storage,
does not guarantee that a veridical memory of the original event will be
retrieved. In order to understand how this is so, it is important to consider
the manner in which memory operates.
The Elaboration Principle: The memorability of an event increases
when that event is related to pre-existing knowledge at the time of
encoding.
The Organization Principle: The memorability of an event increases
when that event is related to other events at the time of encoding.
The point here is that events can be remembered to the extent that they were
encoded at the time they occurred, and that proper encoding does not occur
automatically, but rather requires active, cognitive effort. This fact accounts,
in large part, for the familiar phenomena of infantile and childhood amnesia:
most adults remember so little of childhood because children lack both the
knowledge base and the information-processing capacity to encode such memories
in retrievable form. There are also other factors involved, such as whether the
event in question is the topic of conversation between the child and other
people; see Fivush & Hudson, 1990; Nelson, 1993); of course, such social
interactions are likely to facilitate elaborative and organizational processes.
Elaboration and organization, are highly relevant in the case of ostensibly
repressed memories, most of which appear to be for events occurring in early
childhood, and cover events which by their very nature are not shared with other
people.
Assuming that a memory has been encoded, it remains available for subsequent
retrieval and use -- at least in principle. But in practice, memories seem to
fade over time, an observation that has been enshrined in another principle (Ebbinghaus,
1885):
The Time-Dependency Principle: The memorability of an event declines
as the length of the storage interval (i.e., between encoding and retrieval)
increases.
Of course, there are instances in which knowledge appears to be preserved in
rich detail over long periods of time, as in so-called "flashbulb"
memories for emotionally arousing events (Winograd & Neisser, 1992), and the
"permastore" of factual knowledge (Bahrick, 1984). But these are the
exceptions that test the rule, and in any event careful studies have shown that
many flashbulb memories are highly inaccurate, and the notion of a permastore
generally refers to factual knowledge rather than memory for particular events.
Again, the principle of time-dependency is clearly relevant when we are talking
about the adult recollection of childhood events.
The experimental literature does contain a number of studies of so-called hypermnesia,
in which memory appears to grow rather than fade with time (Erdelyi, 1984;
Kihlstrom & Barnhardt, 1993; Payne, 1987). This phenomenon is potentially
relevant to the problem of repressed memories, but does not contradict the
principles governing encoding and storage. Hypermnesia occurs when items were
subject to elaborative and organizational activity at the time of encoding, and
most hypermnesia is accomplished on the first few attempts at retrieval,
relatively soon after encoding has taken place.
The retrieval process itself is governed by a large set of principles. One of
these relates to the fact that, by and large, recognition tests produce more
memory than recall tests, and cued recall produces more memory than free recall
(Tulving, 1974):
The Cue-Dependency Principle: The memorability of an event increases
with the amount of information supplied by the retrieval cue.
Remembering usually begins with some kind of cue that provides some
information about the event which is to be remembered. Cues that are highly
informative are more likely to contact available memory traces than those that
are not. In some respects, encoding and retrieval are in a complementary
relationship: access to well encoded memories generally requires fewer retrieval
cues, and lots of retrieval cues can gain access even to very poorly encoded
memories. But the success of recognition testing comes with a price: false
alarms. Subjects may remember more correct information on a recognition test
than on a recall test, but they also remember more incorrect information.
In the laboratory, we can tell which is which. But in real life, corroborating
evidence may be entirely lacking -- which is why the problem of false
identification in police lineups is so difficult (Malpass & Devine, 1984).
Cues are important, but they must also supply the right kind of information,
not just the right amount (Tulving & Thomson, 1973):
The Encoding Specificity Principle: The memorability of an event
increases when the information processed at the time of retrieval was also
processed at the time of encoding.
The manner in which an event is encoded -- the meaning of the event, how it
is perceived and interpreted and categorized -- determines which retrieval cues
will be successful in gaining access to that event. Encoding specificity appears
to underlie the phenomenon of state-dependent memory -- whether
"state" is defined in physiological, emotional, or environmental
terms. It is certainly relevant in the case of ostensibly repressed memories.
For example, memories that have been processed during states of high emotional
arousal may only be accessible if the same affect is reinstated at the time of
retrieval (Bower, 1981; Eich & Metcalfe, 1989).
Moreover, it turns out that memory is determined by the degree to which an
event conforms to our expectations and beliefs (Hastie, 1981):
The Schematic Processing Principle: The memorability of an event
increases when that event is relevant to expectations and beliefs about that
event.
The general principle is straightforward enough, but the details may be a
little surprising. If memory is plotted as a function of the degree to which the
target events can be predicted on the basis of pre-existing knowledge,
represented in the form of organized knowledge structures known as schemata, it
turns out that events that are highly congruent with expectations are highly
memorable; but events that are highly incongruent with active schemata
are even more memorable. The U-shaped function apparently reflects the operation
of two different principles: events that are inconsistent with preexisting
schemata are surprising and draw more attention, and receive more elaborative
and organizational activity at the time of encoding; and at the time of
retrieval, the schema provides additional cue information that can facilitate
access to relevant memories. Events that are irrelevant to the schema get
neither advantage, and so are poorly remembered.
The role of cognitive schemata is also underscored by another principle
(Bartlett, 1932):
The Reconstruction Principle: The memory of an event reflects a blend
of information retrieved from specific traces encoded at the time of that
event with knowledge, expectations, and beliefs derived from other sources.
In describing how memory works, we often resort to the metaphor of a library:
memory traces are books that must be purchased and catalogued; the prospective
user must look up the book in the catalog in order to know where to find it; and
in order for the search to succeed, the book must not have been eaten by worms,
or displaced by a careless user. The library metaphor will take us a long way,
but the notion of memory retrieval obscures the fact that memories can be
distorted, biased, and otherwise changed by changes in perspective and other
events that occur after the time of encoding. In the final analysis, memory is
not so much like reading a book as it is like writing one from
fragmentary notes. The reconstruction principle is of utmost importance in the
present context, because it means that any particular memory is only partly
derived from trace information encoded at the time of the event: in the process
of remembering, trace information combined with knowledge, beliefs, and
inferences derived from other sources.
Validating Memories
Is there any way in which we can determine the source of the information
contained in memory? And, in the absence of independent corroboration, is there
any way in which we can determine which memories are valid representations of
past experience and which are not? Some data in this respect come from studies
on source memory and on reality monitoring. Source memory refers to the person's
ability to remember the circumstances under which he or she acquired certain
items of information. Anecdotal evidence strongly indicates that source memory
is not perfect: we have all wondered whether something really happened, or
whether we dreamed or imagined it; we have all confused what we did with what we
intended to do, or wish that we had done. Sometimes we don't know whether we saw
a movie in the cinema or on television. And we have all forgotten who told us a
particular joke, or let us in on a particularly juicy rumor.
Johnson and her colleagues have studied this problem extensively. In a
representative experiment (Johnson & Raye, 1981), subjects viewed a set of
words and pictures representing familiar objects. For half the words, the
subjects are asked to count the number of vowels; for the other half, they are
asked how long it would take to draw a picture of the object represented by the
word. Similar questions were asked about the pictures: how long it would take to
draw, and how many vowels are in the word corresponding to the picture. Later,
the subjects were read the words, and asked whether they saw the item as a
picture or as a word. Johnson observed a number of confusions, especially for
those words for which the subjects made a visual judgment, and those pictures
for which they made a lexical one.
Do we have any way of telling which memories are products of perception, and
which are the products of imagination? Johnson and her colleagues have proposed
a number of attributes which tend to distinguish between the two types of
memories (Johnson, Foley, Suengas, & Ray, 1988). For example, memories of
percepts contain more sensory detail, are less complex, more realistic, and more
likely to contain information about the spatial and temporal context in which
the remembered event occurred. But it should be understood that these
distinctions are entirely probabilistic: that is, the presence of one or more of
these attributes only increases the likelihood that the memory is a product of
real experience, rather than of imagination. Moreover, the list of attributes
distinguishing between memories of perceived and imagined events from
childhood was very short. Thus, there is no litmus test that is 100%
reliable, or even close to it.
In another line of research, Raskin, Steller, and their colleagues have been
promoting a technique called criteria-based statement analysis (Raskin
& Steller, 1989; Steller & Koehnken, 1989, originally developed in
Germany by Undeutsch (1984). These investigators have proposed a number of
criteria by which the veracity of a witness's statement might be assessed. For
example, they assert that factual statements contain a large number of details,
especially those that are unusual or superfluous, make reference to unexpected
complications, portray the witness's own mental state, and spontaneous
corrections, admissions of lack of memory, and expressions of self-doubt. Many
of these criteria make intuitive sense, and some of them overlap with those
developed by Johnson; but it should be said that the empirical basis of these
criteria is rather thin at present. Undeutsch and his colleagues have found that
attributes such as these make statements appear credible, but their surface
credibility is uninformative as to their actual truth-value. There is little or
no evidence that these characteristics actually distinguish between accurate and
inaccurate memories.
In the final analysis, then, there do not appear to be any internal criteria
-- that is, standards that can be applied to the statements themselves -- that
can serve to reliably distinguish between accurate recollections and
fabrications and confabulations. Nothing substitutes for external criteria --
that is, the verification of individual statements by objective evidence. In the
absence of such independent corroboration, we have no means of reliably
distinguishing between fact and fantasy.
Implications for Clinical Practice
The success of any attempt to exhume a memory will depend on why that memory
was forgotten. Of the all the principles of remembering and forgetting
summarized above, perhaps the broadest is the encoding specificity principle (Tulving
& Thomson, 1973), which may be restated as follows: what is encoded depends
on what was perceived, and what is encoded determines what subsequently will be
retrieved. A variety of factors may conspire against elaborative and
organizational processing, but the consequence is always the same: if an event
is poorly encoded in the first instance, the prospects for its subsequent
retrieval and conscious recollection, especially after a long retention
interval, are very poor as well.
To some extent, an extremely rich retrieval environment may compensate for
poor encoding received by a memory. However, there are limits to this
compensation: even recognition testing, in which the person is cued by a copy of
the event in question, often fails. Moreover, attempts to enrich the retrieval
environment by providing extra cues increase the risk that the subject will
incorporate that information into his or her memory, or at least become confused
about whether the source of particular details is in the trace or the query. The
result may well be a distortion of memory. In the absence of independent
corroboration (which is so often the case in delayed recall), such distortions
are arguably worse than no memory at all, because neither the subject nor the
questionner know where truth lies.
Nothing about hypnosis changes the rules by which memories are encoded,
stored, and retrieved; accordingly, these rules constrain the utility of
hypnosis (or any other procedure) as a technique for the enhancement of memory.
There is no scientific evidence that hypnosis can improve the retrieval of
poorly encoded memories, or those that have been degraded by interference
accumulated over long retention intervals. It is possible, at least in
principle, that hypnosis could be used to provide an extremely rich set of
retrieval cues, overcoming encoding and storage conditions. For example, age
regression could be used to structure an hallucinated environment that returns
the person to the circumstances, both environmental and emotional, of the
forgotten episode: if accurate, this would be the richest retrieval cue
imaginable.
Unfortunately, the clinical and forensic circumstances in which hypnosis is
used to enhance recall are those in which such information is rarely available.
In any event, the suggestions used to reconstruct such a mental representation
of the past may also promote confabulation, and in such a manner that neither
the therapist nor the patient will be able to determine, with accuracy, whether
the recollection is accurate. For this reason, hypnosis should be used, if
indeed it is to be used at all in forensic and therapeutic situations, only in
the generation of hypotheses to be corroborated by independent evidence.
Hypnotically refreshed memories should never be allowed to stand alone.
Author Notes
Paper prepared for a special issue of the International Journal of
Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis on "Hypnosis and Delayed
Recall". The point of view taken in this paper is based on research
supported in part by Grant #MH-35856 from the National Institute of Mental
Health. I thank Terrence Barnhardt, Lawrence Couture, Jennifer Dorfman,
Elizabeth Glisky, Martha Glisky, Victor Shames, Michael Valdisseri, Susan
Valdisseri, and James Wood for their comments.
Kihlstrom, J.F. (1993, April). The recovery of memory in laboratory and
clinic. Invited address presented at the joint annual meeting of the Rocky
Mountain Psychological Association and Western Psychological Association,
Phoenix.
Kihlstrom, J.F., & Barnhardt, T.M. (1993). The self-regulation of memory:
For better and for worse, with and without hypnosis. In D.M. Wegner & J.W.
Pennebaker (Eds.), Handbook of mental control (pp. 88-125). Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. | Nothing about hypnosis changes the rules by which memories are encoded,
stored, and retrieved; accordingly, these rules constrain the utility of
hypnosis (or any other procedure) as a technique for the enhancement of memory.
There is no scientific evidence that hypnosis can improve the retrieval of
poorly encoded memories, or those that have been degraded by interference
accumulated over long retention intervals. It is possible, at least in
principle, that hypnosis could be used to provide an extremely rich set of
retrieval cues, overcoming encoding and storage conditions. For example, age
regression could be used to structure an hallucinated environment that returns
the person to the circumstances, both environmental and emotional, of the
forgotten episode: if accurate, this would be the richest retrieval cue
imaginable.
Unfortunately, the clinical and forensic circumstances in which hypnosis is
used to enhance recall are those in which such information is rarely available.
In any event, the suggestions used to reconstruct such a mental representation
of the past may also promote confabulation, and in such a manner that neither
the therapist nor the patient will be able to determine, with accuracy, whether
the recollection is accurate. For this reason, hypnosis should be used, if
indeed it is to be used at all in forensic and therapeutic situations, only in
the generation of hypotheses to be corroborated by independent evidence.
Hypnotically refreshed memories should never be allowed to stand alone.
Author Notes
Paper prepared for a special issue of the International Journal of
Clinical & Experimental Hypnosis on "Hypnosis and Delayed
Recall". The point of view taken in this paper is based on research
supported in part by Grant #MH-35856 from the National Institute of Mental
Health. I thank Terrence Barnhardt, Lawrence Couture, Jennifer Dorfman,
Elizabeth Glisky, Martha Glisky, Victor Shames, Michael Valdisseri, Susan
Valdisseri, and James Wood for their comments.
| no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://ipwatchdog.com/2018/11/17/protecting-idea-can-ideas-be-patented/id=103389/ | Protecting an Idea: Can Ideas Be Patented or Protected? | Protecting an Idea: Can Ideas Be Patented or Protected?
Many people ask: can ideas be patented? The short answer is no. Unfortunately, despite what you may have heard from late night television commercials, there is no effective way to protect an idea with any form of intellectual property protection. Copyrights protect expression and creativity, not innovation. Patents protect inventions. Neither copyrights or patents protect ideas. This is not to suggest that ideas are not valuable, but they are not valuable in the same way or sense that pop culture has led many to believe.
It is, of course, axiomatic that an idea is an essential first step toward any invention. Nothing can or will happen without an idea, so in one sense ideas are a critical, and valuable, piece to the overall innovation equation. In and of themselves, however, ideas are not monetarily valuable. Without some identifiable manifestation of the idea there can be no intellectual property protection obtained and no exclusive rights will flow.
Without any protection, whether actual (i.e., in the form of an issued patent) or perceived (i.e., in the form of a pending patent application that defines the invention and could if pursued mature into an issued patent), ideas are free. Absent patent protection or a confidentiality agreement that accepts an obligation not use or disclose an idea – which are extremely difficult if not impossible to obtain with only an idea – the idea can be taken and used without payment.
While confidentiality agreements, or non-disclosure agreements as they are sometimes called, are absolutely essential for inventors in the early stages to protect their idea, the problem is they are only going to provide protection with respect to those who have accepted the confidentiality obligation. And if and when the confidentiality obligation is broken you only have a claim for breach of contract (i.e., breach of the confidentiality agreement), but the trade secret that was your invention will no longer be a secret. So, before you would be tempted to believe there is a broad based way to protect an idea without it maturing into an invention that can be patented, or even an invention without a patent, you need to consider spend time to understand the purposes and limitations of confidentiality agreements (see here and here) and trade secrets (see here, here and here).
This does not mean that inventors, or those who aspire to become inventors, should give up at the idea stage when the realization is made that there is only an idea present without some identifiable manifestation, but it does mean that more work is necessary in order to flesh out the idea and bring it across the idea innovation boundary. The goal is to get to the point where the idea it is concrete enough to be more than what the law would call a mere idea.
The moral of the story is that mere ideas cannot be protected, so inventors need to think in terms of an invention. Inventions can be patented. Ideas cannot be patented. So, you do not have an idea, you have an invention, or you will have an invention if you continue on your journey and don’t give up. You just need to get from the idea that inevitably begins the process to an invention, which is the culmination of the innovation part of the journey. And once the culmination of the innovation journey is realized then it becomes time to file a patent application.
As one contemplates moving from idea to invention to patent and ultimately, hopefully riches, a dose of reality is in order. First, stop thinking you will get rich by selling your ideato industry and sitting back and collecting royalty checks for doing nothing. That may be what late-night TV commercials want you to believe, but it is not reality. If inventing were as easy as thinking up an idea and riches would follow practically everyone would be a rich inventor! Ideas are a dime a dozen. They are valuable because they are a necessary part of the innovation journey, but it is not the idea in and of itself that creates monetary value, rather the valuable proposition inventors provide those interested in buying or licensing invention rights is found in the solution.
Inventors make money by identifying a problem, formulating an idea about how that problem can be solved, and then creating a solution. For example, the observation that using a snow shovel to clear snow is a back-breaking endeavor is obvious to anyone who has ever shoveled snow. The desire or belief that there has to be a better way to remove snow from a residential driveway is likewise not revolutionary, or particularly valuable. The idea that a mechanized solution would make the process faster, easier and cause fewer muscle injuries is a good one, but without the offer of any kind of solution the mere idea that a mechanized solution would be fantastic doesn’t create any value. But if you were the first person actually able to build a mechanized solution that would throw (or blow) the snow off a driveway you would have an invention that could be patented, and one that could be quite valuable in the hands of the right licensee. Perhaps royalty checks would roll in, but would it be for doing nothing? That mailbox income that might show up every quarter for years is attributed to the work done to create a valuable solution to the problem. The idea matured into an identifiable manifestation that was valuable in the hands of another. An inventor’s dream, but hardly money for doing nothing, although the inventor’s work is frontloaded in this monetization scenario.
Figure 1 from U.S. Patent No. 3,921,315
Essentially, what inventors need to do is identify a problem, formulate the idea and then work toward finding a solution. The above example of a snow blower is an illustration of a common inventive idea becoming a reality by identifying a task that can be made easier with a new device. The snow blower pictured here was patented on November 25, 1975 and is titled Snow Blower Safety Chute.The improvement here is with respect to element 22, the safety chute. The patent explains that despite manufacturer warnings people injure themselves every year because when they attempt to clean out the compacted snow from the discharge chute, they do not stop the engine. Thus, the inventor’s desire was to prevent injuries because a certain number of people – perhaps many – won’t follow safety directions despite being warned.
The idea was to create a chute that could be safely cleared while the engine was still running. The solution was the use of prongs extending downward into a portion of the chute, which could be manipulated by the user to loosen the packed snow safely while the engine was still running. The valuable proposition is the solution to the problem, not the identification of the problem, which the manufacturers knew about because warnings not to clear the discharge chute with the engine running were included.
Many people will come up with ideas, you’ve no doubt heard many friends and family talk about their invention ideas. I need a tool that does X, why hasn’t someone thought of Y, this would be better if only it did Z. For most people that is as far as they get, but inventors will go farther, but sometimes will still find themselves getting stuck in the idea phase. If that happens don’t just throw in the towel. Many good many inventors will become stuck in the idea phase from time to time, so if that is where you are you are not alone.
First, it may surprise you to learn that you just think you are stuck in the idea phase and you might actually have an invention without even knowing it yet. United States patent laws do not require you to have a prototype in order to apply for a patent, all that is required is that you be able to describe the invention so that others could make and use it. So, while you do need to have some kind of identifiable manifestation, you can start by proving your concept on paper.
With some guidance to coax out your idea you might actually have more than you think. For example, with the help of someone familiar with CAD and can help you create detailed 2D drawings and 3D renderings of what you are thinking about, you might soon realize you have an invention and not a mere idea. For example, Enhance Product Developmentworks with inventors to help them turn their inventions into reality, but they also work with those who are on the path toward becoming inventors and who need help at the ideation or concept stage.
Many people will have great ideas, but what separates those who can turn their ideas into money from those who cannot is a strategy to define the idea with enough specificity so that it can become an asset that can ultimately be protected. To profit from your idea you must package it so that it is something the law will recognize as protectable.
If you are having difficulty moving out of the idea phase and into the invention phase take a look at Moving From Idea to Patent and About the Invention Process. These articles will provide some insights and help you formulate a plan for reaching the invention stage, which is where you want to be in order to commercialize and monetize your ideas. The Invent + Patent System™can also help. The Invent + Patent System™is an innovative approach to the patent process that assists inventors in drafting their own provisional patent application. The Invent + Patent System™ has also been effectively used to coax inventors into formulating their ideas in a more tangible way so that the concepts move from a pure idea into something descriptive enough to be legally viewed as an invention.
I also encourage all inventors and would-be inventors to read One Simple Idea: Turn Your Dreams into a Licensing Goldmine, which is an excellent book written by Stephen Key of Invent Right. Although the title may sound like it contradicts some I’ve written above, Key is also the author of Sell Your Ideas With or Without a Patent, which is another a must read. Key preaches filing provisional patent applications to create perceived ownership (a term I’ve adopted from him). I’ve long been a fan of provisional patent applications, which have only become more important now that the U.S. has become a first inventor to file system.
First to file has to be interpreted as file first, which makes filing provisional patent applications quickly after an idea has matured into an invention is absolutely critical. Of course, a poorly prepared and hastily filed provisional patent application will provide little or no benefit. For more information on provisional patent applications please see:
Gene Quinn
Gene Quinn is a patent attorney and a leading commentator on patent law and innovation policy. Mr. Quinn has twice been named one of the top 50 most influential people [...see more]
Warning & Disclaimer: The pages, articles and comments on IPWatchdog.com do not constitute legal advice, nor do they create any attorney-client relationship. The articles published express the personal opinion and views of the author as of the time of publication and should not be attributed to the author’s employer, clients or the sponsors of IPWatchdog.com. Read more.
Join the Discussion
8 comments so far.
Ben
February 17, 2019 05:33 pm
“Idea” can be understood as ‘a basic element of thought that can be either visual, concrete or abstract’. Jonson, B (2005) Design Studies Vol 26 No. 6 p. 613
Dr. Detroit
December 13, 2018 10:47 am
Step back @5, did you just learn two new words today.
step back
November 21, 2018 03:25 am
Stuart @5
This post is “directed to” patent law.
Your question raises at least two aspects of copyright law: the idea/expression dichotomy question and the modicum of creativity question. You might want to search re those legal issues using the given terms.
Stuart Fox
November 20, 2018 08:18 pm
I am not certain what George is differing with – the subject was “Can Ideas Be Patented or Protected?”
Its well established what can and cannot be protected by a patent or other rights – for how long and by whom (+ for that matter, how a patent application should be “manifested”).
….. and since George mentioned copyright, (and numerous ‘etc’s’) another question might be >
Can Ideas or Inventions be Protected by Copyright? …. you might be surprised at this >
‘lucky break wishbone’ http://www.luckybreakwishbone.com/docs/JudgeUpholds.pdf
I would be interested to see comments on that from Gene Quinn and others.
Stuart Fox – inventor
George
November 20, 2018 04:53 pm
@ step back
“It occurred to me that I have no idea what the official definition of idea is, let alone “abstract idea” or “merely abstract idea””
How about ‘any thought that is NOT patentable’! How’s THAT for a circular definition?! LOL
More seriously, there still isn’t an easy one everyone can agree on or which a computer alone could work with! We’ll have to get there at some point in time. Perhaps Gene can suggest some good academic or legal writings about that problem (or a definition that seems very concise and comprehensive). Seems to be very difficult to nail down – but the SCOTUS doesn’t seem to worry about that too much. Whatever passes the ‘duck test’ FOR THEM, is what counts at any period of time (but it also changes a lot over time). Anything under the sun thought of by humans may qualify as an ‘idea’, or even a ‘useful idea’, while still not qualifying for a patent. Ideas can be good, bad, or somewhere in between, but can’t be prevented from being published and shared, regardless. If your purpose is the dissemination of good ideas (and getting credit for them), then don’t worry so much about patents. You can also ‘Just Do It – First’, even though that’s riskier. But, remember, no one steals ideas OR inventions that don’t make money! Even the Chinese don’t want those!
George
November 20, 2018 01:57 pm
“ideas are free” – G.Q.
I respectfully beg to differ. Ideas that are not credited to their ‘original’ source, constitute ‘plagiarism’ and/or copyright infringement (such as the plot of movie). Using those other means of asserting ownership rights, can be just as powerful and effective as asserting patent rights, particularly if the idea being misappropriated is particularly significant, revolutionary, or worth a great deal of money! For instance the ‘Theory of Relativity’ was one such ‘abstract idea’ that could never have been patented, yet it sure made a huge difference to the fame and career of one Albert Einstein (going from Swiss patent examiner to esteemed professor allowed to do anything he wanted for the rest of his life and being paid to do it)! How much was having that one ‘idea’ worth it to Einstein? A whole lot! Imagine if others had tried to claim credit for that ‘simple but abstract idea’ or claimed they knew more about it than Einstein?! Who would have ever even attempted to do that?! In Einstein’s case that general and VERY abstract ‘idea’ itself was far more valuable than any weak patent could ever have been. And, what about a book that gets made into a blockbuster movie? That’s free to take and use? Don’t think so. Have to pay the author ‘extra’ to do that, even if the author is already being paid for the publication of the book. Want to use what’s in it for ‘other’ commercial purposes? – you have to pay (or at least get permission to do that). Same goes with plagiarism. If you didn’t get permission to use someone else’s work and claim it as your (i.e., the work of ‘ghost writers’), then you will get into to big trouble that could easily cost just as much as patent infringement would! Also, proven plagiarism can not only cost lots of money and cause someone great shame, but it can also cost a person(s) their job and even careers, and in so doing ruin their life – forever. So, I treat any idea that is not common (i.e. any ‘new’ idea) as proprietary to the person who came up with it and make sure that it is deserving of proper attribution, quotation, or citation, including in IDS’s filed with applications for patents. The later seems to be particularly distasteful to many inventors today, who would seem to prefer not to citing ANY prior art, whatsoever (despite that not being kosher with the PTO)! No worry, the Examiner will find those prior art references anyway (despite your best efforts to suppress them). Therefore my position is that your ‘ideas’ are NOT FREE, unless you sit by and do nothing if someone steals them! Copyright and anti-plagiarism protections are still your friend (just that patent attorneys don’t benefit as much from helping you assert those). What’s that saying? . . . “If all you have is a hammer – everything looks like a nail (or there’s just nothing there to hit with a hammer)”. I prefer having a ‘full toolkit’ at my disposal when it comes to protecting IP and a person’s reputation and life’s work. Your ‘ideas’ and creative works belong to you, and can be valuable even if not patentable (unless they’re not new and considered common knowledge)! Attorneys do people a great disservice if they tell people otherwise. Ideas can be worth a LOT of money, in and of themselves, even if not patentable. People have become multi-millionaires, even without having any patents issued to them! In fact, the whole idea of becoming a ‘brand name’, often involves being first on the block with a new idea, even without any patents! Basically how Google, Facebook and Amazon started – with just an idea (no patents even pending at the time)!
Stuart Fox
November 18, 2018 11:11 pm
Hi Gene – Thanks for another interesting article – I am a great fan of yours and agree with virtually everything written in the article and with respect in this instance I am sorry to say I am disappointed with the way you put some of it.
I agree with you since I know the field – ‘ often reading how others explain the issues in an effort to improve my clarification to inventors, but putting ourselves in the position of a so called newbie, which this article is directed at – I would wonder amongst others, about points such as “identifiable manifestation” – “innovation boundary” – “protection” and last but not least “a confidentiality agreement.”
Whilst many in the industry – including government IP offices – promote them, I include the latter due to the difficulty in traceably proving breach of confidentiality > filing a good ‘provisional application’ at least is really the only way to be sure of having any chance of establishing priority.
Finally – I often suggest to inventors (if that is the commercialization rout they are pursuing) that they should consider putting themselves in the shoes of a potential licensee > let them know you are talking to others and endeavour to convince them that THEY can profit from your invention – AND HOW – so they should ‘talk turkey’.
Stuart Fox
step back
November 18, 2018 11:10 pm
It occurred to me that I have no idea what the official definition of idea is, let alone “abstract idea” or “merely abstract idea”:
At IPWatchdog.com our focus is on the business, policy and substance of patents and other forms of intellectual property. Today IPWatchdog is recognized as the leading sources for news and information in the patent and innovation industries. | Protecting an Idea: Can Ideas Be Patented or Protected?
Many people ask: can ideas be patented? The short answer is no. Unfortunately, despite what you may have heard from late night television commercials, there is no effective way to protect an idea with any form of intellectual property protection. Copyrights protect expression and creativity, not innovation. Patents protect inventions. Neither copyrights or patents protect ideas. This is not to suggest that ideas are not valuable, but they are not valuable in the same way or sense that pop culture has led many to believe.
It is, of course, axiomatic that an idea is an essential first step toward any invention. Nothing can or will happen without an idea, so in one sense ideas are a critical, and valuable, piece to the overall innovation equation. In and of themselves, however, ideas are not monetarily valuable. Without some identifiable manifestation of the idea there can be no intellectual property protection obtained and no exclusive rights will flow.
Without any protection, whether actual (i.e., in the form of an issued patent) or perceived (i.e., in the form of a pending patent application that defines the invention and could if pursued mature into an issued patent), ideas are free. Absent patent protection or a confidentiality agreement that accepts an obligation not use or disclose an idea – which are extremely difficult if not impossible to obtain with only an idea – the idea can be taken and used without payment.
While confidentiality agreements, or non-disclosure agreements as they are sometimes called, are absolutely essential for inventors in the early stages to protect their idea, the problem is they are only going to provide protection with respect to those who have accepted the confidentiality obligation. And if and when the confidentiality obligation is broken you only have a claim for breach of contract (i.e., breach of the confidentiality agreement), but the trade secret that was your invention will no longer be a secret. | no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.upcounsel.com/what-can-be-patented | What Can Be Patented: Everything You Need to Know | What Can Be Patented: Everything You Need to Know
An invention can be patented if it has a useful purpose, has patentable subject matter, is novel, and is non-obvious. 6 min read
Updated July 2, 2020:
What Can Be Patented?
An invention can be patented if it has a useful purpose, has patentable subject matter, is novel, and is non-obvious. The patent could cover a composition, production process, machine, tool, new plant species, or an upgrade to an existing invention. Inventors must meet certain government guidelines to get a patent.
Government rules for patents ask certain things of the applicant. They need to show or describe the invention in a way that a patent officer can understand. They don't need a prototype to apply. An applicant can show proof of concept on paper.
What Does the Government List as "Patentable Subject Matter"?
The government has a group of subjects that it names as "patentable subject matter." These items include:
A new plant type that exists through asexual reproduction.
A new composition or formula.
A machine, usually one with moving parts or circuitry.
A process or method i.e. a new way of doing something better and/or more efficiently.
A simple tool or the like that can do something: Examples are things like pencils, hammers, screwdrivers, and baskets. All of them do a specific task. New tools have value and are patentable for that reason.
Examples of patentable items:
Business methods
Computer software
Computer hardware
Computer accessories
Games
Internet advances
Jewelry
Machines
Magic tricks
Makeup
Musical instruments
Perfumes
Plants
Sporting Goods
What's Not Eligible for a Patent?
The government won't patent an idea. It doesn't matter how revolutionary and creative that idea is.
In a way, every invention starts with an idea. Since you can't patent an idea, how do patents exist? The answer is that you have to get the idea down on paper. Sometimes, all you need to do is describe a process in words. Other times, you'll have to use drawings or computer renderings to prove your concept.
The government doesn't think of these writings and illustrations as ideas. Instead, it sees them as visual or verbal proof of concept. A prototype isn't necessary, but you must relay enough information about your idea to make it understandable to others.
Some things still aren't eligible for a patent. Examples include:
Mathematical formulas.
Laws of nature.
Substances found in nature: If you found a new type of lava, you couldn't patent its existence.
Scientific principles: Even Einstein, a patent clerk, couldn't get a patent for his scientific principles.
Processes involving only physical activity: These are things such as dance routines or band performances.
Surgical methods and procedures.
Drugs that place the user at safety risk.
Inventions whose purpose is criminal: This is a kind of morality clause enforced by the government.
Inventions whose existence violate existing scientific laws.
An exception exists. For mathematical formulas, you cannot get a patent. You can get one for a specific usage of the formula, though. This is another example of not patenting an idea while still being able to patent an explainable concept.
What Type of Invention Qualifies for a Utility Patent?
The government awards a utility patent if the invention is something new. It's the most valuable patent and has the nickname of the "patent for invention." This patent lasts for 20 years from the filing date and then becomes a part of the public domain.
A production process that leads to a specific result: Examples include cellphone applications, investment strategies, and e-commerce business solutions.
A tool or other result of the manufacturing process.
A composition of matter such as a shampoo product or an allergy medication.
A machine, usually one with moving parts and/or circuitry.
Any upgrade to an existing invention that falls under one of the four categories listed above.
Anything that qualifies for one of the steps above has met the lowest standard for a utility patent. The applicant must still prove that their invention has:
At least some level of usefulness to users.
Enough originality to stand apart from other inventions.
Some surprise: The government uses the term "non-obvious" as a standard that patentable items must reach. The invention must include some ability that the average person wouldn't think to do.
What Type of Invention Qualifies for a Design Patent?
A design patent is a patent for an item with a unique visual style. The government uses the word ornament as a standard that the applicant must meet. The new ornament must add a special design element that sets the item apart.
A design patent has less value than a utility patent. When you have both options, always try to get a utility patent. Alternately, apply for both a design patent and a utility patent. That way, you'll protect all aspects of your invention.
Design patents have a time limit of 14 years. After that, the special look of the invention goes into the public domain. Also, the patent only protects the physical appearance of the invention.
Plant patents are rare and specific. A botanist can file a claim to protect their creation of a new plant species. Plant patents last for 20 years.
To gain a plant patent, the person must prove that the plant is:
Novel
Non-obvious
Produced through asexual reproduction
What Makes an Invention Novel?
The novelty requirement is easy to understand. An applicant simply needs to show that no one has thought of the invention before. To check that an invention meets this standard, the applicant must check that:
No earlier patent exists.
The invention isn't already in the public domain.
No published applications of the invention exist.
No public versions of the invention exist.
The inventor cannot have sold an earlier version of the invention.
The government refers to these five standards in combination as "prior art." Any applicant who fails to meet the prior art test will not receive a patent.
A personal standard also exists in determining prior art. To pass the test, the inventor cannot:
Disclose any information about the invention more than a year before the application.
Have a joint inventor who finds out about the disclosure more than a year before the application.
The inventor should focus their application description on how their product differs. That's the key issue in establishing novelty. What matters most is that the invention is new and better than other inventions.
What Is the Utility Requirement?
A utility patent invention must do something. The government wants to see that the invention works or produces an outcome. Whether that result is a manufactured item or a predicted result, the invention has to work.
To the USPTO, an invention has utility when it has a benefit to people or helps someone finish specific tasks. The bar is low for this standard. Even humorous items like mounted fish that sing qualify as useful.
Note that the invention technically has to work. The inventor only has to prove this in theory, though. Unlike design or plant patents, the utility patent doesn't require immediate proof.
Most inventions pass the utility test. It's an easy part of the application process. Any applicant who cannot clear this standard shouldn't bother filing.
Only a utility patent must meet the utility requirement. Plant and design patents don't need to show utility.
What Does the Government Consider Non-obvious?
The government asks that all patents are non-obvious. The invention must:
This standard is difficult to meet because the decision is subjective. One person might call an invention non-obvious while someone else might say that it is obvious. The applicant can only guess what the patent officer will think.
The other issue is that the determination of non-obvious happens well after the fact. What seemed non-obivious at the time of the invention may look different a couple of years later when the application ruling occurs. The delays in the patent process add complexity to the non-obvious test.
A good examiner can avoid the issue by focusing on prior art references exclusively. This is the data that existed when the invention occurred.
Here's an example. Let's say that someone invents a transportation systems that can take someone to Mars overnight. It's a historic breakthrough in space travel that will probably have applications on Earth travel, too. Today, this breakthrough would seem amazing, which the USPTO would call non-obvious.
Six years from now, space travel could seem as ordinary as driving a car. The patent office employee who judged the patent on that day would have a much different point of view than someone looking at it in the past. A patent officer who relied on prior art would appreciate that change in perception.
Meanwhile, someone who used a new material to build a boat wouldn't pass the non-obvious test. The USPTO assumes that every new material will have useful applications for many existing patents.
Getting a patent is difficult. You need to find out if a similar patent or public domain invention exists. You also must decide what kind of patent you can get. To improve your chances of getting a patent, you should hire a patent attorney. Post your job on the UpCounsel website to find a lawyer who can help you.
UpCounsel is an interactive online service that makes it faster
and easier for businesses to find and hire legal help solely based on their preferences. We are not a
law firm, do not provide any legal services, legal advice or "lawyer referral services" and do not provide
or participate in any legal representation. | What Can Be Patented: Everything You Need to Know
An invention can be patented if it has a useful purpose, has patentable subject matter, is novel, and is non-obvious. 6 min read
Updated July 2, 2020:
What Can Be Patented?
An invention can be patented if it has a useful purpose, has patentable subject matter, is novel, and is non-obvious. The patent could cover a composition, production process, machine, tool, new plant species, or an upgrade to an existing invention. Inventors must meet certain government guidelines to get a patent.
Government rules for patents ask certain things of the applicant. They need to show or describe the invention in a way that a patent officer can understand. They don't need a prototype to apply. An applicant can show proof of concept on paper.
What Does the Government List as "Patentable Subject Matter"?
The government has a group of subjects that it names as "patentable subject matter." These items include:
A new plant type that exists through asexual reproduction.
A new composition or formula.
A machine, usually one with moving parts or circuitry.
A process or method i.e. a new way of doing something better and/or more efficiently.
A simple tool or the like that can do something: Examples are things like pencils, hammers, screwdrivers, and baskets. All of them do a specific task. New tools have value and are patentable for that reason.
Examples of patentable items:
Business methods
Computer software
Computer hardware
Computer accessories
Games
Internet advances
Jewelry
Machines
Magic tricks
Makeup
Musical instruments
Perfumes
Plants
Sporting Goods
What's Not Eligible for a Patent?
The government won't patent an idea. It doesn't matter how revolutionary and creative that idea is.
In a way, every invention starts with an idea. Since you can't patent an idea, how do patents exist? The answer is that you have to get the idea down on paper. | no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.legalzoom.com/articles/can-you-patent-an-idea | Can you patent an idea? | Legalzoom | Can you patent an idea?
This portion of the site is for informational purposes only. The content is not legal advice. The statements and opinions are the expression of the author, not LegalZoom, and have not been evaluated by LegalZoom for accuracy, completeness, or changes in the law.
Contents
The simple answer is no—you cannot patent an idea for an invention. The invention itself has to be produced or a patent application containing the invention must be filed with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO).
While all inventions start with an idea, not every idea can be called an invention. Understanding the difference between ideas and inventions is critical to understanding the core ideas about patents, what a patent is, how to get a patent, and when to file a patent. Here are a few things to keep in mind.
What is a utility patent?
There are many different kinds of patents, but when most people talk about patents, they usually mean utility patents. Utility patents protect four kinds of things. They are:
A process. A process is any combination of steps or methods.
A machine. A machine is any combination of parts.
A manufacture. A manufacture is a combination of materials to make something new.
A new composition of matter. A new composition of matter could be a chemically new substance, like a drug or other formula.
In reality, many inventions are combinations of these categories. For example, a new telecommunication system may combine processes and machines. Or, a new kind of concrete may combine new combinations of existing materials as well as completely new chemicals.
One way to tell if your idea is an invention is if you can describe it in the terms utility patents protect. If you cannot tell if it is a process, a machine or some combination of the two, your invention may still be an idea, which you cannot patent.
What you can patent and what you cannot patent
Even if your invention fits under the law, not everything can be patented. Determining which kinds of inventions are protectable will further help to determine if your idea is an invention.
Inventions cannot be too abstract. For example, if your invention is a mathematical formula not tied to any particular process or application, then it is not a patentable invention. It actually has to help someone make a decision, move a machine in the real world, or otherwise make something useful happen.
Inventions cannot be natural discoveries. If you are fishing in the backwoods and pull a mysterious new fish from the pond then you cannot patent it—even if you are the first one to ever find it. You have to do more than discover something to get a patent. You have to purify it, modify it, or incorporate it as part of a bigger invention.
Inventions must be defined. You discover a plant extract that is a potent antioxidant. In low concentrations it treats acne and, you speculate, that in high concentrations it could reverse heart disease or cure cancer. While your acne treatment is likely an invention, you almost certainly need to do more work to formulate the antioxidant to treat heart disease and cure cancer. You need to define the scope and not overstep your great invention to describe an intriguing idea.
Patent requirements
In addition to what can and cannot be patented, patents have to be novel and non-obvious. For inventors, that means that the invention has to be completely new.
Being novel means that no one has ever made the same invention before. Your invention is totally new has never been described in a publication or in a patent application. No one has ever made the exact same thing.
A non-obvious invention is one that wouldn't be apparent to others. The mere idea to combine two known things is not something you can patent. There must be something new about how the things are combined or why the inventor selected the things. It is the selection of the things or the way that the things are combined that elevates the obvious idea to a non-obvious invention.
The patent search for prior art
You determine novelty and non-obviousness by searching for other patents, patent applications or publications related to your invention, collectively called patent art. If you find one patent that describes all the steps of the process you invented then it is no longer novel. If you find an article outlining half the parts of your new machine and a patent application that teaches the other half, then your invention is obvious.
Online resources make patent searching easier than ever. If someone has already invented your invention, it is better to find out now rather than after your second round of investment.
Ideas are hard to search for. If you have not sufficiently focused your idea into an invention, then it can be too broad. For example, it is hard to search for a machine unless you know the exact parts that it is made from. Likewise, it is hard to search for a process unless you know all its steps.
If you have a hard time starting your patent search or if you are not getting any meaningful results, then your idea may not be an invention yet.
Even if you do find prior art, you have a few options:
Fight it. You can argue that the prior art does not apply because it is from a different field or it is not exactly the same as your invention.
Dodge it. You can narrow the scope of your invention and focus more on what makes your invention different.
Accept it. Novelty is supposed to be difficult. Even the best inventors have ideas that someone has already published or patented. There are always more inventions to invent and sometimes fighting prior art just is not worth it.
The line between invention and idea is blurry. Patent law gives you the tools to measure your idea as an invention and the guidance to refine your idea further to make the best invention that you can.
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This portion of the site is for informational purposes only. The content is not legal advice. The statements and opinions are the expression of the author, not LegalZoom, and have not been evaluated by LegalZoom for accuracy, completeness, or changes in the law.
Contents
The simple answer is no—you cannot patent an idea for an invention. The invention itself has to be produced or a patent application containing the invention must be filed with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO).
While all inventions start with an idea, not every idea can be called an invention. Understanding the difference between ideas and inventions is critical to understanding the core ideas about patents, what a patent is, how to get a patent, and when to file a patent. Here are a few things to keep in mind.
What is a utility patent?
There are many different kinds of patents, but when most people talk about patents, they usually mean utility patents. Utility patents protect four kinds of things. They are:
A process. A process is any combination of steps or methods.
A machine. A machine is any combination of parts.
A manufacture. A manufacture is a combination of materials to make something new.
A new composition of matter. A new composition of matter could be a chemically new substance, like a drug or other formula.
In reality, many inventions are combinations of these categories. For example, a new telecommunication system may combine processes and machines. Or, a new kind of concrete may combine new combinations of existing materials as well as completely new chemicals.
One way to tell if your idea is an invention is if you can describe it in the terms utility patents protect. If you cannot tell if it is a process, a machine or some combination of the two, your invention may still be an idea, which you cannot patent.
What you can patent and what you cannot patent
Even if your invention fits under the law, not everything can be patented. Determining which kinds of inventions are protectable will further help to determine if your idea is an invention.
Inventions cannot be too abstract. | no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.mondaq.com/india/patent/810450/can-ideas-be-patented | Can Ideas Be Patented? - Patent - India | India:
Can Ideas Be Patented?
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Introduction
Patentability of an idea is one of the controversial topics
faced during the grant of patents. There is a very fine line
difference between an idea and an invention because every invention
is first an idea which later matures and gets patented. On the face
of it, it seems that there is no substantial way to protect an idea
under intellectual properties. Copyright protects literary and
artistic works but not innovations and patent protects noval and
unique inventions. Even though idea is first step towards an
invention and is of significant importance, there is no monetary
value attached to it, as per law.
Inventors prefer to have a non-disclosure or a confidentiality
agreement in the initial stage of their invention development in
order to protect their idea. However, such an agreement is not
binding any other person or organisation except the one signing the
agreement. So, if any third party, not being a party to the
agreement, discloses or uses the idea cannot be sued upon by the
inventor.
For an idea to be protected within the Patent laws, it is
essential that the idea should not be ambiguous and vague. Mere
idea cannot be protected but when the idea is concrete with enough
specificity and one has a strategy to describe it and its
functioning, making it an asset valuable enough to be protected,
then such an idea can be protected.
Herein after, various conditions and requirements for a patent
has been discussed concluding to provide situations where an idea
can be patented under Indian laws.
Patent
Patent is a kind of intellectual property that grants certain
legal rights to the owner of such IP against the unauthorised
selling, using, making or sharing of any of his work or invention
for a limited period of time. Patent, in other words, can be said
to be a license granted to the inventor giving him exclusive rights
over his invention, be it a process or a product, for a certain
period of time. Such an invention, however, should be a new method
of doing something or should provide with a solution to an already
existing problem. A patent is granted for a period of 20 years and
then the invention is made available in the public domain.
1. Utility Patent
It is the most common type of a patent and covers all new
inventions and significant modification and improved process or
product, having some utility. Utility patent is also referred as
'patent for invention.' The patent protects the rights of
the inventor over his invention by preventing any third party to
use, sell, or make the invention in question, without proper
authorization.
2. Design Patent
An exclusive right providing legal protectionto the ornamental
design of a useful product is granted under the design patent.
Design of a printer, shape of spoons, etc. are some examples that
can be granted design patent.
3. Plant Patent
As the name suggests, plant patent is the patent granted on
plants. New plants that are produced through asexual modes of
reproduction like cutting, vegetative propagation, etc. are
eligible to be granted plant patent. However, plant patents are not
granted in India.
Requirements of a Patent
Apart from being a new process, machine, or combination and
composition of different matters, for the patent to be granted it
is also required that the work be non-obvious and unique. Below
mentioned are essential criteria that the work must fulfil, in
order to be eligible for a grant of patent –
1. Novelty
For an invention to be patented it is essential that the work is
unique and novel. It should not have been made before, nor been
published or described in any patent application before. It is of
prime importance that the work in question should be different from
already existing creations in any way and has not been made by
anyone before. The requirement for the work to be new, unique and
not within the public domain is provided in Section 2 (l) of the
Patent Act, 1970.
2. Non-obviousness
As the term suggests, the work should not be obvious to the
society. It should not be such that could be easily predictable by
a person who is skilled in that art. An idea to combine two things
is not something on which a patent can be granted. For instance, an
idea of a pencil having an eraser at its other end, thereby
combining the two products, i.e. a pencil and an eraser, cannot be
patented. There has to be a uniqueness to such a combinationwhich
makes an obvious idea, a not-so-obvious invention. Sec 2 (ja) of
the Patent Act 1970 provides the need for an "inventive
step" for a work to be patented.
3. Industrial Applicability
Sec. 2 (ac) defines industrial applicability, according to which
a work must have a practical utility in industries in order to be
granted a patent. The invention should not be vague or exist in
abstract. It should be something having utility and practicability
for industrial purpose.
Even after fulfilling all the requirements for the grant of
patent, some inventions cannot be granted the patent in India, for
some specific reasons. Indian Patent Act, 1970, in its provisions
under Section 3 and 4 specifically mentions exclusion of certain
types of invention from being granted the patent, irrespective of
their fulfilling the patent requirement. Such inventions are
discussed, herein:
1. An invention contrary to the natural law: An
invention which violates morality of public at large and disturbs
public order cannot be patented. Likewise, an invention made to
ease gambling, theft, cyber-crimes or any criminal offence cannot
be patented. Similarly, an invention for commercial exploitation is
excluded from being granted the patent. Any invention that causes
or is likely to cause an adverse effect on humans, animals, plants
or environment is not to be patented. Only those micro-organisms
with genetically modification can be patented which do not fall
under Sec. 3 (b) can be granted patent.
2. Mere discovery: Mere discovery of a living
creature or any non-living substance found in the natural
environment or simply a discovery of a scientific principle shall
not be patented. Such a thing has not been created or invented, it
already existed in the environment from time immemorial, the fact
that such thing was found or recognised late, or use of such
substance was not known earlier, does not give it a ground to be
called an invention and likewise, cannot be granted patent.
3. Discovery of a new property of a known
substance: Patent is granted on a new invention and not on
an already existing creation. Mere finding of a new feature of an
already existing creation does not amount to it qualifying for
patent, this is for the fact that the creation already existed of
which a new feature has been discovered. Hence, nothing new has
been created or invented. Various forms of a known substance cannot
be granted a patent. However, it is only when such discovery
results in formation of new product or includes at least one new
reactant.
4. Arrangement or re-arrangement of known
substances: If two substances or devices or techniques
which are known and work independently as separate units are
arranged or rearranged for the functioning, such arrangement shall
not be patented. A torch if attached on a mug or television, will
not be patented. However, if the arrangement in question results in
a complete different use of the combined product, it is eligible to
be granted a patent.
5. Agriculture and horticulture: A technique
for cultivation and agriculture cannot be patented. For example, a
new type of soil, or a new technique to cultivate crops or food
grains cannot be granted patent.
6. Medical processes: Any medical, curative,
surgical or therapeutic process or treatment of humans or a similar
process or treatment for animals, which is been made to cure them
or prevent them from disease or to increase their economic value
cannot be patented. It is to be noted that processes in this case
is not considered as an invention and hence is not entitled to be
patented. For instance, process of a heart surgery or kidney
transplant is not patentable.
6. Plants and animals: Apart from the
micro-organisms but including the species, seeds and other
essential sexual and asexual modes and methods of reproduction and
propagation is not patentable.
7. Mathematical methods and computer programs:
Any kind of mathematical process, algorithms, a business method or
a computer program cannot be patented. A computer program can be
given a copyright as a 'literary or artistic work', but the
same cannot be patented.
8. Literary and artistic work: All types of
literary, musical, artistic or other aesthetic creation including
cinematography and television production which comes within the
ambit of the Copyrights Act, gets excluded from the scope of being
patented. Method of solving a puzzle and likewise, which is a
process or rule of playing a game or a mental act cannot be
patented.
9. Topography and traditional knowledge:
Presentations be it audio or visual is not patented. Topography of
any circuit cannot be granted patent. Traditional knowledge or
accrual of traditionally known components is not patentable, unless
such knowledge is modified to become a new process or product which
is unique and non-obvious.
10. Invention out of atomic energy: Section 4
of the Patent Act specifically excludes all the inventions coming
within Sec 20 (1) of Atomic Energy Act, 1962. This is done for the
safety and welfare of the public at large as if atomic activities
are allowed patent grants, it can be misused and the same can
result to be disastrous for people at large.
Can an idea be patented?
Section 10 of the Patent Act provides for some essential
specifications which must be provided in the application for
patent. One of such specification is the preamble. In case of a
provisional application, the preamble starts with 'the
following specification describes the invention' and the
preamble of the complete application reads as 'the
following specification particularly describes the invention and
the manner in which it is to be performed.'[3]With reference to this
it can be said that for an invention to be patented it is essential
that it has its practicability. Considering the same, it can be
said that, if an idea has the potential to be performed and one has
the method and process for its working, in this case, the idea has
the possibility of changing into an invention and thereby can be
applied for a patent through a provisional application.
For the reason of a mandate disclosure of best mode of
performance of invention to be mentioned in the complete
application, the idea can be described and filed for patent through
provisional application and subsequently one can work a way out
with a technique for its performance, within 12 months of filing
provisional application and then the complete application may be
filed. However, it is to be noted that on failure of filing
complete application within the stipulated period, the provisional
application may be rejected and be held invalid on the grounds of
insufficient description of the invention or the method.
For an instance, a person has an idea of making a mobile
application cyber threat warning system and has prowess to convert
the thought into an invention. In such situation, the person may
file a provisional application for grant of patent by describing
his idea of the application and later within a period of 12 months
may file a complete application also describing the mode and
process of performance of such invention. Failure of submission of
complete application may amount to invalidation of the
application.[4]
Conclusion
With reference to above discussion, it can be said that an idea
can be patented if it can later be transformed into an invention.
An inventor can file for patent for his idea initially, but he must
analyse his idea whether it has the capability to be performed or
not. If the idea lacks the capacity of performance, the application
shall be rejected and patent cannot be granted. Hence, for an idea
to be filed in a patent application, it is essential that the idea
must not be vague but substantive enough to become an asset later,
provided the mode of performance
of the invention is available and possible.
AI has become a buzzword in our lives, considering its role and impact. It has its pros and cons that is to be governed by law and order. This Blog delves into these issues, exploring AI's potential and future, especially in the context of Indian laws.
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Can Ideas Be Patented?
To print this article, all you need is to be registered or login on Mondaq.com.
Introduction
Patentability of an idea is one of the controversial topics
faced during the grant of patents. There is a very fine line
difference between an idea and an invention because every invention
is first an idea which later matures and gets patented. On the face
of it, it seems that there is no substantial way to protect an idea
under intellectual properties. Copyright protects literary and
artistic works but not innovations and patent protects noval and
unique inventions. Even though idea is first step towards an
invention and is of significant importance, there is no monetary
value attached to it, as per law.
Inventors prefer to have a non-disclosure or a confidentiality
agreement in the initial stage of their invention development in
order to protect their idea. However, such an agreement is not
binding any other person or organisation except the one signing the
agreement. So, if any third party, not being a party to the
agreement, discloses or uses the idea cannot be sued upon by the
inventor.
For an idea to be protected within the Patent laws, it is
essential that the idea should not be ambiguous and vague. Mere
idea cannot be protected but when the idea is concrete with enough
specificity and one has a strategy to describe it and its
functioning, making it an asset valuable enough to be protected,
then such an idea can be protected.
Herein after, various conditions and requirements for a patent
has been discussed concluding to provide situations where an idea
can be patented under Indian laws.
Patent
Patent is a kind of intellectual property that grants certain
legal rights to the owner of such IP against the unauthorised
selling, using, making or sharing of any of his work or invention
for a limited period of time. Patent, in other words, can be said
to be a license granted to the inventor giving him exclusive rights
over his invention, be it a process or a product, for a certain
period of time. | no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.rocketlawyer.com/business-and-contracts/intellectual-property/patents/legal-guide/why-cant-you-patent-an-idea | Why Can't You Patent an Idea? What Can You Patent - Rocket Lawyer | Share this
Why Can't You Patent an Idea? What You Can Actually Patent
Good ideas are a dime a dozen, but they generally can't be patented. Although you don't have to have a working prototype to apply for a patent, you do have to be able to describe the invention in detail and show how it will work. The idea alone isn't enough; you must be able to demonstrate the usefulness and functionality of your idea.
Start Your Provisional Patent Application
Patents are granted for inventions or designs that meet four general criteria. Different industries and types of products may have slightly different requirements, but all patent applications must:
Demonstrate aesthetic design or functional utility, depending on whether you're applying for a design patent or a utility patent.
Show novelty compared to existing products, inventions, or designs.
Prove uniquenesss and non-obviousness to individuals with ordinary skills in the field of the patent.
Provide a complete explanation of the design or invention, with full details and specific examples.
Certain things can never be patented, regardless of how well they meet these four standards. They include the elements, theoretical plans, laws of nature, physical phenomena, and abstract ideas. So patenting fire or the wheel is out, though some people have tried.
When trying to patent something that is still in the theoretical stage, you'll have to make sure that you are as precise as possible. Otherwise, the USPTO will not grant the patent even if you're trying to patent a great idea. Providing diagrams can help you significantly, as they provide specificity. Remember to include more than one diagram, and also provide as many examples as you can. Don't be afraid of seeming to be repetitive if you list multiple specific uses and forms in which the invention is distinct and novel.
This article contains general legal information and does not contain legal advice. Rocket Lawyer is not a law firm or a substitute for an attorney or law firm. The law is complex and changes often. For legal advice, please ask a lawyer.
Rocket Lawyer is an online legal technology company that makes the law simpler and more affordable for businesses, families and individuals. Rocket Lawyer has helped over 20 million businesses, families and individuals make legal documents, get attorney advice, and confidently protect their futures.
Legal information and other services are delivered by or through Rocket Lawyer via RocketLawyer.com. Please note that Rocket Lawyer is not a "lawyer referral service," "accountant referral service," accounting firm, or law firm, does not provide legal or tax advice or representation (except in certain jurisdictions), and is not intended as a substitute for an attorney, accountant, accounting firm, or law firm.
The Utah Supreme Court has authorized Rocket Lawyer to provide legal services, including the practice of law, as a nonlawyer-owned company; further information regarding this authorization can be found in our Terms of Service. | Share this
Why Can't You Patent an Idea? What You Can Actually Patent
Good ideas are a dime a dozen, but they generally can't be patented. Although you don't have to have a working prototype to apply for a patent, you do have to be able to describe the invention in detail and show how it will work. The idea alone isn't enough; you must be able to demonstrate the usefulness and functionality of your idea.
Start Your Provisional Patent Application
Patents are granted for inventions or designs that meet four general criteria. Different industries and types of products may have slightly different requirements, but all patent applications must:
Demonstrate aesthetic design or functional utility, depending on whether you're applying for a design patent or a utility patent.
Show novelty compared to existing products, inventions, or designs.
Prove uniquenesss and non-obviousness to individuals with ordinary skills in the field of the patent.
Provide a complete explanation of the design or invention, with full details and specific examples.
Certain things can never be patented, regardless of how well they meet these four standards. They include the elements, theoretical plans, laws of nature, physical phenomena, and abstract ideas. So patenting fire or the wheel is out, though some people have tried.
When trying to patent something that is still in the theoretical stage, you'll have to make sure that you are as precise as possible. Otherwise, the USPTO will not grant the patent even if you're trying to patent a great idea. Providing diagrams can help you significantly, as they provide specificity. Remember to include more than one diagram, and also provide as many examples as you can. Don't be afraid of seeming to be repetitive if you list multiple specific uses and forms in which the invention is distinct and novel.
This article contains general legal information and does not contain legal advice. Rocket Lawyer is not a law firm or a substitute for an attorney or law firm. The law is complex and changes often. For legal advice, please ask a lawyer.
Rocket Lawyer is an online legal technology company that makes the law simpler and more affordable for businesses, families and individuals. Rocket Lawyer has helped over 20 million businesses, | no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.uspto.gov/web/offices/pac/mpep/s2106.html | 2106-Patent Subject Matter Eligibility | 2106 Patent Subject Matter Eligibility [R-10.2019]
First, the claimed invention must be to one of the four
statutory categories. 35 U.S.C. 101 defines the four categories of invention that
Congress deemed to be the appropriate subject matter of a patent: processes, machines,
manufactures and compositions of matter. The latter three categories define “things” or
“products” while the first category defines “actions” (i.e., inventions that consist of
a series of steps or acts to be performed). See 35 U.S.C. 100(b) (“The term
‘process’ means process, art, or method, and includes a new use of a known process,
machine, manufacture, composition of matter, or material.”). See MPEP §
2106.03 for detailed information on the four categories.
Second, the claimed invention also must qualify as
patent-eligible subject matter, i.e., the claim must not be directed to a judicial
exception unless the claim as a whole includes additional limitations amounting to
significantly more than the exception. The judicial exceptions (also called “judicially
recognized exceptions” or simply “exceptions”) are subject matter that the courts have
found to be outside of, or exceptions to, the four statutory categories of invention,
and are limited to abstract ideas, laws of nature and natural phenomena (including
products of nature). Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank Int'l, 573
U.S. 208, 216, 110 USPQ2d 1976, 1980 (2014) (citing Ass'n for Molecular
Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc., 569 U.S. 576, 589, 106 USPQ2d 1972,
1979 (2013). See MPEP § 2106.04 for detailed information
on the judicial exceptions.
Because abstract ideas, laws of nature, and natural
phenomenon "are the basic tools of scientific and technological work", the Supreme Court
has expressed concern that monopolizing these tools by granting patent rights may impede
innovation rather than promote it. See Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 216,
110 USPQ2d at 1980; Mayo Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs.,
Inc., 566 U.S. 66, 71, 101 USPQ2d 1961, 1965 (2012). However, the Court has
also emphasized that an invention is not considered to be ineligible for patenting
simply because it involves a judicial exception. Alice Corp., 573
U.S. at 217, 110 USPQ2d at 1980-81 (citing Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S.
175, 187, 209 USPQ 1, 8 (1981)). See also Thales Visionix Inc. v. United
States, 850 F.3d. 1343, 1349, 121 USPQ2d 1898, 1902 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (“That
a mathematical equation is required to complete the claimed method and system does not
doom the claims to abstraction.”). Accordingly, the Court has said that integration of
an abstract idea, law of nature or natural phenomenon into a practical application may
be eligible for patent protection. See, e.g., Alice, 573 U.S. at 217,
110 USPQ2d at 1981 (explaining that “in applying the §101 exception, we must distinguish
between patents that claim the ‘buildin[g] block[s]’ of human ingenuity and those that
integrate the building blocks into something more” (quoting Mayo, 566
U.S. at 89, 110 USPQ2d at 1971) and stating that Mayo “set forth a
framework for distinguishing patents that claim laws of nature, natural phenomena, and
abstract ideas from those that claim patent-eligible applications of those concepts”);
Mayo, 566 U.S. at 80, 84, 101 USPQ2d at 1969, 1971 (noting that
the Court in Diamond v. Diehr found “the overall process patent
eligible because of the way the additional steps of the process integrated the equation
into the process as a whole,” but the Court in Gottschalk v. Benson
“held that simply implementing a mathematical principle on a physical machine, namely a
computer, was not a patentable application of that principle”); Bilski v.
Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 611, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1010 (2010)
(“Diehr explained that while an abstract idea, law of nature, or
mathematical formula could not be patented, ‘an application of a law of nature or
mathematical formula to a known structure or process may well be deserving of patent
protection.’” (quoting Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 187, 209 USPQ
1, 8 (1981)) (emphasis in original)); Diehr, 450 U.S. at 187, 192
n.14, 209 USPQ at 10 n.14 (explaining that the process in Parker v.
Flook was ineligible not because it contained a mathematical formula, but
because it did not provide an application of the formula). See Diamond v.
Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 209 USPQ 1 (1981); Gottschalk v.
Benson, 409 U.S. 63, 175 USPQ 673 (1972); Parker v.
Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 198 USPQ 193 (1978).
The Supreme Court in Mayo laid out a
framework for determining whether an applicant is seeking to patent a judicial exception
itself, or a patent-eligible application of the judicial exception. See Alice
Corp., 573 U.S. at 217-18, 110 USPQ2d at 1981 (citing
Mayo, 566 U.S. 66, 101 USPQ2d 1961). This framework, which is
referred to as the Mayo test or the Alice/Mayo
test, is discussed in further detail in subsection III, below. The first part of the
Mayo test is to determine whether the claims are directed to an
abstract idea, a law of nature or a natural phenomenon (i.e., a judicial exception).
Id. If the claims are directed to a judicial exception, the second
part of the Mayo test is to determine whether the claim recites
additional elements that amount to significantly more than the judicial exception.
Id. citing Mayo, 566 U.S. at 72-73, 101 USPQ2d
at 1966). The Supreme Court has described the second part of the test as the "search for
an 'inventive concept'". Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 217-18, 110 USPQ2d
at 1981 (citing Mayo, 566 U.S. at 72-73, 101 USPQ2d at 1966).
The Alice/Mayo two-part test is the
only test that should be used to evaluate the eligibility of claims under examination.
While the machine-or-transformation test is an important clue to eligibility, it should
not be used as a separate test for eligibility. Instead it should be considered as part
of the "integration" determination or "significantly more" determination articulated in
the Alice/Mayo test. Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S.
593, 605, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1007 (2010). See MPEP §
2106.04(d) for more information about evaluating whether a
claim reciting a judicial exception is integrated into a practical application and
MPEP §
2106.05(b) and MPEP §
2106.05(c) for more information about how the
machine-or-transformation test fits into the Alice/Mayo two-part
framework. Likewise, eligibility should not be evaluated based on whether the claim
recites a "useful, concrete, and tangible result," State Street Bank,
149 F.3d 1368, 1374, 47 USPQ2d 1596, 1602 (Fed. Cir. 1998) (quoting In re
Alappat, 33 F.3d 1526, 1544, 31 USPQ2d 1545, 1557 (Fed. Cir. 1994)), as
this test has been superseded. In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 959-60, 88
USPQ2d 1385, 1394-95 (Fed. Cir. 2008) (en banc), aff'd by
Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 95 USPQ2d 1001 (2010). See also
TLI Communications LLC v. AV Automotive LLC, 823 F.3d 607, 613,
118 USPQ2d 1744, 1748 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (“It is well-settled that mere recitation of
concrete, tangible components is insufficient to confer patent eligibility to an
otherwise abstract idea”). The programmed computer or “special purpose computer” test of
In re Alappat, 33 F.3d 1526, 31 USPQ2d 1545 (Fed. Cir. 1994)
(i.e., the rationale that an otherwise ineligible algorithm or
software could be made patent-eligible by merely adding a generic computer to the claim
for the “special purpose” of executing the algorithm or software) was also superseded by
the Supreme Court’s Bilski and Alice Corp.
decisions. Eon Corp. IP Holdings LLC v. AT&T Mobility LLC, 785
F.3d 616, 623, 114 USPQ2d 1711, 1715 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (“[W]e note that
Alappat has been superseded by Bilski, 561 U.S.
at 605–06, and Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank Int’l, 573 U.S. 208, 110
USPQ2d 1976 (2014)”); Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Capital One Bank (USA),
N.A., 792 F.3d 1363, 1366, 115 USPQ2d 1636, 1639 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (“An
abstract idea does not become nonabstract by limiting the invention to a particular
field of use or technological environment, such as the Internet [or] a computer”).
Lastly, eligibility should not be evaluated based on whether the claimed invention has
utility, because “[u]tility is not the test for patent-eligible subject matter.”
Genetic Techs. Ltd. v. Merial LLC, 818 F.3d 1369, 1380, 118 USPQ2d
1541, 1548 (Fed. Cir. 2016).
Examiners are reminded that 35 U.S.C. 101 is
not the sole tool for determining patentability; 35 U.S.C. 112 , 35 U.S.C. 102, and
35 U.S.C.
103 will provide additional tools for ensuring that the claim
meets the conditions for patentability. As the Supreme Court made clear in
Bilski, 561 U.S. at 602, 95 USPQ2d at 1006:
The § 101 patent-eligibility inquiry
is only a threshold test. Even if an invention qualifies as a process, machine,
manufacture, or composition of matter, in order to receive the Patent Act’s
protection the claimed invention must also satisfy ‘‘the conditions and requirements
of this title.’’ §
101. Those requirements include that the invention be novel,
see §
102, nonobvious, see § 103, and fully and particularly
described, see §
112.
II. ESTABLISH BROADEST REASONABLE INTERPRETATION OF CLAIM AS A WHOLE
It is essential that the broadest reasonable interpretation
(BRI) of the claim be established prior to examining a claim for eligibility. The BRI
sets the boundaries of the coverage sought by the claim and will influence whether the
claim seeks to cover subject matter that is beyond the four statutory categories or
encompasses subject matter that falls within the exceptions. See MyMail, Ltd.
v. ooVoo, LLC, 934 F.3d 1373, 1379, 2019 USPQ2d 305789 (Fed. Cir. 2019)
(“Determining patent eligibility requires a full understanding of the basic character of
the claimed subject matter”), citing Bancorp Servs., LLC v. Sun Life Assurance
Co. of Can. (U.S.), 687 F.3d 1266, 1273-74, 103 USPQ2d 1425, 1430 (Fed.
Cir. 2012); In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943, 951, 88 USPQ2d 1385, 1388
(Fed. Cir. 2008) (en banc ), aff'd by Bilski v.
Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 95 USPQ2d 1001 (2010) (“claim construction … is an
important first step in a § 101 analysis”). Evaluating
eligibility based on the BRI also ensures that patent eligibility under
35 U.S.C.
101 does not depend simply on the draftsman’s art.
Alice, 573 U.S. 208, 224, 110 USPQ2d at 1984, 1985 (citing
Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 593, 198 USPQ 193, 198 (1978) and
Mayo, 566 U.S. at 72, 101 USPQ2d at 1966). See
MPEP §
2111 for more information about determining the BRI.
Claim interpretation affects the evaluation of both
criteria for eligibility. For example, in Mentor Graphics v. EVE-USA,
Inc., 851 F.3d 1275, 112 USPQ2d 1120 (Fed. Cir. 2017), claim interpretation
was crucial to the court’s determination that claims to a “machine-readable medium” were
not to a statutory category. In Mentor Graphics, the court
interpreted the claims in light of the specification, which expressly defined the medium
as encompassing “any data storage device” including random-access memory and carrier
waves. Although random-access memory and magnetic tape are statutory media, carrier
waves are not because they are signals similar to the transitory, propagating signals
held to be non-statutory in Nuijten. 851 F.3d at 1294, 112 USPQ2d at
1133 (citing In re Nuijten, 500 F.3d 1346, 84 USPQ2d 1495 (Fed. Cir.
2007)). Accordingly, because the BRI of the claims covered both subject matter that
falls within a statutory category (the random-access memory), as well as subject matter
that does not (the carrier waves), the claims as a whole were not to a statutory
category and thus failed the first criterion for eligibility.
With regard to the second criterion for eligibility, the
Alice/Mayo test, claim interpretation can affect the first part of
the test (whether the claims are directed to a judicial exception). For example, the
patentee in Synopsys argued that the claimed methods of logic circuit
design were intended to be used in conjunction with computer-based design tools, and
were thus not mental processes. Synopsys, Inc. v. Mentor Graphics
Corp., 839 F.3d 1138, 1147-49, 120 USPQ2d 1473, 1480-81 (Fed. Cir. 2016).
The court disagreed, because it interpreted the claims as encompassing nothing other
than pure mental steps (and thus falling within an abstract idea grouping) because the
claims did not include any limitations requiring computer implementation. In contrast,
the patentee in Enfish argued that its claimed self-referential table
for a computer database was an improvement in an existing technology and thus not
directed to an abstract idea. Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft Corp., 822
F.3d 1327, 1336-37, 118 USPQ2d 1684, 1689-90 (Fed. Cir. 2016). The court agreed with the
patentee, based on its interpretation of the claimed “means for configuring” under
35 U.S.C.
112(f) as requiring a four-step algorithm that achieved the
improvements, as opposed to merely any form of storing tabular data. See also
McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games America, Inc. 837 F.3d 1299,
1314, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1102 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (the claim’s construction incorporated
rules of a particular type that improved an existing technological process). Claim
interpretation can also affect the second part of the Alice/Mayo test
(whether the claim recites additional elements that amount to significantly more than
the judicial exception). For example, in Amdocs (Israel) Ltd. v. Openet
Telecom, Inc., where the court relied on the construction of the term
“enhance” (to require application of a number of field enhancements in a distributed
fashion) to determine that the claim entails an unconventional technical solution to a
technological problem. 841 F.3d 1288, 1300-01, 120 USPQ2d 1527, 1537 (Fed. Cir. 2016).
III. SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS AND FLOWCHART
Examiners should determine whether a claim satisfies the
criteria for subject matter eligibility by evaluating the claim in accordance with the
following flowchart. The flowchart illustrates the steps of the subject matter
eligibility analysis for products and processes that are to be used during examination
for evaluating whether a claim is drawn to patent-eligible subject matter. It is
recognized that under the controlling legal precedent there may be variations in the
precise contours of the analysis for subject matter eligibility that will still achieve
the same end result. The analysis set forth herein promotes examination efficiency and
consistency across all technologies.
As shown in the flowchart, Step 1 relates to the
statutory categories and ensures that the first criterion is met by confirming that the
claim falls within one of the four statutory categories of invention. See
MPEP §
2106.03 for more information on Step 1. Step 2, which is the
Supreme Court’s Alice/Mayo test, is a two-part test to identify
claims that are directed to a judicial exception (Step 2A) and to then evaluate if
additional elements of the claim provide an inventive concept (Step 2B) (also called
"significantly more" than the recited judicial exception). See MPEP §
2106.04 for more information on Step 2A and
MPEP §
2106.05 for more information on Step 2B.
The flowchart also shows three pathways (A, B, and C) to
eligibility:
Pathway A: Claims taken as a whole that fall within
a statutory category (Step 1: YES) and, which may or may not recite a judicial
exception, but whose eligibility is self-evident can be found eligible at Pathway
A using a streamlined analysis. See MPEP §
2106.06 for more information on this pathway and on
self-evident eligibility.
Pathway B: Claims taken as a whole that fall within
a statutory category (Step 1: YES) and are not directed to a judicial exception
(Step 2A: NO) are eligible at Pathway B. These claims do not need to go to Step
2B. See MPEP § 2106.04 for more
information about this pathway and Step 2A.
Pathway C: Claims taken as a whole that fall
within a statutory category (Step 1: YES), are directed to a judicial exception
(Step 2A: YES), and recite additional elements either individually or in an
ordered combination that amount to significantly more than the judicial exception
(Step 2B: YES) are eligible at Pathway C. See MPEP §
2106.05 for more information about this pathway and Step
2B.
Claims that could have been found eligible at Pathway A
(streamlined analysis), but are subjected to further analysis at Steps 2A or Step 2B,
will ultimately be found eligible at Pathways B or C. Thus, if the examiner is uncertain
about whether a streamlined analysis is appropriate, the examiner is encouraged to
conduct a full eligibility analysis. However, if the claim is not found eligible at any
of Pathways A, B or C, the claim is patent ineligible and should be rejected under
35 U.S.C.
101.
Regardless of whether a rejection under 35 U.S.C. 101 is
made, a complete examination should be made for every claim under each of the other
patentability requirements: 35 U.S.C. 102, 103,
112, and 101 (utility, inventorship and
double patenting) and non-statutory double patenting. MPEP §
2103.
2106.01 [Reserved]
2106.02 [Reserved]
35 U.S.C. 101 enumerates four
categories of subject matter that Congress deemed to be appropriate subject matter
for a patent: processes, machines, manufactures and compositions of matter. As
explained by the courts, these “four categories together describe the exclusive reach
of patentable subject matter. If a claim covers material not found in any of the four
statutory categories, that claim falls outside the plainly expressed scope of
§
101 even if the subject matter is otherwise new and useful.”
In re Nuijten, 500 F.3d 1346, 1354, 84 USPQ2d 1495, 1500 (Fed.
Cir. 2007).
A process defines “actions”, i.e.,
an invention that is claimed as an act or step, or a series of acts or steps. As
explained by the Supreme Court, a “process” is “a mode of treatment of certain
materials to produce a given result. It is an act, or a series of
acts, performed upon the subject-matter to be transformed and reduced to
a different state or thing.” Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S. 63,
70, 175 USPQ 673, 676 (1972) (italics added) (quoting Cochrane v.
Deener, 94 U.S. 780, 788, 24 L. Ed. 139, 141 (1876)). See also
Nuijten, 500 F.3d at 1355, 84 USPQ2d at 1501 (“The Supreme
Court and this court have consistently interpreted the statutory term ‘process’ to
require action”); NTP, Inc. v. Research in Motion, Ltd., 418 F.3d
1282, 1316, 75 USPQ2d 1763, 1791 (Fed. Cir. 2005) (“[A] process is a series of
acts.”) (quoting Minton v. Natl. Ass’n. of Securities Dealers, 336
F.3d 1373, 1378, 67 USPQ2d 1614, 1681 (Fed. Cir. 2003)). As defined in
35 U.S.C.
100(b), the term “process” is synonymous with “method.”
The other three categories (machines, manufactures
and compositions of matter) define the types of physical or tangible “things” or
“products” that Congress deemed appropriate to patent. Digitech Image Techs.
v. Electronics for Imaging, 758 F.3d 1344, 1348, 111 USPQ2d 1717, 1719
(Fed. Cir. 2014) (“For all categories except process claims, the eligible subject
matter must exist in some physical or tangible form.”). Thus, when determining
whether a claimed invention falls within one of these three categories, examiners
should verify that the invention is to at least one of the following categories
and is claimed in a physical or tangible form.
• A manufacture is “a tangible article that is
given a new form, quality, property, or combination through man-made or
artificial means.” Digitech, 758 F.3d at 1349, 111 USPQ2d at
1719-20 (citing Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303, 308,
206 USPQ 193, 197 (1980)). As the courts have explained, manufactures are
articles that result from the process of manufacturing,
i.e., they were produced “from raw or prepared materials
by giving to these materials new forms, qualities, properties, or combinations,
whether by hand-labor or by machinery.” Samsung Electronics Co. v.
Apple Inc., 137 S. Ct. 429, 120 USPQ2d 1749, 1752-3 (2016)
(quoting Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U. S. 303, 308, 206
USPQ 193, 196-97 (1980)); Nuijten, 500 F.3d at 1356-57, 84
USPQ2d at 1502. Manufactures also include “the parts of a machine considered
separately from the machine itself.” Samsung Electronics,
137 S. Ct. at 435, 120 USPQ2d at 1753 (quoting 1 W. Robinson, The Law of
Patents for Useful Inventions §183, p. 270 (1890)).
• A composition of matter is a “combination of
two or more substances and includes all composite articles.”
Digitech, 758 F.3d at 1348-49, 111 USPQ2d at 1719
(citation omitted). This category includes all compositions of two or more
substances and all composite articles, “'whether they be the results of
chemical union or of mechanical mixture, or whether they be gases, fluids,
powders or solids.'” Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. at 308, 206 USPQ
at 197 (quoting Shell Dev. Co. v. Watson, 149 F. Supp. 279,
280 (D.D.C. 1957); id. at 310 holding genetically modified
microorganism to be a manufacture or composition of matter).
It is not necessary to identify a single category into
which a claim falls, so long as it is clear that the claim falls into at least one
category. For example, because a microprocessor is generally understood to be a
manufacture, a product claim to the microprocessor or a system comprising the
microprocessor satisfies Step 1 regardless of whether the claim falls within any
other statutory category (such as a machine). It is also not necessary to identify a
“correct” category into which the claim falls, because although in many instances it
is clear within which category a claimed invention falls, a claim may satisfy the
requirements of more than one category. For example, a bicycle satisfies both the
machine and manufacture categories, because it is a tangible product that is concrete
and consists of parts such as a frame and wheels (thus satisfying the machine
category), and it is an article that was produced from raw materials such as aluminum
ore and liquid rubber by giving them a new form (thus satisfying the manufacture
category). Similarly, a genetically modified bacterium satisfies both the composition
of matter and manufacture categories, because it is a tangible product that is a
combination of two or more substances such as proteins, carbohydrates and other
chemicals (thus satisfying the composition of matter category), and it is an article
that was genetically modified by humans to have new properties such as the ability to
digest multiple types of hydrocarbons (thus satisfying the manufacture category).
Non-limiting examples of claims that are not directed
to any of the statutory categories include:
• Products that do not have a physical or
tangible form, such as information (often referred to as “data per se”) or a
computer program per se (often referred to as “software per se”) when claimed
as a product without any structural recitations;
• Transitory forms of signal transmission
(often referred to as “signals per se”), such as a propagating electrical or
electromagnetic signal or carrier wave; and
• Subject matter that the statute expressly
prohibits from being patented, such as humans per se, which are excluded under
The Leahy-Smith America Invents Act (AIA), Public Law 112-29, sec. 33, 125
Stat. 284 (September 16, 2011).
As the courts' definitions of machines, manufactures
and compositions of matter indicate, a product must have a physical or tangible form
in order to fall within one of these statutory categories.
Digitech, 758 F.3d at 1348, 111 USPQ2d at 1719. Thus, the
Federal Circuit has held that a product claim to an intangible collection of
information, even if created by human effort, does not fall within any statutory
category. Digitech, 758 F.3d at 1350, 111 USPQ2d at 1720 (claimed
“device profile” comprising two sets of data did not meet any of the categories
because it was neither a process nor a tangible product). Similarly, software
expressed as code or a set of instructions detached from any medium is an idea
without physical embodiment. See Microsoft Corp. v. AT&T
Corp., 550 U.S. 437, 449, 82 USPQ2d 1400, 1407 (2007); see also
Benson, 409 U.S. 67, 175 USPQ2d 675 (An "idea" is not patent
eligible). Thus, a product claim to a software program that does not also contain at
least one structural limitation (such as a “means plus function” limitation) has no
physical or tangible form, and thus does not fall within any statutory category.
Another example of an intangible product that does not fall within a statutory
category is a paradigm or business model for a marketing company. In re
Ferguson, 558 F.3d 1359, 1364, 90 USPQ2d 1035, 1039-40 (Fed. Cir. 2009).
Even when a product has a physical or tangible form,
it may not fall within a statutory category. For instance, a transitory signal, while
physical and real, does not possess concrete structure that would qualify as a device
or part under the definition of a machine, is not a tangible article or commodity
under the definition of a manufacture (even though it is man-made and physical in
that it exists in the real world and has tangible causes and effects), and is not
composed of matter such that it would qualify as a composition of matter.
Nuijten, 500 F.3d at 1356-1357, 84 USPQ2d at 1501-03. As such,
a transitory, propagating signal does not fall within any statutory category.
Mentor Graphics Corp. v. EVE-USA, Inc., 851 F.3d 1275, 1294,
112 USPQ2d 1120, 1133 (Fed. Cir. 2017); Nuijten, 500 F.3d at
1356-1357, 84 USPQ2d at 1501-03.
II. ELIGIBILITY STEP 1: WHETHER A CLAIM
IS TO A STATUTORY CATEGORY
As described in MPEP § 2106,
subsection III, Step 1 of the eligibility analysis asks: Is the claim to a process,
machine, manufacture or composition of matter? Like the other steps in the
eligibility analysis, evaluation of this step should be made after determining what
the inventor has invented by reviewing the entire application disclosure and
construing the claims in accordance with their broadest reasonable interpretation
(BRI). See MPEP §
2106, subsection II, for more information about the
importance of understanding what has been invented, and MPEP § 2111 for
more information about the BRI.
In the context of the flowchart in
MPEP §
2106, subsection III, Step 1 determines whether:
• The claim as a whole does not fall within any
statutory category (Step 1: NO) and thus is non-statutory, warranting a
rejection for failure to claim statutory subject matter; or
• The claim as a whole falls within one or
more statutory categories (Step 1: YES), and thus must be further analyzed to
determine whether it qualifies as eligible at Pathway A or requires further
analysis at Step 2A to determine if the claim is directed to a judicial
exception.
A claim whose BRI covers both statutory and
non-statutory embodiments embraces subject matter that is not eligible for patent
protection and therefore is directed to non-statutory subject matter. Such claims
fail the first step (Step 1: NO) and should be rejected under 35 U.S.C. 101,
for at least this reason. In such a case, it is a best practice for the examiner to
point out the BRI and recommend an amendment, if possible, that would narrow the
claim to those embodiments that fall within a statutory category.
For example, the BRI of machine readable media can
encompass non-statutory transitory forms of signal transmission, such as a
propagating electrical or electromagnetic signal per se. See In re
Nuijten, 500 F.3d 1346, 84 USPQ2d 1495 (Fed. Cir. 2007). When the BRI
encompasses transitory forms of signal transmission, a rejection under
35 U.S.C.
101 as failing to claim statutory subject matter would be
appropriate. Thus, a claim to a computer readable medium that can be a compact disc
or a carrier wave covers a non-statutory embodiment and therefore should be rejected
under 35 U.S.C.
101 as being directed to non-statutory subject matter. See,
e.g., Mentor Graphics v. EVE-USA, Inc., 851 F.3d at 1294-95,
112 USPQ2d at 1134 (claims to a “machine-readable medium” were non-statutory, because
their scope encompassed both statutory random-access memory and non-statutory carrier
waves).
If a claim is clearly not within one of the four
categories (Step 1: NO), then a rejection under 35 U.S.C. 101 must be made
indicating that the claim is directed to non-statutory subject matter. Form
paragraphs 7.05 and 7.05.01 should be used; see
MPEP
§ 2106.07(a)(1). However, as shown in the flowchart in
MPEP §
2106 subsection III, when a claim fails under Step 1 (Step
1: NO), but it appears from applicant’s disclosure that the claim could be amended to
fall within a statutory category (Step 1: YES), the analysis should proceed to
determine whether such an amended claim would qualify as eligible at Pathway A, B or
C. In such a case, it is a best practice for the examiner to recommend an amendment,
if possible, that would resolve eligibility of the claim.
In addition to the terms “laws of nature,” “natural
phenomena,” and “abstract ideas,” judicially recognized exceptions have been
described using various other terms, including “physical phenomena,” “products of
nature,” “scientific principles,” “systems that depend on human intelligence alone,”
“disembodied concepts,” “mental processes,” and “disembodied mathematical algorithms
and formulas.” It should be noted that there are no bright lines between the types of
exceptions, and that many of the concepts identified by the courts as exceptions can
fall under several exceptions. For example, mathematical formulas are considered to
be a judicial exception as they express a scientific truth, but have been labelled by
the courts as both abstract ideas and laws of nature. Likewise, “products of nature”
are considered to be an exception because they tie up the use of naturally occurring
things, but have been labelled as both laws of nature and natural phenomena. Thus, it
is sufficient for this analysis for the examiner to identify that the claimed concept
(the specific claim limitation(s) that the examiner believes may recite an exception)
aligns with at least one judicial exception.
The Supreme Court has explained that the judicial
exceptions reflect the Court’s view that abstract ideas, laws of nature, and natural
phenomena are “the basic tools of scientific and technological work”, and are thus
excluded from patentability because “monopolization of those tools through the grant
of a patent might tend to impede innovation more than it would tend to promote it.”
Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 216, 110 USPQ2d at 1980 (quoting
Myriad, 569 U.S. at 589, 106 USPQ2d at 1978 and Mayo
Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs. Inc., 566 U.S. 66, 71, 101
USPQ2d 1961, 1965 (2012)). The Supreme Court’s concern that drives this “exclusionary
principle” is pre-emption. Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 216, 110
USPQ2d at 1980. The Court has held that a claim may not preempt abstract ideas, laws
of nature, or natural phenomena, even if the judicial exception is narrow (e.g., a
particular mathematical formula such as the Arrhenius equation). See, e.g.,
Mayo, 566 U.S. at 79-80, 86-87, 101 USPQ2d at 1968-69, 1971 (claims
directed to “narrow laws that may have limited applications” held ineligible);
Flook, 437 U.S. at 589-90, 198 USPQ at 197 (claims that did not
“wholly preempt the mathematical formula” held ineligible). This is because such a
patent would “in practical effect [] be a patent on the [abstract idea, law of nature
or natural phenomenon] itself.” Benson, 409 U.S. at 71- 72, 175
USPQ at 676. The concern over preemption was expressed as early as 1852. See
Le Roy v. Tatham, 55 U.S. (14 How.) 156, 175 (1852) (“A
principle, in the abstract, is a fundamental truth; an original cause; a motive;
these cannot be patented, as no one can claim in either of them an exclusive
right.”).
The Supreme Court’s decisions make it clear that
judicial exceptions need not be old or long-prevalent, and that even newly discovered
or novel judicial exceptions are still exceptions. For example, the mathematical
formula in Flook, the laws of nature in Mayo,
and the isolated DNA in Myriad were all novel or newly discovered,
but nonetheless were considered by the Supreme Court to be judicial exceptions
because they were “‘basic tools of scientific and technological work’ that lie beyond
the domain of patent protection.” Myriad, 569 U.S. 576, 589, 106
USPQ2d at 1976, 1978 (noting that Myriad discovered the BRCA1 and
BRCA1 genes and quoting Mayo, 566 U.S. 71, 101 USPQ2d at 1965);
Flook, 437 U.S. at 591-92, 198 USPQ2d at 198 (“the novelty of
the mathematical algorithm is not a determining factor at all”);
Mayo, 566 U.S. 73-74, 78, 101 USPQ2d 1966, 1968 (noting that
the claims embody the researcher's discoveries of laws of nature). The Supreme
Court’s cited rationale for considering even “just discovered” judicial exceptions as
exceptions stems from the concern that “without this exception, there would be
considerable danger that the grant of patents would ‘tie up’ the use of such tools
and thereby ‘inhibit future innovation premised upon them.’”
Myriad, 569 U.S. at 589, 106 USPQ2d at 1978-79 (quoting
Mayo, 566 U.S. at 86, 101 USPQ2d at 1971). See also
Myriad, 569 U.S. at 591, 106 USPQ2d at 1979 (“Groundbreaking,
innovative, or even brilliant discovery does not by itself satisfy the
§101 inquiry.”). The Federal Circuit has also applied this
principle, for example, when holding a concept of using advertising as an exchange or
currency to be an abstract idea, despite the patentee’s arguments that the concept
was “new”. Ultramercial, Inc. v. Hulu, LLC, 772 F.3d 709, 714-15,
112 USPQ2d 1750, 1753-54 (Fed. Cir. 2014). Cf. Synopsys, Inc. v. Mentor
Graphics Corp., 839 F.3d 1138, 1151, 120 USPQ2d 1473, 1483 (Fed. Cir.
2016) (“a new abstract idea is still an abstract
idea”) (emphasis in original).
For a detailed discussion of abstract ideas, see
MPEP
§ 2106.04(a); for a detailed discussion of laws of nature,
natural phenomena and products of nature, see MPEP §
2106.04(b).
II. ELIGIBILITY STEP 2A: WHETHER A CLAIM
IS DIRECTED TO A JUDICIAL EXCEPTION
As described in MPEP § 2106,
subsection III, Step 2A of the Office’s eligibility analysis is the first part of the
Alice/Mayo test, i.e., the Supreme Court’s
“framework for distinguishing patents that claim laws of nature, natural phenomena,
and abstract ideas from those that claim patent-eligible applications of those
concepts.” Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank Int'l, 573 U.S. 208,
217-18, 110 USPQ2d 1976, 1981 (2014) (citing Mayo, 566 U.S. at
77-78, 101 USPQ2d at 1967-68). Like the other steps in the eligibility analysis,
evaluation of this step should be made after determining what the inventor has
invented by reviewing the entire application disclosure and construing the claims in
accordance with their broadest reasonable interpretation. See MPEP § 2106,
subsection II for more information about the importance of understanding what has
been invented, and MPEP § 2111 for more information about the broadest
reasonable interpretation.
Step 2A asks: Is the claim directed to a law of
nature, a natural phenomenon (product of nature) or an abstract idea? In the context
of the flowchart in MPEP § 2106, subsection III, Step 2A determines whether:
• The claim as a whole is not directed to a
judicial exception (Step 2A: NO) and thus is eligible at Pathway B, thereby
concluding the eligibility analysis; or
• The claim as a whole is directed to a
judicial exception (Step 2A: YES) and thus requires further analysis at Step 2B
to determine if the claim as a whole amounts to significantly more than the
exception itself.
A.Step 2A Is a Two-Prong Inquiry
Step 2A is a two-prong inquiry, in which examiners
determine in Prong One whether a claim recites a judicial exception, and if so, then
determine in Prong Two if the recited judicial exception is integrated into a
practical application of that exception. Together, these prongs represent the first
part of the Alice/Mayo test, which determines whether a claim is
directed to a judicial exception.
The flowchart below depicts the two-prong analysis
that is performed in order to answer the Step 2A inquiry.
1. Prong One
Prong One asks does the claim recite an abstract
idea, law of nature, or natural phenomenon? In Prong One examiners evaluate
whether the claim recites a judicial exception, i.e. whether a law of nature,
natural phenomenon, or abstract idea is set forth or
described in the claim. While the terms "set forth" and
"described" are thus both equated with "recite", their different language is
intended to indicate that there are two ways in which an exception can be recited
in a claim. For instance, the claims in Diehr, 450 U.S. at 178
n. 2, 179 n.5, 191-92, 209 USPQ at 4-5 (1981), clearly stated a mathematical
equation in the repetitively calculating step, and the claims in
Mayo, 566 U.S. 66, 75-77, 101 USPQ2d 1961, 1967-68 (2012),
clearly stated laws of nature in the wherein clause, such that the claims “set
forth” an identifiable judicial exception. Alternatively, the claims in
Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 218, 110 USPQ2d at 1982, described
the concept of intermediated settlement without ever explicitly using the words
“intermediated” or “settlement.”
The Supreme Court has held that Section 101
contains an implicit exception for ‘‘[l]aws of nature, natural phenomena, and
abstract ideas,’’ which are ‘‘the basic tools of scientific and technological
work.’’ Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 216, 110 USPQ2d at 1980
(citing Mayo, 566 US at 71, 101 USPQ2d at 1965). Yet, the Court
has explained that ‘‘[a]t some level, all inventions embody, use, reflect, rest
upon, or apply laws of nature, natural phenomena, or abstract ideas,’’ and has
cautioned ‘‘to tread carefully in construing this exclusionary principle lest it
swallow all of patent law.’’ Id. See also Enfish, LLC
v. Microsoft Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 1335, 118 USPQ2d 1684, 1688 (Fed.
Cir. 2016) (“The ‘directed to’ inquiry, therefore, cannot simply ask whether the
claims involve a patent-ineligible concept, because essentially every routinely
patent-eligible claim involving physical products and actions involves a law of
nature and/or natural phenomenon”). Examiners should accordingly be careful to
distinguish claims that recite an exception (which require further
eligibility analysis) and claims that merely involve an exception
(which are eligible and do not require further eligibility analysis).
An example of a claim that recites a judicial
exception is “A machine comprising elements that operate in accordance with F=ma.”
This claim sets forth the principle that force equals mass times acceleration
(F=ma) and therefore recites a law of nature exception. Because F=ma represents a
mathematical formula, the claim could alternatively be considered as reciting an
abstract idea. Because this claim recites a judicial exception, it requires
further analysis in Prong Two in order to answer the Step 2A inquiry. An example
of a claim that merely involves, or is based on, an exception is a claim to “A
teeter-totter comprising an elongated member pivotably attached to a base member,
having seats and handles attached at opposing sides of the elongated member.” This
claim is based on the concept of a lever pivoting on a fulcrum, which involves the
natural principles of mechanical advantage and the law of the lever. However, this
claim does not recite these natural principles and therefore is not directed to a
judicial exception (Step 2A: NO). Thus, the claim is eligible at Pathway B without
further analysis.
If the claim recites a judicial exception
(i.e., an abstract idea enumerated in MPEP §
2106.04(a), a law of nature, or a natural phenomenon),
the claim requires further analysis in Prong Two. If the claim does not recite a
judicial exception (a law of nature, natural phenomenon, or abstract idea), then
the claim cannot be directed to a judicial exception (Step 2A: NO), and thus the
claim is eligible at Pathway B without further analysis.
For more information how to determine if a claim
recites an abstract idea, see MPEP §
2106.04(a). For more information on how to determine if
a claim recites a law of nature or natural phenomenon, see MPEP §
2106.04(b). For more information on how to determine if
a claim recites a product of nature, see MPEP §
2106.04(c).
2. Prong Two
Prong Two asks does the claim recite additional
elements that integrate the judicial exception into a practical application? In
Prong Two, examiners evaluate whether the claim as a whole integrates the
exception into a practical application of that exception. If the additional
elements in the claim integrate the recited exception into a practical application
of the exception, then the claim is not directed to the judicial exception (Step
2A: NO) and thus is eligible at Pathway B. This concludes the eligibility
analysis. If, however, the additional elements do not integrate the exception into
a practical application, then the claim is directed to the recited judicial
exception (Step 2A: YES), and requires further analysis under Step 2B (where it
may still be eligible if it amounts to an ‘‘inventive concept’’). For more
information on how to evaluate whether a judicial exception is integrated into a
practical application, see MPEP § 2106.04(d)(2).
The mere inclusion of a judicial exception such as
a mathematical formula (which is one of the mathematical concepts identified as an
abstract idea in MPEP § 2106.04(a)) in a claim
means that the claim “recites” a judicial exception under Step 2A Prong One.
However, mere recitation of a judicial exception does not mean that the claim is
“directed to” that judicial exception under Step 2A Prong Two. Instead, under
Prong Two, a claim that recites a judicial exception is not directed to that
judicial exception, if the claim as a whole integrates the recited judicial
exception into a practical application of that exception. Prong Two thus
distinguishes claims that are “directed to” the recited judicial exception from
claims that are not “directed to” the recited judicial exception.
Because a judicial exception is not eligible
subject matter, Bilski, 561 U.S. at 601, 95 USPQ2d at 1005-06
(quoting Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. at 309, 206 USPQ at 197 (1980)),
if there are no additional claim elements besides the judicial exception, or if
the additional claim elements merely recite another judicial exception, that is
insufficient to integrate the judicial exception into a practical application.
See, e.g., RecogniCorp, LLC v. Nintendo Co., 855 F.3d 1322,
1327, 122 USPQ2d 1377 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (“Adding one abstract idea (math) to
another abstract idea (encoding and decoding) does not render the claim
non-abstract”); Genetic Techs. v. Merial LLC, 818 F.3d 1369,
1376, 118 USPQ2d 1541, 1546 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (eligibility “cannot be furnished by
the unpatentable law of nature (or natural phenomenon or abstract idea) itself.”).
For a claim reciting a judicial exception to be eligible, the additional elements
(if any) in the claim must “transform the nature of the claim” into a
patent-eligible application of the judicial exception, Alice
Corp., 573 U.S. at 217, 110 USPQ2d at 1981, either at Prong Two or in
Step 2B. If there are no additional elements in the claim, then it cannot be
eligible. In such a case, after making the appropriate rejection (see
MPEP § 2106.07 for more information on formulating a
rejection for lack of eligibility), it is a best practice for the examiner to
recommend an amendment, if possible, that would resolve eligibility of the claim.
B.Evaluating Claims Reciting Multiple Judicial
Exceptions
A claim may recite multiple judicial exceptions.
For example, claim 4 at issue in Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S.
593, 95 USPQ2d 1001 (2010) recited two abstract ideas, and the claims at issue in
Mayo Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs. Inc., 566 U.S.
66, 101 USPQ2d 1961 (2012) recited two laws of nature. However, these claims were
analyzed by the Supreme Court in the same manner as claims reciting a single
judicial exception, such as those in Alice Corp., 573 U.S. 208,
110 USPQ2d 1976.
During examination, examiners should apply the
same eligibility analysis to all claims regardless of the number of exceptions
recited therein. Unless it is clear that a claim recites distinct exceptions, such
as a law of nature and an abstract idea, care should be taken not to parse the
claim into multiple exceptions, particularly in claims involving abstract ideas.
Accordingly, if possible examiners should treat the claim for Prong Two and Step
2B purposes as containing a single judicial exception.
In some claims, the multiple exceptions are
distinct from each other, e.g., a first limitation describes a
law of nature, and a second limitation elsewhere in the claim recites an abstract
idea. In these cases, for purposes of examination efficiency, examiners should
select one of the exceptions and conduct the eligibility analysis for that
selected exception. If the analysis indicates that the claim recites an additional
element or combination of elements that integrate the selected exception into a
practical application or that amount to significantly more than the selected
exception, then the claim should be considered patent eligible. On the other hand,
if the claim does not recite any additional element or combination of elements
that integrate the selected exception into a practical application, and also does
not recite any additional element or combination of elements that amounts to
significantly more than the selected exception, then the claim should be
considered ineligible. University of Utah Research Foundation v. Ambry
Genetics, 774 F.3d 755, 762, 113 USPQ2d 1241, 1246 (Fed. Cir. 2014)
(because claims did not amount to significantly more than the recited abstract
idea, court “need not decide” if claims also recited a law of nature).
In other claims, multiple abstract ideas, which
may fall in the same or different groupings, or multiple laws of nature may be
recited. In these cases, examiners should not parse the claim. For example, in a
claim that includes a series of steps that recite mental steps as well as a
mathematical calculation, an examiner should identify the claim as reciting both a
mental process and a mathematical concept for Step 2A Prong One to make the
analysis clear on the record. However, if possible, the examiner should consider
the limitations together as a single abstract idea for Step 2A Prong Two and Step
2B (if necessary) rather than as a plurality of separate abstract ideas to be
analyzed individually.
2106.04(a) Abstract Ideas [R-07.2022]
The abstract idea exception has deep roots in the
Supreme Court’s jurisprudence. See Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593,
601-602, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1006 (2010) (citing Le Roy v. Tatham, 55
U.S. (14 How.) 156, 174–175 (1853)). Despite this long history, the courts have
declined to define abstract ideas. However, it is clear from the body of judicial
precedent that software and business methods are not excluded categories of subject
matter. For example, the Supreme Court concluded that business methods are not
“categorically outside of § 101's scope,” stating that “a
business method is simply one kind of ‘method’ that is, at least in some
circumstances, eligible for patenting under § 101.”
Bilski, 561 U.S. at 607, 95 USPQ2d at 1008 (2010). See also
Content Extraction and Transmission, LLC v. Wells Fargo Bank,
776 F.3d 1343, 1347, 113 USPQ2d 1354, 1357 (Fed. Cir. 2014) (“there is no categorical
business-method exception”). Likewise, software is not automatically an abstract
idea, even if performance of a software task involves an underlying mathematical
calculation or relationship. See, e.g., Thales Visionix, Inc. v. United
States, 850 F.3d 1343, 121 USPQ2d 1898, 1902 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (“That a
mathematical equation is required to complete the claimed method and system does not
doom the claims to abstraction.”); McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am.
Inc., 837 F.3d 1299, 1316, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1103 (Fed. Cir. 2016)
(methods of automatic lip synchronization and facial expression animation using
computer-implemented rules were not directed to an abstract idea); Enfish,
822 F.3d 1327, 1336, 118 USPQ2d 1684, 1689 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (claims to
self-referential table for a computer database were not directed to an abstract
idea).
To facilitate examination, the Office has set forth an
approach to identifying abstract ideas that distills the relevant case law into
enumerated groupings of abstract ideas. The enumerated groupings are firmly rooted in
Supreme Court precedent as well as Federal Circuit decisions interpreting that
precedent, as is explained in MPEP § 2106.04(a)(2). This approach
represents a shift from the former case-comparison approach that required examiners
to rely on individual judicial cases when determining whether a claim recites an
abstract idea. By grouping the abstract ideas, the examiners’ focus has been shifted
from relying on individual cases to generally applying the wide body of case law
spanning all technologies and claim types.
Examiners should determine whether a claim recites an
abstract idea by (1) identifying the specific limitation(s) in the claim under
examination that the examiner believes recites an abstract idea, and (2) determining
whether the identified limitations(s) fall within at least one of the groupings of
abstract ideas listed above. The groupings of abstract ideas, and their relationship
to the body of judicial precedent, are further discussed in MPEP §
2106.04(a)(2).
If the identified limitation(s) falls within at least
one of the groupings of abstract ideas, it is reasonable to conclude that the claim
recites an abstract idea in Step 2A Prong One. The claim then requires further
analysis in Step 2A Prong Two, to determine whether any additional elements in the
claim integrate the abstract idea into a practical application, see
MPEP
§ 2106.04(d).
If the identified limitation(s) do not fall within
any of the groupings of abstract ideas, it is reasonable to find that the claim does
not recite an abstract idea. This concludes the abstract idea judicial exception
eligibility analysis, except in the rare circumstance discussed in
MPEP
§ 2106.04(a)(3), below. The claim is thus eligible at
Pathway B unless the claim recites, and is directed to, another exception (such as a
law of nature or natural phenomenon).
If the claims recites another judicial exception (i.e.
law of nature or natural phenomenon), see MPEP §§
2106.04(b) and 2106.04(c) for more information on Step 2A analysis.
MPEP § 2106.04(a)(1) provides
examples of claims that do not recite abstract ideas (or other judicial exceptions)
and thus are eligible at Step 2A Prong One.
MPEP § 2106.04(a)(2) provides
further explanation on the abstract idea groupings. It should be noted that these
groupings are not mutually exclusive, i.e., some claims recite limitations that fall
within more than one grouping or sub-grouping. For example, a claim reciting
performing mathematical calculations using a formula that could be practically
performed in the human mind may be considered to fall within the mathematical
concepts grouping and the mental process grouping. Accordingly, examiners should
identify at least one abstract idea grouping, but preferably identify all groupings
to the extent possible, if a claim limitation(s) is determined to fall within
multiple groupings and proceed with the analysis in Step 2A Prong Two.
2106.04(a)(1) Examples of Claims That Do Not Recite
Abstract Ideas [R-10.2019]
When evaluating a claim to determine whether it
recites an abstract idea, examiners should keep in mind that while “all inventions
at some level embody, use, reflect, rest upon, or apply laws of nature, natural
phenomenon, or abstract ideas”, not all claims recite an abstract idea. See
Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank, Int’l, 573 U.S. 208, 217,
110 USPQ2d 1976, 1980-81 (2014) (citing Mayo Collaborative Servs. v.
Prometheus Labs. Inc., 566 US 66, 71, 101 USPQ2d 1961, 1965 (2012)).
The Step 2A Prong One analysis articulated in MPEP §
2106.04 accounts for this cautionary principle by
requiring a claim to recite (i.e., set forth or describe) an
abstract idea in Prong One before proceeding to the Prong Two inquiry about
whether the claim is directed to that idea, thereby separating claims reciting
abstract ideas from those that are merely based on or involve an abstract
idea.
Some claims are not directed to an abstract idea
because they do not recite an abstract idea, although it may be apparent that at
some level they are based on or involve an abstract idea. Because these claims do
not recite an abstract idea (or other judicial exception), they are eligible at
Step 2A Prong One (Pathway B).
Non-limiting hypothetical examples of claims that
do not recite (set forth or describe) an abstract idea include:
i. a printer comprising a belt, a roller, a
printhead and at least one ink cartridge;
ii. a washing machine comprising a tub, a drive
motor operatively connected to the tub, a controller for controlling the
drive motor, and a housing for containing the tub, drive motor, and
controller;
iii. an earring comprising a sensor for taking
periodic blood glucose measurements and a memory for storing measurement
data from the sensor;
iv. a method for sequencing BRCA1 gene sequences
comprising: amplifying by a polymerization chain reaction technique all or
part of a BRCA1 gene from a tissue sample from a human subject using a set
of primers to produce amplified nucleic acids; and sequencing the amplified
nucleic acids;
v. a method for loading BIOS into a local
computer system which has a system processor and volatile memory and
non-volatile memory, the method comprising the steps of: responding to
powering up of the local computer system by requesting from a memory
location remote from the local computer system the transfer to and storage
in the volatile memory of the local computer system of BIOS configured for
effective use of the local computer system, transferring and storing such
BIOS, and transferring control of the local computer system to such
BIOS;
vi. a method of rearranging icons on a graphical
user interface (GUI) comprising the steps of: receiving a user selection to
organize each icon based on the amount of use of each icon, determining the
amount of use of each icon by using a processor to track the amount of
memory allocated to the application associated with the icon over a period
of time, and automatically moving the most used icons to a position in the
GUI closest to the start icon of the computer system based on the determined
amount of use; and
vii. a method of training a neural network for
facial detection comprising: collecting a set of digital facial images,
applying one or more transformations to the digital images, creating a first
training set including the modified set of digital facial images; training
the neural network in a first stage using the first training set, creating a
second training set including digital non-facial images that are incorrectly
detected as facial images in the first stage of training; and training the
neural network in a second stage using the second training set.
The Court’s rationale for identifying these
“mathematical concepts” as judicial exceptions is that a ‘‘mathematical formula
as such is not accorded the protection of our patent laws,’’
Diehr, 450 U.S. at 191, 209 USPQ at 15 (citing
Benson, 409 U.S. 63, 175 USPQ 673), and thus ‘‘the
discovery of [a mathematical formula] cannot support a patent unless there is
some other inventive concept in its application.’’ Flook,
437 U.S. at 594, 198 USPQ at 199. In the past, the Supreme Court sometimes
described mathematical concepts as laws of nature, and at other times described
these concepts as judicial exceptions without specifying a particular type of
exception. See, e.g., Benson, 409 U.S. at 65, 175 USPQ2d at
674; Flook, 437 U.S. at 589, 198 USPQ2d at 197;
Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co. v. Radio Corp. of Am.,
306 U.S. 86, 94, 40 USPQ 199, 202 (1939) (‘‘[A] scientific truth, or the
mathematical expression of it, is not patentable invention[.]’’). More recent
opinions of the Supreme Court, however, have affirmatively characterized
mathematical relationships and formulas as abstract ideas. See, e.g.,
Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank Int’l, 573 U.S. 208, 218, 110
USPQ2d 1976, 1981 (2014) (describing Flook as holding “that
a mathematical formula for computing ‘alarm limits’ in a catalytic conversion
process was also a patent-ineligible abstract idea.”); Bilski v.
Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 611-12, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1010 (2010) (noting
that the claimed “concept of hedging, described in claim 1 and reduced to a
mathematical formula in claim 4, is an unpatentable abstract idea,”).
When determining whether a claim recites a
mathematical concept (i.e., mathematical relationships,
mathematical formulas or equations, and mathematical calculations), examiners
should consider whether the claim recites a mathematical concept or merely
limitations that are based on or involve a mathematical concept. A claim does
not recite a mathematical concept (i.e., the claim
limitations do not fall within the mathematical concept grouping), if it is
only based on or involves a mathematical concept. See, e.g., Thales
Visionix, Inc. v. United States, 850 F.3d 1343, 1348-49, 121
USPQ2d 1898, 1902-03 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (determining that the claims to a
particular configuration of inertial sensors and a particular method of using
the raw data from the sensors in order to more accurately calculate the
position and orientation of an object on a moving platform did not merely
recite “the abstract idea of using ‘mathematical equations for determining the
relative position of a moving object to a moving reference frame’.”). For
example, a limitation that is merely based on or involves a mathematical
concept described in the specification may not be sufficient to fall into this
grouping, provided the mathematical concept itself is not recited in the claim.
It is important to note that a mathematical
concept need not be expressed in mathematical symbols, because “[w]ords used in
a claim operating on data to solve a problem can serve the same purpose as a
formula.” In re Grams, 888 F.2d 835, 837 and n.1, 12 USPQ2d
1824, 1826 and n.1 (Fed. Cir. 1989). See, e.g., SAP America, Inc. v.
InvestPic, LLC, 898 F.3d 1161, 1163, 127 USPQ2d 1597, 1599 (Fed.
Cir. 2018) (holding that claims to a ‘‘series of mathematical calculations
based on selected information’’ are directed to abstract ideas);
Digitech Image Techs., LLC v. Elecs. for Imaging, Inc.,
758 F.3d 1344, 1350, 111 USPQ2d 1717, 1721 (Fed. Cir. 2014) (holding that
claims to a ‘‘process of organizing information through mathematical
correlations’’ are directed to an abstract idea); and Bancorp Servs.,
LLC v. Sun Life Assurance Co. of Can. (U.S.), 687 F.3d 1266, 1280,
103 USPQ2d 1425, 1434 (Fed. Cir. 2012) (identifying the concept of ‘‘managing a
stable value protected life insurance policy by performing calculations and
manipulating the results’’ as an abstract idea).
A. Mathematical Relationships
A mathematical relationship is a
relationship between variables or numbers. A mathematical relationship may
be expressed in words or using mathematical symbols. For example, pressure
(p) can be described as the ratio between the magnitude of the normal force
(F) and area of the surface on contact (A), or it can be set forth in the
form of an equation such as p = F/A.
Examples of mathematical relationships
recited in a claim include:
i. a relationship between reaction rate
and temperature, which relationship can be expressed in the form of a
formula called the Arrhenius equation, Diamond v.
Diehr; 450 U.S. at 178 n. 2, 179 n.5, 191-92, 209 USPQ at
4-5 (1981);
ii. a conversion between binary coded
decimal and pure binary, Benson, 409 U.S. at 64,
175 USPQ at 674;
iii. a mathematical relationship between
enhanced directional radio activity and antenna conductor arrangement
(i.e., the length of the conductors with respect
to the operating wave length and the angle between the conductors),
Mackay Radio & Tel. Co. v. Radio Corp. of
America, 306 U.S. 86, 91, 40 USPQ 199, 201 (1939) (while
the litigated claims 15 and 16 of U.S. Patent No. 1,974,387 expressed
this mathematical relationship using a formula that described the
angle between the conductors, other claims in the patent
(e.g., claim 1) expressed the mathematical
relationship in words); and
iv. organizing information and
manipulating information through mathematical correlations,
Digitech Image Techs., LLC v. Electronics for Imaging,
Inc., 758 F.3d 1344, 1350, 111 USPQ2d 1717, 1721 (Fed.
Cir. 2014). The patentee in Digitech claimed
methods of generating first and second data by taking existing
information, manipulating the data using mathematical functions, and
organizing this information into a new form. The court explained that
such claims were directed to an abstract idea because they described a
process of organizing information through mathematical correlations,
like Flook's method of calculating using a
mathematical formula. 758 F.3d at 1350, 111 USPQ2d at 1721.
B. Mathematical Formulas or Equations
A claim that recites a numerical formula or
equation will be considered as falling within the “mathematical concepts”
grouping. In addition, there are instances where a formula or equation is
written in text format that should also be considered as falling within this
grouping. For example, the phrase “determining a ratio of A to B” is merely
using a textual replacement for the particular equation (ratio = A/B).
Additionally, the phrase “calculating the force of the object by multiplying
its mass by its acceleration” is using a textual replacement for the
particular equation (F= ma).
Examples of mathematical equations or formulas
recited in a claim include:
A claim that recites a mathematical
calculation, when the claim is given its broadest reasonable interpretation
in light of the specification, will be considered as falling within the
“mathematical concepts” grouping. A mathematical calculation is a
mathematical operation (such as multiplication) or an act of calculating
using mathematical methods to determine a variable or number,
e.g., performing an arithmetic operation such as
exponentiation. There is no particular word or set of words that indicates a
claim recites a mathematical calculation. That is, a claim does not have to
recite the word “calculating” in order to be considered a mathematical
calculation. For example, a step of “determining” a variable or number using
mathematical methods or “performing” a mathematical operation may also be
considered mathematical calculations when the broadest reasonable
interpretation of the claim in light of the specification encompasses a
mathematical calculation.
• commercial or legal interactions
(including agreements in the form of contracts, legal obligations,
advertising, marketing or sales activities or behaviors, and business
relations); and
• managing personal behavior or
relationships or interactions between people, (including social
activities, teaching, and following rules or instructions).
The Supreme Court has identified a number of
concepts falling within the “certain methods of organizing human activity”
grouping as abstract ideas. In particular, in Alice, the
Court concluded that the use of a third party to mediate settlement risk is a
‘‘fundamental economic practice’’ and thus an abstract idea. 573 U.S. at
219–20, 110 USPQ2d at 1982. In addition, the Court in Alice
described the concept of risk hedging identified as an abstract idea in
Bilski as ‘‘a method of organizing human activity’’.
Id. Previously, in Bilski, the Court
concluded that hedging is a ‘‘fundamental economic practice’’ and therefore an
abstract idea. 561 U.S. at 611–612, 95 USPQ2d at 1010.
The term “certain” qualifies the “certain
methods of organizing human activity” grouping as a reminder of several
important points. First, not all methods of organizing human activity are
abstract ideas (e.g., “a defined set of steps for combining
particular ingredients to create a drug formulation” is not a certain "method
of organizing human activity”), In re Marco Guldenaar Holding
B.V., 911 F.3d 1157, 1160-61, 129 USPQ2d 1008, 1011 (Fed. Cir.
2018). Second, this grouping is limited to activity that falls within the
enumerated sub-groupings of fundamental economic principles or practices,
commercial or legal interactions, and managing personal behavior and
relationships or interactions between people, and is not to be expanded beyond
these enumerated sub-groupings except in rare circumstances as explained in
MPEP § 2106.04(a)(3). Finally, the sub-groupings
encompass both activity of a single person (for example, a person following a
set of instructions or a person signing a contract online) and activity that
involves multiple people (such as a commercial interaction), and thus, certain
activity between a person and a computer (for example a method of anonymous
loan shopping that a person conducts using a mobile phone) may fall within the
“certain methods of organizing human activity” grouping. It is noted that the
number of people involved in the activity is not dispositive as to whether a
claim limitation falls within this grouping. Instead, the determination should
be based on whether the activity itself falls within one of the sub-groupings.
A.Fundamental Economic Practices or
Principles
The courts have used the phrases “fundamental
economic practices” or “fundamental economic principles” to describe
concepts relating to the economy and commerce. Fundamental economic
principles or practices include hedging, insurance, and mitigating
risks.
The term “fundamental” is not used in the
sense of necessarily being “old” or “well-known.” See, e.g., OIP
Techs., Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc., 788 F.3d 1359, 1364, 115
U.S.P.Q.2d 1090, 1092 (Fed Cir. 2015) (a new method of price optimization
was found to be a fundamental economic concept); In re
Smith, 815 F.3d 816, 818-19, 118 USPQ2d 1245, 1247 (Fed. Cir.
2016) (describing a new set of rules for conducting a wagering game as a
“fundamental economic practice”); In re Greenstein, 774
Fed. Appx. 661, 664, 2019 USPQ2d 212400 (Fed Cir. 2019) (non-precedential)
(claims to a new method of allocating returns to different investors in an
investment fund was a fundamental economic concept). However, being old or
well-known may indicate that the practice is fundamental. See,
e.g., Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank Int’l, 573
U.S. 208, 219-20, 110 USPQ2d 1981-82 (2014) (describing the concept of
intermediated settlement, like the risk hedging in
Bilski, to be a “‘fundamental economic practice long
prevalent in our system of commerce’” and also as “a building block of the
modern economy”) (citation omitted); Bilski v. Kappos,
561 U.S. 593, 611, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1010 (2010) (claims to the concept of
hedging are a “fundamental economic practice long prevalent in our system of
commerce and taught in any introductory finance class.”) (citation omitted);
Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Symantec Corp., 838
F.3d 1307, 1313, 120 USPQ2d 1353, 1356 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (“The category of
abstract ideas embraces ‘fundamental economic practice[s] long prevalent in
our system of commerce,’ … including ‘longstanding commercial
practice[s]’”).
An example of a case identifying a claim as
reciting a fundamental economic practice is Bilski v.
Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 609, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1009 (2010). The
fundamental economic practice at issue was hedging or protecting against
risk. The applicant in Bilski claimed “a series of steps
instructing how to hedge risk,” i.e., how to protect
against risk. 561 U.S. at 599, 95 USPQ2d at 1005. The method allowed energy
suppliers and consumers to minimize the risks resulting from fluctuations in
market demand for energy. The Supreme Court determined that hedging is
“fundamental economic practice” and therefore is an “unpatentable abstract
idea.” 561 U.S. at 611-12, 95 USPQ2d at 1010.
Another example of a case identifying a
claim as reciting a fundamental economic practice is Bancorp
Services., L.L.C. v. Sun Life Assurance Co. of Canada (U.S.),
687 F.3d 1266, 103 USPQ2d 1425 (Fed. Cir. 2012). The fundamental economic
practice at issue in Bancorp pertained to insurance. The
patentee in Bancorp claimed methods and systems for
managing a life insurance policy on behalf of a policy holder, which
comprised steps including generating a life insurance policy including a
stable value protected investment with an initial value based on a value of
underlying securities, calculating surrender value protected investment
credits for the life insurance policy; determining an investment value and a
value of the underlying securities for the current day; and calculating a
policy value and a policy unit value for the current day. 687 F.3d at
1270-71, 103 USPQ2d at 1427. The court described the claims as an “attempt
to patent the use of the abstract idea of [managing a stable value protected
life insurance policy] and then instruct the use of well-known
[calculations] to help establish some of the inputs into the equation.” 687
F.3d at 1278, 103 USPQ2d at 1433 (alterations in original) (citing
Bilski).
Other examples of "fundamental economic
principles or practices" include:
“Commercial interactions” or “legal
interactions” include agreements in the form of contracts, legal
obligations, advertising, marketing or sales activities or behaviors, and
business relations.
An example of a claim reciting a commercial
or legal interaction, where the interaction is an agreement in the form of
contracts, is found in buySAFE, Inc. v. Google, Inc., 765
F.3d. 1350, 112 USPQ2d 1093 (Fed. Cir. 2014). The agreement at issue in
buySAFE was a transaction performance guaranty, which
is a contractual relationship. 765 F.3d at 1355, 112 USPQ2d at 1096. The
patentee claimed a method in which a computer operated by the provider of a
safe transaction service receives a request for a performance guarantee for
an online commercial transaction, the computer processes the request by
underwriting the requesting party in order to provide the transaction
guarantee service, and the computer offers, via a computer network, a
transaction guaranty that binds to the transaction upon the closing of the
transaction. 765 F.3d at 1351-52, 112 USPQ2d at 1094. The Federal Circuit
described the claims as directed to an abstract idea because they were
“squarely about creating a contractual relationship--a ‘transaction
performance guaranty’.” 765 F.3d at 1355, 112 USPQ2d at 1096.
Other examples of subject matter where the
commercial or legal interaction is an agreement in the form of contracts
include:
An example of a claim reciting a commercial
or legal interaction in the form of a legal obligation is found in
Fort Properties, Inc. v. American Master Lease, LLC,
671 F.3d 1317, 101 USPQ2d 1785 (Fed Cir. 2012). The patentee claimed a
method of “aggregating real property into a real estate portfolio, dividing
the interests in the portfolio into a number of deedshares, and subjecting
those shares to a master agreement.” 671 F.3d at 1322, 101 USPQ2d at 1788.
The legal obligation at issue was the tax-free exchanges of real estate. The
Federal Circuit concluded that the real estate investment tool designed to
enable tax-free exchanges was an abstract concept. 671 F.3d at 1323, 101
USPQ2d at 1789.
Other examples of subject matter where the
commercial or legal interaction is a legal obligation include:
An example of a claim reciting advertising is
found in Ultramercial, Inc. v. Hulu, LLC, 772 F.3d 709,
714-15, 112 USPQ2d 1750, 1753-54 (Fed. Cir. 2014). The patentee in
Ultramercial claimed an eleven-step method for
displaying an advertisement (ad) in exchange for access to copyrighted
media, comprising steps of receiving copyrighted media, selecting an ad,
offering the media in exchange for watching the selected ad, displaying the
ad, allowing the consumer access to the media, and receiving payment from
the sponsor of the ad. 772 F.3d. at 715, 112 USPQ2d at 1754. The Federal
Circuit determined that the "combination of steps recites an abstraction—an
idea, having no particular concrete or tangible form" and thus was directed
to an abstract idea, which the court described as "using advertising as an
exchange or currency." Id.
Other examples of subject matter where the
commercial or legal interaction is advertising, marketing or sales
activities or behaviors include:
An example of a claim reciting business
relations is found in Credit Acceptance Corp. v. Westlake
Services, 859 F.3d 1044, 123 USPQ2d 1100 (Fed. Cir. 2017). The
business relation at issue in Credit Acceptance is the
relationship between a customer and dealer when processing a credit
application to purchase a vehicle. The patentee claimed a “system for
maintaining a database of information about the items in a dealer’s
inventory, obtaining financial information about a customer from a user,
combining these two sources of information to create a financing package for
each of the inventoried items, and presenting the financing packages to the
user.” 859 F.3d at 1054, 123 USPQ2d at 1108. The Federal Circuit described
the claims as directed to the abstract idea of “processing an application
for financing a loan” and found “no meaningful distinction between this type
of financial industry practice” and the concept of intermediated settlement
in Alice or the hedging concept in
Bilski. 859 F.3d at 1054, 123 USPQ2d at 1108.
Another example of subject matter where the
commercial or legal interaction is business relations includes:
C. Managing Personal Behavior or Relationships or Interactions
Between People
The sub-grouping “managing personal behavior
or relationships or interactions between people” include social activities,
teaching, and following rules or instructions.
An example of a claim reciting managing
personal behavior is Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Capital One
Bank (USA), 792 F.3d 1363, 115 USPQ2d 1636 (Fed. Cir. 2015).
The patentee in this case claimed methods comprising storing user-selected
pre-set limits on spending in a database, and when one of the limits is
reached, communicating a notification to the user via a device. 792 F.3d. at
1367, 115 USPQ2d at 1639-40. The Federal Circuit determined that the claims
were directed to the abstract idea of “tracking financial transactions to
determine whether they exceed a pre-set spending limit
(i.e., budgeting)”, which “is not meaningfully
different from the ideas found to be abstract in other cases before the
Supreme Court and our court involving methods of organizing human activity.”
792 F.3d. at 1367-68, 115 USPQ2d at 1640.
Other examples of managing personal behavior
recited in a claim include:
iii. a mental process that a neurologist
should follow when testing a patient for nervous system malfunctions,
In re Meyer, 688 F.2d 789, 791-93, 215 USPQ 193,
194-96 (CCPA 1982).
An example of a claim reciting social
activities is Voter Verified, Inc. v. Election Systems &
Software, LLC, 887 F.3d 1376, 126 USPQ2d 1498 (Fed. Cir. 2018).
The social activity at issue in Voter Verified was
voting. The patentee claimed “[a] method for voting providing for
self-verification of a ballot comprising the steps of” presenting an
election ballot for voting, accepting input of the votes, storing the votes,
printing out the votes, comparing the printed votes to votes stored in the
computer, and determining whether the printed ballot is acceptable. 887 F.3d
at 1384-85, 126 USPQ2d at 1503-04. The Federal Circuit found that the claims
were directed to the abstract idea of “voting, verifying the vote, and
submitting the vote for tabulation”, which is a “fundamental activity that
forms the basis of our democracy” and has been performed by humans for
hundreds of years. 887 F.3d at 1385-86, 126 USPQ2d at 1504-05.
Another example of a claim reciting social
activities is Interval Licensing LLC, v. AOL, Inc., 896
F.3d 1335, 127 USPQ2d 1553 (Fed. Cir. 2018). The social activity at issue
was the social activity of “’providing information to a person without
interfering with the person’s primary activity.’” 896 F.3d at 1344, 127
USPQ2d 1553 (citing Interval Licensing LLC v. AOL, Inc.,
193 F. Supp.3d 1184, 1188 (W.D. 2014)). The patentee claimed an attention
manager for acquiring content from an information source, controlling the
timing of the display of acquired content, displaying the content, and
acquiring an updated version of the previously-acquired content when the
information source updates its content. 896 F.3d at 1339-40, 127 USPQ2d at
1555. The Federal Circuit concluded that “[s]tanding alone, the act of
providing someone an additional set of information without disrupting the
ongoing provision of an initial set of information is an abstract idea,”
observing that the district court “pointed to the nontechnical human
activity of passing a note to a person who is in the middle of a meeting or
conversation as further illustrating the basic, longstanding practice that
is the focus of the [patent ineligible] claimed invention.” 896 F.3d at
1344-45, 127 USPQ2d at 1559.
An example of a claim reciting following
rules or instructions is In re Marco Guldenaar Holding
B.V., 911 F.3d 1157, 1161, 129 USPQ2d 1008, 1011 (Fed. Cir.
2018). The patentee claimed a method of playing a dice game including
placing wagers on whether certain die faces will appear face up. 911 F.3d at
1160; 129 USPQ2d at 1011. The Federal Circuit determined that the claims
were directed to the abstract idea of “rules for playing games”, which the
court characterized as a certain method of organizing human activity. 911
F.3d at 1160-61; 129 USPQ2d at 1011.
Other examples of following rules or
instructions recited in a claim include:
ii. a series of instructions of how to
hedge risk, Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 595, 95
USPQ2d 1001, 1004 (2010).
III. MENTAL
PROCESSES
The courts consider a mental process (thinking)
that “can be performed in the human mind, or by a human using a pen and paper”
to be an abstract idea. CyberSource Corp. v. Retail Decisions,
Inc., 654 F.3d 1366, 1372, 99 USPQ2d 1690, 1695 (Fed. Cir. 2011).
As the Federal Circuit explained, “methods which can be performed mentally, or
which are the equivalent of human mental work, are unpatentable abstract ideas
the ‘basic tools of scientific and technological work’ that are open to all.’”
654 F.3d at 1371, 99 USPQ2d at 1694 (citing Gottschalk v.
Benson, 409 U.S. 63, 175 USPQ 673 (1972)). See also Mayo
Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs. Inc., 566 U.S. 66, 71,
101 USPQ2d 1961, 1965 (2012) (“‘[M]ental processes[] and abstract intellectual
concepts are not patentable, as they are the basic tools of scientific and
technological work’” (quoting Benson, 409 U.S. at 67, 175
USPQ at 675)); Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 589, 198 USPQ
193, 197 (1978) (same).
Accordingly, the “mental processes” abstract
idea grouping is defined as concepts performed in the human mind, and examples
of mental processes include observations, evaluations, judgments, and opinions.
A discussion of concepts performed in the human mind, as well as concepts that
cannot practically be performed in the human mind and thus are not “mental
processes”, is provided below with respect to point A.
The courts do not distinguish between mental
processes that are performed entirely in the human mind and mental processes
that require a human to use a physical aid (e.g., pen and
paper or a slide rule) to perform the claim limitation. See, e.g.,
Benson, 409 U.S. at 67, 65, 175 USPQ at 674-75, 674 (noting that
the claimed “conversion of [binary-coded decimal] numerals to pure binary
numerals can be done mentally,” i.e., “as a person would do
it by head and hand.”); Synopsys, Inc. v. Mentor Graphics
Corp., 839 F.3d 1138, 1139, 120 USPQ2d 1473, 1474 (Fed. Cir. 2016)
(holding that claims to a mental process of “translating a functional
description of a logic circuit into a hardware component description of the
logic circuit” are directed to an abstract idea, because the claims “read on an
individual performing the claimed steps mentally or with pencil and paper”).
Mental processes performed by humans with the assistance of physical aids such
as pens or paper are explained further below with respect to point B.
Nor do the courts distinguish between claims
that recite mental processes performed by humans and claims that recite mental
processes performed on a computer. As the Federal Circuit has explained,
“[c]ourts have examined claims that required the use of a computer and still
found that the underlying, patent-ineligible invention could be performed via
pen and paper or in a person’s mind.” Versata Dev. Group v. SAP Am.,
Inc., 793 F.3d 1306, 1335, 115 USPQ2d 1681, 1702 (Fed. Cir. 2015).
See also Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Symantec Corp., 838
F.3d 1307, 1318, 120 USPQ2d 1353, 1360 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (‘‘[W]ith the exception
of generic computer-implemented steps, there is nothing in the claims
themselves that foreclose them from being performed by a human, mentally or
with pen and paper.’’); Mortgage Grader, Inc. v. First Choice Loan
Servs. Inc., 811 F.3d 1314, 1324, 117 USPQ2d 1693, 1699 (Fed. Cir.
2016) (holding that computer-implemented method for "anonymous loan shopping"
was an abstract idea because it could be "performed by humans without a
computer"). Mental processes recited in claims that require computers are
explained further below with respect to point C.
Because both product and process claims may
recite a “mental process”, the phrase “mental processes” should be understood
as referring to the type of abstract idea, and not to the statutory category of
the claim. The courts have identified numerous product claims as reciting
mental process-type abstract ideas, for instance the product claims to computer
systems and computer-readable media in Versata Dev. Group. v. SAP Am.,
Inc., 793 F.3d 1306, 115 USPQ2d 1681 (Fed. Cir. 2015). This
concept is explained further below with respect to point D.
The following discussion is meant to guide
examiners and provide more information on how to determine whether a claim
recites a mental process. Examiners should keep in mind the following points A,
B, C, and D when performing this evaluation.
A. A Claim With Limitation(s) That Cannot Practically be Performed
in the Human Mind Does Not Recite a Mental
Process
Claims do not recite a mental process when
they do not contain limitations that can practically be performed in the
human mind, for instance when the human mind is not equipped to perform the
claim limitations. See SRI Int’l, Inc. v. Cisco Systems,
Inc., 930 F.3d 1295, 1304 (Fed. Cir. 2019) (declining to
identify the claimed collection and analysis of network data as abstract
because “the human mind is not equipped to detect suspicious activity by
using network monitors and analyzing network packets as recited by the
claims”); CyberSource, 654 F.3d at 1376, 99 USPQ2d at
1699 (distinguishing Research Corp. Techs. v. Microsoft
Corp., 627 F.3d 859, 97 USPQ2d 1274 (Fed. Cir. 2010), and
SiRF Tech., Inc. v. Int’l Trade Comm’n, 601 F.3d 1319,
94 USPQ2d 1607 (Fed. Cir. 2010), as directed to inventions that ‘‘could not,
as a practical matter, be performed entirely in a human’s mind’’).
Examples of claims that do not recite mental
processes because they cannot be practically performed in the human mind
include:
• a claim to a method for calculating
an absolute position of a GPS receiver and an absolute time of
reception of satellite signals, where the claimed GPS receiver
calculated pseudoranges that estimated the distance from the GPS
receiver to a plurality of satellites, SiRF Tech.,
601 F.3d at 1331-33, 94 USPQ2d at 1616-17;
• a claim to a method for rendering a
halftone image of a digital image by comparing, pixel by pixel, the
digital image against a blue noise mask, where the method required the
manipulation of computer data structures (e.g., the
pixels of a digital image and a two-dimensional array known as a mask)
and the output of a modified computer data structure (a halftoned
digital image), Research Corp. Techs., 627 F.3d at
868, 97 USPQ2d at 1280.
In contrast, claims do recite a mental
process when they contain limitations that can practically be performed in
the human mind, including for example, observations, evaluations, judgments,
and opinions. Examples of claims that recite mental processes include:
• a claim to “collecting information,
analyzing it, and displaying certain results of the collection and
analysis,” where the data analysis steps are recited at a high level
of generality such that they could practically be performed in the
human mind, Electric Power Group v. Alstom, S.A.,
830 F.3d 1350, 1353-54, 119 USPQ2d 1739, 1741-42 (Fed. Cir. 2016);
• claims to “comparing BRCA sequences
and determining the existence of alterations,” where the claims cover
any way of comparing BRCA sequences such that the comparison steps can
practically be performed in the human mind, University of
Utah Research Foundation v. Ambry Genetics, 774 F.3d 755,
763, 113 USPQ2d 1241, 1246 (Fed. Cir. 2014);
• a claim to collecting and comparing
known information (claim 1), which are steps that can be practically
performed in the human mind, Classen Immunotherapies, Inc. v.
Biogen IDEC, 659 F.3d 1057, 1067, 100 USPQ2d 1492, 1500
(Fed. Cir. 2011); and
• a claim to identifying head shape
and applying hair designs, which is a process that can be practically
performed in the human mind, In re Brown, 645 Fed.
App'x 1014, 1016-17 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (non-precedential).
B. A Claim That Encompasses a Human Performing the Step(s)
Mentally With or Without a Physical Aid Recites a Mental
Process
If a claim recites a limitation that can
practically be performed in the human mind, with or without the use of a
physical aid such as pen and paper, the limitation falls within the mental
processes grouping, and the claim recites an abstract idea. See,
e.g., Benson, 409 U.S. at 67, 65, 175 USPQ at 674-75,
674 (noting that the claimed “conversion of [binary-coded decimal] numerals
to pure binary numerals can be done mentally,” i.e., “as
a person would do it by head and hand.”); Synopsys, 839
F.3d at 1139, 120 USPQ2d at 1474 (holding that claims to the mental process
of “translating a functional description of a logic circuit into a hardware
component description of the logic circuit” are directed to an abstract
idea, because the claims “read on an individual performing the claimed steps
mentally or with pencil and paper”).
The use of a physical aid
(e.g., pencil and paper or a slide rule) to help
perform a mental step (e.g., a mathematical calculation)
does not negate the mental nature of the limitation, but simply accounts for
variations in memory capacity from one person to another. For instance, in
CyberSource, the court determined that the step of
“constructing a map of credit card numbers” was a limitation that was able
to be performed “by writing down a list of credit card transactions made
from a particular IP address.” In making this determination, the court
looked to the specification, which explained that the claimed map was
nothing more than a listing of several (e.g., four)
credit card transactions. The court concluded that this step was able to be
performed mentally with a pen and paper, and therefore, it qualified as a
mental process. 654 F.3d at 1372-73, 99 USPQ2d at 1695. See also
Flook, 437 U.S. at 586, 198 USPQ at 196 (claimed
“computations can be made by pencil and paper calculations”);
University of Florida Research Foundation, Inc. v. General
Electric Co., 916 F.3d 1363, 1367, 129 USPQ2d 1409, 1411-12
(Fed. Cir. 2019) (relying on specification’s description of the claimed
analysis and manipulation of data as being performed mentally “‘using pen
and paper methodologies, such as flowsheets and patient charts’”);
Symantec, 838 F.3d at 1318, 120 USPQ2d at 1360
(although claimed as computer-implemented, steps of screening messages can
be “performed by a human, mentally or with pen and paper”).
C. A Claim That Requires a Computer May Still Recite a Mental
Process
Claims can recite a mental process even if
they are claimed as being performed on a computer. The Supreme Court
recognized this in Benson, determining that a
mathematical algorithm for converting binary coded decimal to pure binary
within a computer’s shift register was an abstract idea. The Court concluded
that the algorithm could be performed purely mentally even though the
claimed procedures “can be carried out in existing computers long in use, no
new machinery being necessary.” 409 U.S at 67, 175 USPQ at 675. See also
Mortgage Grader, 811 F.3d at 1324, 117 USPQ2d at 1699
(concluding that concept of “anonymous loan shopping” recited in a computer
system claim is an abstract idea because it could be “performed by humans
without a computer”).
In evaluating whether a claim that requires a
computer recites a mental process, examiners should carefully consider the
broadest reasonable interpretation of the claim in light of the
specification. For instance, examiners should review the specification to
determine if the claimed invention is described as a concept that is
performed in the human mind and applicant is merely claiming that concept
performed 1) on a generic computer, or 2) in a computer environment, or 3)
is merely using a computer as a tool to perform the concept. In these
situations, the claim is considered to recite a mental process.
1. Performing a mental process on a
generic computer. An example of a case identifying a mental
process performed on a generic computer as an abstract idea is
Voter Verified, Inc. v. Election Systems & Software,
LLC, 887 F.3d 1376, 1385, 126 USPQ2d 1498, 1504 (Fed.
Cir. 2018). In this case, the Federal Circuit relied upon the
specification in explaining that the claimed steps of voting,
verifying the vote, and submitting the vote for tabulation are “human
cognitive actions” that humans have performed for hundreds of years.
The claims therefore recited an abstract idea, despite the fact that
the claimed voting steps were performed on a computer. 887 F.3d at
1385, 126 USPQ2d at 1504. Another example is
Versata, in which the patentee claimed a system
and method for determining a price of a product offered to a
purchasing organization that was implemented using general purpose
computer hardware. 793 F.3d at 1312-13, 1331, 115 USPQ2d at 1685,
1699. The Federal Circuit acknowledged that the claims were performed
on a generic computer, but still described the claims as “directed to
the abstract idea of determining a price, using organizational and
product group hierarchies, in the same way that the claims in
Alice were directed to the abstract idea of
intermediated settlement, and the claims in Bilski
were directed to the abstract idea of risk hedging.” 793 F.3d at 1333;
115 USPQ2d at 1700-01.
2. Performing a mental process in a
computer environment. An example of a case identifying a
mental process performed in a computer environment as an abstract idea
is Symantec Corp., 838 F.3d at 1316-18, 120 USPQ2d
at 1360. In this case, the Federal Circuit relied upon the
specification when explaining that the claimed electronic post office,
which recited limitations describing how the system would receive,
screen and distribute email on a computer network, was analogous to
how a person decides whether to read or dispose of a particular piece
of mail and that “with the exception of generic computer-implemented
steps, there is nothing in the claims themselves that foreclose them
from being performed by a human, mentally or with pen and paper”. 838
F.3d at 1318, 120 USPQ2d at 1360. Another example is
FairWarning IP, LLC v. Iatric Sys., Inc., 839
F.3d 1089, 120 USPQ2d 1293 (Fed. Cir. 2016). The patentee in
FairWarning claimed a system and method of
detecting fraud and/or misuse in a computer environment, in which
information regarding accesses of a patient’s personal health
information was analyzed according to one of several rules
(i.e., related to accesses in excess of a
specific volume, accesses during a pre-determined time interval, or
accesses by a specific user) to determine if the activity indicates
improper access. 839 F.3d. at 1092, 120 USPQ2d at 1294. The court
determined that these claims were directed to a mental process of
detecting misuse, and that the claimed rules here were “the same
questions (though perhaps phrased with different words) that humans in
analogous situations detecting fraud have asked for decades, if not
centuries.” 839 F.3d. at 1094-95, 120 USPQ2d at 1296.
3. Using a computer as a tool to
perform a mental process. An example of a case in which a
computer was used as a tool to perform a mental process is
Mortgage Grader, 811 F.3d. at 1324, 117 USPQ2d
at 1699. The patentee in Mortgage Grader claimed a
computer-implemented system for enabling borrowers to anonymously shop
for loan packages offered by a plurality of lenders, comprising a
database that stores loan package data from the lenders, and a
computer system providing an interface and a grading module. The
interface prompts a borrower to enter personal information, which the
grading module uses to calculate the borrower’s credit grading, and
allows the borrower to identify and compare loan packages in the
database using the credit grading. 811 F.3d. at 1318, 117 USPQ2d at
1695. The Federal Circuit determined that these claims were directed
to the concept of “anonymous loan shopping”, which was a concept that
could be “performed by humans without a computer.” 811 F.3d. at 1324,
117 USPQ2d at 1699. Another example is Berkheimer v. HP,
Inc., 881 F.3d 1360, 125 USPQ2d 1649 (Fed. Cir. 2018), in
which the patentee claimed methods for parsing and evaluating data
using a computer processing system. The Federal Circuit determined
that these claims were directed to mental processes of parsing and
comparing data, because the steps were recited at a high level of
generality and merely used computers as a tool to perform the
processes. 881 F.3d at 1366, 125 USPQ2d at 1652-53.
D. Both Product and
Process Claims May Recite a Mental
Process
Examiners should keep in mind that both
product claims (e.g., computer system, computer-readable
medium, etc.) and process claims may recite mental processes. For example,
in Mortgage Grader, the patentee claimed a
computer-implemented system and a method for enabling borrowers to
anonymously shop for loan packages offered by a plurality of lenders,
comprising a database that stores loan package data from the lenders, and a
computer system providing an interface and a grading module. The Federal
Circuit determined that both the computer-implemented system and method
claims were directed to “anonymous loan shopping”, which was an abstract
idea because it could be “performed by humans without a computer.” 811 F.3d.
at 1318, 1324-25, 117 USPQ2d at 1695, 1699-1700. See also
FairWarning IP, 839 F.3d at 1092, 120 USPQ2d at 1294
(identifying both system and process claims for detecting improper access of
a patient's protected health information in a health-care system computer
environment as directed to abstract idea of detecting fraud);
Content Extraction & Transmission LLC v. Wells Fargo Bank,
N.A., 776 F.3d 1343, 1345, 113 USPQ2d 1354, 1356 (Fed. Cir.
2014) (system and method claims of inputting information from a hard copy
document into a computer program). Accordingly, the phrase “mental
processes” should be understood as referring to the type of abstract idea,
and not to the statutory category of the claim.
Examples of product claims reciting mental
processes include:
• An application program interface for
extracting and processing information from a diversity of types of
hard copy documents – Content Extraction, 776 F.3d
at 1345, 113 USPQ2d at 1356;
• A wide-area real-time performance
monitoring system for monitoring and assessing dynamic stability of an
electric power grid – Electric Power Group, 830
F.3d at 1351 and n.1, 119 USPQ2d at 1740 and n.1; and
2106.04(a)(3) Tentative Abstract
Ideas [R-10.2019]
There may be rare circumstances in which an
examiner believes a claim limitation should be treated as an abstract idea even
though it does not fall within any of the groupings of abstract ideas discussed in
MPEP § 2106.04(a)(2) (i.e., mathematical concepts,
certain methods of organizing human activity, mental processes). This type of
claim limitation is referred to as a “tentative abstract idea.”
In such circumstances, the examiner should
evaluate the claim under the subject matter eligibility framework:
• If the claim as a whole integrates the
tentative abstract idea into a practical application, the claim is not
directed to a judicial exception (Step 2A; NO) and thus is
eligible at Pathway B. This concludes the eligibility
analysis.
• If the claim as a whole does not integrate
the tentative abstract idea into a practical application, then the claim is
directed to a judicial exception (Step 2A: YES) and thus requires further
analysis at Step 2B. At Step 2B, if the claim as a whole provides an
inventive concept (Step 2B: YES), the claim is eligible at
Pathway C. This concludes the eligibility analysis.
• If the claim as a whole does not provide
an inventive concept (Step 2B: NO), the application should be brought to the
attention of the Technology Center (TC) director. A rejection of a claim
reciting a tentative abstract idea must be approved by the TC director
(which approval will be indicated in the file record of the application) and
must provide a justification for why such claim limitation is being treated
as reciting an abstract idea.
The TC Director will give approval for a Step
2B subject matter eligibility rejection of a claim reciting a tentative
abstract idea. The ensuing Office action will identify that the claim(s) are
directed to a previously non-enumerated abstract idea via form paragraph
7.05.017 and include the TC Director’s
signature. The TC Director will then inform Patents Management that this
procedure has been used so that the public can be notified, for example, on
USPTO.GOV at the Subject Matter Eligibility website.
In response to a Step 2B rejection of a claim
reciting a tentative abstract idea, an interview with the examiner may be
conducted, which may help advance prosecution and identify patent eligible
subject matter. See MPEP § 713. For applications
in which an abstract idea has been identified using the tentative abstract idea
procedure, an interview with the TC Director that provided approval is not
necessary because the examiner retains the authority to withdraw or maintain a
rejection upon consideration of applicant’s reply. The examiner is not required
to obtain TC Director approval to withdraw or maintain such a § 101
subject matter eligibility rejection.
Laws of nature and natural phenomena, as identified by
the courts, include naturally occurring principles/relations and nature-based
products that are naturally occurring or that do not have markedly different
characteristics compared to what occurs in nature. The courts have often described
these exceptions using other terms, including “physical phenomena,” “scientific
principles”, “natural laws,” and “products of nature.”
I. LAWS OF NATURE AND NATURAL
PHENOMENA, GENERALLY
The law of nature and natural phenomenon
exceptions reflect the Supreme Court's view that the basic tools of scientific and
technological work are not patentable, because the “manifestations of laws of
nature” are “part of the storehouse of knowledge,” “free to all men and reserved
exclusively to none.” Funk Bros. Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant
Co., 333 U.S. 127, 130, 76 USPQ 280, 281 (1948). Thus, “a new mineral
discovered in the earth or a new plant found in the wild is not patentable subject
matter” under Section 101. Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447
U.S. 303, 309, 206 USPQ 193, 197 (1980). “Likewise, Einstein could not patent his
celebrated law that E=mc2; nor could Newton have
patented the law of gravity.” Id. Nor can one patent “a novel
and useful mathematical formula,” Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S.
584, 585, 198 USPQ 193, 195 (1978); electromagnetism or steam power,
O’Reilly v. Morse, 56 U.S. (15 How.) 62, 113-114 (1853); or
“[t]he qualities of ... bacteria, ... the heat of the sun, electricity, or the
qualities of metals,” Funk, 333 U.S. at 130, 76 USPQ at 281;
see also Le Roy v. Tatham, 55 U.S. (14 How.) 156, 175
(1853).
The courts have identified the following concepts
and products as examples of laws of nature or natural phenomena:
The courts have also noted, however, that not every
claim describing a natural ability or quality of a product, or describing a
natural process, necessarily recites a law of nature or natural phenomenon. See
Rapid Litig. Mgmt. v. CellzDirect, Inc., 827 F.3d 1042,
1048-49, 119 USPQ2d 1370, 1374 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (claims reciting process steps of
fractionating, recovering, and cryopreserving hepatocytes held to be eligible,
because they are not focused on merely observing or detecting the ability of
hepatocytes to survive multiple freeze-thaw cycles). Thus, in a claimed method of
treating cancer with chemotherapy, the cancer cells’ inability to survive
chemotherapy is not considered to be a law of nature. Similarly, in a claimed
method of treating headaches with aspirin, the human body’s natural response to
aspirin is not considered to be a law of nature. These claims are accordingly
eligible at Prong One unless they recite another exception, in which case they
require further analysis in Prong Two (and Step 2B, if needed) to determine their
eligibility. Similarly, a method of producing a new compound is not directed to
the individual components’ ability to combine to form the new compound.
Id. See also Tilghman v. Proctor, 102
U.S. 707, 729 (1881) (claims reciting process steps for manufacturing fatty acids
and glycerol by hydrolyzing fat at high temperature and pressure were held to be
eligible, because they are not focused on the chemical principle that fat can be
hydrolyzed into its components).
Even if a claim does recite a law of nature or
natural phenomenon, it may still be eligible at any of Pathways A through C. For
example, claims reciting a naturally occurring relationship between a patient’s
genotype and the risk of QTc prolongation (a law of nature) were held eligible as
not “directed to” that relationship because they also recited a step of treating
the patient with an amount of a particular medication that was tailored to the
patient’s genotype. Vanda Pharms., 887 F.3d at 1134-36, 126
USPQ2d at 1279-81. This particular treatment step applied the natural relationship
in a manner that integrated it into a practical application. The court’s analysis
in Vanda is equivalent to a finding of eligibility at Step 2A
Prong Two (Pathway B).
As explained in MPEP §
2106.04, a claim that recites a law of nature or a
natural phenomenon requires further analysis in Step 2A Prong Two to determine
whether the claim integrates the exception into a practical application.
A claim that does not recite a law of nature or
natural phenomenon is eligible at Pathway B (Step 2A: NO) unless the claim
recites, and is directed to, another exception (such as an abstract idea, or a
product of nature).
II. PRODUCTS OF
NATURE
When a law of nature or natural phenomenon is
claimed as a physical product, the courts have often referred to the exception as
a “product of nature”. For example, the isolated DNA of Myriad
and the primers of Ambry Genetics were described as products of
nature by the courts. Ass’n for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics,
Inc., 569 U.S. 576, 580, 106 USPQ2d 1972, 1975 (2013);
University of Utah Research Foundation v. Ambry Genetics,
774 F.3d 755, 758-59, 113 USPQ2d 1241, 1243 (Fed. Cir. 2014). As explained in
those decisions, products of nature are considered to be an exception because they
tie up the use of naturally occurring things, but they have been labeled as both
laws of nature and natural phenomena. See Myriad Genetics,
Inc., 569 U.S. at 590-91, 106 USPQ2d at 1979 (claims to isolated DNA
held ineligible because they “claim naturally occurring phenomena” and are
“squarely within the law of nature exception”); Funk Bros. Seed Co. v.
Kalo Inoculant Co., 333 U.S. 127, 130, 76 USPQ 280, 281 (1948)
(claims to bacterial mixtures held ineligible as “manifestations of laws of
nature” and “phenomena of nature”). Step 2A of the Office’s eligibility analysis
uses the terms “law of nature” and “natural phenomenon” as inclusive of “products
of nature”.
It is important to keep in mind that product of
nature exceptions include both naturally occurring products and non-naturally
occurring products that lack markedly different characteristics from any naturally
occurring counterpart. See, e.g.,Ambry Genetics, 774 F.3d at 760, 113 USPQ2d at 1244 (“Contrary
to Myriad's argument, it makes no difference that the
identified gene sequences are synthetically replicated. As the Supreme Court made
clear, neither naturally occurring compositions of matter, nor synthetically
created compositions that are structurally identical to the naturally occurring
compositions, are patent eligible.”). Thus, a synthetic, artificial, or
non-naturally occurring product such as a cloned organism or a human-made hybrid
plant is not automatically eligible because it was created by human ingenuity or
intervention. See, e.g.,In re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), 750 F.3d 1333, 1337, 110
USPQ2d 1668, 1671-72 (Fed. Cir. 2014) (cloned sheep); cf. J.E.M. Ag
Supply, Inc. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred Int’l, Inc., 534 U.S. 130-132, 60
USPQ2d 1868-69 (2001) (hybrid plant). Instead, the key to the eligibility of all
non-naturally occurring products is whether they possess markedly different
characteristics from any naturally occurring counterpart.
When a claim recites a nature-based product
limitation, examiners should use the markedly different characteristics analysis
discussed in MPEP § 2106.04(c) to evaluate the
nature-based product limitation and determine the answer to Step 2A. Nature-based
products, as used herein, include both eligible and ineligible products and merely
refer to the types of products subject to the markedly different characteristics
analysis used to identify product of nature exceptions. Examples of nature-based
products include the isolated gene and cDNA sequences of
Myriad, the cloned farm animals of
Roslin, and the bacterium of Chakrabarty.
As is evident from these examples, and as further discussed in
MPEP §
2105, a nature-based product that is a living organism
(e.g., a plant, an animal, a bacterium, etc.) is not
excluded from patent protection merely because it is alive, and such a product is
eligible for patenting if it satisfies the markedly different characteristics
analysis.
It is important to keep in mind that under the
broadest reasonable interpretation (BRI) of the claims, a nature-based product
limitation may encompass both eligible and ineligible products. For example, a
claim to a “cloned giraffe” may have a BRI encompassing cloned giraffes with
markedly different characteristics, as well as cloned giraffes that lack markedly
different characteristics and thus are products of nature. Cf.
Roslin, 750 F.3d at 1338-39, 110 USPQ2d at 1673 (applicant
could not rely on unclaimed features to distinguish claimed mammals from donor
mammals).
Such a claim recites a product of nature, and thus
requires further analysis in Prong Two. If the claim is ultimately rejected as
failing to encompass an inventive concept (Step 2B: NO), it is a best practice for
the examiner to point out the broadest reasonable interpretation and recommend an
amendment, if possible, that would narrow the claim to those embodiments that are
not directed to products of nature, or that are otherwise eligible.
For claims that recite a nature-based product
limitation (which may or may not be a product of nature exception) but which are
directed to inventions that clearly do not seek to tie up any judicial exception,
examiners should consider whether the streamlined eligibility analysis discussed
in MPEP § 2106.06 is appropriate. In such cases, it would
not be necessary to conduct a markedly different characteristics analysis.
The markedly different characteristics analysis is
part of Step 2A Prong One, because the courts use this analysis to identify product
of nature exceptions. For example, Chakrabarty relied on a
comparison of the claimed bacterium to naturally occurring bacteria when determining
that the claimed bacterium was not a product of nature because it had “markedly
different characteristics from any found in nature”. Diamond v.
Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303, 310, 206 USPQ 193, 197 (1980). Similarly,
Roslin relied on a comparison of the claimed sheep to naturally
occurring sheep when determining that the claimed sheep was a product of nature
because it “does not possess ‘markedly different characteristics from any [farm
animals] found in nature.’” In re Roslin Institute (Edinburgh),
750 F.3d 1333, 1337, 110 USPQ2d 1668, 1671-72 (Fed. Cir. 2014) (quoting
Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. at 310, 206 USPQ at 197 (alterations in
original)).
This section sets forth guidelines for performing
the markedly different characteristics analysis, including information on when to
perform the analysis, and how to perform the analysis. Examiners should consult these
guidelines when performing an eligibility analysis of a claim that recites a
nature-based product limitation. Nature-based products, as used herein, include both
eligible and ineligible products and merely refer to the types of products subject to
the markedly different characteristics analysis used to identify product of nature
exceptions.
If the claim includes a nature-based product that has
markedly different characteristics, then the claim does not recite a product of
nature exception and is eligible (Step 2A: NO) at Pathway B unless the claim recites
another exception (such as a law of nature or abstract idea, or a different natural
phenomenon). For claims where the entire claim is a single nature-based product
(e.g., a claim to “a Lactobacillus bacterium”), once a markedly
different characteristic in that product is shown, no further analysis would be
necessary for eligibility because no product of nature exception is recited (i.e.,
Step 2B is not necessary because the answer to Step 2A is NO). For claims including
limitations in addition to the nature-based product, examiners should consider
whether the claim recites another exception and thus requires further eligibility
analysis.
If the claim includes a nature-based product that
does not exhibit markedly different characteristics from its naturally occurring
counterpart in its natural state, then the claim recites a “product of nature”
exception, and requires further analysis in Step 2A Prong Two to determine whether
the claim as a whole integrates the exception into a practical application.
I. WHEN TO PERFORM THE MARKEDLY
DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS ANALYSIS
Because a nature-based product can be claimed by
itself (e.g., “a Lactobacillus bacterium”)
or as one or more limitations of a claim (e.g., “a probiotic composition
comprising a mixture of Lactobacillus and milk in a
container”), care should be taken not to overly extend the markedly different
characteristics analysis to products that when viewed as a whole are not
nature-based. Instead, the markedly different characteristics analysis should be
applied only to the nature-based product limitations in the claim to determine
whether the nature-based products are “product of nature” exceptions.
Examiners should keep in mind that if the
nature-based product limitation is naturally occurring, there is no need to
perform the markedly different characteristics analysis because the limitation is
by definition directed to a naturally occurring product and thus falls under the
product of nature exception. However, if the nature-based product limitation is
not naturally occurring, for example due to some human intervention, then the
markedly different characteristics analysis must be performed to determine whether
the claimed product limitation is a product of nature exception.
A. Product Claims
Where the claim is to a nature-based product by
itself (e.g., a claim to “a Lactobacillus
bacterium”), the markedly different characteristics analysis should be applied
to the entire product. See, e.g., Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. at
305, 309-10, 206 USPQ at 195, 197-98 (applying analysis to entire claimed
“bacterium from the genus Pseudomonas containing therein at
least two stable energy-generating plasmids, each of said plasmids providing a
separate hydrocarbon degradative pathway”).
Where the claim is to a nature-based product
produced by combining multiple components (e.g., a claim to
“a probiotic composition comprising a mixture of
Lactobacillus and milk”), the markedly different
characteristics analysis should be applied to the resultant nature-based
combination, rather than its component parts. For instance, for the probiotic
composition example, the mixture of Lactobacillus and milk
should be analyzed for markedly different characteristics, rather than the
Lactobacillus separately and the milk separately. See
subsection II, below, for further guidance on the markedly different
characteristic analysis.
Where the claim is to a nature-based product
in combination with non-nature based elements (e.g., a claim
to “a yogurt starter kit comprising Lactobacillus in a
container with instructions for culturing Lactobacillus with
milk to produce yogurt”), the markedly different characteristics analysis
should be applied only to the nature-based product limitation. For instance,
for the yogurt starter kit example, the Lactobacillus would
be analyzed for markedly different characteristics. The container and
instructions would not be subject to the markedly different characteristics
analysis as they are not nature-based products, but would be evaluated as
additional elements in Prong Two (and Step 2B if needed) if it is determined
that the Lactobacillus does not have markedly different
characteristics from any naturally occurring counterpart and thus is a product
of nature exception. See, e.g., Funk Bros. Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant
Co., 333 U.S. 127, 130, 76 USPQ 280, 281 (1948) (although claims
7, 8, 13 and 14 recited an inoculant comprising a bacterial mixture and a
powder base, only the bacterial mixture was analyzed).
B. Product-by-Process Claims
For a product-by-process claim
(e.g., a claim to a cloned farm animal produced by a
nuclear transfer cloning method), the analysis turns on whether the
nature-based product in the claim has markedly different characteristics from
its naturally occurring counterpart. See MPEP § 2113
for more information on product-by-process claims.
C. Process Claims
For a process claim, the general rule is that
the claim is not subject to the markedly different analysis for nature-based
products used in the process. This is because the analysis of a process claim
should focus on the active steps of the process rather than the products used
in those steps. For example, when evaluating a claimed process of
cryopreserving hepatocyte cells comprising performing density gradient
fractionation to separate viable and non-viable hepatocytes, recovering the
viable hepatocytes, and cryopreserving the recovered viable hepatocytes, the
court did not subject the claim to the markedly different characteristics
analysis for the nature-based products (the hepatocytes) used in the process.
Rapid Litig. Mgmt. v. CellzDirect, Inc., 827 F.3d 1042,
1049, 119 USPQ2d 1370, 1374 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (claims are directed to a process
of creating a preparation of multi-cryopreserved hepatocytes, not to the
preparation itself).
However, in the limited situation where a
process claim reciting a nature-based product is drafted in such a way that
there is no difference in substance from a product claim, the claim is subject
to the markedly different analysis for the recited nature-based product. These
types of claims are drafted in a way that focuses on the product rather than
the process steps. For example, consider a claim that recites, in its entirety,
“a method of providing an apple.” Under the broadest reasonable interpretation,
this claim is focused on the apple fruit itself, which is a nature-based
product. Similarly, claims to detecting naturally occurring cell-free fetal DNA
(cffDNA) in maternal blood were held to be directed to the cffDNA, because the
“existence and location of cffDNA is a natural phenomenon [and thus]
identifying its presence was merely claiming the natural phenomena itself.”
Rapid Litig. Mgmt., 827 F.3d at 1048, 119 USPQ2d at 1374,
(explaining the holding in Ariosa Diagnostics, Inc. v.
Sequenom, 788 F.3d 1371, 115 USPQ2d 1152 (Fed. Cir. 2015)).
II. HOW TO PERFORM THE MARKEDLY
DIFFERENT CHARACTERISTICS ANALYSIS
The markedly different characteristics analysis
compares the nature-based product limitation to its naturally occurring
counterpart in its natural state. Markedly different characteristics can be
expressed as the product’s structure, function, and/or other properties, and are
evaluated based on what is recited in the claim on a case-by-case basis. If the
analysis indicates that a nature-based product limitation does not exhibit
markedly different characteristics, then that limitation is a product of nature
exception. If the analysis indicates that a nature-based product limitation does
have markedly different characteristics, then that limitation is not a product of
nature exception.
This section sets forth guidelines for performing
the markedly different characteristics analysis, including information on (a)
selecting the appropriate naturally occurring counterpart(s) to the nature-based
product limitation, (b) identifying appropriate characteristics for analysis, and
(c) evaluating characteristics to determine whether they are “markedly different”.
A. Selecting The Appropriate
Counterpart(s)
Because the markedly different characteristics
analysis compares the nature-based product limitation to its naturally
occurring counterpart in its natural state, the first step in the analysis is
to select the appropriate counterpart(s) to the nature-based product.
When the nature-based product is derived from
a naturally occurring thing, then the naturally occurring thing is the
counterpart. For example, assume that applicant claims deoxyacid A, which is a
chemical derivative of a naturally occurring chemical called acid A. Because
the inventor created the claimed nature-based product (deoxyacid A) by
modifying the naturally occurring acid A, the closest natural counterpart for
deoxyacid A would be the natural product from which it was derived,
i.e., acid A. See, e.g.,Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. at 305 and n.1, 206 USPQ at 195 and
n.1 (counterpart to genetically modified Pseudomonas
bacterium containing multiple plasmids is the naturally occurring unmodified
Pseudomonas bacterium from which the claimed bacterium
was created); Roslin, 750 F.3d at 1337, 110 USPQ2d at
1671-72 (counterparts to cloned sheep are naturally occurring sheep such as the
donor ewe from which the clone was created).
Although the selected counterpart should be in
its natural state, examiners should take care not to confuse the counterpart
with other material that may occur naturally with, or adjacent to, the
counterpart. For example, assume that applicant claims a nucleic acid having a
nucleotide sequence derived from naturally occurring gene B. Although gene B
occurs in nature as part of a chromosome, the closest natural counterpart for
the claimed nucleic acid is gene B, and not the whole chromosome. See,
e.g., Ass’n for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics,
Inc., 569 U.S. 576, 591-94, 106 USPQ2d 1972, 1979-81 (2013)
(comparing isolated BRCA1 genes and BRCA1 cDNA molecules to naturally occurring
BRCA1 gene); Roche Molecular System, Inc. v. CEPHEID, 905
F.3d 1363, 1371, 128 USPQ2d 1221, 1227 (Fed. Cir. 2018) (comparing claimed
primers to “their corresponding nucleotide sequences on the naturally occurring
DNA”). Similarly, assume that applicant claims a single-stranded piece of DNA
(a primer) having a nucleotide sequence derived from the sense strand of
naturally occurring nucleic acid C. Although nucleic acid C occurs in nature as
a double-stranded molecule having a sense and an antisense strand, the closest
natural counterpart for the claimed nucleic acid is the sense strand of C only.
See, e.g., University of Utah Research Foundation v. Ambry
Genetics, 774 F.3d 755, 760, 113 USPQ2d 1241, 1241 (Fed. Cir.
2014) (comparing single-stranded nucleic acid to the same strand found in
nature, even though “single-stranded DNA cannot be found in the human body”).
When there are multiple counterparts to the
nature-based product, the comparison should be made to the closest naturally
occurring counterpart. For example, assume that the inventor creates a cloned
sheep D by transferring nuclear DNA from a Finn-Dorset sheep into an egg cell
(which contains mitochondrial DNA) from a Scottish Blackface sheep. Applicant
then claims sheep D. Here, because sheep D was created via combining DNA from
two different naturally occurring sheep of different breeds, there is no single
closest natural counterpart. The examiner should therefore select the
counterpart most closely related to sheep D based on the examiner’s expertise
in the particular art. For the example discussed here, the closest counterparts
might be naturally occurring Finn-Dorset or Scottish Blackface sheep, as
opposed to sheep of a different breed such as Bighorn sheep. Cf.
Roslin, 750 F.3d at 1337, 110 USPQ2d at 1671-72 (claimed sheep
produced by nuclear transfer into an oocyte and subsequent manipulation of
natural embryonic development processes was compared to naturally occurring
sheep such as the donor ewe from which the nuclear material was obtained). When
the nature-based product is a combination produced from multiple components,
the closest counterpart may be the individual nature-based components of the
combination. For example, assume that applicant claims an inoculant comprising
a mixture of bacteria from different species, e.g., some
bacteria of species E and some bacteria of species F. Because there is no
counterpart mixture in nature, the closest counterparts to the claimed mixture
are the individual components of the mixture, i.e., each
naturally occurring species by itself. See, e.g., Funk
Bros., 333 U.S. at 130, 76 USPQ at 281 (comparing claimed mixture
of bacterial species to each species as it occurs in nature); Ambry
Genetics, 774 F.3d at 760, 113 USPQ2d at 1244 (although claimed as
a pair, individual primer molecules were compared to corresponding segments of
naturally occurring gene sequence); In re Bhagat, 726 Fed.
Appx. 772, 778-79 (Fed. Cir. 2018) (non-precedential) (comparing claimed
mixture of lipids with particular lipid profile to “naturally occurring lipid
profiles of walnut oil and olive oil”). See subsection II.C.
If the claim is rejected as ineligible, it is a
“best practice” for the examiner to identify the selected counterpart in the
Office action if the record is not already clear. This practice assists the
applicant in responding, and clarifies the record as to how the examiner is
interpreting the claim.
B. Identifying Appropriate Characteristics For
Analysis
Because the markedly different characteristics
analysis is based on comparing the characteristics of the claimed nature-based
product and its counterpart, the second step in the analysis is to identify
appropriate characteristics to compare.
Appropriate characteristics must be possessed
by the claimed product, because it is the claim that must define the invention
to be patented. Cf. Roslin, 750 F.3d at 1338, 110 USPQ2d at
1673 (unclaimed characteristics could not contribute to eligibility). Examiners
can identify the characteristics possessed by the claimed product by looking at
what is recited in the claim language and encompassed within the broadest
reasonable interpretation of the nature-based product. In some claims, a
characteristic may be explicitly recited. For example, in a claim to
“deoxyribose”, the recited chemical name informs those in the art of the
structural characteristics of the product (i.e., the “deoxy”
prefix indicates that a hydroxyl group has been removed as compared to ribose).
In other claims, the characteristic may be apparent from the broadest
reasonable interpretation even though it is not explicitly recited in the
claim. For example, in a claim to “isolated gene B,” the examiner would need to
rely on the broadest reasonable interpretation of “isolated gene B” to
determine what characteristics the isolated gene has, e.g.,
what its nucleotide sequence is, and what, if any, protein it encodes.
Appropriate characteristics can be expressed
as the nature-based product’s structure, function, and/or other properties, and
are evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Non-limiting examples of the types of
characteristics considered by the courts when determining whether there is a
marked difference include:
• Biological or pharmacological
functions or activities;
• Chemical and physical properties;
• Phenotype, including functional and
structural characteristics; and
• Structure and form, whether chemical,
genetic or physical.
Examples of biological or pharmacological
functions or activities include, but are not limited to:
i. the protein-encoding information of a
nucleic acid, Myriad, 569 U.S. at 590-91, 106 USPQ2d
at 1979;
ii. the ability of complementary nucleotide
sequences to bind to each other, Ambry Genetics, 774
F.3d at 760-61, 113 USPQ2d at 1244;
iii. the properties and functions of bacteria
such as the ability to infect certain leguminous plants, Funk
Bros., 333 U.S. at 130-31, 76 USPQ2d at 281-82;
iv. the ability to degrade certain
hydrocarbons, Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. at 310,
206 USPQ2d at 195; and
Examples of phenotypic characteristics include,
but are not limited to:
i. functional and structural characteristics
such as the shape, size, color, and behavior of an organism,
Roslin, 750 F.3d at 1338, 110 USPQ2d at 1672.
Examples of structure and form include, but are
not limited to:
i. physical structure or form such as the
physical presence of plasmids in a bacterial cell,
Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. at 305 and n.1, 206 USPQ2d at
195 and n.1;
ii. chemical structure and form such as a
chemical being a “nonsalt” and a “crystalline substance”,
Parke-Davis, 189 F. at 100, 103;
iii. genetic structure such as the nucleotide
sequence of DNA, Myriad, 569 U.S. at 590, 594-95, 106
USPQ2d at 1979, 1981; and
iv. the genetic makeup (genotype) of a cell
or organism, Roslin, 750 F.3d at 1338-39, 110 USPQ2d
at 1672-73.
C. Evaluating Characteristics To Determine Whether They Are “Markedly
Different”
The final step in the markedly different
characteristics analysis is to compare the characteristics of the claimed
nature-based product to its naturally occurring counterpart in its natural
state, in order to determine whether the characteristics of the claimed product
are markedly different. The courts have emphasized that to show a marked
difference, a characteristic must be changed as compared to nature, and cannot
be an inherent or innate characteristic of the naturally occurring counterpart
or an incidental change in a characteristic of the naturally occurring
counterpart. Myriad, 569 U.S. at 580, 106 USPQ2d at 1974-75.
Thus, in order to be markedly different, the inventor must have caused the
claimed product to possess at least one characteristic that is different from
that of the counterpart.
If there is no change in any characteristic,
the claimed product lacks markedly different characteristics, and is a product
of nature exception. If there is a change in at least one characteristic as
compared to the counterpart, and the change came about or was produced by the
inventor’s efforts or influences, then the change will generally be considered
a markedly different characteristic such that the claimed product is not a
product of nature exception.
1. Examples of Products Having Markedly Different
Characteristics
In Chakrabarty, the
Supreme Court identified a claimed bacterium as a nature-based product
having markedly different characteristics. This bacterium had a changed
functional characteristic, i.e., it was able to degrade
at least two different hydrocarbons as compared to naturally occurring
Pseudomonas bacteria that can only degrade a single
hydrocarbon. The claimed bacterium also had a different structural
characteristic, i.e., it was genetically modified to
include more plasmids than are found in a single naturally occurring
Pseudomonas bacterium. The Supreme Court considered
these changed characteristics to be “markedly different characteristics from
any found in nature” due to the additional plasmids and resultant capacity
for degrading multiple hydrocarbon components of oil. Therefore, the
bacterium was eligible. Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S.
303, 310, 206 USPQ 193, 197 (1980).
In Myriad, the Supreme
Court identified a claimed full-length complementary DNA (cDNA) of the BRCA1
gene as a nature-based product having markedly different characteristics.
This claimed cDNA had the same functional characteristics (i.e., it encoded
the same protein) as the naturally occurring gene, but had a changed
structural characteristic, i.e., a different nucleotide
sequence containing only exons, as compared to the naturally occurring
sequence containing both exons and introns. The Supreme Court concluded that
the “cDNA retains the naturally occurring exons of DNA, but it is distinct
from the DNA from which it was derived. As a result, [this] cDNA is not a
‘product of nature’” and is eligible. Myriad, 569 U.S. at
595, 106 USPQ2d at 1981.
2. Examples of Products Lacking
Markedly Different Characteristics
In Myriad, the Supreme
Court made clear that not all changes in characteristics will rise to the
level of a marked difference, e.g., the incidental
changes resulting from isolation of a gene sequence are not enough to make
the isolated gene markedly different. Myriad, 569 U.S. at
580, 106 USPQ2d at 1974-75. The patentee in Myriad had
discovered the location of the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in the human genome,
and isolated them, i.e., separated those specific genes
from the rest of the chromosome on which they exist in nature. As a result
of their isolation, the isolated genes had a different structural
characteristic than the natural genes, i.e., the natural
genes had covalent bonds on their ends that connected them to the rest of
the chromosome, but the isolated genes lacked these bonds. However, the
claimed genes were otherwise structurally identical to the natural genes,
e.g., they had the same genetic structure and
nucleotide sequence as the BRCA genes in nature. The Supreme Court concluded
that these isolated but otherwise unchanged genes were not eligible, because
they were not different enough from what exists in nature to avoid
improperly tying up the future use and study of the naturally occurring BRCA
genes. See, e.g., Myriad, 569 U.S. at 585, 106 USPQ2d at
1977 (“Myriad's patents would, if valid, give it the exclusive right to
isolate an individual’s BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes … But isolation is necessary
to conduct genetic testing”) and 569 U.S. at 593, 106 USPQ2d at 1980
(describing how would-be infringers could not avoid the scope of Myriad’s
claims). In sum, the claimed genes were different, but not markedly
different, from their naturally occurring counterparts (the BRCA genes), and
thus were product of nature exceptions.
In Ambry Genetics, the
court identified claimed DNA fragments known as “primers” as products of
nature, because they lacked markedly different characteristics.
University of Utah Research Foundation v. Ambry Genetics
Corp., 774 F.3d 755, 113 USPQ2d 1241 (Fed. Cir. 2014). The
claimed primers were single-stranded pieces of DNA, each of which
corresponded to a naturally occurring double-stranded DNA sequence in or
near the BRCA genes. The patentee argued that these primers had markedly
different structural characteristics from the natural DNA, because the
primers were synthetically created and because “single-stranded DNA cannot
be found in the human body”. The court disagreed, concluding that the
primers’ structural characteristics were not markedly different than the
corresponding strands of DNA in nature, because the primers and their
counterparts had the same genetic structure and nucleotide sequence. 774
F.3d at 760, 113 USPQ2d at 1243-44. The patentee also argued that the
primers had a different function than when they are part of the DNA strand
because when isolated as a primer, a primer can be used as a starting
material for a DNA polymerization process. The court disagreed, because this
ability to serve as a starting material is innate to DNA itself, and was not
created or altered by the patentee:
In fact, the naturally occurring genetic
sequences at issue here do not perform a significantly new function.
Rather, the naturally occurring material is used to form the first step
in a chain reaction--a function that is performed because the primer
maintains the exact same nucleotide sequence as the relevant portion of
the naturally occurring sequence. One of the primary functions of DNA’s
structure in nature is that complementary nucleotide sequences bind to
each other. It is this same function that is exploited here--the primer
binds to its complementary nucleotide sequence. Thus, just as in nature,
primers utilize the innate ability of DNA to bind to itself.
Ambry Genetics, 774 F.3d at 760-61, 113 USPQ2d at 1244.
In sum, because the characteristics of the claimed primers were innate to
naturally occurring DNA, they lacked markedly different characteristics from
nature and were thus product of nature exceptions. A similar result was
reached in Marden, where the court held a claim to
ductile vanadium ineligible, because the “ductility or malleability of
vanadium is . . . one of its inherent characteristics and not a
characteristic given to it by virtue of a new combination with other
materials or which characteristic is brought about by some chemical reaction
or agency which changes its inherent characteristics”. In re
Marden, 47 F.2d 958, 959, 18 CCPA 1057, 1060, 8 USPQ 347, 349
(CCPA 1931).
In Roslin, the court
concluded that claimed clones of farm animals were products of nature,
because they lacked markedly different characteristics from the counterpart
farm animals found in nature. In re Roslin Institute
(Edinburgh), 750 F.3d 1333, 1337, 110 USPQ2d 1668, 1671 (Fed.
Cir. 2014). The inventor created its clones (which included the famous
cloned sheep named Dolly) by transferring the genetic material of a donor
into an oocyte (egg cell), letting the oocyte develop into an embryo, and
then implanting the embryo into a surrogate animal where it developed into a
baby animal. The applicant argued that the clones, including Dolly, were
eligible because they were created via human ingenuity, and had phenotypic
differences such as shape, size and behavior compared to their donors. The
court was unpersuaded, explaining that the clones were exact genetic
replicas of the donors and thus did not possess markedly different
characteristics. 750 F.3d at 1337, 110 USPQ2d at 1671-72 (“Roslin’s chief
innovation was the preservation of the donor DNA such that the clone is an
exact copy of the mammal from which the somatic cell was taken. Such a copy
is not eligible for patent protection.”). The court noted that the alleged
phenotypic differences (e.g., the fact that Dolly may
have been taller or heavier than her donor) could not make the clones
markedly different because these differences were not claimed. 750 F.3d at
1338, 110 USPQ2d at 1672. See also Roche Molecular System, Inc. v.
CEPHEID, 905 F.3d 1363, 1370, 128 USPQ2d 1221, 1226 (Fed. Cir.
2018) (alleged structural differences between linear primers and their
counterparts on a circular chromosome were neither claimed nor relevant to
the eligibility inquiry).
2106.04(d) Integration of a Judicial Exception Into A
Practical Application [R-07.2022]
The Supreme Court has long distinguished between
principles themselves (which are not patent eligible) and the integration of those
principles into practical applications (which are patent eligible). See,
e.g., Mayo Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs., Inc., 566
U.S. 66, 80, 84, 101 USPQ2d 1961, 1968-69, 1970 (2012) (noting that the Court in
Diamond v. Diehr found ‘‘the overall process patent eligible
because of the way the additional steps of the process integrated the equation into
the process as a whole,’’ but the Court in Gottschalk v. Benson
‘‘held that simply implementing a mathematical principle on a physical machine,
namely a computer, was not a patentable application of that principle’’). Similarly,
in a growing body of decisions, the Federal Circuit has distinguished between claims
that are ‘‘directed to’’ a judicial exception (which require further analysis to
determine their eligibility) and those that are not (which are therefore patent
eligible), e.g., claims that improve the functioning of a computer
or other technology or technological field. See Diamond v. Diehr,
450 U.S. 175, 209 USPQ 1 (1981); Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S.
63, 175 USPQ 673 (1972). See, e.g., MPEP §
2106.06(b) (summarizing Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft
Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 118 USPQ2d 1684 (Fed. Cir. 2016), McRO,
Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am. Inc., 837 F.3d 1299, 120 USPQ2d 1091
(Fed. Cir. 2016), and other cases that were eligible as improvements to technology or
computer functionality instead of being directed to abstract ideas).
Accordingly, after determining that a claim recites a
judicial exception in Step 2A Prong One, examiners should evaluate whether the claim
as a whole integrates the recited judicial exception into a practical application of
the exception in Step 2A Prong Two. A claim that integrates a judicial exception into
a practical application will apply, rely on, or use the judicial exception in a
manner that imposes a meaningful limit on the judicial exception, such that the claim
is more than a drafting effort designed to monopolize the judicial exception. Whether
or not a claim integrates a judicial exception into a practical application is
evaluated using the considerations set forth in subsection I below, in accordance
with the procedure described below in subsection II.
In the context of the flowchart in
MPEP §
2106, subsection III, Step 2A Prong Two determines
whether:
• The claim as a whole integrates the judicial
exception into a practical application, in which case the claim is not directed
to a judicial exception (Step 2A: NO) and is eligible at Pathway B. This
concludes the eligibility analysis.
• The claim as a whole does not integrate the
exception into a practical application, in which case the claim is directed to
the judicial exception (Step 2A: YES), and requires further analysis under Step
2B (where it may still be eligible if it amounts to an inventive concept). See
MPEP § 2106.05 for discussion of Step 2B.
The Supreme Court and Federal Circuit have
identified a number of considerations as relevant to the evaluation of whether the
claimed additional elements demonstrate that a claim is directed to
patent-eligible subject matter. The list of considerations here is not intended to
be exclusive or limiting. Additional elements can often be analyzed based on more
than one type of consideration and the type of consideration is of no import to
the eligibility analysis. Additional discussion of these considerations, and how
they were applied in particular judicial decisions, is provided in
MPEP § 2106.05(a) through (c) and MPEP §
2106.05(e) through (h).
Limitations the courts have found indicative that
an additional element (or combination of elements) may have integrated the
exception into a practical application include:
• An improvement in the functioning of a
computer, or an improvement to other technology or technical field, as
discussed in MPEP §§ 2106.04(d)(1) and
2106.05(a);
• Applying or using a judicial exception to
effect a particular treatment or prophylaxis for a disease or medical
condition, as discussed in MPEP §
2106.04(d)(2);
• Implementing a judicial exception with, or
using a judicial exception in conjunction with, a particular machine or
manufacture that is integral to the claim, as discussed in
MPEP § 2106.05(b);
• Effecting a transformation or reduction of
a particular article to a different state or thing, as discussed in
MPEP § 2106.05(c); and
• Applying or using the judicial exception
in some other meaningful way beyond generally linking the use of the
judicial exception to a particular technological environment, such that the
claim as a whole is more than a drafting effort designed to monopolize the
exception, as discussed in MPEP §
2106.05(e).
The courts have also identified limitations that
did not integrate a judicial exception into a practical application:
• Merely reciting the words “apply it” (or
an equivalent) with the judicial exception, or merely including instructions
to implement an abstract idea on a computer, or merely using a computer as a
tool to perform an abstract idea, as discussed in MPEP §
2106.05(f);
• Adding insignificant extra-solution
activity to the judicial exception, as discussed in MPEP §
2106.05(g); and
• Generally linking the use of a judicial
exception to a particular technological environment or field of use, as
discussed in MPEP § 2106.05(h).
Step 2A Prong Two is similar to Step 2B in that
both analyses involve evaluating a set of judicial considerations to determine if
the claim is eligible. See MPEP §§ 2106.05(a) through
(h) for the list of considerations that are evaluated
at Step 2B. Although most of these considerations overlap (i.e., they are
evaluated in both Step 2A Prong Two and Step 2B), Step 2A specifically excludes
consideration of whether the additional elements represent well-understood,
routine, conventional activity. Accordingly, in Step 2A Prong Two, examiners
should ensure that they give weight to all additional elements, whether or not
they are conventional, when evaluating whether a judicial exception has been
integrated into a practical application. Additional elements that represent
well-understood, routine, conventional activity may integrate a recited judicial
exception into a practical application.
It is notable that mere physicality or tangibility
of an additional element or elements is not a relevant consideration in Step 2A
Prong Two. As the Supreme Court explained in Alice Corp., mere
physical or tangible implementation of an exception does not guarantee
eligibility. Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank Int’l, 573 U.S.
208, 224, 110 USPQ2d 1976, 1983-84 (2014) (“The fact that a computer ‘necessarily
exist[s] in the physical, rather than purely conceptual, realm,’ is beside the
point”). See also Genetic Technologies Ltd. v. Merial LLC, 818
F.3d 1369, 1377, 118 USPQ2d 1541, 1547 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (steps of DNA
amplification and analysis are not “sufficient” to render claim 1 patent eligible
merely because they are physical steps). Conversely, the presence of a
non-physical or intangible additional element does not doom the claims, because
tangibility is not necessary for eligibility under the
Alice/Mayo test. Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft
Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 118 USPQ2d 1684 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (“that the
improvement is not defined by reference to ‘physical’ components does not doom the
claims”). See also McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am. Inc.,
837 F.3d 1299, 1315, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1102 (Fed. Cir. 2016), (holding that a
process producing an intangible result (a sequence of synchronized, animated
characters) was eligible because it improved an existing technological
process).
In addition, a specific way of achieving a result
is not a stand-alone consideration in Step 2A Prong Two. However, the specificity
of the claim limitations is relevant to the evaluation of several considerations
including the use of a particular machine, particular transformation and whether
the limitations are mere instructions to apply an exception. See
MPEP §§ 2106.05(b), 2106.05(c), and 2106.05(f). For example, in Parker v.
Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 198 USPQ 193 (1978), the Supreme Court noted
that the “patent application does not purport to explain how to select the
appropriate margin of safety, the weighting factor, or any of the other variables”
in the claimed mathematical formula, “[n]or does it purport to contain any
disclosure relating to the chemical processes at work, the monitoring of process
variables, or the means of setting off an alarm or adjusting an alarm system.” 437
U.S. at 586, 198 USPQ at 195. The Court found this failure to explain any
specifics of how to use the claimed formula informative when deciding that the
additional elements in the claim were insignificant post-solution activity and
thus not meaningful enough to render the claim eligible. 437 U.S. at 589-90, 198
USPQ at 197.
II. HOW TO EVALUATE WHETHER THE
ADDITIONAL ELEMENTS INTEGRATE THE JUDICIAL EXCEPTION INTO A PRACTICAL
APPLICATION
The analysis under Step 2A Prong Two is the same
for all claims reciting a judicial exception, whether the exception is an abstract
idea, a law of nature, or a natural phenomenon (including products of nature).
Examiners evaluate integration into a practical application by: (1) identifying
whether there are any additional elements recited in the claim beyond the judicial
exception(s); and (2) evaluating those additional elements individually and in
combination to determine whether they integrate the exception into a practical
application, using one or more of the considerations introduced in subsection I
supra, and discussed in more detail in MPEP §§
2106.04(d)(1), 2106.04(d)(2), 2106.05(a) through (c) and 2106.05(e) through (h).
Many of these considerations overlap, and often
more than one consideration is relevant to analysis of an additional element. Not
all considerations will be relevant to every element, or every claim. Because the
evaluation in Prong Two is not a weighing test, it is not important how the
elements are characterized or how many considerations apply from the list. It is
important to evaluate the significance of the additional elements relative to the
invention, and to keep in mind the ultimate question of whether the exception is
integrated into a practical application. If the claim as a whole integrates the
judicial exception into a practical application based upon evaluation of these
considerations, the additional limitations impose a meaningful limit on the
judicial exception and the claim is eligible at Step 2A.
Examiners should examine each claim for
eligibility separately, based on the particular elements recited therein. Claims
should not be judged to automatically stand or fall with similar claims in an
application. For instance, one claim may be ineligible because it is directed to a
judicial exception without amounting to significantly more, but another claim
dependent on the first may be eligible because it recites additional elements that
do amount to significantly more, or that integrate the exception into a practical
application.
For more information on how to evaluate claims
reciting multiple judicial exceptions, see MPEP §
2106.04, subsection II.B.
III. EXAMPLES OF HOW THE OFFICE
EVALUATES WHETHER THE CLAIM AS A WHOLE INTEGRATES THE JUDICIAL EXCEPTION INTO A
PRACTICAL APPLICATION
The Prong Two analysis considers the claim as a
whole. That is, the limitations containing the judicial exception as well as the
additional elements in the claim besides the judicial exception need to be
evaluated together to determine whether the claim integrates the judicial
exception into a practical application. Because a judicial exception alone is not
eligible subject matter, if there are no additional claim elements besides the
judicial exception, or if the additional claim elements merely recite another
judicial exception, that is insufficient to integrate the judicial exception into
a practical application. However, the way in which the additional elements use or
interact with the exception may integrate it into a practical application.
Accordingly, the additional limitations should not be evaluated in a vacuum,
completely separate from the recited judicial exception. Instead, the analysis
should take into consideration all the claim limitations and how those limitations
interact and impact each other when evaluating whether the exception is integrated
into a practical application.
Two examples of how the Office evaluates whether
the claim as a whole integrates the recited judicial exception into a practical
application are provided. In Solutran, Inc. v. Elavon, Inc.,
931 F.3d 1161, 2019 USPQ2d 281076 (Fed. Cir. 2019), the claims were to methods for
electronically processing paper checks, all of which contained limitations setting
forth receiving merchant transaction data from a merchant, crediting a merchant’s
account, and receiving and scanning paper checks after the merchant’s account is
credited. In part one of the Alice/Mayo test, the Federal
Circuit determined that the claims were directed to the abstract idea of crediting
the merchant’s account before the paper check is scanned. The court first
determined that the recited limitations of “crediting a merchant’s account as
early as possible while electronically processing a check” is a “long-standing
commercial practice” like in Alice and
Bilski. 931 F.3d at 1167, 2019 USPQ2d 281076, at *5 (Fed.
Cir. 2019). The Federal Circuit then continued with its analysis under part one of
the Alice/Mayo test finding that the claims are not directed to
an improvement in the functioning of a computer or an improvement to another
technology. In particular, the court determined that the claims “did not improve
the technical capture of information from a check to create a digital file or the
technical step of electronically crediting a bank account” nor did the claims
“improve how a check is scanned.” Id. This analysis is
equivalent to the Office’s analysis of determining that the exception is not
integrated into a practical application at Step 2A Prong Two, and thus that the
claims are directed to the judicial exception (Step 2A: YES).
In Finjan Inc. v. Blue Coat Systems,
Inc., 879 F.3d 1299, 125 USPQ2d 1282 (Fed. Cir. 2018), the claimed
invention was a method of virus scanning that scans an application program,
generates a security profile identifying any potentially suspicious code in the
program, and links the security profile to the application program. 879 F.3d at
1303-04, 125 USPQ2d at 1285-86. The Federal Circuit noted that the recited virus
screening was an abstract idea, and that merely performing virus screening on a
computer does not render the claim eligible. 879 F.3d at 1304, 125 USPQ2d at 1286.
The court then continued with its analysis under part one of the
Alice/Mayo test by reviewing the patent’s specification,
which described the claimed security profile as identifying both hostile and
potentially hostile operations. The court noted that the security profile thus
enables the invention to protect the user against both previously unknown viruses
and “obfuscated code,” as compared to traditional virus scanning, which only
recognized the presence of previously-identified viruses. The security profile
also enables more flexible virus filtering and greater user customization. 879
F.3d at 1304, 125 USPQ2d at 1286. The court identified these benefits as improving
computer functionality, and verified that the claims recite additional elements
(e.g., specific steps of using the security profile in a
particular way) that reflect this improvement. Accordingly, the court held the
claims eligible as not being directed to the recited abstract idea. 879 F.3d at
1304-05, 125 USPQ2d at 1286-87. This analysis is equivalent to the Office’s
analysis of determining that the additional elements integrate the judicial
exception into a practical application at Step 2A Prong Two, and thus that the
claims were not directed to the judicial exception (Step 2A: NO).
2106.04(d)(1) Evaluating Improvements in the
Functioning of a Computer, or an Improvement to Any Other Technology or Technical
Field in Step 2A Prong Two [R-10.2019]
A claim reciting a judicial exception is not
directed to the judicial exception if it also recites additional elements
demonstrating that the claim as a whole integrates the exception into a practical
application. One way to demonstrate such integration is when the claimed invention
improves the functioning of a computer or improves another technology or technical
field. The application or use of the judicial exception in this manner
meaningfully limits the claim by going beyond generally linking the use of the
judicial exception to a particular technological environment, and thus transforms
a claim into patent-eligible subject matter. Such claims are eligible at Step 2A
because they are not “directed to” the recited judicial exception.
The courts have not provided an explicit test for
this consideration, but have instead illustrated how it is evaluated in numerous
decisions. These decisions, and a detailed explanation of how examiners should
evaluate this consideration are provided in MPEP §
2106.05(a). In short, first the specification should be
evaluated to determine if the disclosure provides sufficient details such that one
of ordinary skill in the art would recognize the claimed invention as providing an
improvement. The specification need not explicitly set forth the improvement, but
it must describe the invention such that the improvement would be apparent to one
of ordinary skill in the art. Conversely, if the specification explicitly sets
forth an improvement but in a conclusory manner (i.e., a bare
assertion of an improvement without the detail necessary to be apparent to a
person of ordinary skill in the art), the examiner should not determine the claim
improves technology. Second, if the specification sets forth an improvement in
technology, the claim must be evaluated to ensure that the claim itself reflects
the disclosed improvement. That is, the claim includes the components or steps of
the invention that provide the improvement described in the specification. The
claim itself does not need to explicitly recite the improvement described in the
specification (e.g., “thereby increasing the bandwidth of the
channel”).
While the courts usually evaluate “improvements” as
part of the “directed to” inquiry in part one of the Alice/Mayo
test (equivalent to Step 2A), they have also performed this evaluation in part two
of the Alice/Mayo test (equivalent to Step 2B). See,
e.g., BASCOM Global Internet v. AT&T Mobility LLC, 827
F.3d 1341, 1349-50, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1241-42 (Fed. Cir. 2016). However, the
improvement analysis at Step 2A Prong Two differs in some respects from the
improvements analysis at Step 2B. Specifically, the “improvements” analysis in
Step 2A determines whether the claim pertains to an improvement to the functioning
of a computer or to another technology without reference to what is
well-understood, routine, conventional activity. That is, the claimed invention
may integrate the judicial exception into a practical application by demonstrating
that it improves the relevant existing technology although it may not be an
improvement over well-understood, routine, conventional activity. It should be
noted that while this consideration is often referred to in an abbreviated manner
as the “improvements consideration,” the word “improvements” in the context of
this consideration is limited to improvements to the functioning of a computer or
any other technology/technical field, whether in Step 2A Prong Two or in Step
2B.
Examples of claims that improve technology and are
not directed to a judicial exception include: Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft
Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 1339, 118 USPQ2d 1684, 1691-92 (Fed. Cir. 2016)
(claims to a self-referential table for a computer database were directed to an
improvement in computer capabilities and not directed to an abstract idea);
McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am. Inc., 837 F.3d 1299,
1315, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1102-03 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (claims to automatic lip
synchronization and facial expression animation were directed to an improvement in
computer-related technology and not directed to an abstract idea); Visual
Memory LLC v. NVIDIA Corp., 867 F.3d 1253,1259-60, 123 USPQ2d 1712,
1717 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (claims to an enhanced computer memory system were directed
to an improvement in computer capabilities and not an abstract idea);
Finjan Inc. v. Blue Coat Systems, Inc., 879 F.3d 1299, 125
USPQ2d 1282 (Fed. Cir. 2018) (claims to virus scanning were found to be an
improvement in computer technology and not directed to an abstract idea);
SRI Int’l, Inc. v. Cisco Systems, Inc., 930 F.3d 1295, 1303
(Fed. Cir. 2019) (claims to detecting suspicious activity by using network
monitors and analyzing network packets were found to be an improvement in computer
network technology and not directed to an abstract idea). Additional examples are
provided in MPEP § 2106.05(a).
A claim reciting a judicial exception is not
directed to the judicial exception if it also recites additional element(s)
demonstrating that the claim as a whole integrates the exception into a practical
application. One way to demonstrate such integration is when the additional
elements apply or use the recited judicial exception to effect a particular
treatment or prophylaxis for a disease or medical condition. The application or
use of the judicial exception in this manner meaningfully limits the claim by
going beyond generally linking the use of the judicial exception to a particular
technological environment, and thus transforms a claim into patent-eligible
subject matter. Such claims are eligible at Step 2A, because they are not
“directed to” the recited judicial exception.
The particular treatment or prophylaxis
consideration originated as part of the other meaningful limitations consideration
discussed in MPEP § 2106.05(e) and shares the
same legal basis in Supreme Court jurisprudence as that consideration. However,
recent jurisprudence has provided additional guidance that is especially relevant
to only a subset of claims, thus warranting the elevation of the particular
treatment or prophylaxis consideration to become a stand-alone consideration in
the Step 2A Prong Two analysis. Vanda Pharm. Inc. v. West-Ward Pharm.
Int’l Ltd., 887 F.3d 1117, 126 USPQ2d 1266 (Fed. Cir. 2018). The
claims in Vanda recited a method of treating a patient having
schizophrenia with iloperidone, a drug known to cause QTc prolongation (a
disruption of the heart’s normal rhythm that can lead to serious health problems)
in patients having a particular genotype associated with poor drug metabolism. 887
F.3d at 1121, 126 USPQ2d at 1269-70. In particular, the claims recited steps of:
(1) performing a genotyping assay to determine if a patient has a genotype
associated with poor drug metabolism; and (2) administering iloperidone to the
patient in a dose range that depends on the patient’s genotype.
Id. Although Vanda’s claims recited a law
of nature (the naturally occurring relationship between the patient’s genotype and
the risk of QTc prolongation) like the claims in Mayo Collaborative
Servs. v. Prometheus Labs., Inc., 566 U.S. 66, 101 USPQ2d 1961
(2012), the Federal Circuit distinguished them from the Mayo
claims based on the differences in the administration steps. In particular, the
court explained that Mayo’s step of administering a drug to a
patient was performed in order to gather data about the recited laws of nature,
and this step was thus ancillary to the overall diagnostic focus of the claims.
887 F.3d at 1134-35, 126 USPQ2d at 1280. In contrast, Vanda’s
claims used the recited law of nature to more safely treat the patients with the
drug, thereby reducing the patient’s risk of QTc prolongation. 887 F.3d at 1135,
126 USPQ2d at 1280. Accordingly, the court held Vanda’s claims
eligible at the first part of the Alice/Mayo test (Step 2A)
because the claims were not “directed to” the recited judicial exception. 887 F.3d
at 1136, 126 USPQ2d at 1281.
Examiners should keep in mind that in order to
qualify as a “treatment” or “prophylaxis” limitation for purposes of this
consideration, the claim limitation in question must affirmatively recite an
action that effects a particular treatment or prophylaxis for a disease or medical
condition. An example of such a limitation is a step of “administering amazonic
acid to a patient” or a step of “administering a course of plasmapheresis to a
patient.” If the limitation does not actually provide a treatment or prophylaxis,
e.g., it is merely an intended use of the claimed invention
or a field of use limitation, then it cannot integrate a judicial exception under
the “treatment or prophylaxis” consideration. For example, a step of “prescribing
a topical steroid to a patient with eczema” is not a positive limitation because
it does not require that the steroid actually be used by or on the patient, and a
recitation that a claimed product is a “pharmaceutical composition” or that a
“feed dispenser is operable to dispense a mineral supplement” are not affirmative
limitations because they are merely indicating how the claimed invention might be
used.
When determining whether a claim applies or uses a
recited judicial exception to effect a particular treatment or prophylaxis for a
disease or medical condition, the following factors are relevant.
a. The Particularity Or Generality Of The
Treatment Or Prophylaxis
The treatment or prophylaxis limitation must
be “particular,” i.e., specifically identified so that it
does not encompass all applications of the judicial exception(s). For
example, consider a claim that recites mentally analyzing information to
identify if a patient has a genotype associated with poor metabolism of beta
blocker medications. This falls within the mental process grouping of
abstract ideas enumerated in MPEP §
2106.04(a). The claim also recites “administering
a lower than normal dosage of a beta blocker medication to a patient
identified as having the poor metabolizer genotype.” This administration
step is particular, and it integrates the mental analysis step into a
practical application. Conversely, consider a claim that recites the same
abstract idea and “administering a suitable medication to a patient.” This
administration step is not particular, and is instead merely instructions to
“apply” the exception in a generic way. Thus, the administration step does
not integrate the mental analysis step into a practical application.
Examiners may find it helpful to evaluate
other considerations such as the mere instructions to apply an exception
consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(f)), and the
field of use and technological environment consideration (see
MPEP § 2106.05(h)), when
making a determination of whether a treatment or prophylaxis limitation is
particular or general.
b. Whether The Limitation(s) Have More
Than A Nominal Or Insignificant Relationship To The
Exception(s)
The treatment or prophylaxis limitation must
have more than a nominal or insignificant relationship to the exception(s).
For example, consider a claim that recites a natural correlation (law of
nature) between blood glucose levels over 250 mg/dl and the risk of
developing ketoacidosis (a life-threatening medical condition). The claim
also recites "treating a patient having a blood glucose level over 250 mg/dl
with insulin”. Insulin acts to lower blood glucose levels, and administering
insulin to a patient will reduce the patient’s blood glucose level, thereby
lowering the risk that the patient will develop ketoacidosis. Thus, in the
context of this claim, the administration step is significantly related to
the recited correlation between high blood glucose levels and the risk of
ketoacidosis. Because insulin is also a “particular” treatment, this
administration step integrates the law of nature into a practical
application. Alternatively, consider a claim that recites the same law of
nature and also recites “treating a patient having a blood glucose level
over 250 mg/dl with aspirin.” Aspirin is not known in the art as a treatment
for ketoacidosis or diabetes, although some patients with diabetes may be on
aspirin therapy for other medical reasons (e.g., to
control pain or inflammation, or to prevent blood clots). In the context of
this claim and the recited correlation between high blood glucose levels and
the risk of ketoacidosis, administration of aspirin has at best a nominal
connection to the law of nature, because aspirin does not treat or prevent
ketoacidosis. This step therefore does not apply or use the exception in any
meaningful way. Thus, this step of administering aspirin does not integrate
the law of nature into a practical application.
Examiners may find it helpful to evaluate
other considerations such as the insignificant extra-solution activity
consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(g)), and the
field of use and technological environment consideration (see
MPEP § 2106.05(h)), when
making a determination of whether a treatment or prophylaxis limitation has
more than a nominal or insignificant relationship to the exception(s).
c. Whether The Limitation(s) Are Merely
Extra-Solution Activity Or A Field Of Use
The treatment or prophylaxis limitation must
impose meaningful limits on the judicial exception, and cannot be
extra-solution activity or a field-of-use. For example, consider a claim
that recites (a) administering rabies and feline leukemia vaccines to a
first group of domestic cats in accordance with different vaccination
schedules, and (b) analyzing information about the vaccination schedules and
whether the cats later developed chronic immune-mediated disorders to
determine a lowest-risk vaccination schedule. Step (b) falls within the
mental process grouping of abstract ideas enumerated in
MPEP § 2106.04(a). While
step (a) administers vaccines to the cats, this administration is performed
in order to gather data for the mental analysis step, and is a necessary
precursor for all uses of the recited exception. It is thus extra-solution
activity, and does not integrate the judicial exception into a practical
application. Conversely, consider a claim reciting the same steps (a) and
(b), but also reciting step (c) “vaccinating a second group of domestic cats
in accordance with the lowest-risk vaccination schedule.” Step (c) applies
the exception, in that the information from the mental analysis in step (b)
is used to alter the order and timing of the vaccinations so that the second
group of cats has a lower risk of developing chronic immune-mediated
disorders. Step (c) thus integrates the abstract idea into a practical
application.
Examiners may find it helpful to evaluate
other considerations such as the insignificant extra-solution activity
consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(g)), and the
field of use and technological environment consideration (see
MPEP § 2106.05(h)), when
making a determination of whether a treatment or prophylaxis limitation is
merely extra-solution activity or a field of use.
An inventive concept “cannot be furnished by the
unpatentable law of nature (or natural phenomenon or abstract idea) itself.”
Genetic Techs. v. Merial LLC, 818 F.3d 1369, 1376, 118 USPQ2d
1541, 1546 (Fed. Cir. 2016). See also Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at
21-18, 110 USPQ2d at 1981 (citing Mayo, 566 U.S. at 78, 101 USPQ2d
at 1968 (after determining that a claim is directed to a judicial exception, “we then
ask, ‘[w]hat else is there in the claims before us?”) (emphasis added));
RecogniCorp, LLC v. Nintendo Co., 855 F.3d 1322, 1327, 122
USPQ2d 1377 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (“Adding one abstract idea (math) to another abstract
idea (encoding and decoding) does not render the claim non-abstract”). Instead, an
“inventive concept” is furnished by an element or combination of elements that is
recited in the claim in addition to (beyond) the judicial exception, and is
sufficient to ensure that the claim as a whole amounts to significantly more than the
judicial exception itself. Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 27-18, 110
USPQ2d at 1981 (citing Mayo, 566 U.S. at 72-73, 101 USPQ2d at
1966).
Evaluating additional elements to determine whether
they amount to an inventive concept requires considering them both individually and
in combination to ensure that they amount to significantly more than the judicial
exception itself. Because this approach considers all claim elements, the Supreme
Court has noted that “it is consistent with the general rule that patent claims ‘must
be considered as a whole.’” Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 218 n.3, 110
USPQ2d at 1981 (quoting Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 188, 209
USPQ 1, 8-9 (1981)). Consideration of the elements in combination is particularly
important, because even if an additional element does not amount to significantly
more on its own, it can still amount to significantly more when considered in
combination with the other elements of the claim. See, e.g., Rapid Litig.
Mgmt. v. CellzDirect, 827 F.3d 1042, 1051, 119 USPQ2d 1370, 1375 (Fed.
Cir. 2016) (process reciting combination of individually well-known freezing and
thawing steps was “far from routine and conventional” and thus eligible);
BASCOM Global Internet Servs. v. AT&T Mobility LLC, 827
F.3d 1341, 1350, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1242 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (inventive concept may be
found in the non-conventional and non-generic arrangement of components that are
individually well-known and conventional).
Although the courts often evaluate considerations such
as the conventionality of an additional element in the eligibility analysis, the
search for an inventive concept should not be confused with a novelty or
non-obviousness determination. See Mayo, 566 U.S. at 91, 101
USPQ2d at 1973 (rejecting “the Government’s invitation to substitute
§§
102, 103, and 112
inquiries for the better established inquiry under § 101”). As
made clear by the courts, the “‘novelty’ of any element or steps in a process, or
even of the process itself, is of no relevance in
determining whether the subject matter of a claim falls within the § 101
categories of possibly patentable subject matter.” Intellectual Ventures I
v. Symantec Corp., 838 F.3d 1307, 1315, 120 USPQ2d 1353, 1358 (Fed. Cir.
2016) (quoting Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. at 188–89, 209 USPQ at
9). See also Synopsys, Inc. v. Mentor Graphics Corp., 839 F.3d
1138, 1151, 120 USPQ2d 1473, 1483 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (“a claim for a
new abstract idea is still an abstract idea.
The search for a §
101 inventive concept is thus distinct from demonstrating
§
102 novelty.”). In addition, the search for an inventive
concept is different from an obviousness analysis under 35 U.S.C.
103. See, e.g., BASCOM Global Internet v. AT&T
Mobility LLC, 827 F.3d 1341, 1350, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1242 (Fed. Cir.
2016) (“The inventive concept inquiry requires more than recognizing that each claim
element, by itself, was known in the art. . . . [A]n inventive concept can be found
in the non-conventional and non-generic arrangement of known, conventional pieces.”).
Specifically, lack of novelty under 35 U.S.C. 102 or obviousness
under 35
U.S.C. 103 of a claimed invention does not necessarily indicate
that additional elements are well-understood, routine, conventional elements. Because
they are separate and distinct requirements from eligibility, patentability of the
claimed invention under 35 U.S.C. 102 and
103 with respect to the prior art is neither required for, nor
a guarantee of, patent eligibility under 35 U.S.C. 101. The distinction
between eligibility (under 35 U.S.C. 101) and patentability
over the art (under 35 U.S.C. 102 and/or
103) is further discussed in MPEP §
2106.05(d).
The Supreme Court has identified a number of
considerations as relevant to the evaluation of whether the claimed additional
elements amount to an inventive concept. The list of considerations here is not
intended to be exclusive or limiting. Additional elements can often be analyzed
based on more than one type of consideration and the type of consideration is of
no import to the eligibility analysis. Additional discussion of these
considerations, and how they were applied in particular judicial decisions, is
provided in in MPEP § 2106.05(a) through (h).
Limitations that the courts have found to qualify
as “significantly more” when recited in a claim with a judicial exception include:
ii. Improvements to any other technology or
technical field, e.g., a modification of conventional
rubber-molding processes to utilize a thermocouple inside the mold to
constantly monitor the temperature and thus reduce under- and over-curing
problems common in the art, as discussed in Diamond v.
Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 191-92, 209 USPQ 1, 10 (1981) (see
MPEP § 2106.05(a));
iii. Applying the judicial exception with, or by
use of, a particular machine, e.g., a Fourdrinier machine
(which is understood in the art to have a specific structure comprising a
headbox, a paper-making wire, and a series of rolls) that is arranged in a
particular way to optimize the speed of the machine while maintaining
quality of the formed paper web, as discussed in Eibel Process Co.
v. Minn. & Ont. Paper Co., 261 U.S. 45, 64-65 (1923) (see
MPEP § 2106.05(b));
iv. Effecting a transformation or reduction of a
particular article to a different state or thing, e.g., a
process that transforms raw, uncured synthetic rubber into precision-molded
synthetic rubber products, as discussed in Diehr, 450
U.S. at 184, 209 USPQ at 21 (see MPEP §
2106.05(c));
Limitations that the courts have found not to be
enough to qualify as “significantly more” when recited in a claim with a judicial
exception include:
i. Adding the words “apply it” (or an
equivalent) with the judicial exception, or mere instructions to implement
an abstract idea on a computer, e.g., a limitation
indicating that a particular function such as creating and maintaining
electronic records is performed by a computer, as discussed in
Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 225-26, 110 USPQ2d at 1984
(see MPEP § 2106.05(f));
ii. Simply appending well-understood, routine,
conventional activities previously known to the industry, specified at a
high level of generality, to the judicial exception,
e.g., a claim to an abstract idea requiring no more
than a generic computer to perform generic computer functions that are
well-understood, routine and conventional activities previously known to the
industry, as discussed in Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 225,
110 USPQ2d at 1984 (see MPEP §
2106.05(d));
iii. Adding insignificant extra-solution activity
to the judicial exception, e.g., mere data gathering in
conjunction with a law of nature or abstract idea such as a step of
obtaining information about credit card transactions so that the information
can be analyzed by an abstract mental process, as discussed in
CyberSource v. Retail Decisions, Inc., 654 F.3d 1366,
1375, 99 USPQ2d 1690, 1694 (Fed. Cir. 2011) (see MPEP §
2106.05(g)); or
iv. Generally linking the use of the judicial
exception to a particular technological environment or field of use,
e.g., a claim describing how the abstract idea of
hedging could be used in the commodities and energy markets, as discussed in
Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 595, 95 USPQ2d 1001,
1010 (2010) or a claim limiting the use of a mathematical formula to the
petrochemical and oil-refining fields, as discussed in Parker v.
Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 588-90, 198 USPQ 193, 197-98 (1978)
(MPEP § 2106.05(h)).
It is notable that mere physicality or tangibility
of an additional element or elements is not a relevant consideration in Step 2B.
As the Supreme Court explained in Alice Corp., mere physical or
tangible implementation of an exception is not in itself an inventive concept and
does not guarantee eligibility:
The fact that a computer “necessarily exist[s]
in the physical, rather than purely conceptual, realm,” is beside the point.
There is no dispute that a computer is a tangible system (in § 101
terms, a “machine”), or that many computer-implemented claims are formally
addressed to patent-eligible subject matter. But if that were the end of the
§
101 inquiry, an applicant could claim any principle of
the physical or social sciences by reciting a computer system configured to
implement the relevant concept. Such a result would make the determination of
patent eligibility “depend simply on the draftsman’s art,” Flook,
supra, at 593, 98 S. Ct. 2522, 57 L. Ed. 2d 451, thereby
eviscerating the rule that “‘[l]aws of nature, natural phenomena, and abstract
ideas are not patentable,’” Myriad, 133 S. Ct. 1289, 186 L.
Ed. 2d 124, 133).
Alice Corp. provides an example
of how courts conduct the significantly more analysis. In this case, the Supreme
Court analyzed claims to computer systems, computer readable media, and
computer-implemented methods, all of which described a scheme for mitigating
“settlement risk,” which is the risk that only one party to an agreed-upon
financial exchange will satisfy its obligation. In part one of the
Alice/Mayo test, the Court determined that the claims were
directed to the abstract idea of mitigating settlement risk. Alice
Corp., 573 U.S. at 221, 110 USPQ2d at 1982. The Court then walked
through part two of the Alice/Mayo test, in which:
• The Court identified the additional
elements in the claim, e.g., by noting that the method
claims recited steps of using a computer to “create electronic records,
track multiple transactions, and issue simultaneous instructions”, and that
the product claims recited hardware such as a “data processing system” with
a “communications controller” and a “data storage unit” (573 U.S. at 224-26,
110 USPQ2d at 1984-85);
• The Court considered the additional
elements individually, noting that all the computer functions were
“‘well-understood, routine, conventional activit[ies]’ previously known to
the industry," each step “does no more than require a generic computer to
perform generic computer functions”, and the recited hardware was “purely
functional and generic” (573 U.S. at 225-26, 110 USPQ2d at 1984-85); and
• The Court considered the additional
elements “as an ordered combination,” and determined that “the computer
components … ‘[a]dd nothing … that is not already present when the steps are
considered separately’” and simply recite intermediated settlement as
performed by a generic computer.” 573 U.S. at 225 (citing
Mayo, 566 U.S. at 79, 101 USPQ2d at 1972).
Based on this analysis, the Court concluded that
the claims amounted to “‘nothing significantly more’ than an instruction to apply
the abstract idea of intermediated settlement using some unspecified, generic
computer”, and therefore held the claims ineligible because they were directed to
a judicial exception and failed the second part of the
Alice/Mayo test. Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at
225-27, 110 USPQ2d at 1984.
BASCOM provides another example
of how courts conduct the significantly more analysis, and of the critical
importance of considering the additional elements in combination. In this case,
the Federal Circuit vacated a judgment of ineligibility because the district court
failed to properly perform the second step of the Alice/Mayo
test when analyzing a claimed system for filtering content retrieved from an
Internet computer network. BASCOM Global Internet v. AT&T Mobility
LLC, 827 F.3d 1341, 119 USPQ2d 1236 (Fed. Cir. 2016). The Federal
Circuit agreed with the district court that the claims were directed to the
abstract idea of filtering Internet content, and then walked through the district
court’s analysis in part two of the Alice/Mayo test, noting
that:
• The district court properly considered the
additional elements individually, for example by consulting the
specification, which described each of the additional elements as
“well-known generic computer components” (827 F.3d at 1349, 119 USPQ2d at
1242); and
• The district court should have considered
the additional elements in combination, because the “inventive concept
inquiry requires more than recognizing that each claim element, by itself,
was known in the art” (827 F.3d at 1350, 119 USPQ2d at 1242).
Based on this analysis, the Federal Circuit
concluded that the district court erred by failing to recognize that when
combined, an inventive concept may be found in the non-conventional and
non-generic arrangement of the additional elements, i.e., the installation of a
filtering tool at a specific location, remote from the end-users, with
customizable filtering features specific to each end user. 827 F.3d at 1350, 119
USPQ2d at 1242.
As described in MPEP § 2106,
subsection III, Step 2B of the Office’s eligibility analysis is the second part of
the Alice/Mayo test, i.e., the Supreme Court’s
“framework for distinguishing patents that claim laws of nature, natural phenomena,
and abstract ideas from those that claim patent-eligible applications of those
concepts.” Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank Int'l, 573 U.S. 208,
217, 110 USPQ2d 1976, 1981 (2014) (citing Mayo, 566 U.S. 66, 101
USPQ2d 1961 (2012)). Like the other steps in the eligibility analysis, evaluation of
this step should be made after determining what the inventor has invented by
reviewing the entire application disclosure and construing the claims in accordance
with their broadest reasonable interpretation. See MPEP § 2106,
subsection II for more information about the importance of understanding what has
been invented, and MPEP § 2111 for more information about the broadest
reasonable interpretation.
Step 2B asks: Does the claim recite additional
elements that amount to significantly more than the judicial exception? Examiners
should answer this question by first identifying whether there are any additional
elements (features/limitations/steps) recited in the claim beyond the judicial
exception(s), and then evaluating those additional elements individually
and in combination to determine whether
they contribute an inventive concept (i.e., amount to
significantly more than the judicial exception(s)).
This evaluation is made with respect to the
considerations that the Supreme Court has identified as relevant to the eligibility
analysis, which are introduced generally in Part I.A of this section, and discussed
in detail in MPEP § 2106.05(a) through (h). Many
of these considerations overlap, and often more than one consideration is relevant to
analysis of an additional element. Not all considerations will be relevant to every
element, or every claim. Because the evaluation in Step 2B is not a weighing test, it
is not important how the elements are characterized or how many considerations apply
from this list. It is important to evaluate the significance of the additional
elements relative to the invention, and to keep in mind the ultimate question of
whether the additional elements encompass an inventive concept.
Although the conclusion of whether a claim is
eligible at Step 2B requires that all relevant considerations be evaluated, most of
these considerations were already evaluated in Step 2A Prong Two. Thus, in Step 2B,
examiners should:
• Carry over their identification of the
additional element(s) in the claim from Step 2A Prong Two;
• Re-evaluate any additional element or
combination of elements that was considered to be insignificant extra-solution
activity per MPEP § 2106.05(g), because if
such re-evaluation finds that the element is unconventional or otherwise more
than what is well-understood, routine, conventional activity in the field, this
finding may indicate that the additional element is no longer considered to be
insignificant; and
• Evaluate whether any additional element or
combination of elements are other than what is well-understood, routine,
conventional activity in the field, or simply append well-understood, routine,
conventional activities previously known to the industry, specified at a high
level of generality, to the judicial exception, per MPEP §
2106.05(d).
In the context of the flowchart in
MPEP §
2106, subsection III, Step 2B determines whether:
• The claim as a whole does not amount to
significantly more than the exception itself (there is no inventive concept in
the claim) (Step 2B: NO) and thus is not eligible, warranting a rejection for
lack of subject matter eligibility and concluding the eligibility analysis; or
• The claim as a whole does amount to
significantly more than the exception (there is an inventive concept in the
claim) (Step 2B: YES), and thus is eligible at Pathway C, thereby concluding
the eligibility analysis.
Examiners should examine each claim for eligibility
separately, based on the particular elements recited therein. Claims should not be
judged to automatically stand or fall with similar claims in an application. For
instance, one claim may be ineligible because it is directed to a judicial exception
without amounting to significantly more, but another claim dependent on the first may
be eligible because it recites additional elements that do amount to significantly
more.
For more information on how to evaluate claims
reciting multiple judicial exceptions, see MPEP §
2106.04, subsection II.B.
If the claim as a whole does recite significantly
more than the exception itself, the claim is eligible (Step 2B: YES) at Pathway C,
and the eligibility analysis is complete. If there are no meaningful limitations in
the claim that transform the exception into a patent-eligible application, such that
the claim does not amount to significantly more than the exception itself, the claim
is not patent-eligible (Step 2B: NO) and should be rejected under 35 U.S.C. 101.
See MPEP
§ 2106.07 for information on how to formulate an
ineligibility rejection.
2106.05(a) Improvements to the Functioning of a Computer
or To Any Other Technology or Technical Field [R-07.2022]
While improvements were evaluated in Alice
Corp. as relevant to the search for an inventive concept (Step 2B),
several decisions of the Federal Circuit have also evaluated this consideration when
determining whether a claim was directed to an abstract idea (Step 2A). See,
e.g., Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 1335-36,
118 USPQ2d 1684, 1689 (Fed. Cir. 2016); McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am.
Inc., 837 F.3d 1299, 1314-16, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1102-03 (Fed. Cir. 2016);
Visual Memory, LLC v. NVIDIA Corp., 867 F.3d 1253, 1259-60, 123
USPQ2d 1712, 1717 (Fed. Cir. 2017). Thus, an examiner should evaluate whether a claim
contains an improvement to the functioning of a computer or to any other technology
or technical field at Step 2A Prong Two and Step 2B, as well as when considering
whether the claim has such self-evident eligibility that it qualifies for the
streamlined analysis. See MPEP § 2106.04(d)(1) for more
information about evaluating improvements in Step 2A Prong Two, and
MPEP
§ 2106.07(b) for more information about improvements in the
streamlined analysis context.
If it is asserted that the invention improves upon
conventional functioning of a computer, or upon conventional technology or
technological processes, a technical explanation as to how to implement the invention
should be present in the specification. That is, the disclosure must provide
sufficient details such that one of ordinary skill in the art would recognize the
claimed invention as providing an improvement. The specification need not explicitly
set forth the improvement, but it must describe the invention such that the
improvement would be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art. Conversely, if the
specification explicitly sets forth an improvement but in a conclusory manner (i.e.,
a bare assertion of an improvement without the detail necessary to be apparent to a
person of ordinary skill in the art), the examiner should not determine the claim
improves technology. An indication that the claimed invention provides an improvement
can include a discussion in the specification that identifies a technical problem and
explains the details of an unconventional technical solution expressed in the claim,
or identifies technical improvements realized by the claim over the prior art. For
example, in McRO, the court relied on the specification’s
explanation of how the particular rules recited in the claim enabled the automation
of specific animation tasks that previously could only be performed subjectively by
humans, when determining that the claims were directed to improvements in computer
animation instead of an abstract idea. McRO, 837 F.3d at 1313-14,
120 USPQ2d at 1100-01. In contrast, the court in Affinity Labs of Tex. v.
DirecTV, LLC relied on the specification’s failure to provide details
regarding the manner in which the invention accomplished the alleged improvement when
holding the claimed methods of delivering broadcast content to cellphones ineligible.
838 F.3d 1253, 1263-64, 120 USPQ2d 1201, 1207-08 (Fed. Cir. 2016).
After the examiner has consulted the specification
and determined that the disclosed invention improves technology, the claim must be
evaluated to ensure the claim itself reflects the disclosed improvement in
technology. Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Symantec Corp., 838
F.3d 1307, 1316, 120 USPQ2d 1353, 1359 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (patent owner argued that the
claimed email filtering system improved technology by shrinking the protection gap
and mooting the volume problem, but the court disagreed because the claims themselves
did not have any limitations that addressed these issues). That is, the claim must
include the components or steps of the invention that provide the improvement
described in the specification. However, the claim itself does not need to explicitly
recite the improvement described in the specification (e.g.,
“thereby increasing the bandwidth of the channel”). The full scope of the claim under
the BRI should be considered to determine if the claim reflects an improvement in
technology (e.g., the improvement described in the specification).
In making this determination, it is critical that examiners look at the claim “as a
whole,” in other words, the claim should be evaluated “as an ordered combination,
without ignoring the requirements of the individual steps.” When performing this
evaluation, examiners should be “careful to avoid oversimplifying the claims” by
looking at them generally and failing to account for the specific requirements of the
claims. McRO, 837 F.3d at 1313, 120 USPQ2d at 1100.
An important consideration in determining whether a
claim improves technology is the extent to which the claim covers a particular
solution to a problem or a particular way to achieve a desired outcome, as opposed to
merely claiming the idea of a solution or outcome. McRO, 837 F.3d
at 1314-15, 120 USPQ2d at 1102-03; DDR Holdings, 773 F.3d at 1259,
113 USPQ2d at 1107. In this respect, the improvement consideration overlaps with
other considerations, specifically the particular machine consideration (see
MPEP
§ 2106.05(b)), and the mere instructions to apply an
exception consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(f)). Thus, evaluation
of those other considerations may assist examiners in making a determination of
whether a claim satisfies the improvement consideration.
It is important to note, the judicial exception alone
cannot provide the improvement. The improvement can be provided by one or more
additional elements. See the discussion of Diamond v. Diehr, 450
U.S. 175, 187 and 191-92, 209 USPQ 1, 10 (1981)) in subsection II, below. In
addition, the improvement can be provided by the additional element(s) in combination
with the recited judicial exception. See MPEP §
2106.04(d) (discussing Finjan, Inc. v. Blue Coat
Sys., Inc., 879 F.3d 1299, 1303-04, 125 USPQ2d 1282, 1285-87 (Fed. Cir.
2018)). Thus, it is important for examiners to analyze the claim as a whole when
determining whether the claim provides an improvement to the functioning of computers
or an improvement to other technology or technical field.
During examination, the examiner should analyze the
“improvements” consideration by evaluating the specification and the claims to ensure
that a technical explanation of the asserted improvement is present in the
specification, and that the claim reflects the asserted improvement. Generally,
examiners are not expected to make a qualitative judgement on the merits of the
asserted improvement. If the examiner concludes the disclosed invention does not
improve technology, the burden shifts to applicant to provide persuasive arguments
supported by any necessary evidence to demonstrate that one of ordinary skill in the
art would understand that the disclosed invention improves technology. Any such
evidence submitted under 37 CFR 1.132 must establish what
the specification would convey to one of ordinary skill in the art and cannot be used
to supplement the specification. See, e.g.MPEP §
716.09 on 37 CFR 1.132 practice with
respect to rejections under 35 U.S.C. 112(a). For example, in
response to a rejection under 35 U.S.C. 101, an applicant could
submit a declaration under § 1.132 providing testimony on
how one of ordinary skill in the art would interpret the disclosed invention as
improving technology and the underlying factual basis for that conclusion.
I. IMPROVEMENTS TO COMPUTER
FUNCTIONALITY
In computer-related technologies, the examiner
should determine whether the claim purports to improve computer capabilities or,
instead, invokes computers merely as a tool. Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft
Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 1336, 118 USPQ2d 1684, 1689 (Fed. Cir. 2016).
In Enfish, the court evaluated the patent eligibility of claims
related to a self-referential database. Id. The court concluded
the claims were not directed to an abstract idea, but rather an improvement to
computer functionality. Id. It was the specification’s
discussion of the prior art and how the invention improved the way the computer
stores and retrieves data in memory in combination with the specific data
structure recited in the claims that demonstrated eligibility. 822 F.3d at 1339,
118 USPQ2d at 1691. The claim was not simply the addition of general purpose
computers added post-hoc to an abstract idea, but a specific implementation of a
solution to a problem in the software arts. 822 F.3d at 1339, 118 USPQ2d at
1691.
Examples that the courts have indicated may show
an improvement in computer-functionality:
v. A memory system having programmable
operational characteristics that are configurable based on the type of
processor, which can be used with different types of processors without a
tradeoff in processor performance, Visual Memory, LLC v. NVIDIA
Corp., 867 F.3d 1253, 1259-60, 123 USPQ2d 1712, 1717 (Fed. Cir.
2017);
vii. Particular structure of a server that stores
organized digital images, TLI Communications, 823 F.3d at
612, 118 USPQ2d at 1747 (finding the use of a generic server insufficient to
add inventive concepts to an abstract idea);
It is important to note that in order for a method
claim to improve computer functionality, the broadest reasonable interpretation of
the claim must be limited to computer implementation. That is, a claim whose
entire scope can be performed mentally, cannot be said to improve computer
technology. Synopsys, Inc. v. Mentor Graphics Corp., 839 F.3d
1138, 120 USPQ2d 1473 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (a method of translating a logic circuit
into a hardware component description of a logic circuit was found to be
ineligible because the method did not employ a computer and a skilled artisan
could perform all the steps mentally). Similarly, a claimed process covering
embodiments that can be performed on a computer, as well as embodiments that can
be practiced verbally or with a telephone, cannot improve computer technology. See
RecogniCorp, LLC v. Nintendo Co., 855 F.3d 1322, 1328, 122
USPQ2d 1377, 1381 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (process for encoding/decoding facial data
using image codes assigned to particular facial features held ineligible because
the process did not require a computer).
Examples that the courts have indicated may not be
sufficient to show an improvement in computer-functionality:
iv. Recording, transmitting, and archiving
digital images by use of conventional or generic technology in a nascent but
well-known environment, without any assertion that the invention reflects an
inventive solution to any problem presented by combining a camera and a
cellular telephone, TLI Communications, 823 F.3d at
611-12, 118 USPQ2d at 1747;
v. Affixing a barcode to a mail object in order
to more reliably identify the sender and speed up mail processing, without
any limitations specifying the technical details of the barcode or how it is
generated or processed, Secured Mail Solutions, LLC v. Universal
Wilde, Inc., 873 F.3d 905, 910-11, 124 USPQ2d 1502, 1505-06
(Fed. Cir. 2017);
vii. Providing historical usage information to
users while they are inputting data, in order to improve the quality and
organization of information added to a database, because “an improvement to
the information stored by a database is not equivalent to an improvement in
the database’s functionality,” BSG Tech LLC v. Buyseasons,
Inc., 899 F.3d 1281, 1287-88, 127 USPQ2d 1688, 1693-94 (Fed.
Cir. 2018); and
The courts have also found that improvements in
technology beyond computer functionality may demonstrate patent eligibility. In
McRO, the Federal Circuit held claimed methods of automatic
lip synchronization and facial expression animation using computer-implemented
rules to be patent eligible under 35 U.S.C. 101, because they
were not directed to an abstract idea. McRO, 837 F.3d at 1316,
120 USPQ2d at 1103. The basis for the McRO court's decision was
that the claims were directed to an improvement in computer animation and thus did
not recite a concept similar to previously identified abstract ideas.
Id. The court relied on the specification's explanation of
how the claimed rules enabled the automation of specific animation tasks that
previously could not be automated. 837 F.3d at 1313, 120 USPQ2d at 1101. The
McRO court indicated that it was the incorporation of the
particular claimed rules in computer animation that "improved [the] existing
technological process", unlike cases such as Alice where a
computer was merely used as a tool to perform an existing process. 837 F.3d at
1314, 120 USPQ2d at 1102. The McRO court also noted that the
claims at issue described a specific way (use of particular rules to set morph
weights and transitions through phonemes) to solve the problem of producing
accurate and realistic lip synchronization and facial expressions in animated
characters, rather than merely claiming the idea of a solution or outcome, and
thus were not directed to an abstract idea. 837 F.3d at 1313, 120 USPQ2d at 1101.
Consideration of improvements is relevant to the
eligibility analysis regardless of the technology of the claimed invention. That
is, the consideration applies equally whether it is a computer-implemented
invention, an invention in the life sciences, or any other technology. See,
e.g., Rapid Litigation Management v. CellzDirect, Inc., 827
F.3d 1042, 119 USPQ2d 1370 (Fed. Cir. 2016), in which the court noted that a
claimed process for preserving hepatocytes could be eligible as an improvement to
technology because the claim achieved a new and improved way for preserving
hepatocyte cells for later use, even though the claim is based on the discovery of
something natural. Notably, the court did not distinguish between the types of
technology when determining the invention improved technology. However, it is
important to keep in mind that an improvement in the abstract idea itself
(e.g. a recited fundamental economic concept) is not an
improvement in technology. For example, in Trading Technologies Int’l v.
IBG, 921 F.3d 1084, 1093-94, 2019 USPQ2d 138290 (Fed. Cir. 2019), the
court determined that the claimed user interface simply provided a trader with
more information to facilitate market trades, which improved the business process
of market trading but did not improve computers or technology.
Examples that the courts have indicated may be
sufficient to show an improvement in existing technology include:
i. Particular computerized method of operating
a rubber molding press, e.g., a modification of
conventional rubber-molding processes to utilize a thermocouple inside the
mold to constantly monitor the temperature and thus reduce under- and
over-curing problems common in the art, Diamond v. Diehr,
450 U.S. 175, 187 and 191-92, 209 USPQ 1, 8 and 10 (1981);
To show that the involvement of a computer assists
in improving the technology, the claims must recite the details regarding how a
computer aids the method, the extent to which the computer aids the method, or the
significance of a computer to the performance of the method. Merely adding generic
computer components to perform the method is not sufficient. Thus, the claim must
include more than mere instructions to perform the method on a generic component
or machinery to qualify as an improvement to an existing technology. See
MPEP § 2106.05(f) for more information about mere
instructions to apply an exception.
Examples that the courts have indicated may not be
sufficient to show an improvement to technology include:
2106.05(b) Particular Machine [R-07.2022]
When determining whether a claim integrates a
judicial exception, into a practical application in Step 2A Prong Two and whether a
claim recites significantly more than a judicial exception in Step 2B, examiners
should consider whether the judicial exception is applied with, or by use of, a
particular machine. "The machine-or-transformation test is a useful and important
clue, and investigative tool” for determining whether a claim is patent eligible
under §
101. Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 604, 95
USPQ2d 1001, 1007 (2010).
It is noted that while the application of a judicial
exception by or with a particular machine is an important clue, it is
not a stand-alone test for eligibility.
Id.
All claims must be evaluated for eligibility using the
two-part test from Alice/Mayo. If a claim passes the
Alice/Mayo test (i.e., is not directed to an
exception at Step 2A, or amounts to significantly more than any recited exception in
Step 2B), then the claim is eligible even if it fails the machine-or-transformation
test ("M-or-T test"). Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 604, 95
USPQ2d 1001, 1007 (2010) (explaining that a claim may be eligible even if it does not
satisfy the M-or-T test); McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am.
Inc., 837 F.3d 1299, 1315, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1102 (Fed. Cir. 2016)
(“[T]here is nothing that requires a method ‘be tied to a machine or transform an
article’ to be patentable”). And if a claim fails the Alice/Mayo
test (i.e., is directed to an exception at Step 2A and does not
amount to significantly more than the exception in Step 2B), then the claim is
ineligible even if it passes the M-or-T test. DDR Holdings, LLC v.
Hotels.com, L.P., 773 F.3d 1245, 1256, 113 USPQ2d 1097, 1104 (Fed. Cir.
2014) (“[I]n Mayo, the Supreme Court emphasized that satisfying
the machine-or-transformation test, by itself, is not sufficient to render a claim
patent-eligible, as not all transformations or machine implementations infuse an
otherwise ineligible claim with an 'inventive concept.'”).
Examiners may find it helpful to evaluate other
considerations such as the mere instructions to apply an exception consideration (see
MPEP §
2106.05(f)), the insignificant extra-solution activity
consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(g)), and the field of
use and technological environment consideration (see MPEP §
2106.05(h)), when making a determination of whether an
element (or combination of elements) is a particular machine. For information on the
definition of the term “machine,” see MPEP §
2106.03.
When determining whether a machine recited in a claim
provides significantly more, the following factors are relevant.
I. THE PARTICULARITY OR GENERALITY OF
THE ELEMENTS OF THE MACHINE OR APPARATUS
The particularity or generality of the elements of
the machine or apparatus, i.e., the degree to which the machine
in the claim can be specifically identified (not any and all machines). One
example of applying a judicial exception with a particular machine is
Mackay Radio & Tel. Co. v. Radio Corp. of America, 306
U.S. 86, 40 USPQ 199 (1939). In this case, a mathematical formula was employed to
use standing wave phenomena in an antenna system. The claim recited the particular
type of antenna and included details as to the shape of the antenna and the
conductors, particularly the length and angle at which they were arranged. 306
U.S. at 95-96; 40 USPQ at 203. Another example is Eibel
Process, in which gravity (a law of nature or natural phenomenon) was
applied by a Fourdrinier machine (which was understood in the art to have a
specific structure comprising a headbox, a paper-making wire, and a series of
rolls) arranged in a particular way to optimize the speed of the machine while
maintaining quality of the formed paper web. Eibel Process Co. v. Minn.
& Ont. Paper Co., 261 U.S. 45, 64-65 (1923).
It is important to note that a general purpose
computer that applies a judicial exception, such as an abstract idea, by use of
conventional computer functions does not qualify as a particular machine.
Ultramercial, Inc. v. Hulu, LLC, 772 F.3d 709, 716-17, 112
USPQ2d 1750, 1755-56 (Fed. Cir. 2014). See also TLI Communications LLC v.
AV Automotive LLC, 823 F.3d 607, 613, 118 USPQ2d 1744, 1748 (Fed.
Cir. 2016) (mere recitation of concrete or tangible components is not an inventive
concept); Eon Corp. IP Holdings LLC v. AT&T Mobility LLC,
785 F.3d 616, 623, 114 USPQ2d 1711, 1715 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (noting that
Alappat’s rationale that an otherwise ineligible algorithm
or software could be made patent-eligible by merely adding a generic computer to
the claim was superseded by the Supreme Court’s Bilski and
Alice Corp. decisions). If applicant amends a claim to add a
generic computer or generic computer components and asserts that the claim recites
significantly more because the generic computer is 'specially programmed' (as in
Alappat, now considered superseded) or is a 'particular
machine' (as in Bilski), the examiner should look at whether
the added elements integrate the exception into a practical application or provide
significantly more than the judicial exception. Merely adding a generic computer,
generic computer components, or a programmed computer to perform generic computer
functions does not automatically overcome an eligibility rejection. Alice
Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank Int’l, 573 U.S. 208, 223-24, 110 USPQ2d
1976, 1983-84 (2014). See In re Alappat, 33 F.3d 1526, 1545, 31
USPQ2d 1545, 1558 (Fed. Cir. 1994); In re Bilski, 545 F.3d 943,
88 USPQ2d 1385 (Fed. Cir. 2008)
II. WHETHER THE MACHINE OR APPARATUS
IMPLEMENTS THE STEPS OF THE METHOD
Integral use of a machine to achieve performance
of a method may integrate the recited judicial exception into a practical
application or provide significantly more, in contrast to where the machine is
merely an object on which the method operates, which does not integrate the
exception into a practical application or provide significantly more. See
CyberSource v. Retail Decisions, 654 F.3d 1366, 1370, 99
USPQ2d 1690, 1694 (Fed. Cir. 2011) ("We are not persuaded by the appellant's
argument that the claimed method is tied to a particular machine because it ‘would
not be necessary or possible without the Internet.’ . . . Regardless of whether
"the Internet" can be viewed as a machine, it is clear that the Internet cannot
perform the fraud detection steps of the claimed method"). For example, as
described in MPEP § 2106.05(f), additional
elements that invoke computers or other machinery merely as a tool to perform an
existing process will generally not amount to significantly more than a judicial
exception. See, e.g., Versata Development Group v. SAP America,
793 F.3d 1306, 1335, 115 USPQ2d 1681, 1702 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (explaining that in
order for a machine to add significantly more, it must “play a significant part in
permitting the claimed method to be performed, rather than function solely as an
obvious mechanism for permitting a solution to be achieved more quickly”).
III. WHETHER ITS INVOLVEMENT IS
EXTRA-SOLUTION ACTIVITY OR A FIELD-OF-USE
Whether its involvement is extra-solution activity
or a field-of-use, i.e., the extent to which (or how) the
machine or apparatus imposes meaningful limits on the claim. Use of a machine that
contributes only nominally or insignificantly to the execution of the claimed
method (e.g., in a data gathering step or in a field-of-use limitation) would not
integrate a judicial exception or provide significantly more. See
Bilski, 561 U.S. at 610, 95 USPQ2d at 1009 (citing
Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 590, 198 USPQ 193, 197
(1978)), and CyberSource v. Retail Decisions, 654 F.3d 1366,
1370, 99 USPQ2d 1690 (Fed. Cir. 2011) (citations omitted) (“[N]othing in claim 3
requires an infringer to use the Internet to obtain that data. The Internet is
merely described as the source of the data. We have held that mere
‘[data-gathering] step[s] cannot make an otherwise nonstatutory claim statutory.’”
654 F.3d at 1375, 99 USPQ2d at 1694 (citation omitted)). See MPEP § 2106.05(g) &
(h) for more information on insignificant extra-solution
activity and field of use, respectively.
2106.05(c) Particular Transformation [R-07.2022]
Another consideration when determining whether a
claim integrates a judicial exception into a practical application in Step 2A Prong
Two and whether a claim recites significantly more in Step 2B is whether the claim
effects a transformation or reduction of a particular article to a different state or
thing. "[T]ransformation and reduction of an article ‘to a different state or thing’
is the clue to patentability of a process claim that does not include particular
machines." Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 658, 95 USPQ2d 1001,
1007 (2010) (quoting Gottschalk v. Benson, 409 U.S. 63, 70, 175
USPQ 673, 676 (1972)). If such a transformation exists, the claims are likely to be
significantly more than any recited judicial exception or to integrate any recited
judicial exception into a practical application.
It is noted that while the transformation of an
article is an important clue, it is not a stand-alone test for
eligibility. Id.
All claims must be evaluated for eligibility using
the two-part test from Alice/Mayo. If a claim passes the
Alice/Mayo test (i.e., is not directed to an
exception at Step 2A, or amounts to significantly more than any recited exception in
Step 2B), then the claim is eligible even if it “fails” the M-or-T test.
Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 604, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1007
(2010) (explaining that a claim may be eligible even if it does not satisfy the
M-or-T test); McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am. Inc., 837 F.3d
1299, 1315, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1102 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (“[T]here is nothing that requires
a method ‘be tied to a machine or transform an article’ to be patentable”). And if a
claim fails the Alice/Mayo test (i.e., is
directed to an exception at Step 2A and does not amount to significantly more than
the exception in Step 2B), then the claim is ineligible even if it passes the M-or-T
test. DDR Holdings, LLC v. Hotels.com, L.P., 773 F.3d 1245, 1256,
113 USPQ2d 1097, 1104 (Fed. Cir. 2014) (“[I]n Mayo, the Supreme
Court emphasized that satisfying the machine-or-transformation test, by itself, is
not sufficient to render a claim patent-eligible, as not all transformations or
machine implementations infuse an otherwise ineligible claim with an “inventive
concept.”).
Examiners may find it helpful to evaluate other
considerations such as the mere instructions to apply an exception consideration (see
MPEP §
2106.05(f)), the insignificant extra-solution activity
consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(g)), and the field of
use and technological environment consideration (see MPEP §
2106.05(h)), when making a determination of whether a claim
satisfies the particular transformation consideration.
An “article” includes a physical object or substance.
The physical object or substance must be particular, meaning it can be specifically
identified. “Transformation” of an article means that the “article” has changed to a
different state or thing. Changing to a different state or thing usually means more
than simply using an article or changing the location of an article. A new or
different function or use can be evidence that an article has been transformed.
Purely mental processes in which thoughts or human based actions are “changed” are
not considered an eligible transformation. For data, mere “manipulation of basic
mathematical constructs [i.e.,] the paradigmatic ‘abstract idea,’” has not been
deemed a transformation. CyberSource v. Retail Decisions, 654 F.3d
1366, 1372 n.2, 99 USPQ2d 1690, 1695 n.2 (Fed. Cir. 2011) (quoting In re
Warmerdam, 33 F.3d 1354, 1355, 1360, 31 USPQ2d 1754, 1755, 1759 (Fed.
Cir. 1994)).
Tilghman v. Proctor, 102 U.S. 707
(1881), provides an example of effecting a transformation of a particular article to
a different state or thing. In that case, the claim was directed to a process of
subjecting a mixture of fat and water to a high degree of heat and included
additional parameters relating to the level of heat, the quantities of fat and water,
and the strength of the mixing vessel. The claimed process, which used the natural
principle that the elements of neutral fat require that they be severally united with
an atomic equivalent of water in order to separate and become free, resulted in the
transformation of the fatty bodies into fat acids and glycerine. Id. at
729.
Where a transformation is recited in a claim, the
following factors are relevant to the analysis:
2. The degree to which the recited article is
particular. A transformation applied to a generically recited
article or to any and all articles would likely not provide significantly more
than the judicial exception. A transformation that can be specifically
identified, or that applies to only particular articles, is more likely to
provide significantly more (or integrates a judicial exception into a practical
application).
3. The nature of the transformation in terms
of the type or extent of change in state or thing. A transformation
resulting in the transformed article having a different function or use, would
likely provide significantly more, but a transformation resulting in the
transformed article merely having a different location, would likely not
provide significantly more (or integrate a judicial exception into a practical
application). For example, a process that transforms raw, uncured synthetic
rubber into precision-molded synthetic rubber products, as discussed in
Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 184, 209 USPQ 1, 21
(1981)), provides significantly more (or integrate a judicial exception into a
practical application).
4. The nature of the article transformed.
Transformation of a physical or tangible object or substance is more
likely to provide significantly more (or integrate a judicial exception into a
practical application) than the transformation of an intangible concept such as
a contractual obligation or mental judgment.
5. Whether the transformation is
extra-solution activity or a field-of-use (i.e., the
extent to which (or how) the transformation imposes meaningful limits on the
execution of the claimed method steps). A transformation that
contributes only nominally or insignificantly to the execution of the claimed
method (e.g., in a data gathering step or in a field-of-use
limitation) would not provide significantly more (or integrate a judicial
exception into a practical application). For example, in
Mayo the Supreme Court found claims regarding calibrating
the proper dosage of thiopurine drugs to be patent ineligible subject matter.
The Federal Circuit had held that the step of administering the thiopurine drug
demonstrated a transformation of the human body and blood.
Mayo, 566 U.S. at 76, 101 USPQ2d at 1967. The Supreme
Court disagreed, finding that this step was only a field-of-use limitation and
did not provide significantly more than the judicial exception.
Id. See MPEP §
2106.05(g) &
(h) for more information on insignificant
extra-solution activity and field of use, respectively.
Another consideration when determining whether a claim
recites significantly more than a judicial exception is whether the additional
element(s) are well-understood, routine, conventional activities previously known to
the industry. This consideration is only evaluated in Step 2B of the eligibility
analysis.
If the additional element (or combination of elements)
is a specific limitation other than what is well-understood, routine and conventional
in the field, for instance because it is an unconventional step that confines the
claim to a particular useful application of the judicial exception, then this
consideration favors eligibility. If, however, the additional element (or combination
of elements) is no more than well-understood, routine, conventional activities
previously known to the industry, which is recited at a high level of generality,
then this consideration does not favor eligibility.
DDR Holdings, LLC v. Hotels.com,
L.P., 773 F.3d 1245, 113 USPQ2d 1097 (Fed. Cir. 2014), provides an
example of additional elements that favored eligibility because they were more than
well-understood, routine conventional activities in the field. The claims in
DDR Holdings were directed to systems and methods of generating
a composite webpage that combines certain visual elements of a host website with the
content of a third-party merchant. 773 F.3d at 1248, 113 USPQ2d at 1099. The court
found that the claim had additional elements that amounted to significantly more than
the abstract idea, because they modified conventional Internet hyperlink protocol to
dynamically produce a dual-source hybrid webpage, which differed from the
conventional operation of Internet hyperlink protocol that transported the user away
from the host’s webpage to the third party’s webpage when the hyperlink was
activated. 773 F.3d at 1258-59, 113 USPQ2d at 1106-07. Thus, the claims in
DDR Holdings were eligible.
On the other hand, Mayo Collaborative Servs.
v. Prometheus Labs., Inc., 566 U.S. 66, 67, 101 USPQ2d 1961, 1964 (2010)
provides an example of additional elements that were not an inventive concept because
they were merely well-understood, routine, conventional activity previously known to
the industry, which were not by themselves sufficient to transform a judicial
exception into a patent eligible invention. Mayo Collaborative Servs. v.
Prometheus Labs., Inc., 566 U.S. 66, 79-80, 101 USPQ2d 1969 (2012)
(citing Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 590, 198 USPQ 193, 199
(1978) (the additional elements were “well known” and, thus, did not amount to a
patentable application of the mathematical formula)). In Mayo, the
claims at issue recited naturally occurring correlations (the relationships between
the concentration in the blood of certain thiopurine metabolites and the likelihood
that a drug dosage will be ineffective or induce harmful side effects) along with
additional elements including telling a doctor to measure thiopurine metabolite
levels in the blood using any known process. 566 U.S. at 77-79, 101 USPQ2d at
1967-68. The Court found this additional step of measuring metabolite levels to be
well-understood, routine, conventional activity already engaged in by the scientific
community because scientists “routinely measured metabolites as part of their
investigations into the relationships between metabolite levels and efficacy and
toxicity of thiopurine compounds.” 566 U.S. at 79, 101 USPQ2d at 1968. Even when
considered in combination with the other additional elements, the step of measuring
metabolite levels did not amount to an inventive concept, and thus the claims in
Mayo were not eligible. 566 U.S. at 79-80, 101 USPQ2d at
1968-69.
When making a determination whether the additional
elements in a claim amount to significantly more than a judicial exception, the
examiner should evaluate whether the elements define only well-understood,
routine, conventional activity. In this respect, the well-understood, routine,
conventional consideration overlaps with other Step 2B considerations,
particularly the improvement consideration (see MPEP §
2106.05(a)), the mere instructions to apply an exception
consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(f)), and the
insignificant extra-solution activity consideration (see MPEP §
2106.05(g)). Thus, evaluation of those other
considerations may assist examiners in making a determination of whether a
particular element or combination of elements is well-understood, routine,
conventional activity.
In addition, examiners should keep in mind the
following points when determining whether additional elements define only
well-understood, routine, conventional activity.
1. An additional element (or combination
of additional elements) that is known in the art can still be
unconventional or non-routine. The question of whether a
particular claimed invention is novel or obvious is “fully apart” from the
question of whether it is eligible. Diamond v. Diehr, 450
U.S. 175, 190, 209 USPQ 1, 9 (1981). For example, claims may exhibit an
improvement over conventional computer functionality even if the improvement
lacks novelty over the prior art. Compare, e.g.,Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 118 USPQ2d
1684 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (holding several claims from U.S. Patent Nos.
6,151,604 and 6,163,775 eligible) with Microsoft Corp. v. Enfish,
LLC, 662 Fed. App'x 981 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (holding some of the
same claims to be anticipated by prior art). The eligible claims in
Enfish recited a self-referential database having two
key features: all entity types can be stored in a single table; and the
table rows can contain information defining the table columns.
Enfish, 822 F.3d at 1332, 118 USPQ2d at 1687. Although
these features were taught by a single prior art reference (thus
anticipating the claims), Microsoft Corp., 662 Fed. App'x
at 986, the features were not conventional and thus were considered to
reflect an improvement to existing technology. In particular, they enabled
the claimed table to achieve benefits over conventional databases, such as
increased flexibility, faster search times, and smaller memory requirements.
Enfish, 822 F.3d at 1337, 118 USPQ2d at 1690.
2. A factual determination is required to
support a conclusion that an additional element (or combination of
additional elements) is well-understood, routine, conventional
activity.Berkheimer v. HP, Inc., 881 F.3d 1360, 1368, 125 USPQ2d
1649, 1654 (Fed. Cir. 2018). However, this does not mean that a prior art
search is necessary to resolve this inquiry. Instead, examiners should rely
on what the courts have recognized, or those in the art would recognize, as
elements that are well-understood, routine, conventional activity in the
relevant field when making the required determination. For example, in many
instances, the specification of the application may indicate that additional
elements are well-known or conventional. See, e.g., Intellectual
Ventures v. Symantec, 838 F.3d 1307, 1317; 120 USPQ2d 1353,
1359 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (“The written description is particularly useful in
determining what is well-known or conventional”); Internet Patents
Corp. v. Active Network, Inc., 790 F.3d 1343, 1348, 115 USPQ2d
1414, 1418 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (relying on specification’s description of
additional elements as “well-known”, “common” and “conventional”);
TLI Communications LLC v. AV Auto. LLC, 823 F.3d 607,
614, 118 USPQ2d 1744, 1748 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (Specification described
additional elements as “either performing basic computer functions such as
sending and receiving data, or performing functions ‘known’ in the art.”).
As such, an examiner should determine that
an element (or combination of elements) is well-understood, routine,
conventional activity only when the examiner can readily conclude, based on
their expertise in the art, that the element is widely prevalent or in
common use in the relevant industry. The analysis as to whether an element
(or combination of elements) is widely prevalent or in common use is the
same as the analysis under 35 U.S.C. 112(a) as to
whether an element is so well-known that it need not be described in detail
in the patent specification. See Genetic Techs. Ltd. v. Merial
LLC, 818 F.3d 1369, 1377, 118 USPQ2d 1541, 1546 ( Fed. Cir.
2016) (supporting the position that amplification was well-understood,
routine, conventional for purposes of subject matter eligibility by
observing that the patentee expressly argued during prosecution of the
application that amplification was a technique readily practiced by those
skilled in the art to overcome the rejection of the claim under
35
U.S.C. 112, first paragraph); see also
Lindemann Maschinenfabrik GMBH v. Am. Hoist & Derrick
Co., 730 F.2d 1452, 1463, 221 USPQ 481, 489 (Fed. Cir. 1984)
("[T]he specification need not disclose what is well known in the art.");
In re Myers, 410 F.2d 420, 424, 161 USPQ 668, 671
(CCPA 1969) ("A specification is directed to those skilled in the art and
need not teach or point out in detail that which is well-known in the
art."); Exergen Corp., 725 Fed. App’x. 959, 965 (Fed.
Cir. 2018) (holding that "[l]ike indefiniteness, enablement, or obviousness,
whether a claim is directed to patent eligible subject matter is a question
of law based on underlying facts," and noting that the Supreme Court has
recognized that "the inquiry 'might sometimes overlap' with other
fact-intensive inquiries like novelty under 35 U.S.C. §
102"). If the element is not widely prevalent or in
common use, or is otherwise beyond those elements recognized in the art or
by the courts as being well-understood, routine or conventional, then the
element will in most cases favor eligibility. For example, even if a
particular technique (e.g., measuring blood glucose via
an earring worn by a person with diabetes) would have been obvious to one of
ordinary skill in the art because it was discussed in several widely-read
scientific journals or used by a few scientists, mere knowledge of the
particular technique or use of the particular technique by a few scientists
is not necessarily sufficient to make the use of the particular technique
routine or conventional in the relevant field. The examiner in this
situation would already know, based on the examiner's expertise in the
field, that blood glucose is routinely and conventionally monitored by other
techniques (e.g., via placing a small droplet of blood on
a diagnostic test strip, or via an implanted insulin pump with a glucose
sensor). Thus, the examiner would not need to perform a prior art search in
order to determine that the particular claimed technique using the
glucose-sensing earring was not well-understood, routine, conventional
activity previously engaged in by scientists in the field.
The required factual determination must be
expressly supported in writing, as discussed in MPEP §
2106.07(a). Appropriate forms of support include
one or more of the following: (a) A citation to an express statement in the
specification or to a statement made by an applicant during prosecution that
demonstrates the well-understood, routine, conventional nature of the
additional element(s); (b) A citation to one or more of the court decisions
discussed in Subsection II below as noting the well-understood, routine,
conventional nature of the additional element(s); (c) A citation to a
publication that demonstrates the well-understood, routine, conventional
nature of the additional element(s); and (d) A statement that the examiner
is taking official notice of the well-understood, routine, conventional
nature of the additional element(s). For more information on supporting a
conclusion that an additional element (or combination of additional
elements) is well-understood, routine, conventional activity, see
MPEP § 2106.07(a),
subsection III.
3. Even if one or more additional elements
are well-understood, routine, conventional activity when considered
individually, the combination of additional elements may amount to an
inventive concept.Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. at 188, 209 USPQ at 9 (1981)
(“[A] new combination of steps in a process may be patentable even though
all the constituents of the combination were well known and in common use
before the combination was made.”). For example, a microprocessor that
performs mathematical calculations and a clock that produces time data may
individually be generic computer components that perform merely generic
computer functions, but when combined may perform functions that are not
generic computer functions and thus be an inventive concept. See,
e.g. Rapid Litig. Mgmt. v. CellzDirect, Inc., 827 F.3d
1042, 1051, 119 USPQ2d 1370, 1375 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (holding that while the
additional steps of freezing and thawing hepatocytes were well known,
repeating those steps, contrary to what was taught in the art, was not
routine or conventional). For example, in BASCOM, even
though the court found that all of the additional elements in the claim
recited generic computer network or Internet components, the elements in
combination amounted to significantly more because of the non-conventional
and non-generic arrangement that provided a technical improvement in the
art. BASCOM Global Internet Servs. v. AT&T Mobility
LLC, 827 F.3d 1341, 1350-51, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1243-44
(2016).
A rejection should only be made if an examiner
relying on the examiner's expertise in the art can conclude in the Step 2B inquiry
that the additional elements do not amount to significantly more (Step 2B: NO). If
the elements or functions are beyond those recognized in the art or by the courts
as being well‐understood, routine, conventional activity, then the elements or
functions will in most cases amount to significantly more (Step 2B: YES). For more
information on formulating a subject matter eligibility rejection involving
well-understood, routine, conventional activity, see MPEP §
2106.07(a).
II. ELEMENTS THAT THE COURTS HAVE
RECOGNIZED AS WELL-UNDERSTOOD, ROUTINE, CONVENTIONAL ACTIVITY IN PARTICULAR
FIELDS
Because examiners should rely on what the courts
have recognized, or those of ordinary skill in the art would recognize, as
elements that describe well‐understood, routine activities, the following section
provides examples of elements that have been recognized by the courts as
well-understood, routine, conventional activity in particular fields. It should be
noted, however, that many of these examples failed to satisfy other considerations
(e.g., because they were recited at a high level of
generality and thus were mere instructions to apply an exception, or were
insignificant extra-solution activity). Thus, examiners should carefully analyze
additional elements in a claim with respect to all relevant Step 2B
considerations, including this consideration, before making a conclusion as to
whether they amount to an inventive concept.
The courts have recognized the following computer
functions as well‐understood, routine, and conventional functions when they are
claimed in a merely generic manner (e.g., at a high level of
generality) or as insignificant extra-solution activity.
ii. Performing repetitive calculations,
Flook, 437 U.S. at 594, 198 USPQ2d at 199 (recomputing
or readjusting alarm limit values); Bancorp Services v. Sun
Life, 687 F.3d 1266, 1278, 103 USPQ2d 1425, 1433 (Fed. Cir.
2012) (“The computer required by some of Bancorp’s claims
is employed only for its most basic function, the performance of repetitive
calculations, and as such does not impose meaningful limits on the scope of
those claims.”);
This listing is not meant to imply that all
computer functions are well‐understood, routine, conventional activities, or that
a claim reciting a generic computer component performing a generic computer
function is necessarily ineligible. See e.g. Amdocs (Israel), Ltd. v.
Openet Telecom, Inc., 841 F.3d 1288, 1316, 120 USPQ2d 1527, 1549
(Fed. Cir. 2016), BASCOM Global Internet Servs. v. AT&T Mobility
LLC, 827 F.3d 1341, 1348, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1241 (Fed. Cir. 2016).
Courts have held computer‐implemented processes not to be significantly more than
an abstract idea (and thus ineligible) where the claim as a whole amounts to
nothing more than generic computer functions merely used to implement an abstract
idea, such as an idea that could be done by a human analog (i.e., by hand or by
merely thinking). On the other hand, courts have held computer-implemented
processes to be significantly more than an abstract idea (and thus eligible),
where generic computer components are able in combination to perform functions
that are not merely generic. DDR Holdings, LLC v. Hotels.com,
L.P., 773 F.3d 1245, 1257-59, 113 USPQ2d 1097, 1105-07 (Fed. Cir.
2014).
The courts have recognized the following
laboratory techniques as well-understood, routine, conventional activity in the
life science arts when they are claimed in a merely generic manner
(e.g., at a high level of generality) or as insignificant
extra-solution activity:
Below are examples of other types of activity
that the courts have found to be well-understood, routine, conventional activity
when they are claimed in a merely generic manner (e.g., at a
high level of generality) or as insignificant extra-solution activity:
2106.05(e) Other Meaningful Limitations [R-10.2019]
The analysis of whether the claim includes other
meaningful limitations may be relevant for both eligibility analysis Step 2A Prong
Two, and Step 2B.
The claim should add meaningful limitations beyond
generally linking the use of the judicial exception to a particular technological
environment to transform the judicial exception into patent-eligible subject matter.
The phrase “meaningful limitations” has been used by the courts even before Alice and
Mayo in various contexts to describe additional elements that provide an inventive
concept to the claim as a whole. The considerations described in
MPEP §
2106.05(a)-(d) are meaningful limitations when they amount
to significantly more than the judicial exception, or when they integrate a judicial
exception into a practical application. This broad label signals that there can be
other considerations besides those described in MPEP §
2106.05(a)-(d) that when added to a judicial exception
amount to meaningful limitations that can transform a claim into patent-eligible
subject matter.
Diamond v. Diehr provides an
example of a claim that recited meaningful limitations beyond generally linking the
use of the judicial exception to a particular technological environment. 450 U.S.
175, 209 USPQ 1 (1981). In Diehr, the claim was directed to the
use of the Arrhenius equation (an abstract idea or law of nature) in an automated
process for operating a rubber-molding press. 450 U.S. at 177-78, 209 USPQ at 4. The
Court evaluated additional elements such as the steps of installing rubber in a
press, closing the mold, constantly measuring the temperature in the mold, and
automatically opening the press at the proper time, and found them to be meaningful
because they sufficiently limited the use of the mathematical equation to the
practical application of molding rubber products. 450 U.S. at 184, 187, 209 USPQ at
7, 8. In contrast, the claims in Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank
International did not meaningfully limit the abstract idea of mitigating
settlement risk. 573 U.S. 208, 110 USPQ2d 1976 (2014). In particular, the Court
concluded that the additional elements such as the data processing system and
communications controllers recited in the system claims did not meaningfully limit
the abstract idea because they merely linked the use of the abstract idea to a
particular technological environment (i.e., “implementation via computers”) or were
well-understood, routine, conventional activity recited at a high level of
generality. 573 U.S. at 225-26, 110 USPQ2d at 1984-85.
Classen Immunotherapies Inc. v. Biogen IDEC provides another
example of claims that recited meaningful limitations. 659 F.3d 1057, 100 USPQ2d 1492
(Fed. Cir. 2011) (decision on remand from the Supreme Court, which had vacated the
lower court’s prior holding of ineligibility in view of Bilski v.
Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 95 USPQ2d 1001 (2010)). In
Classen, the claims recited methods that gathered and analyzed
the effects of particular immunization schedules on the later development of chronic
immune-mediated disorders in mammals in order to identify a lower risk immunization
schedule, and then immunized mammalian subjects in accordance with the identified
lower risk schedule (thereby lowering the risk that the immunized subject would later
develop chronic immune-mediated diseases). 659 F.3d at 1060-61; 100 USPQ2d at
1495-96. Although the analysis step was an abstract mental process that collected and
compared known information, the immunization step was meaningful because it
integrated the results of the analysis into a specific and tangible method that
resulted in the method “moving from abstract scientific principle to specific
application.” 659 F.3d at 1066-68; 100 USPQ2d at 1500-01. In contrast, in
OIP Technologies, Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc., the court
determined that the additional steps to “test prices and collect data based on the
customer reactions” did not meaningfully limit the abstract idea of offer-based price
optimization, because the steps were well-understood, routine, conventional
data-gathering activities. 788 F.3d 1359, 1363-64, 115 USPQ2d 1090, 1093 (Fed. Cir.
2015).
With respect to treatment or prophylaxis limitations,
such as the immunization step in Classen, examiners should note
that the other meaningful limitations consideration overlaps with the particular
treatment or prophylaxis consideration that is evaluated in Step 2A Prong Two (see
MPEP §
2106.04(d)(2)).
When evaluating whether additional elements
meaningfully limit the judicial exception, it is particularly critical that examiners
consider the additional elements both individually and as a combination. When an
additional element is considered individually by an examiner, the additional element
may be enough to qualify as “significantly more” if it meaningfully limits the
judicial exception, and may also add a meaningful limitation by integrating the
judicial exception into a practical application. However, even in the situation where
the individually-viewed elements do not add significantly more or integrate the
exception, those additional elements when viewed in combination may render the claim
eligible. See Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 188, 209 USPQ2d 1, 9
(1981) (“a new combination of steps in a process may be patentable even though all
the constituents of the combination were well known and in common use before the
combination was made”); BASCOM Global Internet Servs. v. AT&T Mobility
LLC, 827 F.3d 1341, 1349, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1242 (Fed. Cir. 2016). It is
important to note that, when appropriate, an examiner may explain on the record why
the additional elements meaningfully limit the judicial exception.
2106.05(f) Mere Instructions To Apply An
Exception [R-10.2019]
Another consideration when determining whether a
claim integrates a judicial exception into a practical application in Step 2A Prong
Two or recites significantly more than a judicial exception in Step 2B is whether the
additional elements amount to more than a recitation of the words “apply it” (or an
equivalent) or are more than mere instructions to implement an abstract idea or other
exception on a computer. As explained by the Supreme Court, in order to make a claim
directed to a judicial exception patent-eligible, the additional element or
combination of elements must do “‘more than simply stat[e] the [judicial exception]
while adding the words ‘apply it’”. Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank, 573
U.S. 208, 221, 110 USPQ2d 1976, 1982-83 (2014) (quoting Mayo Collaborative
Servs. V. Prometheus Labs., Inc., 566 U.S. 66, 72, 101 USPQ2d 1961,
1965). Thus, for example, claims that amount to nothing more than an instruction to
apply the abstract idea using a generic computer do not render an abstract idea
eligible. Alice Corp., 573 U.S. at 223, 110 USPQ2d at 1983. See
also 573 U.S. at 224, 110 USPQ2d at 1984 (warning against a § 101 analysis
that turns on “the draftsman’s art”).
The Supreme Court has identified additional elements
as mere instructions to apply an exception in several cases. For instance, in
Mayo, the Supreme Court concluded that a step of determining
thiopurine metabolite levels in patients’ blood did not amount to significantly more
than the recited laws of nature, because this additional element simply instructed
doctors to apply the laws by measuring the metabolites in any way the doctors (or
medical laboratories) chose to use. 566 U.S. at 79, 101 USPQ2d at 1968. In
Alice Corp., the claim recited the concept of intermediated
settlement as performed by a generic computer. The Court found that the recitation of
the computer in the claim amounted to mere instructions to apply the abstract idea on
a generic computer. 573 U.S. at 225-26, 110 USPQ2d at 1984. The Supreme Court also
discussed this concept in an earlier case, Gottschalk v. Benson,
409 U.S. 63, 70, 175 USPQ 673, 676 (1972), where the claim recited a process for
converting binary-coded-decimal (BCD) numerals into pure binary numbers. The Court
found that the claimed process had no meaningful practical application except in
connection with a computer. Benson, 409 U.S. at 71-72, 175 USPQ at
676. The claim simply stated a judicial exception (e.g., law of
nature or abstract idea) while effectively adding words that “apply it” in a
computer. Id.
Requiring more than mere instructions to apply an
exception does not mean that the claim must be narrow in order to be eligible. The
courts have identified some broad claims as eligible see, e.g.,McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am. Inc., 837 F.3d 1299, 120
USPQ2d 1091 (Fed. Cir. 2016); Thales Visionix Inc. v. United
States, 850 F.3d. 1343, 121 USPQ2d 1898 (Fed. Cir. 2017), and some
narrow claims as ineligible see e.g.,Ultramercial, Inc. v. Hulu, LLC, 772 F.3d 709, 112 USPQ2d 1750
(Fed. Cir. 2014); Electric Power Group, LLC v. Alstom, S.A., 830
F.3d 1350, 119 USPQ2d 1739 (Fed. Cir. 2016). Thus, examiners should carefully
consider each claim on its own merits, as well as evaluate all other relevant
considerations, before making a determination of whether an element (or combination
of elements) is more than mere instructions to apply an exception. For example,
because this consideration often overlaps with the improvement consideration (see
MPEP §
2106.05(a)), the particular machine and particular
transformation considerations (see MPEP § 2106.05(b) and
(c), respectively), and the well-understood, routine,
conventional consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(d)), evaluation of
those other considerations may assist examiners in making a determination of whether
an element (or combination of elements) is more than mere instructions to apply an
exception. Note, however, that examiners should not evaluate the well-understood,
routine, conventional consideration in the Step 2A Prong Two analysis, because that
consideration is only evaluated in Step 2B.
For claim limitations that do not amount to more than
a recitation of the words “apply it” (or an equivalent), such as mere instructions to
implement an abstract idea on a computer, examiners should explain why they do not
meaningfully limit the claim in an eligibility rejection. For example, an examiner
could explain that implementing an abstract idea on a generic computer, does not
integrate the abstract idea into a practical application in Step 2A Prong Two or add
significantly more in Step 2B, similar to how the recitation of the computer in the
claim in Alice amounted to mere instructions to apply the abstract
idea of intermediated settlement on a generic computer. For more information on
formulating a subject matter eligibility rejection. See MPEP §
2106.07(a).
When determining whether a claim simply recites a
judicial exception with the words “apply it” (or an equivalent), such as mere
instructions to implement an abstract idea on a computer, examiners may consider the
following:
(1) Whether the claim recites only the idea of a solution or outcome
i.e., the claim fails to recite details of how a solution to
a problem is accomplished. The recitation of claim limitations that attempt
to cover any solution to an identified problem with no restriction on how the result
is accomplished and no description of the mechanism for accomplishing the result,
does not integrate a judicial exception into a practical application or provide
significantly more because this type of recitation is equivalent to the words “apply
it”. See Electric Power Group, LLC v. Alstom, S.A., 830 F.3d 1350,
1356, 119 USPQ2d 1739, 1743-44 (Fed. Cir. 2016); Intellectual Ventures I v.
Symantec, 838 F.3d 1307, 1327, 120 USPQ2d 1353, 1366 (Fed. Cir. 2016);
Internet Patents Corp. v. Active Network, Inc., 790 F.3d 1343,
1348, 115 USPQ2d 1414, 1417 (Fed. Cir. 2015). In contrast, claiming a particular
solution to a problem or a particular way to achieve a desired outcome may integrate
the judicial exception into a practical application or provide significantly more.
See Electric Power, 830 F.3d at 1356, 119 USPQ2d at 1743.
By way of example, in Intellectual Ventures
I v. Capital One Fin. Corp., 850 F.3d 1332, 121 USPQ2d 1940 (Fed. Cir.
2017), the steps in the claims described “the creation of a dynamic document based
upon ‘management record types’ and ‘primary record types.’” 850 F.3d at 1339-40; 121
USPQ2d at 1945-46. The claims were found to be directed to the abstract idea of
“collecting, displaying, and manipulating data.” 850 F.3d at 1340; 121 USPQ2d at
1946. In addition to the abstract idea, the claims also recited the additional
element of modifying the underlying XML document in response to modifications made in
the dynamic document. 850 F.3d at 1342; 121 USPQ2d at 1947-48. Although the claims
purported to modify the underlying XML document in response to modifications made in
the dynamic document, nothing in the claims indicated what specific steps were
undertaken other than merely using the abstract idea in the context of XML documents.
The court thus held the claims ineligible, because the additional limitations
provided only a result-oriented solution and lacked details as to how the computer
performed the modifications, which was equivalent to the words “apply it”. 850 F.3d
at 1341-42; 121 USPQ2d at 1947-48 (citing Electric Power Group.,
830 F.3d at 1356, 1356, USPQ2d at 1743-44 (cautioning against claims “so result
focused, so functional, as to effectively cover any solution to an identified
problem”)).
Other examples where the courts have found the
additional elements to be mere instructions to apply an exception, because they
recite no more than an idea of a solution or outcome include:
ii. A general method of screening emails on a
generic computer without any limitations that addressed the issues of shrinking
the protection gap and mooting the volume problem, Intellectual
Ventures I v. Symantec Corp., 838 F.3d 1307, 1319, 120 USPQ2d
1353, 1361 (Fed. Cir. 2016); and
In contrast, other cases have found that additional
elements are more than “apply it” or are not “mere instructions” when the claim
recites a technological solution to a technological problem. In DDR
Holdings, the court found that the additional elements did amount to
more than merely instructing that the abstract idea should be applied on the
Internet. DDR Holdings, LLC v. Hotels.com, L.P., 773 F.3d 1245,
1259, 113 USPQ2d 1097, 1107 (Fed. Cir. 2014). The claims at issue specified how
interactions with the Internet were manipulated to yield a desired result—a result
that overrode the routine and conventional sequence of events ordinarily triggered by
the click of a hyperlink. 773 F.3d at 1258; 113 USPQ2d at 1106. In
BASCOM, the court determined that the claimed combination of
limitations did not simply recite an instruction to apply the abstract idea of
filtering content on the Internet. BASCOM Global Internet Servs. v. AT&T
Mobility, LLC, 827 F.3d 1341, 1350, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1243 (Fed. Cir.
2016). Instead, the claim recited a “technology based solution” of filtering content
on the Internet that overcome the disadvantages of prior art filtering systems. 827
F.3d at 1350-51, 119 USPQ2d at 1243. Finally, in Thales Visionix,
the particular configuration of inertial sensors and the particular method of using
the raw data from the sensors was more than simply applying a law of nature.
Thales Visionix, Inc. v. United States, 850 F.3d 1343, 1348-49,
121 USPQ2d 1898, 1902 (Fed. Cir. 2017). The court found that the claims provided a
system and method that “eliminate[d] many ‘complications’ inherent in previous
solutions for determining position and orientation of an object on a moving
platform.” In other words, the claim recited a technological solution to a
technological problem. Id.
(2) Whether the claim invokes computers or
other machinery merely as a tool to perform an existing process. Use of a
computer or other machinery in its ordinary capacity for economic or other tasks
(e.g., to receive, store, or transmit data) or simply adding a
general purpose computer or computer components after the fact to an abstract idea
(e.g., a fundamental economic practice or mathematical
equation) does not integrate a judicial exception into a practical application or
provide significantly more. See Affinity Labs v. DirecTV, 838 F.3d
1253, 1262, 120 USPQ2d 1201, 1207 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (cellular telephone); TLI
Communications LLC v. AV Auto, LLC, 823 F.3d 607, 613, 118 USPQ2d 1744,
1748 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (computer server and telephone unit). Similarly, “claiming the
improved speed or efficiency inherent with applying the abstract idea on a computer”
does not integrate a judicial exception into a practical application or provide an
inventive concept. Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Capital One Bank
(USA), 792 F.3d 1363, 1367, 115 USPQ2d 1636, 1639 (Fed. Cir. 2015). In
contrast, a claim that purports to improve computer capabilities or to improve an
existing technology may integrate a judicial exception into a practical application
or provide significantly more. McRO, Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am.
Inc., 837 F.3d 1299, 1314-15, 120 USPQ2d 1091, 1101-02 (Fed. Cir. 2016);
Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 1335-36, 118
USPQ2d 1684, 1688-89 (Fed. Cir. 2016). See MPEP §§
2106.04(d)(1) and 2106.05(a) for a discussion of improvements to the
functioning of a computer or to another technology or technical field.
TLI Communications provides an
example of a claim invoking computers and other machinery merely as a tool to perform
an existing process. The court stated that the claims describe steps of recording,
administration and archiving of digital images, and found them to be directed to the
abstract idea of classifying and storing digital images in an organized manner. 823
F.3d at 612, 118 USPQ2d at 1747. The court then turned to the additional elements of
performing these functions using a telephone unit and a server and noted that these
elements were being used in their ordinary capacity (i.e., the
telephone unit is used to make calls and operate as a digital camera including
compressing images and transmitting those images, and the server simply receives
data, extracts classification information from the received data, and stores the
digital images based on the extracted information). 823 F.3d at 612-13, 118 USPQ2d at
1747-48. In other words, the claims invoked the telephone unit and server merely as
tools to execute the abstract idea. Thus, the court found that the additional
elements did not add significantly more to the abstract idea because they were simply
applying the abstract idea on a telephone network without any recitation of details
of how to carry out the abstract idea.
Other examples where the courts have found the
additional elements to be mere instructions to apply an exception, because they do no
more than merely invoke computers or machinery as a tool to perform an existing
process include:
ii. Generating a second menu from a first menu and
sending the second menu to another location as performed by generic computer
components, Apple, Inc. v. Ameranth, Inc., 842 F.3d 1229,
1243-44, 120 USPQ2d 1844, 1855-57 (Fed. Cir. 2016);
v. Requiring the use of software to tailor
information and provide it to the user on a generic computer,
Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Capital One Bank (USA),
792 F.3d 1363, 1370-71, 115 USPQ2d 1636, 1642 (Fed. Cir. 2015); and
vi. A method of assigning hair designs to balance
head shape with a final step of using a tool (scissors) to cut the hair,
In re Brown, 645 Fed. App'x 1014, 1017 (Fed. Cir. 2016)
(non-precedential).
(3) The particularity or generality of the
application of the judicial exception. A claim having broad applicability
across many fields of endeavor may not provide meaningful limitations that integrate
a judicial exception into a practical application or amount to significantly more.
For instance, a claim that generically recites an effect of the judicial exception or
claims every mode of accomplishing that effect, amounts to a claim that is merely
adding the words “apply it” to the judicial exception. See Internet Patents
Corporation v. Active Network, Inc., 790 F.3d 1343, 1348, 115 USPQ2d
1414, 1418 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (The recitation of maintaining the state of data in an
online form without restriction on how the state is maintained and with no
description of the mechanism for maintaining the state describes “the effect or
result dissociated from any method by which maintaining the state is accomplished”
and does not provide a meaningful limitation because it merely states that the
abstract idea should be applied to achieve a desired result). See also
O’Reilly v. Morse, 56 U.S. 62 (1854) (finding ineligible a
claim for “the use of electromagnetism for transmitting signals at a distance”); The
Telephone Cases, 126 U.S. 1, 209 (1888) (finding a method of
“transmitting vocal or other sound telegraphically ... by causing electrical
undulations, similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal
or other sounds,” to be ineligible, because it “monopolize[d] a natural force” and
“the right to avail of that law by any means whatever.”).
In contrast, limitations that confine the judicial
exception to a particular, practical application of the judicial exception may amount
to significantly more or integrate the judicial exception into a practical
application. For example, in BASCOM, the combination of additional
elements, and specifically “the installation of a filtering tool at a specific
location, remote from the end‐users, with customizable filtering features specific to
each end user” where the filtering tool at the ISP was able to “identify individual
accounts that communicate with the ISP server, and to associate a request for
Internet content with a specific individual account,” were held to be meaningful
limitations because they confined the abstract idea of content filtering to a
particular, practical application of the abstract idea. 827 F.3d at 1350-51, 119
USPQ2d at 1243.
2106.05(g) Insignificant Extra-Solution
Activity [R-10.2019]
Another consideration when determining whether a
claim integrates the judicial exception into a practical application in Step 2A Prong
Two or recites significantly more in Step 2B is whether the additional elements add
more than insignificant extra-solution activity to the judicial exception. The term
“extra-solution activity” can be understood as activities incidental to the primary
process or product that are merely a nominal or tangential addition to the claim.
Extra-solution activity includes both pre-solution and post-solution activity. An
example of pre-solution activity is a step of gathering data for use in a claimed
process, e.g., a step of obtaining information about credit card
transactions, which is recited as part of a claimed process of analyzing and
manipulating the gathered information by a series of steps in order to detect whether
the transactions were fraudulent. An example of post-solution activity is an element
that is not integrated into the claim as a whole, e.g., a printer
that is used to output a report of fraudulent transactions, which is recited in a
claim to a computer programmed to analyze and manipulate information about credit
card transactions in order to detect whether the transactions were fraudulent.
As explained by the Supreme Court, the addition of
insignificant extra-solution activity does not amount to an inventive concept,
particularly when the activity is well-understood or conventional. Parker v.
Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 588-89, 198 USPQ 193, 196 (1978). In
Flook, the Court reasoned that “[t]he notion that post-solution
activity, no matter how conventional or obvious in itself, can transform an
unpatentable principle into a patentable process exalts form over substance. A
competent draftsman could attach some form of post-solution activity to almost any
mathematical formula”. 437 U.S. at 590; 198 USPQ at 197; Id.
(holding that step of adjusting an alarm limit variable to a figure computed
according to a mathematical formula was “post-solution activity”). See also
Mayo Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs. Inc., 566 U.S.
66, 79, 101 USPQ2d 1961, 1968 (2012) (additional element of measuring metabolites of
a drug administered to a patient was insignificant extra-solution activity).
Examiners should carefully consider each claim on
its own merits, as well as evaluate all other relevant considerations, before making
a determination of whether an element (or combination of elements) is insignificant
extra-solution activity. In particular, evaluation of the particular machine and
particular transformation considerations (see MPEP § 2106.05(b) and
(c), respectively), the well-understood, routine,
conventional consideration (see MPEP § 2106.05(d)), and the field of
use and technological environment consideration (see MPEP §
2106.05(h)) may assist examiners in making a determination
of whether an element (or combination of elements) is insignificant extra-solution
activity. Note, however, that examiners should not evaluate the well-understood,
routine, conventional consideration in the Step 2A Prong Two analysis, because that
consideration is only evaluated in Step 2B.
This consideration is similar to factors used in past
Office guidance (for example, the now superseded Bilski and
Mayo analyses) that were described as mere data gathering in
conjunction with a law of nature or abstract idea. When determining whether an
additional element is insignificant extra-solution activity, examiners may consider
the following:
(1) Whether the extra-solution limitation is well
known. See Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 611-12, 95
USPQ2d 1001, 1010 (2010) (well-known random analysis techniques to establish the
inputs of an equation were token extra-solution activity); Flook,
437 U.S. at 593-95, 198 USPQ at 197 (a formula would not be patentable by only
indicating that is could be usefully applied to existing surveying techniques);
Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Erie Indem. Co., 850 F.3d 1315,
1328-29, 121 USPQ2d 1928, 1937 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (the use of a well-known XML tag to
form an index was deemed token extra-solution activity). Because this overlaps with
the well-understood, routine, conventional consideration, it should not be considered
in the Step 2A Prong Two extra-solution activity analysis.
(2) Whether the limitation is significant
(i.e. it imposes meaningful limits on the claim such that it
is not nominally or tangentially related to the invention). See
Ultramercial, Inc. v. Hulu, LLC, 772 F.3d 709, 715-16, 112 USPQ2d 1750,
1755 (Fed. Cir. 2014) (restricting public access to media was found to be
insignificant extra-solution activity); Apple, Inc. v. Ameranth,
Inc., 842 F.3d 1229, 1242, 120 USPQ2d 1844, 1855 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (in
patents regarding electronic menus, features related to types of ordering were found
to be insignificant extra-solution activity). This is considered in Step 2A Prong Two
and Step 2B.
ii. Testing a system for a response, the
response being used to determine system malfunction, In re
Meyers, 688 F.2d 789, 794; 215 USPQ 193, 196-97 (CCPA 1982);
iii. Presenting offers to potential customers
and gathering statistics generated based on the testing about how
potential customers responded to the offers; the statistics are then used
to calculate an optimized price, OIP Technologies, 788
F.3d at 1363, 115 USPQ2d at 1092-93;
vi. Determining the level of a biomarker in
blood, Mayo, 566 U.S. at 79, 101 USPQ2d at 1968. See
also PerkinElmer, Inc. v. Intema Ltd., 496 Fed. App'x
65, 73, 105 USPQ2d 1960, 1966 (Fed. Cir. 2012) (assessing or measuring
data derived from an ultrasound scan, to be used in a diagnosis).
• Selecting a particular data source or type of data to be
manipulated:
For claim limitations that add insignificant
extra-solution activity to the judicial exception (e.g., mere data
gathering in conjunction with a law of nature or abstract idea), examiners should
explain in an eligibility rejection why they do not meaningfully limit the claim. For
example, an examiner could explain that adding a final step of storing data to a
process that only recites computing the area of a space (a mathematical relationship)
does not add a meaningful limitation to the process of computing the area. For more
information on formulating a subject matter eligibility rejection, see
MPEP
§ 2106.07(a).
2106.05(h) Field of Use and Technological
Environment [R-10.2019]
Another consideration when determining whether a
claim integrates the judicial exception into a practical application in Step 2A Prong
Two or recites significantly more than a judicial exception in Step 2B is whether the
additional elements amount to more than generally linking the use of a judicial
exception to a particular technological environment or field of use. As explained by
the Supreme Court, a claim directed to a judicial exception cannot be made eligible
“simply by having the applicant acquiesce to limiting the reach of the patent for the
formula to a particular technological use.” Diamond v. Diehr, 450
U.S. 175, 192 n.14, 209 USPQ 1, 10 n. 14 (1981). Thus, limitations that amount to
merely indicating a field of use or technological environment in which to apply a
judicial exception do not amount to significantly more than the exception itself, and
cannot integrate a judicial exception into a practical application.
The courts often cite to Parker v.
Flook as providing a classic example of a field of use limitation. See,
e.g., Bilski v. Kappos, 561 U.S. 593, 612, 95 USPQ2d 1001, 1010
(2010) (“Flook established that limiting an abstract idea to one
field of use or adding token postsolution components did not make the concept
patentable”) (citing Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 198 USPQ 193
(1978)). In Flook, the claim recited steps of calculating an
updated value for an alarm limit (a numerical limit on a process variable such as
temperature, pressure or flow rate) according to a mathematical formula “in a process
comprising the catalytic chemical conversion of hydrocarbons.” 437 U.S. at 586, 198
USPQ at 196. Processes for the catalytic chemical conversion of hydrocarbons were
used in the petrochemical and oil-refining fields. Id. Although
the applicant argued that limiting the use of the formula to the petrochemical and
oil-refining fields should make the claim eligible because this limitation ensured
that the claim did not preempt all uses of the formula, the Supreme Court disagreed.
437 U.S. at 588-90, 198 USPQ at 197-98. Instead, the additional element in
Flook regarding the catalytic chemical conversion of
hydrocarbons was not sufficient to make the claim eligible, because it was merely an
incidental or token addition to the claim that did not alter or affect how the
process steps of calculating the alarm limit value were performed. Further, the
Supreme Court found that this limitation did not amount to an inventive concept. 437
U.S. at 588-90, 198 USPQ at 197-98. The Court reasoned that to hold otherwise would
“exalt[] form over substance”, because a competent claim drafter could attach a
similar type of limitation to almost any mathematical formula. 437 U.S. at 590, 198
USPQ at 197.
In contrast, the additional elements in
Diamond v. Diehr as a whole provided eligibility and did not
merely recite calculating a cure time using the Arrhenius equation “in a rubber
molding process”. Instead, the claim in Diehr recited specific
limitations such as monitoring the elapsed time since the mold was closed, constantly
measuring the temperature in the mold cavity, repetitively calculating a cure time by
inputting the measured temperature into the Arrhenius equation, and opening the press
automatically when the calculated cure time and the elapsed time are equivalent. 450
U.S. at 179, 209 USPQ at 5, n. 5. These specific limitations act in concert to
transform raw, uncured rubber into cured molded rubber. 450 U.S. at 177-78, 209 USPQ
at 4.
A more recent example of a limitation that does no
more than generally link a judicial exception to a particular technological
environment is Affinity Labs of Texas v. DirecTV, LLC, 838 F.3d
1253, 120 USPQ2d 1201 (Fed. Cir. 2016). In Affinity Labs, the
claim recited a broadcast system in which a cellular telephone located outside the
range of a regional broadcaster (1) requests and receives network-based content from
the broadcaster via a streaming signal, (2) is configured to wirelessly download an
application for performing those functions, and (3) contains a display that allows
the user to select particular content. 838 F.3d at 1255-56, 120 USPQ2d at 1202. The
court identified the claimed concept of providing out-of-region access to regional
broadcast content as an abstract idea, and noted that the additional elements limited
the wireless delivery of regional broadcast content to cellular telephones (as
opposed to any and all electronic devices such as televisions, cable boxes,
computers, or the like). 838 F.3d at 1258-59, 120 USPQ2d at 1204. Although the
additional elements did limit the use of the abstract idea, the court explained that
this type of limitation merely confines the use of the abstract idea to a particular
technological environment (cellular telephones) and thus fails to add an inventive
concept to the claims. 838 F.3d at 1259, 120 USPQ2d at 1204.
Examples of limitations that the courts have
described as merely indicating a field of use or technological environment in which
to apply a judicial exception include:
i. A step of administering a drug providing
6-thioguanine to patients with an immune-mediated gastrointestinal disorder,
because limiting drug administration to this patient population did no more
than simply refer to the relevant pre-existing audience of doctors who used
thiopurine drugs to treat patients suffering from autoimmune disorders,
Mayo Collaborative Servs. v. Prometheus Labs. Inc., 566
U.S. 66, 78, 101 USPQ2d 1961, 1968 (2012);
ii. Identifying the participants in a process for
hedging risk as commodity providers and commodity consumers, because limiting
the use of the process to these participants did no more than describe how the
abstract idea of hedging risk could be used in the commodities and energy
markets, Bilski, 561 U.S. at 595, 95 USPQ2d at 1010;
iii. Limiting the use of the formula C = 2 (pi) r to
determining the circumference of a wheel as opposed to other circular objects,
because this limitation represents a mere token acquiescence to limiting the
reach of the claim, Flook, 437 U.S. at 595, 198 USPQ at
199;
iv. Specifying that the abstract idea of monitoring
audit log data relates to transactions or activities that are executed in a
computer environment, because this requirement merely limits the claims to the
computer field, i.e., to execution on a generic computer,
FairWarning v. Iatric Sys., 839 F.3d 1089, 1094-95, 120
USPQ2d 1293, 1295 (Fed. Cir. 2016);
v. Language specifying that the process steps of
virus screening were used within a telephone network or the Internet, because
limiting the use of the process to these technological environments did not
provide meaningful limits on the claim, Intellectual Ventures I v.
Symantec Corp., 838 F.3d 1307, 1319-20, 120 USPQ2d 1353, 1361
(2016);
vi. Limiting the abstract idea of collecting
information, analyzing it, and displaying certain results of the collection and
analysis to data related to the electric power grid, because limiting
application of the abstract idea to power-grid monitoring is simply an attempt
to limit the use of the abstract idea to a particular technological
environment, Electric Power Group, LLC v. Alstom S.A., 830
F.3d 1350, 1354, 119 USPQ2d 1739, 1742 (Fed. Cir. 2016);
vii. Language informing doctors to apply a law of
nature (linkage disequilibrium) for purposes of detecting a genetic
polymorphism, because this language merely informs the relevant audience that
the law of nature can be used in this manner, Genetic Techs. Ltd. v.
Merial LLC, 818 F.3d 1369, 1379, 118 USPQ2d 1541, 1549 (Fed. Cir.
2016);
viii. Language specifying that the abstract idea of
budgeting was to be implemented using a “communication medium” that broadly
included the Internet and telephone networks, because this limitation merely
limited the use of the exception to a particular technological environment,
Intellectual Ventures I v. Capital One Bank, 792 F.3d
1363, 1367, 115 USPQ2d 1636, 1640 (Fed. Cir. 2015);
ix. Specifying that the abstract idea of using
advertising as currency is used on the Internet, because this narrowing
limitation is merely an attempt to limit the use of the abstract idea to a
particular technological environment, Ultramercial, Inc. v. Hulu,
LLC, 772 F.3d 709, 716, 112 USPQ2d 1750, 1755 (Fed. Cir. 2014);
and
x. Requiring that the abstract idea of creating a
contractual relationship that guarantees performance of a transaction (a) be
performed using a computer that receives and sends information over a network,
or (b) be limited to guaranteeing online transactions, because these
limitations simply attempted to limit the use of the abstract idea to computer
environments, buySAFE Inc. v. Google, Inc., 765 F.3d 1350,
1354, 112 USPQ2d 1093, 1095-96 (Fed. Cir. 2014).
Examiners should be aware that the courts often use
the terms “technological environment” and “field of use” interchangeably, and thus
for purposes of the eligibility analysis examiners should consider these terms
interchangeable. Examiners should also keep in mind that this consideration overlaps
with other considerations, particularly insignificant extra-solution activity (see
MPEP
§ 2106.05(g)). For instance, a data gathering step that is
limited to a particular data source (such as the Internet) or a particular type of
data (such as power grid data or XML tags) could be considered to be both
insignificant extra-solution activity and a field of use limitation. See,
e.g., Ultramercial, 772 F.3d at 716, 112 USPQ2d at 1755
(limiting use of abstract idea to the Internet); Electric Power,
830 F.3d at 1354, 119 USPQ2d at 1742 (limiting application of abstract idea to power
grid data); Intellectual Ventures I LLC v. Erie Indem. Co., 850
F.3d 1315, 1328-29, 121 USPQ2d 1928, 1939 (Fed. Cir. 2017) (limiting use of abstract
idea to use with XML tags). Thus, examiners should carefully consider each claim on
its own merits, as well as evaluate all other relevant considerations, before making
a determination on this consideration.
For claim limitations that generally link the use of
the judicial exception to a particular technological environment or field of use,
examiners should explain in an eligibility rejection why they do not meaningfully
limit the claim. For example, an examiner could explain that employing generic
computer functions to execute an abstract idea, even when limiting the use of the
idea to one particular environment, does not add significantly more, similar to how
limiting the abstract idea in Flook to petrochemical and
oil-refining industries was insufficient. For more information on formulating a
subject matter eligibility rejection, see MPEP §
2106.07(a).
2106.06 Streamlined Analysis [R-10.2019]
For purposes of efficiency in examination, examiners may
use a streamlined eligibility analysis (Pathway A) when the eligibility of the claim is
self-evident, e.g., because the claim clearly improves a technology
or computer functionality. However, if there is doubt as to whether the applicant is
effectively seeking coverage for a judicial exception itself, the full eligibility
analysis (the Alice/Mayo test described in MPEP § 2106,
subsection III) should be conducted to determine whether the claim integrates the
judicial exception into a practical application or recites significantly more than the
judicial exception.
The results of the streamlined analysis will always be
the same as the full analysis, thus the streamlined analysis is not a means of avoiding
a finding of ineligibility that would occur if a claim were to undergo the full
eligibility analysis. Similarly, a claim that qualifies as eligible after Step 2A
(Pathway B) or Step 2B (Pathway C) of the full analysis would also be eligible if the
streamlined analysis (Pathway A) were applied to that claim. It may not be apparent that
an examiner employed the streamlined analysis because the result is a conclusion that
the claim is eligible, and there will be no rejection of the claim on eligibility
grounds. In practice, the record may reflect the conclusion of eligibility simply by the
absence of an eligibility rejection or may include clarifying remarks, when appropriate.
In the context of the flowchart in MPEP § 2106,
subsection III, if, when viewed as a whole, the eligibility of the claim is self-evident
(e.g., because the claim clearly improves a technology or computer functionality), the
claim is eligible at Pathway A, thereby concluding the eligibility analysis.
2106.06(a) Eligibility is Self Evident [R-08.2017]
A streamlined eligibility analysis can be used for a
claim that may or may not recite a judicial exception but, when viewed as a whole,
clearly does not seek to tie up any judicial exception such that others cannot
practice it. Such claims do not need to proceed through the full analysis herein as
their eligibility will be self-evident. On the other hand, a claim that does not
qualify as eligible after Step 2B of the full analysis would not be suitable for the
streamlined analysis, because the claim lacks self‐evident eligibility.
For instance, a claim directed to a complex
manufactured industrial product or process that recites meaningful limitations along
with a judicial exception may sufficiently limit its practical application so that a
full eligibility analysis is not needed. As an example, a robotic arm assembly having
a control system that operates using certain mathematical relationships is clearly
not an attempt to tie up use of the mathematical relationships and would not require
a full analysis to determine eligibility. Also, a claim that recites a nature-based
product, but clearly does not attempt to tie up the nature-based product, does not
require a markedly different characteristics analysis to identify a “product of
nature” exception. As an example, a claim directed to an artificial hip prosthesis
coated with a naturally occurring mineral is not an attempt to tie up the mineral.
Similarly, claimed products that merely include ancillary nature-based components,
such as a claim that is directed to a cellphone with an electrical contact made of
gold or a plastic chair with wood trim, would not require analysis of the
nature-based component to determine whether the claims are directed to a “product of
nature” exception because such claims do not attempt to improperly tie up the
nature-based product.
2106.06(b) Clear Improvement to a Technology or to
Computer Functionality [R-08.2017]
As explained by the Federal Circuit, some
improvements to technology or to computer functionality are not abstract when
appropriately claimed, and thus claims to such improvements do not always need to
undergo the full eligibility analysis. Enfish, LLC v. Microsoft
Corp., 822 F.3d 1327, 1335-36, 118 USPQ2d 1684, 1689 (Fed. Cir. 2016).
MPEP §
2106.05(a) provides details regarding improvements to a
technology or computer functionality.
For instance, claims directed to clear improvements
to computer-related technology do not need the full eligibility analysis.
Enfish, 822 F.3d at 1339, 118 USPQ2d at 1691-92 (claims to a
self-referential table for a computer database held eligible at step 1 of the
Alice/Mayo test as not directed to an abstract idea). Claims
directed to improvements to other technologies or technological processes, beyond
computer improvements, may also avoid the full eligibility analysis. McRO,
Inc. v. Bandai Namco Games Am. Inc., 837 F.3d 1299, 1316, 120 USPQ2d
1091, 1103 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (claims to automatic lip synchronization and facial
expression animation found eligible at Step 1 of the Alice/Mayo
test as directed to an improvement in computer-related technology). In these cases,
when the claims were viewed as a whole, their eligibility was self-evident based on
the clear improvement, so no further analysis was needed. Although the Federal
Circuit held these claims eligible at Step 2A as not being directed to abstract
ideas, it would be reasonable for an examiner to have found these claims eligible at
Pathway A based on the clear improvement, or at Pathway B (Step 2A) as not being
directed to an abstract idea.
If the claims are a “close call” such that it is
unclear whether the claims improve technology or computer functionality, a full
eligibility analysis should be performed to determine eligibility. See
BASCOM Global Internet v. AT&T Mobility LLC, 827 F.3d 1341,
1349, 119 USPQ2d 1236, 1241 (Fed Cir. 2016). Only when the claims clearly improve
technology or computer functionality, or otherwise have self-evident eligibility,
should the streamlined analysis be used. For example, because the claims in
BASCOM described the concept of filtering content, which is a
method of organizing human behavior previously found to be abstract, the Federal
Circuit considered them to present a “close call” in the first step of the
Alice/Mayo test (Step 2A), and thus proceeded to the second
step of the Alice/Mayo test (Step 2B) to determine their
eligibility. Id. Although the Federal Circuit held these claims
eligible at Step 2B (Pathway C) because they presented a “technology-based solution”
of filtering content on the Internet that overcame the disadvantages of prior art
filtering systems and that amounted to significantly more than the recited abstract
idea, it also would be reasonable for an examiner to have found these claims eligible
at Pathway A or B if the examiner had considered the technology-based solution to be
an improvement to computer functionality.
Eligibility rejections must be based on failure to
comply with the substantive law under 35 U.S.C. 101 as interpreted by
judicial precedent. The substantive law on eligibility is discussed in
MPEP §§
2106.03 through 2106.06.
Examination guidance, training, and explanatory examples discuss the substantive law and
establish the policies and procedures to be followed by examiners in evaluating patent
applications for compliance with the substantive law, but do not serve as a basis for a
rejection. Accordingly, while it would be acceptable for applicants to cite training
materials or examples in support of an argument for finding eligibility in an
appropriate factual situation, applicants should not be required to model their claims
or responses after the training materials or examples to attain eligibility.
When evaluating a claimed invention for compliance with
the substantive law on eligibility, examiners should review the record as a whole
(e.g., the specification, claims, the prosecution history, and any
relevant case law precedent or prior art) before reaching a conclusion with regard to
whether the claimed invention sets forth patent eligible subject matter. The evaluation
of whether the claimed invention qualifies as patent-eligible subject matter should be
made on a claim-by-claim basis, because claims do not automatically rise or fall with
similar claims in an application. For example, even if an independent claim is
determined to be ineligible, the dependent claims may be eligible because they add
limitations that integrate the judicial exception into a practical application or amount
to significantly more than the judicial exception recited in the independent claim. And
conversely, even if an independent claim is determined to be eligible, a dependent claim
may be ineligible because it adds a judicial exception without also adding limitations
that integrate the judicial exception or provide significantly more. Thus, each claim in
an application should be considered separately based on the particular elements recited
therein.
If the evaluation of the claimed invention results in a
conclusion that it is more likely than not that the claim as a whole does not satisfy
both criteria for eligibility (Step 1: NO and/or Step 2B: NO), then examiners should
formulate an appropriate rejection of that claim under Step 1 and/or Step 2B. The
rejection should set forth a prima facie case of ineligibility under
the substantive law. The concept of the prima facie case is a
procedural tool of patent examination, which allocates the burdens going forward between
the examiner and applicant. In particular, the initial burden is on the examiner to
explain why a claim or claims are ineligible for patenting clearly and specifically, so
that applicant has sufficient notice and is able to effectively respond.
When an examiner determines a claim does not fall
within a statutory category (Step 1: NO), the rejection should provide an explanation of
why the claim does not fall within one of the four statutory categories of invention.
See MPEP §
2106.03 for a discussion of Step 1 and the statutory
categories of invention.
When an examiner determines that a claim is directed to
a judicial exception (Step 2A: YES) and does not provide an inventive concept (Step 2B:
NO), the rejection should provide an explanation for each part of the Step 2 analysis.
For example, the rejection should identify the judicial exception by referring to what
is recited (i.e., set forth or described) in the claim and explain
why it is considered an exception, identify any additional elements (specifically point
to claim features/limitations/steps) recited in the claim beyond the identified judicial
exception, and explain the reason(s) that the additional elements taken individually,
and also taken as a combination, 1) do not integrate the judicial exception into a
practical application and 2) do not result in the claim as a whole amounting to
significantly more than the judicial exception. See MPEP §
2106.04et seq. for a discussion of Step 2A and the judicial exceptions,
MPEP §
2106.05et seq. for a discussion of Step 2B and the search for an inventive
concept, and MPEP § 2106.07(a) for more information
on formulating an ineligibility rejection.
If the evaluation of the claimed invention results in a
conclusion that it is more likely than not that the claimed invention falls within a
statutory category (Step 1: YES) and is either not directed to a judicial exception
(Step 2A: NO) or is directed to a judicial exception and amounts to significantly more
than the judicial exception (Step 2B: YES), then the examiner should not reject the
claim. When evaluating a response by applicant to a subject matter eligibility
rejection, examiners must carefully consider all of applicant’s arguments and evidence
presented to rebut the rejection. If applicant properly challenges the examiner’s
findings, the rejection should be withdrawn or, if the examiner deems it appropriate to
maintain the rejection, a rebuttal must be provided in the next Office action. This is
discussed in greater detail in MPEP § 2106.07(b).
After determining what has been invented and
establishing the broadest reasonable interpretation of the claimed invention (see
MPEP §
2111), the eligibility of each claim should be evaluated as
a whole using the analysis detailed in MPEP § 2106. If it is determined
that the claim does not recite eligible subject matter, a rejection under
35 U.S.C.
101 is appropriate. When making the rejection, the Office
action must provide an explanation as to why each claim is unpatentable, which must
be sufficiently clear and specific to provide applicant sufficient notice of the
reasons for ineligibility and enable the applicant to effectively respond.
A subject matter eligibility rejection under Step 2
should provide an explanation for each part of the Step 2 analysis:
• For Step 2A Prong One, the rejection should
identify the judicial exception by referring to what is recited
(i.e., set forth or described) in the claim and
explain why it is considered an exception. For example, if the
claim is directed to an abstract idea, the rejection should
identify the abstract idea as it is recited (i.e., set forth
or described) in the claim and explain why it is an abstract idea. Similarly,
if the claim is directed to a law of nature or a natural
phenomenon, the rejection should identify the law of nature or
natural phenomenon as it is recited (i.e., set forth or
described) in the claim and explain using a reasoned rationale why it is
considered a law of nature or natural phenomenon.
• For Step 2A Prong Two, the rejection should
identify any additional elements (specifically point to claim
features/limitations/steps) recited in the claim beyond the identified judicial
exception; and evaluate the integration of the judicial exception
into a practical application by explaining that 1) there are no
additional elements in the claim; or 2) the claim as a whole, looking at the
additional elements individually and in combination, does not integrate the
judicial exception into a practical application using the considerations set
forth in MPEP §§ 2106.04(d),
2106.05(a)- (c) and (e)- (h). Examiners should give weight to all of the
claimed additional elements in Prong Two, even if those elements represent
well-understood, routine, conventional activity.
• For Step 2B, the rejection should
explain why the additional elements, taken individually and in
combination, do not result in the claim, as a whole, amounting to significantly
more than the identified judicial exception. For instance, when the examiner
has concluded that certain claim elements recite well understood, routine,
conventional activities in the relevant field, the examiner must expressly
support the rejection in writing with one of the four options specified in
Subsection III.
Under the principles of compact prosecution,
regardless of whether a rejection under 35 U.S.C. 101 is made based on
lack of subject matter eligibility, a complete examination should be made for every
claim under each of the other patentability requirements: 35 U.S.C.
102, 103, 112, and
101 (utility, inventorship and double patenting) and
non-statutory double patenting. Thus, examiners should state all non-cumulative
reasons and bases for rejecting claims in the first Office action.
I. WHEN MAKING A REJECTION, IDENTIFY
AND EXPLAIN THE JUDICIAL EXCEPTION RECITED IN THE CLAIM (STEP 2A PRONG
ONE)
A subject matter eligibility rejection should
point to the specific claim limitation(s) that recites (i.e.,
sets forth or describes) the judicial exception. The rejection must explain why
those claim limitations set forth or describe a judicial exception
(e.g., a law of nature). Where the claim describes, but does
not expressly set forth, the judicial exception, the rejection must also explain
what subject matter those limitations describe, and why the described subject
matter is a judicial exception. See MPEP §
2106.04 for more information about Step 2A of the
eligibility analysis.
When the examiner has determined the claim recites
an abstract idea, the rejection should identify the abstract idea as
it is recited (i.e., set forth or described) in the claim, and
explain why it falls within one of the groupings of abstract ideas
(i.e., mathematical concepts, mental processes, or certain
methods of organizing human activity) enumerated in MPEP §
2106.04(a)(2). Alternatively, the examiner should
provide justification for why a specific limitation(s) recited in the claim is
being treated as an abstract idea if it does not fall within the groupings of
abstract ideas in accordance with the “tentative abstract idea” procedure (see
MPEP § 2106.04(a)(3)). While not required, this
explanation or justification may include citing to an appropriate court decision
that supports the identification of the subject matter recited in the claim
language as an abstract idea within one of the groupings. Examiners should be
familiar with any cited decision relied upon in making or maintaining a rejection
to ensure that the rejection is reasonably tied to the facts of the case and to
avoid relying upon language taken out of context. Examiners should not go beyond
those concepts that are enumerated as abstract ideas in MPEP §
2106.04, unless they are identifying a tentative
abstract idea in the claim, and should avoid relying upon or citing
non-precedential decisions unless the facts of the application under examination
uniquely match the facts at issue in the non-precedential decisions. Examiners are
reminded that a chart of court decisions is available on the USPTO’s Internet
website (www.uspto.gov/ PatentEligibility).
Sample explanation: The
claim recites the step of comparing collected information to a predefined
threshold, which is an act of evaluating information that can be practically
performed in the human mind. Thus, this step is an abstract idea in the “mental
process” grouping.
When the examiner has determined the claim recites
a law of nature or a natural phenomenon, the rejection
should identify the law of nature or natural phenomenon as it is recited
(i.e., set forth or described) in the claim and explain
using a reasoned rationale why it is considered a law of nature or natural
phenomenon. See MPEP § 2106.04(b) for more
information about laws of nature and natural phenomena.
Sample explanation: The
claim recites the correlation of X, and X is a law of nature because it
describes a consequence of natural processes in the human body, e.g., the
naturally-occurring relationship between the presence of Y and the
manifestation of Z.
Sample explanation: The
claim recites X, which is a natural phenomenon because it occurs in nature and
exists in principle apart from any human action.
When the examiner has determined the claim recites
a product of nature, the rejection should identify the exception as
it is recited (i.e., set forth or described) in the claim, and
explain using a reasoned rationale why the product does not have markedly
different characteristics from its naturally occurring counterpart in its natural
state. See MPEP § 2106.04(b) for more
information about products of nature, and MPEP §
2106.04(c) for more information about the markedly
different characteristics analysis.
Sample explanation: The
claim recites X, which as explained in the specification was isolated from
naturally occurring Y. X is a nature-based product, so it is compared to its
closest naturally occurring counterpart (X in its natural state) to determine
if it has markedly different characteristics. Because there is no indication in
the record that isolation of X has resulted in a marked difference in
structure, function, or other properties as compared to its counterpart, X is a
product of nature exception.
II. WHEN MAKING A REJECTION, EXPLAIN
WHY THE ADDITIONAL CLAIM ELEMENTS DO NOT RESULT IN THE CLAIM AS A WHOLE
INTEGRATING THE JUDICIAL EXCEPTION INTO A PRACTICAL APPLICATION OR AMOUNTING TO
SIGNIFICANTLY MORE THAN THE JUDICIAL EXCEPTION (STEP 2A PRONG TWO AND STEP
2B)
After identifying the judicial exception in the
rejection, identify any additional elements (features/limitations/steps) recited
in the claim beyond the judicial exception and explain why they do not integrate
the judicial exception into a practical application and do not add significantly
more to the exception. The explanation should address the additional elements both
individually and as a combination when determining whether the claim as whole
recites eligible subject matter. It is important to remember that a new
combination of steps in a process may be patent eligible even though all the steps
of the combination were individually well known and in common use before the
combination was made. Diamond v. Diehr, 450 U.S. 175, 188, 209
USPQ 1, 9 (1981). Thus, it is particularly critical to address the combination of
additional elements, because while individually-viewed elements may not appear to
integrate an exception into a practical application or add significantly more,
those additional elements when viewed in combination may amount to significantly
more than the exception by meaningfully limiting the judicial exception. See
MPEP § 2106.05 for more information about Step 2B of
the eligibility analysis.
A rejection should be made only if it is readily
apparent to an examiner relying on the examiner's expertise in the art in the Step
2A Prong Two inquiry and Step 2B inquiry that the additional elements do not
integrate the exception into a practical application and do not amount to claiming
significantly more than the recited judicial exception. When making a rejection,
it is important for the examiner to explain the rationale underlying the
conclusion so that applicant can effectively respond. On the other hand, when
appropriate, the examiner should explain why the additional elements integrate an
exception into a practical application or provide an inventive concept by adding a
meaningful limitation to the claimed exception. See MPEP §§
2106.04(d) and 2106.05 for a listing of considerations that qualify,
and to not qualify, as integrating an exception or providing significantly more
than an exception, and MPEP § 2106.07(c) for more
information on clarifying the record when a claim is found eligible.
In the Step 2B inquiry, if the examiner has
concluded that particular claim limitations are well understood, routine,
conventional activities (or elements) to those in the relevant field, the
rejection should support this conclusion in writing with a factual determination
in accordance with Subsection III below. See MPEP §
2106.05(d) for more information about well understood,
routine, conventional activities and elements, and Subsection III below for more
information about how to support a conclusion that a claim limitation is well
understood, routine, conventional activity.
For claim limitations that recite a generic
computer component performing generic computer functions at a high level of
generality, such as using the Internet to gather data, examiners can explain why
these generic computing functions do not meaningfully limit the claim. Examiners
should keep in mind that the courts have held computer-implemented processes to be
significantly more than an abstract idea (and thus eligible), where generic
computer components are able in combination to perform functions that are not
merely generic. DDR Holdings, LLC v. Hotels.com, LP, 773 F.3d
1245, 1258-59, 113 USPQ2d 1097, 1106-07 (Fed. Cir. 2014). See
MPEP § 2106.05(f) for more information about generic
computing functions that the courts have found to be mere instructions to
implement a judicial exception on a computer, and MPEP §
2106.05(d) for more information about well understood,
routine, conventional activities and elements (a relevant consideration only in
Step 2B).
For claim limitations that add insignificant
extra-solution activity to the judicial exception (e.g., mere data gathering in
conjunction with a law of nature or abstract idea), or that generally link the use
of the judicial exception to a particular technological environment or field of
use, examiners should explain why they do not meaningfully limit the claim. For
example, adding a final step of storing data to a process that only recites
computing the area of a two dimensional space (a mathematical relationship) does
not add a meaningful limitation to the process of computing the area. As another
example, employing well-known computer functions to execute an abstract idea, even
when limiting the use of the idea to one particular environment, does not
integrate the exception into a practical application or add significantly more,
similar to how limiting the computer implemented abstract idea in Flook to
petrochemical and oil-refining industries was insufficient. See e.g.,
Parker v. Flook, 437 U.S. 584, 588-90, 198 USPQ 193, 197-98 (1978)
(limiting use of mathematical formula to use in particular industries did not
amount to an inventive concept). See MPEP §
2106.05(g) for more information about insignificant
extra-solution activity, and MPEP § 2106.05(h) for more
information about generally linking use of a judicial exception to a particular
technological environment or field of use.
In the event a rejection is made, it is a best
practice for the examiner to consult the specification to determine if there are
elements that could be added to the claim to make it eligible. If so, the examiner
should identify those elements in the Office action and suggest them as a way to
overcome the rejection.
When performing the analysis at Step 2A Prong One,
it is sufficient for the examiner to provide a reasoned rationale that identifies
the judicial exception recited in the claim and explains why it is considered a
judicial exception (e.g., that the claim limitation(s) falls within one of the
abstract idea groupings). Therefore, there is no requirement for the examiner to
rely on evidence, such as publications or an affidavit or declaration under
37 CFR
1.104(d)(2), to find that a claim recites a judicial
exception. Cf. Affinity Labs of Tex., LLC v. Amazon.com Inc.,
838 F.3d 1266, 1271-72, 120 USPQ2d 1210, 1214-15 (Fed. Cir. 2016) (affirming
district court decision that identified an abstract idea in the claims without
relying on evidence); OIP Techs., Inc. v. Amazon.com, Inc., 788
F.3d 1359, 1362-64, 115 USPQ2d 1090, 1092-94 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (same);
Content Extraction & Transmission LLC v. Wells Fargo
Bank, N.A., 776 F.3d 1343, 1347, 113 USPQ2d 1354, 1357-58 (Fed. Cir.
2014) (same).
At Step 2A Prong Two or Step 2B, there is no
requirement for evidence to support a finding that the exception is not integrated
into a practical application or that the additional elements do not amount to
significantly more than the exception unless the examiner asserts that additional
limitations are well-understood, routine, conventional activities in Step 2B.
Examiners should not assert that an additional
element (or combination of elements) is well-understood, routine, or conventional
unless the examiner finds, and expressly supports the rejection in writing with
one or more of the following:
(A) A citation to an express statement in the
specification or to a statement made by an applicant during prosecution that
demonstrates the well-understood, routine, conventional nature of the
additional element(s). A specification demonstrates the well-understood,
routine, conventional nature of additional elements when it describes the
additional elements as well-understood or routine or conventional (or an
equivalent term), as a commercially available product, or in a manner that
indicates that the additional elements are sufficiently well-known that the
specification does not need to describe the particulars of such additional
elements to satisfy 35 U.S.C. 112(a). A
finding that an element is well-understood, routine, or conventional cannot
be based only on the fact that the specification is silent with respect to
describing such element.
(B) A citation to one or more of the court
decisions discussed in MPEP § 2106.05(d),
subsection II, as noting the well-understood, routine, conventional nature
of the additional element(s). Examiners should be careful to ensure the
claim limitations before the examiner are the same as those found to be
well-understood, routine, conventional by the courts. The additional
elements under examination should be recited in the same manner, meaning
they should be recited at the same high level of generality as in those
court decisions. It is not enough that the additional elements are similar
to the elements at issue in those cases. In addition, the court decisions
discussed in MPEP § 2106.05(d),
subsection II, are not meant to imply that all computer functions are
well-understood, routine, conventional functions, or that a claim reciting a
generic computer component performing a generic computer function is
necessarily ineligible. Examiners should keep in mind that the courts have
held computer-implemented processes to be significantly more than an
abstract idea (and thus eligible), where generic computer components are
able in combination to perform functions that are not merely generic.
DDR Holdings, LLC v. Hotels.com, LP, 773 F.3d 1245,
1258-59, 113 USPQ2d 1097, 1106-07 (Fed. Cir. 2014). See
MPEP § 2106.05(f) for more
information about generic computing functions that the courts have found to
be mere instructions to implement a judicial exception on a computer.
(C) A citation to a publication that
demonstrates the well-understood, routine, conventional nature of the
additional element(s). An appropriate publication could include a book,
manual, review article, or other source that describes the state of the art
and discusses what is well-known and in common use in the relevant industry.
It does not include all items that might otherwise qualify as a "printed
publication" as used in 35 U.S.C. 102. Whether
something is disclosed in a document that is considered a "printed
publication" under 35 U.S.C. 102 is a
distinct inquiry from whether something is well-known, routine, conventional
activity. A document may be a printed publication but still fail to
establish that something it describes is well-understood, routine,
conventional activity. See Exergen Corp. v. Kaz USA, 725
Fed. App’x. 959, 966 (Fed. Cir. 2018) (the single copy of a thesis, written
in German and located in a German university library, considered to be a
"printed publication" in In re Hall, 781 F.2d 897, 228
USPQ 453 (Fed. Cir. 1986) "would not suffice to establish that something is
'well-understood, routine, and conventional activity previously engaged in
by scientists who work in the field'"). The nature of the publication and
the description of the additional elements in the publication would need to
demonstrate that the additional elements are widely prevalent or in common
use in the relevant field, comparable to the types of activity or elements
that are so well-known that they do not need to be described in detail in a
patent application to satisfy 35 U.S.C. 112(a). For
example, while U.S. patents and published applications are publications,
merely finding the additional element in a single patent or published
application would not be sufficient to demonstrate that the additional
element is well-understood, routine, conventional, unless the patent or
published application demonstrates that the additional element is widely
prevalent or in common use in the relevant field.
(D) A statement that the examiner is taking
official notice of the well-understood, routine, conventional nature of the
additional element(s). This option should be used only when examiners are
certain, based upon their personal knowledge, that the additional element(s)
represents well-understood, routine, conventional activity engaged in by
those in the relevant art, in that the additional elements are widely
prevalent or in common use in the relevant field, comparable to the types of
activity or elements that are so well-known that they do not need to be
described in detail in a patent application to satisfy 35 U.S.C.
112(a). For example, the examiner could take official
notice that a generic computer component performing generic computer
functions at a high level of generality, such as using the Internet to
gather data, is well-understood, routine, conventional. Procedures for
taking official notice and addressing an applicant’s challenge to official
notice are discussed in MPEP § 2144.03.
2106.07(a)(1) Form Paragraphs for use in Lack of
Subject Matter Eligibility Rejections [R-10.2019]
Use form paragraphs 7.04.01,
7.05,
and 7.05.01 for rejections based on a failure to
claim an invention that falls within the statutory categories of invention (i.e.,
the claim is not to one of the four statutory categories of invention and is thus
rejected at Step 1 of the eligibility analysis).
Use form paragraphs 7.04.01,
7.05,
and 7.05.016 for rejections based on a failure to
claim an invention that is directed to patent-eligible subject matter, i.e., the
claim is directed to a judicial exception without providing an inventive
concept/significantly more, and is thus rejected at Step 2B of the eligibility
analysis. If the judicial exception to which the claim is directed is a "tentative
abstract idea," i.e., an abstract idea that does not fall within any of the
groupings of abstract ideas discussed in MPEP §
2106.04(a)(2), then the Step 2B rejection must also use
form paragraph 7.05.017 (in addition to form paragraphs
7.04.01, 7.05, and
7.05.016) and include the TC Director's
signature.
¶ 7.04.01 Statement of Statutory Basis, 35 U.S.C. 101
35 U.S.C. 101 reads as follows:
Whoever invents or discovers any new and useful process, machine,
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof, may obtain a
patent therefor, subject to the conditions and requirements of this title.
Examiner Note:
This form paragraph must precede the first use of
35 U.S.C.
101 in all first actions on the merits and final rejections.
Examiner Note:
1. This form paragraph must be preceded by form paragraph
7.04.01 in
first actions and final rejections.
2. This form paragraph must be followed by a detailed explanation of
the grounds of rejection using one or more of form paragraphs
7.05.01,
7.05.016,
7.05.017,
7.05.02,
7.05.03,
or another appropriate reason.
Examiner Note:
2. In bracket 1, explain why the claimed invention is not patent
eligible subject matter by identifying what the claim(s) is/are directed to and explain
why it does not fall within at least one of the four categories of patent eligible
subject matter recited in 35 U.S.C. 101 (process, machine,
manufacture, or composition of matter), e.g., the claim(s) is/are directed to a signal
per se, mere information in the form of data, a contract between
two parties, or a human being (see MPEP § 2106, subsection I).
3. For a claim that is directed to a judicial exception and is
nonstatutory, use form paragraph 7.05.016.
the claimed invention is directed to [1] without
significantly more. The claim(s) recite(s) [2]. This judicial exception is not
integrated into a practical application because [3]. The claim(s) does/do not
include additional elements that are sufficient to amount to significantly more than the
judicial exception because [4].
Examiner Note:
1. This form paragraph should be preceded by form paragraph
7.05. For
claims that recite a tentative abstract idea (i.e., a limitation identified as an
abstract idea even though it does not fall within the groupings of abstract ideas
discussed in MPEP § 2106.04(a)(2)), this form
paragraph should be accompanied by form paragraph 7.05.017.
2. This form paragraph is for use with all product (machine,
manufacture, and composition of matter) and process claims, and for all claims directed
to a law of nature, natural phenomenon (including a product of nature), or abstract
idea.
3. In bracket 1, identify whether the claim(s) are directed to a
law of nature, a natural phenomenon (including a product of nature), or an abstract
idea.
4. In bracket 2, identify the exception by referring to how it is
recited in the claim and explain why it is considered an exception (e.g., for an
abstract idea, identify the abstract idea grouping in MPEP §
2106.04(a)(2) into which the recited exception falls). For
example, "the Arrhenius equation, which is a law of nature and a mathematical concept
which describes the relationship between temperature and reaction rate" or "the series
of steps instructing how to hedge risk, which is a fundamental economic practice and
thus grouped as a certain method of organizing human interactions." For a product of
nature exception, refer to how it is recited in the claim and explain why its
characteristics are not markedly different from the product’s naturally occurring
counterpart in its natural state. For example, "the naturally occurring DNA segment,
which is not markedly different from its naturally occurring counterpart because it
conveys the same genetic information." Provide additional explanation regarding the
exception and how it has been identified when appropriate.
5. In bracket 3, explain why the combination of additional
elements fails to integrate the judicial exception into a practical application. For
example, if the claim is directed to an abstract idea with additional generic computer
elements, explain that the generically recited computer elements do not add a meaningful
limitation to the abstract idea because they amount to simply implementing the abstract
idea on a computer; or, if the claim is directed to a method of using a naturally
occurring correlation, explain that data gathering steps required to use the correlation
do not add a meaningful limitation to the method as they are insignificant
extra-solution activity. Similarly, if the claim recites a "naturally occurring DNA
segment" with an additional element of a test tube, explain that merely placing the
product of nature into a generic container such as a test tube does not add a meaningful
limitation as it is merely a nominal or token extra-solution component of the claim, and
is nothing more than an attempt to generally link the product of nature to a particular
technological environment.
6. In bracket 4, identify the additional elements and explain why,
when considered separately and in combination, they do not add significantly more (also
known as an "inventive concept") to the exception. For example, if the additional
limitations only store and retrieve information in memory, explain that these are
well-understood, routine, conventional computer functions as recognized by the court
decisions listed in MPEP § 2106.05(d).
Examiner Note:
2. Approval from the TC Director is required to treat a tentative
abstract idea (i.e., a claim limitation(s) that does not fall within the groupings of
abstract ideas discussed in MPEP § 2106.04(a)(2)) as an abstract
idea. This form paragraph should be used to demonstrate that this approval has been
obtained.
3. In bracket 1, provide the justification for why the claim
limitation(s) is/are being treated as an abstract idea. For example, provide an
explanation of why the claim limitation is among the "basic tools of scientific and
technological work."
4. In bracket 2, insert the TC Director's signature. Approval of
the TC Director is required to treat a claim limitation that does not fall within the
groupings of abstract ideas discussed in MPEP §
2106.04(a)(2) as reciting an abstract idea. See
MPEP §
2106.04(a)(3).
2106.07(b) Evaluating Applicant’s Response [R-10.2019]
After examiners identify and explain in the record
the reasons why a claim is directed to an abstract idea, natural phenomenon, or law
of nature without significantly more, then the burden shifts to the applicant to
either amend the claim or make a showing of why the claim is eligible for patent
protection.
In response to a rejection based on failure to claim
patent-eligible subject matter, applicant may: (i) amend the claim, e.g., to add
additional elements or modify existing elements so that the claim as a whole amounts
to significantly more than the judicial exception, (or integrates the judicial
exception into a practical application), (ii) present persuasive arguments based on a
good faith belief as to why the rejection is in error and/or (iii) submit evidence
traversing a subject matter eligibility rejection according to the procedures set
forth in MPEP §
716.01 and 37 CFR 1.132. When evaluating a
response, examiners must carefully consider all of applicant's arguments and evidence
rebutting the subject matter eligibility rejection. If applicant has amended the
claim, examiners should determine the amended claim’s broadest reasonable
interpretation and again perform the subject matter eligibility analysis.
If applicant's claim amendment(s), evidence, and/or
argument(s) persuasively establish that the claim is not directed to a judicial
exception or is directed to significantly more than a judicial exception, the
rejection should be withdrawn. Applicant may argue that a claim is eligible because
the claim as a whole integrates the judicial exception into a practical application
or amounts to significantly more than the judicial exception when the additional
elements are considered both individually and in combination. When an additional
element is considered individually by the examiner, the additional element may be
enough to integrate the judicial exception into a practical application or to qualify
as "significantly more" if it meaningfully limits the judicial exception,
e.g., it improves another technology or technical field,
improves the functioning of a computer itself.
In addition, even if an element does not integrate a
judicial exception into a practical application or amount to significantly more on
its own (e.g., because it is merely a generic computer component
performing generic computer functions), it can still integrate or amount to
significantly more when considered in combination with the other elements of the
claim. For example, generic computer components that individually perform merely
generic computer functions (e.g., a CPU that performs mathematical
calculations or a clock that produces time data) in some instances are able in
combination to perform functions that are not generic computer functions and
therefore integrate or amount to significantly more than an abstract idea (and are
thus eligible).
If applicant properly challenges the examiner's
findings but the examiner deems it appropriate to maintain the rejection, a rebuttal
must be provided in the next Office action. Several examples of appropriate examiner
responses are provided below.
(1) If applicant challenges the identification of a
tentative abstract idea that was based on a court case and the challenge is not
persuasive, an appropriate response would be an explanation as to why the
abstract idea identified in the claim is similar to the concept in the cited
case.
(2) If applicant responds to an examiner's assertion
that something is well-known, routine, conventional activity with a specific
argument or evidence that the additional elements in a claim are not
well-understood, routine, conventional activities previously engaged in by
those in the relevant art, the examiner should reevaluate whether the
additional elements are in actuality well-known, routine, conventional
activities to those who work in the relevant field. It is especially necessary
for the examiner to fully reevaluate their position when such additional
elements are not discussed in the specification as being known generic
functions/components/activities or are not treated by the courts as
well-understood, routine, conventional activities. If the rejection is to be
maintained, the examiner should consider whether evidence should be provided to
further support the rejection and clarify the record for appeal. See
MPEP § 2106.05(d) for examples of elements that the
courts have found to be well understood, routine and conventional activity. If
the examiner has taken official notice per item (D) of subsection III above
that an element(s) is well-understood, routine, conventional activity, and the
applicant challenges the examiner's position, specifically stating that such
element(s) is not well-understood, routine, conventional activity, the examiner
must then provide one of the items discussed in paragraphs (A) through (C) of
subsection III above, or an affidavit or declaration under 37 CFR
1.104(d)(2) setting forth specific factual statements and
explanation to support the examiner’s position. See also MPEP §
2106.07(b), item (2).
(3) If applicant amends a claim to add a generic
computer or generic computer components and asserts that the claim is
integrated into a practical application or recites significantly more because
the generic computer is 'specially programmed' (as in
Alappat, now considered superseded) or is a 'particular
machine' (as in Bilski), the examiner should look at whether
the added elements integrate the judicial exception into a practical
application or provide significantly more than the judicial exception. Merely
adding a generic computer, generic computer components, or a programmed
computer to perform generic computer functions does not automatically overcome
an eligibility rejection. Alice Corp. Pty. Ltd. v. CLS Bank
Int'l, 573 U.S. 208, 224, 110 USPQ2d 1976, 1984 (2014). See also
OIP Techs. v. Amazon.com, 788 F.3d 1359, 1364, 115 USPQ2d
1090, 1093-94 (Fed. Cir. 2015) (“Just as Diehr could not
save the claims in Alice, which were directed to
‘implement[ing] the abstract idea of intermediated settlement on a generic
computer’, it cannot save OIP's claims directed to
implementing the abstract idea of price optimization on a generic computer.”)
(citations omitted).
(4) If applicant argues that the claim is specific
and does not preempt all applications of the exception, the examiner should
reconsider Step 2A of the eligibility analysis, e.g., to
determine whether the claim is directed to an improvement to the functioning of
a computer or to any other technology or technical field. If an examiner still
determines that the claim is directed to a judicial exception, the examiner
should then reconsider in Step 2B whether the additional elements in
combination (as well as individually) amount to an inventive concept,
e.g., because they are more than the non-conventional and
non-generic arrangement of known, conventional elements. Such reconsideration
is appropriate because, although preemption is not a standalone test for
eligibility, it remains the underlying concern that drives the two-part
framework from Alice Corp. and Mayo
(Steps 2A and 2B). Synopsys, Inc. v. Mentor Graphics Corp.,
839 F.3d 1138, 1150, 120 USPQ2d 1473, 1483 (Fed. Cir. 2016); Rapid
Litig. Mgmt. v. CellzDirect, Inc., 827 F.3d 1042, 1052, 119 USPQ2d
1370, 1376 (Fed. Cir. 2016); Ariosa Diagnostics, Inc. v. Sequenom,
Inc., 788 F.3d 1371, 1379, 115 USPQ2d 1152, 1158 (Fed. Cir. 2015).
2106.07(c) Clarifying the Record [R-08.2017]
When the claims are deemed patent eligible, the
examiner may make clarifying remarks on the record. For example, if a claim is found
eligible because it improves upon existing technology, the examiner could reference
the portion of the specification that describes the claimed improvement and note the
claim elements that produce that improvement. The clarifying remarks may be made at
any point during prosecution as well as with a notice of allowance.
Clarifying remarks may be useful in explaining the
rationale for a rejection as well. For instance, explaining the broadest reasonable
interpretation (BRI) of a claim will assist applicant in understanding and responding
to a rejection. As an example, a rejection for failure to recite patent eligible
subject matter in a claim to a computer readable medium could include an explanation
that the broadest reasonable interpretation of the claim covers a carrier wave, which
does not fall within one of the four categories of invention, and a suggestion to
overcome the rejection by submitting a narrowing amendment to cover the statutory
embodiments. | The Supreme
Court’s cited rationale for considering even “just discovered” judicial exceptions as
exceptions stems from the concern that “without this exception, there would be
considerable danger that the grant of patents would ‘tie up’ the use of such tools
and thereby ‘inhibit future innovation premised upon them.’”
Myriad, 569 U.S. at 589, 106 USPQ2d at 1978-79 (quoting
Mayo, 566 U.S. at 86, 101 USPQ2d at 1971). See also
Myriad, 569 U.S. at 591, 106 USPQ2d at 1979 (“Groundbreaking,
innovative, or even brilliant discovery does not by itself satisfy the
§101 inquiry.”). The Federal Circuit has also applied this
principle, for example, when holding a concept of using advertising as an exchange or
currency to be an abstract idea, despite the patentee’s arguments that the concept
was “new”. Ultramercial, Inc. v. Hulu, LLC, 772 F.3d 709, 714-15,
112 USPQ2d 1750, 1753-54 (Fed. Cir. 2014). Cf. Synopsys, Inc. v. Mentor
Graphics Corp., 839 F.3d 1138, 1151, 120 USPQ2d 1473, 1483 (Fed. Cir.
2016) (“a new abstract idea is still an abstract
idea”) (emphasis in original).
For a detailed discussion of abstract ideas, see
MPEP
§ | no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/30/opinion/sunday/abstract-ideas-dont-deserve-patents.html | Opinion | Abstract Ideas Don't Deserve Patents - The New York Times | Abstract Ideas Don’t Deserve Patents
The Constitution gives Congress the power to grant inventors a temporary monopoly over their creations to “promote the progress of science and useful arts.” But in recent years, the government has too often given patent protection to inventions that do not represent real scientific advances.
On Monday, the Supreme Court will consider when the government should grant patents to processes that are based on abstract ideas. In a world where technology is rapidly changing, the Patent and Trademark Office has been flooded with applications that claim to have invented ways to solve problems. But it can be hard to discern if these creations should be patentable.
The number of patent applications has more than tripled in the last two decades, and the number of patents granted has multiplied two and a half times. But many of those patents appear to be overly broad and vague, according to a report by the Government Accountability Office. That increase has contributed to a surge in costly, and often frivolous, patent-infringement lawsuits.
The issue in this case, Alice Corporation Pty. v. CLS Bank International, is whether using a computer to implement a well-established economic concept can be patented. The court should rule that such ideas are not eligible for patent protection.
Alice Corporation obtained four American patents that cover a method of settling trades between investors in currency and other financial markets. The approach depends on a neutral middleman to make sure traders complete the transactions they have agreed to. The corporation, which is based in Australia, has accused CLS Bank, a London-based company that settles foreign exchange trades for investors around the world, of infringing its patents.
In several earlier cases, including one decided in 2010, the Supreme Court has ruled that “abstract ideas” and “fundamental economic practices” cannot be patented, because they are basic tools of scientific and technological activity. In the 2010 case, Bilski v. Kappos, for example, the court upheld a decision by the patent office not to grant a patent to a system that businesses could use to hedge the risk of changing energy prices. Investors have used hedging for hundreds of years to protect themselves from losses. Traders have also long used middlemen, like financial exchanges and clearing houses, to help them complete financial transactions.
Alice Corporation has argued that its patents cover a specific computer-enabled system and method, not the fundamental idea of using intermediaries in financial settlements. But CLS Bank, which first sued Alice in an attempt to have its patents invalidated, says that Alice’s system does not add anything meaningful to a basic idea.
The Obama administration argued in a friend of the court brief supporting CLS that Alice’s system merely uses a computer to do what it was designed to do — perform calculations, store information and communicate with other devices.
The Supreme Court should make clear that nobody should be allowed to claim a monopoly over an abstract idea simply by tying it to a computer.
A version of this article appears in print on , Section SR, Page 10 of the New York edition with the headline: Abstract Ideas Don’t Deserve Patents. Order Reprints | Today’s Paper | Subscribe | Abstract Ideas Don’t Deserve Patents
The Constitution gives Congress the power to grant inventors a temporary monopoly over their creations to “promote the progress of science and useful arts.” But in recent years, the government has too often given patent protection to inventions that do not represent real scientific advances.
On Monday, the Supreme Court will consider when the government should grant patents to processes that are based on abstract ideas. In a world where technology is rapidly changing, the Patent and Trademark Office has been flooded with applications that claim to have invented ways to solve problems. But it can be hard to discern if these creations should be patentable.
The number of patent applications has more than tripled in the last two decades, and the number of patents granted has multiplied two and a half times. But many of those patents appear to be overly broad and vague, according to a report by the Government Accountability Office. That increase has contributed to a surge in costly, and often frivolous, patent-infringement lawsuits.
The issue in this case, Alice Corporation Pty. v. CLS Bank International, is whether using a computer to implement a well-established economic concept can be patented. The court should rule that such ideas are not eligible for patent protection.
Alice Corporation obtained four American patents that cover a method of settling trades between investors in currency and other financial markets. The approach depends on a neutral middleman to make sure traders complete the transactions they have agreed to. The corporation, which is based in Australia, has accused CLS Bank, a London-based company that settles foreign exchange trades for investors around the world, of infringing its patents.
In several earlier cases, including one decided in 2010, the Supreme Court has ruled that “abstract ideas” and “fundamental economic practices” cannot be patented, because they are basic tools of scientific and technological activity. In the 2010 case, Bilski v. Kappos, for example, the court upheld a decision by the patent office not to grant a patent to a system that businesses could use to hedge the risk of changing energy prices. | no |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-03438-x | How to turn your ideas into patents | Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain
the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in
Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles
and JavaScript.
Patenting your bright ideas can be a great way to start moving into entrepreneurship.Credit: U.S. Patent Office
Spinning off companies to exploit products and ideas developed at universities and research institutions can help to address societal challenges and make a real-world impact. Such moves can also be lucrative for scientists who are prepared to take their concepts into industry.
But before a company can start selling a product, it must protect its intellectual property (IP) by patenting the technology that makes it special (see ‘Glossary’).
Nature spoke to five specialists about how to get started (see also ‘Patent search tips’).
John Gray says modern patent databases have made competitor analysis much easier.Credit: Rosenich
JOHN GRAY: Learn what makes your idea patentable
UK and European patent attorney, based in Glasgow, UK.
A fear of a discovery being scooped can create a race between researchers to publish their results as a peer-reviewed paper. But if there is a commercial goal in mind, patent filing should come first: patent laws generally favour whomever is first to file an application that completely discloses a fresh invention.
Researchers should keep in mind three important elements that make an idea patentable.
First, the invention must be new: the same idea can’t have been published before in any form. Publications by the inventors themselves (this would include academic papers as well as talks at scientific conferences or demonstrations to potential customers) can destroy a patent application. Presentations at internal laboratory meetings are OK, but if there are external collaborators present, it is essential for everyone to commit to a project agreement with a non-disclosure clause, to protect any potential patents.
Second, there must be some inventive step of ‘non-obviousness’. This can be hard to define and depends on the context. For example, painting a device a different colour is unlikely to be considered inventive, but a formulation of paint that dries faster, or holds its colour better under radiation, might well be.
Third, the disclosure in a patent must be sufficient for a skilled person to reproduce the invention with only routine effort. For instance, a drug patent usually needs detailed formulations and evidence of effectiveness, and instructions for making any special chemical compounds used.
A patent should cover variations of the product. If the patent describes only one chemical formula, for example, generic drug manufacturers might be able to change the location of a functional group slightly and produce their own product. The patent application should describe likely variations from the outset, with experimental data provided if necessary.
For academic researchers, the main objective of a patent is usually to ensure a start-up company can secure investment for technical development. For start-ups with limited resources, it is helpful to choose the most strategic markets in which to file and maintain patents.
For instance, a start-up that has developed a microchip-production process might only have patents in countries with the infrastructure to manufacture microchips. A start-up firm with a new blood-pressure drug, by contrast, might need to budget for filing patents in dozens of countries — anywhere a generic drug manufacturer can operate. Luckily, international treaties allow a patent application in one country to establish priority for the rest of the world, so that decisions and funding for territorial coverage can follow later.
Online patent databases have improved significantly in recent years, which is good news for researchers. Even free services include powerful machine-translation functions: this means a rough translation of foreign-language patents is just a mouse-click away.
John Collins says researchers should do their research before pursuing a patent.Credit: Dr J L Collins
JOHN COLLINS: Do market research and seek out mentors
Commercialization adviser at Innovation Foundry in London, UK.
Many academic researchers will pursue whatever interests them and give priority to experiments. Determining whether their knowledge and innovation can be converted into a patent often comes later, almost in hindsight: it’s a case of a solution looking for a problem.
A better strategy is for researchers to launch a project to tackle a pressing challenge in their field: a problem looking for a solution.
Researchers who are interested in turning their existing research into useful patents should do their homework to find out what’s already been achieved commercially, and whether there are any related patents out there, before spending resources on the patenting process.
Aspiring researcher-entrepreneurs should also find ways to identify potential clients, and read reports and surveys to understand market needs. They should keep in mind the scalability of their idea and monitor news from potential competitors while scouring patent databases.
Mentorship is extremely important for researchers who are hoping to transform their ideas into patents and businesses. I recommend having a few mentors, ideally field specialists and experts in manufacturing and business. I’ve found my mentors through conference meetings, at universities I’ve worked with, and from incubator and accelerator programmes.
As a mentor, one area in which I have supported people is that of early decision-making. In 2014, for example, I worked with a team of six prospective PhD students at Imperial College London who had done well in the International Genetically Modified Machine (iGEM) synthetic-biology competition and wanted to create a start-up from their project.
I weighed up the options and advised them that it would be challenging to juggle between embarking on a PhD and running a start-up. One of the students decided not to pursue his PhD programme and instead launched a start-up with two of the other iGEM team members. He has since gone on to turn their ideas into patents to solve a big challenge in water purification. The start-up has attracted nearly £20 million (US$27 million) of funding over the past 5 years, and the team has grown to 17 people.
BARBARA CHAN: Join a team that shares your entrepreneurship philosophy
Professor of mechanical engineering at the University of Hong Kong.
Researchers are increasingly being asked to consider the broader impact of their work, which includes commercial dimensions. One way to show that is with patents. At my university, I used to sit on grant panels for aspiring researcher-entrepreneurs. The panel members considered patents to be a partial demonstration of the impact of technological innovation and an indication as to whether a start-up is likely to be able to raise external funding.
I often would encourage students to first understand a problem thoroughly, do a literature review on the existing solutions, and think of creative ways to solve that problem. I told them to dare to fail many times at something before finding a useful way for it to be better, cheaper, faster or more accurate. High-impact publications and patents will follow.
If a researcher wants to become an entrepreneur, they should apply to join a lab with a similar philosophy on entrepreneurship. I hold 18 patents and co-founded a start-up that focuses on tissue-engineering technologies, and I’m happy to share my experience. I teach my students to do patent searches and encourage them to attend training workshops, such as those organized by the university’s IP office or organizations such as the Hong Kong Science and Technology Parks Corporation. In this way, they can learn from and network with successful technology entrepreneurs.
A’an Johan Wahyudi patented his invention only in his home country.Credit: Arief Rachman
A’AN JOHAN WAHYUDI: Solve problems that are close at hand
Senior research scientist at the National Research and Innovation Agency’s Research Centre for Oceanography in Jakarta, Indonesia.
I work in the National Research and Innovation Agency, a newly formed body in Indonesia, and we have a patent office with fewer than 15 staff who help to draft patents. In 2020, I filed a patent for a technique that uses isotopes to calculate how much farmers should feed sea cucumbers — edible marine animals — to optimize their growth. Although sea cucumbers are farmed in several countries, including Australia and Vietnam, I decided to file the patent in Indonesia only. This was a strategic decision, because countries have their own patent-application processes and we do not have the expertise to file patents in global markets.
Many research institutes in developing nations, such as mine, care more about academic publications than patents, and have limited funding dedicated to patent applications. The key to overcoming this obstacle is to be pragmatic and hands-on in one’s approach to invention. My team spoke to sea-cucumber farmers before embarking on our project, for example, to gain an understanding of the challenges they were facing. Although my patent will not solve a global problem such as climate change, I am confident that when it is licensed and deployed, it will add value to local farmers and their businesses.
In my research centre, we regularly communicate with local farmers and businesses in the marine-agriculture industry about their challenges. This system has worked well for us, and could be effective for other researcher-entrepreneurs from developing nations who hope to make a difference with their inventions.
CHRISTINA HEDBERG: Make early contact with a technology-licensing officer
Technology-licensing officer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA.
Licensing officers at universities, such as myself, are valuable partners for scientist-entrepreneurs. We evaluate invention disclosures for patentability and commercial opportunity, and decide whether to file patents on behalf of our institutions. We also negotiate patent-licence agreements between universities and start-ups, and can provide guidance to researchers as to how the process works and what the relevant institutional policies are.
Many of us have decades of experience in industry and we enjoy sharing our expertise and perspective. We can provide introductions to valuable resources, such as strategic investors, pitch competitions and mentoring, which is why it’s important to build a relationship with your licensing officer as early as possible.
When researchers reach out to me with their ideas early, it gives me more time and a better opportunity to understand the science, the potential impact of their work and their entrepreneurship goals. The more we know about the research and where a potential invention fits in, the easier it is to decide whether to file a patent. Working and strategizing with scientists on this is one of my favourite parts of my role as a technology-licensing officer. There have been times when I have advised a researcher that we should file a patent application early, because I understood the science and the commercial context and I thought it would be strategically advantageous to gain that IP as soon as possible.
Although licensing officers can be valuable allies, we also need scientist-entrepreneurs to be cooperative. We need inventors to be available and responsive when we draft patent applications, and to respond to questions from the patent office. Furthermore, inventors can facilitate the process by helping to clarify the commercial application of their technology, which enables us to draft stronger applications. Finally, they should keep us informed of upcoming publications and presentations, so that we have time to file patents ahead of public disclosures.
Glossary
Intellectual property. Creations of the mind such as inventions or literary works.
Invention disclosure. A confidential document written by inventors and containing details of an invention before it is submitted for patent protection.
Provisional patent. A document issued by a patent office to protect a new invention from being copied, often during a 12-month period, before a formal patent application is filed.
Patent. A government-granted recognition of intellectual property that gives inventors legal rights to exclude others from making, using or selling an invention for a set period. Those inventors must be the first to make public disclosure of a ‘new’ invention.
Patent licence. An agreement under which a patent owner allows patented intellectual property to be used in exchange for payment.
Start-up. A small, innovation-rooted company in its first few years of business that provides goods or services.
Spin-off. A start-up created out of another organization such as a university or research institute.
Incubators and accelerators. Institutions that provide start-ups with resources such as mentorship, funding and space to ramp up their businesses.
Patent search tips
To know whether your ideas are considered new and patentable, equip yourself with basic patent-search skills:
• Choose a patent search engine or database. Google Patents is a user-friendly option for beginners. A more advanced approach is to search international patent databases directly, such as those of the United States Patent and Trademark Office, the European Patent Office (EPO) and the World Intellectual Property Organization.
• Start with a simple keyword search. Keywords to try are usually technical terms related to your invention. Databases such as Espacenet (from the EPO) and that of the Japan Patent Office provide machine translation of European and Japanese patents into English.
• Follow the patent trail. Simple keyword searches might not yield all the results you want, so track the references, authors and companies cited in previous or related patents. That should provide leads to diversify your search and gain a more complete assessment of your idea or invention.
• Consider specialist search engines. Companies such as Octimine in Munich, Germany, and Patentfield in Kyoto, Japan, offer artificial-intelligence-based products for patent searches. These companies say their machine-learning algorithms sort and classify related patents accurately, and provide key information such as how many times a patent has been cited as well as a patent timeline (including the expiry date). | Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain
the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in
Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles
and JavaScript.
Patenting your bright ideas can be a great way to start moving into entrepreneurship. Credit: U.S. Patent Office
Spinning off companies to exploit products and ideas developed at universities and research institutions can help to address societal challenges and make a real-world impact. Such moves can also be lucrative for scientists who are prepared to take their concepts into industry.
But before a company can start selling a product, it must protect its intellectual property (IP) by patenting the technology that makes it special (see ‘Glossary’).
Nature spoke to five specialists about how to get started (see also ‘Patent search tips’).
John Gray says modern patent databases have made competitor analysis much easier. Credit: Rosenich
JOHN GRAY: Learn what makes your idea patentable
UK and European patent attorney, based in Glasgow, UK.
A fear of a discovery being scooped can create a race between researchers to publish their results as a peer-reviewed paper. But if there is a commercial goal in mind, patent filing should come first: patent laws generally favour whomever is first to file an application that completely discloses a fresh invention.
Researchers should keep in mind three important elements that make an idea patentable.
First, the invention must be new: the same idea can’t have been published before in any form. Publications by the inventors themselves (this would include academic papers as well as talks at scientific conferences or demonstrations to potential customers) can destroy a patent application. Presentations at internal laboratory meetings are OK, but if there are external collaborators present, it is essential for everyone to commit to a project agreement with a non-disclosure clause, to protect any potential patents.
Second, there must be some inventive step of ‘non-obviousness’. This can be hard to define and depends on the context. | yes |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | yes_statement | "ideas" can be "patented".. it is possible to "patent" "ideas". | https://www.navsea.navy.mil/Media/News/Article-View/Article/3427699/nuwc-division-newport-scientist-holds-40-patents-encourages-innovation/ | NUWC Division Newport scientist holds 40 patents, encourages ... | Dr. Thomas Gieseke (center), a scientist in the Naval Undersea Warfare Center (NUWC) Division Newport’s Sensors and Sonar Systems Department, was recognized for his most recent patent award during a ceremony held with former Division Newport Technical Director Ron Vien (from left) and Commanding Officer Capt. Chad F. Hennings on March 29, 2023. Gieseke is Division Newport’s leading patent holder among current employees, with 40 patents issued during his 29-year career.
Dr. Thomas Gieseke has a different way of looking at things. His curiosity and unconventional approach to problems has made him the Naval Undersea Warfare Center (NUWC) Division Newport’s leading patent holder among current employees, with 40 patents issued during his 29-year career.
“Tom has an inquisitive mind and positive attitude,” Chief Technology Officer Dr. Jason Gomez said about his accomplishment. “He sees solutions where others see problems or roadblocks.”
Gieseke, a resident of Dighton, Massachusetts, also takes the lead among current employees, a record held for many years by Dr. Anthony Ruffa, who had 79 patents before retiring in December 2022.
Gieseke, who manages advanced technology development projects in the Sensors and Sonar Systems Department, has worked as a first- and second-line supervisor and as a lead scientist, covering a wide range of technical subjects, such as hydrodynamics, ballistics, control systems, and sonar.
“Areas where there are difficult unsolved problems are good places to germinate ideas for invention,” Gieseke said.
Gieseke was hired by Division Newport in 1994 to study transient flows and develop, or advise in the development of new launcher systems. At the time, there was considerable effort to develop a high efficiency inlet for a torpedo system. Essentially, designers wanted to use the energy of a moving submarine to force water through the torpedo launch system to give the launch pump a helping hand.
“We looked at a bunch of designs to scoop moving water from the ocean and direct it to the back end of a torpedo waiting in the launch tube,” Gieseke said. “Many of the ideas we looked at were very conventional. It occurred to me that we were solving a problem that didn’t need to be solved, and moreover, the entire design concept was not ideal. The Inlet Free Torpedo Launch System was conceived to eliminate the need for inlets all together.”
Not only did Gieseke’s idea save a lot of money by eliminating the need to build giant hydraulic doorways, it also could launch weapons more efficiently and quietly.
However, not everyone was excited about Gieseke’s unconventional solution.
“I had been working at NUWC for only a few years, so I had no influence and had no credibility,” Gieseke said. “There really was no place in the culture for radical ideas, especially from young, inexperienced engineers. However, there was an avenue to document my idea, which was the patent process. I wrote up the idea and published it, making it easily accessible at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office if a question ever came up or if someone wanted to do research on torpedo launch systems.”
“I developed a concept to produce a transient impulse jet that works more effectively than a steady jet for underwater water-jet cutting applications,” Gieseke explained. “It was based on an observation made while working on a hydro-ballistics project, but enabled a new line of concept development.”
“It was met with considerable skepticism by scientists in the field and most thought the idea wouldn’t work,” Gieseke said. “In time, it was demonstrated in an experiment and the underlying physics were proven to be sound. There is satisfaction in coming up with an idea that not only was a new innovation, but was based on a vision that others could not see without having it shown to them.”
Fortunately, Gieseke is not easily deterred or discouraged by others’ skepticism.
“If you remain open to solutions that don’t align with conventional wisdom and you are willing to shed the shackles of practical application, unusual ideas can evolve and in unexpected ways,” Gieseke said.
One of Gieseke’s inventions countered his own father’s conventional wisdom.
“When I was starting my career in engineering, my father, who was also an engineer, told me one of the universal truths was that ‘you can’t push a rope,’” Gieseke said. “I designed the Elastomeric Surface Actuation System to do just that. Sorry dad.”
Embedded in the design are tubes that when pressurized, elongate. They become ropes that push and when distributed properly, can be used to control the shape of a surface.
“I am not sure if the idea is used anywhere else, but I found another use for it when a large Rhode Island-based toy company came to us fishing for ideas,” Gieseke said. “In response, I applied the ideas to a toy fish Oscillating Appendage For Fin Propulsion.”
When Gieseke comes up with a new idea, he never knows if it will end up being implemented in the future, but regardless of the end result, he views the patent process as important and well worth the time and effort.
“I’m not sure if any of the ideas I pumped through the patenting process will amount to anything, but maybe the next patent will be ‘the one,’” said Gieseke. “The only way to find out is to write it up and see what happens. The surest way for an idea to die is for no one else to see it.”
Jim Kasischke, supervisory patent counsel in Division Newport’s Office of Counsel, said that it’s wise for employees to try to patent their ideas because 90 percent of their ideas can be patented.
To start the process, inventors should gather enough information to submit an invention disclosure.
The invention disclosure should include a description of the invention by stating the problem that needs solving, what the Division is currently doing, and how the invention proposes to solve the problem in a new way. The description also highlights the advantages of the invention, has a photo, or preferably a drawing, and states how the invention is enabled to solve the problem.
“The more the invention disclosure is developed, the easier it is to prepare a patent application,” Kasischke said.
The invention disclosure requires the signature of two people with associated technical knowledge and the signature of the department security official.
After receipt, Office of Counsel staff assesses the completeness of the disclosure. Once accepted, the disclosure is forwarded to the NUWC Invention Evaluation Board (IEB) for an evaluation of the novelty of the invention and value to the Division and the U.S. Navy. If approved by the IEB, a patent application is written internally or with the assistance of a contract patent attorney. The inventor is encouraged to provide input during the writing process and will have a final review of a draft patent application.
Once an internal public release review is complete, staff will file the official patent application with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). A patent examiner evaluates the draft application for novelty and conformance with U.S. law. Typically, the Division Newport patent attorney will have to prosecute the application and negotiate with the patent examiner to allow a patent to issue on the invention. This is not a sure thing but the patent attorneys have an almost perfect prosecution record.
The process from submission of an invention disclosure to possible issuance of a patent from the USPTO can take two to three years.
Michael Stanley, patent counsel in Division Newport’s Office of Counsel, added that continuing to patent ideas after the first patent can be beneficial to Division Newport, as well as to the inventors. Stanley, who has processed many of Gieseke’s patents, said that a family of patents (especially in the same technology) can be solicited to industry to enhance the value of a license package.
Patent licensing provides royalties to Division Newport, as well as to the inventor of the patented technology. Recently retired Division Newport inventors Ruffa and Paul Cavallaro, as well as Gieseke, have patents that continue to be solicited for licensing by the Division Newport Technology Partnership Office.
Gieseke encourages other scientists who have new ideas to an existing problem to pursue the patent process.
“Patenting is a great way to document the process and mark the path along the way,” Gieseke said. “To get a patent, you don’t have to convince anyone that the idea is the right solution for the particular problem at hand. It just needs to be novel and sufficiently developed to show that it could work.”
NUWC Newport is the oldest warfare center in the country, tracing its heritage to the Naval Torpedo Station established on Goat Island in Newport Harbor in 1869. Commanded by Capt. Chad Hennings, NUWC Newport maintains major detachments in West Palm Beach, Florida, and Andros Island in the Bahamas, as well as test facilities at Seneca Lake and Fisher's Island, New York, Leesburg, Florida, and Dodge Pond, Connecticut.
Join our team! NUWC Division Newport, one of the 20 largest employers in Rhode Island, employs a diverse, highly trained, educated, and skilled workforce. We are continuously looking for engineers, scientists, and other STEM professionals, as well as talented business, finance, logistics and other support experts who wish to be at the forefront of undersea research and development. Please connect with NUWC Division Newport Recruiting at this site- https://www.navsea.navy.mil/Home/Warfare-Centers/NUWC-Newport/Career-Opportunities/ and follow us on LinkedIn @NUWC-Newport and on Facebook @NUWCNewport. | “I designed the Elastomeric Surface Actuation System to do just that. Sorry dad.”
Embedded in the design are tubes that when pressurized, elongate. They become ropes that push and when distributed properly, can be used to control the shape of a surface.
“I am not sure if the idea is used anywhere else, but I found another use for it when a large Rhode Island-based toy company came to us fishing for ideas,” Gieseke said. “In response, I applied the ideas to a toy fish Oscillating Appendage For Fin Propulsion.”
When Gieseke comes up with a new idea, he never knows if it will end up being implemented in the future, but regardless of the end result, he views the patent process as important and well worth the time and effort.
“I’m not sure if any of the ideas I pumped through the patenting process will amount to anything, but maybe the next patent will be ‘the one,’” said Gieseke. “The only way to find out is to write it up and see what happens. The surest way for an idea to die is for no one else to see it.”
Jim Kasischke, supervisory patent counsel in Division Newport’s Office of Counsel, said that it’s wise for employees to try to patent their ideas because 90 percent of their ideas can be patented.
To start the process, inventors should gather enough information to submit an invention disclosure.
The invention disclosure should include a description of the invention by stating the problem that needs solving, what the Division is currently doing, and how the invention proposes to solve the problem in a new way. The description also highlights the advantages of the invention, has a photo, or preferably a drawing, and states how the invention is enabled to solve the problem.
“The more the invention disclosure is developed, the easier it is to prepare a patent application,” Kasischke said.
The invention disclosure requires the signature of two people with associated technical knowledge and the signature of the department security official.
| yes |
Intellectual Property | Can ideas be patented? | no_statement | "ideas" cannot be "patented".. patents cannot be obtained for "ideas". | https://sites.google.com/pdx.edu/iip/home/ip-primer/patents-primer | Innovation & Intellectual Property - Patents Primer | Patents
Patents as a form of intellectual property are meant to protect inventions - ideas that are new in the world and can spur innovation. The ideas they protect, although often spelled out in great detail in patent documents, are by their nature abstract (although must have a real world embodiment, see below). A patent for a chair, if written well, doesn’t just protect one chair but anything that has the specific attributes of a chair covered in the patent.
What can be patented?
Ideas that can be patented include processes (some method that produces a result), machines, articles of manufacture, compositions of matter (chemical compounds or alloys), or improvements to any of those items. Although we say ‘ideas’ and that patent protection is by its nature abstract, there is also a requirement that the patent describes how to make a tangible implementation or embodiment of the idea, or in patent language a “reduction to practice.” The above are known as utility patents - there are also design patents that cover ornamental designs and plant patents for bred varieties of asexually produced plants.
What are patents good for?
Patents take a long time to obtain, and we can spend years processing any given application with the patent office. Because we use patent attorneys and agents to help us with this process, obtaining a patent can be very expensive. An issued patent gives rights to its owner (the right to prevent others from using, making, selling, offering for sale, or importing) for 20 years from the date of filing the application. For these reasons, the use of patents to promote PSU innovations is best suited to ideas that have a long product development time or are ‘platform’ ideas that can be adapted to many future iterations of related products or services. Some research results may fit better into this category than others, and part of our evaluation of whether or not to pursue a patent will take this notion into account. For example, although some elements of software can be patented, software product life cycles tend to be faster than drugs or medical devices and an expensive patent strategy may not always be the best route for this type of innovation.
What are the basic criteria for patentability?
In addition to some basic restrictions (one cannot patent naturally occurring things or processes, abstract ideas, laws of nature, humans, or things that are offensive to the public), the criteria for obtaining a patent are novelty, utility, and non-obviousness.
Novelty: The invention must be brand new. In most of the world, this means that anything that has been publicly disclosed in a paper or at a conference is no longer patentable. In the United States we have a limited one year grace period in some instances, but for practical purposes it is still better to file an application before any public disclosure.
Utility: The invention must be useful. We need to be able to point to a real world use and purpose, meaning we cannot obtain patents on ideas or processes that are early research results with no immediate application. This does not mean that we have to wait for a finished ‘product’ in order to file a patent, as patent language is sufficiently flexible for us to talk about how something is useful prior to having a finished product.
Nonobviousness: The invention must not be obvious to a person with “ordinary skill in the art.” This means that, as a mental exercise, someone in the same field can’t have looked at the same basic facts as the inventor and come up with the same idea. This is often the most difficult criteria on which we have to convince the patent office. It’s a very abstract and retroactive thought process to go through, and although we can seldom predict what a patent examiner will present to us in this regard, there are ways to evaluate how much of an issue this might be before filing an application.
What is prior art?
Public information in the form of journal articles, conference proceedings, books, talks, posters, manuals, white papers, etc., that can either identify that an idea is not novel or that can be combined to make the case that the idea is obvious are known in the patent world as “prior art”. We have an obligation to tell the patent office about anything that we think might be prior art for a patent application, and the patent office will often find prior art to cite against us that we didn’t know about. Prior art may include the inventor’s own previously published materials, and can include foreign language publications and other obscure references. Prior art can also include activities like offering for sale the tangible implementation of the idea prior to the patent application.
Who is an inventor?
The question of who is an inventor on a patent is not the same as standard academic practices around authorship on publications. Many people may have contributed to producing the data that led to or validated the patentable idea, but inventorship is a legal determination that revolves around very narrowly defined intellectual contributions to specific elements of the invention. For researchers accustomed to working with authorship, this is sometimes a hard notion to swallow. At PSU we encourage those who are inventors to recognize those who helped develop the invention but do not rise to the level of inventorship.
What about foreign countries?
Patents are country specific. A patent in the United States only allows the owner to prevent others from the associated activities in the United States. When we are first filing an application, we will often file what is known as a PCT (for Patent Cooperation Treaty), which is like a single placeholder application for many countries of the world. This type of application allows us to preserve most foreign rights while we evaluate the technology and seek external partners who may need the foreign protection. Eventually we need to choose in which countries we will ‘nationalize’ the PCT and file country specific applications. This process gets very expensive very quickly, and we will very rarely do this without an external partner to help us.
So a patent gives me the right to practice my invention?
Nope. As mentioned above, owning a patent gives the owner the right to prevent others from using, making, selling, offering for sale, or importing the covered idea. It is important to note, however, that having a patent does not give the owner the proactive right to do these activities themselves. The idea may be covered by a different but overlapping patent owned by someone else, and any single product or patented process may be covered by a multitude of patents. | Patents
Patents as a form of intellectual property are meant to protect inventions - ideas that are new in the world and can spur innovation. The ideas they protect, although often spelled out in great detail in patent documents, are by their nature abstract (although must have a real world embodiment, see below). A patent for a chair, if written well, doesn’t just protect one chair but anything that has the specific attributes of a chair covered in the patent.
What can be patented?
Ideas that can be patented include processes (some method that produces a result), machines, articles of manufacture, compositions of matter (chemical compounds or alloys), or improvements to any of those items. Although we say ‘ideas’ and that patent protection is by its nature abstract, there is also a requirement that the patent describes how to make a tangible implementation or embodiment of the idea, or in patent language a “reduction to practice.” The above are known as utility patents - there are also design patents that cover ornamental designs and plant patents for bred varieties of asexually produced plants.
What are patents good for?
Patents take a long time to obtain, and we can spend years processing any given application with the patent office. Because we use patent attorneys and agents to help us with this process, obtaining a patent can be very expensive. An issued patent gives rights to its owner (the right to prevent others from using, making, selling, offering for sale, or importing) for 20 years from the date of filing the application. For these reasons, the use of patents to promote PSU innovations is best suited to ideas that have a long product development time or are ‘platform’ ideas that can be adapted to many future iterations of related products or services. Some research results may fit better into this category than others, and part of our evaluation of whether or not to pursue a patent will take this notion into account. For example, although some elements of software can be patented, software product life cycles tend to be faster than drugs or medical devices and an expensive patent strategy may not always be the best route for this type of innovation.
What are the basic criteria for patentability?
| yes |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.multicare.org/vitals/intermittent-fasting-the-latest-research/ | Intermittent fasting: The latest research - MultiCare Vitals | Intermittent fasting: The latest research
Jennifer Aniston says it changed her life. No, we’re not talking about a sitcom. We’re talking about the current trending diet of intermittent fasting. But before you dismiss it as just a fad, Jeffrey Hooper, MD, says for some people intermittent fasting has real benefits that may go beyond weight loss.
“It’s not new,” says Dr. Hooper, medical director for the MultiCare Center for Weight Loss & Wellness. “Like so many things in weight loss, the pendulum swings, and intermittent fasting is getting popular again.”
And because it’s been around for a while, intermittent fasting “actually has science behind it,” he adds.
In late December, the New England Journal of Medicine published an article reviewing previous intermittent fasting studies, giving the method another big publicity boost.
The review highlighted findings that, along with promoting weight loss, intermittent fasting decreases insulin resistance and the chances of developing diabetes, reduces risk for some cancers and forms of dementia and increases cardiovascular health and stress resistance. Studies in rats showed that intermittent fasting greatly increased their lifespans and slowed the aging process.
“A lot of these things are connected to weight loss, but others are less related,” Dr. Hooper says. “There’s benefit from doing this that goes beyond just the weight loss effect.”
Researchers know it works, but not necessarily how, he says. The New England Journal review theorizes that the key is something called “metabolic switching.” The body always needs energy, and when you’ve eaten, that energy comes from the glucose in your food. But when you haven’t eaten for a few hours, your body turns to glucose stored in your liver. When you still don’t eat, your body runs out of its stored glucose, then turns to burning ketones from your fat cells.
This process is also the basis for the ketogenic diet, Dr. Hooper says. The difference between intermittent fasting and a strict keto diet is that you don’t have to restrict any foods. In other words, you can still eat carbs, just not all day.
“For some people, that’s a really attractive extra,” Dr. Hooper says.
There are two versions of intermittent fasting. The first, which has been studied a bit more, is alternate-day eating or the 5:2 plan. In this version, you eat only 300 to 500 calories either every other day or two non-consecutive days each week.
“It’s hard to get patients to do it,” Dr. Hooper says of those daylong fasts. “It’s tough to do and in my experience, they don’t stick to it.”
Instead, Dr. Hooper recommends patients try the 18:6 method of intermittent fasting. That means you limit your calorie consumption to just six hours a day. That usually means skipping breakfast and starting with a late lunch for most people, although you can move your meals to the first part of the day if you’d prefer. In any case, eat two meals, one at the beginning of your six-hour window and one near the end.
Whichever kind of intermittent fasting you take up — day long or 16-hour long — it won’t help you lose weight if you feel so deprived that you eat far more than you normally would, so it’s not for everyone, Dr. Hooper says.
Fasting is most difficult when you initially start, as your body expects food throughout the day.
“Are you going to be hungry? Yes, you are,” he admits. “But it’s less than you might think.”
You’ll typically feel hunger at the times you normally eat, but as the day progresses, those hunger pangs go away. They’ll return at the next meal time, probably more intensely, but they should ease with a regular, healthy meal.
For many, the idea of skipping breakfast goes against years of messaging that it’s the most important meal of the day. Dr. Hooper says there’s no evidence that is true — except perhaps in children.
“Studies show that kids, when you give them a protein-based breakfast, they think better and last to lunch better,” he says.
Some adults also seem to do better when they eat soon after waking.
“For many, starting the day with a good breakfast gets them going on a good path,” Dr. Hooper says.
If skipping breakfast leads you to more snacking and poor choices at lunch, you need to eat breakfast. But people who simply aren’t hungry in the morning shouldn’t feel like they have to eat breakfast to be healthy.
“A lot of what we do these days is to let people choose what’s right for them,” Dr. Hooper says.
Another myth that intermittent fasting busts is that your metabolism slows and your body goes into a “starvation” state if you don’t have a steady amount of calories throughout the day. Even many dietitians mistakenly believe this, Dr. Hooper says. It’s not the lack of calories, but the weight loss that triggers your metabolism to slow.
“It’s not fair, but it’s reality,” he says. “Yes, your metabolism will slow, but it’s slowing because your body is sensing weight loss. However you lose the weight, your metabolism is going to slow.”
If you want to lose weight, Dr. Hooper recommends reaching out to a weight loss specialist, who will have more training than a primary care doctor in analyzing and recommending a program that will work for you. Because whatever diet you use, it has to be one you can stick with permanently.
“Intermittent fasting is something that’s popular right now and isn’t too hard to employ,” he says. “Primarily it helps to give folks a little structure, and structure to your eating pattern is useful.”
But working with a dietitian and diet specialist can give you the extra pieces you need to get past metabolic set points and make whatever weight loss method you use more effective.
“Whatever we do, we have to keep doing it,” Dr. Hooper says. “We can’t do it for just a month.”
About the Author
Cheryl Reid-Simons
After a decade of newspaper reporting Cheryl Reid-Simons left the newsroom to raise her twin sons (Tacoma General NICU graduates) and pursue a freelance career. She lives in Milton with her wife and sometimes her sons, who are off to college most of the year. | Intermittent fasting: The latest research
Jennifer Aniston says it changed her life. No, we’re not talking about a sitcom. We’re talking about the current trending diet of intermittent fasting. But before you dismiss it as just a fad, Jeffrey Hooper, MD, says for some people intermittent fasting has real benefits that may go beyond weight loss.
“It’s not new,” says Dr. Hooper, medical director for the MultiCare Center for Weight Loss & Wellness. “Like so many things in weight loss, the pendulum swings, and intermittent fasting is getting popular again.”
And because it’s been around for a while, intermittent fasting “actually has science behind it,” he adds.
In late December, the New England Journal of Medicine published an article reviewing previous intermittent fasting studies, giving the method another big publicity boost.
The review highlighted findings that, along with promoting weight loss, intermittent fasting decreases insulin resistance and the chances of developing diabetes, reduces risk for some cancers and forms of dementia and increases cardiovascular health and stress resistance. Studies in rats showed that intermittent fasting greatly increased their lifespans and slowed the aging process.
“A lot of these things are connected to weight loss, but others are less related,” Dr. Hooper says. “There’s benefit from doing this that goes beyond just the weight loss effect.”
Researchers know it works, but not necessarily how, he says. The New England Journal review theorizes that the key is something called “metabolic switching.” The body always needs energy, and when you’ve eaten, that energy comes from the glucose in your food. But when you haven’t eaten for a few hours, your body turns to glucose stored in your liver. When you still don’t eat, your body runs out of its stored glucose, then turns to burning ketones from your fat cells.
This process is also the basis for the ketogenic diet, Dr. Hooper says. The difference between intermittent fasting and a strict keto diet is that you don’t have to restrict any foods. | yes |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.dzne.de/en/news/press-releases/press/intermittent-fasting-not-an-anti-aging-remedy-for-mice/ | Intermittent fasting: not an anti-aging remedy for mice - DZNE | Intermittent fasting: not an anti-aging remedy for mice
Bonn/Munich (Germany), July, 31st, 2017. Fasting affects the body in a number of ways. Abundant evidence is available to show that it can even extend the lifespan of animals. But does fasting slow down the aging process? At least in mice, anti-aging effects are limited. This is the conclusion of a joint study by the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) and the Helmholtz Zentrum München. However, the regular alternation of periods of food intake and fasting – a dietary regimen called “intermittent fasting” – slowed down the development of life-limiting cancers. As a result, the animals lived longer than mice with free access to food.
There is no doubt that fasting affects the body and the mind. While little research has been done into the long-term effects on humans, many studies have examined the consequences of life-long fasting in animals. These experiments have shown that mice placed on a strict diet live longer than controls with free access to food. Average lifespan is extended by around 15 percent in mice. In human terms, this would mean around 12 additional years of life. But do these animals age more slowly?
“Until now, this was the prevailing view within the scientific community. It is often based on the observation that fasting animals live longer than controls without restrictions in feeding. However, measuring only lifespan does not provide conclusive evidence regarding possible effects on aging. An extension in lifespan can be the result of an isolated effect on specific life-limiting diseases,” says Dr. Dan Ehninger, who leads a research group at the DZNE’s site in Bonn. “We therefore looked comprehensively at a large range of features associated with aging. Overall, we found only limited evidence for a retardation of aging as a consequence of fasting.”
Feeding every other day
In a joint effort, Ehninger’s team and researchers of the Helmholtz Zentrum München investigated the effects of “intermittent fasting”, i. e. regular feeding pauses, on mice: One group of rodents had unrestricted access to food and water. A second group was given unrestricted access to water, but was only fed on alternate days. This fasting plan started at the age of eight weeks and continued until the animals died a natural death. The study included 160 genetically identical male mice. The ones in the fasting group lived for 908 days on average, while those in the control group lived for 806 days.
All animals underwent extensive testing during their lives and after their deaths. These analyses encompassed more than 200 parameters, more than half of which change in the context of aging. Besides visual acuity, reflexes, and cardiovascular function, the scientists looked at a wide range of other traits including exploratory activity of the mice, immunological parameters, blood cell counts, and aging-associated histopathological changes in various tissues. “In conclusion, we found that both groups of mice aged in similar ways. Fasting had overall very little influence on this,” says Prof. Martin Hrabĕ de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and the German Mouse Clinic at the Helmholtz Zentrum München.
Actually, the fasting mice did outperform controls on certain parameters: They were for example more active, and their blood contained higher levels of the oxygen transporter hemoglobin. However, in most cases, the researchers found similar improvements in a control group of young mice that had only fasted for four weeks, i.e. for a short period.
As these fasting effects manifested in young animals after a relatively short time, they cannot be explained by a delay in aging, says Ehninger. His conclusion: “Fasting had positive effects on the health of the mice but exerted hardly any influence on the dynamics of aging. Out of the 239 parameters we investigated, only seven featured a pattern consistent with a slowdown of aging. This applied for example to certain tissue changes in the brain and kidneys.”
Anti-tumor effect
Most of the mice died of cancer, irrespective of whether they had fasted or been fed a normal diet. “Cancers are known to be one of the most common natural causes of death in mice,” says Ehninger. “However, the tumors developed more slowly in the mice that fasted. This is why on average they lived longer.”
The anti-cancer effect of fasting in laboratory experiments is well documented. This phenomenon can be explained by the fact that periods of dietary restriction trigger metabolic changes. “As a result the organism is not set for growth. This metabolic brake can affect both healthy cells and cancerous ones. Accordingly, tumor development is suppressed,” says Hrabĕ de Angelis.
Similar calorie intake
The study also revealed that the fasting animals consumed almost the same amount of calories as those put on normal diet. “The mice adapted quickly to our experimental design and consumed more on a feeding day to compensate for the lack of food on the following fasting day,” says Ehninger. “Overall, calorie intake was reduced by only a few percent in fasting mice compared to controls. Nevertheless, they gained considerably less weight.” This is in line with results from other studies. “It shows that the effect of fasting is not necessarily due to caloric reduction per se but rather to metabolic changes caused by periods of fasting”, says Hrabĕ de Angelis.
“Intermittent fasting is currently a dietary trend. Experience shows that it can be an effective way to lose excess pounds. However, it must be emphasized that our results cannot be applied to a human context on a one-to-one basis,” says Ehninger. “But one can draw conclusions for future studies, for example, that a broad list of criteria must be taken into account when investigating aging processes. Aging is complex, it affects many organs and functions of our body. In this respect, our study provides many new insights for long-term studies on intermittent fasting in humans.”
We would be pleased if you would allow a cookie to be set for analysis purposes in order to optimise our provided information. All data are pseudonymous and are only used by the DZNE. We deliberately avoid third-party cookies. You can deselect this setting at any time here. | Intermittent fasting: not an anti-aging remedy for mice
Bonn/Munich (Germany), July, 31st, 2017. Fasting affects the body in a number of ways. Abundant evidence is available to show that it can even extend the lifespan of animals. But does fasting slow down the aging process? At least in mice, anti-aging effects are limited. This is the conclusion of a joint study by the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) and the Helmholtz Zentrum München. However, the regular alternation of periods of food intake and fasting – a dietary regimen called “intermittent fasting” – slowed down the development of life-limiting cancers. As a result, the animals lived longer than mice with free access to food.
There is no doubt that fasting affects the body and the mind. While little research has been done into the long-term effects on humans, many studies have examined the consequences of life-long fasting in animals. These experiments have shown that mice placed on a strict diet live longer than controls with free access to food. Average lifespan is extended by around 15 percent in mice. In human terms, this would mean around 12 additional years of life. But do these animals age more slowly?
“Until now, this was the prevailing view within the scientific community. It is often based on the observation that fasting animals live longer than controls without restrictions in feeding. However, measuring only lifespan does not provide conclusive evidence regarding possible effects on aging. An extension in lifespan can be the result of an isolated effect on specific life-limiting diseases,” says Dr. Dan Ehninger, who leads a research group at the DZNE’s site in Bonn. “We therefore looked comprehensively at a large range of features associated with aging. Overall, we found only limited evidence for a retardation of aging as a consequence of fasting.”
| no |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4755412/ | Dietary restriction with and without caloric restriction for healthy aging | Share
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Abstract
Caloric restriction is the most effective and reproducible dietary intervention known to regulate aging and increase the healthy lifespan in various model organisms, ranging from the unicellular yeast to worms, flies, rodents, and primates. However, caloric restriction, which in most cases entails a 20–40% reduction of food consumption relative to normal intake, is a severe intervention that results in both beneficial and detrimental effects. Specific types of chronic, intermittent, or periodic dietary restrictions without chronic caloric restriction have instead the potential to provide a significant healthspan increase while minimizing adverse effects. Improved periodic or targeted dietary restriction regimens that uncouple the challenge of food deprivation from the beneficial effects will allow a safe intervention feasible for a major portion of the population. Here we focus on healthspan interventions that are not chronic or do not require calorie restriction.
Introduction
Aging is the leading risk factor for many among the major diseases and a key factor in the overall decline of physical and mental performance. Interventions that slow down the aging process can delay or prevent multiple chronic diseases and improve productivity and quality of life in older ages. For clarity, here, we use caloric restriction (CR) to refer to a dietary intervention with an overall 20–40% reduction of total caloric intake, and dietary restriction to represent a broader scope of dietary interventions that encompass those with specific macronutrient and feeding pattern restrictions. CR is the most studied and reproducible non-genetic intervention known to extend healthspan and/or lifespan in organisms, ranging from unicellular yeast to monkeys. It started with a simple experiment where a reduction in dietary intake (i.e. caloric restriction) extended the lifespan of rats
1, providing a foundation to experimentally study the relationship between nutrition and the biology of aging. Here we discuss more recent discoveries that have advanced our knowledge of the effects of less invasive and restrictive dietary interventions in aging and healthspan.
Caloric restriction and the conserved mechanisms of aging
In their seminal report in 1935, Crowell and McCay demonstrated that simply reducing caloric intake without causing malnutrition nearly doubled the lifespan of rats
1, providing an experimental model to begin to demonstrate that aging can be slowed down. Nearly half a century later, Walford and Weindruch reported that “adult-initiated” caloric restriction started at 12 months of age not only increased lifespan but also reduced the incidence of spontaneous cancer by more than 50% in rats
2,
3. Several decades later, the effect of caloric restriction on healthspan and lifespan has been confirmed in model organisms ranging from unicellular yeast to worms, flies, rodents, and primates
4, suggesting a highly conserved effect which may involve common genes. Although the molecular mechanisms that mediate the effect of caloric restriction are still being investigated and debated, there is more widespread acceptance of the hypothesis that caloric restriction and lifespan extension involves the down-regulation of insulin and insulin-like signalling (IIS)
5, as well as of the amino signalling target of rapamycin (TOR)-S6 kinase pathway
6,
7, and the glucose signalling Ras-protein kinase A (PKA) pathway
6,
8,
9.
Because an in depth discussion of the anti- and pro-aging pathways conserved in model organisms has been covered elsewhere, here we will only mention the most relevant ones
10–
12. In yeast, down-regulation of (a) the amino acid-sensing TOR and the ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K) ortholog Sch9 pathway
6, and (b) the Ras-AC-PKA pathway
13 are key changes mediating part of the effects of caloric restriction on chronological lifespan, the measurement of cellular survival under non-dividing conditions. In contrast, elevated activity of sirtuin (
SIR2) has been described as a key change in the extension of replicative lifespan, measured by counting the number of buds generated by an individual mother cell
14,
15. In worms, the lifespan extension caused by the inactivation of IIS, or by different forms of caloric restriction, requires Forkhead FoxO transcription factor daf-16
16. In flies, the IIS pathway is involved in the effects of caloric restriction
17 and, although dFoxo is not required for its longevity effect, its activity can affect the response to caloric restriction
18. In rodents, growth hormone (GH) and IGF-1 levels are reduced following caloric restriction
19, but the link between dietary restriction, GH and aging is still being investigated, with focus on the genes and pathways regulating longevity in the simple organisms described above. The long-lived GH receptor knock-out (GHRKO) mice, which are resistant to GH, do not exhibit further lifespan extension or health benefits by caloric restriction
20,
21, but the long-lived GH-deficient Ames mice do
22, suggesting a complex involvement of the GH/IGF-1 axis and periphery pathways in the response to caloric restriction.
Much has been learned about caloric restriction and aging from model organisms, but the ultimate question that lingers is the relevance of these models to human lifespan and healthspan. The rhesus monkeys are the closest model organism to humans in which caloric restriction has been experimentally tested in a controlled environment. Two notable studies performed by independent programs, the National Institute on Aging (NIA) Intramural Research Program and the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center (WNPRC), subjected male and female rhesus monkeys to 30% caloric restriction from levels of baseline caloric intake. The NIA reported no improvement in lifespan but observed a positive trend for the delay of age-related diseases (i.e. healthspan)
23, whereas WNPRC reported significant improvement in both lifespan and healthspan
4,
24. The discrepancies are largely attributed to the different dietary composition and heterogenic genetic background
4,
23, which have been shown to be a significant factor in rodents
25,
26. This underscores the importance of diet composition and genetic background and their compatibility when applying caloric restriction to humans. Nonetheless, several studies provide evidence supporting beneficial health effects of caloric restriction for humans. A notable NIH-sponsored controlled randomized study on non-obese individuals, CALERIE (Comprehensive Assessment of the Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy), recently reported that a two year 25% caloric restriction is feasible for humans and provides health benefits, such as reduced inflammatory markers and cardiometabolic risk factors
27–
29. However, caloric restriction was associated with reduced bone mineral density and exercise was recommended to offset such adverse effects
30. Notably, CALERIE was conducted in three independent centers and involved 218 overweight participants, suggesting that caloric restriction can be beneficial even in a very genetically heterogeneous group
31. However, considering the results in monkeys, much longer and larger studies will be needed to know what the effects of CR on human healthspan.
Among the cellular alterations most closely associated with both caloric restriction and longevity mutations is the resistance to multiple stressors, which in most cases includes resistance to oxidative stress. The ability of caloric restriction to prevent the damage caused by exogenous toxins is likely to be associated with the protection, repair and replacement effects that prevent the age-dependent dysfunction caused by endogenous processes and toxic molecules
32. An alternative hypothesis suggests that caloric restriction acts as a mild stressor that promotes hormesis, which refers to the beneficial effects resulting from the cellular responses to mild, repeated stress
33. Stress resistance should also be considered an important criterion for the successful development of caloric restriction-mimetic dietary and pharmacological interventions.
The definition of dietary restriction has been expanded from an alternative description of caloric restriction to also encompass a broader scope of interventions, including short-term starvation, periodic fasting, fasting-mimetic diets, intermittent fasting, normo-caloric diets with planned deficiencies (in particular macronutrients: proteins, carbohydrates, etc.), and time-restricted feeding. Most of these relatively novel interventions are reported to have beneficial effects on overall health and in some cases longevity. Fasting is an extreme dietary intervention describing either a complete lack of food intake or a 60% or higher food restriction. Intermittent fasting refers to practicing this intervention every other day whereas periodic fasting refers to severe restriction for two or more days periodically (every two weeks, month, etc.). Caloric restriction and fasting share similar but often distinct effects on a number of biomarkers (e.g. reduced glucose, and insulin levels) suggesting that partially overlapping mechanisms are involved
19. Both intermittent and periodic fasting can increase lifespan, even when there is little or no overall decrease in calorie intake
34,
50.
Macronutrient restriction
In addition to periodic or intermittent fasting-based strategies as alternatives to caloric restriction, the restriction of specific macronutrients (or macronutrient restriction) without the restriction of calories is among the most promising interventions that have emerged to promote healthy aging in humans. Among the different types of macronutrient restriction, reduced intake of proteins and amino acids is the most effective pro-longevity intervention
35,
36. Simply reducing protein intake can deliver an equally potent impact on lifespan as dietary restriction in multiple model organisms
35. A recent analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) showed that low protein intake was associated with reduced overall mortality for those under 65 years of age
37. Also, a high-carbohydrate, low-protein diet resulted in longer lifespan and improved cardiometabolic health, despite increased food intake and body fat
38,
39. Furthermore, the restriction of a single essential amino acid in a normal diet increased lifespan and stress resistance
40–
44. In flies, adding back essential amino acids to the caloric restriction diet decreased lifespan to that of the normally fed group
36. Laboratory rodents fed a methionine-restricted diet displayed an extended lifespan with decreased age-dependent diseases and increased resistance to oxidative stress, in part due to increased antioxidant capacity
44–
48. A tryptophan-restricted diet also provided longevity and reduced age-dependent deterioration
42,
43,
49 but has mainly been explored for neurological benefits, due to its role in serotonin synthesis. A fasting-mimicking diet, consisting of very low calorie and protein that leads to similar physiological response to fasting, including reduced levels of glucose and IGF-1 and increased levels of ketone bodies IGFBP-1, enhanced healthspan and rejuvenated the hematopoietic system while promoting adult neurogenesis
50. Further studies on carbohydrate and fat restriction are needed to determine their role in dietary restriction.
Restriction of feeding time
Feeding schedule has also been shown to have a significant impact on health and survival. In flies, time-restricted feeding (limited to 12 daytime hours every day) had profound effects on neural, peripheral, and cardiovascular physiology and improved sleep, body weight maintenance, and delayed signs of cardiac aging, under unchanged caloric intake and activity
53. When mice were given access to food for only 8–9 hours during the active phase of the day, metabolic diseases induced by a high-fat, high-fructose, and high-sucrose diet, were reduced without lowering caloric intake
51. The benefits of time-restricted feeding against such obesogenic diets were proportional to the duration of the fasting each day
52.
Ad lib feeding during the weekend did not interfere with the protective effects of time-restricted feeding
52. Notably, the restricted feeding pattern reversed the progression of pre-existing obesity and type II diabetes, suggesting it has the potential to be a clinically relevant and feasible dietary intervention, useful to prevent and treat obesity and metabolic disorders
52. Considering that key metabolic factors, such as 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), sirtuins, and protein kinase B (AKT), are regulated by an interplay of circadian rhythm and feeding time
54,
55, dietary schedules should be more carefully studied in the context of dietary restriction.
Conclusion
Dietary interventions that extend healthspan and lifespan have evolved and have become much better characterized since the original caloric restriction experiments performed by McCay in 1935. We now understand that its effects on aging are not simply the result of the reduced amount of calories consumed, but are also determined by diet composition, and can be achieved by periodic interventions which do not require an overall reduction in calorie intake and which can be achieved without a complete lack of food intake during the periodic fasting cycles. Further studies are important to identify even less invasive and more effective dietary interventions that will cause coordinated and beneficial effects on healthspan.
Notes
[version 1; referees: 3 approved]
Funding Statement
The author(s) declared that no grants were involved in supporting this work.
Notes
Editorial Note on the Review Process
F1000 Faculty Reviews are commissioned from members of the prestigious
F1000 Faculty and are edited as a service to readers. In order to make these reviews as comprehensive and accessible as possible, the referees provide input before publication and only the final, revised version is published. The referees who approved the final version are listed with their names and affiliations but without their reports on earlier versions (any comments will already have been addressed in the published version). | Caloric restriction and fasting share similar but often distinct effects on a number of biomarkers (e.g. reduced glucose, and insulin levels) suggesting that partially overlapping mechanisms are involved
19. Both intermittent and periodic fasting can increase lifespan, even when there is little or no overall decrease in calorie intake
34,
50.
Macronutrient restriction
In addition to periodic or intermittent fasting-based strategies as alternatives to caloric restriction, the restriction of specific macronutrients (or macronutrient restriction) without the restriction of calories is among the most promising interventions that have emerged to promote healthy aging in humans. Among the different types of macronutrient restriction, reduced intake of proteins and amino acids is the most effective pro-longevity intervention
35,
36. Simply reducing protein intake can deliver an equally potent impact on lifespan as dietary restriction in multiple model organisms
35. A recent analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) showed that low protein intake was associated with reduced overall mortality for those under 65 years of age
37. Also, a high-carbohydrate, low-protein diet resulted in longer lifespan and improved cardiometabolic health, despite increased food intake and body fat
38,
39. Furthermore, the restriction of a single essential amino acid in a normal diet increased lifespan and stress resistance
40–
44. In flies, adding back essential amino acids to the caloric restriction diet decreased lifespan to that of the normally fed group
36. Laboratory rodents fed a methionine-restricted diet displayed an extended lifespan with decreased age-dependent diseases and increased resistance to oxidative stress, in part due to increased antioxidant capacity
44–
48. | yes |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.news-medical.net/news/20221214/Study-reveals-limited-effects-of-longevity-treatments-on-the-aging-process.aspx | Study reveals limited effects of longevity treatments on the aging ... | Three approaches with a reputation for slowing aging processes have proven largely ineffective. For their study, researchers developed a new method to measure aging, which accounts for the complexity of aging in organisms.
In a new study, researchers have taken a close look at three treatment approaches that have been widely believed to slow the aging process. However, when tested in mice, these treatments proved largely ineffective in their supposed impact on aging.
There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch - at least not in the form of the treatments studied here."
Dr. Dan Ehninger of the DZNE, initiator of the study
The team has developed a new analytical approach to make influences on aging processes measurable.
The study, the results of which have now been published in the renowned journal Nature Communications, involved researchers from DZNE, Helmholtz Munich and the German Center for Diabetes (DZD). "We chose three regulators for our interventions that many experts believe slow down aging," explains Prof. Dr. Martin Hrabě de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and director of the German Mouse Clinic at Helmholtz Munich, who also drove the project with his team. One of them is intermittent fasting, in which the calories consumed are reduced. Number two targets a central node of cell metabolism (mTOR), which is also the target of the supposed "anti-aging drug" rapamycin. Number three, in turn, interferes with the release of growth hormone. Similar treatments are also used by humans, although their efficacy with regard to aging has not been sufficiently proven.
For the assessment in mice, the scientists developed a new answer to the question of how to measure aging. "Many researchers in recent decades have used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging," explains Dan Ehninger, who is a senior scientist at DZNE. So, for example, how old do mice get - and how can that lifespan be extended? "It is often assumed that if they just live longer, they will also age more slowly. But the problem is that mice, like many other organisms, do not die from general old age, but from very specific diseases," says Ehninger. For example, up to 90 percent of mice die from tumors that form in their bodies at an advanced age. "So, if you were to look at the whole genome for factors that make mice become long-lived, you would like find many genes that suppress tumor development - and not necessarily genes that play a general role in aging."
For their study, the scientists therefore chose an approach that does not emphasize lifespan, but rather focused on a comprehensive investigation of age-related changes in a wide range of bodily functions. "You can think of it as a complete health status survey," says Martin Hrabě de Angelis: "The health check results in a compendium of hundreds of factors covering many areas of physiology" - an exact description of the state of the animal at the moment of examination. That's exactly the approach the researchers applied to the animals subjected to one of the three treatment approaches that supposedly slow aging. Across different life stages, they were analyzed and compared: How much does each parameter typically change at a given stage of life? And, do parameters change more slowly when the mice are given one of the three treatments? This study design makes it possible to determine precisely whether the natural aging process can be slowed, and with it the deterioration of important physiological functions.
The results were unambiguous: Although the researchers were able to identify individual cases in which old mice looked younger than they actually were it was clear that "this effect was not due to slowing down aging, but rather due to age-independent factors," says Dan Ehninger. "The fact that a treatment already has its effect in young mice – prior to the appearance of age-dependent change in health measures – proves that these are compensatory, general health-promoting effects, not a targeting of aging mechanisms."
The DZNE and Helmholtz Diabetes Center teams have now set their sights on the next goal: They want to investigate other treatment approaches that experts believe can slow aging. The researchers' hope: The new research method will provide a more comprehensive picture of possible treatment approaches and their effectiveness.
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on this website is designed to support, not to replace the relationship
between patient and physician/doctor and the medical advice they may provide. | Three approaches with a reputation for slowing aging processes have proven largely ineffective. For their study, researchers developed a new method to measure aging, which accounts for the complexity of aging in organisms.
In a new study, researchers have taken a close look at three treatment approaches that have been widely believed to slow the aging process. However, when tested in mice, these treatments proved largely ineffective in their supposed impact on aging.
There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch - at least not in the form of the treatments studied here. "
Dr. Dan Ehninger of the DZNE, initiator of the study
The team has developed a new analytical approach to make influences on aging processes measurable.
The study, the results of which have now been published in the renowned journal Nature Communications, involved researchers from DZNE, Helmholtz Munich and the German Center for Diabetes (DZD). "We chose three regulators for our interventions that many experts believe slow down aging," explains Prof. Dr. Martin Hrabě de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and director of the German Mouse Clinic at Helmholtz Munich, who also drove the project with his team. One of them is intermittent fasting, in which the calories consumed are reduced. Number two targets a central node of cell metabolism (mTOR), which is also the target of the supposed "anti-aging drug" rapamycin. Number three, in turn, interferes with the release of growth hormone. Similar treatments are also used by humans, although their efficacy with regard to aging has not been sufficiently proven.
For the assessment in mice, the scientists developed a new answer to the question of how to measure aging. "Many researchers in recent decades have used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging," explains Dan Ehninger, who is a senior scientist at DZNE. So, for example, how old do mice get - and how can that lifespan be extended? "It is often assumed that if they just live longer, they will also age more slowly. | no |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://studyfinds.org/longevity-treatments-slow-aging/ | Longevity treatments like rapamycin, intermittent fasting fail to slow ... | ‘There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch.’
BONN, Germany — Longevity treatments may be in high demand, but a new study finds many of them don’t do what they promise. Researchers in Germany have found that three popular anti-aging strategies fail to actually slow the hands of time.
During their review, a team from the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) developed a new way to measure aging. Instead of simply looking at lifespan, the team focused on the age-related changes that take place in a wide range of bodily functions over time. Using this measure, they examined the effectiveness of intermittent fasting and two anti-aging treatments which target cell metabolism and growth hormones, respectively.
Results show that each longevity strategy was largely ineffective when it comes to slowing the aging process.
“There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch – at least not in the form of the treatments studied here,” says Dr. Dan Ehninger of the DZNE, the initiator of the study, in a media release.
“We chose three regulators for our interventions that many experts believe slow down aging,” explains Prof. Dr. Martin Hrabě de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and director of the German Mouse Clinic at Helmholtz Munich.
Specifically, study authors note that intermittent fasting focuses on restricting calorie consumption to a short daily window. Meanwhile, the second treatment targets a central node of cell metabolism (mTOR). The anti-aging drug rapamycin is one of the prominent compounds targeting mTOR.
Finally, the study examined the interference in the release of growth hormones. Although there are treatments for humans which target this anti-aging pathway, their effectiveness is still unclear.
Aging is not just about lifespan
“Many researchers in recent decades have used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging,” explains Ehninger.
“It is often assumed that if they just live longer, they will also age more slowly. But the problem is that mice, like many other organisms, do not die from general old age, but from very specific diseases.”
Researchers add that 90 percent of aging mice die from tumors that form over time.
“So, if you were to look at the whole genome for factors that make mice become long-lived, you would like find many genes that suppress tumor development – and not necessarily genes that play a general role in aging,” Ehninger continues.
“You can think of it as a complete health status survey,” says Hrabě de Angelis. “The health check results in a compendium of hundreds of factors covering many areas of physiology.”
Researchers kept track of how the animals’ bodies changed during each stage of life. After applying the anti-aging treatments, they looked for signs that the treatments slowed down biological changes within the mice and prevented the deterioration of important physiological functions.
Unfortunately, the results were clear — all three anti-aging treatments did not slow down aging at a biological level.
Although the mice may have physically looked younger, Ehninger says “this effect was not due to slowing down aging, but rather due to age-independent factors.”
“The fact that a treatment already has its effect in young mice – prior to the appearance of age-dependent change in health measures – proves that these are compensatory, general health-promoting effects, not a targeting of aging mechanisms.” | ‘There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch.’
BONN, Germany — Longevity treatments may be in high demand, but a new study finds many of them don’t do what they promise. Researchers in Germany have found that three popular anti-aging strategies fail to actually slow the hands of time.
During their review, a team from the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE) developed a new way to measure aging. Instead of simply looking at lifespan, the team focused on the age-related changes that take place in a wide range of bodily functions over time. Using this measure, they examined the effectiveness of intermittent fasting and two anti-aging treatments which target cell metabolism and growth hormones, respectively.
Results show that each longevity strategy was largely ineffective when it comes to slowing the aging process.
“There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch – at least not in the form of the treatments studied here,” says Dr. Dan Ehninger of the DZNE, the initiator of the study, in a media release.
“We chose three regulators for our interventions that many experts believe slow down aging,” explains Prof. Dr. Martin Hrabě de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and director of the German Mouse Clinic at Helmholtz Munich.
Specifically, study authors note that intermittent fasting focuses on restricting calorie consumption to a short daily window. Meanwhile, the second treatment targets a central node of cell metabolism (mTOR). The anti-aging drug rapamycin is one of the prominent compounds targeting mTOR.
Finally, the study examined the interference in the release of growth hormones. Although there are treatments for humans which target this anti-aging pathway, their effectiveness is still unclear.
Aging is not just about lifespan
“Many researchers in recent decades have used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging,” explains Ehninger.
“It is often assumed that if they just live longer, they will also age more slowly. | no |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/12/221214092438.htm | Longevity treatments do not slow aging -- ScienceDaily | Longevity treatments do not slow aging
Three approaches with a reputation for slowing aging processes have proven largely ineffective. For their study, researchers developed a new method to measure aging, which accounts for the complexity of aging in organisms.
In a new study, researchers have taken a close look at three treatment approaches that have been widely believed to slow the aging process. However, when tested in mice, these treatments proved largely ineffective in their supposed impact on aging. "There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch -- at least not in the form of the treatments studied here," concludes Dr. Dan Ehninger of the DZNE, the initiator of the study. The team has developed a new analytical approach to make influences on aging processes measurable.
The study, the results of which have now been published in the journal Nature Communications, involved researchers from DZNE, Helmholtz Munich and the German Center for Diabetes (DZD). "We chose three regulators for our interventions that many experts believe slow down aging," explains Prof. Dr. Martin Hrab? de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and director of the German Mouse Clinic at Helmholtz Munich, who also drove the project with his team. One of them is intermittent fasting, in which the calories consumed are reduced. Number two targets a central node of cell metabolism (mTOR), which is also the target of the supposed "anti-aging drug" rapamycin. Number three, in turn, interferes with the release of growth hormone. Similar treatments are also used by humans, although their efficacy with regard to aging has not been sufficiently proven.
For the assessment in mice, the scientists developed a new answer to the question of how to measure aging. "Many researchers in recent decades have used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging," explains Dan Ehninger, who is a senior scientist at DZNE. So, for example, how old do mice get -- and how can that lifespan be extended? "It is often assumed that if they just live longer, they will also age more slowly. But the problem is that mice, like many other organisms, do not die from general old age, but from very specific diseases," says Ehninger. For example, up to 90 percent of mice die from tumors that form in their bodies at an advanced age. "So, if you were to look at the whole genome for factors that make mice become long-lived, you would like find many genes that suppress tumor development -- and not necessarily genes that play a general role in aging."
For their study, the scientists therefore chose an approach that does not emphasize lifespan, but rather focused on a comprehensive investigation of age-related changes in a wide range of bodily functions. "You can think of it as a complete health status survey," says Martin Hrab? de Angelis: "The health check results in a compendium of hundreds of factors covering many areas of physiology" -- an exact description of the state of the animal at the moment of examination. That's exactly the approach the researchers applied to the animals subjected to one of the three treatment approaches that supposedly slow aging. Across different life stages, they were analyzed and compared: How much does each parameter typically change at a given stage of life? And, do parameters change more slowly when the mice are given one of the three treatments? This study design makes it possible to determine precisely whether the natural aging process can be slowed, and with it the deterioration of important physiological functions.
The results were unambiguous: Although the researchers were able to identify individual cases in which old mice looked younger than they actually were it was clear that "this effect was not due to slowing down aging, but rather due to age-independent factors," says Dan Ehninger. "The fact that a treatment already has its effect in young mice -- prior to the appearance of age-dependent change in health measures -- proves that these are compensatory, general health-promoting effects, not a targeting of aging mechanisms."
The DZNE and Helmholtz Diabetes Center teams have now set their sights on the next goal: They want to investigate other treatment approaches that experts believe can slow aging. The researchers' hope: The new research method will provide a more comprehensive picture of possible treatment approaches and their effectiveness.
Apr. 27, 2023 Researchers have developed a biosynthetic 'clock' that keeps cells from reaching normal levels of deterioration related to aging. They engineered a gene oscillator that switches between the two ...
June 23, 2022 An international team of 114 scientists reports the most comprehensive study of aging and longevity to date of reptiles and amphibians worldwide. Among their many findings, they document for the ...
Jan. 18, 2022 Researchers developed a new blood test to measure the pace of biological aging. Based on an analysis of chemical tags on the DNA contained in white blood cells, called DNA methylation marks, the new ...
July 16, 2020 Scientists have unraveled key mechanisms behind the mysteries of aging. They isolated two distinct paths that cells travel during aging and engineered a new way to genetically program these processes ... | Longevity treatments do not slow aging
Three approaches with a reputation for slowing aging processes have proven largely ineffective. For their study, researchers developed a new method to measure aging, which accounts for the complexity of aging in organisms.
In a new study, researchers have taken a close look at three treatment approaches that have been widely believed to slow the aging process. However, when tested in mice, these treatments proved largely ineffective in their supposed impact on aging. "There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch -- at least not in the form of the treatments studied here," concludes Dr. Dan Ehninger of the DZNE, the initiator of the study. The team has developed a new analytical approach to make influences on aging processes measurable.
The study, the results of which have now been published in the journal Nature Communications, involved researchers from DZNE, Helmholtz Munich and the German Center for Diabetes (DZD). "We chose three regulators for our interventions that many experts believe slow down aging," explains Prof. Dr. Martin Hrab? de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and director of the German Mouse Clinic at Helmholtz Munich, who also drove the project with his team. One of them is intermittent fasting, in which the calories consumed are reduced. Number two targets a central node of cell metabolism (mTOR), which is also the target of the supposed "anti-aging drug" rapamycin. Number three, in turn, interferes with the release of growth hormone. Similar treatments are also used by humans, although their efficacy with regard to aging has not been sufficiently proven.
For the assessment in mice, the scientists developed a new answer to the question of how to measure aging. "Many researchers in recent decades have used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging," explains Dan Ehninger, who is a senior scientist at DZNE. So, for example, how old do mice get -- and how can that lifespan be extended? "It is often assumed that if they just live longer, they will also age more slowly. | no |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.dailymail.co.uk/health/article-11576985/Trendy-intermittent-fasting-diet-used-celebs-doesnt-help-age-better-despite-celebrity-claims.html | Trendy intermittent fasting diet used by celebs doesn't help you age ... | The trendy intermittent fasting diet - where a person skips food for hours each day - does not prevent aging, a study suggests.
The diet that requires people to eat within a certain window of time and abstain from food for an extended period is a celebrity favorite for its purported weight loss and anti-aging benefits. It has been promoted by the likes of Elon Musk and Chris Pratt.
The German team of scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging.
Celebrity-approved intermittent fasting has been embraced for its purported anti-aging and weight loss benefits, but researchers said the diet plan has no effect on the aging process
For the study, the team from the German Centre for Neurodegenerative Diseases carried out a thorough examination of age-related changes to a wide range of bodily functions in mice who took on the diet.
The health check measured a range of conditions including visual acuity, reflexes, and cardiovascular function, as well as other traits including exploratory activity of the mice, immunological parameters, blood cell counts and aging-associated manifestations of disease in the tissue.
The check gave the team an ‘exact description’ of the state of the animal at the time they were examined.
The researchers concluded that results showing a lack of meaningful benefit were ‘unambiguous’ and that even when older mice appeared younger than they were, this had occurred for reasons other than diet.
Share this article
Prof Martin Hrabĕ de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and the German Mouse Clinic at the Helmholtz Zentrum München said: 'In conclusion, we found that both groups of mice aged in similar ways. Fasting had overall very little influence on this.'
Meanwhile, two treatments were used in two different groups - one group with unfettered access to food and water and another on an every-other-day feeding (EOD) diet.
Mice on the EOD diet, while still vulnerable to tumors, saw slower growth in cancers than the control group which can be explained by the fact that periods of dietary restriction trigger metabolic changes.
Jennifer Aniston (left) and Nicole Kidman (right) are two celebrities who are reported to have used intermittent fasting
The EOD group was given unrestricted access to water, but was only fed on alternate days until their natural death.
Researchers said the study’s design made it possible to work out whether the natural aging process and the deterioration of important body functions can be slowed.
But the treatments appeared to slow down the process because they are beneficial overall rather than because they specifically target the aging process.
Earlier research has used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging, but the German research team said this is a flawed approach.
Still, the mice on an EOD lived 102 days longer than the control group.
Intermittent fasting in various forms, primarily for weight loss, has been around for ages but skyrocketed to popularity in the the last decade thanks in part to celebrity endorsements.
Many have credited their health to restricted eating schedules, such as the 16/8 method, which requires people to fast daily for 16 hours and restrict their eating window everyday to eight hours.
Friends star Jennifer Aniston previously said she ‘noticed a big difference’ by going without solid food for 16 hours.
Guardians of the Galaxy actor Chris Pratt said he would not eat before noon to get in shape for superhero roles.
Reality star Kourtney Kardashian said she would not eat past 7pm at night and then waited until around 10:30am or 11am the next day.
But through their research, the team found that this approach does not slow down the course of aging.
Dr Dan Enhinger, an author of the study, said: ‘There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch - at least not in the form of the treatments studied here.
‘The fact that a treatment already has its effect in young mice – prior to the appearance of age-dependent change in health measures – proves that these are compensatory, general health-promoting effects, not a targeting of aging mechanisms’
The team now want to look at the effects of other treatments experts believe can slow aging. | The trendy intermittent fasting diet - where a person skips food for hours each day - does not prevent aging, a study suggests.
The diet that requires people to eat within a certain window of time and abstain from food for an extended period is a celebrity favorite for its purported weight loss and anti-aging benefits. It has been promoted by the likes of Elon Musk and Chris Pratt.
The German team of scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging.
Celebrity-approved intermittent fasting has been embraced for its purported anti-aging and weight loss benefits, but researchers said the diet plan has no effect on the aging process
For the study, the team from the German Centre for Neurodegenerative Diseases carried out a thorough examination of age-related changes to a wide range of bodily functions in mice who took on the diet.
The health check measured a range of conditions including visual acuity, reflexes, and cardiovascular function, as well as other traits including exploratory activity of the mice, immunological parameters, blood cell counts and aging-associated manifestations of disease in the tissue.
The check gave the team an ‘exact description’ of the state of the animal at the time they were examined.
The researchers concluded that results showing a lack of meaningful benefit were ‘unambiguous’ and that even when older mice appeared younger than they were, this had occurred for reasons other than diet.
Share this article
Prof Martin Hrabĕ de Angelis, head of the Institute of Experimental Genetics and the German Mouse Clinic at the Helmholtz Zentrum München said: 'In conclusion, we found that both groups of mice aged in similar ways. Fasting had overall very little influence on this.'
Meanwhile, two treatments were used in two different groups - one group with unfettered access to food and water and another on an every-other-day feeding (EOD) diet.
| no |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://hello100.com/reverse-aging-diet-and-habits/ | Eating Habits To Reverse Aging | Hello100 | Eating Habits To Reverse Aging
If you aim for a healthier longer lifespan, you are probably looking for the right foods and habits to reverse aging. Nutrition is one of the primary aspects of longevity. Why? Plant-based, natural foods, a balanced diet, and eating patterns that withhold premature aging are integral components of longevity. The food we eat serves as fuel for not only body functions but also for brain performance and cellular activity. Moreover, lifestyle habits along with nutrition help you prolong your healthy lifespan. Further in this article, you will learn about 15 foods that prevent aging. Also, you will discover what lifestyle changes and habits may slow down or reverse the aging process.
1. Intermittent Fasting As A Reverse Aging Habit
Aging can be reversed or slowed down with diet. Over the last decades, intermittent fasting (IF) has been gaining popularity as an anti-aging diet plan. Intermittent fasting is practiced as often as every day to once a month.
Intermittent fasting emerges as a dietary and caloric restriction for a certain period. The most common period of intermittent fasting is 6-12 hours of going without food followed by usual calory restricted feeding for the next 12 and 48 hours. However, most people practicing IF concentrate primarily not on what but on when they eat.
Scientists believe that the eating period in intermittent fasting is equally important as the fasting period. During these two periods, cells are affected positively and activated towards rejuvenation and prevention of aging-related diseases.
During IF your body starts using the stored fat and energy thus contributing to weight loss. Practiced along with daily exercise, IF may help to lose weight faster.
IF contributes to DNA repair by breaking down free radicals causing oxidative stress.
During the fasting period brain activity increases, memory and sleep quality improve. This way, IF hinders neurodegenerative disorders while aging.
Yet, intermittent fasting may not be a suitable reverse aging diet plan for everyone. Dietitians advise not to practice IF to the people falling into these groups
Pregnant and breastfeeding women
People younger than 18-year-olds
People with confirmed health disorders such as diabetes
People with a previous history of eating disorders
Hence, intermittent fasting is a natural method for reverse aging and is one of the effective reverse aging habitspracticed by thousands of people with documented health benefits for slow aging.
2. Stay Hydrated To Reverse Skin Aging
We all need oxygen to stay alive, and we obtain it not only from the air but from water as well. Water is vital for the body to maintain proper functioning.
You may have noticed that even a day of dehydration causes puffy and dry skin, low energy levels, and sleepiness. Plus, prolonged dehydration may cause bone wreckage and inflammation, and make you look older your age.
All of the above-mentioned outcomes can be addressed by developing an anti-aging habit of staying hydrated. If you are wondering what the optimal daily water intake is, here is the answer- you should listen to your body. Too much water may cause diarrhea, nausea, and make it harder for your kidney to remove excess water.
Thus, drinking 1-2 liters of water daily (depending on your body mass index) may help you feel and look younger by preventing wrinkles, skin dryness, and puffy eyes.
3. Quit Smoking
According to CDC (Center for Disease Control & Prevention), smoking affects nearly every organ in the body. Smoking is related to cardiovascular diseases, cancers, respiratory diseases, and stroke.
The health risks of smoking affect not only the smoker but also the people breathing the smoke of a cigarette. Released cigarette smoke contains harmful free radicals, the accumulation of which causes inflammation serving as a generator of lung cancer, heart issues, and blood vessel narrowing.
Studies confirm that smoking not only makes people look older but also accelerates the aging process, increasing biological age. Smoking accompanied by drinking alcoholic beverages doubles the effects of premature aging.
Quitting smoking may significantly lower the chances of the above-mentioned adverse outcomes. Moreover, it may also reverse skin aging.
4. Be Active
Not a secret, that an active lifestyle is the guarantee of a healthy body, mind, and quality aging. A sedentary lifestyle is harmful to your bones’ health, it degrades your muscles, increases blood pressure, and most importantly shortens telomeres length.
Telomeres are caps at the end of chromosomes that are reservoirs for our genetic information. Aging and telomeres length are interconnected, meaning that our unhealthy biological aging negatively affects telomeres length, and shortened telomeres accelerate the aging process.
5. Keep Your Brain Occupied
Brain activity reflects organismal overall health. When the brain is idle and does not learn new information, it may face untimely neurodegeneration. Famous American neuroscientist Dr. Andrew Huberman recommends proven practices for a sharper mind as you age.
Along with learning and keeping your brain busy, certain foods, vitamins, and supplements can also be good restoratives for slow or even reverse aging. These include
Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids
Folate (vitamin B9)
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B6
15 Best Anti-Aging Foods
Balanced nutrition is one of the key components in slow or even reverse aging. In addition to the above-discussed longevity habits, in this section, you will learn about the 15 foods that make you look younger.
1. Curcumin
Curcumin is a compound derived from the ginger family. It is most famous for its healing and preventative properties. Curcumin is a strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compound against reactive oxygen species causing oxidative stress. Studies also documented that curcumin can be used to suppress the onset of cancers. Besides cancers, curcumin was shown to prevent aging diseases such as diabetes and atherosclerosis. Other anti-aging effects of curcumin include
Better mood
Enhanced cognitive function
Stronger immune system
Delayed cellular senescence
Increased lifespan
You can drink curcumin every morning or before bedtime with a cup of milk, or tea or simply add it to your favorite meal.
2. Ginseng
Ginseng is a root of the ginseng plant. It is a valuable and bioactive herb known for its anti-aging effects. One of the recently discovered benefits of ginseng consumption is the enhancement of physical resistance among both men and women.
Ginseng is known to strengthen the immune system, it is a good means against anxiety, stress, and fatigue. Moreover, ginseng consumption can improve memory and brain health.
In addition, ginseng was shown to increase the longevity gene foxo3a and slow down skin aging. Hence, ginseng can make your tea a drink that can prolong your lifespan and slow down skin aging.
3. Blueberries
Polyphenols are compounds acting as anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory agents. These compounds are abundantly found in fruits, vegetables, plants, and grains. One of the well-studied polyphenols is resveratrol.
Resveratrol started gaining popularity when its anti-aging properties were discovered, and it was used in a form of supplements. However, it can also be found in such fruits as blueberries, grapes, raspberries, and strawberries.
Blueberries contain more polyphenols than any other vegetable or fruit. And they are also abundant in resveratrol which ameliorates aging diseases such as cardiovascular complications, asthma, diabetes, chronic inflammation, and cancer. Resveratrol being a potent polyphenol participates in DNA repair and UV protection. More to this, earlier studies show that blueberries or blueberry extract may have life-prolonging effects.
4. Apples
An apple a day keeps not only the doctor but also aging away. Apples are low-glycemic fruits, meaning they contain low sugar and are suitable for people with prediabetes or diabetes. Due to this property, apples also hinder the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (bad cholesterol) the accumulation of which causes plaque formation in the blood leading to atherosclerosis. Moreover, apples are rich in polyphenols which protect the human body against oxidative stress and its consequences such as cancer, chronic inflammation, and heart disease. According to studies, apples can be referred to as anti-aging fruit for women. 14 years of follow-up research showed that 84,000 women eating an apple a day had increased resistance against aging diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and lung cancer. More to this, concentrated apple juice was shown to have neuroprotective effects in aged mammals.
5. Tea
To reverse or slow down aging, consider drinking tea every day. The anti-aging properties of tea are attributed to polyphenols and catechins contained in tea. These two components in green or black tea can reduce DNA damage and increase lifespan. More anti-aging effects of tea include
Weight reduction
Better sleep and relaxation
Stronger immune system
Pain relief
UV protection (tea polyphenol extract)
Skin aging prevention
6. Coffee
Not a tea person? Drinking coffee has similar effects as tea. The caffeine contained in coffee beans is not only an effective anti-aging skin product but is also an anti-inflammatory agent when consumed as a beverage.
Coffee, drunk no more than 3-4 cups a day, can slow down neurodegeneration, strengthen heart health, decrease the risk of diabetes, make you feel and long younger, increase energy levels, and slow down aging.
7. Rice
Rice, especially brown or black rice, is rich in antioxidants and has anti-inflammatory and anti-cancerogenic effects. This content in rice was shown to ease the symptoms in Alzheimer’s patients. Black and brown rice is abundant in anthocyanins which are water-soluble pigments giving fruits and vegetables red, purple, and blue colors. Anthocyanins contain anti-cancer, anti-diabetes, anti-inflammatory, and anti-obesity properties.
Anthocyanins gained from 30mg rice showed to prolong lifespan by 14% in mammals along with upregulation of longevity genes SOD1, SOD, CAT, and Rpn11. Furthermore, the anthocyanins extract from black rice is also effective in maintaining skin youthfulness. Hence, this compound obtained from the rice in your anti-aging diet can help you slow down aging.
8. Pumpkin And Carrots
Pumpkin, carrots, and papaya are considered anti-aging foods as they contain Β-carotene. Scientists report that cellular aging is associated with low β-carotenelevels in the body. β-carotene is a red pigment from the carotenoid family possessing strong antioxidative benefits. Plus, this compound is believed to maintain skin elasticity. Studies suggest that β-carotene can ward off skin irritation and redness from UV radiation while protecting from photoaging. In addition to external effects, the supplementation of β-carotene among older adults was shown to enhance telomeres activity averting symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease.
9. Mango
This tropical fruit is popular for its rich nutritional content. A cup of mango will provide you with
Copper
Zink
Vitamin C
Vitamin K
Vitamin A
Protein
Essential fats
Fiber
Protein
Mangos are low in calories and help your body stay nourished for a longer period without adding extra weight. Plus, this fruit has low sugar content, over 22 grams a cup, which makes mangos safe anti-aging fruits for people with metabolic disorders or diabetes. Mangos contain also lutein and zeaxanthins which are types of carotenoids giving fruits and vegetables their yellow color. These two compounds are well known for their vital role in eye health. In fact, they have concentrated in the macula of the eye, a part that helps you see colors, and details. Lutein and zeaxanthins in the macula play the role of antioxidants protecting the eye from reactive oxygen species. However, the reduction of these antioxidants with age can impair vision. So, you can get these compounds from your daily diet containing mangos for reverse aging and eye health.
10. Citrus Fruits
Citrus fruits are popular for being a source of vitamin C and supporting the immune system. However, citrus fruits are also anti-aging fruits that increase the collagen levels in the skin making it more smooth and lowering the chances of hyperpigmentation. Along with external signs of aging, we encounter a functional reduction in our organs internally including DNA damage, neurodegeneration, and chronic inflammation. Yet, here come flavonoids which have protective effects against the aforementioned health issues. Flavonoids are natural antioxidant compounds found in vegetables, fruits, roots, and tea leaves. Especially, citrus fruits such as oranges, kiwi, lemon, pomelo, grapefruits, mandarine, and others, are abundant in flavonoids. The consumption of these anti-aging fruits can help to ward off age-induced cardiovascular disorders, neurodegeneration, DNA instability, and oxidative stress.
11. Leafy Greens
Leafy greens are a source of calcium, potassium, iron, magnesium, and fiber. They also provide the body with folate and vitamin Bs which support blood, heart, and bone health and development.
Leafy greens get their green color due to the compound called chlorophyll which helps plants absorb solar energy and grow. Yet, in the human body, they boost blood health, avert free radicals, protect skin from aging, and help to control healthy weight. Leafy greens are low in calories, hence they can be freely involved in your anti-obesity diet. The leafy greens that contain most of the chlorophyll are kale, spinach, romaine lettuce, and arugula.
12. Watermelon
Besides keeping you cool and hydrated during hot days, watermelon is packed with numerous nutrients supporting healthy aging. Watermelon is low in calories and sugar but is abundant in potassium, fiber, magnesium, protein, healthy fats, and Vitamins C and A. Among the above-mentioned nutrients, watermelon is rich in lycopene and citrulline. While citrulline consumption is associated with improved exercise capacity, lycopene gained from watermelon can prevent cancer development, scavenge free radicals, and lower the risk of heart disease.
13. Sweet Potatoes
Sweet potatoes are also a source of vitamins C, A, and collagen that protect the skin from early wrinkles appearance and maintain skin smoothness. In addition, sweet potatoes contain less starch than regular potatoes. Excess consumption of starch from regular potatoes may be a cause of diabetes, weight gain, and heart disease.
Sweet potatoes contain anthocyanins, β-carotene, and chlorogenic acid which have anti-obesity, anti-diabetes, and anti-inflammatory properties. Other anti-aging benefits of sweet potatoes include balanced blood sugar levels, a lower risk of oxidative stress, and reduced chances of breast, and stomach cancers.
14. Bell Peppers
Bell peppers, not depending on their color, are considered anti-aging vegetables due to their antioxidant characteristics. They contain vitamins C, E, and β-carotene. What’s more, bell peppers contain more vitamin C than citrus fruits, meaning these vegetables can boost the immune system more effectively. Besides these, bell peppers are rich in polyphenol quercetin the health benefits of which are related to better performance, reduced inflammation, and blood pressure. Also, quercetin is believed to protect cells from premature aging.
15. Asparagus
The vitamin C, E, and A content in asparagus assist in collagen production and healthy skin maintenance. The vitamin K present in asparagus supports blood health preventing clotting.
Asparagus is also a source of vitamins B9 (folate) and B12 that avert cognitive decline. Glutathione is another compound found in asparagus. It is shown to possess numerous reverse aging effects including insulin sensitivity, improved mobility, tissue formation, reduced oxidative stress, and cellular health protection.
According to recent studies, asparagus is a potent anti-aging vegetable for men by lowering the chances of prostate cancer. If you desire to slow down the aging process, add asparagus to your anti-aging diet plan.
Conclusion
The first and simplest step towards reverse aging is altering your diet. Though, not only the best anti-aging foods but also healthy habits should take a central role in your life. The core aspects of anti-aging lifestyle and diet plans for men and women do not vary drastically, yet there are some foods and activities that may convey different gender-dependent health advantages.
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Hello100 is a life science company dedicated to researching cell genetics and mechanisms of healthy aging. We strive to understand underlying biological processes that contribute to aging to develop interventions that can improve quality of life for people worldwide. | The most common period of intermittent fasting is 6-12 hours of going without food followed by usual calory restricted feeding for the next 12 and 48 hours. However, most people practicing IF concentrate primarily not on what but on when they eat.
Scientists believe that the eating period in intermittent fasting is equally important as the fasting period. During these two periods, cells are affected positively and activated towards rejuvenation and prevention of aging-related diseases.
During IF your body starts using the stored fat and energy thus contributing to weight loss. Practiced along with daily exercise, IF may help to lose weight faster.
IF contributes to DNA repair by breaking down free radicals causing oxidative stress.
During the fasting period brain activity increases, memory and sleep quality improve. This way, IF hinders neurodegenerative disorders while aging.
Yet, intermittent fasting may not be a suitable reverse aging diet plan for everyone. Dietitians advise not to practice IF to the people falling into these groups
Pregnant and breastfeeding women
People younger than 18-year-olds
People with confirmed health disorders such as diabetes
People with a previous history of eating disorders
Hence, intermittent fasting is a natural method for reverse aging and is one of the effective reverse aging habitspracticed by thousands of people with documented health benefits for slow aging.
2. Stay Hydrated To Reverse Skin Aging
We all need oxygen to stay alive, and we obtain it not only from the air but from water as well. Water is vital for the body to maintain proper functioning.
You may have noticed that even a day of dehydration causes puffy and dry skin, low energy levels, and sleepiness. Plus, prolonged dehydration may cause bone wreckage and inflammation, and make you look older your age.
All of the above-mentioned outcomes can be addressed by developing an anti-aging habit of staying hydrated. If you are wondering what the optimal daily water intake is, here is the answer- | yes |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.zenger.news/2023/01/04/intermittent-fasting-doesnt-slow-aging-according-to-study/ | Intermittent Fasting Doesn't Slow Aging, According To Study ... | Intermittent Fasting Doesn’t Slow Aging, According To Study
Chris Pratt, who has practiced intermittent fasting, at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging. WIKIMEDIA COMMONS/SWNS TALKER
Chris Pratt, who has practiced intermittent fasting, at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con for “Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging. WIKIMEDIA COMMONS/SWNS TALKER
Intermittent fasting practiced by celebrities such as Elon Musk, Jennifer Aniston and Kourtney Kardashian does not make you younger, according to a new study. The findings were published in the journal Nature Communications.
Scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging.
According to researchers, two treatments, one of which targets how cells produce energy and another that targets a growth hormone, are also effective at preventing aging.
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Instead, they appear to slow down the process because they are good for you overall rather than because they specifically target the aging process.
Earlier research has used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging, but the German research team said this is a flawed approach.
Friends star Jennifer Aniston previously said she “noticed a big difference” by going without solid food for 16 hours,
Guardians of the Galaxy actor Chris Pratt said he would not eat before noon to get in shape for superhero roles.
Reality star Kourtney Kardashian said she would not eat past 7 pm and then waited until around 10:30 am or 11 am the next day.
Now scientists are saying this approach does not slow the aging process.
It is often assumed that if an animal lives longer it will age more slowly, but many creatures die from specific diseases rather than old age in general, scientists said.
For example, around 90 percent of mice die from tumors that form in their bodies as they grow old.
However, if the whole genome for factors that help mice to live long lives is examined, researchers would likely find many genes that suppress tumor development – and not necessarily ones that play a general role in aging, the experts said.
For the study, the team carried out a thorough health check in mice which looked at age-related changes to a wide range of bodily functions.
The check gave the team an “exact description” of the state of the animal at the time they were examined.
At different stages of life, the team compared how parameters changed at different stages of life and whether these changed more slowly when the creatures were given the treatments.
The team says the way the study was designed made it possible to work out whether the natural aging process can be slowed and the deterioration of important body functions can be slowed.
Nutrition on the plate that includes the “intermittent fasting” sign. For the study, the team carried out a thorough health check in mice which looked at age-related changes to a wide range of bodily functions. TOASTED PICTURES/SWNS TALKER
They said the results were “unambiguous” and showed that even when older mice appeared younger than they were, this had occurred for other reasons.
Dr. Dan Ehninger, from the German Centre for Neurodegenerative Diseases and an author of the study, said: “There is no internal clock of aging that you can regulate with a simple switch – at least not in the form of the treatments studied here.
“The fact that a treatment already has its effect in young mice – prior to the appearance of age-dependent change in health measures – proves that these are compensatory, general health-promoting effects, not a targeting of aging mechanisms.”
The team now wants to look at the effects of other treatments experts believe can slow aging.
But restricting kilojoules long-term is notoriously hard to maintain and a tedious way to live. If it is too extreme, it can also do more harm to our mental and physical health than good. Fasting for just two days each week, then, promised the benefits without the pain or the risks. We could have our proverbial cake, and eat it – for five days of the week at least, according to the Sydney Morning Herald.
A strategy that worked. Intermittent fasting was suddenly being promoted as a way not just to lose excess weight but as a way to improve metabolic health, and an anti-ageing and longevity intervention. | Intermittent Fasting Doesn’t Slow Aging, According To Study
Chris Pratt, who has practiced intermittent fasting, at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con for Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging. WIKIMEDIA COMMONS/SWNS TALKER
Chris Pratt, who has practiced intermittent fasting, at the 2016 San Diego Comic-Con for “Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2. Scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging. WIKIMEDIA COMMONS/SWNS TALKER
Intermittent fasting practiced by celebrities such as Elon Musk, Jennifer Aniston and Kourtney Kardashian does not make you younger, according to a new study. The findings were published in the journal Nature Communications.
Scientists said there is no concrete evidence to suggest missing out on food for long periods is effective at preventing aging.
According to researchers, two treatments, one of which targets how cells produce energy and another that targets a growth hormone, are also effective at preventing aging.
Cute animals, crazy humans... Sign up for our free newsletter.
Instead, they appear to slow down the process because they are good for you overall rather than because they specifically target the aging process.
Earlier research has used lifespan as an indirect measure of aging, but the German research team said this is a flawed approach.
Friends star Jennifer Aniston previously said she “noticed a big difference” by going without solid food for 16 hours,
Guardians of the Galaxy actor Chris Pratt said he would not eat before noon to get in shape for superhero roles.
Reality star Kourtney Kardashian said she would not eat past 7 pm and then waited until around 10:30 am or 11 am the next day.
Now scientists are saying this approach does not slow the aging process.
| no |
Aging | Can intermittent fasting slow down the aging process? | yes_statement | "intermittent" "fasting" can "slow" down the "aging" "process".. the "aging" "process" can be "slowed" down by "intermittent" "fasting". | https://www.tsmp.com.au/blog/intermittent-fasting-for-women-over-50.html | Intermittent Fasting For Women Over 50 - TSMP Medical Blog | Intermittent Fasting for Women Over 50: 7 Tips for Success
The short answer is yes. Intermittent fasting has shown promise for both premenopausal and postmenopausal women.
🔔 Intermittent Fasting for Women Over 50 (Does It Work?)
If you’re a woman over 50 looking to start intermittent fasting, this is for you. Intermittent fasting has many health benefits, including weight loss, stubborn fat loss, improved mental clarity, and lower inflammation.
It seems like weight loss and your metabolism come to a grinding halt once you hit your 50s. With menopause (pre, current, post), hormonal changes make it easier to put on weight and more complicated to burn it off (1). The dreaded “menopot” is a real thing that many women struggle with.
Many women in their 50s might not have much to lose, but it becomes a struggle. Fat now distributes to other parts, creating stubborn spots like your hips, thighs, belly, arms, and neck. Loose jeans are now skin-tight. And many don’t want to have to buy another pack of “one size larger” underwear.
This blog post will discuss using intermittent fasting for women over 50 to get results. Hormonal changes that come with middle age can make it harder to lose weight, but once you start using the right strategies, it should come off fast.
Everyone knows weight loss gets more challenging when you’re older, but those no reason to feel discouraged. Start using these methods below to start dropping middle-aged spread now.
🔔 Does Intermittent Fasting Work for 50 Year Old Women?
Women in their 50s experience hormonal changes that put their bodies and if that promoting storage mode. Before, their bodies had the hormonal advantage of easily burning fat off. But the opposite happens with perimenopause, menopause, and post-menopause.
With menopause, there is a drastic decline and the sex hormones estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. These three hormones alone have a big impact on your ability to lose and gain weight (2). As a result, you’re more likely to store weight in stubborn spots such as your belly and hips.
Estrogen and progesterone also play a significant role with your skin texture, muscle tone, and body shape (3,4). With these hormones lower in your 50s, you’ll be more likely to lose muscle and distribute fat to new stubborn spots like your hips and belly (5).
This is why it’s so hard to lose weight for women in their 50s, but not all hope is lost. So how does a 50-year-old woman drop weight when her hormones are out of whack. Women in their 50s have a complicated physiological machine they have to now work with so all conventional diets need to be thrown out the window.
Intermittent fasting is a proven and effective way for women over 50 and younger to lose stubborn weight quickly while also slowing the aging process. What dieting you once were able to use to get results most likely won’t work or be as effective as it once was. So you’re going to have to step up your game to get rid of that stubborn weight, and intermittent fasting can be the key.
Intermittent fasting is an eating pattern where you cycle between periods of eating and fasting. There are many different intermittent fasting methods, but my favorite cycles between 16-hours of fasting and 8-hours of eating. You abstain from all food and drink except water or other zero-calorie beverages during the fasting period.
Now let’s get into how you can use intermittent fasting to drop that weight gain and menopause belly fat now.
🔔 Intermittent Fasting Is Good for Women Over 50
Intermittent fasting when done correctly is more than safe for women over 50 and can produce some fantastic results. Nowadays, we’re used to having three or more meals spread throughout the day, but in reality, our ancestors could only eat sporadically. We now have the same genes but eat way more often than they did.
Nature designed your body to survive and replicate. However, food was hardly readily available for your ancestors, so their bodies had to adapt. They did this by stubbornly holding onto extra calories that could be used later in case of future famine. When food wasn’t available, their metabolisms would also slow down, keeping the weight on as long as it could (6).
With middle age, your metabolism slows down due to hormonal changes, so simply cutting calories rarely will result in weight loss. Your metabolism slows down even further because it thinks it’s in a famine. And it’s not just about the quantity of the food you’re eating but the quality.
While younger premenopausal women have to adapt their fasting due to their cycling schedule, you’ll have the advantage of consistency. Menopausal women can stick with their fasting schedule and should be able to last longer without worry.
Intermittent fasting isn’t about not eating but about eating less often. You don’t have to worry about how many calories you’re eating during your feeding window when you’re eating quality foods.
Your body is designed to fast intermittently, so start taking advantage of your ancestor’s adaptation to lose the stubborn weight.
🔔 Best Intermittent Fasting For Women Over 50
The 16/8 method of intermittent fasting is the simplest to do and one of the most effective long-term for getting results. This fasting schedule allows you to have dinner at night and then lunch the next day. Skipping breakfast is the easiest meal to drop since most are busy in the mornings.
Women in their 50s can practice intermittent fasting more often and for longer periods than younger women since they do not have to worry about adjusting it for their monthly cycle. In addition, you can use intermittent fasting daily if your goal is to lose weight and its additional health benefits. Also, intermittent fasting helps slow the aging process by autophagy, which kills off destructive aging cells in the body (7).
If you’re new to intermittent fasting, you can start slowly with shorter fasting periods and build your way up. For example, when using intermittent fasting for women over 50, you can start on the low end for 12 to 13 hours of fasting and work your way up to 16. If you’re able to build up to 18 to 20 hours a day of fasting, that can give you some great results.
What Can You Eat When Fasting
Then the next question will be what you can eat when fasting to get the best results.
You shouldn’t be eating any food during your fasting window, but there are some beverages you can drink that won’t break your fast and can even accelerate your results. First and foremost, you make up the bulk of what you consume during your fast.
Coffee and green tea are also excellent choices since they do not contain any calories but contain caffeine and antioxidants. The two of these together can help to accelerate your metabolism, giving you better results than water alone.
Also try mixing in some C8 MCTs to your morning coffee to help fight off the hunger pains while accelerating your metabolism. They’re converted into ketones in your body which helps to signal fat burning.
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3X Better Than Coconut Oil, Butter or MCTs
Heightened energy levels
Reduced cravings & appetite
Graceful aging
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Increased mental clarity & focus
Heightened physical performance and recovery
It would be best if you focused on eating quality whole foods and sticking away from processed and refined foods during your feeding window. Inflammatory foods women in their 50s should limit include gluten, dairy, grains, soy, and alcohol, but those will vary depending on the individual.
Eating more protein will be of the essence. You’re more likely to experience muscle loss with age, negatively impacting your body composition (8). Protein also makes you feel fuller longer while helping to build muscle and replace what was lost with age (9).
Consume your carbohydrates mostly from vegetables and some fruits like berries. Green leafy vegetables like spinach and kale are great choices. Healthy fats like avocados and olive oil should not be avoided since they play a vital role in losing weight and your health.
Women in their 50s will also have a harder time with insulin resistance due to hormonal changes (10). Therefore, it’s best to avoid sugar, starches, and refined carbohydrates.
The trick will be to make sure you’re not undereating, which can cause your metabolism to slow and make you feel hungrier, making it harder to fast. Then it becomes easy to overeat the next day out of hunger, putting your hormones and weight fluctuations on a roller coaster.
🔔 How Soon Before You See Results From Fasting
One of the many benefits of intermittent fasting is just how fast the results start coming in.
Your weight loss will depend on how much weight you have to lose to begin with. Women who have 30 or more pounds to lose will see the biggest results the fastest. But if you only have 5-10 pounds or so to lose, you’ll start to see the pounds coming off even after a few days of intermittent fasting.
Intermittent fasting can help promote lean muscle mass, but it’s best to add strength training to your workout routine. Muscle and bone loss accelerates for women over 50 so adding in some strength training will help you lose stubborn body fat (11).
Unfortunately, most make the mistake of just trying to lose weight but need to improve your body composition to tighten up stubborn fat spots.
Once you start losing weight you may experience some loose skin. This is because the collagen in your skin has declined such that it loses elasticity and its ability to snap back. So adding in strength training can help but it’s also a good idea to take a collagen supplement (12).
If you’re following your intermittent fasting schedule, then you’ll not only start losing weight but you’ll also have additional benefits such as:
Restricting calories shouldn’t be focused on near as much as restricting carbohydrates. Most women over 50 get better results by cutting out the bad carbohydrates instead of calorie restriction.
FAQ
Does intermittent fasting help with belly fat?
Yes, intermittent fasting works great for losing fat on your belly because your body has to start tapping into your fat stores for energy when it’s no longer receiving food during your fasting window. I think of stomach fat as your body’s piggy bank of stored energy savings for a rainy day. It prefers to use the calories and carbohydrates you’ve just eaten for fuel instead. But since you have a restricted feeding window, your body has to turn to your stubborn fat for energy instead.
Does sleeping count as intermittent fasting?
Yes, sleeping counts as fasting since you will not be consuming any calories while you sleep unless you’re a sleep eater. This is an easy way to get a lot of hours done during your time-restricted feeding window. When you make up, skip breakfast, drink some water, and have some coffee with MCT powder instead. Then keep fasting until about lunchtime when your eating window starts.
Can I eat fruit during intermittent fasting?
It’s best to limit your fruit consumption in your feeding window even though you were intermittent fasting the rest of the time. Fruit does contain sugar in fructose, which can slow your results. A lot of this depends on your metabolic flexibility and how well your body can process the sugars in the fruit. If you have a lot of weight to lose then it’s best to limit your food consumption to low sugar berries or avocados. But if you’re fit and healthy, you can easily have some more fruit in your diet.
The Last Word
Intermittent fasting for women over 50 can be a great way to start losing weight and improving your health. You may see results fairly quickly, especially if you have a lot of weight to lose.
With your 50s comes menopause and the hormonal changes that come with it. Low estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone now make it way too easy for weight gain. Fat also begins storing in more stubborn places like your butt and hips, making it harder to fit even into your biggest jeans.
But the good news is intermittent fasting can help ‘reverse the curse’ of middle age weight gain due to menopause in women. It’ll help to improve your hormonal changes that are promoting fat storage. Plus, it’ll improve your body composition, burning off stubborn fat and giving you a great shape.
However, it’s also important to focus some on your eating habits the rest of the time. Weight loss can be harder if your calorie intake is too low since your metabolism has slowed with age. So instead, focus on eating quality foods and limiting junk food carbohydrates.
And is intermittent fasting safe? Yes, intermittent fasting for women is more than safe, and the good part of menopause is you don’t have to worry about adjusting your intermittent fasting and eating schedule to your cycle. Now it’s time to start getting some results fast.
Josh holds a Bachelor’s degree in Exercise Physiology and Nutrition Science. He’s a Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) by the National Strength and Conditioning Association and he’s a Certified Personal Trainer (CPT) by American Council on Exercise. He’s worked as a Strength and Conditioning Coach at the high school and college levels. He has over 15 years of experience as a personal trainer and nutrition coach. He is also the author of The Flat Belly Formula. He strives to bring inspiration and results for people to live healthier lives through smart diet and exercise.
🔔 Intermittent Fasting for Women Over 50: 7 Tips for Success
People of all ages have been fasting since time immemorial. Our capacity to fast is fairly universal.
Most women over 50 are wrapping up a series of hormonal changes called menopause. Combined with the natural aging process, these changes can promote increased abdominal fat, osteoporosis, accelerated muscle loss, and other troubling issues.[*]
Keep reading to learn intermittent fasting benefits, special considerations, and tips for women over 50.
🔔 What Is Intermittent Fasting?
Intermittent fasting is the practice of taking regular breaks from calories. It’s that simple.
To be considered an intermittent fast, these breaks must last anywhere from 12 to 36 hours. Anything longer is considered an extended fast.
Our ancestors practiced intermittent fasting all the time. They didn’t have a fully stocked fridge to raid when hunting and gathering failed. They had to fast.
Fortunately, they were well-adapted for this situation. While fasting, they fueled themselves with body fat.
That’s also how intermittent fasting works now. When you don’t eat, the hormone insulin stays low.[*] Low insulin, in turn, facilitates the breakdown and oxidation of body fat.
This fat-burning state drives most of the potential benefits of IF.
🔔 Benefits of IF
Weight loss is a well-documented IF benefit.[*][*] When you eat all your calories in a compressed window, you tend to eat less overall. Less overeating, less weight gain.
Another group of researchers looked at a type of fasting called time-restricted feeding (TRF).[*] When you practice TRF, you eat all your daily calories in a compressed time frame.
In the study, obese women ate within a 4 to 6 hour feeding window for 8 weeks. For those familiar with IF protocols, this is somewhere between 16/8 and OMAD.
The results were similar to the previous study. Both pre and postmenopausal women lost weight and showed metabolic improvements.
These are desirable benefits for women over 50. Due to declines in the hormone estrogen, postmenopausal women are at higher risk for weight gain, cardiovascular disease, and blood sugar regulation issues.[*][*] More research is needed, but IF may help offset these risks.
🔔 7 Fasting Tips for Women Over 50
Ladies over 50 should consider these tips to create a sustainable IF practice.
#1: Start slow
If you’re new to intermittent fasting, start with a simple overnight fast. In other words, go from dinner to breakfast without eating.
Counting sleep, a 12-hour overnight fast requires only 4 hours of wakeful fasting. Once you’re used to overnight fasting, you can proceed with longer fasts if you like.
#2: Get enough calories
Most intermittent fasting studies allow participants to eat as much as they’d like during feeding windows.[*][*] Even with this liberal policy, most people end up eating fewer calories overall.
Too much calorie restriction is undesirable. To avoid fatigue, sleep issues, and other calorie restriction side effects, maintain a mild caloric deficit of about 10% by tracking your meals with the Carb Manager app.
#3: Prioritize protein
Inadequate protein intake accelerates age-related muscle loss. This condition (called sarcopenia) is a major cause of morbidity for older people.[*]
The more you fast, the more challenging it becomes to hit 100 grams of daily protein. (100 grams is a good target for muscle maintenance). Tracking your protein intake with Carb Manager can help.
#4: Resistance train
All forms of exercise can complement IF, but strength training is especially important. Why? Because strength training helps you maintain the lean mass (muscle) that you’d otherwise lose while fasting.[*]
Muscle keeps us functional as we age. And the older we get, the harder it is to maintain. Throw the brakes on this process by strength training and eating enough protein.
#5: Get enough electrolytes
While fasting, you lose electrolytes like sodium and potassium at higher rates.[*] To prevent the headaches, fatigue, and cramps of electrolyte deficiency, these electrolytes need to be replaced.
This means salting your food, eating electrolyte-rich foods like spinach, and possibly taking an electrolyte supplement. Check out this blog on electrolytes for more on this topic.
#6: Consider a Keto diet
Keto and intermittent fasting can be a useful tandem for women over 50. Both regimens may help lower insulin, promote ketosis, and stimulate fat loss.[*][*]
And yes, the Keto diet has been shown to help postmenopausal women lose weight.[*]
#7: Eat a nutrient-dense diet
When you practice IF, you have fewer opportunities to fuel your body with nutrients, you need to make those opportunities count.
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✒ Last Updated: August 3, 2023 ⛑ Medical Practice
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With middle age, your metabolism slows down due to hormonal changes, so simply cutting calories rarely will result in weight loss. Your metabolism slows down even further because it thinks it’s in a famine. And it’s not just about the quantity of the food you’re eating but the quality.
While younger premenopausal women have to adapt their fasting due to their cycling schedule, you’ll have the advantage of consistency. Menopausal women can stick with their fasting schedule and should be able to last longer without worry.
Intermittent fasting isn’t about not eating but about eating less often. You don’t have to worry about how many calories you’re eating during your feeding window when you’re eating quality foods.
Your body is designed to fast intermittently, so start taking advantage of your ancestor’s adaptation to lose the stubborn weight.
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The 16/8 method of intermittent fasting is the simplest to do and one of the most effective long-term for getting results. This fasting schedule allows you to have dinner at night and then lunch the next day. Skipping breakfast is the easiest meal to drop since most are busy in the mornings.
Women in their 50s can practice intermittent fasting more often and for longer periods than younger women since they do not have to worry about adjusting it for their monthly cycle. In addition, you can use intermittent fasting daily if your goal is to lose weight and its additional health benefits. Also, intermittent fasting helps slow the aging process by autophagy, which kills off destructive aging cells in the body (7).
If you’re new to intermittent fasting, you can start slowly with shorter fasting periods and build your way up. | yes |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | yes_statement | "mercury" can be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is possible for "mercury" to exist as a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-06857-6 | Mercury goes Solid at room temperature at nanoscale and a ... | Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain
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Introduction
Mercury (Hg) is among, if not the most peculiar of the periodic elements if one considers its room temperature atypical physical–chemical properties. Mercury was at the pioneering origin of the experimental discovery of superconductivity phenomenon in 1911 by Kamerling Onnes. In high energy physics; its elevated density reduces the physical length of the target and influences the design of the pion capture system, the spread in time of the resulting -burst, as well as the pion production as confirmed in by CERN and Brookhaven National Laboratory using a proton beam of 24 GeV (150 ns). In astronomy, and in regard to its liquid metallic state and therefore its low surface roughness coupled to its high infrared reflectivity, it was used as an efficient large IR liquid mirror as validated by the unit established in New Mexico Observatory. Similarly, its high IR reflecting optical characteristics made it a viable grazing incidence mirror for laser inertial fusion energy experiments as validated by the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.
Hg is the unique metal that does not form diatomic molecules in the gas phase. Its bulk room temperature liquid property is correlated to its rare gas-like configuration (Xe) 6s24f14d10. More accurately, to the relativistic contraction caused by the Dirac dynamics of the valence electrons1. As a result of the relativistic mass increase m = m0/√(1 − (v/c)), “v/c ~ 0.58”, the radial shrinkage of the effective Bohr radius r0 = (ε0 h/me e2) of the inner “1s” electrons, is ~ 23%1. Since the high order “s” electronic shells have to be orthogonal against the lower ones, they will suffer a similar radius relativistic contraction, inducing a weak coulomb interaction between neighboring Hg atomic sites.
Hg as a singular liquid metal in its bulk form, has the highest elemental surface tension at room temperature; ~ 486 mN/m2. The theoretical calculations on liquid–vapor interface of simple metals in general3,4 and methods based on the jellium model in particular5, and the perturbation expansion up to the second order in the surface “e-ion” pseudo-potential6,7, showed that an excessive surface tension could stimulate a significant surface atomic layering of 3–5 atomic planes as depicted in Fig. 1a and the corresponding periodic surface-to volume electron density profile. This surface atomic ordering, in full agreement with capillary wave theory, has been observed by X-ray reflectivity measurements on bulk liquid mercury surface by Pershan et al.8. Likewise, Bafile et al.9,10 showed that such an atomic ordering was able to be segregated in the bulk liquid mercury by examining the height and the width in addition to the position of the main peaks of the static structure factor S(Q) at ambient conditions. Both X-rays and neutron diffraction S(Q) profiles revealed a structure up to 4–5 discernable peaks: a feature of a local surface atomic ordering10.
Such a RT surface atomic ordering observed on flat surface of bulk Hg could be enhanced significantly if not drastically on Hg nano-particles if one could engineer them. Indeed, as a result of their substantial surface/volume ratio, and the 3-D symmetry breakdown, the surface atoms population would be greater in nano-scaled Hg. Henceforth, at such a scale the surface phenomena dominate gravity effects in view of the significantly elevated surface tension of Hg (Fig. 1b). The enhanced surface ratio of nano-scaled Hg of radius “Ønano-Hg/2” should induce an excess of Laplace surface pressure ∆P 4/Ønano-Hg of tens of MPa. As an estimation, if Ønano-Hg 2.50 nm, ∆P 0.76 GPa at RT. Considering mercury phase diagram of Fig. 1c, such an excess surface pressure at RT should induce a net crystallization out-of the liquidus space to the solid a-rhombohedric phase11 of the nano-Hg (Fig. 1c). Hence, this atomic ordering phenomenon at RT should manifest itself through a significant crystallization out of the liquid phase to the solid rhombohedral “-type” phase.
Consequentially, the originality of this contribution is to validate the room temperature solidification of Hg nanoparticles if their diameter is smaller than the critical value of Ønano-Hg 2.50 nm. Moreover, under such threshold condition, Hg should exhibit an atomic ordering at room temperature in line with the a-rhombohedral solid phase.
Experiments, experimental results and discussion
Apart of the safety aspect, the synthesis of the nano-Hg was by itself an utmost challenge. The considered precursor was mercury (II) acetate Hg (C2H3O2)2. However, the foremost additional complexity remains in keeping the nano-Hg separated from each other otherwise the Van der Waals/Otswald ripening type induced agglomeration of the nano-Hg particles will generate larger Hg droplets and hence less surface pressure excess than the required threshold crystallization value of 0.76 GPa at RT. As schematically displayed in Fig. 1d, the 2-D Boron Nitride “BN” isolating host matrix was used to prevent the coalescence process of the nano-Hg once formed. The deliberate choice of such a host matrix is its chemical inertness with Hg and its superior mechanical strength in addition to its 2-D structure.
The ideal precursors for obtaining the BN matrix were Ortho-Boric acid “H3BO3” and Urea “H2NCONH2” while Mercury acetate “Hg (C2H3O2)2” as the optimal Hg precursor. The chemical reaction taking place was:
While the H3BO3 and H2NCONH2 initial compositions were kept stoichiometric, the Hg (C2H3O2)2 was varied so to obtain nano-Hg particles within the final BN host matrix. The relative molar initial concentration to BN matrix of Hg (C2H3O2)2 was varied accordingly. Smaller is this molar concentration, smaller would be the nano-Hg’s size. The different solutions of H3BO3, H2NCONH2 and Hg(C2H3O2)2, with the molar fraction of 2,1 and ξ where “ξ” was varied from 1, 1/4 and 1/20 for Hg (C2H3O2)2 in de-ionized H2O were prepared. The corresponding samples are labeled as: Hg1/1-BN, Hg1/4-BN, Hg1/20-BN. Henceforth, the Hg nanoparticles, if any, would have smaller size in the case of Hg1/20-BN. Hence, the focus would be geared mainly on this Hg1/20-BN sample.
Morphology and electron transmission studies
Figure 2a reports a Transmission Electron microscopy (TEM) of the Hg1/20-BN nano-composite. The voltage/exposure time have been shortened drastically (≪ 20 s) to minimize the agglomeration of the Hg nanoparticles. The observed rapid coalescence phenomenon during the Transmission Electron microscopy observations Is inherent to the insulating state of the non-percolated Hg-BN nano-composites due to the lack of electrons discharge and heat dissipation caused by the probing electrons beam. Excluding Hg1/1-BN sample, the Hg1/4—BN and Hg1/20–BN nano-composites consisted of nano-sized Hg isolated particles embedded in the BN host matrix. Their average diameter 〈Ønano-Hg〉, at the early stage of the electron beam exposure was estimated to 3.8 and 2.4 nm in Hg1/4-BN and Hg1/20-BN samples respectively while the Hg1/1-BN consisted of relatively significantly large Hg particles; within the submicron range. Subsequent to the heat generated by the TEM electron beam, the primarily well dispersed nano-Hg in Hg1/4—BN and Hg1/20–BN nano-composites, began to coalesce promptly upon exposition to the electron microscopy beam even if this latter was kept at the minimum voltage possible and an exposure time of 14 s. The TEM pattern of Fig. 2a corresponds to such a final morphological state of Hg1/20-BN following a short exposure duration of (~ 14 s). Figure 2b displays a slightly higher magnification but an ultra-short time exposure of Hg1/20-BN sample. If the Hg nano-particles are, almost, quasi-spherical in shape with substantially truncated interfaces, the size polydispersity rose promptly subsequent to the slightly higher electrons beam intensity. The new apparent diameter of the Hg nano-particles ranges from 1.5 to 28.9 nm for Hg1/20-BN sample. Few larger distorted Hg nanoparticles of ~ 63–70 nm in diameter are observed too. This could be congruent with sample zones which were exposed to a noteworthy heat from the probing e-beam. As highlighted in Fig. 2b, It is worth noting that the sharp interfaces are observed both between Hg-BN as well as Hg-Hg interfaces.
Figure 2
(a) Low and (b) High magnification Transmission Electron Microscopy of the Hg1/20-BN nanocomposite with an early stage average size of the Hg nanoparticles 〈ØHg〉TEM ~ 2.4 nm dispersed in the turbostratic BN matrix of the Hg1/20-BN nanocomposite.
Crystallographic and phase transition investigations
Thereafter, the Hg1/ξ-BN nanocomposites were investigated by XRD. A noteworthy consideration was assigned to the Hg1/20-BN nano-composite as the TEM average size of the corresponding nano-Hg, was 〈ØHg〉TEM ~ 2.4 nm. These latter encaged nano-Hg are undersized sufficiently to undergo the excess of surface pressure above the threshold value of 0.76 GPa and hence would experience a diffraction feature.
Figure 3 displays the room temperature XRD profiles of Hg1/1-BN (a), Hg1/4-BN (b) and Hg1/20-BN (c) and the liquid nitrogen (~ 78 K) diffraction pattern of this latter (d) i.e. Hg1/20-BN at ~ 78 K. As shown in Fig. 3a, excluding (121) Bragg peak of BN-t host matrix, the highest Hg concentration sample i.e.Hg1/1-BN does not exhibit any Bragg peak structure proper to mercury but rather a wide amorphous bump and a very broad peak extending over 10° (40°–50°). These are signatures of an amorphous liquid without any long or mid-range crystalline order12.
Figure 3b displays the diffraction pattern of the second lowest Hg concentration i.e. Hg1/4-BN. It exhibits 3 narrow diffraction peaks assigned to BN-t host matrix (410), (132) and (203) Bragg peaks “ASTM Card 18-0251” (34). In addition, there is an intense but broad Bragg peak centered at 2Θ ~ 32.72°. This peak with a width at half maximum of ∆Θ ~ 6.3 10–2 rad, can be assigned only to crystallized mercury; more precisely to the a-rhombohedral (101) reticular orientation “ASTM Card 09-0253” (35). Comparatively to the diffraction pattern of Hg1/1-BN, yet broad, such a Bragg peak could be considered as a signature of a preliminary atomic ordering exhibited mostly by surface mercury atoms within the non-percolated encaged nano-Hg. Using the Scherrer approximation for this Hg (101) broad Bragg peak, the average size of the corresponding Hg nanoparticles is 〈Ønano-Hg〉S ~ 2.4 nm. Likely, such an atomic-like ordering would originate from the surface atoms of the nano-Hg population and those with a smaller diameter according to phase diagram of Fig. 1c.
To corroborate conclusively the existence of this Hg (101) Bragg peak with the surface atomic layering, the Hg1/20-BN nanocomposite was examined extensively both at 293.5 (Fig. 3c) and 78 K (Fig. 3d). As it is the sample with the smallest mercury volume concentration, the corresponding nano-Hg with an average diameter of 〈Ønano-Hg〉TEM ~ 2.4 nm according to the TEM measurements would display the largest surface/volume ratio. The relative Hg (101) intensity should be superior for the same Hg volume concentration. As illustrated in Fig. 3c, not only the relative intensity of the Hg (101) Bragg peak, relatively larger for Hg1/20-BN nano-composite, but there is an additional Bragg peak centered at 2Θ ~ 39.7°. Figure 4a and its inset zoom (Fig. 4b,c) focus on Hg1/20-BN nanocomposite. This additional diffraction peak has a width at half maximum of ∆Θ ~ 3.580°. Taking into account both its angular position and the relative intensity to the Hg (101) peak and the specific turbostratic structure of the host BN matrix13, this second Bragg peak could only be assigned to the 2nd intense crystalline Hg Bragg peak i.e. the Hg (003) crystallographic orientation of the rhombohedral Hg α-phase “ASTM Card 09-0253”. To confirm that the indexed Hg (101) and Hg (003) are proper mercury Bragg peaks originating from the atomically ordered nano-Hg embedded in the BN-t host matrix, the sample Hg 1/20-BN was cooled to ~ 78.0 K (Fig. 4a). The labeled Hg (101) and Hg (003) develop into sharper peaks with a significant angular shift with 3 new less intense Hg Bragg peaks fitting with Hg(110), Hg(104) and Hg(113) diffraction of solid a-rhombohedral solid Hg in addition to the presence of numerous BNturbostatic diffraction peaks (Fig. 4a and zoom inset). Therefore, the co-existence of the two Bragg peaks, namely, Hg(101) and Hg(003) in the room temperature diffraction pattern of Hg1/20-BN nano-composite is the forthright confirmation of the room temperature crystallization of the non-percolated nano-Hg “〈ØHg〉TEM ~ 2.4 nm” within the BN-t host matrix. These experimental observations, are in support of a surface atomic layering consistent with even 7 to 8 atomic planes ordering (〈a〉 ~ 3.0 Å) as summarized in Fig. 4d. Because the vapor pressure of bulk Hg, embedding Hg in its nano-scaled form in a chemically inert BN matrix could be of a significant advance in the safe storage of Hg and minimization of its hazardous aspect especially the Hg waste derived from modern halogen efficient light technology systems.
In relation to the observed size effect, it is worth mentioning various previous investigations on the confinement of Hg in nanometric configurations. Among them, one should mention the experimental observations in 2003 of Kasperovich et al.14, in 1998 of Borisov et al.15,16 and in 1986 of Kumzerov et al.17,18. More precisely, Kasperovich et al.14 have conducted NMR studies on Hg embedded in restricted geometry of nano-porous carbon and nano-porous silica gel with ~ 4.7 and ~ 3.9 nm in radius respectively. The melting—crystallization processes were investigated by measuring the relative integrated intensity of 199Hg NMR signals from the liquid phase. Since the integrated intensity of the NMR signal is directly proportional to the amount liquid phase in the sample, the solidification of mercury results in a decrease in the NMR intensity. Similar studies conducted on Hg confined in nano-porous carbon and silica gel showed a decrease of the melting-solidification’s temperature by an amount of 4 to 10 K relatively to the bulk value but no atomic ordering or solidification at room temperature. In the studies of Kumzerov et al. on nano-wires of Hg. The mercury was trapped in natural filamentary nano-systems; chrysotile asbestos Mg3Si2O5(OH)4. This natural dielectric host material which exists in the form of regular nano-porous bundles possesses open channels of some tens of nanometers in diameter and lengths of about ~ 1 cm. More precisely, the average diameter of their hollow channels lies within the range of 3.5–15 nm. The conducted studies on mercury nano-wires embedded in these tubular restricted nano-structures showed a clear size effects in transport as well as in superconductivity in addition to melt-crystallization properties but no crystallization at room temperature. As in the case of the previous nano-Hg encaged in carbon and silica nano-pores by Kasperovich et al.14, the latter melt-crystallization investigation showed that the corresponding phase transition temperature, however, decreases with size as ∆T = C/〈Ø〉 (41) in a full agreement with the theoretical models so far proposed. Yet again, no atomic ordering/solidification was observed at room temperature of such nano-mercury encaged in the natural restricted geometry of chrysotile asbestos matrix. Borisov et al. conducted ultrasonic studies of the melting-crystallization of mercury encaged in Vycor nano-porous glasses with a pore structure of 7.8 and 12 nm in average size. Once more, it was found that the crystallization temperature changes; More precisely, the crystallization temperature Tcrystalization was found to vary as ≈ ~ 6 LS Tb /L〈Ø pores〉 with “LS” as the surface energy density in the liquid–solid boundary while “” is the molar volume of the solid phase and “L” is the latent heat with 〈Ø pores〉 as the average pore’s size. The ultimate recent literature experimental results to be considered within the framework of this contribution is the investigation by neutron diffraction of the crystallization-melting phase transition of mercury embedded in nano-porous Vycor glass with pores’ size of about 7.0 nm (42). The intensity I(110)(T) of the (110) diffraction Bragg peak was followed versus temperature varying from 293.5°K down to ~ 20°K. At room temperature no diffraction Bragg peaks were observed. During the cooling phase, a solidification started only at 205 K resulting in the appearance of (110) Bragg peak. The intensity of the peak was increasing with temperature lowering indicating the growth of the crystalline phase concentration. At T < 100 K the saturation of the (110) intensity was observed. The lower temperature diffraction patterns coincided with the bulk mercury. The measurements in the heating regime have revealed significantly large hysteresis of the I(T) dependency.
In comparison to all above experimental results on nano-Hg embedded in several porous host matrices, albeit it is reduced noticeably, the melting-crystallization temperature of the considered Hg nano-particles is far below room temperature and does not agree with our current observations and those of Magnussen et al., Deutsch et al.8. Two conceivable explanations could be advanced: either (i) the size of the concerned Hg nano-particles was not small sufficiently to experience the required excess of surface tension related threshold pressure ∆P of Laplace type of ~ 0.76 GPa “Liquidus” to rhombohedral phase transition as shown in Fig. 3 or/and (ii) the compressibility of the host matrix. Concerning the first size related assumption, it should be noticed that the Hg nano-particles’ size was ranging from 2.5 to 15 nm. Such a size magnitude is, indeed higher than the critical value 〈Ø(0.76GPa)〉 of about 2.6 nm. The corresponding ∆P surface Laplace excess pressure are 0.39 and 0.065 GPa for 2.6 to 15 nm respectively. Such values are insufficient to overcome the liquid-rhombohedral frontier of the phase diagram of Fig. 1c which is not the case for the current trapped Hg nano-particles in particular those of Hg1/20-BN nano-composite 〈ØHg〉TEM ~ 2.4 nm, and ∆P 0.76GPa ”. Besides the size effect, the compressibility of the host matrix could be naturally a further component assisting the stability of the observed crystallization of mercury nano-particles. As the BN host matrix is in a turbostratic structural form, its compressibility is the lowest relatively to the considered host matrices such as Vycor glass, polymeric activated carbon or chrysotile asbestos19,20. If this is the case, it would be motivating to investigate the Hg1/20-BN nano-composite with a diamond anvil cell “DAC” to find out if the rhombohedric -tetragonal phase transition could occur under an external pressure smaller than the required 3.0 GPa at room temperature21,22,23,24.
As a pre-conclusion, yet size effects were observed in Hg confined in nanometric configurations by Kasperovich et al.14, Borisov et al.15, Kumzerov et al.17,18, no atomic ordering or solidification were observed due to the fact that the minimum restrictive dimensions were in all cases higher than the threshold value of 2.56 nm (Kasperovich (~ 4.7 and ~ 3.9 nm), Borisov (7.8 and 12 nm) and Kumzerov (3.5–15 nm).
Modelling and computational results
In order to sustain the above experimental observations on atomic ordering/solidification at room temperature of nano-scaled Hg, the density functional theory (DFT) at two levels; atomistic and plane wave with GGA-PBE functionals, including the scalar relativistic effects and dispersion energy, as well as QUANTUM ESPRESSO are used to study the interaction of Hg with the BN surface. The computational calculation presented below and in the Supplementary Section indicates the importance of relativistic effect on the nature and strength of Hg nano-particles adsorption on the BN surface. More precisely, the density functional theory (DFT) calculations were utilized to characterize the bonding of the nano-scaled Hg cluster/surface to the BN surface. The DFT calculation at two levels of theory, atomistic and plane wave, was used by considering the relativistic effect and dispersion correction.
Within the DFT calculations, the Hg cluster with face centered cubic “fcc” structure (Fig. 5a) has been obtained as the stable structure with PBE, BP86, and PW91 functionals25. Likewise, the DFT calculations were performed using the Amsterdam Modelling suite of program (ADF)26. The generalized gradient approximation (GGA) of Perdew, Burke, and Ernzerhof (PBE)27 within the frozen core double-\(\zeta \) polarized basis set (DZP) from the ADF basis set library. The influence of relativistic effects has been considered by comparing the non-relativistic (N.R.) and scalar-relativistic (S.R.) ZORA Hamiltonian5,28. The dispersion interaction was carried via Grimme DFT-D3 corrections29,30.
Figure 5
The charge density difference between Mercury and the hBN surface of configuration (a) the fcc cluster of Mercury on hBN, (b) the Hg (101) surface on hBN surface, (c) 2 layers of Hg (101) surface on hBN surface, and (d) the Hg (003) surface on hBN surface. The structures are optimized using the plane-wave basis sets at the PBE/D3 level of theory, including the scalar relativistic effect in the pseudopotentials. The iso-value of the charge difference is fixed to 0.0001 e/a.u.3. Yellow and blue colors indicate positive and negative levels that correspond to the gain and loss of electrons.
The adsorption energies were calculated via the generalized gradient approximation (GGA-PBE). The effects of relativistic and dispersion energy corrections were studied. The results seem indicating that the Hg cluster is weakly bonded to the BN surface because the adsorption energies are small (less than ~ 1 eV), which is mainly due to the dispersion interactions. The relativistic effects increase the binding energy of the order of ~ 0.01 eV but change the HOMO–LUMO energy gap significantly.
The fcc cluster of Mercury on the hBN ribbon (Fig. 5b) was studied using Quantum ESPRESSO31. There is 10 Å of vacuum in the y–z directions. The GGA-PBE method was utilized to describe the exchange–correlation functional together with the ultra-soft pseudopotential9,32 for all atoms. A \(4\times 1\times 1\) Monkhorost-Pack mesh grid of k-points was used to sample the Brillouin zone33,34,35,36. The occupation of electronic states was determined using Gaussian smearing with the width of 0.01 eV, and the real space orbital cut-off of 8.4 Å was conducted.
The charge difference between the mercury cluster, one layer of Hg (101), two layers of Hg (101), and the hBN surface are plotted in Fig. 5. The iso-value of the charge difference is fixed to 0.0001 e a.u.−3. Yellow and blue colors indicate positive and negative levels correspond to accumulation and loss of electron charge density upon adsorption of Hg atoms. Changes in the charge density are most pronounced in the case of adsorption of Hg (101) and (003) surfaces, as the interaction energies are also indicating a stronger bond. Generally, the accumulation of charge is mostly around the Hg atoms.
From technological applications viewpoint, yet not presented by say, and in view of the theoretical and the experimental obtained results, it might be secure enough to propose this approach as a potential way of storing Hg at room temperature. The solid aspect of nano-scaled Hg minimizes its vapor hazard at room temperature and hence the idea of safe storage.
Conclusions
A size effect in nano-scaled Hg dispersed in a 2-D BN host matrix was observed at room temperature. For Hg nanoparticles with a diameter smaller than the threshold value of 2.5 nm as defined by the P–T phase diagram, exhibit a net crystallization manifesting itself through surface atomic layering of about 7–8 atomic layers. Below such a threshold value of 2.5 nm, Hg is solid at room temperature with an a-rhombohedral crystallographic structure with an average lattice parameter 〈a〉 ~ 3.005 Å. The theoretical modelling showed using various codes and approximations indicated, each and all, a crystal-clear accumulation and loss of electron charge density upon adsorption of Hg atoms. The changes in the charge density are most pronounced in the case of adsorption of Hg (101) and (003) surfaces. This latter is in support of the experimentally observed atomic ordering /solidification of nano-scaled Hg at room temperature. Considering the vapor pressure of liquid bulk Hg, embedding Hg in its nano-scaled form in a chemically inert BN matrices could be of a significant advance in the safe storage of Hg and minimization of its hazardous aspect especially the Hg waste derived from modern halogen efficient light systems. As a follow up of this fundamental study, is to carry out synchrotron-based techniques such as EXAFS, SAXS and powder XRD.
Acknowledgements
This research program was generously supported by grants from the University of South Africa (UNISA), the National Research Foundation of South Africa (NRF), iThemba LABS, the French Ministry of Europe and Foreign Affairs via the ADESFA II program), the Organization of Women for Science the Developing World (OWSD) and Abdul Salam ICTP via the Nanosciences Africa Network (NANOAFNET) as well as the African Laser Centre (ALC) to whom we are grateful. One of us (MM) wishes to dedicate this contribution to Mrs. J. Salemi, Prof. F. R. L. Schoening and Prof. M.O. Osman Ndwandwe.
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Authors and Affiliations
UNESCO-UNISA-iTLABS/NRF Africa Chair in Nano-Sciences and Nanotechnology, CGS, University of South Africa, Muckleneuk ridge, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
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Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. | Once more, it was found that the crystallization temperature changes; More precisely, the crystallization temperature Tcrystalization was found to vary as ≈ ~ 6 LS Tb /L〈Ø pores〉 with “LS” as the surface energy density in the liquid–solid boundary while “” is the molar volume of the solid phase and “L” is the latent heat with 〈Ø pores〉 as the average pore’s size. The ultimate recent literature experimental results to be considered within the framework of this contribution is the investigation by neutron diffraction of the crystallization-melting phase transition of mercury embedded in nano-porous Vycor glass with pores’ size of about 7.0 nm (42). The intensity I(110)(T) of the (110) diffraction Bragg peak was followed versus temperature varying from 293.5°K down to ~ 20°K. At room temperature no diffraction Bragg peaks were observed. During the cooling phase, a solidification started only at 205 K resulting in the appearance of (110) Bragg peak. The intensity of the peak was increasing with temperature lowering indicating the growth of the crystalline phase concentration. At T < 100 K the saturation of the (110) intensity was observed. The lower temperature diffraction patterns coincided with the bulk mercury. The measurements in the heating regime have revealed significantly large hysteresis of the I(T) dependency.
In comparison to all above experimental results on nano-Hg embedded in several porous host matrices, albeit it is reduced noticeably, the melting-crystallization temperature of the considered Hg nano-particles is far below room temperature and does not agree with our current observations and those of Magnussen et al., Deutsch et al.8. | no |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | yes_statement | "mercury" can be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is possible for "mercury" to exist as a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://www.angelo.edu/faculty/kboudrea/periodic/physical_states.htm | Physical States — Melting Points, Boiling Points, and Densities | In the periodic table above, black squares indicate elements which are
solids at room temperature (about 22ºC)*, those
in blue squares are liquids at room temperature, and those in red squares
are gases at room temperature.
Most of the metals are solids under "ordinary" conditions
(i.e., 25ºC, 1 atmosphere of pressure, etc.), with the exception of
mercury (Hg, element 80), which solidifies at -39ºC, and is a
freely-flowing liquid at room temperature. Gallium (Ga, element 31) melts at 30ºC,
slightly above room temperature, but is often indicated as a liquid on
periodic tables, since the solid metal literally melts when held in the
hand (since body temperature is about 37ºC). (Since cesium melts at
28ºC, and francium at 27ºC, they are also indicated in blue on some
tables, but anyone who holds cesium in their hands won't be holding much
of anything afterwards! See the page on alkali
metals for more on cesium's high reactivity.)
Several of the nonmetals are gases in their elemental form.
Elemental hydrogen (H, element 1), nitrogen (N, element 7), oxygen (O,
element 8), fluorine (F, element 9), and chlorine (Cl, element 17) are all
gases at room temperature, and are found as diatomic
molecules (H2, N2, O2, F2,
Cl2). Bromine (Br, element 35), also found as a diatomic
molecule (Br2), is a liquid at room temperature, solidifying at
-7.2ºC. The noble gases of Group 8A (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn)
are all gases at room temperature (as the name of the group implies);
since they are all unreactive, monatomic elements, their boiling points
are extremely low.
Below is a table of the melting points, boiling points, and densities of the
elements:
Atomic
Number
Symbol
Name
Melting
Point
(ºC)
Boiling
Point
(ºC)
Density
(g/cm3)
(at 293 K)
1
H
Hydrogen
-259.14
-252.87
0.00008988
(gas, 273K)
2
He
Helium
-272.20 (under
pressure)
-268.934
0.0001785 (gas,
273K)
3
Li
Lithium
180.54
1347
0.534
4
Be
Beryllium
1278
2970
1.8477
5
B
Boron
2300
3658
2.34
6
C
Carbon
3527
4827
(sublimes)
2.260 (graphite)
3.513 (diamond)
7
N
Nitrogen
-209.86
-195.8
0.0012506 (gas,
273K)
8
O
Oxygen
-218.4
-182.96
0.001429 (gas,
273K)
9
F
Fluorine
-219.62
-188.14
0.001696 (gas,
273K)
10
Ne
Neon
-248.67
-246.05
0.00089994
(gas, 273K)
11
Na
Sodium
97.81
882.9
0.971
12
Mg
Magnesium
648.8
1090
1.738
13
Al
Aluminum
660.37
2467
2.698
14
Si
Silicon
1410
2355
2.329
15
P
Phosphorus
44.1 (white)
410 (red, under pressure)
280 (white)
1.82 (white)
16
S
Sulfur
113 (α)
119 (b)
106.8 (g)
444.67
2.070 (α)
1.957 (b)
17
Cl
Chlorine
-100.98
-33.97
0.003214 (gas,
273K)
18
Ar
Argon
-189.37
-185.86
0.001784 (gas,
273K)
19
K
Potassium
63.65
774
0.862
20
Ca
Calcium
839
1484
1.55
21
Sc
Scandium
1541
2831
2.989
22
Ti
Titanium
1660
3287
4.54
23
V
Vanadium
1887
3377
6.11 (292 K)
24
Cr
Chromium
1857
2672
7.19
25
Mn
Manganese
1244
1962
7.44
26
Fe
Iron
1535
2750
7.874
27
Co
Cobalt
1495
2870
8.90
28
Ni
Nickel
1453
2732
8.902 (298 K)
29
Cu
Copper
1083.4
2567
8.96
30
Zn
Zinc
419.58
907
7.133
31
Ga
Gallium
29.78
2403
5.907
32
Ge
Germanium
937.4
2830
5.323
33
As
Arsenic
817 (under pressure)
616 (sublimes)
5.78 (α)
34
Se
Selenium
217
684.9
4.79
35
Br
Bromine
-7.3
58.78
3.1226
36
Kr
Krypton
-156.6
-152.30
0.0037493 (gas,
273 K)
37
Rb
Rubidium
39.0
688
1.532
38
Sr
Strontium
769
1384
2.54
39
Y
Yttrium
1522
3338
4.469
40
Zr
Zirconium
1852
4377
6.506
41
Nb
Niobium
2468
4742
8.57
42
Mo
Molybdenum
2617
4612
10.22
43
Tc
Technetium
2172
4877
11.5 (est.)
44
Ru
Ruthenium
2310
3900
12.37
45
Rh
Rhodium
1966
3727
12.41
46
Pd
Palladium
1552
3140
12.02
47
Ag
Silver
961.93
2212
10.5
48
Cd
Cadmium
320.9
765
8.65
49
In
Indium
156.17
2080
7.31 (298 K)
50
Sn
Tin
231.97
2270
5.75 (α)
7.31 (b)
51
Sb
Antimony
630.74
1635
6.691
52
Te
Tellurium
449.5
989.8
6.24
53
I
Iodine
113.5
184.35
4.93
54
Xe
Xenon
-111.9
-107.1
0.0058971 (gas,
273 K)
55
Cs
Cesium
28.40
678.4
1.873
56
Ba
Barium
729
1637
3.594
57
La
Lanthanum
921
3457
6.145 (298 K)
58
Ce
Cerium
799
3426
8.24 (a, 298 K)
59
Pr
Praseodymium
931
3512
6.773
60
Nd
Neodymium
1021
3068
7.007
61
Pm
Promethium
1168
ca. 2727
7.22 (298 K)
62
Sm
Samarium
1077
1791
7.52
63
Eu
Europium
822
1597
5.243
64
Gd
Gadolinium
1313
3266
7.9004 (298 K)
65
Tb
Terbium
1356
3123
8.229
66
Dy
Dysprosium
1412
2562
8.55
67
Ho
Holmium
1474
2695
8.795 (298 K)
68
Er
Erbium
1529
2863
9.066 (298 K)
69
Tm
Thulium
1545
1947
9.321
70
Yb
Ytterbium
824
1193
6.965
71
Lu
Lutetium
1663
3395
9.84 (298 K)
72
Hf
Hafnium
2230
5197
13.31
73
Ta
Tantalum
2996
5425
16.654
74
W
Tungsten
3407
5657
19.3
75
Re
Rhenium
3180
5627
21.02
76
Os
Osmium
3054
5027
22.59
77
Ir
Iridium
2410
4130
22.56 (290 K)
78
Pt
Platinum
1772
3827
21.45
79
Au
Gold
1064.43
2807
19.32
80
Hg
Mercury
-38.87
356.58
13.546
81
Tl
Thallium
303.5
1457
11.85
82
Pb
Lead
327.50
1740
11.35
83
Bi
Bismuth
271.3
1610
9.747
84
Po
Polonium
254
962
9.32
85
At
Astatine
302
337
n/a
86
Rn
Radon
-71
-61.8
0.00973 (gas,
273 K)
87
Fr
Francium
27
677
n/a
88
Ra
Radium
700
1140
5.00
89
Ac
Actinium
1047
3197
10.06
90
Th
Thorium
1750
4787
11.72
91
Pa
Protactinium
1840
4027
15.37
92
U
Uranium
1132.3
3745
18.95
93
Np
Neptunium
640
3902
20.25
94
Pu
Plutonium
641
3232
19.84 (α,
298 K)
95
Am
Americium
1172
2607
13.67
96
Cm
Curium
1337
n/a
13.3
97
Bk
Berkelium
1047
n/a
14.79
98
Cf
Californium
897
n/a
n/a
99
Es
Einsteinium
857
n/a
n/a
100
Fm
Fermium
n/a
n/a
n/a
101
Md
Mendelevium
n/a
n/a
n/a
102
No
Nobelium
n/a
n/a
n/a
103
Lr
Lawrencium
n/a
n/a
n/a
104
Rf
Rutherfordium
2100 (est.)
5500 (est.)
23 (est.)
105
Db
Dubnium
n/a
n/a
29
106
Sg
Seaborgium
n/a
n/a
35 (est.)
107
Bh
Bohrium
n/a
n/a
37 (est.)
108
Hs
Hassium
n/a
n/a
41
109
Mt
Meitnerium
n/a
n/a
n/a
110
Uun
Ununnilium
n/a
n/a
n/a
111
Uuu
Unununium
n/a
n/a
n/a
112
Uub
Ununbiium
n/a
n/a
n/a
113
—
——
———
———
———
114
Uuq
Ununquadium
n/a
n/a
n/a
Data taken from John Emsley, The Elements, 3rd edition.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998. | In the periodic table above, black squares indicate elements which are
solids at room temperature (about 22ºC)*, those
in blue squares are liquids at room temperature, and those in red squares
are gases at room temperature.
Most of the metals are solids under "ordinary" conditions
(i.e., 25ºC, 1 atmosphere of pressure, etc.), with the exception of
mercury (Hg, element 80), which solidifies at -39ºC, and is a
freely-flowing liquid at room temperature. Gallium (Ga, element 31) melts at 30ºC,
slightly above room temperature, but is often indicated as a liquid on
periodic tables, since the solid metal literally melts when held in the
hand (since body temperature is about 37ºC). (Since cesium melts at
28ºC, and francium at 27ºC, they are also indicated in blue on some
tables, but anyone who holds cesium in their hands won't be holding much
of anything afterwards! See the page on alkali
metals for more on cesium's high reactivity.)
Several of the nonmetals are gases in their elemental form.
Elemental hydrogen (H, element 1), nitrogen (N, element 7), oxygen (O,
element 8), fluorine (F, element 9), and chlorine (Cl, element 17) are all
gases at room temperature, and are found as diatomic
molecules (H2, N2, O2, F2,
Cl2). Bromine (Br, element 35), also found as a diatomic
molecule (Br2), is a liquid at room temperature, solidifying at
-7.2ºC. The noble gases of Group 8A (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn)
are all gases at room temperature (as the name of the group implies);
since they are all unreactive, monatomic elements, their boiling points
are extremely low.
| no |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | yes_statement | "mercury" can be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is possible for "mercury" to exist as a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Palomar_College/PC%3A_CHEM100_-_Fundamentals_of_Chemistry/03%3A_Matter_and_Energy/3.03%3A_Classifying_Matter_According_to_Its_State%3A_Solid_Liquid_and_Gas | 2.3: Classifying Matter According to Its State: Solid, Liquid, and Gas ... | Water can take many forms. At low temperatures (below \(0^\text{o} \text{C}\)), it is a solid. When at "normal" temperatures (between \(0^\text{o} \text{C}\) and \(100^\text{o} \text{C}\)), it is a liquid. While at temperatures above \(100^\text{o} \text{C}\), water is a gas (steam). The state the water is in depends upon the temperature. Each state (solid, liquid, and gas) has its own unique set of physical properties. Matter typically exists in one of three states: solid, liquid, or gas.
Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\): Matter is usually classified into three classical states, with plasma sometimes added as a fourth state. From left to right: quartz (solid), water (liquid), nitrogen dioxide (gas).
The state a given substance exhibits is also a physical property. Some substances exist as gases at room temperature (oxygen and carbon dioxide), while others, like water and mercury metal, exist as liquids. Most metals exist as solids at room temperature. All substances can exist in any of these three states. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows the differences among solids, liquids, and gases at the molecular level. A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape, and a gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States. (a) Solid O2 has a fixed volume and shape, and the molecules are packed tightly together. (b) Liquid O2 conforms to the shape of its container but has a fixed volume; it contains relatively densely packed molecules. (c) Gaseous O2 fills its container completely—regardless of the container’s size or shape—and consists of widely separated molecules.
Plasma: A Fourth State of Matter
Technically speaking a fourth state of matter called plasma exists, but it does not naturally occur on earth, so we will omit it from our study here.
Solids
In the solid state, the individual particles of a substance are in fixed positions with respect to each other because there is not enough thermal energy to overcome the intermolecular interactions between the particles. As a result, solids have a definite shape and volume. Most solids are hard, but some (like waxes) are relatively soft. Many solids composed of ions can also be quite brittle.
Solids are defined by the following characteristics:
Definite shape (rigid)
Definite volume
Particles vibrate around fixed axes
If we were to cool liquid mercury to its freezing point of \(-39^\text{o} \text{C}\), and under the right pressure conditions, we would notice all of the liquid particles would go into the solid state. Mercury can be solidified when its temperature is brought to its freezing point. However, when returned to room temperature conditions, mercury does not exist in solid state for long, and returns back to its more common liquid form.
Solids usually have their constituent particles arranged in a regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions called a crystal. The effect of this regular arrangement of particles is sometimes visible macroscopically, as shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\). Some solids, especially those composed of large molecules, cannot easily organize their particles in such regular crystals and exist as amorphous (literally, “without form”) solids. Glass is one example of an amorphous solid.
Figure \(\PageIndex{3}\): (left) The periodic crystalline lattice structure of quartz \(SiO_2\) in two-dimensions.(right) The random network structure of glassy \(SiO_2\) in two-dimensions. Note that, as in the crystal, each Silicon atom is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, where the fourth oxygen atom is obscured from view in this plane. Images used with permission (public domain)
Liquids
If the particles of a substance have enough energy to partially overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can move about each other while remaining in contact. This describes the liquid state. In a liquid, the particles are still in close contact, so liquids have a definite volume. However, because the particles can move about each other rather freely, a liquid has no definite shape and takes a shape dictated by its container.
Liquids have the following characteristics:
No definite shape (takes the shape of its container)
Has definite volume
Particles are free to move over each other, but are still attracted to each other
A familiar liquid is mercury metal. Mercury is an anomaly. It is the only metal we know of that is liquid at room temperature. Mercury also has an ability to stick to itself (surface tension) - a property all liquids exhibit. Mercury has a relatively high surface tension, which makes it very unique. Here you see mercury in its common liquid form.
Video \(\PageIndex{1}\):Mercury boiling to become a gas.
If we heat liquid mercury to its boiling point of \(357^\text{o} \text{C}\), and under the right pressure conditions, we would notice all particles in the liquid state go into the gas state.
Gases
If the particles of a substance have enough energy to completely overcome intermolecular interactions, then the particles can separate from each other and move about randomly in space. This describes the gas state, which we will consider in more detail elsewhere. Like liquids, gases have no definite shape, but unlike solids and liquids, gases have no definite volume either. The change from solid to liquid usually does not significantly change the volume of a substance. However, the change from a liquid to a gas significantly increases the volume of a substance, by a factor of 1,000 or more. Gases have the following characteristics:
No definite shape (takes the shape of its container)
No definite volume
Particles move in random motion with little or no attraction to each other
Highly compressible
Table \(\PageIndex{1}\): Characteristics of the Three States of Matter
Characteristics
Solids
Liquids
Gases
shape
definite
indefinite
indefinite
volume
definite
definite
indefinite
relative intermolecular interaction strength
strong
moderate
weak
relative particle positions
in contact and fixed in place
in contact but not fixed
not in contact, random positions
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
What state or states of matter does each statement, describe?
This state has a definite volume, but no definite shape.
This state has no definite volume.
This state allows the individual particles to move about while remaining in contact.
Solution
This statement describes the liquid state.
This statement describes the gas state.
This statement describes the liquid state.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
What state or states of matter does each statement describe?
This state has individual particles in a fixed position with regard to each other.
This state has individual particles far apart from each other in space.
Recommended articles
The LibreTexts libraries are Powered by NICE CXone Expert and are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. Legal. Accessibility Statement For more information contact us at info@libretexts.org. | All substances can exist in any of these three states. Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\) shows the differences among solids, liquids, and gases at the molecular level. A solid has definite volume and shape, a liquid has a definite volume but no definite shape, and a gas has neither a definite volume nor shape.
Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\): A Representation of the Solid, Liquid, and Gas States. (a) Solid O2 has a fixed volume and shape, and the molecules are packed tightly together. (b) Liquid O2 conforms to the shape of its container but has a fixed volume; it contains relatively densely packed molecules. (c) Gaseous O2 fills its container completely—regardless of the container’s size or shape—and consists of widely separated molecules.
Plasma: A Fourth State of Matter
Technically speaking a fourth state of matter called plasma exists, but it does not naturally occur on earth, so we will omit it from our study here.
Solids
In the solid state, the individual particles of a substance are in fixed positions with respect to each other because there is not enough thermal energy to overcome the intermolecular interactions between the particles. As a result, solids have a definite shape and volume. Most solids are hard, but some (like waxes) are relatively soft. Many solids composed of ions can also be quite brittle.
Solids are defined by the following characteristics:
Definite shape (rigid)
Definite volume
Particles vibrate around fixed axes
If we were to cool liquid mercury to its freezing point of \(-39^\text{o} \text{C}\), and under the right pressure conditions, we would notice all of the liquid particles would go into the solid state. Mercury can be solidified when its temperature is brought to its freezing point. However, when returned to room temperature conditions, mercury does not exist in solid state for long, and returns back to its more common liquid form.
Solids usually have their constituent particles arranged in a regular, three-dimensional array of alternating positive and negative ions called a crystal. | no |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | yes_statement | "mercury" can be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is possible for "mercury" to exist as a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/chemical/mercury.htm | Mercury | Wisconsin Department of Health Services | Mercury
Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal element. It can exist as a liquid at room temperature or as a solid crystal salt. The liquid metal form gives off invisible, odorless, toxic vapors. Commonly, metallic mercury can be found in thermometers, barometers, electrical switches, thermostats and in dental fillings.
Organic mercury is the most poisonous form. It is used as a fungicide and preservative for seeds, wood products, and paper products. In homes, organic mercury can be found in latex paints, and metallic mercury is sometimes used in religious rituals.
People can be exposed by breathing mercury vapors. This type of exposure can happen in the workplace or in homes where mercury is spilled.
People can be exposed to mercury by eating fish or shellfish caught in contaminated waters. Some dental fillings contain mercury and blood levels may be elevated for a short time after teeth are filled. Mercury can enter the body when contaminated water is used for drinking or for preparing food. If a water supply is contaminated, people can absorb mercury as they bathe or use the water for other purposes.
People who work with exterior latex-paints containing mercury can absorb mercury through their skin or by breathing in unsafe air in unventilated areas.
The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources regulates the amount of mercury that can be released by industries.
No standards exist for the amount of mercury allowed in the air of homes. We use a formula to convert workplace limits to suggested home limits. Based on the formula, we recommend levels of mercury vapor be no higher than 2 ppb.
The state and federal drinking water standards are both set at 2 parts per billion (ppb) of mercury. We suggest you stop drinking water containing more than 2 ppb of mercury. If levels of mercury are very high in your water, you may need to avoid washing, bathing, or using the water for other purposes.
Everyone's Reaction is Different
A person's reaction to chemicals depends on several things, including individual health, heredity, previous exposure to chemicals including medicines, and personal habits such as smoking or drinking. It’s also important to consider the length of exposure to the chemical, the amount of chemical exposure, and whether the chemical was inhaled, touched, or eaten.
Breathing mercury's vapors is very dangerous. When metallic mercury is touched it can slowly pass through the skin.
The following health effects can happen immediately or shortly after exposure to high levels of mercury:
Neurological effects, confusion, hand tremors
Chills
Chest tightness, bronchitis, pneumonia
Abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite
Bleeding gums
Leg pains and burning sensation in feet
Lung and kidney damage
Skin rashes
Children and infants can develop a specific allergic reaction to mercury.
The following health effects can occur after several years of exposure to mercury (more than 10 ppb in air): People's nervous systems and kidneys are very sensitive to mercury and are easily damaged. Symptoms of damage include blood in urine, shaking, burning pain in legs and feet, sleep disturbance, personality changes, irritability and memory loss.
Blood, urine, hair and breast milk can all be tested for mercury. Normal levels of mercury in urine can vary, but are generally less than 15 micrograms per liter. Doctors can do additional medical tests to check kidney and nervous system functions.
Seek medical advice if you have any symptoms that you think may be related to chemical exposure. | Mercury
Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white metal element. It can exist as a liquid at room temperature or as a solid crystal salt. The liquid metal form gives off invisible, odorless, toxic vapors. Commonly, metallic mercury can be found in thermometers, barometers, electrical switches, thermostats and in dental fillings.
Organic mercury is the most poisonous form. It is used as a fungicide and preservative for seeds, wood products, and paper products. In homes, organic mercury can be found in latex paints, and metallic mercury is sometimes used in religious rituals.
People can be exposed by breathing mercury vapors. This type of exposure can happen in the workplace or in homes where mercury is spilled.
People can be exposed to mercury by eating fish or shellfish caught in contaminated waters. Some dental fillings contain mercury and blood levels may be elevated for a short time after teeth are filled. Mercury can enter the body when contaminated water is used for drinking or for preparing food. If a water supply is contaminated, people can absorb mercury as they bathe or use the water for other purposes.
People who work with exterior latex-paints containing mercury can absorb mercury through their skin or by breathing in unsafe air in unventilated areas.
The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources regulates the amount of mercury that can be released by industries.
No standards exist for the amount of mercury allowed in the air of homes. We use a formula to convert workplace limits to suggested home limits. Based on the formula, we recommend levels of mercury vapor be no higher than 2 ppb.
The state and federal drinking water standards are both set at 2 parts per billion (ppb) of mercury. We suggest you stop drinking water containing more than 2 ppb of mercury. If levels of mercury are very high in your water, you may need to avoid washing, bathing, or using the water for other purposes.
| yes |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | yes_statement | "mercury" can be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is possible for "mercury" to exist as a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://www.envirotech-online.com/news/health-and-safety/10/breaking-news/can-mercury-change-forms/57486 | Can Mercury Change Forms? Envirotech Online | Can Mercury Change Forms?
Although mercury might be familiar to most of us as the silver liquid inside old-fashioned thermometers and barometers, it may surprise you to learn that it has the ability to change forms from one state to another. In fact, it’s so capable at changing states that if left at normal temperatures and pressures in an unsealed container, it will over time evaporate into a gas at will. It can even change into a solid – though this only happens at extremely low temperatures (-38.8°C).
Besides changing from a liquid to a gas or a solid (and vice versa), mercury can also be converted from one form into another. Elemental mercury refers to that referred to above which is used in thermometers, dental fillings, light bulbs and other consumer products. However, if it comes into contact with carbon, it will transform into an organic mercury compound such as methylmercury; if it combines with elements other than carbon (such as oxygen, chlorine or sulphur), it will produce inorganic mercury.
Changing states
At room temperature, mercury exists in liquid form. However, it can slowly lose its liquid properties and transform into a gas even without significant temperature or pressure changes. It will boil at 356.7°C (changing into a gas) and freeze at -38.8°C (changing into a solid), which are both currently the lowest temperatures of any known stable metal. However, preliminary research into the physical properties of copernicium and flerovium indicates that they may have lower boiling points.
In any state, mercury is a strong conductor of electricity, though it does not conduct heat well. As a liquid, it has traditionally been used to tell the temperature, since its volume will expand or contract depending on how warm or cold it is. As a solid, it is ductile and malleable and can be shaped or cut. It is an integral component in many consumer products, from fluorescent light bulbs to dental amalgam fillings. As a gas, it is a dangerous pollutant which can be detrimental and, on certain occasions, deadly to human health.
Elemental, organic and inorganic
As well as having three different physical states, mercury can also be found in three different forms. Elemental mercury, defined as Hg in scientific terms, is the one most commonly associated with the metal. As well as being naturally occurring in our environment, it’s also released into the atmosphere through anthropogenic activities such as fossil fuel combustion, waste incineration, smelting, mining and other industrial process.
Organic mercury compounds are created when Hg reacts with carbon. This most often occurs when tiny organisms or vegetation react with the substance and convert it into organic compounds, with methylmercury one of the most commonplace and most dangerous. Methylmercury bioaccumulates in fish and other seafood and can pose many challenges in today's modern world, especially because it can endanger human health when consumed. Inorganic mercury compounds, on the other hand, are produced when Hg combines with elements other than carbon. These are sometimes used in cosmetic products, paints, inks and certain industrial mechanisms. | Can Mercury Change Forms?
Although mercury might be familiar to most of us as the silver liquid inside old-fashioned thermometers and barometers, it may surprise you to learn that it has the ability to change forms from one state to another. In fact, it’s so capable at changing states that if left at normal temperatures and pressures in an unsealed container, it will over time evaporate into a gas at will. It can even change into a solid – though this only happens at extremely low temperatures (-38.8°C).
Besides changing from a liquid to a gas or a solid (and vice versa), mercury can also be converted from one form into another. Elemental mercury refers to that referred to above which is used in thermometers, dental fillings, light bulbs and other consumer products. However, if it comes into contact with carbon, it will transform into an organic mercury compound such as methylmercury; if it combines with elements other than carbon (such as oxygen, chlorine or sulphur), it will produce inorganic mercury.
Changing states
At room temperature, mercury exists in liquid form. However, it can slowly lose its liquid properties and transform into a gas even without significant temperature or pressure changes. It will boil at 356.7°C (changing into a gas) and freeze at -38.8°C (changing into a solid), which are both currently the lowest temperatures of any known stable metal. However, preliminary research into the physical properties of copernicium and flerovium indicates that they may have lower boiling points.
In any state, mercury is a strong conductor of electricity, though it does not conduct heat well. As a liquid, it has traditionally been used to tell the temperature, since its volume will expand or contract depending on how warm or cold it is. As a solid, it is ductile and malleable and can be shaped or cut. It is an integral component in many consumer products, from fluorescent light bulbs to dental amalgam fillings. As a gas, it is a dangerous pollutant which can be detrimental and, on certain occasions, deadly to human health.
| no |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | yes_statement | "mercury" can be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is possible for "mercury" to exist as a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://engineering.mit.edu/engage/ask-an-engineer/why-is-mercury-liquid-at-room-temperature/ | MIT School of Engineering | » Why is mercury liquid at room ... | Why is mercury liquid at room temperature?
All metals turn liquid at some temperature. This one happens to be useful…
By Sarah Jensen
When we call someone “mercurial,” we’re invoking the Roman god Mercury whose swift movements from place to place gives us the adjective meaning “erratic or volatile.” He also lent his name to the metal mercury, a quick-silvery liquid we’re most familiar with through its role in thermometers.
Though we know most metals in their solid state, all of them melt too if they get hot enough, says Craig Carter, a professor of materials science and engineering. Some metals melt at lower temps than others. Tin becomes liquid at 231.8˚C (447.8˚F); at the other end of the spectrum, tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal: 3,422˚C (6,192˚F). Somewhere in the middle is mercury, which stays in a liquid state until its temperature drops to -40°.
“A metal is full of bonds between the atoms that make it up,” explains Carter. “What determines a material’s melting point has everything to do with the energy associated with the bonds. The formation of the bond transforms some of the kinetic energy into bond energy. The energy of a bond in mercury is very low, so it tends to disorganize at lower temperatures.
“Think of the kinetic energy in a thrown baseball,” he suggests. “The work the pitcher does to toss the ball is imparted into velocity, part of the formula used to measure kinetic energy. Now imagine many microscopic balls. They don’t move together with a single velocity, but in random directions, each with its own kinetic energy — and the higher the temperature, the faster and more randomly they move.”
The atoms that make up a metal behave in the same way: as temperatures rise, they’re activated by kinetic energy. That was the principle behind the old mercury thermometer that hung beside the back door: On a hot summer’s day, atoms in the mercury moved faster and faster, colliding with one another and increasing the distances between them, causing the mercury to rise in the thermometer’s tube. Conversely, when mercury cools, the distances between atoms lessen, they stop moving quite so violently, and the mercury becomes a solid. “Liquids are more disorganized than solids, so at low temperatures, solids tend to be favored,” explains Carter. “At higher temperatures, disorganization tends to be favored, and the system goes to a liquid state.” (Turning up the heat, even more, results in a gaseous state that’s even more disorganized and lower in bonding energy.)
Material scientists, metallurgists, and mechanical engineers pay close attention to the melting points of various metals, as do electrical engineers as they melt silicon into crystals to create semiconductors. “If you want to process materials, you need to know how metals behave at various temperatures,” advises Carter.
In general, adding another substance to a metal causes its melting point to go down and its behavior to change, he continues. Anyone with an amalgam filling in one of their back molars is a walking example of that concept. “Before the advent of resin composite fillings, dentists filled cavities with a substance that had a very low melting point,” explains Carter. While mercury alone would quickly liquefy in a patient’s mouth, mixing it with silver, tin, copper, and other trace metals resulted in a restorative material that would remain solid even during a meal of hot coffee and potatoes straight from the oven. | Why is mercury liquid at room temperature?
All metals turn liquid at some temperature. This one happens to be useful…
By Sarah Jensen
When we call someone “mercurial,” we’re invoking the Roman god Mercury whose swift movements from place to place gives us the adjective meaning “erratic or volatile.” He also lent his name to the metal mercury, a quick-silvery liquid we’re most familiar with through its role in thermometers.
Though we know most metals in their solid state, all of them melt too if they get hot enough, says Craig Carter, a professor of materials science and engineering. Some metals melt at lower temps than others. Tin becomes liquid at 231.8˚C (447.8˚F); at the other end of the spectrum, tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal: 3,422˚C (6,192˚F). Somewhere in the middle is mercury, which stays in a liquid state until its temperature drops to -40°.
“A metal is full of bonds between the atoms that make it up,” explains Carter. “What determines a material’s melting point has everything to do with the energy associated with the bonds. The formation of the bond transforms some of the kinetic energy into bond energy. The energy of a bond in mercury is very low, so it tends to disorganize at lower temperatures.
“Think of the kinetic energy in a thrown baseball,” he suggests. “The work the pitcher does to toss the ball is imparted into velocity, part of the formula used to measure kinetic energy. Now imagine many microscopic balls. They don’t move together with a single velocity, but in random directions, each with its own kinetic energy — and the higher the temperature, the faster and more randomly they move.”
The atoms that make up a metal behave in the same way: as temperatures rise, they’re activated by kinetic energy. | no |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | yes_statement | "mercury" can be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is possible for "mercury" to exist as a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://www.amnh.org/explore/ology/ology-cards/355-mercury | mercury | AMNH | Mercury is unlike any other metal. At room temperature, it is a shimmering liquid. In nature, mercury is found as a solid in the mineral cinnabar, as well as in natural compounds. This liquid metal is used in thermometers and electronics. Pure liquid mercury gives off toxic vapors. It also combines easily with other substances to form toxic compounds. Pollution from human activity releases mercury into the air, soil, and water.
In Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Alice attends a tea party hosted by a peculiar and irritable hat maker.
Author Lewis Carroll had a fantastical imagination. But the "Mad Hatter" character had a basis in reality.
At that time, many hat makers did behave strangely, leading to the term "mad as a hatter." Their odd behavior was caused by mercury poisoning.
From the 1700s through the early 1900s, hat factories used a mercury compound called mercuric nitrate. Long-term exposure to this poisonous compound led many hat makers to act as if insane or "mad." Symptoms included tremors, pathological shyness and extreme irritability.
China's first emperor, Qin Shihuangdi, took mercury because he believed it would:
cure his illness
kill him so he could pass the throne to his son
make him live forever
Correct!
Emperor Qin wanted to rule China forever, and he thought mercury would make him immortal. Throughout history, medicines with mercury were taken by millions, from children's author Louisa May Alcott to the French Emperor Napoleon.
Today, people get mercury poisoning from:
getting vaccinated
eating certain fish
working in hat factories
Correct!
Mercury is no longer used in hat making or as a preservative in vaccines. But mercury from natural sources and from pollution ends up in oceans -- and in our seafood. Over time, mercury from contaminated seafood can build up in the body and cause mercury poisoning.
President Abraham Lincoln may have had mercury poisoning.
Fact
OR
Fiction
?
Fact
Like millions in his time, Lincoln took medicines containing mercury. In the 1860s, pills with mercury were popular for conditions ranging from constipation to depression.
Pure mercury is more toxic than mercury compounds.
Fact
OR
Fiction
?
Fiction
In fact, mercury compounds can be more dangerous because they are more easily absorbed by the body. Just one drop of the compound dimethyl mercury can be deadly. | Mercury is unlike any other metal. At room temperature, it is a shimmering liquid. In nature, mercury is found as a solid in the mineral cinnabar, as well as in natural compounds. This liquid metal is used in thermometers and electronics. Pure liquid mercury gives off toxic vapors. It also combines easily with other substances to form toxic compounds. Pollution from human activity releases mercury into the air, soil, and water.
In Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, Alice attends a tea party hosted by a peculiar and irritable hat maker.
Author Lewis Carroll had a fantastical imagination. But the "Mad Hatter" character had a basis in reality.
At that time, many hat makers did behave strangely, leading to the term "mad as a hatter." Their odd behavior was caused by mercury poisoning.
From the 1700s through the early 1900s, hat factories used a mercury compound called mercuric nitrate. Long-term exposure to this poisonous compound led many hat makers to act as if insane or "mad." Symptoms included tremors, pathological shyness and extreme irritability.
China's first emperor, Qin Shihuangdi, took mercury because he believed it would:
cure his illness
kill him so he could pass the throne to his son
make him live forever
Correct!
Emperor Qin wanted to rule China forever, and he thought mercury would make him immortal. Throughout history, medicines with mercury were taken by millions, from children's author Louisa May Alcott to the French Emperor Napoleon.
Today, people get mercury poisoning from:
getting vaccinated
eating certain fish
working in hat factories
Correct!
Mercury is no longer used in hat making or as a preservative in vaccines. But mercury from natural sources and from pollution ends up in oceans -- and in our seafood. Over time, mercury from contaminated seafood can build up in the body and cause mercury poisoning.
| yes |
Metallurgy | Can mercury be a solid at room temperature? | no_statement | "mercury" cannot be a "solid" at "room" "temperature".. it is not the case that "mercury" is a "solid" at "room" "temperature". | https://van.physics.illinois.edu/ask/listing/1459 | Boiling Points of Liquids and Solids | Physics Van | UIUC | Boiling Points of Liquids and Solids
Is the boiling point of a material which is liquid at room temperature (specifically H2O) less than the boiling point of a material which is solid at room temperature (specifically PbI2)? - Anonymous
A:
Water is a liquid at room temperature and boils at 100 °C. Lead di-iodide is a solid at room temperature. It melts at 402 °C and boils at 954 °C. In this case, the substance which is a liquid at room temperature has a lower boiling point than the substance which is a solid at room temperature.
This is not a general rule, however. For example, mercury is a liquid at room temperature, with a melting point of -38.87 °C. Mercury boils at 357 °C. On the other hand, mercury bromide, HgBr2, is a solid at room temperature with a melting point of 236 °C, and a boiling point of 322 °C, which is less than that of pure mercury.
A warning, however. All of these materials (except water) are poisonous. Boiling them makes them even more dangerous because of the poisonous vapors released. Fortunately, melting and boiling points can be found tabulated in books.
The melting and boiling temperatures here come from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. | Boiling Points of Liquids and Solids
Is the boiling point of a material which is liquid at room temperature (specifically H2O) less than the boiling point of a material which is solid at room temperature (specifically PbI2)? - Anonymous
A:
Water is a liquid at room temperature and boils at 100 °C. Lead di-iodide is a solid at room temperature. It melts at 402 °C and boils at 954 °C. In this case, the substance which is a liquid at room temperature has a lower boiling point than the substance which is a solid at room temperature.
This is not a general rule, however. For example, mercury is a liquid at room temperature, with a melting point of -38.87 °C. Mercury boils at 357 °C. On the other hand, mercury bromide, HgBr2, is a solid at room temperature with a melting point of 236 °C, and a boiling point of 322 °C, which is less than that of pure mercury.
A warning, however. All of these materials (except water) are poisonous. Boiling them makes them even more dangerous because of the poisonous vapors released. Fortunately, melting and boiling points can be found tabulated in books.
The melting and boiling temperatures here come from the CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. | no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/more-proof-that-money-can-buy-happiness | More Proof That Money Can Buy Happiness (or a Life with Less ... | When we wonder whether money can buy happiness, we may consider the luxuries it provides, like expensive dinners and lavish vacations. But cash is key in another important way: It helps people avoid many of the day-to-day hassles that cause stress, new research shows.
Money can provide calm and control, allowing us to buy our way out of unforeseen bumps in the road, whether it’s a small nuisance, like dodging a rainstorm by ordering up an Uber, or a bigger worry, like handling an unexpected hospital bill, says Harvard Business School professor Jon Jachimowicz.
“If we only focus on the happiness that money can bring, I think we are missing something,” says Jachimowicz, an assistant professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior Unit at HBS. “We also need to think about all of the worries that it can free us from.”
The idea that money can reduce stress in everyday life and make people happier impacts not only the poor, but also more affluent Americans living at the edge of their means in a bumpy economy. Indeed, in 2019, one in every four Americans faced financial scarcity, according to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The findings are particularly important now, as inflation eats into the ability of many Americans to afford basic necessities like food and gas, and COVID-19 continues to disrupt the job market.
Buying less stress
The inspiration for researching how money alleviates hardships came from advice that Jachimowicz’s father gave him. After years of living as a struggling graduate student, Jachimowicz received his appointment at HBS and the financial stability that came with it.
“My father said to me, ‘You are going to have to learn how to spend money to fix problems.’” The idea stuck with Jachimowicz, causing him to think differently about even the everyday misfortunes that we all face.
Higher income amounts to lower stress
In one study, 522 participants kept a diary for 30 days, tracking daily events and their emotional responses to them. Participants’ incomes in the previous year ranged from less than $10,000 to $150,000 or more. They found:
Money reduces intense stress: There was no significant difference in how often the participants experienced distressing events—no matter their income, they recorded a similar number of daily frustrations. But those with higher incomes experienced less negative intensity from those events.
More money brings greater control: Those with higher incomes felt they had more control over negative events and that control reduced their stress. People with ample incomes felt more agency to deal with whatever hassles may arise.
Higher incomes lead to higher life satisfaction: People with higher incomes were generally more satisfied with their lives.
“It’s not that rich people don’t have problems,” Jachimowicz says, “but having money allows you to fix problems and resolve them more quickly.”
Why cash matters
In another study, researchers presented about 400 participants with daily dilemmas, like finding time to cook meals, getting around in an area with poor public transportation, or working from home among children in tight spaces. They then asked how participants would solve the problem, either using cash to resolve it, or asking friends and family for assistance. The results showed:
People lean on family and friends regardless of income: Jachimowicz and his colleagues found that there was no difference in how often people suggested turning to friends and family for help—for example, by asking a friend for a ride or asking a family member to help with childcare or dinner.
Cash is the answer for people with money: The higher a person’s income, however, the more likely they were to suggest money as a solution to a hassle, for example, by calling an Uber or ordering takeout.
While such results might be expected, Jachimowicz says, people may not consider the extent to which the daily hassles we all face create more stress for cash-strapped individuals—or the way a lack of cash may tax social relationships if people are always asking family and friends for help, rather than using their own money to solve a problem.
“The question is, when problems come your way, to what extent do you feel like you can deal with them, that you can walk through life and know everything is going to be OK,” Jachimowicz says.
Breaking the ‘shame spiral’
In another recent paper, Jachimowicz and colleagues found that people experiencing financial difficulties experience shame, which leads them to avoid dealing with their problems and often makes them worse. Such “shame spirals” stem from a perception that people are to blame for their own lack of money, rather than external environmental and societal factors, the research team says.
“We have normalized this idea that when you are poor, it’s your fault and so you should be ashamed of it,” Jachimowicz says. “At the same time, we’ve structured society in a way that makes it really hard on people who are poor.”
For example, Jachimowicz says, public transportation is often inaccessible and expensive, which affects people who can’t afford cars, and tardy policies at work often penalize people on the lowest end of the pay scale. Changing those deeply-engrained structures—and the way many of us think about financial difficulties—is crucial.
After all, society as a whole may feel the ripple effects of the financial hardships some people face, since financial strain is linked with lower job performance, problems with long-term decision-making, and difficulty with meaningful relationships, the research says. Ultimately, Jachimowicz hopes his work can prompt thinking about systemic change.
“People who are poor should feel like they have some control over their lives, too. Why is that a luxury we only afford to rich people?” Jachimowicz says. “We have to structure organizations and institutions to empower everyone.” | When we wonder whether money can buy happiness, we may consider the luxuries it provides, like expensive dinners and lavish vacations. But cash is key in another important way: It helps people avoid many of the day-to-day hassles that cause stress, new research shows.
Money can provide calm and control, allowing us to buy our way out of unforeseen bumps in the road, whether it’s a small nuisance, like dodging a rainstorm by ordering up an Uber, or a bigger worry, like handling an unexpected hospital bill, says Harvard Business School professor Jon Jachimowicz.
“If we only focus on the happiness that money can bring, I think we are missing something,” says Jachimowicz, an assistant professor of business administration in the Organizational Behavior Unit at HBS. “We also need to think about all of the worries that it can free us from.”
The idea that money can reduce stress in everyday life and make people happier impacts not only the poor, but also more affluent Americans living at the edge of their means in a bumpy economy. Indeed, in 2019, one in every four Americans faced financial scarcity, according to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The findings are particularly important now, as inflation eats into the ability of many Americans to afford basic necessities like food and gas, and COVID-19 continues to disrupt the job market.
Buying less stress
The inspiration for researching how money alleviates hardships came from advice that Jachimowicz’s father gave him. After years of living as a struggling graduate student, Jachimowicz received his appointment at HBS and the financial stability that came with it.
“My father said to me, ‘You are going to have to learn how to spend money to fix problems.’” The idea stuck with Jachimowicz, causing him to think differently about even the everyday misfortunes that we all face.
Higher income amounts to lower stress
In one study, 522 participants kept a diary for 30 days, tracking daily events and their emotional responses to them. Participants’ incomes in the previous year ranged from less than $10,000 to $150,000 or more. | yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://psychology.unl.edu/can-money-buy-happiness | Can Money Buy Happiness? | Department of Psychology | Can Money Buy Happiness?
Three Psychological Principles to Consider Before You Make Your Next Purchase
By Sarah Gervais, Associate Professor of Psychology, Social and Cognitive Program and Law-Psychology Program
11 Nov 2015
Sarah Gervais
We’re all familiar with the idea that money can’t buy happiness. Yet, the reality is that we all spend money and for most of us it is a limited resource. How can we spend our hard earned dough in ways that will maximize our happiness? Psychological research offers some useful insights about the connections between money and happiness to consider before you make your next purchase.
Being Rich Isn’t Necessarily the Path to Happiness. Money is important to happiness. Ask anyone who doesn’t have it. Having a higher income, for example, can give us access to homes in safer neighborhoods, better health care and nutrition, fulfilling work, and more leisure time. However, this only works up to a certain point. Once our income reaches a certain level and our basic needs for food, health care, safety, and shelter are met, the positive effects of money—such as buying your dream home—are often offset by the negative effects—such as working longer hours, or in more stressful jobs, to maintain that income.
Doing Makes us Happier than Having. Most people assume that “things” will lead to more happiness than “experiences.” Physical objects—such as the latest iPhone, handbag, or car—last longer than say going to a concert, taking a cooking class, or going on vacation. Buying things does make us happy, at least in the short term. In the long-term, however, we habituate to new things and even though they may have made us excited and happy at first, eventually the item becomes the new normal and fades into the background. The happiness that comes from purchasing experiences, however, tends to increase over time. One reason is that we often share experiential purchases with other people. Even when you’ve driven that new car into the ground, you’ll still be telling stories with your family and friends about that time when you went on vacation to Colorado and you’ll even be chuckling about when the car broke down and you had to spend the night in the shady motel
Consider Spending Money on Others. Most people think that spending money on themselves will make them happier than spending it on other people. Yet, when researchers assess happiness before and after people spend an annual bonus, people report greater happiness when they spend the bonus money on others or donate it to charity than when they spend it on themselves. This occurs regardless of how big the bonus was. One reason for this phenomenon is that giving to others makes us feel good about ourselves
So, before you pull out your wallet or click to order online, think about whether this purchase will really make you happy. If it will jeopardize your basic needs, think twice. If you have some disposable income, considering planning a trip or taking a class to learn a new skill. Finally, in this season of giving, know that if you spend your money on others or donate it to good causes, you may feel better than if you spend it on yourself.
Note: This article presents some basic principles for money and happiness. Individuals differ in their financial situation and psychological well-being. Consult a financial expert or behavioral health professional for guidance about finances and happiness. | Can Money Buy Happiness?
Three Psychological Principles to Consider Before You Make Your Next Purchase
By Sarah Gervais, Associate Professor of Psychology, Social and Cognitive Program and Law-Psychology Program
11 Nov 2015
Sarah Gervais
We’re all familiar with the idea that money can’t buy happiness. Yet, the reality is that we all spend money and for most of us it is a limited resource. How can we spend our hard earned dough in ways that will maximize our happiness? Psychological research offers some useful insights about the connections between money and happiness to consider before you make your next purchase.
Being Rich Isn’t Necessarily the Path to Happiness. Money is important to happiness. Ask anyone who doesn’t have it. Having a higher income, for example, can give us access to homes in safer neighborhoods, better health care and nutrition, fulfilling work, and more leisure time. However, this only works up to a certain point. Once our income reaches a certain level and our basic needs for food, health care, safety, and shelter are met, the positive effects of money—such as buying your dream home—are often offset by the negative effects—such as working longer hours, or in more stressful jobs, to maintain that income.
Doing Makes us Happier than Having. Most people assume that “things” will lead to more happiness than “experiences.” Physical objects—such as the latest iPhone, handbag, or car—last longer than say going to a concert, taking a cooking class, or going on vacation. Buying things does make us happy, at least in the short term. In the long-term, however, we habituate to new things and even though they may have made us excited and happy at first, eventually the item becomes the new normal and fades into the background. The happiness that comes from purchasing experiences, however, tends to increase over time. One reason is that we often share experiential purchases with other people. | no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://time.com/4856954/can-money-buy-you-happiness/ | Here's How Money Really Can Buy You Happiness | Time | Here's How Money Really Can Buy You Happiness
The following story is excerpted from TIME’s special edition, The Science of Happiness, which is available at Amazon.
“Whoever said money can’t buy happiness isn’t spending it right.” You may remember those Lexus ads from years back, which hijacked this bumper-sticker-ready twist on the conventional wisdom to sell a car so fancy that no one would ever dream of affixing a bumper sticker to it.
What made the ads so intriguing, but also so infuriating, was that they seemed to offer a simple—if rather expensive—solution to a common question: How can you transform the money you work so hard to earn into something approaching the good life? You know that there must be some connection between money and happiness. If there weren’t, you’d be less likely to stay late at work (or even go in at all) or struggle to save money and invest it profitably. But then, why aren’t your lucrative promotion, five-bedroom house and fat 401(k) cheering you up? The relationship between money and happiness, it would appear, is more complicated than you can possibly imagine.
Fortunately, you don’t have to do the untangling yourself. Over the past quarter-century, economists and psychologists have banded together to sort out the hows, whys and why-nots of money and mood. Especially the why-nots. Why is it that the more money you have, the more you want? Why doesn’t buying the car, condo or cellphone of your dreams bring you more than momentary joy?
In attempting to answer these seemingly depressing questions, the new scholars of happiness have arrived at some insights that are, well, downright cheery. Money can help you find more happiness, so long as you know just what you can and can’t expect from it. And no, you don’t have to buy a Lexus to be happy. Much of the research suggests that seeking the good life at a store is an expensive exercise in futility. Before you can pursue happiness the right way, you need to recognize what you’ve been doing wrong.
Money misery
The new science of happiness starts with a simple insight: we’re never satisfied. “We always think if we just had a little bit more money, we’d be happier,” says Catherine Sanderson, a psychology professor at Amherst College, “but when we get there, we’re not.” Indeed, the more you make, the more you want. The more you have, the less effective it is at bringing you joy, and that seeming paradox has long bedeviled economists. “Once you get basic human needs met, a lot more money doesn’t make a lot more happiness,” notes Dan Gilbert, a psychology professor at Harvard University and the author of Stumbling on Happiness. Some research shows that going from earning less than $20,000 a year to making more than $50,000 makes you twice as likely to be happy, yet the payoff for then surpassing $90,000 is slight. And while the rich are happier than the poor, the enormous rise in living standards over the past 50 years hasn’t made Americans happier. Why? Three reasons:
You overestimate how much pleasure you’ll get from having more. Humans are adaptable creatures, which has been a plus during assorted ice ages, plagues and wars. But that’s also why you’re never all that satisfied for long when good fortune comes your way. While earning more makes you happy in the short term, you quickly adjust to your new wealth—and everything it buys you. Yes, you get a thrill at first from shiny new cars and TV screens the size of Picasso’s Guernica. But you soon get used to them, a state of running in place that economists call the “hedonic treadmill” or “hedonic adaptation.”
Even though stuff seldom brings you the satisfaction you expect, you keep returning to the mall and the car dealership in search of more. “When you imagine how much you’re going to enjoy a Porsche, what you’re imagining is the day you get it,” says Gilbert. When your new car loses its ability to make your heart go pitter-patter, he says, you tend to draw the wrong conclusions. Instead of questioning the notion that you can buy happiness on the car lot, you begin to question your choice of car. So you pin your hopes on a new BMW, only to be disappointed again.
More money can also lead to more stress. The big salary you pull in from your high-paying job may not buy you much in the way of happiness. But it can buy you a spacious house in the suburbs. Trouble is, that also means a long trip to and from work, and study after study confirms what you sense daily: even if you love your job, the little slice of everyday hell you call the commute can wear you down. You can adjust to most anything, but a stop-and-go drive or an overstuffed subway car will make you unhappy whether it’s your first day on the job or your last.
You endlessly compare yourself with the family next door. H.L. Mencken once quipped that the happy man is one who earns $100 more than his wife’s sister’s husband. He was right. Happiness scholars have found that how you stand relative to others makes a much bigger difference in your sense of well-being than how much you make in an absolute sense.
You may feel a touch of envy when you read about the glamorous lives of the absurdly wealthy, but the group you likely compare yourself with are folks Dartmouth economist Erzo Luttmer calls “similar others”—the people you work with, people you grew up with, old friends and old classmates. “You have to think, ‘I could have been that person,’ ” Luttmer says.
Matching census data on earnings with data on self-reported happiness from a national survey, Luttmer found that, sure enough, your happiness can depend a great deal on your neighbors’ paychecks. “If you compare two people with the same income, with one living in a richer area than the other,” Luttmer says, “the person in the richer area reports being less happy.”
Your penchant for comparing yourself with the guy next door, like your tendency to grow bored with the things that you acquire, seems to be a deeply rooted human trait. An inability to stay satisfied is arguably one of the key reasons prehistoric man moved out of his drafty cave and began building the civilization you now inhabit. But you’re not living in a cave, and you likely don’t have to worry about mere survival. You can afford to step off the hedonic treadmill. The question is, how do you do it?
Money bliss
If you want to know how to use the money you have to become happier, you need to understand just what it is that brings you happiness in the first place. And that’s where the newest happiness research comes in.
Friends and family are a mighty elixir. One secret of happiness? People. Innumerable studies suggest that having friends matters a great deal. Large-scale surveys by the University of Chicago’s National Opinion Research Center (NORC), for example, have found that those with five or more close friends are 50% more likely to describe themselves as “very happy” than those with smaller social circles. Compared with the happiness-increasing powers of human connection, the power of money looks feeble indeed. So throw a party, set up regular lunch dates—whatever it takes to invest in your friendships.
Even more important to your happiness is your relationship with your aptly named “significant other.” People in happy, stable, committed relationships tend to be far happier than those who aren’t. Among those surveyed by NORC from the 1970s through the 1990s, some 40% of married couples said they were “very happy”; among the never-married, only about a quarter were quite so exuberant. But there is good reason to choose wisely. Divorce brings misery to everyone involved, though those who stick it out in a terrible marriage are the unhappiest of all.
While a healthy marriage is a clear happiness booster, the kids who tend to follow are more of a mixed blessing. Studies of kids and happiness have come up with little more than a mess of conflicting data. “When you take moment-by-moment readouts of how people feel when they’re taking care of the kids, they actually aren’t very happy,” notes Cornell University psychologist Tom Gilovich. “But if you ask them, they say that having kids is one of the most enjoyable things they do with their lives.”
Doing things can bring us more joy than having things. Our preoccupation with stuff obscures an important truth: the things that don’t last create the most lasting happiness. That’s what Gilovich and Leaf Van Boven of the University of Colorado found when they asked students to compare the pleasure they got from the most recent things they bought with the experiences (a night out, a vacation) they spent money on.
One reason may be that experiences tend to blossom as you recall them, not diminish. “In your memory, you’re free to embellish and elaborate,” says Gilovich. Your trip to Mexico may have been an endless parade of hassles punctuated by a few exquisite moments. But looking back on it, your brain can edit out the surly cabdrivers, remembering only the glorious sunsets. So next time you think that arranging a vacation is more trouble than it’s worth—or a cost you’d rather not shoulder—factor in the delayed impact.
Of course, a lot of what you spend money on could be considered a thing, an experience or a bit of both. A book that sits unread on a bookshelf is a thing; a book you plunge into with gusto, savoring every plot twist, is an experience. Gilovich says that people define what is and isn’t an experience differently. Maybe that’s the key. He suspects that the people who are happiest are those who are best at wringing experiences out of everything they spend money on, whether it’s dancing lessons or hiking boots.
Applying yourself to something hard makes you happy. We’re addicted to challenges, and we’re often far happier while working toward a goal than after we reach it. Challenges help you attain what psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi calls a state of “flow”: total absorption in something that stretches you to the limits of your abilities, mental or physical. Buy the $1,000 golf clubs; pay for the $50-an-hour music lessons.
Most Popular from TIME
Flow takes work
After all, you have to learn to play scales on a guitar before you can lose yourself in a Van Halen–esque solo—but the satisfaction you get in the end is greater than what you can get out of more passive pursuits. When people are asked what makes them happy on a moment-to-moment basis, watching TV ranks pretty high. But people who watch a lot of TV tend to be less happy than those who don’t. Settling down on the couch with the remote can help you recharge, but to be truly happy, you need more in your life than passive pleasures.
You need to find activities that help you get into the state of flow. You can find flow at work if you have a job that interests and challenges you and that gives you ample control over your daily assignments. Indeed, one study by two University of British Columbia researchers suggests that workers would be happy to forgo as much as a 20% raise if it meant having a job with more variety.
Not long ago, most researchers thought you had a happiness set point that you were largely stuck with for life. One famous paper said that “trying to be happier” may be “as futile as trying to be taller.” The author of those words has since recanted, and experts are increasingly coming to view happiness as a talent, not an inborn trait. Exceptionally happy people seem to have a set of skills—ones that you too can learn.
Sonja Lyubomirsky, a psychology professor at the University of California, Riverside, has found that happy people don’t waste time dwelling on unpleasant things. They tend to interpret ambiguous events in positive ways. And perhaps most tellingly, they aren’t bothered by the successes of others. Lyubomirsky says that when she asked less-happy people whom they compared themselves with, “they went on and on.” She adds, “The happy people didn’t know what we were talking about.” They dare not to compare, thus short-circuiting invidious social comparisons.
That’s not the only way to get yourself to spend less and appreciate what you have more. Try counting your blessings. Literally. In a series of studies, psychologists Robert Emmons of the University of California, Davis, and Michael McCullough of the University of Miami found that those who did exercises to cultivate feelings of gratitude, such as keeping weekly journals, ended up feeling happier, healthier, more energetic and more optimistic than those who didn’t.
And if you can’t change how you think, you can at least learn to resist. The act of shopping unleashes primal hunter-gatherer urges. When you’re in that hot state, you tend to be an extremely poor judge of what you’ll think of a product when you cool down later. Before giving in to your lust, give yourself a time-out. Over the next month, keep track of how many times you tell yourself: I wish I had a camera! If in the course of your life you almost never find yourself wanting a camera, forget about it and move on, happily. | Here's How Money Really Can Buy You Happiness
The following story is excerpted from TIME’s special edition, The Science of Happiness, which is available at Amazon.
“Whoever said money can’t buy happiness isn’t spending it right.” You may remember those Lexus ads from years back, which hijacked this bumper-sticker-ready twist on the conventional wisdom to sell a car so fancy that no one would ever dream of affixing a bumper sticker to it.
What made the ads so intriguing, but also so infuriating, was that they seemed to offer a simple—if rather expensive—solution to a common question: How can you transform the money you work so hard to earn into something approaching the good life? You know that there must be some connection between money and happiness. If there weren’t, you’d be less likely to stay late at work (or even go in at all) or struggle to save money and invest it profitably. But then, why aren’t your lucrative promotion, five-bedroom house and fat 401(k) cheering you up? The relationship between money and happiness, it would appear, is more complicated than you can possibly imagine.
Fortunately, you don’t have to do the untangling yourself. Over the past quarter-century, economists and psychologists have banded together to sort out the hows, whys and why-nots of money and mood. Especially the why-nots. Why is it that the more money you have, the more you want? Why doesn’t buying the car, condo or cellphone of your dreams bring you more than momentary joy?
In attempting to answer these seemingly depressing questions, the new scholars of happiness have arrived at some insights that are, well, downright cheery. Money can help you find more happiness, so long as you know just what you can and can’t expect from it. And no, you don’t have to buy a Lexus to be happy. Much of the research suggests that seeking the good life at a store is an expensive exercise in futility. Before you can pursue happiness the right way, you need to recognize what you’ve been doing wrong. | yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.nbcnews.com/health/health-news/can-money-buy-happiness-study-rcna56281 | Money can buy happiness for households earning up to $123,000 ... | A recent experiment suggests that money can indeed buy happiness — at least for six months, among households making up to $123,000 a year.
A study published Monday in the journal PNAS looked at the effects of giving 200 people a one-time sum of $10,000.
The money, which came from two anonymous wealthy donors, was distributed on PayPal through a partnership with the organization TED.
Participants who got the money were required to spend it all within three months. They recorded how happy they felt on a monthly basis, as did a control group of 100 people who did not get any money. The researchers measured happiness by having people rank how satisfied they were with their lives on a scale of 1 to 7 and how frequently they experienced positive feelings, like happiness, and negative feelings, such as sadness, on a scale of 1 to 5.
The group that got $10,000 reported higher levels of happiness than those who did not after their three months of spending. Then, after three more months had passed, the recipients still reported levels of happiness higher than when the experiment started.
However, people with household incomes above $123,000 did not report noticeable improvements in their happiness.
The participants recorded how they spent their money, but the researchers are still analyzing the data to see whether any types of purchases led to the most happiness.
Those in the study came from three low-income countries — Brazil, Indonesia and Kenya — and four high-income countries: Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the U.S. The findings indicated that participants from the low-income countries gained three times as much happiness as those from high-income countries. And people who earned $10,000 a year gained twice as much happiness as those making $100,000 annually.
"Ten thousand dollars in certain places around the world can really buy you a lot," said Ryan Dwyer, a co-author of the study, who conducted the research as a Ph.D. student at the University of British Columbia. "Some people spent a lot of the money paying down their mortgage or doing a big renovation on their house."
The study participants did not know what they were signing up for at first: In December 2020, TED invited people on Twitter to apply for a "mystery experiment" that would be "exciting, surprising, somewhat time-consuming, possibly stressful, but possibly also life-changing."
A few months later, a select group got emails telling them they would receive $10,000.
"Typically, people who do win the lottery are happier many, many years later," he said.
Research in 2019 found that big lottery wins increased people’s life satisfaction, and a 2007 study concluded that people who won up to $200,000 from the lottery had better psychological health than people who did not win at all.
The findings contradicted earlier research that suggested winning the lottery did not have much effect on happiness.
Ania Jaroszewicz, a behavioral scientist at Harvard University, said there is still no scientific consensus about whether money can buy happiness. Jaroszewicz oversaw an experiment that gave one-time payments of either $500 or $2,000 to 5,000 low-income people in the U.S. Neither group reported improvements in their financial or psychological well-being up to 15 weeks after they got the money.
“There is a lot of mixed research, and a lot of it does depend on the specifics of how much you’re giving, who you’re giving it to, what measures exactly you’re using and so forth,” she said.
A famous study published in 2010 suggested that emotional well-being improved as incomes got higher for those making up to $75,000 a year. However, a 2020 study found that no such cap existed and that people making $80,000 or more a year reported higher levels of positive feelings and fewer negative feelings as their incomes rose.
Dwyer said it is possible that some of the happiness reported in his study had to do with people's initial excitement and that the feeling "probably decays slowly over time if they’re not receiving any additional income."
That makes it challenging to compare his results to those of experiments with basic income, which have given smaller stipends on a regular basis.
Such pilot programs have largely focused on lower-income, unemployed or unhoused people. For example, a city-led experiment in Stockton, California, gave people $500 monthly stipends. Participants, who had to live in neighborhoods where the median household income was $46,000 or less per year to qualify, reported improvements in their emotional well-being, decreases in anxiety and depression and increases in full-time employment after a year.
In Dwyer's study, incomes ranged from $0 to $400,000 per year, averaging around $54,000. Most participants had bachelor’s degrees or higher.
Jaroszewicz highlighted that in any study of money and happiness, outcomes can also depend on the particular circumstances of people's lives and their expectations.
Some people might mistakenly assume the sum will be life-changing, she said: "Then you get there and you’re like, ‘Oh, actually, I still have all of these problems that are unrelated to money.' Maybe you still have a personal relationship problem or you’re not satisfied at work." | A recent experiment suggests that money can indeed buy happiness — at least for six months, among households making up to $123,000 a year.
A study published Monday in the journal PNAS looked at the effects of giving 200 people a one-time sum of $10,000.
The money, which came from two anonymous wealthy donors, was distributed on PayPal through a partnership with the organization TED.
Participants who got the money were required to spend it all within three months. They recorded how happy they felt on a monthly basis, as did a control group of 100 people who did not get any money. The researchers measured happiness by having people rank how satisfied they were with their lives on a scale of 1 to 7 and how frequently they experienced positive feelings, like happiness, and negative feelings, such as sadness, on a scale of 1 to 5.
The group that got $10,000 reported higher levels of happiness than those who did not after their three months of spending. Then, after three more months had passed, the recipients still reported levels of happiness higher than when the experiment started.
However, people with household incomes above $123,000 did not report noticeable improvements in their happiness.
The participants recorded how they spent their money, but the researchers are still analyzing the data to see whether any types of purchases led to the most happiness.
Those in the study came from three low-income countries — Brazil, Indonesia and Kenya — and four high-income countries: Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom and the U.S. The findings indicated that participants from the low-income countries gained three times as much happiness as those from high-income countries. And people who earned $10,000 a year gained twice as much happiness as those making $100,000 annually.
"Ten thousand dollars in certain places around the world can really buy you a lot," said Ryan Dwyer, a co-author of the study, who conducted the research as a Ph.D. student at the University of British Columbia. "Some people spent a lot of the money paying down their mortgage or doing a big renovation on their house. | yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.trackinghappiness.com/can-happiness-be-bought/ | Can Happiness Be Bought? (Answers, Studies + Examples) | Can Happiness Be Bought? (Answers, Studies + Examples)
We've all heard quotes such as "being rich won't make you happy". Or maybe you've read how poor countries aren't necessarily less happy. This all comes down to the question of whether or not happiness can be bought. Can you buy happiness, and if so, can you make it last?
The short answer is yes, happiness can be bought, but only to a (very) limited extend. Money mostly buys you short-term happiness, while a happy and fulfilled life should also include a healthy amount of long-term happiness. If you can only feel happiness after entering your credit card details, then you got something to work on.
But that's not the complete answer. There are some fundamentals of life that CAN be bought with money. In this article, I’ll discuss what these are using peer-reviewed studies and some clear examples of happiness that can be bought.
Can happiness be bought?
Some happiness can be bought, so yes. But that shouldn't be the main takeaway of this article, since a lot of the happiness that money can buy is fleeting and won't last.
There has been a lot of research on this topic already. Like we usually do here at Tracking Happiness, I'll discuss the existing scientific findings first, before diving into the examples and how this can apply to your situation.
The study found that emotional well-being is positively correlated to income, but the effect diminishes beyond an annual income of ~$75,000.
What can you learn from this data? In my opinion, pretty much nothing, since this doesn't take into account additional factors like money spent, local circumstances, and age.
For example, I don't earn $75,000 per year (I'm not even close), yet I consider myself to be very happy. I've tracked my income and happiness for the last 6 years, and couldn't find any correlation between my increased income and my happiness. It turns out that this study aggregated 450,000 responses to the Gallup survey, basically throwing everything into one big pile.
Now, I'm not saying that the results aren't interesting. I'm just saying that the $75,000 is not a number that you should value, as it doesn't take your personal situation into account.
A much more important finding of the study is clear from the following quote:
Low income is associated both with low life evaluation and low emotional well-being.
This associating can be explained relatively easily. If you don't have money to provide your basic means, then it can be difficult to maintain a happy and healthy life.
Another similar paper - which was also authored by Daniel Kahneman - found the same results, and presented its results quite clearly.
They asked 1,173 individuals the following question:
"Taken all together, how would you say things are these days--would you say that you are very happy, pretty happy, or not too happy?"
The answers were grouped based on different income levels:
Now, these studies only focus on income vs happiness, but a high income doesn't necessarily mean that you actually spend the money. Let's get back to the main question of this article. Can happiness be bought? Are there any studies that have specifically looked at the effect of spending money on happiness?
Can spending money buy you happiness?
After digging quite a bit, I found one study that is relevant to this exact question. According to this study, money can buy a little bit of happiness but only if you spend it on time-saving services. Think lawn-mowing services, meal delivery services, or paying to get your car washed.
However, does that mean that your money buys you happiness directly? Most likely not, according to the study. Instead, spending money on time-saving services results in a lower feeling of stress and more time available to do things that you like. As per the study:
People felt less end-of-day time pressure when they purchased time-saving services, which explained their improved mood that day.
Now, does that mean that money can buy you happiness directly? If you are unhappy right now, can you get happy after tactically spending a bit of money? This study doesn't actually provide a positive answer to this question, since it can only explain an indirect correlation. Money can buy you time, and therefore, you are more relaxed and less pressured, which in turn is correlated to more happiness.
Money can buy happiness directly when you spend it on specific things
Based on years of personal finance data and my happiness journal, I actually tried to answer this question myself.
This resulted in a big personal study on how my expenses influenced my happiness. I charted all my expenses together with my daily happiness ratings, and tried to find correlations. Since I categorize all my expenses, I was able to find out which expense categories provide the biggest correlation.
Spoiler alert: I found the biggest increase in happiness ratings after spending more on holidays and experiences.
This is what I concluded after this study:
I should not feel bad for spending my money on holidays, instruments, running shoes, games or dinners with my girlfriend. Hell no! These expenses make me a happier person.
Conclusion: happiness can be bought if you spend your money wisely
With all the studies that I found while researching this topic, one thing is clear:
The statement that money can't buy happiness is objectively false.
Every research study found a correlation between happiness and spending money (or at least having money available).
Now, the details are a little more nuanced. It's clear that money can buy a bit of happiness, but not magically fix your unhappiness. If you're unhappy today, money won't directly solve your problems.
Also, spending money blindly will also not result in long-term happiness. You need to spend your money on specific things that are correlated to happiness.
What are these things? After researching the topic quite a bit, I found the following,
Things money can buy (sometimes)
There are four important things that money can buy that can actually help you build a life filled with sustainable happiness.
Of course, there are more small things that money can buy that make you happy, but I'll put those things under the category of short-term happiness. The four things money can buy that will help you reach long-term happiness are:
Safety
Stability & assurance
Comfort
Experiences
1. Safety
This one is rather simple. Money buys you a roof above your head, the medicines that you need to stay healthy, and insurance that will pay your hospital bills when shi*t hits the fan.
This is especially true in developing nations, where safety is compromised by crime and conflicts. I experienced this first hand when I worked as an expat in Costa Rica. I worked in Limon, the 2nd largest city with (by far) the highest crime and homicide numbers in the country. I noticed right away that people spend a lot of money on providing safety for their families by means of a metal fence, a sturdy gate and barred windows.
Even though some of the houses looked quite old and unmaintained, nearly every single house still had a tall and shiny metal fence around it. Instead of spending money on luxuries and shiny cars, the Costa Ricans would rather spend it on a reliable fence, just to be safe.
2. Stability & assurance
More often than not, it's the money that we don't spend that brings us happiness. You see, the money that we don't spend can be saved into an emergency fund, or what is sometimes called a "f*ck you fund".
I'm going to be honest here: the first thing I did when I landed my engineering job was to save enough money so that I wouldn't live paycheck to paycheck. After I reached that goal, I continued to save money until I had a decent "emergency fund", something that would last me a couple of months if the hypothetical sh*t starts hitting the fan.
Ironically enough, this is happening at this very moment, as this article will be published during the ramp-up of the COVID19 pandemic.
But why does this emergency fund make me happy? It's not because I like staring at my bank account while imagining myself as Scrooge McDuck. No, this saved-up money makes me happy because it gives me a little bit of freedom and independence. The ability to make my own decisions without being dependent on someone else.
If you live paycheck to paycheck, then you are at risk of losing a lot of the things that make you happy when things go south. That's how having money - by actually not spending it - can make you happier.
3. Comfort
Money can buy comfort, which in turn can help you live a more efficient and healthy life. This indirectly helps you build a life of sustainable happiness.
Now, I'm not talking about that luxury car or that big new 4K television. I'm talking about things that will improve things that are proven to be correlated to your happiness.
For example, my girlfriend and I purchased a high-quality bed when we moved into our first apartment together. It's the most expensive piece of furniture in our apartment, but the benefits are worth much more. Sleep is extremely important and even correlated to my actual happiness. So spending money on a bed made perfect sense to us.
Some other examples:
Better cooking utensils.
Proper shoes, especially if you're an athlete or walk a lot.
Office chairs.
Healthy food.
Things that allow you to be more efficient at your job (a faster laptop, in my case)
etc
Yes, you can theoretically live without these things. But having these things will most likely enable you to live a happier life.
4. Experiences
When I was 20-years old, I went skydiving for the first time. I was on the South Island of New Zealand at the time, and I had to dig deep into my wallet to find the money. However, it was money very well spend. It might have cost me over $500, but my happiness was directly improved as a result of this experience.
That's me, falling in style!
In fact, I still experience increased happiness when I think back to this experience sometimes. Two weeks ago, I was sitting behind my laptop during a long day at the office and decided to rewatch the footage of this skydive, and I couldn't help but smile.
It's obvious to me that this $500 bought me happiness back then, and the experience of having skydived still makes me happy to this day.
When I shared my personal research on the effect of spending money on happiness, I received the following comment:
Looking at the few hotspots you have highlighted, I would say you are happier when you are buying memories and experiences, less when buying objects.
If you want to find a way to spend money in order to be happier, try to buy memories and experiences.
Money can buy short-term happiness
The four things we discussed in the previous chapter are all focusing on sustainable and long-term happiness.
Now, there are a lot of other things money can buy that might bring joy into your life. But a lot of these things are fleeting and only result in short-term happiness (a quick "fix" of happiness).
Think of things like:
A night at the bar
Drugs
Going to the movies
Netflix & chill
Buying a new videogame
Etc
These things can all make you happy, but will you remember these things in a week? If you spend an entire week enjoying yourself with an addicting videogame, will you remember that week as a happy week?
Most likely not.
💡 By the way: If you want to start feeling better and more productive, I've condensed the information of 100's of our articles into a 10-step mental health cheat sheet here. 👇
This Cheat Sheet Will Help You Be Happier and More Productive
Thrive under stress and crush your goals with these 10 unique tips for your mental health.
Closing words
Yes, but make sure to not just spend it on things that only bring short-term happiness. That's certainly not a good method to deal with unhappiness. Instead, try to work on other things that are lacking in your life: things that help you live a long and sustainably happy life.
Do you want to share your own stories on how you bought happiness in your life once? Do you disagree with some of the things that I wrote in this article? Did I miss an awesome tip that you used to buy happiness once? I'd love to hear in the comments below!
Hugo Huijer Founder of Tracking Happiness
Hi! I'm from the Netherlands, love skateboarding, ran 5 marathons, with one of them in under 4 hours (3:59:58 to be exact). I consider myself to be a data junkie and have tracked my happiness for over 10 years. | Can Happiness Be Bought? (Answers, Studies + Examples)
We've all heard quotes such as "being rich won't make you happy". Or maybe you've read how poor countries aren't necessarily less happy. This all comes down to the question of whether or not happiness can be bought. Can you buy happiness, and if so, can you make it last?
The short answer is yes, happiness can be bought, but only to a (very) limited extend. Money mostly buys you short-term happiness, while a happy and fulfilled life should also include a healthy amount of long-term happiness. If you can only feel happiness after entering your credit card details, then you got something to work on.
But that's not the complete answer. There are some fundamentals of life that CAN be bought with money. In this article, I’ll discuss what these are using peer-reviewed studies and some clear examples of happiness that can be bought.
Can happiness be bought?
Some happiness can be bought, so yes. But that shouldn't be the main takeaway of this article, since a lot of the happiness that money can buy is fleeting and won't last.
There has been a lot of research on this topic already. Like we usually do here at Tracking Happiness, I'll discuss the existing scientific findings first, before diving into the examples and how this can apply to your situation.
The study found that emotional well-being is positively correlated to income, but the effect diminishes beyond an annual income of ~$75,000.
What can you learn from this data? In my opinion, pretty much nothing, since this doesn't take into account additional factors like money spent, local circumstances, and age.
For example, I don't earn $75,000 per year (I'm not even close), yet I consider myself to be very happy. I've tracked my income and happiness for the last 6 years, and couldn't find any correlation between my increased income and my happiness. It turns out that this study aggregated 450,000 responses to the Gallup survey, basically throwing everything into one big pile.
Now, I'm not saying that the results aren't interesting. | yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu/article/does-money-buy-happiness-heres-what-the-research-says/ | Does Money Buy Happiness? Here's What the Research Says ... | Does Money Buy Happiness? Here’s What the Research Says
March 28, 2023 • 5 min read
Reconciling previously contradictory results, researchers from Wharton and Princeton find a steady association between larger incomes and greater happiness for most people but a rise and plateau for an unhappy minority.
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Are people who earn more money happier in daily life? Though it seems like a straightforward question, research had previously returned contradictory findings, leaving uncertainty about its answer.
Foundational work published in 2010 from Princeton University’s Daniel Kahneman and Angus Deaton had found that day-to-day happiness rose as annual income increased, but above $75,000 it leveled off and happiness plateaued. In contrast, work published in 2021 from the University of Pennsylvania’s Matthew Killingsworth found that happiness rose steadily with income well beyond $75,000, without evidence of a plateau.
To reconcile the differences, Kahneman and Killingsworth paired up in what’s known as an adversarial collaboration, joining forces with Penn Integrates Knowledge University Professor Barbara Mellers as arbiter. In a new Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences paper, the trio shows that, on average, larger incomes are associated with ever-increasing levels of happiness. Zoom in, however, and the relationship becomes more complex, revealing that within that overall trend, an unhappy cohort in each income group shows a sharp rise in happiness up to $100,000 annually and then plateaus.
“In the simplest terms, this suggests that for most people larger incomes are associated with greater happiness,” says Killingsworth, a senior fellow at Wharton and lead paper author. “The exception is people who are financially well-off but unhappy. For instance, if you’re rich and miserable, more money won’t help. For everyone else, more money was associated with higher happiness to somewhat varying degrees.”
Mellers digs into this last notion, noting that emotional well-being and income aren’t connected by a single relationship. “The function differs for people with different levels of emotional well-being,” she says. Specifically, for the least happy group, happiness rises with income until $100,000, then shows no further increase as income grows. For those in the middle range of emotional well-being, happiness increases linearly with income, and for the happiest group the association actually accelerates above $100,000.
Joining Forces
The researchers began this combined effort recognizing that their previous work had drawn different conclusions. Kahneman’s 2010 study showed a flattening pattern where Killingsworth’s 2021 study did not. As its name suggests, an adversarial collaboration of this type — a notion originated by Kahneman — aims to solve scientific disputes or disagreements by bringing together the differing parties, along with a third-party mediator.
Killingsworth, Kahneman, and Mellers focused on a new hypothesis that both a happy majority and an unhappy minority exist. For the former, they surmised, happiness keeps rising as more money comes in; the latter’s happiness improves as income rises but only up to a certain income threshold, after which it progresses no further.
To test this new hypothesis, they looked for the flattening pattern in data from Killingworth’s study, which he had collected through an app he created called Track Your Happiness. Several times a day, the app pings participants at random moments, asking a variety of questions including how they feel on a scale from “very good” to “very bad.” Taking an average of the person’s happiness and income, Killingsworth draws conclusions about how the two variables are linked.
A breakthrough in the new partnership came early on when the researchers realized that the 2010 data, which had revealed the happiness plateau, had actually been measuring unhappiness in particular rather than happiness in general.
“It’s easiest to understand with an example,” Killingsworth says. Imagine a cognitive test for dementia that most healthy people pass easily. While such a test could detect the presence and severity of cognitive dysfunction, it wouldn’t reveal much about general intelligence since most healthy people would receive the same perfect score.
“In the same way, the 2010 data showing a plateau in happiness had mostly perfect scores, so it tells us about the trend in the unhappy end of the happiness distribution, rather than the trend of happiness in general. Once you recognize that, the two seemingly contradictory findings aren’t necessarily incompatible,” Killingsworth says. “And what we found bore out that possibility in an incredibly beautiful way. When we looked at the happiness trend for unhappy people in the 2021 data, we found exactly the same pattern as was found in 2010; happiness rises relatively steeply with income and then plateaus.”
“The two findings that seemed utterly contradictory actually result from data that are amazingly consistent,” he says.
Implications of This Work
Drawing these conclusions would have been challenging had the two research teams not come together, says Mellers, who suggests there’s no better way than adversarial collaborations to resolve scientific conflict.
“This kind of collaboration requires far greater self-discipline and precision in thought than the standard procedure,” she says. “Collaborating with an adversary — or even a non-adversary — is not easy, but both parties are likelier to recognize the limits of their claims.” Indeed, that’s what happened, leading to a better understanding of the relationship between money and happiness.
And these findings have real-world implications, according to Killingsworth. For one, they could inform thinking about tax rates or how to compensate employees. And, of course, they matter to individuals as they navigate career choices or weigh a larger income against other priorities in life, Killingsworth says.
However, he adds that for emotional well-being money isn’t the be all end all. “Money is just one of the many determinants of happiness,” he says. “Money is not the secret to happiness, but it can probably help a bit.” | Does Money Buy Happiness? Here’s What the Research Says
March 28, 2023 • 5 min read
Reconciling previously contradictory results, researchers from Wharton and Princeton find a steady association between larger incomes and greater happiness for most people but a rise and plateau for an unhappy minority.
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Are people who earn more money happier in daily life? Though it seems like a straightforward question, research had previously returned contradictory findings, leaving uncertainty about its answer.
Foundational work published in 2010 from Princeton University’s Daniel Kahneman and Angus Deaton had found that day-to-day happiness rose as annual income increased, but above $75,000 it leveled off and happiness plateaued. In contrast, work published in 2021 from the University of Pennsylvania’s Matthew Killingsworth found that happiness rose steadily with income well beyond $75,000, without evidence of a plateau.
To reconcile the differences, Kahneman and Killingsworth paired up in what’s known as an adversarial collaboration, joining forces with Penn Integrates Knowledge University Professor Barbara Mellers as arbiter. In a new Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences paper, the trio shows that, on average, larger incomes are associated with ever-increasing levels of happiness. Zoom in, however, and the relationship becomes more complex, revealing that within that overall trend, an unhappy cohort in each income group shows a sharp rise in happiness up to $100,000 annually and then plateaus.
“In the simplest terms, this suggests that for most people larger incomes are associated with greater happiness,” says Killingsworth, a senior fellow at Wharton and lead paper author. “The exception is people who are financially well-off but unhappy. For instance, if you’re rich and miserable, more money won’t help. For everyone else, more money was associated with higher happiness to somewhat varying degrees.”
Mellers digs into this last notion, noting that emotional well-being and income aren’t connected by a single relationship. | yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/28/health/money-happiness-wellness/index.html | It turns out money may buy some happiness | CNN | So, what made me think that trapeze could help me determine whether money can buy happiness?
It was something I learned as I recorded the latest episode of my podcast, “Margins of Error.” I went to some different sources to determine whether money can buy happiness.
First, I went to my friend Clara, who grew up without a lot of it. “Money cannot buy happiness,” she told me, “but money can solve a lot of our problems and troubles.”
I also looked at a 2010 Princeton University study that was once the final word on the subject, which indicated money can help make you happier but not beyond an income of $75,000.
Then came a 2021 study from Matthew Killingsworth, a senior fellow at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.
Killingsworth gathered data over a seven-year period in real time from tens of thousands of people across a wide range of incomes – from folks earning minimum wage to those making more than $500,000 a year. He asked people to rate their level of happiness on a continuous scale.
The steps Killingsworth took made his experiment different from others before him, including the earlier Princeton study. He found that your day-to-day happiness levels do rise when you earn more money. This may come as a surprise to you given one study found that only one-fifth of Americans believe money can buy happiness.
Unlike the Princeton researchers, Killingsworth discovered that money correlated with happiness no matter what your income levels.
“Each dollar buys a little bit less happiness,” he noted. “So if someone earning $20,000 a year gets a 10% raise, someone earning $200,000 gets a 10% raise, these data predict that that will deliver the same increment in happiness.”
In other words, getting an extra $100 means more to someone making $20,000 than $200,000 because it’s a higher percentage of that person’s income.
Also of note, there’s a difference between day-to-day happiness and overall life satisfaction – the latter of which sees a sharp upswing once you cross the poverty line.
Killingsworth does caution against spending all your time trying to earn more money. People who “defined their personal success in terms of money, they tended on average to be less happy,” he told me. “You want to have it, but you want to not care too much about it.”
He led me to Elizabeth Dunn, a psychology professor at the University of British Columbia and the chief science officer at Happy Money, a financial technology company that helps people acquire personal loans.
I wanted her to help me figure out how we can squeeze the most happiness out of the money we’re already making, so we can obsess a little bit less about making more. Her first piece of advice is the reason I decided to do the trapeze. She told me that we should be buying experiences instead of objects.
Dunn’s research indicates “experiences often connect us with other people that we care about. So if you’re going on a trip or going out for a special meal, usually it’s not going to be by yourself and … it’s going to help to enrich your relationships.”
But perhaps more instrumental as to why I did the trapeze, Dunn noted that “experiences seem to be more deeply connected to our sense of self.” When people look back on their spending on experiences, “they tend to feel that this is really more about who they are.”
Did buying an experience instead of an object get me to a greater happiness level? Yes, it actually did, even though I hate heights.
I’ve watched the video of me on the trapeze a number of times. I’ve shared that clip with some of my friends, and I’ve told the story of flying through the air to many.
It’s really a gift that keeps on giving. I didn’t just buy an experience; I bought a story I could share over and over. I think the trapeze experience has gotten better the further I am from it. There’s a real sense of nostalgia, even though it was only a few weeks ago.
So how can you get the most amount of the money you already make beyond just buying experience? Dunn has a bunch of other tips, but you’ll have to tune in to the podcast to hear them. | So, what made me think that trapeze could help me determine whether money can buy happiness?
It was something I learned as I recorded the latest episode of my podcast, “Margins of Error.” I went to some different sources to determine whether money can buy happiness.
First, I went to my friend Clara, who grew up without a lot of it. “Money cannot buy happiness,” she told me, “but money can solve a lot of our problems and troubles.”
I also looked at a 2010 Princeton University study that was once the final word on the subject, which indicated money can help make you happier but not beyond an income of $75,000.
Then came a 2021 study from Matthew Killingsworth, a senior fellow at the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania.
Killingsworth gathered data over a seven-year period in real time from tens of thousands of people across a wide range of incomes – from folks earning minimum wage to those making more than $500,000 a year. He asked people to rate their level of happiness on a continuous scale.
The steps Killingsworth took made his experiment different from others before him, including the earlier Princeton study. He found that your day-to-day happiness levels do rise when you earn more money. This may come as a surprise to you given one study found that only one-fifth of Americans believe money can buy happiness.
Unlike the Princeton researchers, Killingsworth discovered that money correlated with happiness no matter what your income levels.
“Each dollar buys a little bit less happiness,” he noted. “So if someone earning $20,000 a year gets a 10% raise, someone earning $200,000 gets a 10% raise, these data predict that that will deliver the same increment in happiness.”
In other words, getting an extra $100 means more to someone making $20,000 than $200,000 because it’s a higher percentage of that person’s income.
Also of note, there’s a difference between day-to-day happiness and overall life satisfaction – the latter of which sees a sharp upswing once you cross the poverty line.
| yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://propertyupdate.com.au/6-reasons-money-can-buy-happiness/ | 6 Reasons Why Money Can Buy Happiness | While it's sometimes the case that money can make people with "challenging" behaviours even more so, generally speaking, having enough money for the basic necessities of life as well as your wants and needs usually means a happier life.
Now I'm not saying that money will solve all your problems, but any problem money can solve isn't really a problem when you have money.
While there's plenty of research out there on whether money does indeed buy happiness, there is evidence on both sides of the equation.
Note: The secret is, though, it seems that true happiness can also come from deep personal connections and life experiences rather than material goods.
But there's also information showing that people on the lowest end of the income scale are vulnerable to depression and other mental health problems.
So, here's a look at some of the research indicating that money does indeed play a role in making people happier.
1. Your children's brains will benefit
There's a growing body of evidence supporting the idea that growing up in poverty can have a long-term impact on children's cognitive development.
In the most extreme cases, children who have to endure something called "toxic stress" are shown to actually have chemically altered their brains.
2. You're less likely to experience depression
A 2012 report from Gallup revealed that people in poverty are more likely to suffer from health problems, with depression being the most common.
About 31 per cent of poor people said they have been diagnosed with depression at some point, compared to about 15.8 per cent (half as many!) for those not in poverty.
3. You can savour life
When you have money, you don't need to focus as much attention on acquiring it in order to meet your basic needs.
This frees up your mind to actually savour the experiences of life, according to an article in Scientific American.
The article concluded that:
A person's ability to savour experiences predicts their degree of happiness.
Also, birds of a feather flock together, so many happy people associate with other happy people.
In the study, researchers gave money to students to spend on either themselves or others by the end of the day.
What the researchers found was that people who had been assigned to spend the money on someone else reported feeling a happier mood over the course of the day than those assigned to spend the money on themselves.
4. Money can buy valuable experiences
But paying for experiences offers a good bang for your buck when it comes to happiness, according to the book Stumbling on Happiness.
Whether it's swimming with dolphins off the coast of Western Australian or hang-gliding on the Sunshine Coast, experiences do cost money.
5. You can spend money on others
When you barely have enough to support yourself, you're probably not thinking about giving back to others.
But being generous with your money is a path to happiness, according to the Harvard study Using Money to Benefit Others Pays Off.
In the study, researchers gave money to students to spend on either themselves or others by the end of the day.
What the researchers found was that people who had been assigned to spend the money on someone else reported feeling a happier mood over the course of the day than those assigned to spend the money on themselves.
6. You're less likely to be lonely
A 2011 study in the Journal of Consumer Psychology concluded that people with meaningful social connections are generally happiest.
And there is other evidence showing that people with less money are more likely to be lonely.
The Guardian reported in 2014 that "poor social networks should be included as a contributor to and signal of poverty."
About Michael YardneyMichael is a director of Metropole Property Strategists who help their clients grow, protect and pass on their wealth through independent, unbiased property advice and advocacy. He's once again been voted Australia's leading property investment adviser and one of Australia's 50 most influential Thought Leaders. His opinions are regularly featured in the media.
YOu get better bud?… You are right.. It will make you feel happy ? right.. and Do you think all time. .. lets take it yes… Money brings not only means to yourself and making u happy.. It also works as satisfying basic need of others If you have it and if u have it more , you would see , how does it make difference, and giving others would ultimately make you happy and Money is also there to buy a happiness on ur closest ones when U park them in some great experiences and surprises….
PropertyUpdate.com.au is Australia's leading property investment wealth creation website with tips, advice and strategies from leading real estate investment experts. Featuring topics like property investment, property development (helping you understand the process), negative gearing and finance (so you can borrow more from the banks), property tax (allowing you to structure for legal tax deductions and asset protections), negotiation, property management (assisting landlords and tenants understand their right responsibilities), commercial property (for experienced property investment individuals), personal development and the psychology of property investment success. | While it's sometimes the case that money can make people with "challenging" behaviours even more so, generally speaking, having enough money for the basic necessities of life as well as your wants and needs usually means a happier life.
Now I'm not saying that money will solve all your problems, but any problem money can solve isn't really a problem when you have money.
While there's plenty of research out there on whether money does indeed buy happiness, there is evidence on both sides of the equation.
Note: The secret is, though, it seems that true happiness can also come from deep personal connections and life experiences rather than material goods.
But there's also information showing that people on the lowest end of the income scale are vulnerable to depression and other mental health problems.
So, here's a look at some of the research indicating that money does indeed play a role in making people happier.
1. Your children's brains will benefit
There's a growing body of evidence supporting the idea that growing up in poverty can have a long-term impact on children's cognitive development.
In the most extreme cases, children who have to endure something called "toxic stress" are shown to actually have chemically altered their brains.
2. You're less likely to experience depression
A 2012 report from Gallup revealed that people in poverty are more likely to suffer from health problems, with depression being the most common.
About 31 per cent of poor people said they have been diagnosed with depression at some point, compared to about 15.8 per cent (half as many!) for those not in poverty.
3. You can savour life
When you have money, you don't need to focus as much attention on acquiring it in order to meet your basic needs.
This frees up your mind to actually savour the experiences of life, according to an article in Scientific American.
The article concluded that:
A person's ability to savour experiences predicts their degree of happiness.
Also, birds of a feather flock together, so many happy people associate with other happy people.
In the study, researchers gave money to students to spend on either themselves or others by the end of the day.
| yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.healthline.com/health/can-money-buy-happiness | Can Money Buy Happiness? Here's What Researchers Say | Things that bring you happiness can be said to have intrinsic value. This means they’re valuable to you but don’t necessarily represent a standard value for happiness to others.
Money, on the other hand, has extrinsic value. This means that others recognize money has real-world value, too, and will (generally) accept it.
For example, you may find pleasure in the smell of lavender, but someone else might find it less appealing. Each of you assigns a different intrinsic value to the scent of lavender.
You can’t literally buy happiness at a store. But when money is used in certain ways, such as purchasing things that bring you happiness, you can use it to add intrinsic value to your life.
So, if the smell of lavender brings you joy, you could use money to buy it in various forms and keep it around your home or office. That, in turn, may increase your happiness. In this example, you’re using money to indirectly bring you happiness.
This can apply to numerous situations. But, while the things you buy may bring short-term happiness, they may not always lead to long-term or lasting happiness.
Here are some further arguments for and against money buying happiness.
A 2018 study looked at what would happen over time if women in poverty-stricken households in Zambia were given regular cash transfers with no strings attached.
The most notable finding was that, over a 48-month period, many women had a much higher sense of emotional well-being and satisfaction about their health, for both themselves and their children.
A 2010 study based on a Gallup poll of more than 450,000 respondents suggests that making an income up to $75,000 a year may make you feel more satisfied with your life. This survey only looked at people in the United States.
Another Gallup poll from 2017 surveyed people from around the world and resulted in similar findings. According to survey results, emotional well-being may be reached when a person earns between $60,000 and $75,000. Satiation may occur when a person earns around $95,000.
Culture may affect this threshold. Depending on your culture, you may find happiness in different things than someone with different cultural values.
These studies and surveys suggest that money may help buy happiness when used to meet basic needs.
Access to healthcare, nutritious foods, and a home where you feel safe can improve mental and physical health and may, in some cases, lead to increased happiness.
Once basic needs are met, however, the happiness a person can gain from money may grow stagnant.
Buying “experiences” and helping others can lead to happiness. And there’s some actual research behind this.
Results from a survey of research on this topic suggest that spending money on experiences rather than tangible goods and giving to others with no thought of reward results in the greatest feelings of happiness.
This could take the form of going to a concert instead of buying a new TV, or buying someone you love a thoughtful gift rather than indulging yourself in an impulse buy.
And here’s another thing to think about: An extensive 2015 survey of literature about emotions and decision making found that your subjective judgement of the value of something has a lot to do with how you feel about the outcome. The authors called this the appraisal-tendency framework (ATF).
For example, if you’re afraid of your house being broken into, buying a state-of-the-art home security system may reduce your level of fear, which can then improve your happiness or emotional well-being.
In this case, your happiness is linked to your subjective experience of fear.
Money is unlikely to buy happiness, but it may help you achieve happiness to an extent. Look for purchases that will help you feel fulfilled.
And beyond that, you can find happiness through other nonfinancial means, like spending time with people you enjoy or thinking about the good things in your life.
Last medically reviewed on October 29, 2019
How we reviewed this article:
Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. We avoid using tertiary references. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. |
Here are some further arguments for and against money buying happiness.
A 2018 study looked at what would happen over time if women in poverty-stricken households in Zambia were given regular cash transfers with no strings attached.
The most notable finding was that, over a 48-month period, many women had a much higher sense of emotional well-being and satisfaction about their health, for both themselves and their children.
A 2010 study based on a Gallup poll of more than 450,000 respondents suggests that making an income up to $75,000 a year may make you feel more satisfied with your life. This survey only looked at people in the United States.
Another Gallup poll from 2017 surveyed people from around the world and resulted in similar findings. According to survey results, emotional well-being may be reached when a person earns between $60,000 and $75,000. Satiation may occur when a person earns around $95,000.
Culture may affect this threshold. Depending on your culture, you may find happiness in different things than someone with different cultural values.
These studies and surveys suggest that money may help buy happiness when used to meet basic needs.
Access to healthcare, nutritious foods, and a home where you feel safe can improve mental and physical health and may, in some cases, lead to increased happiness.
Once basic needs are met, however, the happiness a person can gain from money may grow stagnant.
Buying “experiences” and helping others can lead to happiness. And there’s some actual research behind this.
Results from a survey of research on this topic suggest that spending money on experiences rather than tangible goods and giving to others with no thought of reward results in the greatest feelings of happiness.
This could take the form of going to a concert instead of buying a new TV, or buying someone you love a thoughtful gift rather than indulging yourself in an impulse buy.
| yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.marcuslemonis.com/life-skills/money-cant-buy-happiness | Compelling Reasons Why Money Can't Buy Happiness | Reasons Why Money Can’t Buy Happiness
The Controversy
“Money Can’t Buy Happiness” is an adage that some people live by and others ignore. The saying means that true happiness comes from within, not from possessions that can be bought. Beyond the ability to pay your bills, happiness is a state of mind that is short-lived when you base it on physical objects and the numbers in an investment portfolio. To borrow a quote from the movie Forrest Gump, “There’s only so much money a man really needs, the rest is just for showing off.”
People suffering from poverty scoff at the concept that money can’t buy happiness. The American Psychological Association published an article about research conducted by Robert Kenny, EdD. Wealthy people he interviewed admitted they loved having a lot of money and understand they are fortunate, but sometimes having a lot of money means isolation, loss of friendships to get you through difficult times and struggling with the same parenting issues as everyone else. “If their kids have access to a lot of money, and therefore a lot of drugs, that hurts just as much as if they don’t have any money and their kids are doing drugs. It doesn’t save you from any of that.”
Can Money Buy Happiness?
To answer this question, look around your home at all the things you bought that excited you at the time but now may feel more like clutter. Do you ever look at those things and think, “I am so glad I bought that because now I am happy.” On the other hand, when you look at photos of trips you have taken, nature that inspired you, family and friends, and people who captured your heart in different ways, it probably fills you with a sense of joy. Material goods can’t compete with that.
Five Reasons Why Money Can’t Buy Happiness
Money and trinkets may provide temporary joy but not true happiness. Here are five reasons why happiness derived from money is not everlasting:
1. You Will Never Be Satisfied.
Once you allow money to become your source of happiness, you will never be satisfied. You will always want more because that shiny, new thing will become old and used one day. With technology introducing new products at lightning speed, there will always be a carrot dangling for you to reach for
2. Money Can't Buy True Friends.
Although it may seem like the wealthy are surrounded by an extensive and devoted entourage, oftentimes those “friends” tend to fade away if the money diminishes or someone more affluent and influential arrives on the scene.
3. Happiness is Doing What You Love.
Happiness comes from doing the things you love, not from your bank account balance. As for the passions that require money, such as travel and sporting adventures, budgeting and prioritizing will enable you to spend money on what is important to you.
4. Money Can't Buy Time.
Rather than wasting time to shop and buy, spend your time doing what you love to do.
5. Saving is Important, but Don't Forget to Enjoy Life.
Experiencing and savoring special moments can fill your heart in a way that money cannot.
Money Does Buy Some Happiness
Of course, we still need to pay our bills and save for the future. Money buys peace of mind when we are able to live within our budget and save for the future. In the present, you will sleep better knowing you have some money in reserve in the event of an emergency. Looking into the future, you will be happy knowing you have built up enough of a nest egg to enable you to retire and live independently for as long as possible.
Money is necessary to invest in a business, but so is the passion that makes you happy. When you can identify what truly makes you happy and build your business around your passion, you increase the chances your business will be a success. As Marcus has said, “I’m a big believer that if you’re happy and your employees are happy, your customers are going to be happy. If you’re unhappy and your employees are unhappy, there’s no way your customers are going to be happy.”
Basic Necessities are Important
We often find ourselves saying, “I need this,” or “I need that.” With ads in our face all the time, telling us what we need, sometimes it is hard to distinguish between what we need and what we want. We need to pay for our housing, utilities, food, transportation and, of course, taxes. Just about everything else is nonessential. Make sure you have money for basic necessities. Reserve funds for things that fuel your passion, but think in the long term. The latest cell phone model and luxury car may tempt you, but think bigger than that. Start by understanding your true self and values.
Tips on How to Find Happiness Outside of Money
Here are a few ideas to discover happiness that does not require financial wealth:
1. Search for a Cause that Resonates with You.
This can be giving your time rather than a monetary donation. To identify such a cause, theForbes Nonprofit Council encourages thinking about your values, what gives you a sense of fulfillment, what you want to impact, your skill set and what skills or experiences you want to gain.
2. Find Happiness Within Yourself and Where You are Today.
What are you grateful for? What investments would you like to deposit in your memory bank to build on for the rest of your life?
3. Avoid Comparing Yourself to Others, Known as the "Keeping Up with the Joneses" Mentality.
Appearances are deceiving. As mentioned earlier, wealth is not a sign of happiness.
4. If You Constantly Worry About Money, Take the Pressure Off Yourself by Maintaining a Budget that Makes You Comfortable with Where You Are Now.
Keep a record of your monthly expenses, and consider adjustments if the differential between your total monthly expense and net
What Does Happiness Mean to You?
The next time you see an ad for something you didn’t know you needed but now can’t imagine living without, take a deep breath, count to 10, and think about where your happiness really comes from. Call a friend, take a nature hike, or read a great novel. Then reconsider whether buying that item will really make you happy. If it does, by all means – go for it! But if it’s just a passing whim, you may want to save that money for a rainy day.
MARCUS’ CLOSING QUESTIONS
Do you currently do anything to help you feel more empowered in your day to day life?
What tips from above do you think will help you feel empowered the most? | Reasons Why Money Can’t Buy Happiness
The Controversy
“Money Can’t Buy Happiness” is an adage that some people live by and others ignore. The saying means that true happiness comes from within, not from possessions that can be bought. Beyond the ability to pay your bills, happiness is a state of mind that is short-lived when you base it on physical objects and the numbers in an investment portfolio. To borrow a quote from the movie Forrest Gump, “There’s only so much money a man really needs, the rest is just for showing off.”
People suffering from poverty scoff at the concept that money can’t buy happiness. The American Psychological Association published an article about research conducted by Robert Kenny, EdD. Wealthy people he interviewed admitted they loved having a lot of money and understand they are fortunate, but sometimes having a lot of money means isolation, loss of friendships to get you through difficult times and struggling with the same parenting issues as everyone else. “If their kids have access to a lot of money, and therefore a lot of drugs, that hurts just as much as if they don’t have any money and their kids are doing drugs. It doesn’t save you from any of that.”
Can Money Buy Happiness?
To answer this question, look around your home at all the things you bought that excited you at the time but now may feel more like clutter. Do you ever look at those things and think, “I am so glad I bought that because now I am happy.” On the other hand, when you look at photos of trips you have taken, nature that inspired you, family and friends, and people who captured your heart in different ways, it probably fills you with a sense of joy. Material goods can’t compete with that.
Five Reasons Why Money Can’t Buy Happiness
Money and trinkets may provide temporary joy but not true happiness. Here are five reasons why happiness derived from money is not everlasting:
1. You Will Never Be Satisfied.
Once you allow money to become your source of happiness, you will never be satisfied. You will always want more because that shiny, new thing will become old and used one day. | no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.alliantcreditunion.org/money-mentor/does-money-buy-happiness | Can Money Buy Happiness? Find Out | Alliant | Yes! Money actually buys happiness, but it depends how you use it
May 11, 2022
Yes! Money actually buys happiness, but it depends how you use it
It’s one of those questions that has been pondered for years: Can money buy happiness?
The answer: yes, but it’s not that simple. The life satisfaction and joy that comes from money are dependent on many factors. Don’t worry, there’s a ton of happiness research on the topic. Let’s look at when money can make you happier, when it can’t boost your self-esteem, and how you can squeeze the most joy out of your dollar.
Money buys happiness when it increases your quality of life
Your income can impact your happiness levels, according to research. However, after a certain point, an increase in salary has little impact on your happiness.
It’s not surprising to hear that researchers at Michigan State University found that poverty makes people unhappy.1 For our income to make us happy, we need to have enough money to secure our basic needs of food, shelter, bills and any debt we have.
The exact yearly income for full life satisfaction depends on where you live, the number of people in your household and how you define happiness. That’s why there are many conflicting studies about the topic. Research at Purdue University found that globally, life satisfaction does not increase after $95,000.2
Most of the research finds that after a certain amount of money, happiness no longer increases. Pay raises only make us slightly happier temporarily, and we can fall into the trap of trying to “keep up with the Joneses” with our disposable income.
How you spend money increases your happiness
Michael Norton, associate professor at Harvard Business School, has done extensive research on the topic of happiness and money. He has found that money can buy happiness—if you’re spending it right. Norton found that people who gave their money away or spent it on others were happier than those who spent money on themselves.3
He also found that people who spent money on group activities were happier than people who spent money only on themselves. The group as a whole also reported feeling closer to each other—and close relationships make us feel good.3
Still not convinced? Michigan State University found something very similar in one of their recent studies. People that spent money on experiences were happier than people who spent their money on material objects.1 They concluded that part of the reason experiences created happiness is that they’re harder to compare and the memory of the experience creates lasting happiness.
So, if you want your money to bring you happiness, spend it on someone else, spend it with someone else, spend money on experiences, or give it to charity.
How much you save has an impact on your happiness
What would you do if your car broke down tomorrow? If you have an emergency fund, you could have enough for a down payment on a new car. If you don’t have something in savings, the stress and anxiety that comes with figuring out your next financial move could make you unhappy.
Money is just one piece of the puzzle
Research shows that, for the most part, the amount of money you make will not make you happier. It’s actually your relationship with money that will help determine how happy you are. The good news is, you have a say in that relationship.
When we reflect on what we have in our life instead of what we don’t, we are happier. This concept comes from a ton of research on scarcity. Our perception of having less of something than others has a big impact on our happiness, even it’s just our perception.4 So, when we think of all the great things we have in our lives, we could increase our happiness without increasing our wealth.
“While it’s true that having more money doesn’t usually make us less happy, it’s also true that simply having more money doesn’t guarantee happiness,” Norton says. “People should stop thinking exclusively about how to get more money, and instead focus more on whether they are getting the most happiness out of the money they already have.”
Want to learn more on how to save and spend money better? Check out these articles:
Katie Levene is a marketer fascinated with finance. Whether the topic is about the psychology of money, investment strategies or simply how to spend better, Katie enjoys diving in and sharing all the details with family, friends and Money Mentor readers. Money management needs to be simplified and Katie hopes she accomplishes that for our readers. The saying goes, "Knowledge is Power", and she hopes you feel empowered after reading Money Mentor.
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You are leaving an Alliant Credit Union website and are about to enter a website operated by a third-party, independent from Alliant Credit Union. Alliant Credit Union does not manage the operation or content of the website you are about to enter. Alliant Credit Union is not responsible for the content and does not provide any products or services at this third-party website. The privacy and security policies of the site may differ from those of Alliant Credit Union.
You are leaving an Alliant Credit Union website and are about to enter a website operated by a third-party, independent from Alliant Credit Union. Alliant Credit Union does not manage the operation or content of the website you are about to enter. Alliant Credit Union is not responsible for the content and does not provide any products or services at this third-party website. The privacy and security policies of the site may differ from those of Alliant Credit Union. | Yes! Money actually buys happiness, but it depends how you use it
May 11, 2022
Yes! Money actually buys happiness, but it depends how you use it
It’s one of those questions that has been pondered for years: Can money buy happiness?
The answer: yes, but it’s not that simple. The life satisfaction and joy that comes from money are dependent on many factors. Don’t worry, there’s a ton of happiness research on the topic. Let’s look at when money can make you happier, when it can’t boost your self-esteem, and how you can squeeze the most joy out of your dollar.
Money buys happiness when it increases your quality of life
Your income can impact your happiness levels, according to research. However, after a certain point, an increase in salary has little impact on your happiness.
It’s not surprising to hear that researchers at Michigan State University found that poverty makes people unhappy.1 For our income to make us happy, we need to have enough money to secure our basic needs of food, shelter, bills and any debt we have.
The exact yearly income for full life satisfaction depends on where you live, the number of people in your household and how you define happiness. That’s why there are many conflicting studies about the topic. Research at Purdue University found that globally, life satisfaction does not increase after $95,000.2
Most of the research finds that after a certain amount of money, happiness no longer increases. Pay raises only make us slightly happier temporarily, and we can fall into the trap of trying to “keep up with the Joneses” with our disposable income.
How you spend money increases your happiness
Michael Norton, associate professor at Harvard Business School, has done extensive research on the topic of happiness and money. He has found that money can buy happiness—if you’re spending it right. Norton found that people who gave their money away or spent it on others were happier than those who spent money on themselves.3
He also found that people who spent money on group activities were happier than people who spent money only on themselves. | yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/22/wharton-psychologist-why-money-actually-can-buy-you-happiness.html | Wharton psychologist: Why money actually can buy you happiness | Wharton psychologist: Why making more than $75,000 a year actually can buy you happiness
Money actually can buy you happiness— if you make enough of it annually.
That's according to Matthew Killingsworth, a senior psychology fellow at The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, whose research finds that people with high salaries often report higher levels of day-to-day and overall life fulfillment. That may seem unsurprising, but previous research found that the positive correlation between annual salary and everyday happiness tapered off around $75,000 per year.
Killingsworth says that old finding is wrong: Instead, he asserted in a paper last year, the correlation doesn't appear to ever plateau.
"What I find is that [the correlation] basically rises steadily in a slightly complicated way ... proportional changes have an equal effect," Killingsworth tells CNBC Make It. "It doesn't mean that $1 matters just as much to Jeff Bezos as it does to someone earning minimum wage. It means 10% more money might have the same effect for everybody."
In his research, Killingsworth set out to investigate that $75,000 per year figure. It comes from a 2010 Princeton University study, which came to the conclusion — taught in Psychology 101 classrooms around the country — that higher incomes don't necessarily make people any tangibly happier in their everyday lives.
Killingsworth's newer research shows that personal fulfilment can continually increase alongside annual income, perhaps indefinitely. Money and happiness are "probably not mutually exclusive," he says, but people with higher incomes often feel they have more control over their lives.
"When you have money, you have options, and that can manifest in different ways," he says. "Do you buy organic raspberries at the grocery store? Can you quit the job you don't enjoy, or do you hang on because you can't afford to be unemployed? ... Do you end a relationship with someone that you're financially entangled with?"
Much like the 2010 study, Killingsworth asked his 33,000-plus research participants to gauge their happiness levels on two factors: evaluative wellbeing and experienced wellbeing, or in other words, how you feel your life is going versus how you feel from moment to moment.
But while the Princeton researchers asked people to report their emotions from memory, Killingsworth used a custom app that randomly asked participants each day to record how they were feeling at that exact moment.
"People's memories are imperfect," Killingsworth says. "One of the advantages by design of this study is I'm getting as close as possible to pure measurement, which is, 'How do you feel right now?' People can answer that pretty easily, whereas if you say, 'How did you feel yesterday? How did you feel over the last month?' people have a much more complex mental calculation."
Notably, he says, his findings have a major — and somewhat obvious — caveat: Money is most likely to influence your happiness if you highly value financial security. Many of the participants who reported the most happiness with high salaries also said they valued the ability to spend freely on their families, travel, classes or even medical bills.
The inverse notion was true on the opposite end of the scale.
"If I look at all the people who said money isn't very important, then whether they had a low income or average income or really high income barely mattered for their happiness," Killingsworth says. "Whoever in the survey said money doesn't matter was actually right."
The study has led him to a conclusion, he says: More money does, in fact, buy happiness – but it isn't the secret to happiness.
"I don't see any magic number. It's essentially more is better," Killingsworth says. "I wouldn't advise to take second or third jobs because ... [money] is just one of many inputs, one item in the happiness portfolio." | Wharton psychologist: Why making more than $75,000 a year actually can buy you happiness
Money actually can buy you happiness— if you make enough of it annually.
That's according to Matthew Killingsworth, a senior psychology fellow at The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania, whose research finds that people with high salaries often report higher levels of day-to-day and overall life fulfillment. That may seem unsurprising, but previous research found that the positive correlation between annual salary and everyday happiness tapered off around $75,000 per year.
Killingsworth says that old finding is wrong: Instead, he asserted in a paper last year, the correlation doesn't appear to ever plateau.
"What I find is that [the correlation] basically rises steadily in a slightly complicated way ... proportional changes have an equal effect," Killingsworth tells CNBC Make It. "It doesn't mean that $1 matters just as much to Jeff Bezos as it does to someone earning minimum wage. It means 10% more money might have the same effect for everybody. "
In his research, Killingsworth set out to investigate that $75,000 per year figure. It comes from a 2010 Princeton University study, which came to the conclusion — taught in Psychology 101 classrooms around the country — that higher incomes don't necessarily make people any tangibly happier in their everyday lives.
Killingsworth's newer research shows that personal fulfilment can continually increase alongside annual income, perhaps indefinitely. Money and happiness are "probably not mutually exclusive," he says, but people with higher incomes often feel they have more control over their lives.
"When you have money, you have options, and that can manifest in different ways," he says. "Do you buy organic raspberries at the grocery store? Can you quit the job you don't enjoy, or do you hang on because you can't afford to be unemployed? ... | yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | yes_statement | "money" can "buy" "happiness". "happiness" can be bought with "money" | https://www.visualcapitalist.com/chart-money-can-buy-happiness-after-all/ | Money Can Buy Happiness After All, According to New Study | Charted: Money Can Buy Happiness After All
Article/Editing:
The Briefing
Previous research has indicated that money stops buying happiness after $75,000/year
However, new research finds a strong correlation between income and happiness, trending upwards even after $80,000/year
In One Chart: Money Can Buy Happiness After All
What’s the relationship between money and happiness? Previous studies have indicated that, while money can in fact buy happiness, it plateaus at approximately $75,000/year.
However, new research suggests otherwise.
Using over a million real-time reports from a large U.S. sample group, a recent study found that happiness increases linearly with reported income (logarithmic), and continues to rise beyond the $80,000/year mark.
Below, we’ll provide more details on the research methodology, while touching on a few possible reasons why higher incomes may improve people’s happiness levels.
How is Happiness Measured?
Past research on happiness relative to income has relied on retrospective data, which leaves room for human memory errors. In contrast, this new study uses real-time, logged data from a mood tracking app, allowing for a more accurate representation of respondents’ experienced well-being.
Data was also collected by random prompts over a period of time, with dozens of entries logged for each single respondent. This provides a more well-rounded representation of a person’s overall well-being.
Two forms of well-being were measured in this study:
Experienced well-being
A person’s mood and feeling throughout daily life.
Evaluative well-being:
Someone’s perception of their life upon reflection.
Both forms of well-being increased with higher incomes, but evaluative well-being showed a more drastic split between the lower and higher income groups.
The Results(Measured in Standard Deviations from Mean)
Annual Income
Well-Being (Experienced)
Well-Being (Evaluative)
$15,000
-0.21
-0.34
$25,000
-0.11
-0.32
$35,000
-0.09
-0.19
$45,000
-0.06
-0.15
$55,000
-0.05
-0.07
$65,000
-0.03
-0.04
$75,000
-0.01
-0.02
$85,000
0.01
0.03
$95,000
0.03
0.01
$112,500
0.04
0.08
$137,500
0.06
0.17
$175,000
0.08
0.17
$250,000
0.17
0.24
$400,000
0.19
0.35
$625,000
0.15
0.38
Why Does Money Buy Happiness?
The report warns that any theories behind why happiness increases with income are purely speculative. However, it does list a few possibilities:
Increased comfort
As someone earns more, they may have the ability to purchase things that reduce suffering. This is particularly true when comparing low to moderate income groups—larger incomes below $80,000/year still showed a strong association with reduced negative feelings.
More control
Control seems to be tied to respondents’ happiness levels. In fact, having a sense of control accounted for 74% of the association between income and well-being.
Money matters
Not all respondents cared about money. But for those who did, it had a significant impact on their perceived well-being. In general, lower income earners were happier if they didn’t value money, while higher income earners were happier if they thought money mattered.
Whatever the cause may be, one thing is clear—Biggie Smalls was wrong. Looks like more money doesn’t necessarily mean more problems.
Source: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Details: Participants were 33,391 employed adults living in the United States; median age was 33; median household income was $85,000/y (25th percentile = $45,000; 75th percentile = $137,500; mean = $106,548; SD = $95,393); 36% were male; and 37% were married
Can You Calculate Your Daily Carbon Footprint?
The Briefing
A person’s carbon footprint is substantial, with activities such as food consumption creating as much as 4,500 g of CO₂ emissions daily.
By purchasing carbon credits from Carbon Streaming Corporation, you can offset your own emissions and fund positive climate action.
Your Everyday Carbon Footprint
While many large businesses and countries have committed to net-zero goals, it is essential to acknowledge that your everyday activities also contribute to global emissions.
In this graphic, sponsored by Carbon Streaming Corporation, we will explore how the choices we make and the products we use have a profound impact on our carbon footprint.
Carbon Emissions by Activity
Here are some of the daily activities and products of the average person and their carbon footprint, according to Clever Carbon.
Household Activities & Products
CO2 Emissions (g)
💡 Standard Light Bulb (100 watts, four hours)
172 g
📱 Mobile Phone Use (195 minutes per day)*
189 g
👕 Washing Machine (0.63 kWh)
275 g
🔥 Electric Oven (1.56 kWh)
675 g
♨️ Tumble Dryer (2.5 kWh)
1,000 g
🧻 Toilet Roll (2 ply)
1,300 g
🚿 Hot Shower (10 mins)
2,000 g
🚙 Daily Commute (one hour, by car)
3,360 g
🍽️ Average Daily Food Consumption (three meals of 600 calories)
4,500 g
*Phone use based on yearly use of 69kg per the source, Reboxed
Your choice of transportation plays a crucial role in determining your carbon footprint. For instance, a 15 km daily commute to work on public transport generates an average of 1,464 g of CO₂ emissions. Compared to 3,360 g—twice the volume for a journey the same length by car.
By opting for more sustainable modes of transport, such as cycling, walking, or public transportation, you can significantly reduce your carbon footprint.
Addressing Your Carbon Footprint
One way to compensate for your emissions is by purchasing high-quality carbon credits.
Carbon credits are used to help fund projects that avoid, reduce or remove CO₂ emissions. This includes nature-based solutions such as reforestation and improved forest management, or technology-based solutions such as the production of biochar and carbon capture and storage (CCS).
While carbon credits offer a potential solution for individuals to help reduce global emissions, public awareness remains a significant challenge. A BCG-Patch survey revealed that only 34% of U.S. consumers are familiar with carbon credits, and only 3% have purchased them in the past.
About Carbon Streaming
By financing the creation or expansion of carbon projects, Carbon Streaming Corporation secures the rights to future carbon credits generated by these sustainable projects. You can then purchase these carbon credits to help fund climate solutions around the world and compensate for your own emissions. | Charted: Money Can Buy Happiness After All
Article/Editing:
The Briefing
Previous research has indicated that money stops buying happiness after $75,000/year
However, new research finds a strong correlation between income and happiness, trending upwards even after $80,000/year
In One Chart: Money Can Buy Happiness After All
What’s the relationship between money and happiness? Previous studies have indicated that, while money can in fact buy happiness, it plateaus at approximately $75,000/year.
However, new research suggests otherwise.
Using over a million real-time reports from a large U.S. sample group, a recent study found that happiness increases linearly with reported income (logarithmic), and continues to rise beyond the $80,000/year mark.
Below, we’ll provide more details on the research methodology, while touching on a few possible reasons why higher incomes may improve people’s happiness levels.
How is Happiness Measured?
Past research on happiness relative to income has relied on retrospective data, which leaves room for human memory errors. In contrast, this new study uses real-time, logged data from a mood tracking app, allowing for a more accurate representation of respondents’ experienced well-being.
Data was also collected by random prompts over a period of time, with dozens of entries logged for each single respondent. This provides a more well-rounded representation of a person’s overall well-being.
Two forms of well-being were measured in this study:
Experienced well-being
A person’s mood and feeling throughout daily life.
Evaluative well-being:
Someone’s perception of their life upon reflection.
Both forms of well-being increased with higher incomes, but evaluative well-being showed a more drastic split between the lower and higher income groups.
| yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | no_statement | "money" cannot "buy" "happiness". "happiness" cannot be bought with "money" | https://www.minimalismmadesimple.com/home/money-cant-buy-happiness/ | 12 Reasons Why Money Can't Buy Happiness - Minimalism Made ... | 12 Reasons Why Money Can’t Buy Happiness
If you’ve ever thought that money can buy happiness, think again. There are many reasons why people with a lot of money often end up unhappy and frustrated. But why is this? Let’s take a closer look.
In this blog post, we will discuss 12 reasons why having lots of money is not the key to feeling content in life.
1. Money does not relieve you of stress.
Having more money will often lead to higher expectations, which is why so many people with lots of money are stressed out about getting even more. Stress comes from having high standards and wanting the best for yourself; it’s likely that most rich people have these kinds of standards for themselves all the time.
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2. Money can’t buy you good health.
No matter how much money you have, you cannot buy good health – it is something that you have to work for. If you’re not eating well and exercising on a regular basis, your money can only buy so much – it will never replace the health benefits that come from healthy living.
3. Money can’t buy you friends.
It is often said that money can’t buy happiness, and this is definitely true when it comes to friendships. Money may be able to get you into certain social circles, but it will never replace genuine relationships that are built on trust and mutual respect.
#4. Money can’t buy you time.
Time is one of the most valuable things in life, yet it cannot be bought or sold for any price. No matter how much money you have, there will always be a limited supply of time on Earth, so while having more money may give you some conveniences, it won’t make you any more time-efficient.
5. Money can’t buy you love.
Just like money cannot buy friends, it also cannot buy love. Love is something that comes from the heart, and it cannot be bought with any amount of material possessions. If you are looking for true love in your life, you will have to find it elsewhere than in your bank account.
6. Money can’t buy self-esteem.
Self-esteem is something that money cannot directly purchase – you have to build your own sense of self-worth by engaging in activities and behaviors that make you feel good about yourself. If you are constantly looking at what other people have, it will be difficult for you to develop a healthy sense of self-esteem.
7. Money won’t make you feel fulfilled.
No matter how much money you make, it won’t necessarily lead to true fulfillment in your life. Fulfillment comes from reaching goals that fulfill the purpose of your existence – and these are things that cannot be bought or sold for any price on this Earth.
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8. Money can’t buy knowledge.
Knowledge is something that can not be bought with money – it can only come from personal experience and education. If you want to learn new things in life, you will need to spend time growing as a person and learning new things; you will never be able to buy the knowledge that you want.
9. Money can’t buy peace of mind.
Money can be used to purchase certain things that make you feel more peaceful, such as a nice house and car. However, money will never be able to give you true inner peace – this comes from having strong core values, being mindful about your behavior in life, and continually working towards personal growth.
10. Money can’t buy you a successful life.
We have touched on this topic before, but it is worth reiterating that money will never make you a more successful person in life. Success comes from within – no matter how much money you earn, if your character stinks, then nothing good will come from your success.
11. Money doesn’t buy the respect of others.
Respect is something that can only be earned; it cannot be bought, and you will never win the respect of others with money alone. People will respect you based on your behavior, not because they have any preconceived notions about what kind of person you are. If people see that you are a good role model who strives to do good for others, then they will respect you for it.
12. Money doesn’t equal character.
The last reason why money can’t buy happiness is that it doesn’t equal character. Money may be able to get you certain things in life, but it will never turn an unkind person into a kind one. If your heart isn’t right, then no amount of material possessions will make you as happy and fulfilled as you desire.
Final Thoughts
The common misconception that money can buy happiness is just that, a misconception. While possessing wealth might reduce some stressors in a person’s life, it doesn’t seem to have any bearing on how happy they are with their life overall.
According to research from Princeton University and Harvard Business School, there’s no correlation between income level and long-term changes in well-being or happiness levels. But don’t let this discourage you!
Money may not make people happy, but we know what will: building meaningful relationships with friends and family members who support your goals can bring lifelong joy into your world. | Money can’t buy peace of mind.
Money can be used to purchase certain things that make you feel more peaceful, such as a nice house and car. However, money will never be able to give you true inner peace – this comes from having strong core values, being mindful about your behavior in life, and continually working towards personal growth.
10. Money can’t buy you a successful life.
We have touched on this topic before, but it is worth reiterating that money will never make you a more successful person in life. Success comes from within – no matter how much money you earn, if your character stinks, then nothing good will come from your success.
11. Money doesn’t buy the respect of others.
Respect is something that can only be earned; it cannot be bought, and you will never win the respect of others with money alone. People will respect you based on your behavior, not because they have any preconceived notions about what kind of person you are. If people see that you are a good role model who strives to do good for others, then they will respect you for it.
12. Money doesn’t equal character.
The last reason why money can’t buy happiness is that it doesn’t equal character. Money may be able to get you certain things in life, but it will never turn an unkind person into a kind one. If your heart isn’t right, then no amount of material possessions will make you as happy and fulfilled as you desire.
Final Thoughts
The common misconception that money can buy happiness is just that, a misconception. While possessing wealth might reduce some stressors in a person’s life, it doesn’t seem to have any bearing on how happy they are with their life overall.
According to research from Princeton University and Harvard Business School, there’s no correlation between income level and long-term changes in well-being or happiness levels. | no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | no_statement | "money" cannot "buy" "happiness". "happiness" cannot be bought with "money" | https://enlightio.com/reasons-why-money-cant-buy-happiness | 56 Reasons Why Money Can't Buy Happiness | 56 Reasons Why Money Can’t Buy Happiness
Why Can’t Money Buy Happiness?
An object shouldn’t be able to define that happiness. Money cannot buy the feelings that love and affection do. Money is desired by everyone, but if we’re not able to enjoy life to the fullest with or without money, then what’s the point? We as human beings need to understand that we don’t need money to be truly happy.
It’s important to understand this issue because it helps us realize that society shouldn’t lead us in a direction where money is everything. Instead of thinking of money as the be-all and end-all, we should try to boost our self-esteem and how we’re perceived by others before worrying about how much money we’ve or don’t have.
In this article, we’ll look at the reasons why money can’t buy happiness.
Material Wealth Isn’t Everything
No matter what we buy, the latest gadgets, how many designer clothes we’ve in our closets, or how many trips we take to exotic places around the world, all these things only make us temporarily happy.
There are no real possessions that can bring lasting happiness in a person’s life! You may be thinking about your house and/or your car right now. They may be among the most important things you own that make you happy.
But if these things are destroyed or stolen today, you can always buy new ones later. They aren’t as valuable as other things in life, like the well-being of your family and your health.
Happiness Comes From Experiences, Not Things
Although it may seem that happiness depends on material possessions and external factors, this isn’t the case. Instead, true happiness comes from experiences and the joy of living.
Throughout time, societies have valued things like art, learning, music, and culture more highly than material goods. This is because experiences give us more satisfaction than material things.
For example, think back to an experience that made you happy recently – maybe it was an adventure in a new city or time with friends and family. These are the experiences that enrich our lives and fill us with joy; they bring happiness into our lives.
So if you want lasting happiness, focus on having and enjoying experiences rather than acquiring more and more things. You’ll find that your life will be much happier as a result!
Sure, money can buy experiences, but that’s all they are – experiences. Money can indeed buy you things that make you happy, but not true happiness. Happiness comes from within, and money is just… well… a piece of paper.
If you want to find your inner peace and be truly happy in life, then throw away your dollars, because money certainly won’t do it for you.
Money Can’t Buy Love
The Beatles sang, “Money can’t buy me love.” And they were right because love cannot be bought. A person doesn’t become a better person by how much money he or she has in the bank; rather, it’s character and integrity that make one a better person.
All right, let’s start with the basics. What’s love? Love is a deep and tender feeling of affection for another person, an intense feeling of deep affection. Money can’t buy this kind of affection.
You can’t buy your way into a relationship; that’s not how life works. It’s not possible to buy someone’s true affection or appreciation. You can’t buy someone’s attention; they’ve to give it to you freely. When it comes to love, you cannot pay for someone’s heart.
Love is about giving, not receiving, and even if you think you can buy someone’s love or attention with money, that doesn’t mean it works that way in real life!
Money Can’t Buy Good Health
If you’re healthy, it doesn’t matter how much money you have in your bank account. If you’re suffering from a difficult-to-treat disease and your suffering is long-lasting, all the money in the world won’t help you feel better. While it’s true that wealth can speed up medical care for some diseases, it can’t cure many others.
Still, good health is an important factor in becoming happy. You need to take care of yourself by maintaining a healthy lifestyle so that you can enjoy life for as long as possible. Proper nutrition, regular exercise, and sufficient sleep are important requirements for your overall well-being.
Money Can’t Buy a Meaningful Life
While it’s true that you need to earn a living, there comes a point when you realize that chasing money for money’s sake is pointless. A meaningful life is about doing something for others and working for a cause greater than yourself. It’s about having a purpose in the world and making a difference. It’s about being part of something bigger than yourself, but smaller than the universe.
A meaningful life is also about being part of a community and connecting with others – which usually costs little to nothing except your time and effort. This can be as simple as spending time with family or volunteering with an organization that makes a positive contribution to society.
The idea that money can’t buy happiness may sound counterintuitive when you see wealthy people enjoying all the comforts that wealth has to offer. But considering how difficult it can be for even wealthy people to achieve a sense of contentment, you might want to reconsider whether having money is worth your efforts.
Money Can’t Buy an Equal Society
While money can help you enjoy many of the good things in life, it cannot create a just and equal society. A society where everyone is equal and has the same opportunities isn’t based on money but mutual respect and community support.
For example, if you grew up in a very affluent area, most of the people around you’d also be financially well off. They’d dress well, drive fancy cars, and live in expensive houses. If a poor person who doesn’t have these luxuries comes to your neighborhood, they might feel out of place.
They may even be teased by other kids who assume there’s something wrong with them because they don’t dress as well or talk as nicely. This kind of behavior causes resentment among those who’re less fortunate and makes the world a more difficult place for everyone because we don’t treat each other fairly and respectfully.
Money Can’t Buy Freedom
Many people believe that money can buy freedom. However, this isn’t the case. Freedom is a state of being free from constraints, limits, or restrictions. It’s the power to act, speak, or think without interference or interference from others. Money, on the other hand, is a form of currency used to exchange goods and services.
Money can buy things like clothes and food, but it cannot buy freedom. Freedom is something that must be experienced firsthand. It cannot be bought or sold. Instead, it must be earned through hard work and perseverance. Money can buy some things, but not freedom.
Money Cannot Buy More Time on Earth for Your Loved Ones
No matter what century you come from, we all have the same amount of time on earth. It doesn’t matter how much money you’ve, because no one can buy more time on earth.
With some of your wealth, you may be able to buy a new car or a house, but money cannot buy health and happiness. Nor will it prevent death from befalling you and your loved ones.
Money can only get you so far in life. You can donate millions of dollars to charity and still be a person who lacks empathy. It’s up to us as individuals to spread love and kindness while we’re alive; money isn’t necessary for that!
Money Cannot Replace a Solid Relationship
Money is an essential part of our lives and plays a key role in meeting our basic needs and pursuing our goals. But while money can enrich our lives in many ways, it cannot replace the deep bonds we form with other people.
Whether it’s relationships with family members, friends, or life partners, the support and comfort we provide to those around us are an important part of a happy and fulfilling life.
Money can help you get by in everyday life, but when it comes to finding happiness and meaning in life, it’s always inferior to real human relationships.
Therefore, instead of focusing on money as the main source of your happiness, you should cultivate the many meaningful relationships in your life and enjoy all the wonderful benefits that these relationships bring. In this way, you’ll discover a level of fulfillment that money simply cannot provide.
Money Can’t Buy a Family
Family isn’t limited to blood relatives; anyone we consider safe, reliable, trustworthy, and supportive is someone we can call a family member. These people are there for us when we’re going through thick and thin; they support our dreams and goals; they listen to us when we need it most; they aren’t afraid to tell us when we need some constructive criticism or help to solve our problems.
They love us unconditionally and are wholeheartedly committed to helping us become the best version of ourselves that we can be.
At the end of the day, these people are what matter. No amount of money in the world can bring them into your life or make them stay forever – but when you finally find them (or perhaps realize how lucky you are to have always had access to such wonderful people), then you’ll truly understand why money can’t buy happiness.
Money Cannot Buy Time or Patience
Time is the most valuable resource. No matter what we do, we cannot get back a second of the time that’s passed. We can’t get more hours done in a day or minutes in an hour, and many people feel they don’t have enough time to get everything done.
Time is irreplaceable once it’s passed.
We often don’t realize how precious our lives are until we’ve lost a loved one or when we are threatened with death. Unlike money, which we can earn and spend over and over again throughout our lives, the time available to each of us is finite; we cannot extend the time available to us at any point in our lives – what we’ve is what we’re given.
We can spend money on things that improve our quality of life, such as health care, food, housing, travel, or enjoyable experiences like concerts and good food, but none of that can buy back the lost time with loved ones who’ve passed away.
Money Can’t Give You Meaning
On the surface, it may seem like money can buy happiness. You can acquire all sorts of material things and enjoy the pleasures they bring, from a fancy car to a big house to luxurious vacations. But money can’t buy meaning – and the things that make you truly happy are those that have deep meaning and that you’re connected to.
Happiness is more than just enjoying life; it’s also about feeling fulfilled through meaningful connections and experiences.
And while money helps acquire material things that help you’ve pleasurable experiences, these possessions do nothing to contribute to your deeper sense of fulfillment, purpose, or meaning – in fact, studies show that additional wealth after basic needs (like food, healthcare, and shelter) are met has no impact on your overall happiness level.
Unlike other aspects of your life that you can improve with money (like buying a nice car), finding inner meaning is something you’ve to work toward on your terms and at your own pace, without relying on external factors like income or purchasing power.
This makes it an incredibly valuable tool to improve your happiness quotient because you’ve it in your own hands to search for the meaning of human existence and gradually achieve a sense of inner peace.
Money Cannot Give You a Deep Sense of Meaning
Apart from a living wage and the means for luxury and pleasure, most people want their lives to have meaning – and money alone cannot buy that. The deep sense of purpose you seek isn’t found in your job title or at the top of a career ladder – it comes from a sense that what you do every day is valuable.
Everyone in the world can’t change things for the better, but everyone can find a way to encourage those around them and make their lives more worth living. Whether you do good work at your job, help others with a hobby or volunteer, or get involved in a cause you care about, making a meaningful contribution is an important part of your happiness.
Money Can’t Protect You From All the Pains in Life
Money can’t protect you from all the pains in life, such as illness and death.
There are simply things that money can’t buy, and this fact becomes more and more apparent as we get older. We tend to think that if we’ve enough money, we don’t have to worry about life’s problems.
But this is simply not true! While money can free you from worrying about your finances, it doesn’t protect you from the pain that comes with a loss. Whether it’s the loss of a loved one or your health, being sick, growing old, or watching people you care about die is a reality everyone must face – and no amount of money can protect you from these inevitable facts of life.
Money Can’t Buy a Good Night’s Sleep
Even though buying a luxurious king-size bed will give you a better place to sleep, money won’t do you any good if you can’t fall asleep.
If your body and mind are stressed, you won’t be able to fall asleep at night or sleep through the night. That’s, even if you have an expensive bed that’s extremely comfortable, it won’t do you much good if your body and mind aren’t relaxed enough to sleep well.
Money Can’t Buy Knowledge or Skills
It may be true that money can buy you a good education, but it cannot give you the knowledge or skills to learn. A good education is in the hands of those who want to learn and expand their horizons.
Someone can have all the resources necessary for a good education, but if they don’t want to learn, there’s nothing you can do about it. It’s important that students are motivated and interested in what they’re doing, because only then will they focus on their studies and succeed.
Money Can’t Buy Humility, Kindness, or Respect
The dictionary defines humility as “not being proud or arrogant.” Kindness, on the other hand, is “the quality of being kind, generous, and considerate.” Respect means giving someone what they deserve (or what’s due to them).
It doesn’t matter how much money you’ve, you can still be humble, kind, and respectful. It also doesn’t matter if you’ve money or not; you can still be arrogant, unkind, and disrespectful. Being a good person has nothing to do with money. Being a good person has everything to do with your character.
Money Can’t Help You Escape Painful Memories
Losing a loved one is the most drastic example of how money can’t buy happiness. You can try to fill the void left by the loss of a loved one with material possessions and pleasures, but these things won’t give you real emotional comfort.
You need time to process your feelings, space to heal, and memories of your time together with the person who died. Money can’t buy you time, only distractions that can prolong your pain and delay the grieving process.
Money Cannot Make You Trustworthy
A person’s character isn’t determined by the amount of money they’ve, but by how trustworthy they’re. Sure, there are many ways money can help you appear more trustworthy to others.
For example, rich people have better reputations in school and at work because people naturally tend to trust those higher on the social ladder. In this way, money can make it easier to gain the trust of others. But when it comes down to it, a person’s reputation is only as good as their character.
Money can also cause you to lose your integrity by giving in to temptations that damage your integrity (and thus your reputation) just to gain more wealth or status. Suppose you have a very rich friend who wants to persuade you to cheat on your taxes so that he won’t have to pay his taxes either (even though he’s a lot of money).
You like hanging out with him and his friends at fancy parties and exclusive golf courses – maybe even so much that you’d be willing to go along with his plan just so he’d keep inviting you!
If you cheated on your taxes because you were too persuaded by the peer pressure of these rich friends, then no amount of wealth can make up for the loss of morality that this decision has meant for your integrity and your trustworthiness in society.
Money Cannot Buy Passion
One thing money can’t buy is your passion. Before you do anything, you should ask yourself, “What am I passionate about?” Money can be a driving force behind the decisions you make, but it should never be the reason you make them. Do something because you love doing it. Make sure it’s something that inspires you and gives you a purpose in life.
You can have a great job with an impressive salary, but if you’re not passionate about what you do, none of that matters. Passion is finding something that makes your heart beat faster and feel like you’re flying when you do it every day. It’s what makes your work meaningful and energizing.
Without passion, even the highest-paying jobs feel unsatisfying – and are less likely to make up for the lack of monetary gains in other areas of your life (like leisure or social fulfillment). If we rely too much on it to fill the gaps we don’t fill in other ways, we’ll always feel empty inside, no matter how much wealth we accumulate.
Money Cannot Buy Empathy
If you can’t feel anything for other people, it can lead to a very lonely life. You’ve no friends or family to care about, and you don’t care about yourself.
There are things that money can’t buy, like empathy. Empathy is a very important part of human interaction and helps us understand each other. Empathy helps us build relationships with others.
It takes time to learn to be empathetic and develop an understanding of other people’s feelings and perspectives. It’s a process we all go through at some point in our lives, but it’s something anyone can learn if they take the time!
Money Can’t Buy Positivity and Optimism
Optimism is a great quality to have. It makes it easier to overcome life’s challenges, and optimists are usually more successful in life. They even live longer than pessimists!
We all know someone who’s always positive, no matter how bad the situation is, and that person is fun to be around. Unfortunately, you can’t buy optimism – that’s, you won’t get it if you’re rich. But that doesn’t mean optimism is out of reach for you: there are many easy ways to become more optimistic that don’t cost much at all!
Money Doesn’t Protect You From Envy
Money can’t buy happiness because it doesn’t protect you from envy.
Envy is one of the main causes of unhappiness, and unfortunately, money cannot protect you from this feeling. If you don’t have a good relationship with yourself, no amount of money can make up for it. Instead of making you happy, it can even lead to more feelings of inadequacy and dissatisfaction once the initial rush wears off.
Money can also bring out the worst in people who’re already driven by envy – cases like high-profile divorces or inheritance lawsuits are notorious for bringing out this side in people who were previously friendly or close. At its core, envy is the desire to be someone else. If your relatives or friends are envious of you because you’ve more than they do, they may treat you badly because of it.
Money Can’t Buy Self-Esteem
Self-esteem is the way you perceive yourself. It’s an important part of your happiness. It’s influenced by external and internal factors. External factors include relationships, achievements, and physical attractiveness.
Internal factors include personal beliefs about yourself, such as being satisfied with what you’ve accomplished in your life so far.
What is the basis of happiness? Self-esteem. Without it, you can buy all the things that are supposed to make you happy-jewelry, sports cars, mansions-but your enthusiasm for these things will be short-lived. The key to happiness is self-esteem, which is based on self-acceptance.
Self-acceptance means you’re at peace with yourself and know how you see your life’s path. It doesn’t mean you think you’re perfect or even better than other people. Rather, it requires that you accept both your good and your not-so-good qualities to get a realistic picture of yourself as a whole person with strengths and weaknesses like everyone else. To achieve this state, focus on what you’re grateful for rather than dwelling on what you lack in your life.
Money Can’t Buy Peace and Harmony
Money cannot buy peace. Peace is a state of mind. Money can only give you temporary relief from the problems you’ve in your life. If you’re facing many problems in your life, money won’t bring peace to your life.
Since it’s said that money cannot buy happiness and inner peace, people who have a lot of money aren’t always happy because they lack inner peace. Many people don’t have enough money to satisfy their basic needs, but still live happily and peacefully without fears for the future and live a stress-free life.
This means that money can only provide a temporary solution to problems, but will never bring lasting peace to our lives.
Money Cannot Buy Gratitude, Kindness, and Compassion
These are virtues and qualities that can only be gained from within. Kindness, compassion, and gratitude cannot be bought, even with the money of the world. They’re priceless!
People who have these virtues and good qualities are the real winners in life. This is because they know how to win people’s hearts. They make good relationships out of it and create an environment where everyone feels safe and loved.
Money Can’t Buy Inner Peace and Strength
Money can help you buy comfort, but it cannot buy you inner strength or peace. It cannot make you happy if you aren’t happy with yourself. It cannot give you true love and respect if you don’t deserve it.
If your relationships depend on money to survive, they aren’t worth maintaining. If a boyfriend or girlfriend stays with you only because of the benefits he/she gets from being friends with a rich person, then that boyfriend or girlfriend is as good as gone when someone else offers him/her better benefits.
When life is going downhill and all hope seems lost, people with money can always bail themselves out by making their way through the crisis. But these situations are usually temporary and soon everything will be back to the way it was before the crisis – sometimes even worse than before!
You need willpower and determination to stay strong in difficult times, and no amount of money can buy that! No matter what, remember that we all face challenges every day, whether we’re rich or poor. Remember how lucky we’re compared to other people who’re suffering much more hardship than we’re at any given time!
Money Can’t Buy Happiness When It Comes to Social Comparisons
When it comes to social comparisons, money can’t buy happiness. Social comparison is about evaluating yourself by comparing yourself to other people. From this, you can either get a positive feeling or a negative feeling.
For example, if you compare yourself to someone less fortunate than you, you feel good about your situation. But if someone has more wealth than you, you feel envious of them and feel bad. There are different kinds of social comparisons: upward and downward comparisons.
Upward Comparisons
Upward comparisons are when someone compares himself or herself to another person who’s more money than he or she does
Downward Comparisons
Downward comparisons are when just the opposite happens and someone compares himself or herself to another person who’s less money than he or she does.
In all types of social comparisons, the person making the comparison usually feels better about himself or herself, but that doesn’t always make him or her happier in life, because relying too much on social comparisons can cause self-esteem problems that can lead to depression or other mental health problems later on.
Money Can’t Buy a Fulfilling Career
Money is no guarantee that you’ll be happy with your career. The opposite can be true, as many people who earn a lot of money are especially busy and overwhelmed by their work.
It’s important to remember that money doesn’t equal greater happiness. Money may allow you to afford greater things, but it doesn’t necessarily lead to a fulfilling job or career.
If you love what you do and want to get better at it every day, chances are your income will grow over time. If you focus on making money instead of getting better at what you do, your income growth will suffer. And if you’re working in a field where the pay isn’t that good right now but is expected to be in the future (of course!), then the work might get harder before it gets easier financially.
Money Leads You to Compare Yourself to the People You Grew up With
If you grow up in an area where everyone is rich enough to afford a big house and an expensive car, you’ll unconsciously start comparing yourself to others. The more money we’ve, the higher the demands we make on our lives.
If you grow up in an expensive city and an affluent area, your lifestyle will become accustomed to that standard of living. You’ll probably own or buy the same things as your siblings or friends. The problem with this is that those who lived in your neighborhood may not be as happy as they’re because they can no longer afford their lifestyle.
This mentality is extremely harmful because it affects how much wealth we think we need to be happy. When we stop comparing ourselves to the people around us, we realize how much happier our lives could be if it weren’t for these people! We learn not only from other people but also from ourselves!
Money Cannot Always Buy You Comfort
Money can buy you comfort in certain situations. If you’ve enough money, you don’t have to worry about rent or food. You can surround yourself with all the comforts of your home and enjoy the good life as you please.
But there are some situations where money just can’t do much for you. For example, it can’t cure diseases like cancer, bipolar disorder, or age-related physical and cognitive decline.
Even if you could give a doctor unlimited amounts of money, he or she would not be able to use it to cure a disease for which there’s not yet a known treatment (and even if there were, it mightn’t be effective). There’s also no guarantee that you’ll have a long life with your wealth.
Money Can Change You for the Worse
When you have more money, it’s easier to get into a culture of consumption and materialism. The more money you’ve, the more you want – and this applies not only to buy things but also to career ambitions and social status. This attitude can lead to selfishness or snobbery if not tempered by modesty or kindness.
This is especially true when you compare yourself to others. People with a lot of money easily look down on those who don’t have as much, but this makes them less generous and affects their overall character (when they make fun of poor people, for example).
Money Is an Object That Cannot Love You
Money cannot be your lover. Money cannot make you happy forever. You aren’t an object that money can buy and love as a partner or companion at different times of the day or night, but only for short-term relationships, because it’ll never be enough to sustain a lasting relationship and happiness with someone who loves you unconditionally.
When the time comes that people feel they don’t need money anymore, they’ll look at their lives and realize that all they’ve left is what money can’t buy: friends, family, relationships, etc.
Money Cannot Compensate for the Lack of Meaningful Relationships
The importance of meaningful relationships cannot be overlooked. If you don’t have strong relationships with family and friends, money can’t fill that void.
No matter how much money you have, it can’t buy you friends. It won’t buy you love or respect. And if it does, it’s the wrong kind of love and respect. Only through genuine connection can we feel true happiness; a projection of our inner feelings onto others and from others onto ourselves. Relationships with family, friends, and significant others are the key to overall well-being in life.
Money Can’t Buy You Better Friends
It’s always a good idea to keep your friends close and your enemies closer. But when it comes to being a rich person, you may be forced to keep both at a distance. Some people may think that having friends is easy when you have a lot of money because they can pretend to be your friends just so they can get the things they want from you, or so they don’t feel left out.
For example, imagine that you’re very rich and all your friends are too broke to pay their rent. Maybe you feel like helping them out by offering them some money now and then. But what if these people become more and more dependent on the money you give them? What if giving them money becomes a habit? The moment you stop giving them money is also the moment you stop seeing them because they either feel taken advantage of or cheated by you.
Money also cannot buy friendship, but it can buy dependence and security for those who need it. True friendship can only be bought with mutual trust, respect, and honesty. So, if we get into trouble with our friends because of our wealth, we should ask ourselves whether these people were our friends or not!
Money Won’t Get Rid of Your Anxiety About Money
Having money can make some things easier, but there are still many ways to be afraid of money. The more you have, the more you have to lose, and the more you have to protect what you have.
Then there’s the fear of not having enough money. We all have a lot of expenses that are hard to budget for, but we still worry. What if something happens that requires expensive repairs? What if we lose our job or take a pay cut? You can never completely get rid of these fears because sometimes bad things happen without warning.
You might say that wealth would solve these problems, but it doesn’t. If you have the money, you can only play with bigger numbers if you worry about how much something will cost or how much less income you’ll have.
Money is a man-made currency, and even if it didn’t exist, people would find some other way to count who’s what stuff and who doesn’t – and then they’d fight over who gets what stuff and who doesn’t get any!
Money Won’t Make You Less Greedy
The more money you have, the more likely it’s that your greed will grow and you’ll start demanding more and more of it. The truth is that greed creates a negative feedback loop that leads to a constant cycle of dissatisfaction and unhappiness.
Greed can make you feel less happy because no matter how much money you’ve, you never feel like it’s enough. Greed can also cause you to be unhappy with what you have because as soon as you have something new, there’s always something bigger or better that you want.
This keeps you from appreciating what’s right in front of you – the people who enrich your life, the successes for which you can be grateful, and the things for which many would give anything.
Greed can also promote selfishness by causing people to think only of themselves and their own needs. It causes them to be less compassionate toward others because they see them only as a potential source of wealth or financial envy and not as people with the same feelings as themselves.
Money Won’t Make Your Family Healthier
Although everyone has the desire to be healthy, some people can’t even afford to go to the doctor. Their only hope is that they’ll get better when their illness goes away. For those who’re financially stable and have a lot of money in their pockets, it’s important to know that health cannot be bought.
Even if you have the means to buy medical equipment and other things that can help you get better faster, buying your family all these things won’t necessarily make them healthy. A strong immune system is still very important to staying healthy.
Money Doesn’t Solve All Your Problems
We’re not saying that money is bad. But money can only solve a limited number of problems in your life. It gives you the freedom to choose where you want to live, what you want to eat, and what you want to do with your time – but it doesn’t solve problems like finding the meaning of life or being happy with who you’re. Money may buy happiness for some, but for others, it can be the root of all unhappiness.
Money Does Not Prevent Problems From Happening to You
You can’t afford a huge metal bubble that will protect you from the elements. You can’t buy a time machine to avoid car accidents. Money won’t keep you from getting sick or hurt, and it won’t prevent death or divorce.
Some people bribe their way out of legal problems and use the money to paper over problems that arise in life. But when something goes wrong, it still affects them. Even very rich people have problems; they’re just different kinds of problems than those faced by others who don’t have as many financial resources. Money can solve some problems, but other intangible factors need to be considered to avoid all the negative consequences in life.
Money Doesn’t Always Bring Security
Many people think that money can solve all problems and make their lives safer. However, this isn’t the case at all.
There are many rich people out there who don’t feel safe in their life situations for one reason or another. Most of them don’t know who to trust and fear that someone might take advantage of them because of their financial status.
To live a secure life, you should be happy with what you have and be able to live a peaceful life without worrying about your future and what might happen next in your life. Therefore, money is no guarantee of happiness, because you’ll have a problem every day with the wealth you have.
Money Doesn’t Always Make You More Successful
Money can’t buy you success. This may be a cliché, but it’s true. We all know unhappy rich people and others who’re not particularly rich but still seem incredibly happy. The same is true for success in general: money can help you become more successful, but it can also lead to laziness – and laziness often leads to failure.
The best way to become successful is to find what you love to do and pursue it with all your heart and mind. If you have the passion, dedication, commitment, and hard work ethic to excel at what you do, the money will come one way or another – and even if it doesn’t, the sense of accomplishment and pride that comes from being truly successful will make you permanently happy.
Money Doesn’t Change Your Personality
Money has the power to make us act in strange ways. Money makes people do things they wouldn’t normally do and behave in ways they wouldn’t otherwise. You may not even realize it, but your personality can change as you get richer or poorer.
Even though money can affect your personality, it doesn’t change who you’re at your core. Your core values determine what kind of person you’re deep inside. Among the things that define our lives are personal values, beliefs, goals, and passions – and money can’t buy those. We all can make good and bad choices regardless of how much money we have (or don’t have).
Money Doesn’t Make You a Better Person
Whether you’re a good person or a bad person, money doesn’t change that. With money, you can afford things that make you feel good (a nice house, a fancy car), but ultimately it’s your values and character as a person that make you. Your material possessions don’t automatically make you a better or worse person than someone else.
Money Is No Guarantee for Job Satisfaction
Money isn’t a good measure of job satisfaction. Sure, if you’ve paid a lot, you’ll probably enjoy your work more than if you’re paid poorly, but the situation isn’t that simple.
Many other factors contribute to job satisfaction: the work environment, the relationship between employee and employer, and how well a job fits your personality, for example.
The quality of your work can be just as important as its quantity. Many people are happier doing manual labor like painting or cleaning than sitting at a desk all day answering phones or writing reports.
If you enjoy being active all day (not to mention getting lots of fresh air), then even a low-paying job can leave you satisfied at the end of the day.
On the other hand, some people prefer an intellectual challenge that requires them to use their brains rather than their brawn. If you enjoy solving puzzles at home in your spare time, then it’s reasonable to assume that you’d enjoy a desk job more than working in construction or farming. Think about what kind of work would make you happiest and what kind of income would come with it before you choose a career!
Money Is No Guarantee of a Happy Marriage
If you’re incredibly rich, it may be easier to find someone you connect with on an emotional level. But even then, that’s not always guaranteed – and a better relationship doesn’t equal a happier marriage.
Money is just one of many factors that contribute to a perfect partnership. Money may make some aspects of your life easier, but it doesn’t help you find love or happiness in your relationship.
You can have all the money in the world, but if your partner isn’t committed to making things work, personal problems will still arise in your relationship and cause tension between the two of you!
Money Isn’t Equal to Freedom, Financial Independence Is
Money and freedom aren’t the same things.
True freedom means you can do what you want, when you want, without worrying about money. True freedom is a choice. You can choose to work on your pet projects today, or you can choose to get a job. You can choose not to take the promotion to have a better work-life balance with your family, or you can choose to work overtime for the raise so your kids will have a better future.
This is why financial independence is so important – being able to live off your investments and savings frees you from the need to work and gives you real options in how and where you spend your time. Although many people see this as the “end goal,” it’s more likely to be one of many goals on the financial planning journey – one that enables all the others.
Whether it’s being able to choose when and where you work (rather than being tied to specific office hours), volunteering with organizations that mean something to you, or traveling the country (or the world!) with your family, financial independence means having time for the things that make life worth living!
Money Doesn’t Make Us More Sociable
You may be tempted to think that money makes you more sociable, but that’s not the case. People with higher incomes are less likely to get involved in their community or help friends, neighbors, and even strangers.
This is partly due to a lack of time – those who earn more tend to work longer hours – but also because money can be an isolating force. People at all income levels who’re concerned about their finances feel less connected to others than those who’re not. This suggests that worrying about how much money we’ve can keep us from investing in our relationships.
Higher-income people are also less likely to participate in civic activities such as joining a community group or volunteering with an organization than lower-income people. Higher-income people are even less likely to help a charity or assist a neighbor in need, such as by shoveling snow for them or taking care of their pets while they’re on vacation.
People Are Happier When They Spend Their Money on Others
People are happier when they spend their money on others rather than on themselves.
As mentioned earlier, people with more money buy more things for themselves. The only problem is that their happiness quickly fades once they get used to their new things and start craving newer or fancier versions of the same things. Those who spend their money on experiences or others, on the other hand, seem happier.
When you spend money on someone else (even a stranger), it triggers positive feelings in your brain. That’s because generosity activates the mesolimbic pathway in your brain, which rewards you with dopamine when you do something positive.
When a generous gesture triggers gratitude in another person, it feels even better (and also stimulates areas of your frontal lobe that control language). In this way, spending money on others can serve as a “happiness booster”-a cheap, temporary fix that doesn’t last long but makes us feel good at the moment.
People With More Money Buy More Things
People with more money buy more things which can be stressful
It’s no secret that people with more money tend to buy more things. And while it can be nice to have more stuff, it can also be incredibly stressful. Not only do you’ve to worry about keeping track of all your possessions, but you also have to worry about where to store them and how to keep them safe.
If you have a lot of expensive items, you also have to constantly worry about them getting stolen or damaged. If you’re one of those people who doesn’t like having a lot of stuff or struggle with anxiety or hoarding, having a lot of money can be pretty stressful. So if you feel crushed by your possessions, don’t be afraid to downsize and simplify your life. You may even find that it’s very liberating.
You know the saying: people with more money tend to buy more things. And all those things can lead to stress and headaches if you don’t have a system to store, maintain and protect them. Even though this may not seem like a problem at first glance, think again: people with a lot of money also tend to have tons of stuff!
People Who Donate Money to Charity Can Be Happier
People who donate money to charity can be happier than those who spend it on themselves.
Of course, it’s not necessary to give money to charity to experience the happiness of giving. You can get involved in a local soup kitchen, help a neighbor shovel the sidewalk after a snowstorm, or bring a meal to a sick person.
But if you have enough money to afford it and are thinking about donating, consider giving money away instead of spending it on yourself. The recipient will benefit from your generosity, and you can benefit from the warm feelings that come with giving back.
People Are Less Satisfied When They Compare Themselves to Others
You should avoid comparing yourself to others and accept yourself as you are. When you compare yourself with others, you lose your self-confidence and may become unhappy. When you compare yourself to others, you tend to judge your qualities and abilities based on the qualities of other people in your life.
This can cause you to forget what makes you special, and you’ll find it difficult to love yourself as God loves each of us. When we lose our self-esteem, we find it hard to be satisfied in our relationships, jobs, and even hobbies. Don’t value what other people have, but what God has given you!
People With More Money Get a Temporary High From New Things
People with more money get a temporary high from new things, but it wears off quickly.
Money can buy you many things, but it can’t buy happiness. No matter how much money you’ve or what toys you buy, a new car or a new house won’t make you happier than other people. People with more money tend to get a temporary high from buying new things, but it quickly wears off.
Therefore, the true path to happiness lies not in material goods, but in taking the time to have experiences and cultivate relationships with other people.
And while we all know that life is full of special moments worth cherishing and taking time for, sometimes those moments are hard to recognize – and even harder to find in our hectic lives. Here are a few ideas about which experiences bring lasting happiness – and which don’t:
Spending time in nature has been shown to improve your mood and reduce stress levels. And a bonus is that most outdoor activities let you spend time with friends or family members!
When you engage in your passions (whether it’s hiking, collecting comics, or working your dream job), it’s often more fulfilling than just treating yourself to something nice (like buying a new outfit). And when you take on something that scares you, it leads to more confidence in the long run!
A trip to an exotic location will probably give you great memories – but if you’re all about buying expensive things for Instagram likes, it mightn’t give you as much joy as you think!
Happiness Levels Differ Between People With the Same Income Level
Everyone has different expectations about life and happiness, and the ability of money to meet those needs varies from person to person. Some people say they live a happy life if they’ve enough money to buy the things they need and pay their bills.
Others say having an expensive car or a big house makes them happy. Still, others believe that money can make you happy because it helps you get what you want in life. And then some believe that money makes them happy because it allows them to spend time with the people they love.
In other words, your happiness depends on your expectations of what can make you happy. These in turn depend on your personality type, your satisfaction with your current life situation, and even how strong your relationships are with other people.
Travel Is More Important Than Material Possessions
Travel can help you better understand other cultures, which can change your perspective and how you look at things. It can also help you appreciate diversity and become an open-minded person.
For example, if you take an international trip now, you could meet people from all over the world and learn something from everyone. Learning about other cultures will broaden your horizons and change your life in ways that even money can’t buy.
The Pursuit of Money Can Make You Unhappy
If you’re constantly chasing the pursuit of money, you’re making yourself unhappy. It’s a common belief that you need a lot of money to be happy. The truth is, that’s not true at all. Money can lead to more stress, anxiety, and even depression.
We often think that if we have more money we’ll be happy, but this isn’t true at all. We’re never really happy with our financial situation because we always want more than what we have, and that leads to unhappiness and dissatisfaction with life. | It’s influenced by external and internal factors. External factors include relationships, achievements, and physical attractiveness.
Internal factors include personal beliefs about yourself, such as being satisfied with what you’ve accomplished in your life so far.
What is the basis of happiness? Self-esteem. Without it, you can buy all the things that are supposed to make you happy-jewelry, sports cars, mansions-but your enthusiasm for these things will be short-lived. The key to happiness is self-esteem, which is based on self-acceptance.
Self-acceptance means you’re at peace with yourself and know how you see your life’s path. It doesn’t mean you think you’re perfect or even better than other people. Rather, it requires that you accept both your good and your not-so-good qualities to get a realistic picture of yourself as a whole person with strengths and weaknesses like everyone else. To achieve this state, focus on what you’re grateful for rather than dwelling on what you lack in your life.
Money Can’t Buy Peace and Harmony
Money cannot buy peace. Peace is a state of mind. Money can only give you temporary relief from the problems you’ve in your life. If you’re facing many problems in your life, money won’t bring peace to your life.
Since it’s said that money cannot buy happiness and inner peace, people who have a lot of money aren’t always happy because they lack inner peace. Many people don’t have enough money to satisfy their basic needs, but still live happily and peacefully without fears for the future and live a stress-free life.
This means that money can only provide a temporary solution to problems, but will never bring lasting peace to our lives.
Money Cannot Buy Gratitude, Kindness, and Compassion
These are virtues and qualities that can only be gained from within. Kindness, compassion, and gratitude cannot be bought, even with the money of the world. They’re priceless!
People who have these virtues and good qualities are the real winners in life. This is because they know how to win people’s hearts. | no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | no_statement | "money" cannot "buy" "happiness". "happiness" cannot be bought with "money" | https://arrestyourdebt.com/money-doesnt-buy-happiness/ | 15 Reasons Money Doesn't Buy Happiness - Arrest Your Debt | “Money doesn’t buy happiness” is a common expression that has been around for centuries. It is often heard after someone has just won a lottery or inherited a fortune from a distant relative.
The phrase or proverb means that money cannot cure your suffering or fill your life with constant happiness.
Although the source for this meme is buried in obscurity, one possible source for it could be from the philosophical writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a Genevan philosopher who influenced the Enlightenment in Europe.
According to Gregory Y. Titelman in the “Random House Dictionary of Popular Proverbs and Sayings,” in 1950, Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote, “Money can buy material things, but real happiness must be truly earned.”
Is It True That Money Doesn’t Buy Happiness?
Based on your own personal experiences and observing the world around you, you must admit that there appears to be a certain grain of truth to it.
Well, in that case, money will make you happy for a short time. But, the biggest problem with being rich, whether someone has made their money over many years or has had a sudden windfall that made them rich overnight, is that even having enough money to take care of all the necessities of life is not enough to make anyone happy – all the time.
The Following Are 15 Reasons Why Wealthier People Are Not Always Happier
Before you start focusing your life on making more money, check out these reasons why money doesn’t buy happiness.
1. Money Often Isn’t Enough To Buy Happiness
Why do they say money can’t buy happiness? Because money doesn’t buy happiness, but it helps make life easier. One problem is that often money can’t buy the one thing that really matters in life: happiness. Another problem is that we don’t ’t always know what will make us happy.
Money can buy many material items, but for some little-known reason, it appears the more money people earn, the more they want. Paradoxically, too, people who are not prosperous rarely have high expectations in life and find happiness in simple pleasures.
We may think money will make us happy, but it doesn’t appear to work that way. Money can’t buy happiness. So when we think of money as a measure of happiness, it turns out that more money doesn’t mean more happiness.
Perhaps what we really need is to be content with our lives and to find meaning within ourselves. What’s more, finding meaning within ourselves is more important than chasing the next high, and we should be content with developing our talents.
2. Money Only Provides Fleeting Pleasure
True happiness arises from within, not from without. Happiness is a matter of perspective and attitude. It is not a goal that can be attained by simply purchasing an expensive item, but it can be found inside you by embracing gratitude and optimism.
Finding true happiness means understanding that the material things we think will make us happy don’t actually bring lasting joy.
Wealthy people – like rock stars, movie icons, and sports legends – are frequently in the media explaining how they had tried to find happiness through affairs, expensive purchases, and other material pursuits but fell short and are now more empty than before.
Despite their jet-setting lifestyles, living in mansions, driving the most sophisticated cars in the world, and traveling in elite social circles, they didn’t find fulfillment. Their wealth and influence never made much of a difference to their sense of life satisfaction. Elvis Presley, for example, despite his fame, fortune, and charming life, died young because of his addiction to opiates.
When people bet money on experiences that should make them happy, they often come up short.
One reason suggested for this dissatisfaction is the “hedonic treadmill.”
The hedonic treadmill is the idea that we can never really be satisfied with our current level of consumption because we are always thinking about what we don’t have. As a result, people on a hedonic treadmill become increasingly bored, irritated, and dissatisfied with everything.
4. Money Can’t Buy The Best Relationships In The World
Money can buy a lot of things, but not everything. A happy family, for example, is something you cannot buy. You must work hard to build a good relationship. Often the truth of the undercurrents of a relationship is masked from the public. Most people, for example, thought Bill and Melinda Gates had a perfect relationship until they announced a surprise divorce.
Relationships are not the only source of happiness in life, but there is often a high correlation between healthy relationships and happiness. We should never underestimate what relationships mean to people. That’s why we should always acknowledge that relationships take time and patience and that money alone will not magically make everything always work out for us.
5. Money Doesn’t Automatically Create A Sense Of Meaning Or Purpose In Life
Money can give you the security, freedom, and time to define your cores values, identify deeper meaning in your life, and find your purpose, but it’s up to you to decide what lights up your life and pursue it with everything you have. And you can explore what is most important to you with or without money.
What’s more, not only does having plenty of money have nothing to do with the happiness of living a passionate life, but it can even have the opposite effect, too.
For instance, money can bring about more debt and worry, which leads to unhappiness. Or it can lead people into temptation – such as substance abuse and gambling addiction.
6. Money Won’t Buy You More Time Than Anyone Else
We all want more time to do the things we love, but money doesn’t buy us more time than anyone else. In fact, the pursuit of money can itself become time-consuming.
We might think that since working long, hard hours at a job to earn more money gives us a sense of accomplishment, it means that our time was well spent, time worth something. But in reality, our time is always invaluable since we are only here on earth for a brief lifetime. Therefore, you should not be laboring under the false idea that if you are compensated for your labor, you have made good use of your time.
7. Money Doesn’t Solve All Your Problems
In 1929, he shorted the stock market and made $100 million. Then in 1934, he lost most of his money. Six years later, he committed suicide. He considered himself poor but, in fact, still had an estate worth $5 million. In today’s money, that would be about $86 million.
The reason he committed suicide was that he considered himself a failure in life. His tragic ending is a clear statement that money is not a cure to all of life’s problems, especially those related to psychological issues like self-worth.
Money provides many social advantages that may not be as readily available without it, but money won’t solve all of your problems. Nor will it be able to heal your psychological wounds.
Some people see money as a fix for all their issues in life, inner turmoil, and outer obstacles, but it never is the answer to everything.
8. Money Will Not Make You Feel Positive About Everything
Money is not a panacea for all problems. What truly matters is a person’s mindset and attitude. Money matters in our lives because it can provide us with many things that we need to live well, but money alone cannot buy happiness. Both the rich and the poor have sad days.
People find happiness when they spend their money on things that give them pleasure, but pleasure should not be mistaken for the happiness of a well-lived life, a life filled with positive feelings.
Speaking of happiness and positive feelings, the recognition of happiness is actually a subject of scientific research. The new field of positive psychology has revolutionized psychology, which until this time had focused on abnormal psychology.
Now, an entirely new area of psychology has emerged in which the nature of the brain and the origins of happiness can be understood.
It concluded that people need three things to be happy:
Good relationships
Rewarding work
Personal growth
One of their findings was that happy people make more money, but money does not make people happy. In other words, most people have the happiness equation in reverse.
Psychologists have studied the personal experience of many volunteers and concluded that there is a strong correlation between happiness and positive thinking. In other words, the key to happiness is often linked to having a positive attitude about everything, even things that at first appear problematic.
Money can’t buy happiness, but if you manage your money well, it can help you achieve financial stability, which is a platform from which to look for happiness
9. Money Does Not Always Promote Better Health
In many countries, many wealthy people are in poor health, even though they have a lot of money.
We should see the correlation between money and health as one between the resources of a society and the quality of life available to the people who live there.
For example, in an affluent society, there may be excellent medical care, but an overindulgence in tasty but unhealthy foods.
So, while wealthier people can afford excellent medical coverage, they might not be disciplined enough to practice preventative health by eating highly nutritious meals and exercising regularly.
In essence, while money can buy excellent health, many wealthy people are not interested in it. Warren Buffett, for instance, who ranks among the richest persons on earth, has a notoriously unhealthy diet. He loves Coca-Cola, burgers, candy, and many other foods that nutritionists label as “junk food.”
He relishes foods that nutritionists warn people to avoid as much as possible due to their high levels of sugar, salt, and saturated fats.
10. Money Is Not Correlated With Personal Or Spiritual Growth
Personal growth is all about improving our habits, while spiritual growth is all about finding a deeper purpose in life. Money has nothing to do with self-improvement or acquiring spiritual wisdom. Worse still, the pursuit of money sometimes impedes the pursuit of these ideals.
Instead of pursuing personal or spiritual growth, many people prefer to spend all their time and energy chasing money.
Personal development is pivotal for happiness and success – things that money can’t buy. Some of life’s most important things cannot be measured in dollars. These are often things related to developing core values that come from coping with difficult experiences in life.
Spiritual development is often associated with developing core values, humanitarian values like love, compassion, patience, empathy, and tolerance.
11. Money Does Not Free You From Anxiety
While having more disposable income will help you get many things that improve your quality of life, money can’t buy many of the things that ease the pressures of life, such as true friendship, the love of your family and friends, and psychological freedom from mental health issues like bipolar disorder.
Money is not the only solution to your worries. There are other ways you can find peace, like meditation and yoga. The truth is that money won’t solve all of your problems. Money cannot buy happiness or keep you from worrying about the future. So we have to rely on other tools to find peace and contentment in our lives.
Your level of happiness depends on having more positive emotions like hope and optimism than negative emotions like anxiety. Happy feelings are powerful emotions that can have positive impacts on your health and well-being.
To understand what it takes for psychological freedom from anxiety, it’s important to look at the components that make up your day-to-day life. It’s also important to develop core values like gratitude and mindfulness to combat anxiety. Although material possessions come and go with the ebb and flow of life, an even-tempered temperament can last a lifetime.
The pursuit of money often creates anxiety because there is always the possibility of losing money. The richest person you know probably spends most of their time solving business problems rather than pleasant activities.
Many business news stories also suggest that successful Wall Street bankers endure incredible stress every day. Those who are trying to save and skimp on getting more money also do not always enjoy life.
12. Money Provides Temporary Happiness
Money can make us happy, but it depends on how we spend our money. For example, spending money on experiences like traveling or going to concerts boosts happiness, while buying material items like clothes or furniture does not create lasting happiness. Therefore, positive psychologists recommend you take some time to think about what you would spend money on to maximize your happiness.
According to a Princeton University study, your level of happiness will go up until you earn about $75,000 a year. After that, your mood levels off. You begin to take for granted your ability to care for all the necessities of life with ease.
The majority of us believe we’d be happier if we had more disposable income. Money can buy security, but as the Princeton studies show, people who earn enough to live without worrying about money don’t get increasingly happier the more they earn.
Money allows you to get what you want in life when you are struggling financially, but that doesn’t mean money always makes you happy or is the only thing that makes you happy. You are much more likely to be happy if you are grateful for everything in your life, especially the love and support of your family and friends.
While reaching a certain level of financial security is comforting, it doesn’t create a feeling of never-ending contentment. Money can buy you more lucky breaks if you don’t have food, water, shelter, clothes, or a sense of security. Still, beyond meeting your basic needs and purchasing luxurious things with your disposable income, money can’t do much more for you.
Still, it’s only fair to say that initially, when you are coming into money after bitter personal experiences arising from a lack of it, money brings some short-lived happiness.
For instance, if you have been unemployed for a while and land a great job after months of searching, one of the biggest thrills in life is when you see money in your bank account as a reward for your hard work.
Unfortunately, your positive psychological emotion eventually reaches its peak. But in the beginning, when money showed up in your bank account, and you could spend money on things that made you temporarily happier, having plenty of surplus money was great.
Money can’t buy happiness in the long run, but it can help make life easier. These feelings are transient, but while they last, it feels good to have money.
13. Money Can Keep You Stuck In Emotional Immaturity
It takes a great deal of emotional maturity to be sensible about money. Unfortunately, a lack of emotional maturity can often be seen in lottery winners. After receiving the big check, many people spend it on one frivolous purchase after another because they don’t know how to handle an overwhelming amount of money.
Often, wealthy people have an immature view of money and hold beliefs that make no sense to poorer people. There are many wealthy people who feel they don’t have enough money because they know other people with even more money. Their constant desire for more cannot be sated.
Emotional immaturity around money arises because society conditions people to have an insatiable desire for more money and prosperity.
14. Money Can Attract Insincere, Disingenuous, And Dangerous People
With more money, the chances of attracting the wrong people increase. People who care only about getting money from you will be drawn to your business. They don’t care about your core values and will frequently engage in unethical behavior to gain an advantage over you.
Although wealth does not guarantee happiness, it still attracts people who are after your fortune. Wealthy people often need to be cautious about unscrupulous individuals they attract. They often have to be careful when meeting strangers or taking risks on unsound business ideas pitched to them.
15. Money Won’t Compensate For Low Self-Worth
Self-worth is one of the most important aspects of our lives; it should not be overlooked or underestimated at any cost. The risk of being exploited or taken advantage of will always exist when you have low self-worth.
It’s important to have high self-esteem and to love and respect yourself. Self-worth should not be the center of every decision in your life, but it definitely affects your decisions.
Money gives you more of who you are. If you have high self-worth, you will get even more when you earn more. Conversely, if you have low self-worth, you will use your money to cover it up, but it still lurks beneath the surface.
Money Doesn’t Buy Happiness, But It Helps
The psychology of money is very complex. We see money as a source of power, a signifier of status, and a symbol of the esteem in which others hold us.
Money is a powerful thing. It can influence every decision we make in life. But we may be misinterpreting how it can benefit us. It provides for our physical well-being but only touches on our emotional health.
Considering all the reasons money does not buy happiness, it’s tempting to conclude that poorer people have higher happiness levels and fewer mental health issues. This, of course, is not true.
The pursuit of money is one of the necessities of life – without it, it’s difficult to get food, shelter, healthcare, or other basic needs. High or low social status does not make one happier or more miserable. For this reason, it’s not useful to adopt a negative attitude toward money.
While you don’t want to make money your only focus in life, you should not consider poverty a virtue either. People who insist that money cannot buy happiness associate money with existential misery.
If you can overcome any unrealistic beliefs about money, considering it either the source of happiness or the root cause of misery, your heart will be filled with appreciation for all the things you have in life, whether it is a lot or a little. You will understand that true happiness comes from making peace with your life.
Ultimately, money and our attitude towards it are always nuanced issues. We need money to buy some things in life, but it does not always bring us happiness.
Final Thoughts
Money is a hot topic these days. So naturally, we all want to know how we can make more of it.
For instance, this economic downturn has made many people focus on saving money and being thrifty. The result is that they are looking at the world with a new appreciation for what they have and what they don’t need in their lives.
This shows that people’s attitude to money is not as simple as just wanting more of it or trying to spend less of it. Instead, it changes according to the circumstances that we find ourselves in.
There is so much confusion around money because there are so many misconceptions about it.
Money is a taboo subject that we shy away from talking about. We are more likely to talk about death or intimate relationships than what our salary is. This, combined with the fact that we need money to survive, clarifies why this topic has been neglected for so long and how detrimental this is to society.
It is time for us to face this reality and start addressing the issues which have gone unnoticed for so long.
One of the biggest misconceptions about attitudes towards money is that there are two camps: people who believe it brings happiness, and people who think that happiness is just an insider job that has little to do with how much or how little money a person has.
In short, there’s very little middle ground. But, in reality, it’s more nuanced than that – there’s actually a whole spectrum of attitudes towards money. Some people just like having lots of money and others don’t think much about it at all.
About The Author
Courtney Luke is a mother of three, wife, financial coach, and married to a full-time police lieutenant. Her inspirational story about her struggle to make ends meet, to paying off their home in less than 10 years, has been featured on MarketWatch, Fox Business, MSN, and other media outlets.To learn more about Courtney, head over to her about me page.
All Content on this Site is information of a general nature and does not address the circumstances of any particular individual or entity. Nothing in the Site constitutes professional and/or financial advice, nor does any information on the Site constitute a comprehensive or complete statement of the matters discussed or the law relating thereto. | “Money doesn’t buy happiness” is a common expression that has been around for centuries. It is often heard after someone has just won a lottery or inherited a fortune from a distant relative.
The phrase or proverb means that money cannot cure your suffering or fill your life with constant happiness.
Although the source for this meme is buried in obscurity, one possible source for it could be from the philosophical writings of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a Genevan philosopher who influenced the Enlightenment in Europe.
According to Gregory Y. Titelman in the “Random House Dictionary of Popular Proverbs and Sayings,” in 1950, Jean-Jacques Rousseau wrote, “Money can buy material things, but real happiness must be truly earned.”
Is It True That Money Doesn’t Buy Happiness?
Based on your own personal experiences and observing the world around you, you must admit that there appears to be a certain grain of truth to it.
Well, in that case, money will make you happy for a short time. But, the biggest problem with being rich, whether someone has made their money over many years or has had a sudden windfall that made them rich overnight, is that even having enough money to take care of all the necessities of life is not enough to make anyone happy – all the time.
The Following Are 15 Reasons Why Wealthier People Are Not Always Happier
Before you start focusing your life on making more money, check out these reasons why money doesn’t buy happiness.
1. Money Often Isn’t Enough To Buy Happiness
Why do they say money can’t buy happiness? Because money doesn’t buy happiness, but it helps make life easier. One problem is that often money can’t buy the one thing that really matters in life: happiness. Another problem is that we don’t ’t always know what will make us happy.
Money can buy many material items, but for some little-known reason, it appears the more money people earn, the more they want. Paradoxically, too, people who are not prosperous rarely have high expectations in life and find happiness in simple pleasures.
We may think money will make us happy, but it doesn’t appear to work that way. | no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | no_statement | "money" cannot "buy" "happiness". "happiness" cannot be bought with "money" | https://upjourney.com/why-money-cant-buy-happiness | 21 Reasons Why Money Can't Buy Happiness. Experts Say... | 1. Money can perhaps buy you some happiness but it all depends on how you spend it
The challenge with “money can’t buy happiness” is that it’s only partly correct. When we think typically about spending money, we tend to think about spending money on stuff – a new car, a new TV, the latest sound-canceling headphones and so on.
However, as human beings with complex brains, we also adapt to new things in our environment remarkably well over time.
That “new” TV? At some point, you get used to the larger size, the high-quality definition, the excellent sound quality, and it’s just the TV now. That “new” car? At some point, you get used to the heated lush seats, the backup camera, the great satellite radio, and the other great features, and it’s just the car now.
When you use your money to buy material things, we adapt.
Psychologists call this the “hedonic treadmill” – we get used to new things, and they become “old things” and we decide that we need even newer things to replace them.
Another reason that buying stuff won’t make us happy is that we tend to compare ourselves to those around us – our family, our neighbors, Hollywood stars, people in ads, and so on.
We see something new on TV and think that you have to have this new facial cream or this new cereal because someone else has it and they look happy. Comparisons are insidious and quite often harmful to our well-being, especially if we see ourselves on the losing side.
2. Buying new stuff won’t fill that gap in our self-esteem or in our self-worth
All that said, there are ways in which you can spend your money which is more likely to lead to happiness and well-being: experiences and donations. When you spend money on an experience, like a trip or an outing to a museum, there are several things going on which can increase your happiness.
You are getting out of the house and experiencing something that is new. Our brains like novelty.
You may be engaging with other people. Traveling with friends or family, taking your aunt to the museum. Our brains enjoy positive social interaction with others; it’s critical for our well-being.
You also create positive memories which you can reflect on later, leading to more sustainable well-being and happiness. When on a trip. you may take pictures and share them with others, creating even more positive social bonds.
The bottom line then is that money can perhaps buy you some happiness – but it all depends on how you spend it.
3. You can get stuck in a cycle of constantly wanting to accumulate more
What really affects our happiness more than how much money we have or make is our attitude toward money and the way that we handle it. So it is very important to develop the right attitude toward money and keep in in a healthy place.
If you stick to the belief that money directly determines happiness, you can get stuck in a cycle of constantly wanting to accumulate more. More money, more stuff, but never feeling like it’s enough.
According to work done by Dr. Sonja Lyubomirsky (a psychology professor who studies happiness), happiness is determined by 50% genetics, 40% intentional activity (habitual thoughts, words, and actions), and only 10% circumstances, which includes wealth.
This means that you can control a lot of your happiness, and only a very small percentage is actually tied to how much money you have.
Steps to take to develop the right attitude toward money:
Do all you can to make sure your basic needs are being met, and save enough cash to have available in the event of an emergency.
Don’t make comparisons to others, instead focus on the positive things in your life. Feel gratitude and show appreciation by writing thank you cards, or giving back to the community.
Spend your time and energy on experiences that will create memories instead of stuff. Focus on connecting with your community and nature.
Think of financial well-being as the new goal, because most likely you can have it before you have large amounts of money.
Money doesn’t grow on trees nor does it magically appear out of an ATM. We are always in pursuit of happiness yet we often forget that money has no correlation to it.
Have you ever taken a moment and looked back on your life experiences, achievements, purchases, and memories and wished you would have bought more stuff?
Take a moment and look at the things you have spent money on recently. Most of us will find that we have spent much more on items that we have on experiences. Do you still have those items? Are they still in good shape or even usable? Do they make you happy? If you had the same opportunity to buy that same item(s) again – would you?
Often times we purchase something because we feel that physical item will last longer and make us happier than an experience that happens just once.
However, that assumption is false.
Research from the San Francisco State University in 2016 found that people who spent money on experiences rather than material items were happier and felt the money was better spent.
We never want to live life with regrets but many times we later regret the money we spent on things that we really didn’t need or want. It was an impulse buy. Perhaps to feel better about ourselves. The one true way to actually boost our confidence is to find a way to make ourselves happy and that often times is by experiencing something.
4. Experiences really are much more important than material goods
This idea has long been the domain of Cornell psychology professor Thomas Gilovich. It’s not only living in the moment but also the anticipation of the experience.
Things such as trips, concerts, movie, adventures really start giving you happiness the minute you plan it, not only when you are actually experiencing it. We have always thought that experiences were the foundation of our happiness which is why we started the “Live It List.”
The idea of this list is based on the common Bucket List – however, because of the negative connotation surrounding why you make a Bucket List, we re-branded it into a “Live It List”.
5. Happiness comes from within and nothing external
Money can’t buy happiness simply because happiness is an emotional state that we get in to by doing certain things, thinking about situations and even feel in ways that trigger our happiness.
And all of the above can’t really be bought. So if we can’t buy what produces the feeling and emotion of happiness we can’t buy happiness either.
For example the biggest trap almost everybody will fall in to for a period of time in life is the “if-then trap”. If I get this I will feel that or when I achieve x,y,z I will be happy or excited. Unfortunately or not it doesn’t work this way. The reality when it comes to happiness is that we must be able to feel it at this moment, right now!
Additionally, happiness comes from within and nothing external, as far as I am concerned we can’t really buy someone’s spirit.
Talking from personal experience, chasing anything, either that is happiness, success, love, anything! Will most likely get us in trouble and make us realize that what we were chasing was there in the first place anyway. Sometimes though for some people is essential to go through this process in order to realize this simple and not easy at all concept.
Happiness in my humble opinion comes simply from doing what we enjoy, like and love for as much time as possible.
That in combination with managing our expectations and our beliefs about how things SHOULD be in our life can create a very fertile ground to constantly plant little mustard seeds of happiness which eventually will grow and germinate into emotions of bliss, contentment, peace, excitement, enthusiasm, freedom and many more!
The key to happiness, if I may suggest, is practicing gratitude and contributing in other people’s lives in as many ways possible and as often as possible until it becomes as it was meant to be; natural/pure caring for others as well as for yourself.
6. Money brings with it lots of strings and sometimes disingenuine people
The sentiment that money can’t buy happiness has been around for decades. Often, those who are struggling with their finances will scoff at it, thinking that they would be happier with more money, less debt, etc.
Don’t get me wrong – having money is helpful. Knowing that your bills will be paid each month, that you’re working towards paying down your debts, and that you have extra leftover to save and spend can certainly reduce stress.
But at the end of the day, money only gets you so far.
You have to be happy in the first place, adding money certainly takes some issues out of the blender of life, but without being truly happy inside the money will not solve that issue.
In my practice, people tend to come to me and say if I could only get my debt resolved and have money I’d be happy.
We resolve the debt but that doesn’t mean it makes people happier, it sometimes just is another thing people want to get done like a project.
The reality is that happiness is internal and comes from a deep understanding of your true self and that takes time for many people to come to terms with understanding what they need and want.
Money certainly helps make things easier in life, but it does add complications, higher bills often and bigger obligations along with more detailed money management that can be something overwhelming and beyond one’s ability to deal with.
Also, money brings with it lots of strings and sometimes disingenuine people. It’s something that you need to be aware of that there are people who then try to take advantage too with more money.
It’s the same issue with lottery winners and why they get the money and it’s gone fast, but it doesn’t make them happier people inside.
7. Happiness is elusive when you are working long and tiring hours
All too often, a higher salary is equated with a greater sense of accomplishment, and with this, a greater sense of happiness. Why, then, are so many high-flying executives so stressed and detached?
Happiness is elusive when you are working long and tiring hours, no matter how well paid your position is. A higher salary involves pay-offs, whether it be sacrificing your personal time for family, friends, and hobbies, or accepting that your personal identity separate from work will be diminished.
Well-paid workers can too easily become cogs in a machine, exerting all their efforts for the benefit of management. Happiness hinges on a number of variables that can’t all be fulfilled by money.
Our self-perception, the meaning we derive from our everyday activities, and our relationships with the others around us are all central to happiness. Money can’t buy you happiness if you forfeit these factors in order to bump up your bank balance.
Happiness is partially independent of money. You need to have a certain amount of money to be happy but beyond a point, money can’t be the source of happiness because the happiness derived from money is short-lived and is materialistic.
8. The definition of happiness changes for you from time to time
When you are earning enough that you should be with factors like age, education, and experience, you will no longer derive happiness from money.
You might as well be sitting on a pile of cash but you will think of all the time and energies that you have spent in earning that money and at what cost?- the time and energies which you could have devoted to your family, yourself, or as a fuel to your passions.
This reminds me of a quote from Dalai Lama, “Man. Because he sacrifices his health in order to make money. Then he sacrifices money to recuperate his health.”
Long-term relationships and meaningful work will take over money as the primary sources of happiness for you- like great relationships with friends, colleagues, boss, and family members who you are sure to fall back on when things go wrong or in case you are facing some temporary setbacks or having a work environment that inspires and motivates you to work harder and be more productive.
A great work-life balance where you have enough time to pursue your passions and sit back and relax is another facet of happiness and money has no hand in these factors.
Happiness, in my viewpoint, is the perfect harmony of money and intangible things in life.
To best exemplify such a situation, take, for example, if you are very comfortable in your current organization and you have good camaraderie with colleagues and managers, the location is near to your place, and other such plus points but you are underpaid presently, you will not be happy.
Compare that to suddenly shifting to a new place which will make you uncomfortable for maybe 3-4 months and you might call yourself unhappy.
But you are paid according to market standards and your expectations and after spending a considerable amount of time in your new company with new great relationships and a great compensation, you will start being happy again.
Money seems to be the pinnacle of all life and happiness. Everywhere money is worshiped even in Vatican City.
Our planet is built on a dollar note and there is no dressing this embarrassing truth. The rich are gods, the human deities our societies idolize. The magazines sell only when the back pages are emblazoned with the smiles of the affluent.
The CEOs of the Fortune companies, the mega-celebrities with the White House as their casual balcony. The leaders of huge industries rich enough to have the Super Bowl placed in their bedroom!
9. The money will never give you happiness and fulfillment, rather it will kidnap it from you
Agreed, the world is gushing with the love of money. The poor have no place in society, being poor is a cardinal sin. Yet money is never a foolproof guarantee of peace. There are those still shedding tears in their bullion vans.
There are hordes of rich men crazily affluent enough to flush their toilet with the costliest champagne. Yet they would readily swap all they have with the commonest man on earth just in exchange for a true smile.
Sadly wealth is a palace and a prison on its own. The latter the world’s largest penitentiary buzzing with those who have allowed money to overcome.
Why do you hear of millionaires still committing suicide if money was the most impregnable fortress of happiness?
The worst way to wreck your true happiness is to allow money to consume you. The love of money is a terminal disease you will barely be healed of.
Your innate peace would easily become wrecked when you allow money to overtake you and bond you. You easily lose focus in the most important things of life like family, joy, charity etc.
Do you know what? Money readily incarcerates you in financial gluttony. You want a million dollar and the next second you want another after getting the first.
Financial gratification is so ephemeral as the more money you get, the more insatiable your love for money grows.
It is a labyrinth the wealthy are wailing endlessly to come out from. Therefore, don’t the dollar is the ultimate currency that would buy you life and joy. At most such pleasures would be becoming dismally ephemeral with the flair in them quickly evaporating away over time.
And then the pain, depression, gloom engulf you like a private Hurricane Katrina and you look to the endless digits in your bank yet no relief from the storm!
10. Money is just a tool in our lives
Any sociology or psychology student will have come across Maslow’s hierarchy of needs at some point in their studies. Perhaps you are familiar with them too.
In case you are not, Maslow, a renowned American Psychologist, created a system to classify the universal needs we all face as humans living in society.
The needs are (as ranked from most fundamental to higher-level needs):
Physiological (food, shelter, etc..)
Safety
Love/belonging
Esteem
Self-actualization
Money is just a tool in our lives that enable us to achieve the first two levels of our hierarchical needs.
With money, you can buy groceries, a house, the latest security system, whatever.
But that is as far as money can take us. Money alone cannot help us to develop esteem or to achieve self-actualization; if it could, every millionaire in the world would be immensely happy.
Someone who successfully starts a business they are passionate about and becomes rich along the way may be immensely happy and reach self-actualization, but it is the journey that allowed them to do so, not just the financial gain.
11. Having money does not give your life meaning or purpose
I started a global branding and marketing firm 17 years ago and in my experience working on Wall Street in the 80s and working at 3 startups that all had good exits I have seen a lot of people with tremendous financial success not be happy.
Money makes a lot of things nicer and easier in your life, you can pay your bills, live in a bigger place, drive a better car, take fancier vacations, buy more things, etc.
It can attract the wrong people for the wrong reasons, and it can cause you to make irresponsible decisions because you can afford it.
I have found that when people become financially successful they tend to be more intense versions of themselves so if they were kind and philanthropic before now they can do more but if they were jerks before now they are bigger jerks unfortunately who feel they can be.
12. Money won’t provide deep, abiding happiness
Money is good for many things and can allow one to have many things – new cars, bigger houses, jewels, theater tickets, a private island, etc. All sorts of things that must be guarded, maintained, fussed over, and that, while providing moments of happiness, won’t provide deep, abiding happiness.
We have a nice starter home and a lot of stuff. I like our home, but I hate the stuff. It shrinks the space and creates clutter.
A good bit of it was given to us or we’ve had for a while, but there’s no happiness in seeing it. No, happiness comes in the silly moments, the kitchen mishaps, the day-to-day experiences of our life as a family.
Were I not to home educate my daughters and re-enter the corporate working world, we’d have more money for more stuff, but we would lose a great number of experiences.
While sometimes (often) people need money to have experiences, it is these experiences that provide both joy at the moment and happy memories.
I don’t remember every Broadway touring company’s production of the top plays I’ve ever seen, but I remember almost every moment of a regional theater’s production of “The Best Christmas Pageant Ever” I saw 20 years ago.
That trip is a tradition for us and involves building and creating memories. It was one year when time and funds were tight that we had to alter our usual customs and serendipitously met a lovely family who became friends and was part of the happiness-of-experience this year.
13. While we do need money to live, we need a great many other things to be happy
There are many dimensions to happiness, and fulfilling our personal values is certainly one of them. And, within the realm of values, money is only one type of motivator. For some people, money and financial security may indeed be a top value, and for others, it may be lower on their list.
In either case, every person has multiple core values, and they each fulfill us in different ways.
So, when we want to examine what truly motivates us, we have to really spend some time exploring those motivations in a thoughtful and meaningful way.
Social psychologist, Dr. Shalom H. Schwartz, theorized a values framework of 57 core values that are the primary drivers of human motivation. The value of “wealth” is only one value in his framework. This means there are 56 other really good reasons your happiness may be sourced from an entirely different motivation.
While we do need money to live, we often need a great many other things to be happy.
Money for many people is just a tool used to help them honor more important values that drive their happiness.
14. Happiness is internal = Money is external
Let me explain. True joy or happiness comes from within. I feel happy because I accomplished. I feel ecstatic because my spouse did this. I feel joy being with my kids. I feel content that I am following my dream.
External forces can affect this, but ultimately the FEELING comes from within.
These are feelings that come from within, feelings that are deeply rooted in the human experience and are only achieved with being in the moment, with seeing the blessings around us.
These feelings can be triggered or enhanced by the people around us, yes, but ultimately they are experienced inside of our own selves.
Money, on the other hand, is external. It doesn’t exist within – you can’t take it with you when you sleep, you can’t take it with you when you die.
It can solve certain problems, yes – case in point is financial woes, and in some circumstances, to some extent, money can help buy a person’s way out of problems (legal troubles, debt, health issues, cosmetic issues). But money can’t do everything.
Money can affect internal feelings, but it isn’t a LASTING effect.
“I feel better because I went shopping.” This can create a euphoric feeling, but it is temporary. If there was emptiness before, it WILL remain after the temporary euphoria subsides.
15. Money can’t replace the feeling of being loved
All the money in the world is worthless if you can’t feel loved. If you can’t internalize a feeling. Money exists outside of every one of us. It is, unfortunately, a necessary component to living.
Yes, money can help ease stress, to a point. Money can even make life easier – to a point. But money cannot buy the feeling of happiness.
16. Only you can achieve happiness
Notice the good in your life. See how others care about you. Be grateful for what you have. Be optimistic for the future, no matter how bleak the present.
Do the things you love, spend more time on what fulfills you. Create more of an internal experience for yourself, and be in the moment, and you will find it easier to experience happiness. Create more of an external experience for yourself (read: spend money), and life will continue to feel empty.
17. Working in our passions is the source of true happiness
In today’s society, the thought that money is the source and or needed for one’s personal happiness is quite a popular belief, but it just isn’t true.
Have you ever seen people in extreme poverty in love? They could care less that they just have the basics, they don’t check their bank account before doing the do and possibly making a baby, and they sure as hell don’t care that they can’t afford to go on a luxury vacation.
How is that possible??? It sure seems impossible to the majority of us who find ourselves in the middle class, we can’t seem to find this level of love and happiness.
The truth plainly put is because we’ve lost sight of ourselves, what’s really important and are trapped in the rat race of life.
As a Mommy Growth Coach, I work with mothers on a daily basis, and the number one question I ask them is are you happy. 95% of the time the answer is no, they begin to list all the things that would make them happy: spending more time with their children and family, flexibility in their schedule, doing the things they are passionate about and then somewhere down the list they equate all that to mean they need more money.
The first thing I do is help them unpack the crazy ideology that society has fed us and we’ve bought that more money equals more time and freedom and will allow us to create the life we truly desire.
The only people that more money allows that for is people with crazy amounts of money, I’m not talking about your average promotion, raise or even entrepreneur nope that only applies to millionaires and billionaires.
So what is the average man and woman supposed to do?
Honestly, when you reconnect with who you are at your core, the soul and essence of yourself you will begin to find the time to do the things that light your soul. When we work in our passions, purpose and with our gifts we will find ourselves happier, more energized and truly in love not just with our mate but our own lives.
This is the source of true happiness and can be found no matter how many commas you have in the bank even if you don’t have any.
18. The happiness that you think money will bring is usually only temporary
True happiness, the elusive kind is actually found internally and is called Joy, it is cultivated. The happiness we imagine it is based on materialism, relationships and other tangibles that breakdown, fade and lose their luster.
At the moment all of these things cause a gleam in the eye, rose-colored vision and other physiologic signs of wellbeing, but the moment passes and what’s left is emptiness, bitterness, and loss of hope.
This has been my experience as a physician. What money can do, is buy time to pursue hobbies that nurture the soul, activities that entertain the bored, vacations that give an escape, time for friends and family that can mend a broken heart and offer charitable contributions that fulfill the altruistic.
19. Money can’t buy happiness because the best gifts in life aren’t physical
Rather, genuine relationships and emotionally present friendships. Simply by being yourself your gift of presence is enough. Even the most expensive gift can have no meaning if the giver has no emotional connection with the recipient.
The smallest gift can have a huge amount of meaning when backed by a genuine, loving relationship that’s a combination of physical, emotional and spiritual aspects.
Even the fanciest gift will become old over time, so if you are going to give an expensive gift, give an experience such as concert tickets, a vacation to share, or another memory that can be talked about for years after.
20. Contentment, regardless of financial state is a more, pertinent contributor to one’s happiness
Money is a useful tool in life, but it can’t buy happiness. If someone can find contentment in their current station of life, they’ll be able to be content should they become wealthier or poorer.
Contentment and gratefulness also go hand-in-hand.
If one is thankful for what they have, they typically will be content and won’t view money as the key to being happy. If one leans too heavily on money for their happiness and what that money can buy, they can often find themselves not content regardless of how much they buy and own.
21. Money can’t buy you and your loved one’s health
You can have all the money in the world, but if you or those around you aren’t in good health, what is it good for? You don’t want to end up being the richest person in the graveyard, because that is a lonely path to go down.
Giving up on your health in the pursuit of money is a bad idea. Health comes first because, without it, it’ll be hard to achieve full happiness and fulfillment, especially if those health issues came from the stress of pursuit to money.
Sure, money can help you afford better food and care, but it only goes so far. At some point, money can’t buy health, and without good health, you’ll be less happy.
All in all, money can’t buy you and your loved one’s health. Without health, you’ll find yourself struggling to be truly happy.
I’ve always said that there’s not much fun in owning a Rolls Royce if your only opportunity to use it is to drive to work. Having the money to buy nice things isn’t too satisfying when you don’t have the time to go shopping and buy the treats that make you feel happy.
At some companies, dealing with the extra stress and responsibilities of high paying jobs can require staff to work extra hours at the office on evenings and sometimes weekends, which can have an impact on their happiness.
It’s a common issue that arises with the top-paying jobs and one that we aim to prevent it from becoming a problem here at Ben Sherman.
This doesn’t mean offering overly flashy or gimmicky bonuses that staff doesn’t really want, it’s about creating a working atmosphere that is enjoyable and calming to work in and ensuring they get a sufficient amount of downtime.
We insist that our staff go home at the end of their shifts and don’t allow them to work outside their allocated working hours.
We also offer a holiday allowance that is flexible and allows them to take the time they need when they need it. It is important to us that our staff get their downtime, unwind and remain happy workers.
Dylan Wittman
Lifestyle and Personal Finance Blogger, Traveler Info Hub
The truth is money isn’t everything, but it’s something.
While money can’t directly buy you happiness, it can indirectly. Money, comfort, security, and happiness are all interconnected.
You could have had the most horrible stress-ridden day, but take a drive in your car with the windows down, playing your favorite song.
The unhappiness kind of melts away gradually. Of course, it didn’t come free. It takes gasoline, maintenance, car insurance bills, a place to park the car, etc.
According to Business Insider, 82% of the wealthy are happy, while 98% of the poor are unhappy.
One reason why both wealthy and poor people say “money can’t buy happiness” is because even though you have money, all people, despite social status or wealth, all suffer from the same usual problems.
A wealthier person may have better-living conditions but health problems can arise in anyone.
There’s also relationship problems, mental health issues, family members making bad choices, the sacrifice of working a job you really hate for wealth, your neighborhood, car accidents, and the list goes on and on.
As an entrepreneur, I’ve had time to reflect on this, and as I look back over the years when we are lean compared to know when we are doing well, I can see now that money was the draw but not the point.
For me, it’s been the pursuit of money and all that this entails: the planning sessions, the charting out of how we would grow and the brainstorming of new marketing ideas and the times along the way when we’ve we realized that it was time to hire new employees because we had grown larger than we could handle with our current staff.
It has been those efforts to grow something beyond just ourselves that have made us the happiest.
Money just buys things, not experiences, and it’s the experiences that truly make us feel something, whether that be happy or another feeling altogether.
In the course of interviewing over 70 successful people for the Inspired Money podcast, I’ve found that money is a tool.
While money can provide opportunity, comfort, and choice in one’s life, the happiness gained when buying material things is usually fleeting and not long-lasting.
Many people mistakenly believe that buying more stuff will bring them happiness when in fact giving money away to causes aligned with your values, helping people, and contributing to something bigger than oneself more often brings true contentment and fulfillment.
A person who spends endless hours working to make money, but has little time to relax and enjoy the fruits of their labor is not happy.
Happiness is a choice and comes from the satisfaction of your ability to be content with life.
You can be happy from notable accomplishments, such as graduating with a Ph.D. degree, or for smaller accomplishments, such as waking up early to workout and exercise.
But happiness is always a choice.
It’s not caused by an external event, rather, it’s an internal decision. You can decide to be depressed on a Tuesday because the skies are gray and it’s raining, or you can decide to be happy because it’s another beautiful day and the rain is showering the flowers and trees with nutrients to flourish.
Happiness is all about perspective, and your ability to look for the good, positive elements in any situation. Nothing causes happiness, and you can always choose it.
The reason money can’t buy happiness is because people spend their money thinking an *object* will create happiness.
The object may create a fleeting sense of fulfillment, but the happiness lies in the action that comes from what you bought, and that means it requires both a purchase *and* the followthrough to put that purchase to good use!
For example, buying a boat may make you feel good for a minute, but it’s in the follow-through – sailing and making memories, where real happiness shows up.
And granite counters may make you feel good for a second, but in reality it’s having a home that lets you throw parties, or do crafts, or make cookies with the grandkids that create happiness (all of which probably do not require granite counters at all – though they do require a home that is easy and delightful to use).
Everyone’s heard the old adage “money can’t buy happiness”, but why is it so true? Well, for starters, no one ever feels that “x” amount of money is “enough” money.
The more you have the more you want, so possessing more money only creates a further desire and longing for what you don’t have. And this, in turn, makes you unappreciative of your current situation and consequently not happy.
Money also doesn’t buy happiness because it makes you focus on material goods and distracts from what really matters- personal connections.
As you accumulate more money you will start turning to objects (like fancy purses, watches, etc.) for gratification instead of fostering your relationships with close family and friends.
Plus, once your loved ones catch wind of your good financial situation they might start to take advantage of you, which will result in a lot of upset.
Poverty is soul-grinding and even ordinary money troubles can leach the joy out of a good relationship. Money can solve a lot of problems.
It would probably be accurate to say, though, that money has to be used correctly to solve them. The presence of money by itself is not enough.
In fact, plenty of miserable rich people spend all of their time trying to get more money because they think it will help.
In order to be happy, you have to know what makes you happy and spend your money on that. The things that make a person happy are often elusive and not what they appear to be.
To make matters worse, the presence of money and the power that it brings can obscure our ability to see what makes us happy.
If, however, we are attuned to ourselves, know the difference between what we need and what we want, and have a healthy relationship with our money, we can use it to buy things that make us happy.
We don’t need to be afraid of making money any more than we need to be afraid of spending it. If we are fortunate enough to be able to get money, we should certainly make use of it in a way that enhances our lives.
Money can’t buy happiness because the things that bring long-term satisfaction and contentment cannot be bought.
Money may allow you to do some fun things and bring some enjoyment, but long-term happiness comes from things like spirituality, relationships, and friendships.
Money can bring pleasure, but it will eventually fade. Many people also struggle to be content with what they have because it’s human nature to want more.
Where I think money can be more helpful is in the opportunities that it provides.
For example, having money may allow you to retire early and spend more time with your family. In that case, it’s the time with your family that brings happiness, not the money. But money can help to make it possible.
Spending money may make you happy for a short time but long-term it will not make you happy.
When you save money for emergencies, pay off debt, and live within your means, you will be happier. It will give you peace of mind and will allow you to do the picture things that you dream about. You will stress less and save more.
It will also allow you to be able to give generously. This can give happiness that buying things can’t give you. Giving generously allows you to spread happiness that buying things for yourself can’t give you.
Happiness is a state of being. This state comes from inner fulfillment, minimized resistance, and openness.
Happiness can be experienced independently of money. Think about the last time you experience profound peace, deep laughter, or joy.
How many times did money represent the greatest proportion in the happiness equations?
Money is a flow of energy. It is a tool used to exchange goods, services, and energetic value. A hammer, screwdriver or electric drill alone cannot fix a house suffering from severe structural damages.
Similarly, money, cannot fill the gap of an unstable spiritual or emotional house.
Of course, money is helpful and has the potential to open up doors to particular lifestyles. But, money alone can not produce happiness. It may prepare the space, but it is not the source.
Happiness is never an external endeavor. Happiness is an outward expression of an inner possession.
Jacquelyn Salvador
Author | Founder, 360 Living
At a very basic level, the problem with external rewards like money is that they create an inherent loop of continual desire.
As soon as we get that next pay raise, our mind starts adjusting to that new “normal” and soon begins to seek out the next upgrade. It’s easy for that to escalate into an ever-mounting sense of lack if we’re not careful to keep things in check.
So how can we combat that tendency to want more and more?
One really great step is to be mindful and appreciative of what we have. For pretty much everyone who has the time and resources to read this article, we can be assured that we have “enough.”
And the great news is that cultivating those mindful and grateful tendencies can serve to remind us of the other things that really do create happiness.
Loved ones. A simple warm drink to get us going in the morning. A walk or a run in the fresh air. These are the things that, if we take the time to appreciate them, put us in a true mindset of happiness.
I know it’s a cliché, but for me, all of my greatest experiences and the most happiness I’ve ever given and received didn’t cost a dime.
The love and joy I had and continue to have playing with dogs, the overwhelming euphoria I experience making audiences laugh, and not just audiences at shows, but every day I make someone laugh makes me extremely happy.
I often tell people if you ever win millions of dollars in the lottery, but you were in an accident and you lost any one of your five senses or a limb, you’d probably return every penny to get back what you already had.
I look at the rich and famous and how a lot of them have fame and fortune, but so many of them don’t have happiness.
Suicides, bankruptcies, failed marriages, addiction money couldn’t buy their happiness and their relationships. In other words, their love.
I grew up in a loving family even though we were poor and you know what? If I could do it all over again, I wouldn’t change a damn thing.
It is something you cannot put a value to and is a sense of feeling that you achieve when you feel fulfilled and satisfied. You cannot directly buy an experience, but you can buy the means to an experience.
Purchasing a plane ticket to travel or purchasing an expensive meal. These things are a means to an end. Society has built this system where it costs money for you to achieve certain experiences.
Yet, you are buying a tangible item that gives you a greater feeling, and that feeling is priceless.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the most important thing in life that money cannot buy?
Money can buy material things, experiences, and luxuries, but not genuine, lasting happiness. Happiness comes from within and is a state of mind created by your thoughts, attitudes, and relationships.
Here are some things that can contribute to happiness but that money can not buy:
• Good health • Strong relationships with family and friends • A sense of purpose and meaning in life • A positive attitude and perspective on life • Personal growth and self-knowledge
While money can certainly make life easier and more convenient, it is not the key to happiness. Striving for the things that really matter in life, such as love, kindness, and inner peace, is the authentic way to find happiness and fulfillment.
What is the value of money in life?
Money certainly plays a big role in our lives, and its value can be seen differently:
• At its most basic level, money is a means of exchanging goods and services. It allows us to trade what we have for what we need or want.
• Money can also be saved or invested, allowing us to store value over time. This can help plan for the future and achieve financial goals.
• Having money can provide a sense of security and stability. It can help us meet our basic needs and cope with emergencies.
• Money can also give you power and influence, both personally and socially. Having more money can give you more options and control over your life, and it can also affect your ability to participate in political and decision-making processes.
• Financial stability and independence can give you the freedom to make decisions and pursue your passions. It can also reduce the stress and anxiety that often accompany financial insecurity.
• Whether traveling the world, starting a business, or buying a home, money can help us achieve our goals and aspirations.
• Money can also make our lives more comfortable and convenient. For example, it can provide access to better housing, health care, and education.
What are some alternatives to money for finding happiness?
When it comes to finding happiness, it’s important to remember that money can only buy so much. Here are some alternatives that have been proven to bring joy and fulfillment:
• Relationships: Strong relationships with loved ones and friends can provide a sense of community and support that money can’t buy.
• Experiences: Instead of material possessions, consider spending your time and resources creating memories through travel, hobbies, and other life experiences.
• Giving back: Helping others and positively impacting your community can bring a sense of purpose and fulfillment that money can’t provide.
• Personal growth: Pursuing personal interests and challenging yourself to learn new skills can bring a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction.
Is it possible to be happy without a lot of money?
Many other factors contribute to happiness, such as strong relationships, a sense of purpose, personal growth, and community involvement.
It’s also important to focus on experiences rather than material possessions. Investing in memories with loved ones, pursuing hobbies and interests, and contributing to others through acts of kindness and generosity can bring immense joy and fulfillment.
How does the way we spend our money affect our happiness?
The relationship between money and happiness is complex, but one thing is sure: how we spend our money can have a big impact on our overall well-being.
Material purchases, such as a new car or a big-screen TV, provide only short-lived happiness. On the other hand, experiences like traveling, trying new restaurants, or taking a class, tend to bring more lasting joy.
Additionally, when we spend money on others, it can bring a greater sense of fulfillment and happiness. This can be as simple as buying a coffee for a friend or donating to a favorite charity.
Furthermore, it’s important to remember that having a solid financial foundation, such as an emergency fund and a manageable debt load, can help reduce stress and increase happiness.
How can we reconcile the importance of money and the idea that it can’t buy happiness?
The truth is, money can provide us with many things that can lead to happiness, such as financial security, opportunities for experiences and adventures, and the ability to help others. However, money can’t directly buy happiness.
Think of it this way: money can provide us with the means to live a comfortable life and pursue our goals, but it’s up to us to find joy and fulfillment in the things we do and our relationships. Money can only do so much.
So, the key is to understand that money can be a tool for creating a fulfilling life, but it’s not the source of happiness itself. It’s all about finding balance and using money in a way that enhances our lives, rather than becoming the sole focus. | When we work in our passions, purpose and with our gifts we will find ourselves happier, more energized and truly in love not just with our mate but our own lives.
This is the source of true happiness and can be found no matter how many commas you have in the bank even if you don’t have any.
18. The happiness that you think money will bring is usually only temporary
True happiness, the elusive kind is actually found internally and is called Joy, it is cultivated. The happiness we imagine it is based on materialism, relationships and other tangibles that breakdown, fade and lose their luster.
At the moment all of these things cause a gleam in the eye, rose-colored vision and other physiologic signs of wellbeing, but the moment passes and what’s left is emptiness, bitterness, and loss of hope.
This has been my experience as a physician. What money can do, is buy time to pursue hobbies that nurture the soul, activities that entertain the bored, vacations that give an escape, time for friends and family that can mend a broken heart and offer charitable contributions that fulfill the altruistic.
19. Money can’t buy happiness because the best gifts in life aren’t physical
Rather, genuine relationships and emotionally present friendships. Simply by being yourself your gift of presence is enough. Even the most expensive gift can have no meaning if the giver has no emotional connection with the recipient.
The smallest gift can have a huge amount of meaning when backed by a genuine, loving relationship that’s a combination of physical, emotional and spiritual aspects.
Even the fanciest gift will become old over time, so if you are going to give an expensive gift, give an experience such as concert tickets, a vacation to share, or another memory that can be talked about for years after.
20. Contentment, regardless of financial state is a more, pertinent contributor to one’s happiness
Money is a useful tool in life, but it can’t buy happiness. | no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | no_statement | "money" cannot "buy" "happiness". "happiness" cannot be bought with "money" | https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/can-money-buy-you-happiness-gunjan-johar | Can money buy you happiness? | Gunjan Johar
When it comes to money and happiness, a lot of us think the grass is greener on the richer side. We’d be happier in a bigger house with a heated pool and plenty of money left over to treat our kids, grand-kids.... Wouldn’t we?
Money makes you a little happier up to a point, but not a lot. Money does matter, but not as much as many people think. What seems to matter more is what people do with their money.
Some say that money isn't important to them, but this isn't true. The truth is they don't see the importance. They make more than they need and yet complain they have no time for their children, when they could trade time chasing money for time with their kids. There can be good things. It's about priorities. How we make money and how we spend money reveals ourselves. Do we like what we see? Money IS important, isn't it?
So, can money buy happiness? Well, it can help put the right conditions in place. Is it easier to be happy if you have food to eat? Whether you call that buying happiness or not, the understanding is more important than the argument. Name any valuable goal or direction in your life. Can't you, with a little imagination, see how money might help? Earn your money in a healthy, satisfying way, and spend it wisely, and of course you have a better chance to be happy.
Happiness is a difficult word to define. Everyone possesses different perspectives of happiness from their own experience. Some people would say money can buy you happiness because they presume money could give them power, while others disagree. From my own perspective, I personally believe money could not buy eternal joy into your life. Money is a basic need in our lives to purchase our everyday necessitates. Having a lot of money could be used to purchase fancy and expensive goods, but the satisfaction would only be limited.
Furthermore, money cannot buy you the emotions you get from love and affection. Money is desired by everyone, but it can’t buy you everything, for example: general knowledge or a deceased loved one and the memories made with them. Happiness is not determined by what your bank account could afford, it is simply appreciating the small things life brings you.
Money can’t buy you happiness even though it is thought to be one of the most powerful things in life because everyone desires money, but yet money can’t even buy you life-long friends or a lovable family. Love is a feeling of deep affection; it is an incredibly powerful word. Love is an emotion in life that cannot be tarnished because when you love someone, there is no denying it. Friends and family can bring joy into your life that money could not buy. When you have a genuine friendship, they’ll stay by your side no matter what, but if you choose to buy your friendship with money; they’ll leave you once you have lost your valuable possessions. Those who are less fortunate live in smaller homes with fewer possessions, but some of them are more satisfied with their life than the wealthy because their love can still be found in their warm hearts. Bill Gates once said “when you have money in your hand, you forget who you are. But when you don’t have money in your hand, everyone forgets who you are.”
Money can only be used to purchase material goods such as shelter, and many more items. Many people presume that money can be used to purchase everything in this world, but what it can’t buy you is life lessons and knowledge. You can use all the money you want to get a good education, but you won’t learn how to deal with the real world. In reality, you’ll have to deal with many types of complicated obstacles and money won’t be able to help.
Another example of what money cannot buy or bring back is a deceased loved one and the memories made with them. If you break something, money could bring it back. If you lose a valuable item, money could bring that back too. However, no matter how much money you have, you could never bring back someone you loved who passed away. Money cannot buy you everything you want in life.
Having a lot of money can be used to purchase fancy goods, but the satisfaction would only be limited. Many people believe buying life experiences and materials are worth spending money on. Even with gambling, everyone desires to win big so they could quit their job, live in a lovely mansion and spend the rest of their days doing whatever they would like. However, according to a study made, people who had big wins on the gambling were extremely excited to hear that they have won a large amount of cash but later on they ended up no happier than they were before.
In conclusion, I strongly believe that money could not bring eternal joy into your life because purchasing materials will only result in a limited amount of satisfaction, it cannot buy you the emotions you get from love and affection and it also cannot purchase everything in world such as general knowledge and a deceased loved one or the memories made with them.
Money can make life easier, for example, you can buy a fancy car to get you to places faster but an average car will achieve the same thing, however, it may not be as pretty or fast but it still achieves its ultimate goal; to get you to your destination. Money can also buy expensive goods but they will only provide a limited amount of happiness because after its novelty passes you would have to buy something better. In the long run, money cannot buy happiness because the most valuable things in life cannot be bought with money; they have to be earned such as friendship and love. | Name any valuable goal or direction in your life. Can't you, with a little imagination, see how money might help? Earn your money in a healthy, satisfying way, and spend it wisely, and of course you have a better chance to be happy.
Happiness is a difficult word to define. Everyone possesses different perspectives of happiness from their own experience. Some people would say money can buy you happiness because they presume money could give them power, while others disagree. From my own perspective, I personally believe money could not buy eternal joy into your life. Money is a basic need in our lives to purchase our everyday necessitates. Having a lot of money could be used to purchase fancy and expensive goods, but the satisfaction would only be limited.
Furthermore, money cannot buy you the emotions you get from love and affection. Money is desired by everyone, but it can’t buy you everything, for example: general knowledge or a deceased loved one and the memories made with them. Happiness is not determined by what your bank account could afford, it is simply appreciating the small things life brings you.
Money can’t buy you happiness even though it is thought to be one of the most powerful things in life because everyone desires money, but yet money can’t even buy you life-long friends or a lovable family. Love is a feeling of deep affection; it is an incredibly powerful word. Love is an emotion in life that cannot be tarnished because when you love someone, there is no denying it. Friends and family can bring joy into your life that money could not buy. When you have a genuine friendship, they’ll stay by your side no matter what, but if you choose to buy your friendship with money; they’ll leave you once you have lost your valuable possessions. Those who are less fortunate live in smaller homes with fewer possessions, but some of them are more satisfied with their life than the wealthy because their love can still be found in their warm hearts. Bill Gates once said “when you have money in your hand, you forget who you are. But when you don’t have money in your hand, everyone forgets who you are.”
| no |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | no_statement | "money" cannot "buy" "happiness". "happiness" cannot be bought with "money" | https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/mar/14/the-biggest-lie-the-rich-ever-told-that-money-cant-buy-you-happiness | The biggest lie the rich ever told? That money can't buy you happiness | The biggest lie the rich ever told? That money can’t buy you happiness
New studies confirm that having more money can improve our wellbeing. So much for the story powerful people have always tried to push
Tue 14 Mar 2023 10.40 EDTLast modified on Tue 14 Mar 2023 22.22 EDT
News just in: money does buy you happiness. Duh, you might say. Anyone could have told you that; it’s hardly a Nobel-prize winning insight. Well, actually, it kinda is: in 2010, Daniel Kahneman, a Nobel prize-winning economist and psychologist, came out with the theory that there was a monetary “happiness plateau”. Once you hit an annual household income of $75,000 (£62,000), earning more money didn’t make you any happier. In 2021, the happiness researcher Matthew Killingsworth released a dissenting study, showing that happiness increased with income and there wasn’t evidence of a plateau. Now the pair have teamed up in a process known as “adversarial collaboration” and released a new study finding that they were both sort of right, but Killingsworth was more right: for most people, earning more money makes you happier.
There is some nuance to this. If you are extremely unhappy, happiness apparently increases with household income up to $100,000 (£82,000), then it “abruptly” levels off: there are some problems money can’t fix. For people who are in the “middle range of emotional wellbeing”, happiness increases linearly with income. And for very happy people, happiness accelerates above $100,000. The study didn’t look at incomes above $500,000, so we don’t have any insight into whether joyriding around space is making Jeff Bezos feel truly fulfilled. Or whether Rishi Sunak’s newly heated swimming pool is warming the cockles of his heart.
Anyway, no offence to these very smart researchers, but this feels like one of those studies that you can file under “pretty goddamn obvious”. You don’t need sports cars and private jets to be happy, but you do need shelter and stability – and those things cost a fortune these days. Housing affordability in the US is at a record low and the average American household needs to spend 42.9% of its income to afford a median-priced house, according to new data. It’s the same story in the UK: houses are at their least affordable since 1876. Sometimes I think about moving back to London from Philadelphia (which is still relatively affordable) and then, after five minutes on a property site, I abandon the idea in disgust.
And then there’s retirement. Stressing about whether you’re going to have to survive on cat food in your old age is generally not conducive to happiness. In the US, most companies don’t offer proper pensions any more. In the mid-1980s, about half of private sector workers had a defined-benefit pension plan; in 2022 only 15% of people in the private sector had access to them. Now you’re just expected to diligently put money in the stock market and see what you’re left with when you retire. Which, judging by recent events, might be nothing.
Don’t get me started on the cost of childcare. Kids are little bundles of germy joy, but my God are they expensive. A 2019 study found that, in many industrialised societies, there is “a decline in individuals’ subjective wellbeing – either happiness or life satisfaction – once parenthood begins” – something researchers have called the “parenting happiness gap”. Americans have the largest parenthood happiness gap. That’s largely down to the cost of childcare and the lack of paid holiday and sick days people can take. Earn enough money, of course, and you can paper over these structural cracks with hired help.
Unless you’re a yacht-dwelling billionaire with an army of nannies, none of this is really news. Most people are well aware that there’s a cost of living crisis, that prices of everyday essentials are out of control and that not having to stress about how to pay bills is good for your mental health. Still, while this study’s conclusions may seem obvious, I think it serves as an important corrective to a narrative that a lot of people in power have been trying to push. It’s funny how a lot of obscenely rich people are fixated on trying to tell everyone else that money doesn’t make you happy. See, for example, the CEO of Google recently telling all his employees that “having fun … shouldn’t always equate to money” after cutting staff benefits. It is very convenient to pretend that money isn’t important when you’re busy trying to hoard a lot of it yourself. | The biggest lie the rich ever told? That money can’t buy you happiness
New studies confirm that having more money can improve our wellbeing. So much for the story powerful people have always tried to push
Tue 14 Mar 2023 10.40 EDTLast modified on Tue 14 Mar 2023 22.22 EDT
News just in: money does buy you happiness. Duh, you might say. Anyone could have told you that; it’s hardly a Nobel-prize winning insight. Well, actually, it kinda is: in 2010, Daniel Kahneman, a Nobel prize-winning economist and psychologist, came out with the theory that there was a monetary “happiness plateau”. Once you hit an annual household income of $75,000 (£62,000), earning more money didn’t make you any happier. In 2021, the happiness researcher Matthew Killingsworth released a dissenting study, showing that happiness increased with income and there wasn’t evidence of a plateau. Now the pair have teamed up in a process known as “adversarial collaboration” and released a new study finding that they were both sort of right, but Killingsworth was more right: for most people, earning more money makes you happier.
There is some nuance to this. If you are extremely unhappy, happiness apparently increases with household income up to $100,000 (£82,000), then it “abruptly” levels off: there are some problems money can’t fix. For people who are in the “middle range of emotional wellbeing”, happiness increases linearly with income. And for very happy people, happiness accelerates above $100,000. The study didn’t look at incomes above $500,000, so we don’t have any insight into whether joyriding around space is making Jeff Bezos feel truly fulfilled. Or whether Rishi Sunak’s newly heated swimming pool is warming the cockles of his heart.
| yes |
Heuristics | Can money buy happiness? | no_statement | "money" cannot "buy" "happiness". "happiness" cannot be bought with "money" | https://www.happierhuman.com/things-money-cant-buy/ | 17 Priceless Things in Life That Money Can't Buy - Happier Human | 17 Priceless Things in Life That Money Can’t Buy
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Ultimately, all anyone wants to be as happy. Everyone has a different idea of how to get there; however, there are a lot of people who believe that making more money is the key to happiness.
Even though money can make certain things easier, money cannot buy everything. Sure, money might be able to buy you a nice car or a larger house; but it’s not the secret to finding lifelong happiness. In fact, there are many positive things that money can’t buy.
So in this article, we will explore 17 valuable things that money can’t buy.
17 Things Money Can’t Buy
1. Money Cannot Buy Your Home
There is a saying that money can purchase a house, but it cannot buy a home. What does this mean? It means that you can use money to purchase a building; however, that money is not necessarily going to make it feel like home.
There are several ways you can do exactly that. You can spend time in your house with people who are important to you. For example, you can build stronger relationships with your family members and friends in your home.
You can also create memories in your home that contribute to the “homey” feel that you desire. Think carefully about the house you purchase; however, keep in mind that money is not going to turn it into a home.
2. Money Cannot Buy True Friends
If you have money, you may be able to use it to purchase acquaintances; however, these acquaintances are not necessarily going to become your true friends. True friends are people who like you regardless of the amount of money you have.
If you are willing to spend money, you may be able to convince people to spend time with you; however, these are not the people who are going to stick with you through thick and thin.
In order to develop meaningful relationships, you need to be willing to put in the time outside of spending money. This means you have to take a genuine interest in their lives and find people who are genuinely interested in your well-being as well. This is not something that money can purchase.
3. Money Cannot Create More Time
If you have money, you may be able to avoid errands, housework, and other chores; however, money is not going to be able to create more hours in the day. Therefore, you need to think carefully about how you spend your time, because you cannot create more of it out of thin air.
What can you do to make sure you spend your time wisely? It may be helpful to keep a calendar. That way, you can figure out how you are spending your time throughout the day, making sure you get the most out of every moment.
Even though many may be able to open doors for you, it is never going to give you more than 24 hours in a single day.
4. Money Cannot Buy Good Health
Even though it is true that higher socioeconomic status is tied to better health outcomes, that money cannot necessarily buy good health.
For example, you can certainly use money to buy the medications you need; however, you cannot use that money to buy better physical or mental health.
If you are willing to put in the time, you can improve your physical health and mental health.
If you want better health, you have to be willing to put in the work. For example, you have to have the mental fortitude to eat a healthy diet. You also have to have a dedication to exercise on a daily basis.
If you are willing to put in the time, you can improve your physical health and mental health. Furthermore, exercise also releases endorphins, which can make you happy.
5. Money Cannot Buy a New Passion
If you want to find something that you are truly passionate about, then you need to be willing to try new things. Money is never going to buy passion.
Even though you may want to become an exceptional athlete, an exceptional musician, or a better cook, this is not something that you can simply do with money. Instead, you are only going to find your true passion by putting in the time and effort to do these things on your own.
If you really want to find your true calling, then you have to be willing to put in the time and effort. Money is only going to get you so far.
6. Money Cannot Buy Morality
It is important for you to have morals. You may think that just because you have a lot of money, you will always be right; however, this is not necessarily the case.
Money is not going to be able to buy integrity.
Money is not going to be able to buy class.
Money is also not going to be able to buy morality.
These are things that you find and earn on your own. If you really want to learn what it means to be moral, then you should surround yourself with people you want to be like.
You need to spend time around these people regardless of money or circumstance. That is the only way you will figure out what you truly believe in.
7. Money Cannot Buy an Appreciation for the Little Things
You can use money to buy all the material goods in the world; however, you are never going to be able to use this money to purchase an appreciation for the little things. This is something that you are only going to find if you are grounded.
If you are constantly focused on acquiring money, spending money, and purchasing things that you think will make you happy, you will never be able to appreciate the little things in life.
As a result, you need to focus on why you behave a certain way, why you have surrounded yourself with the items in front of you, and why you choose to hang out with certain people. This will help you gain a greater appreciation for everything that is present in your life.
8. Money Cannot Buy Kids Who are Well-Adjusted
If you have children, you may be wondering how you can make them more well-adjusted. If you have money, you may be able to open more doors for your kids.
You might also be able to purchase the latest gadgets in the coolest equipment; however, money is not going to make your kids well-adjusted.
In fact, money might end up creating kids who are spoiled. If you want to avoid this issue, then you need to think carefully about how you spend your money on your children. You need to make sure they stay grounded.
There is nothing wrong with buying something nice for your children from time to time; however, you also have to think about how this is going to impact your children.
If you encourage your children to keep everything in perspective, you may be able to raise kids who are well-adjusted.
9. Money Cannot Buy More Knowledge
Money also cannot purchase more knowledge. You can use money to purchase books, go to school, seek a better degree, and learn from other people; however, money is never going to be able to take that knowledge and put it into your head.
If you are interested in learning more about various topics, you have to be willing to put in the time and effort to do this yourself.
You can use money to buy books to gain knowledge, however it can't take that knowledge and put it into your head.
In addition, money cannot buy wisdom. Even though you might be able to use money to hire someone, you are never going to gather wisdom unless you go through these experiences on your own.
Therefore, you should think carefully about how you spend your time, and use it to seek knowledge and wisdom. This could make you a more well-rounded person.
10. Money Cannot Buy Intimacy
If you really want to get to know your significant other, money is never going to be able to buy you intimacy. Even the money can purchase expensive gifts and fleeting experiences, it is never going to help you get to truly know your significant other.
If you want to create a true feeling of intimacy, you have to get to know that person very well. You need to listen to that person and understand them, creating a relationship that goes both ways. This is something that money will never be able to purchase.
11. Money Cannot Buy Solutions
Money is never going to be able to purchase actual solutions to problems. Money is only going to be a Band-Aid. It is true that you can use money to create temporary solutions for certain things; however, these problems are only going to return in the future.
12. Money Cannot Buy Someone Else’s Appreciation
There are a lot of people who donate money to charity in an effort to feel better about themselves. They may feel like they are doing something good by giving away their money.
Even though money is important in this situation, it is never truly going to buy someone else's appreciation.
If you really want someone to appreciate the work you are doing, you have to go out of your way to spend time with them. If you volunteer with local charitable organizations, you can make a significant difference in someone else's life.
13. Money Cannot Buy Emotional Control and Steadiness
Money also cannot help you control your emotions. It is true that money can buy experiences, better healthcare, and professional assistance; however, if you really want to have emotional steadiness, this is something that comes with practice.
You need to choose your experiences carefully and surround yourself with the right people. That way, you will learn more about yourself and develop better emotional control.
This type of emotional control may also help you improve your relationships with your family members, friends, and colleagues. Money will never buy emotional steadiness.
14. Money Cannot Buy Inner Beauty
If you have money, you can use it to go on shopping sprees. You can purchase makeup, fancy clothes, and maybe even put the perfect look on yourself; however, even though this may create outer beauty, this is never going to create inner beauty.
If you want to feel happy about yourself on the inside, you need to focus on becoming a better person. This is not something that money is ever going to be able to purchase.
15. Money Cannot Buy Love
A lot of people live their lives in order to find true love. Even though you may be able to convince someone to go on a date with you if you have a lot of nice things and plenty of money, money is never going to make someone fall in love with you.
Furthermore, you cannot convince yourself to fall in love with someone else purely because of money.
If you are really interested in finding true love, then you need to spend time getting to know people. That is the only way you will develop meaningful relationships with other people that may eventually evolve into love. Think carefully about how you spend your time. Money is not everything.
16. Money Cannot Buy Loyalty
If you want to surround yourself with people who are loyal to you, you have to think carefully about how you are spending your money. For example, you may be able to use your money to purchase someone’s services.
You may be able to hire a long crew, a maid, or even a personal driver. On the other hand, you are not necessarily going to have people who are loyal to you.
If you want to surround yourself with loyal people, you have to take a genuine interest in someone else's life. Then, they may take a genuine interest in your life as well. Money is only going to get you so far.
17. Money Cannot Buy Happiness
Finally, money also cannot buy happiness. It is true that you may be able to use money to put a smile on your face from time to time. You may be able to purchase cheap thrills and distractions. You can buy nice things, go to cool places, and attend certain events.
Even though these things may allow you to feel a moment or a sense of happiness, they are not going to create feelings of fulfillment. These are only things that you will find if you live life the way you truly want to live it.
Even the money may be a vehicle for certain things, it is not going to get you to the final destination. You need to think carefully about how you spend your time and money if you really want to find true happiness.
Final Thoughts on Things Money Can’t Buy
Nobody is saying that money isn't important; however, money cannot buy happiness. There are plenty of things that money can't buy, so you have to focus your attention on more than simply money.
If you are able to adequately prioritize the things that matter most in your life, you should be able to improve your relationships with your family members and friends, alarm used to feel more fulfilled. | Money Cannot Buy Love
A lot of people live their lives in order to find true love. Even though you may be able to convince someone to go on a date with you if you have a lot of nice things and plenty of money, money is never going to make someone fall in love with you.
Furthermore, you cannot convince yourself to fall in love with someone else purely because of money.
If you are really interested in finding true love, then you need to spend time getting to know people. That is the only way you will develop meaningful relationships with other people that may eventually evolve into love. Think carefully about how you spend your time. Money is not everything.
16. Money Cannot Buy Loyalty
If you want to surround yourself with people who are loyal to you, you have to think carefully about how you are spending your money. For example, you may be able to use your money to purchase someone’s services.
You may be able to hire a long crew, a maid, or even a personal driver. On the other hand, you are not necessarily going to have people who are loyal to you.
If you want to surround yourself with loyal people, you have to take a genuine interest in someone else's life. Then, they may take a genuine interest in your life as well. Money is only going to get you so far.
17. Money Cannot Buy Happiness
Finally, money also cannot buy happiness. It is true that you may be able to use money to put a smile on your face from time to time. You may be able to purchase cheap thrills and distractions. You can buy nice things, go to cool places, and attend certain events.
Even though these things may allow you to feel a moment or a sense of happiness, they are not going to create feelings of fulfillment. These are only things that you will find if you live life the way you truly want to live it.
Even the money may be a vehicle for certain things, it is not going to get you to the final destination. You need to think carefully about how you spend your time and money if you really want to find true happiness.
| no |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://parasitesandvectors.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1756-3305-6-59 | Fleas infesting pets in the era of emerging extra-intestinal nematodes | Fleas infesting pets in the era of emerging extra-intestinal nematodes
Abstract
Modifications in climatic conditions, movements of hosts and goods, changes in animal phenology and human behaviour and increase of wildlife, are presently concurring in the geographic spread of vectors and cardio-respiratory nematodes, e.g. Dirofilaria immitis, Angiostrongylus vasorum, Aelurostrongylus abstrusus and Capillaria aerophila. All these factors may also influence dispersion and clinical significance of fleas, thus posing relevant challenges in those regions where other parasites are emerging at the same time. Ctenocephalides felis, Ctenocephalides canis and Pulex irritans cause discomfort, nuisance, allergic reactions, anaemia, and may transmit several pathogens, some of them are of importance for public health. The present article reviews the importance of fleas in small animal practice and their sanitary relevance for dogs, cats and humans, and discusses current control methods in the present era of emerging extra-intestinal nematodes, towards a possible changing perspective for controlling key parasites affecting companion animals.
Review
Background
Cardio-respiratory nematodes affecting dogs and cats are nowadays prevalent in several countries, where they have a growing importance due to their clinical impact, possible zoonotic hazard, and geographical emergence and spreading in both endemic regions and areas previously free of infection. This is the case for the mosquito-borne Dirofilaria immitis, the mollusc-borne Angiostrongylus vasorum and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, and for Capillaria aerophila, which has a direct biological cycle, albeit earthworms may have an unclear role of facultative intermediate or paratenic hosts [1–4]. Modifications in epidemiological patterns and clinical approaches for these infections are changing perspective and perception on parasitoses of pets and could lead to the fallacy that other parasites of dogs and cats present nothing new to be investigated and disseminated. This potential mistake with “old-fashioned” parasites has been recently discussed for roundworms, hookworms and whipworms [5, 6]. This could be true also for ectoparasites like fleas, although they have a major pathogenic role in human and veterinary medicine. Fleas are a cause of direct damage to the hosts’ skin, they are hated by pets and owners for the nuisance and distress they cause, and have a powerful vectorial ability.
Of the more than 2,500 known fleas, three major species feed on pets and humans [7–9]. The most widespread is the cat flea Ctenocephalides felis (Figure 1), which is highly prevalent in both dogs and cats in all corners of the world. Also the dog flea Ctenocephalides canis (Figure 2) and the human flea Pulex irritans (Figure 3) are globally distributed, although with lower rates [9, 10]. These fleas have a low degree of species-specificity, being able to infest companion animals, humans and wildlife. Canine and feline pulicosis is characterized by high infection rates everywhere [7, 9, 11–14], thus treatment and prevention are a priority in veterinary medicine. However, the control of fleas is not straightforward and requires integrated approaches. Infected pets and environments are still a major cause of striving for veterinarians and pet owners, although a plethora of safe and effective products is available to be used either on the animal or in the environment, or both.
A shift of perspective on pet parasites is occurring in those regions where epidemiological patterns of cardio-pulmonary nematodes are changing. In particular, veterinarians are often faced with the necessity of treatment and prevention approaches controlling at the same time both common, e.g. fleas and intestinal worms, and emerging, e.g. A. vasorum and A. abstrusus, parasites. Hence, the present review aims to provide food for thought on control methods for fleas of pets in the present changing era of emerging heartworms and lungworms. Sanitary importance of fleas, their possible spreading, and integrated control strategies are discussed in a comprehensive perspective.
Fleas: a threat for dogs, cats and humans
Fleas are primary ectoparasites causing discomfort, allergic manifestations and anaemia, and having an efficient vectorial ability for various pathogens. The present section summarizes the most important pathogenic aspects of C. felis, C. canis and P. irritans.
Biting of adult fleas is followed by a delayed reaction and skin irritation. The lesions initially appear as single or clustered small haemorrhagic areas. Thereby, a wheal forms around each bite, with a sudden peak in few minutes and, most often, the onset of itching. The lesion may become a hard papillar lesion [10]. Repeated exposure to flea bites induces, in susceptible dogs and cats, a condition called flea allergy dermatitis (FAD). Dogs with FAD (Figure 4) present with erythema, alopecia, excoriation, papules, crusts, itching often leading to self-traumas (Figure 5), while cats show a miliary dermatitis (Figure 6) with nibbling, alopecia (Figure 7), intense pruritus, licking, scratching, self-traumas [15–18]. Along with other allergic diseases (e.g. food allergy diseases), FAD is a major clinical entity in pets, one of the most important skin conditions of household animals, and one of the most frequent causes for seeking veterinary advice [15, 19].
Blood-feeding adults of Ctenocephalides spp. may cause iron deficiency anaemia especially in puppies and kittens [15, 20]. In the case of long-lasting infections, also adult animals may suffer of blood loss and chronic anaemia [15, 20].
The plague-causing bacterium Yersinia pestis circulates in rodent populations mainly through bites of the “oriental rat flea” Xenopsilla cheopis, which may also feed on pets and human beings. Cats are a potential source of plague, while dogs appear to be less susceptible to Y. pestis[9, 21]. Although a correlation between human plague and sleeping in the same bed as a dog has been documented [22], the ability of Ctenocephalides spp. bites in transmitting Y. pestis is considered low [23]. Ctenocephalides spp. are only occasionally found on rodents and considered unlikely bridging vectors of plague between animals and humans [23–25]. Therefore, long and close contact with pets and their fleas is necessary for the transmission of plague from dogs to humans via their fleas [26]. The role of P. irritans as a vector of plague has yet to be elucidated [27], even though this species has been collected from rodents within established plague foci and it has been considered a driver for human-to-human transmission of the disease [24, 28].
Ctenocephalides felis can be naturally and experimentally infected with Rickettsia typhi, the causative agent of the “murine typhus”, a zoonotic disease which circulates in rodents via the oriental rat flea [29]. Pulex irritans has also been experimentally proved to be a vector of R. typhi, although considered unlikely to be a primary source of the infection [30]. Cats and dogs have been found seropositive for R. typhi in both Europe and USA [31, 32], thus they might have a certain epidemiological role in the dispersion of this zoonosis [33]. Rickettsia felis, a pathogen mainly transmitted by the cat flea [34] and suspected to induce a murine typhus-like illness in humans, is worldwide distributed, due to the global dispersion of C. felis, the number of infected cats and the possibility of transstadial and transovarial transmission in fleas [35–37]. Ctenocephalides canis and P. irritans may also act as vectors of R. felis, and both cats and dogs have been found harbouring this bacterium, although their epidemiological role is yet to be fully addressed [30, 37–39].
The so-called human “cat-scratch disease” is mainly caused by Bartonella henselae and Bartonella clarridgeiae. Cats are their reservoirs, while dogs may be accidentally infected by Bartonella spp., among which Bartonellavinsonii subsp. berkhoffii is incriminated as a cause of a human cardiac disease in tropical areas [40, 41]. While cats are recognized hosts for animal and zoonotic bartonelloses, the role of dogs as a source of human infections is not clearly established [42, 43]. Fleas of pets are capable of harboring Bartonella spp. and it seems plausible that C. felis transmits B. henselae actively. The human infection by flea-borne Bartonella spp. generally occurs via scratches of infected cats, whilst flea bites do not seem to play a key role in the epidemiology of human bartonellosis. Infection of cats by bites of infected fleas has been experimentally demonstrated, although not considered a primary route of transmission [30, 44, 45].
Fleas of pets are competent intermediate hosts of the tapeworm Dipylidium caninum. This zoonotic cestode is the most prevalent in dogs and cats and is often associated with pulicosis in pets, stray animals, kenneled dogs and cats in colonies. Animals and humans become infected by accidentally ingesting residues or whole fleas containing the infectious cysticercoid. Indeed, D. caninum may cause disease especially in children with low hygiene standards [9, 15].
Ctenocephalides felis, C. canis and P. irritans are intermediate hosts for the filarial nematode Acanthocheilonema reconditum, transmitted via their bites to dogs and human beings and a cause of subcutaneous infection in animals and ocular disease in humans [46–48].
Drivers nurturing the epidemiology of cardio-respiratory nematodes and the dispersion of fleas: analogies and differences
Environmental conditions, host availability and preferences, abundance and feeding behavior of vectors and hosts are the most important drivers influencing the geographic dissemination of helminths and arthropods [2, 49, 50]. Additionally, the epidemiology of vector-borne parasites is associated with vector phenology and biology, movements of goods and animals, globalization, increase of wildlife in peri-urban and urban areas, and climate changes [2, 3, 51].
Global warming promotes survival and reproduction rate of arthropods and molluscs. Consequently, it may nurture their dispersion, abundance, intensity and temporal patterns throughout the year. At the same time, climate might influence flea development and distribution, along with rates of disease transmission in urban, suburban and rural areas. Although warmer temperatures predicted in future climatic scenarios could lead to an increased expansion of fleas, especially into the Northern hemisphere [52], data proving whether and how global warming is a driving force for fleas and transmitted diseases needs to be definitively corroborated, although evidence is growing.
The use of the Geographic Information System (GIS) and predictive models provides information for studying the epidemiology of vectors and transmitted pathogens [53, 54]. Warmer climates and higher air temperatures favour insect breeding and may reduce parasitic extrinsic incubation periods [2, 55], as shown for D. immitis[2]. Analogously, A. vasorum is expanding, and it is expected to increase its distribution in European regions which offer ecological and epidemiological conditions for the expansion of current endemic areas and the establishment of further new endemic foci [56]. At the moment no computer modelling is available for the emerging respiratory nematode of cats transmitted by snails and slugs, i.e. A. abstrusus. However, geographic spread of gastropods, nurtured by climate changes, may play a role in the incidence and distribution of all mollusc-borne parasitoses [57, 58], including aelurostrongylosis. A. vasorum and A. abstrusus have similar life cycles, thus the same drivers implicated in the spread of A. vasorum would likely also have an effect on A. abstrusus in the same areas.
Current environmental modifications could influence fleas. Thus geographical regions where cardio-pulmonary parasites are spreading will be probably faced also with changes in flea distribution and patterns of infestation. Fleas are ectothermic arthropods susceptible to fluctuations of temperatures, especially because immature stages live outside the host. Indeed, climatic variations have an impact on fleas and flea-borne diseases because their epidemiology results from the biological interactions between hosts, pathogens and vectors, which are individually influenced by temperature, humidity and precipitation.
Larval stages and pupae live within the living environment of animals, while adult fleas are permanent parasites, feeding on their hosts. The speed of juvenile flea development depends on the environment, in that higher temperatures may increase the number of generations and colder temperatures and higher humidity has an effect on the longevity of fleas in the absence of available hosts [9]. In particular, the higher the environmental temperature, the higher the rate of development, until a critical value is reached. Beyond this value, survival of immature stages decreases, especially in the presence of low humidity [52]. Temperatures >35°C and <3°C, in combination with a relative humidity <33%, may impair flea development [59–61]. Accordingly, the vast majority of past plague cases have been described in those regions where average temperatures are >13°C, with outbreaks occurring when temperature ranges from 24°C to 27°C and a decrease of epidemic activities at higher values [62–64]. Additionally, rainfall favours vegetative production, increase of small-mammal populations, rat flea-infestation rates, along with soil moisture, which promotes flea survival rates [65, 66]. This scenario enhances the probability of contact between infectious fleas and susceptible hosts and, consequently, of epizootic cases of plague [30, 67]. As an example, epizootics in prairie dogs from Montana, USA, were shown to be positively associated with precipitation and warm days, but negatively associated with hotter days [68].
Given that warm and moist weather are factors beneficial for flea development, microclimatic drivers like temperature, rainfall, relative humidity and climate changes in general, are expected to largely modify the future dispersion of plague and of flea-borne disease [69]. Studies have shown that fleas have a seasonality in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, starting their activity in spring or increasing from a low base during spring and peaking in mid to late summer followed by a decline until winter [14, 70–72]. Until about fifteen years ago, cat fleas were considered to be rarely found on pets in cold seasons [73], but the present weather changes characterized by shorter winters [74, 75] may have a potential effect on flea activity in the near future. This is particularly true because short winters permit survival of fleas, especially in the stage of quiescent adults inside the cocoon [73]. It is interesting to note a recent study from Germany, which indicated the absence of a relationship between seasons, climatic conditions and presence of pulicosis in dogs and cats. Above-average warm weather in summer 2003 was an apparent cause of doubling documented flea infections, probably because of outdoor environmental conditions favourable for flea development. The highest infestation rates were detected in July-October and July-September for dogs and cats, respectively. However, fleas were also present on animals in the remaining months of the year although with lower rates. In this study, no statistical differences were found in infestation patterns between the four seasons, albeit prevalence of pulicosis in dogs and cats was higher in the summer [11].
More attention is required to understand to what extent climatic conditions will affect the distribution of flea and diseases in different epidemiological settings [69]. Hence, worthy of mention is the “FleaTickRisk” model, designed in collaboration between climatologists, biomathematicians and parasitologists, able to predict, on a weekly basis, the activity and abundance of cat fleas (and three tick species) in Europe, and the risk of disease transmission [76]. Feeding behaviour and availability of suitable hosts are other key factors impacting on the distribution of emerging nematodes and, possibly, of fleas.
Destruction and/or reduction of natural habitats oblige wild animals to move into new hospitable environments, in the suburbs and cities. The dispersion of wildlife (e.g. feral cats, hedgehogs, opossums, raccoons, foxes, rodents) increases the spreading of their pests and pathogens, often shared with humans and pets [77, 78]. The presence of red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in cities and peri-urban areas is likely concurring in causing the emergence of heartworms and lungworms [1, 3, 79–82]. Red foxes are common reservoirs for D. immitis in several European countries [1], with prevalence up to ~25-30% in Spain and Italy [79, 82]. The current trend in the higher incidence of canine angiostrongylosis and the concomitant expansion in foxes demonstrates that the parasite is emerging in wild reservoirs, along with establishment and spreading in companion dogs [4, 56]. Finally, the recent finding of genetic haplotypes of C. aerophila shared between foxes, beech martens, cats and dogs in European countries, ultimately supports the existence of common patterns of transmission for respiratory nematodes between wildlife and pets [83]. Interestingly, the most recent published case of human lung capillariosis has been recently described from Serbia, where the infection rate of C. aerophila in foxes is very high [84, 85].
Given that flea populations are shared among domestic and wild reservoirs, household dogs and cats could be more frequently exposed to pulicosis, as for extra-intestinal nematodes. In fact, abundance of suitable hosts, and attractiveness and tolerance of wild animals to flea bites, influence the survival and development of fleas. Most fleas are generalist rather than specialist, thus this ability makes wildlife a source for pulicosis for pets and humans and bridging hosts for transmitted pathogens. Fleas infesting feral animals may be picked up by privately owned pets and brought into homes, thus becoming a nuisance and potentially carrying pathogens of human and veterinary concern [86]. Indeed, wildlife represents an “overwintering strategy” for fleas of pets, because mammals living in sub-urban and urban territories may be infested by fleas throughout the year, thus they are a source of infestation for cats and dogs, especially in spring and summer [73, 87]. Repeated reports of C. felis, C. canis and P. irritans in wild animals, e.g. red foxes [88–90], confirm that they serve a source of maintenance. Altogether, the susceptibility of both pets and wildlife to the same species of fleas, lungworms and heartworms, suggests that epidemiological interactions play a crucial role in spreading infections in endemic and areas previously free of infection, when suitable bridging epidemiological settings occur. These scenarios have a major relevance also for the dispersion of flea-borne pathogens, as shown by the key examples from the following.
Human dwellings in African regions endemic for plague are considerably infested by the human-associated fleas C. felis and X. cheopis, other than P. irritans[27, 30]. Outbreaks of murine typhus in the USA have been attributed to the presence of infected cats and opossums, the high number of opossums infested by C. felis, the maintenance of R. typhi in the cat flea/opossum cycle and the avidity of cat fleas in biting humans [35, 37, 91–93]. A similar situation has been described for R. felis, as shown by its presence in C. felis collected from opossums in the USA [86]. Recently, B. henselae and B. clarridgeiae were detected in cat fleas from V. vulpes in Australia and B. clarridgeiae in the blood of a fox, thus suggesting that this wild canid may act as a reservoir of bartonellosis for fleas, animals and humans [94]. A study in the USA showed antibody titres for Bartonella spp. in three different felids, including feral cats, living in sympatry along urban edges and with degrees of contact with each other, home range and resource requirements [95].
Indeed, data on the natural cycle of flea-borne pathogens in wildlife from Europe are scanty. For example, B. henselae has been recently found in a wildcat (Felis silvestris) and R. felis was found in C. felis infesting wild animals in Spain [96, 97]. Also, the DNA of Bartonella spp. and R. felis has been found in fleas biting a wood mouse in the Netherlands [98] and in wild animals from Germany [99]. Seropositivity for R. typhi in different species of wild rodents has also been detected in Spain [100].
Fleas and cardio-pulmonary nematodes control: many more things in common than we probably think
Treatment and prevention of fleas are necessary to resolve sanitary and pest problems associated with the infestation of pets and homes, and to minimize the exposure to transmitted diseases. To effectively eradicate a flea infestation, both adult and immature stages must be eliminated. This appears simple but owners and veterinarians struggle daily with fleas, because this mission can be accomplished only with reliable and integrated approaches, avoiding one-off methods.
The administration of insecticides on an animal infested with existing fleas permits control of adult stages. However, the vast majority of the flea populations live for a long time outside the host, thus the environment is a key factor to treat pulicosis and prevent re-infections [7, 101, 102]. When an infested dog or cat moves around, thousands of eggs may roll off from the hair onto baskets, beds, carpets, blankets, sofas, where immatures may survive for months.
Control of fleas in the environment can be obtained by administering parasiticide formulations acting on both adult and immature stages to the animal, or by using adulticides along with combinations containing chemicals effective against environmental juveniles. Direct measures may integrate the use of chemicals but they are not useful alone [103]. These measures could rely on insecticidal dusts to treat runways, burrows, pet bedding and premises in general. Regular vacuum cleaning of carpets, blankets and pet bedding areas reduces the contamination by flea eggs.
Prevention in animals free of fleas may be achieved also by residual insecticides alone and/or repellents, but they are out of the scope of the present review and have been discussed elsewhere [7, 104]. This section will focus only on those chemicals useful to treat and/or prevent fleas, which are available in combination with compounds used in the control of cardio-pulmonary nematodes of dogs and cats. Below are provided examples of studies carried out to evaluate their efficacy in controlling flea infestations.
Macrocyclic lactones (MLs) belonging to the group of avermectins/milbemycins are endectocides with a broad spectrum of activity, including nematodes and several arthropods. They have a GABA-mimetic effect via the binding of glutamate-gated chloride channels. MLs may be available in combination with insecticides/acaricides to expand their spectrum of activity, including fleas.
Among these drugs, topical selamectin kills adult C. felis and prevents flea eggs from hatching. Selamectin eliminates up to 98.3% and 90.1% of newly acquired adult fleas within 24 hours on days 21 and 28 after treatment, respectively, 99.0% of fleas within 48 hours from the infestation at 28 days after treatment, and it may allow control of 97.3% adult fleas at 31 days after treatment [105, 106]. Selamectin reduces egg production, has ovicidal effects impairing larval emergence from eggs in days 2–37 post-treatment (hatch rate 0–13.2%) and allows a 23.3% larval emergence rate at Day 45 post treatment [106]. It has been suggested that debris contaminated with selamectin kill eggs and larvae probably by contact and ingestion, leading to ~98% decrease of egg production and ~92% failing in egg hatching [107, 108]. This drug can be used on a monthly basis to treat existing pulicosis and prevent the development of fleas in environmental conditions [109].
Neonicotinoids, spinosins and insect growth regulators (IGRs) are common parasiticides present in formulations also containing MLs licensed for the control of cardio-pulmonary nematodes.
Neonicotinoids cause spastic paralysis of insects with an agonistic effect on postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of motoneurons. Imidacloprid, one of the most used of these chloronicotinyl compounds in both dogs and cats, has a residual activity lasting about a month [104]. Its efficacy relies on contact with fleas, which die within 24 hours and sometimes between 2 and 8 hours after infestation [104, 105, 110]. Other than a quick adulticidal activity against already existing infections on pets, imidacloprid presents a significant flea larvicidal effect [111–113]. Single topical applications of imidacloprid provide control and reduction of flea numbers of > ~95-97% on cats and dogs for 28–37 days, and >98.6% reduction of off-host stages in premises [114–116]. After application on the hair of a pet, sufficient amounts of imidacloprid are transferred to the surrounding environment (e.g. blanket) preventing a high percentage of larvae from developing into adults at about 1 month [113]. Larvae in the pet’s living environment are killed after contact with a treated dog or a cat, resulting in the reduction of developing fleas and in preventing (re-)infestation of treated animals for at least 4 weeks (e.g. highly satisfactory 36-hours flea kill rate at 27–41 days after treatment), even though with a varying degree of decrease in the speed of kill (e.g. at Day 28 72.6% of the fleas killed within 48 hours of infection, or at Day 34 90.8% flea reduction at 24 hours) throughout the month following application [105, 112, 113, 117–120]. Other than alone, this insecticide is available in combination with ivermectin (e.g. in North America) and moxidectin.
Spinosins bind nicotinic acetylcholine receptors of insects, causing a stimulation of post-synaptic neurons [104]. The efficacy is based on contact or after ingestion, thus they are marketed in topical or oral formulation. The compound consisting of a mixture of spinosins A and D, i.e. spinosad, has an anti-flea efficacy starting half an hour after oral administration and reaching 100% efficacy at 4 through 48 h post-treatment against existing infestations in dogs [121]. Its persistent efficacy against re-infestations has been shown to last about one month, although with a certain degree of reduction in speed of action (i.e. speed at 4 hours of 74% and 42% after 3 and 4 weeks) and in killing efficacy against Ctenocephalides spp. (i.e. 100% at 24 hours during three weeks, then decreasing until 85% and 80.4% at Day 28 and Day 43 respectively) [121–124]. Spinosad, moreover, is effective in reducing flea egg production (>99.8% for about 1 month) although its absence in the skin debris of treated dogs results in no effects on environmental flea stages [121]. Other than alone, this chemical is also available, at the moment only in North America, in combination with milbemycin oxime.
IGRs inhibit the reproduction in adult insects and block the organogenesis of immature instars via hormonal or enzymatic influence. Of the two groups of IGRs available, i.e. juvenile hormone analogs and chitin synthesis inhibitors, molecules belonging to the latter group are available in formulations containing also MLs. Chitin synthesis inhibitors have effects both on adult stages on the animal and on immature fleas in the environment. Female adult fleas suffer from a reduction of prolificacy and fecundity, while egg hatching and larval moults are inhibited [104]. Lufenuron, belonging to the group of benzoyl-phenyl-ureas (BPUs) and classified as an insect development inhibitor (IDI), is available either in injectable or oral formulations, the latter also containing milbemycine oxime. Lufenuron has ovicidal and larvicidal activity but no adulticidal effect [125, 126]. This molecule provides flea control on the animal and in the environment because female fleas biting treated animals will generate eggs from which no larvae will hatch and juveniles feeding on pre-digested blood in the environment are unable to moult to the next stage [125, 127, 128]. A three-year study demonstrated that the monthly administration per os of lufenuron to cats and dogs is able to provide long-term reliable control of fleas [78]. Lufenuron proved to be highly effective when used alone in simulated home environments with induced flea infestations [129–131], but a fast acting adulticide should be also used if a flea infestation is already established at the beginning of the treatment [132]. A 3-months trial showed that the combined administration of oral lufenuron once a month, and of an insecticide at two different regimens, may reduce flea populations on pets by at least 97.3% within one week, maintaining this level of reduction for 90 days, along with a highly effective control level for off-host stages [133]. Indeed, the concomitant use of adulticides greatly supports the elimination of adult fleas, especially within the first 3 weeks of therapy, which is crucial especially in situations with intense flea challenge [134]. A recent 90-day study carried out with the oral combination containing lufenuron and milbemycin oxime showed that no adult stages are generated from eggs laid by fleas present on experimentally infected dogs which are treated 30 days apart for three times [135].
Apart from selamectin, the aforementioned compounds are available in formulations also containing MLs potentially useful to control cardio-pulmonary nematodes.
A spot-on containing imidacloprid 10%/moxidectin 2.5% can be used for preventing canine angiostrongylosis for its effective and safe larvicidal activity in dogs experimentally infected with A. vasorum. A single topical application is 100% effective in the elimination of fourth stage larvae (L4) and pre-adults of the parasite, thus preventing patent infections. A monthly-based use of this topical spot-on potentially prevents or, at least, minimizes the establishment of adult A. vasorum, the severe cardiopulmonary tissue damage caused by the parasite and the clinical onset of the disease [136]. Milbemycin oxime is another potential option for preventing canine angiostrongylosis because an efficacy of 85% has been reported in dogs, which received 0.5 mg/kg of the drug at 30 and 60 days after experimental infection with A. vasorum[137].
MLs can be used to prevent canine heartworm disease in both dogs and cats for their ability to kill third and fourth larval stages of D. immitis[138]. Milbemycin oxime and moxidectin can be administered in dogs once a month during the season of activity of mosquitoes, with the first dose given within a month after the beginning of the season and the last dose within 1 month after vectors disappear [138, 139]. The spot-on formulation containing imidacloprid 10%/moxidectin 1% and oral milbemicyn oxime may be used also for the prevention of D. immitis infection in cats [140–143]. As an example, the imidacloprid 10%/moxidectin 1% spot-on provides 88.4-100% control of adult C. felis for 35 days in cats, other than treatment and control of intestinal nematodes and heartworm [143, 144]. When milbemycin oxime is associated with praziquantel the formulation can be used also for tapeworms, and when associated with lufenuron the combination is effective also against immature fleas [5, 6]. Topical selamectin can be used to prevent cardio-pulmonary dirofilariosis in dogs and cats and, as mentioned above, this formulation is active against fleas and other major parasites of companion animals [107, 138, 139].
May control of fleas support prevention of cardio-pulmonary nematodes and vice versa?
In newly acquired infestations, the first fleas jumping and biting on a pet are unseen and the animal remains untreated for several days or weeks [102]. The infestation is instead noticed when the animal has become parasitized by a high number of fleas. At that time, the untreated animal has already dispersed flea eggs in the environment, which have given rise to larvae, pupae, and newly emerging adult fleas. This results in an infestation diagnosed only when the home is already contaminated with hundreds to thousands of flea life stages, potentially causing continuous re-infestations for the pet [102, 145, 146].
The ideal goal is a pet free of fleas throughout the year, regardless an existing pulicosis, and protected even when it comes in contact with these ectoparasites. In general, a year round approach is not applied for fleas by pet owners and veterinarians, because control of pulicosis is traditionally suggested from late winter or early spring and continued throughout summer until autumn. This is usually based on seasonal treatment with formulations containing residual insecticides and/or repellents [7, 17, 18, 101, 147], most of which are out of the scope of the present article. In any case, collars are not usually replaced more than once a year, and those with the longest activity do not encompass 12 months; moreover, spot-on and spray formulations are usually not applied monthly for a year by the owners. Hence, all pets can be at risk of exposure to fleas in certain months. This is particularly true if one considers that differences may not exist in flea infestation patterns between the four seasons of the year [11]. As an example, although multicentre field trials have successfully demonstrated the monthly efficacy of spinosad in naturally infected dogs during the summer, i.e. the period of highest level of contamination for homes [148], control of fleas is not imperatively seasonal.
The duration of chemoprevention for parasites affecting pets is often questioned and, for instance, the US Companion Animal Parasite Council (CAPC) and the European Scientific Counsel Companion Animal Parasites (ESCCAP), have different guidelines. In particular, there has been a debate on the duration of the monthly chemoprophylaxis for D. immitis, i.e. if all year round, six months, or only during the mosquito season [149–151]. Indeed, the availability of parasiticide formulations providing monthly protection from D. immitis when mosquitoes are active and continued control of intestinal infection by nematodes, could make the interruption of an all year round control program undesirable. This is particularly true where the risk of heartworm transmission is considered low but pets may be infected with intestinal nematodes (e.g. whipworms, hookworms, roundworms) throughout the year [5, 6, 149]. Hence, the CAPC suggests to use broad-spectrum parasiticides year round to have a pet free of intestinal worms, along with the prevention for D. immitis. Such an approach could be endorsed by veterinarians and pet owners elsewhere because, regardless of the ubiquitous distribution of intestinal worms [5, 6], cardio-pulmonary nematodes are spreading and/or emerging in several countries of Europe [3, 152], and there is a risk of importation and establishment (A. vasorum) in the Americas [153]. The ESCCAP has suggested extending chemoprevention for D. immitis to 7–8 months or even year round [2], given that certain vectors (e.g. the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus) may survive in temperate areas as adult stages, even during winter [154]. This mosquito has the potential to extend animal and human risk of exposure to heartworms during the whole year, especially in urban habitats of southern areas [2]. Also, large-scale and prolonged preventative measures against canine dirofilariosis may promote a decrease in the prevalence in those dogs living in the same area, but not subjected to the prophylaxis. In fact, chemopreventatives reduce the abundance of reservoirs, as shown in some areas of Northern Italy [155], thus they could be useful in reducing the spread of D. immitis also where the infection has a low prevalence and/or the nematode has emerged recently [2, 156].
Another important example is provided by the French heartworm A. vasorum, which is expanding in several countries of Europe where it may overlap the distribution of D. immitis and even cause co-infections [3, 157]. Additionally, this nematode also represents a potential threat for North America, e.g. through imported infected hosts [153]. Hence, there is the actual risk that veterinarians will need to use chemopreventative approaches with MLs also for canine angiostrongylosis which, at present, is suggested in those areas with high epidemiological hazard [3, 136].
In summary, several parasiticides used for the control of intestinal nematodes and chemoprevention of D. immitis and, possibly, of A. vasorum, contain chemicals useful in flea control programs. They add further support to the yearly use of some products in particularly risky situations, given that domestic temperatures allow ectoparasites (e.g. fleas) to survive, develop and infect pets (and sometimes owners) throughout the year [149]. Therefore, the all-year round treatment with broad spectrum combinations can be applied to assure treatment, prevention and/or control of major parasites, including intestinal and cardio-pulmonary nematodes (and other parasites, according to the formulation), especially when immature stages of fleas should be kept under control in the home environment.
Final remarks
Fleas are a constant danger for animal and human health for the primary pathogenic potential they have and for the pathogens they transmit with their blood meals or faeces. Thus, there is a constant concern over their control in most countries of the world.
Apparent evidence that the present climate changes and reduction in the length of winter season could interfere in the biology of fleas in the near future is growing. Of importance, is that fleas may survive indoors during the winter and also outdoors in those situations in which the environment is marginal [158]. For instance, epidemiological changes in fleas and transmitted diseases are suggested by the apparent emergence of bartonellosis in Europe [159, 160]. Also detection of R. felis in fleas is increasing in a number of countries, thus the distribution of this pathogen is nowadays considered as wide as the globally distributed vector C. felis[76].
At the same time, these epidemiological changes could contribute to “new” sanitary problems especially where intestinal worms are endemic and cardio-respiratory nematodes are spreading. Flea-borne transmitted pathogens have been found in fleas collected in countries where heartworms and lungworms are endemic or emerging (see ref [3] for geographical spread of cardio-pulmonary nematodes in Europe). As key examples, both B. henselae and B. clarridgeiae have been found in fleas collected from dogs and cats in France and Germany [161], Albania [162], Spain [90], the Netherlands [98], Hungary [163], UK [159], and in the USA as well [164]. In Italy, Bartonella spp. is endemic especially in the South [165, 166], where human seropositivity to cat scratch disease has been unveiled [167]. Moreover, R. felis has been found in cat fleas collected from companion animals throughout the country [13, 168]. At the same time Italy is a key country for the emergence and spreading of cardio-pulmonary nematodes, with D. immitis being hyper-endemic in the North and expanding southward, A. vasorum potentially spreading in all the territory, and C. aerophila and A. abstrusus widely distributed with prevalence rates up to 7% and 20% respectively [3, 56, 152, 169, 170]. Considering that in Italy, and possibly in other countries, intermediate and paratenic hosts of heartworms and lungworms can be present throughout the year [2, 3], the opportunity of all-year-round controls should be taken into account.
Control and prevention of flea infections rely on strategic treatments with persistent adulticidal products (e.g. imidacloprid) and/or with chemicals acting against off-host immature stages (e.g. lufenuron) along with adulticides, if an infestation already pre-exists [7, 104, 171–174]. In the case of survival of fleas to an adulticide, and consequent production of eggs, IGRs may ultimately prevent the development of larvae [104, 175]. This is of importance because the efficacy of a year-long flea control program, e.g. using monthly applications, may have some constraints if based only on the use of residual insecticides, killing primarily adult fleas.
Indeed, different products (e.g. imidacloprid, spinosad, selamectin) have an excellent activity in killing existing adult fleas on pets [104, 105, 114, 133, 172, 173, 176–178]. Interestingly, several studies have evaluated parasiticides against the “KS1 cat flea strain”, which has been maintained at the Kansas State University, USA, since 1990 and has varying levels of resistance or reduced susceptibility to different compounds [146]. However, the susceptibility of this strain to different formulations at varying regimens (e.g. lufenuron, spinosad, imidacloprid + moxidectin, selamectin and others out of the scope of this review) is clear evidence of the efficacy of compounds presently marketed in controlling pulicosis for about an entire month [135, 146, 179, 180]. A rapid action is also critical, because fleas should be killed as soon as they emerge from the cocoon and jump on a pet. Adult C. felis begins feeding almost immediately once on an animal, with many fleas feeding within minutes [20]. The more quickly a product kills newly acquired fleas, the more effectively it prevents FAD and reduces the likelihood of transmission of pathogens. This is problematic, especially when client compliance with environmental treatments is inconsistent, thus causing recurrent infestations, and when residual efficacy of insecticides declines after the first weeks post-administration [181, 182]. Hence, breaking the life cycle of fleas by interruption of their reproduction is crucial. Most residual flea adulticides have a prolonged activity and they either kill or intoxicate newly acquired fleas within one day after re-infection [183]. Larvicidal effects of imidacloprid is of practical significance in both breaking the flea life cycle and reducing the level of flea infestation in the domestic environment, spinosad and selamectin reduce egg production, and the latter has ovicidal effects impairing larval emergence [106, 111, 112, 121]. Given that most insecticides may suffer from decreasing levels of killing speed throughout the month following administration [105, 106, 123, 124], environmental control is mandatory. This is even more important if one considers that rapid and voracious blood sucking by adult fleas (e.g. 25–60% of fleas are blood fed within 5 min and partially digested blood can be defecated in as little as 2–6 minutes after fleas infest a host) may indeed impair prevention of flea biting and feeding by residual insecticides [101, 184, 185]. This aspect could also have practical implications in clinical management of FAD. A single flea is generally considered enough to elicit and maintain the clinical signs of FAD [186], but such ability has been recently questioned. If this dogma were true, no flea product would provide high control against FAD, at least not until the flea population is eradicated [101]. This is in contrast with the evidence that residual insecticides (among others selamectin, imidacloprid) have high efficacy in reducing the occurrence of FAD. Therefore, it is suggested that the key drivers of FAD are the degree of hypersensitivity of an individual animal, the number of fleas feeding and amount of salivary antigens injected [101]. Regardless of the role of a single flea in eliciting FAD, the total flea eradication from the environment is necessary.
Conclusion
In conclusion, new concepts for reliable preventative plans are presently being discussed in the scientific community, with regard to epidemiological modifications in several areas. With ectoparasites, a correct understanding of basic knowledge for the control of fleas and related diseases is important for the selection of appropriate products by veterinarians. There is a constant necessity to update practitioners on the possibilities they have to control fleas affecting pets because they may be not aware on the actual applicability of available formulations, especially in terms of speed of kill of residual insecticides, ability to control feeding and reproduction of fleas, and potential for compounds acting on off-host immature stages [7, 101]. Hence, the choice of the control method should always be made according to the concurrent epidemiological risk not only for ubiquitous intestinal nematodes, like Trichuris vulpis, but also for emerging heartworms and lungworms and for the “ancient” fleas.
Given the new epidemiological scenarios, separate mono-products with different target parasites would probably be inferior if compared with a single combination able to control all major parasites at the same time, for their a broader spectrum of activity. This is especially true where intestinal worms and fleas are highly endemic and cardio-respiratory nematodes are emerging. The high number of flea products either in combination or as single compounds to be administered in strategic alternations in flea control programmes is also important to minimize the risk of the onset of resistance. In general, blanket administration of broad-spectrum parasiticides should be discouraged, given that the abuse of anthelmintics can promote drug resistance. Actually, at the moment there is only evidence of resistance to pyrantel in canine hookworms. Although pyrantel is not used for monthly prevention of cardio-pulmonary parasites, a high level of attention should always be maintained to detect any hint of resistance to parasiticides, including MLs, in nematodes of pets. [6]. This is even more important if one considers that there is the first laboratory evidence that microfilariae and third-stage larvae of D. immitis can show a degree, although how much is yet to be established, of resistance to certain parasiticides [187].
On the other hand, further studies are warranted to extend the spectrum of activity of those formulations containing molecules active against fleas and useful to control heartworms and lungworms. For instance, it would be insightful to thoroughly evaluate the efficacy of ivermectin and selamectin against A. vasorum, A. abstrusus and C. aerophila in clinical trials, given the scant reports published thus far [188–190]. The recent reports of the efficacy of the spot-on formulation containing moxidectin in the treatment of feline aelurostrongylosis and capillariosis [169, 191] should encourage further studies aiming to also investigate the applicability of chemopreventative approaches against these parasites, as recently assessed for dog angiostrongylosis [136]. Also, given the established efficacy of milbemycin oxime against A. vasorum[137] it could be important to evaluate its activity in treating and preventing C. aerophila in dogs and cats and A. abstrusus in cats.
Author contribution
DT conceived the intellectual content of the article and wrote the text.
Beugnet F, Porphyre T, Sabatier P, Chalvet-Monfray K: Use of a mathematical model to study the dynamics of ctenocephalides felis populations in the home environment and the impact of various control measures. Parasite. 2004, 11: 387-389.
Conboy G, Schenker R, Strehlau G: Efficacy of Milbemax (milbemycin/praziquantel) for the treatment and prevention of Angiostrongylus vasorum infection in dogs. Proceedings of the Joint 49th Annual Meeting of the American Association of Veterinary Parasitologists/79th Meeting of the American Society of Parasitologists. 2006, 92-24-28 July 2004; Philadelphia
Guerrero J, McCall JW, Genchi C: The use of macrocyclic lactones in the control and prevention of heartworm and other parasites in dogs and cats. Macrocyclic Lactones in Antiparasitic Therapy. 2002, Oxon, UK: CABI Publishing, 353-369.
Acknowledgements
DT thanks Dr. Francesco La Torre for the comments on the manuscript and Novartis Animal Health Italy for the assignment to write this review and previous reviews on pet intestinal nematodes.
DT had the scientific responsibility of studies on parasites of companion animals supported by Novartis Animal Health and other pharmaceutical companies at the University of Teramo, Italy. DT has been invited by Novartis Animal Health and other pharmaceutical companies to give lectures on parasites of companion animals at Scientific Conferences.
Many of the researches and experimental studies cited and discussed in the present review have evaluated comparatively the efficacy against fleas of a plethora of parasiticide compounds and formulations but data have not been reported nor discussed when the substances investigated were out of the scope of the present review.
Rights and permissions
This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. | Review
Background
Cardio-respiratory nematodes affecting dogs and cats are nowadays prevalent in several countries, where they have a growing importance due to their clinical impact, possible zoonotic hazard, and geographical emergence and spreading in both endemic regions and areas previously free of infection. This is the case for the mosquito-borne Dirofilaria immitis, the mollusc-borne Angiostrongylus vasorum and Aelurostrongylus abstrusus, and for Capillaria aerophila, which has a direct biological cycle, albeit earthworms may have an unclear role of facultative intermediate or paratenic hosts [1–4]. Modifications in epidemiological patterns and clinical approaches for these infections are changing perspective and perception on parasitoses of pets and could lead to the fallacy that other parasites of dogs and cats present nothing new to be investigated and disseminated. This potential mistake with “old-fashioned” parasites has been recently discussed for roundworms, hookworms and whipworms [5, 6]. This could be true also for ectoparasites like fleas, although they have a major pathogenic role in human and veterinary medicine. Fleas are a cause of direct damage to the hosts’ skin, they are hated by pets and owners for the nuisance and distress they cause, and have a powerful vectorial ability.
Of the more than 2,500 known fleas, three major species feed on pets and humans [7–9]. The most widespread is the cat flea Ctenocephalides felis (Figure 1), which is highly prevalent in both dogs and cats in all corners of the world. Also the dog flea Ctenocephalides canis (Figure 2) and the human flea Pulex irritans (Figure 3) are globally distributed, although with lower rates [9, 10]. | yes |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://www.gardeninsects.com/beneficialNematodes.asp | Beneficial Nematodes | Beneficial nematodes seek out and kill over 200 species of pest insect in
the soil and will have no detrimental affect on species such as ladybugs,
earth worms and other helpful beneficial insects.
To
get pricing and order information on Beneficial nematodes, order nematodes
for sale at
Buglogical
BIOLOGICAL Control Of Pest Insects With Nematodes.Beneficial Nematodes naturally occur in soil and are used to control soil pest insects and whenever larvae or grubs are present. Like all of our products, it will not expose humans or animals to any health or environmental risks. Beneficial nematodes only attack soil dwelling insects and leave plants and earthworms alone. The beneficial nematodes enters the larva via mouth, anus or respiratory openings and starts to feed. This causes specific bacteria to emerge from the intestinal tract of the nematode. These spread inside the insect and multiply very rapidly. The bacteria convert host tissue into products which can easily be taken up by the nematodes. The soil dwelling insect dies within a few days. Beneficial nematodes are a totally safe biological control in pest insects. The Beneficial nematodes are so safe the EPA has waived the registration requirements for application.
NATURE'S BEST WAY OF KILLING Grubs and Japanese Beetles.
Though they are harmless to humans, animals, plants, and healthy
earthworms, beneficial nematodes aggressively pursue insects. The beneficial nematodes can be used to control a broad range of soil inhabiting insects and above ground insects in their soil inhabiting stage of life.
More than 200 species of pest insects from 100 insect families are susceptible to these nematodes. When they sense the temperature and carbon dioxide emissions of soil-borne insects, beneficial nematodes move toward their prey and enter the pest through its body openings. The nematodes carry an associated bacterium (Xenorhabdus species) that kills insects fast within 48 hours. The bacteria is harmless to humans and other organisms and cannot live freely in nature. Several generations of nematodes may live and breed within the dead insect, feeding on it as a food source. When the food source is gone, they migrate into the soil in search of a new host. When the pest population is eliminated, the beneficial nematodes die off and biodegrade. Beneficial nematodes are so effective, they can work in the soil to kill the immature stages of garden pests before they become adults.
Beneficial nematodes infest grubs and other pest insects that are known to destroy lawns and plants.
Beneficial nematodes belong to one of two genera: Steinernema and Heterorhabditis are commercially available in the U.S. Steinernema is the most widely studied beneficial nematode because it is easy to produce. Heterorhabditis is more difficult to produce but can be more effective against certain insects, such as th white grubs, and Japanese beetles.
What are beneficial nematodes?
Nematodes are morphologically, genetically and ecologically diverse organisms occupying more varied habitats than any other animal group except arthropods. These naturally occurring organisms are microscopic, unsegmented round worms that live in the soil and, depending on the species, infect plants and animals. The two nematode families Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, contain the insect parasitic nematode species. The most commonly used beneficial nematodes are Steinernema carpocapsae, S. feltiae, and H bacteriophora. Nematodes that are endoparasites of insects attack a wide variety of agricultural pests.
The life cycle of beneficial nematodes consists of eggs, four larval stages and the adults. The third larval stage is the infective form of the nematode (IT). They search out susceptible hosts, primarily insect larvae, by detecting excretory products, carbon dioxide and temperature changes. Juvenile nematodes enter the insect host through the mouth, anus or breathing holes (spiracles). Heterorhabditid nematodes can also pierce through the insect’s body wall. The juvenile form of the nematode carries Xenorhabdus sp. bacteria in their pharynx and intestine. Once the bacteria are introduced into the insect host, death of the host usually occurs in 24 to 48 hours.
As the bacteria enzymatically breaks down the internal structure of the insect, the Steinernematids develop into adult males and females which mate within the insect's body cavity. Heterorhabditids produce young through hermaphroditic females. This form of nematode has the sexual organs of both sexes. As the nematodes grow, they feed on the insect tissue that has been broken down by the bacteria. Once their development has reached the third juvenile stage, the nematodes exit the remains of the insect body.
Why are these organisms beneficial?
Parasitic nematodes are beneficial for six reasons. First, they have such a wide host range that they can be used successfully on numerous insect pests. The nematodes' nonspecific development, which does not rely on specific host nutrients, allows them to infect a large number of insect species.
Second, nematodes kill their insect hosts within 48 hours. As mentioned earlier, this is due to enzymes produced by the Xenorhabdus bacteria. Third, nematodes can be grown on artificial media. This allows for commercial production which makes them a more available product.
Fourth, the infective stage is durable. The nematodes can stay viable for weeks when stored at the proper temperature. Usually 3 weeks when refrigerated at 37o to 50o F. They can also tolerate being mixed with various insecticides, herbicides and fertilizers. Also, the infective juveniles can live for some time without nourishment as they search for a host.
Fifth, there is no evidence of natural or acquired resistance to the Xenorhabdus bacteria. Though there is no insect immunity to the bacteria, some insects, particularly beneficial insects, are possibly less parasitized because nematodes are less likely to encounter
How beneficial nematodes work: The life cycle of beneficial nematodes consists of six distinct stages: an egg stage, four juvenile stages and the adult stage. The adult spends its life inside the host insect. The third juvenile stage, called a dauer, enters the bodies of insects (usually the soil dwelling larval form. Some nematodes seek out their hosts, while others wait for the insect to come to them. Host seeking nematodes travel through the soil the thin film of water that coats soil particles. They search for insect larvae using built-in homing mechanisms that respond to changes in carbon dioxide levels and temperture. They also follow trails of insect excrement. After a single nematode finds and enters an insect through its skin or natural openings, the nematode release a toxic bacteria that kills its host, usually within a day or two. In less than two weeks the nematodes pass through several generations of adults, which literally fill the insect cadaver. Steinernema reproduction requires at least two dauer nematodes to enter an insect, but a single Heterorhabditis can generate offspring on its own.The nematodes actively searches for insect larvae. Once inside the larva the nematodes excretes specific bacteria from its digestive trac before it starts to feed. The bacteria multiply very rapid and convert the host tissue into products that the nematodes take up and use for food. The larva dies within a few days and the color changes from white-beige to orange-red or red-brown. The nematodes multiply and develop within the dead insect. As soon as the nematodes are in the infectious third stage, they leave the old host and start searching for new larvae. Infected grubs turn color from white-beige to red brown 2-4 days after application and becomes slimy. After a few weeks, dead larvae disintegrate completely and are difficult to find.
Beneficial nematodes are also very effective against termites, German cockroaches, flies, ant, and fleas.
APPLICATION:
Beneficial Nematodes are very easy to use. Mix with water and spray or sprinkle on the soil along garden plants or lawn. Put the contents of the Beneficial nematodes in a bucket of water and stir to break up any lumps, and let the entire solution soak for a few minutes. Application can be made using a water-can, irrigation system, knapsack or sprayer. On sprayer use a maximum pressure to avoid blockage, all sieves should be removed. The sprayer nozzle opening should be at leat 1/2 mm. Evenly spread the spraying solutions over the ground area to be treated. Continuous mixing should take place to prevent the nematodes from sinking to the bottom. After application keep the soil moist during the first two weeks for the nematodes to get establish. For a small garden the best method is using a simple sprinkling or water can to apply the Beneficial nematodes to the soil. Apply nematodes before setting out transplants; for othe pest insects, Japanese Beetles and grubs, apply whenever symptomatic damage from insects is detected. Best to apply water first if soil is dry.
Proper storage and handling is essential to nematode health.
Always follow the package instructions for the best method of mixing nematodes. Formulations vary depending on the species and target insect. Nematodes can be stored in the refrigerator up to a month (not the freezer) before they are mixed with water, but once the nematodes are diluted in water, they cannot be stored. Also, nematodes shouldn't be stored in hot vehicles, or left in spray tanks for long periods of time.
Nematodes need moisture in the soil for movement (if the soil is too dry or compact, they may not able to search out hosts) and high humidity if they are used against foliage pests. Watering the insect-infested area before and after applying nematodes keeps the soil moist and helps move them deeper into the soil. Care should be taken not to soak the area because nematodes in too much water cannot infect.
Apply nematodes in the early evening when soil temps are lower and UV incidence is lower as well (cloudy or rainy days are good too). Nematodes function best when pest insects are present in the soil.
Application is usually easy.
In most cases, there is no need for special application equipment. Most nematodes species are compatible with pressurized, mist, electrostatic, fan and aerial sprayers! Hose-end sprayers, pump sprayers, and watering cans are effective applicators as well. Nematodes are even applied through irrigation systems on some crops. Check the label of the nematode species to use the best application method. Repeat applications if the insect is in the soil for a longer period of time. There is no need for masks or specialized safety equipment. Insect parasitic nematodes are safe for plants and animals (worms, birds, pets, children). Because they leave no residues, application can be made anytime before a harvest and there is no re-entry time after application.
How to use beneficial nematodes: For the home gardener, localized spraying is probably the quickest and easiest way to get the nematodes into the soil. Producers ship beneficial nematodes in the form of dry powder type, and sponges. All of these dissolve in water and release the millions of nematodes. Each nematode ready to start searching for an insect in your lawn or garden. Nematodes should be sprayed on infested areas at the time when pests is in the soil. Timing is important, or else you will have to repeat the application. Northern gardeners should apply the nematodes in the spring, summer and fall, when the soil contains insect larvae. Most of the beneficial nematodes are adaptive to cold weather. In fact , the very best time to control white grubs is in the spring and fall. If your in a warmer climate, beneficial nematodes are most effective in the summer.
Fertilizers should be avoided roughly 2 weeks prior to and after nematode application, because they may be adversely affected by high nitrogen content.
Some pesticides work well with nematodes when their mutual exposure is limited while other pesticides may kill nematodes. Check labels or specific fact sheets to find out. Some chemicals to avoid are bendiocarb, chlorpyrifos, ethoprop, and isazophos. Fungicides to avoid are anilazine, dimethyl benzyl, ammonium chloride, fenarimol, and mercurous chloride. The herbicides, 2,4-D and trichlopyr and nematicide, fenamiphos, should be avoided as well.
During hot weather release nematodes in the evening when temperature is cooler. Release once or twice a year or until infestation subsides. Nematodes are shipped in the infectious larvae stage of their life cycle and can be stored in the refrigerator for up to
2 weeks. Always release very early in the morning or late in the late afternoon.
The value of beneficial nematodes
is extremely high for anyone dealing with soil dwelling pest infestations. When considering where to buy nematodes,
the Internet can be a great source of recommendations and contact
information for distributors across the nation. Knowing what to expect when
you receive your nematodes and how to apply them to your lawn and garden is
part of being happy with the provider you choose.
Nematodes are microscopic, like moist soil, and are the best predators of
pests that spend any stage of their life cycle in the soil. Fleas, cut
worms, ants, root weevils and grubs are just a few of more than 250
difficult to control pests that nematodes move through the ground consuming
without harming the environment.
There are a couple of determining factors when considering where to buy
beneficial nematodes. It is best to order biological control nematodes and
have them delivered directly to you from a reliable source. This helps insure that the nematodes you are buying are still
alive. Nematodes do not live very long in storage. Therefore, buying
nematodes that are stocked on a store shelf is very risky.
Step 1
Purchase
beneficial nematodes from a reputable dealer.If your garden center
does not carry nematodes, order them from a source online. As living
organisms, they must be handled properly to remain effective. The species of
nematodes used for lawn infestations are microscopic. You will see the
carrier when you open the package, not the tiny nematodes. Beneficial
nematodes are non-toxic to humans and pets.
Step 2
Apply the nematodes as soon as possible
after you receive them. Store them in the refrigerator if you cannot apply
them immediately.
Step 3
Apply nematodes in the evening for best
results. Nematodes can die from exposure to sunlight or from drying out in
the heat. Mix them with water in your sprayer and apply them by simply
spraying your lawn. Follow specific instructions that came with the
nematodes.
If you are interested in learning about our natural insects, or purchasing any of the beneficial insects we have avalable for your garden or farm.
Information and ordering beneficial insects, please visitBuglogical | Beneficial nematodes seek out and kill over 200 species of pest insect in
the soil and will have no detrimental affect on species such as ladybugs,
earth worms and other helpful beneficial insects.
To
get pricing and order information on Beneficial nematodes, order nematodes
for sale at
Buglogical
BIOLOGICAL Control Of Pest Insects With Nematodes. Beneficial Nematodes naturally occur in soil and are used to control soil pest insects and whenever larvae or grubs are present. Like all of our products, it will not expose humans or animals to any health or environmental risks. Beneficial nematodes only attack soil dwelling insects and leave plants and earthworms alone. The beneficial nematodes enters the larva via mouth, anus or respiratory openings and starts to feed. This causes specific bacteria to emerge from the intestinal tract of the nematode. These spread inside the insect and multiply very rapidly. The bacteria convert host tissue into products which can easily be taken up by the nematodes. The soil dwelling insect dies within a few days. Beneficial nematodes are a totally safe biological control in pest insects. The Beneficial nematodes are so safe the EPA has waived the registration requirements for application.
NATURE'S BEST WAY OF KILLING Grubs and Japanese Beetles.
Though they are harmless to humans, animals, plants, and healthy
earthworms, beneficial nematodes aggressively pursue insects. The beneficial nematodes can be used to control a broad range of soil inhabiting insects and above ground insects in their soil inhabiting stage of life.
More than 200 species of pest insects from 100 insect families are susceptible to these nematodes. When they sense the temperature and carbon dioxide emissions of soil-borne insects, beneficial nematodes move toward their prey and enter the pest through its body openings. The nematodes carry an associated bacterium (Xenorhabdus species) that kills insects fast within 48 hours. | no |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8626253/ | Control of foliar phytoparasitic nematodes through sustainable ... | Share
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Graphical abstract
Abstract
Nematodes are hidden enemies that inhibit the entire ecosystem causing adverse effects on animals and plants, leading to economic losses. Management of foliar phytoparasitic nematodes is an excruciating task. Various approaches were used to control nematodes dispersal, i.e., traditional practices, resistant cultivars, plant extract, compost, biofumigants, induced resistance, nano-biotechnology applications, and chemical control. This study reviews the various strategies adopted in combating plant-parasitic nematodes while examining the benefits and challenges. The significant awareness of biological and environmental factors determines the effectiveness of nematode control, where the incorporation of alternative methods to reduce the nematodes population in plants with increasing crop yield. The researchers were interested in explaining the fundamental molecular mechanisms, providing an opportunity to deepen our understanding of the sustainable management of nematodes in croplands. Eco-friendly pesticides are effective as a sustainable nematodes management tool and safe for humans. The current review presents the eco-friendly methods in controlling nematodes to minimize yield losses, and benefit the agricultural production efficiency and the environment.
1. Introduction
If we get a handful of soil from anywhere and isolate the organisms, we will recognize active worms known as nematodes. Likewise, if we analyze the root of a plant, an insect, a fish, a bird, or a mammal, in most cases we will find species of nematodes. Some of these species can be seen by eye, and others have seen using the microscope power. They are aquatic animals that live in fresh and salty water or the aqua membrane surrounding the soil particles as soil preparation processes. They are pathogenic to plants and/or animals and can be transmitted through hygroscopic water (Blair, 1996). Nematodes are found where life is available worldwide (Yeates et al., 2009). Nematodes are one of the largest phyla in the animal kingdom, estimated to be over half a million, and can successfully adapt to all ecosystems (Ferris et al., 2012). The mammalian's parasitic nematodes are considered one of the oldest groups of nematodes known to humanity. They constitute about 15% of the nematodes population and include nearly 50 species of humans' parasitic nematodes (Jasmer et al, 2003). The nematodes phylum includes entomopathogenic nematodes, which are used in the biological control of many pests and pathogenic organisms, i.e., Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. that used to control insect pests like grubs within 48 h (Yeates et al., 2009, Buckley and Schmidt, 2003, Denno et al., 2008). In addition, Bacterivorous nematodes can effectively regulate the bacterial population, and they are predatory up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Marine nematodes constitute 50% of the nematodes population and can live in saltwater with salinity exceeding 3.0% (De Mesel et al, 2004). Soil nematodes represent about 35% of the total number of nematode species, and most of them are free-living nematode (about 25%), and are often classified according to feeding groups, i.e., bacterivores, fungivores, omnivores-carnivores, and predators. These species have a close relationship with soil fertility. These nematodes play a vital role in nitrogen (N) mineralization, and thus contribute to soil quality. Plant-parasitic nematodes are only 10% of the total number of nematode species.
3. Morphology and biology of nematodes
The majority of plant-parasitic nematodes are microscopic; however, a few species, such as adult female, cyst phase of soybean (Glycine max) and cyst nematode (Heterodera glycines) can be seen by the naked eye (Hartman et al., 2015, Bridge and Starr, 2007). Despite the difference in structural complexity between juvenile and adult nematodes, certain basic principles are common in all nematodes. The shape is flexible and cylindrical triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, unsegmented, pseudocoelomate, vermiform, and colorless animals. The plant-parasitic nematodes are slender elongate, spindle-shaped, or fusiform, tapering towards both ends, and circular in cross-section. The nematode length may vary from 0.2 mm (Paratylenchus spp.) to about 11.0 mm (Paralongidorus maximus). Their body width in the range of 0.01- 0.05 mm. In a few genera, the mature females assume a pear shape (Meloidogyne), a globular shape (Globodera), reniform (Rotylenchulusreniformis), or swollen shape (Tylenchulus semipenetrans) (Hartman et al., 2015, Svitin et al., 2018, Mitiku, M., 2018). Plant-parasitic nematodes have a hollow style or spear that use in puncturing holes in plant cells to withdraw nutrients from plants. Nematodes have well-developed reproductive systems that distinguish as female and male nematodes. Some female nematode genera can lay more than 1,000 eggs, while other nematode genera lay less than 50 eggs (Bridge and Starr, 2007). Reproduction ability depends on the species and is influenced by the environment and host (Bridge and Starr, 2007, Hartman et al., 2015). The life cycle of most plant-parasitic nematodes consists of an egg, four juvenile (J) stages, and finally, the adult and reproductive stages (Hartman et al., 2015, Bridge and Starr, 2007). The J2 hatches directly from eggs in most plant-parasitic nematodes (Hartman et al., 2015). The life cycle of nematode depends on the genera. Generally, the life cycle ranges from a few days to one year under favorable environmental conditions and plant hosts (Bridge and Starr, 2007). Nematodes can survive in the soil through different mechanisms of dormancy (diapause and quiescence) (Karssen and Moens, 2006). The J2 of Root-knot nematodes (RKN) can survive in the soil for long periods consuming their food reserves stored in their intestines (Karssen and Moens, 2006). The eggs and juveniles of Globodera and Heterodera survive in the soil longer than the Meloidogyne as eggs in cysts remain viable in the soil for several years (Karssen and Moens, 2006).
4. The behavior of plant-parasitic nematode
Nematodes are categorized as plant-parasitic or non-parasitic. Plant-parasitic nematodes have to live very near living plant tissues to complete their life cycle (Hartman et al., 2015). The parasitic behavior of nematodes in soybeans and other upland crop plants varies among the different nematode species (Hartman et al., 2015). They are ectoparasitic, which live on the surface of their host, while others are endoparasites that live inside the host (Bridge and Starr, 2007). Migratory ectoparasites live on the surface of plant tissues and feed by involving their style into plant cells. Migratory ectoparasites include many genera and species, but only a few cause damage to crops showed in Table 1 and Fig. 1 (Bridge and Starr, 2007).
5. Distribution of phytoparasitic nematodes
Nematodes rapidly spread even though they cannot move more than a meter during their lifetime (Hartman et al., 2015). Various factors help the nematodes' spread , i.e., agricultural equipment and shoes contaminated with nematode-infected soil, and water movement during floods transmit worms over long distances. The movement of seeds from one country to another may spread the nematodes in this country unless quarantine administrators are careful. Nematodes are resistant to environmental conditions, as dried nematodes can move by wind or birds to new geographical areas and find new hosts. In addition, nematodes migrate in water, contaminating the plant tissues, and infected insect vectors (Lambert and Bekal, 2002).
6. Nematodes, how to survive?
There are many challenges to nematodes survival, e.g., predators, environmental changes, and host death. Nematodes survive against these factors by employing a combination of behavioral and physiological survival strategies (Nicol et al, 2011). The study of nematode predators is a new strategy to control the populations of plant-parasitic nematodes. The thick skin of nematodes may provide some protection; however, they can be easily penetrated by nematode predators. Other strategies include living within plant tissues (internal parasites) and reducing their movement in the soil outside plants (ectoparasites). Endoparasites are safer inside the plant but are susceptible to death by host death. Alternatively, nematodes transmitted from one host to another reduce the risk of perishing with their host. Environmental factors such as heat and water affect nematode survival. The beginning of the winter season or soil drought may be catastrophic for nematodes. However, nematodes adapt to these conditions through the cryptobiosis strategy, whereby they suspend their metabolism and remain dormant until optimum conditions availablility, which make their disposal very difficult. Worms feed a wide spectrum of plants to avoid losing the host plant instead of a cryptobiosis strategy. Nematodes can survive and thrive in what may seem to us hostile environments.
7. Factors affected nematode spread
7.1. Environmental factors
The majority of plant-parasitic nematodes are aquatic and need free moisture to develop (Bridge and Starr, 2007). Plant-parasitic nematodes live in hygroscopic water around soil particles and surrounding plant tissues (Bridge and Starr, 2007). Soybean cyst nematode has better development at about −0.03 MPa to −0.04 MPa than above −0.05 MPa in the top 15 cm (Heatherly et al., 1982). Soil moisture (40 to 60%) induces Meloidogyne species activity, in addition, it enhances the harmful effects of plant-parasitic nematodes on crops (Karssen and Moens, 2006). The nematode mobility increases with water flow in the soil pore space, which facilitates nematodes to reach plant roots (Fujimoto et al., 2010). Also, soil moisture increases the development ability of nematodes (locate, penetrate, hatch, and mate) (Koenning and Barker, 1995). In dry soils, nematodes migrate toward less negative potentials (more moisture), while in waterlogged soils nematodes migrate toward more negative potentials. Nematodes movement in waterlogged soils is restricted due to low O2 levels. Temperature is also a crucial factor for nematode development (Karssen and Moens, 2006). Temperature influences the distribution, survival, reproduction, and growth of nematodes (Karssen and Moens, 2006). The optimal soil temperature for plant-parasitic nematode development ranges from 15 to 32 °C (Moore, 1984). For instance, soybean cyst nematode has a life cycle of around 24 days when the soil temperature is 23 °C. However, the SCN life cycle is 40 days with a soil temperature of 18 °C. Usually, SCN can not develop below 10 °C or above 34 °C (Moore, 1984). The minimum temperature for normal SCN development is 14 °C, and the maximum is 38 °C. Adult male nematodes are found in soil temperatures between 35 and 38 °C (El-Sappah et al, 2019). Nematode populations are generally resistant and more prevalent in the warmer regions, where longer growing seasons extend feeding periods and increase their reproductive rates (Wang and McSorley, 2005). In colder areas, the life cycle of the nematodes increases by up to two weeks over 21 days.
7.2. Tillage controlling
Tillage practices affect nematodes. Reduced tillage might reduce nematode reproduction and distribution because nematodes are transported on machinery implements (Minton, 1986). It has been observed that soil disturbance caused an increase in the SCN egg population due to nematode inoculum is horizontally distributed in the field (Bao et al., 2011). However, no-tillage may increase the vertical nematode concentration in the soil profile. Minimal tillage in compacted soil leads to reduces soil volume and eases root penetration, inducing moisture stress and increasing nematode infestation (Minton, 1986). Crop residues on the soil increase the nematode populations and soil microorganisms due to the changes in soil moisture and temperature (Minton, 1986). Under clean fallow practices, the nematode population is usually reduced (Minton, 1986). Cold soils can alter nematode growth in no-tillage systems compared to conventional tillage where, crop residues on fallow soil decrease soil temperature, consequently decreasing nematode reproduction (Tyler et al., 1987).
Invasiveness summary:Anguina tritici, commonly referred to wheat seed gall nematode, which is the cause of ear-cockle disease. It is the first plant-parasitic nematode that described in the scientific literature in 1743. Its host range includes wheat, triticale, rye, and related grasses; the primary host is wheat. In the past, all wheat-cultivated areas were infected with ear cockle. This problem persists in many countries in the Near and Middle East, the Asian subcontinent, and Eastern Europe, likely due to poor awareness and lack of campaigns to create clean seeds. But the use of physical and mechanical methods to separate infected nematodes from seeds has eradicated nematodes from the Western Hemisphere. A. tritici is on the US Pest List of Economic and Environmental Importance, and 'Pests Lists' for Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Egypt, Guatemala, Indonesia, Israel, Madagascar, Namibia, Nepal, New Zealand, Paraguay, Peru, South Africa, Taiwan, Thailand, East Timor, and Uruguay (EPPO, 2020).
Morphology: It is a large nematode, ranging from 3 to 5 mm in length. Anguina tritici has an esophagus with three parts, and the esophageal glands do not overlap with the intestine. The female body tends to be thickened and curved ventrally. It has a short style(8–11 μm). Females have one ovary and the vulva located posteriorly. while males possess small spicules and small bursae or alae.
Symptoms: Slight elevations occur on the upper leaf surface with indentations on the lower side. Other symptoms include wrinkling, twisting, midrib margins curling, distortion, buckling, swelling, and bulging. A tight spiral coil evolves and dwarfing, loss of color or a mottled, yellowed appearance and stem bending may also occur seeds are transformed into galls which contain a dried mass of nematodes as showed in Fig. 2. Comparing with common tan wheat seeds, galls are smaller in size, lighter with color ranges from light brown to black However, the entire plant is distorted in severe infection.
Morphology:Aphelenchoides spp., has a well-developed and distinct metacarpus (The swollen posterior part of the carpus in the pharynx). The style is small with well-developed knobs, their tail has a mucro with three points. Males have a rose thorn spicule and no bursa.
Symptoms: Rice: During early growth, the relevant symptom is the appearance of yellowing on the new leaves' sheath, which later dry and wrinkle; However, the rest of the paper may look normal. The infested young leaves can be spotted with a white splash pattern or have distinct yellow areas. The leaves' edges may be deformed and wrinkled, but the leaf covers are asymptomatic (Fig. 3). In severe infections, the shortened flag leaf is kinked and can prevent complete neck extrusion from the shoe. The kernels are small and distorted, and the grains may discolor and crack. Infected plants lately mature and have sterile clusters carried on the productive tiller of high nodes (Xu et al., 2020).
8.3. Stem and bulb nematodes (SBN)
Morphology: Cuticle marked by transverse annuli about 1 µm apart, their lateral fields divided with four lines. Phasmid-like structures are presented dorsal to the lateral fields. The lip region is low, it is unstriated, slightly flattened, almost set off from the body. Head structure moderately developed, stylet is about 10–12 µm long with distinct basal knobs.
Symptoms: Leaves turn yellow, wilt, and collapse. Plants may be stunted or die back prematurely, Infected plants are characterized by one or more distinct patches of discolored plants. Garlic bulbs turn brown, shrivel and become lightweight. The wrapper layers often crack and separate from the onion leaves' base with swollen, misshapen, blister-like areas. Onion bulbs are brown and soft on some layers when cut open. The SBN may cause extensive rot within the bulbs, and the damage can progress in storage (Sturhan and Brzeski, 2020).
9. Strategies for controlling nematodes diseases
Fig. 4 showed several sustainable managements of nematodes diseases. The using regulation and exploitation of the microbial diversity is promising without affecting the degradation of the environment or health problems, i.e., integrated pest management (IPM) approaches for plant disease control. Restoring beneficial organisms that attack, repel, or otherwise antagonize disease-causing pathogens will render disease-resistant soil. Plants grown in disease-suppressive soil are much better than in soils low in biological diversity. Beneficial organisms can be directly added, or through the use of compost and other organic amendments. The host genetics, soil amendments, fertilizer effects on pathogens, e.t.c., are all parts of the IPM approach (Misiha et al., 2019, Abd-Elgawad and Askary, 2020). Generally, foliar nematode management focuses on reducing the impact of inoculum on the plant, which can be achieved in two ways. The most effective method is by isolating the host plant away the nematode, and the less effective approach is by introducing control measures once the nematode is present. Foliar nematode management (FNM) is challenged by the nematodes' survival behaviors, and a wide host range (De-Waele, 2002, Kohl, 2011). A preventative method is precious in the management of FNM. The establishment of the nursery with healthy plant material by pre-planting treatment with hot water, pesticides, or elicitor product (inducing agent) will ensure a preventative approach in the nursery. Integration of the above measures with various cultural controls, e.g., the quarantine of new plants stocks to assess potential symptoms, adequate spacing between plants to avoid the overhead irrigation will ensure nematodes free nursery. The above practices should be routinely carried out more times during the growing season for adequate management of FNM. It is always challenging to eradicate FNM once they are established in the nursery.
9.1. Cultural managements
The cultural control is precious techinque within IPM program for controlling the Leaf and bud nematode. The most effective of High crop hygiene program in the nursery and glasshouse is more effective; however, lacks regular sanitation as part of hygiene practices where plants are arranged with little space between pots to remove infected leaves in pots. Aphelenchoides fragariae can survive for years in infested dried leaf debris (Jagdale and Grewal, 2006). When infested leaves abscise on planting media with available moisture, nematode can migrate from these leaves to infect healthy plants. Kohl et al. (2010) reported that of moisture encourages the emergence of nematodes from infected leaf debris, thereby infest newly growing plants. Jagdale and Grewal (2006) found that Aphelenchoides fragariae isolated from overwintering soil, successfully infested fresh leaves of Hosta plants during spring, made a similar observation. In addition, Aphelenchoides fragariae can survive for years in infested dried leaf debris A. fragariae extracted from abscised leaves of nursery-grown Lantana camara in pots had almost the population as obtained from symptomatic attached leaves (Kohl et al., 2010). The debris or abscised leaves on the surface of substrates/media or overwintering soil can harbor A. fragariae, and serves as a route for a further infestation to emerging plants at the optimum condition. This issue improved by farmers, but nematode spread is still high. Generally, cultural management programs should include the removal and destruction of infected plants and debris, abscised leaves in pots/ground should be disposed, in addition, sterilizing the pots and equipments (trowel, pruning shears/pruning saw, scissors), avoid sprinkler irrigation, and misting which can create an ideal condition for nematode dispersal (Young, 2000, Zhen et al., 2012). The use of certified nematode-free planting materials can prevent the spread of plant parasitic nematodes (PPN), such as Aphelenchoides besseyi on hosts (Coyne et al., 2013). The obtained new plants were isolated in a separate place for weeks in the nursery to monitor any potential symptom development. The preventation is the best practice for controlling Leaf and bud nematodes (LBN) in the nursery.
9.2. Resistant cultivars and conventional breeding
Host plant resistance is an important management tool against PPNin IPM programs. Some plants, including four Hosta cultivars have been reported as resistant to LBN (A. fragariae) (Jagdale and Grewal, 2006). The resistance of Chrysanthemum varieties to A. ritzemabosie was identified. This resistance is due to a lack of nutritional factors in the plant that prevented further infection's spread to other leaves in an infected plant (Wallace, 1960). Although some varieties can be described as resistant; however, they are not immune to nematode infestation, where the plant can be attacked by adult nematodes but their reproduction is highly reduced (Lambert and Bekal, 2002). Despite the immense benefits of resistant cultivars, the limitation is represented in the availability to commercial farmers, besides, breeding the resistant genes into commercially acceptable cultivars (Arora and Sandhu, 2017, El-Deeb et al., 2018, Hassanin et al., 2020). There is more work to get nematode-resistant bacterial plasma (Starr et al., 2007). Conventional breeding methods are known to be the backbone of most breeding tasks to take advantage of the variation in wild and cultivated crops. Improvements in the traditional techniques may further facilitate and enable breeding for specific purposes, i.e., resistant plants (Hassanin et al., 2020).
9.3. Physical methods (Hot water treatment)
Various studies have recommended hot-water treatments for A.ritzemabosi in different plants, which include immersing Chrysanthemums at 43 °C for 20 min (Fallik, 2004). In addition, treating bulbs of Polianthes tuberosa with hot water at 57 °C for 30 min reduce the infestation of A. besseyi (Cuc et al., 2010). Hot water treatments have also been used to manage other PPN by treating bulbs, bare-rooted plants, dormant crowns, suckers, and runners of many economically important crops (Tsang et al., 2001, Fallik, 2004, Coyne et al., 2010). Successful hot water drenching at 70 °C, 90 °C, and 100 °C have been carried out against overwintering A. fragariae in pots to prevent migration to the leaves of Host plants with no adverse effect on dormant crowns (Jagdale and Grewal, 2004). A pretreatment temperature of 30 °C for 30 min followed by hot water treatment at 46 °C for 10 min has been recommended for strawberry plants against A. besseyi and A. fragariae (EPPO, 2012). The use of hot water treatment is essential to produce clean planting materials such as Asin Musa spp., (Hauser and Coyne, 2010, EPPO, 2012).
9.4. Biological control
There are some bacterial speacies such as Pseudomonas spp., and Serratia spp. that can attack nematodes through secreting some natural substances (Khan et al., 2016, Abdelnour et al., 2020). The nematicidal and antimicrobial potential of natural compounds ethier from plant extracts or bacteria make as an alternative to traditional pesticides. Efforts have been paid to reduce chemical usage have encouraged farmers to seek pest management strategies that are ecofriendly. Biological control is using beneficial organisms to regulate other organisms' population (DeBach & Rosen, 1991). Biological control such as microorganisms and entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) such as Steinernema feltiae, S. glaseri, and S. riobrave have been investigated against some nematodes such as root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica) in vitro, glasshouse, and under field conditions (Kenney and Eleftherianos, 2016). Various species of entomopathogenic nematodes have been successfully used to suppress nematodes in the field and greenhouse conditions (Lu et al., 2016). Bennison (2007) found Steinernema carpocapsae was ineffective in controlling LBN with a 5-spray program of 500 million/1000 m2. However, Jagdale & Grewal (2008) used infested cadavers of Galleria mellonella homoginized in soil medium successfully suppressed the spread of A. fragariae in the soil of infested Hosta 30 and 40 days post-treatment as a curative and preventative approach. In addition, infested cadavers of G. mellonella applied to soil suppressed populations of A. fragariae in the infested Hosta plants with reduced lesions compared to control (Jagdale and Grewal, 2008). There is a great potential to use EPN for LBN management; however, the author did not have the time to investigate the combination potential between EPN and other management strategies in the IPM program and agreed by the industry representatives. The adoption of IPM with the use of biological control as an eminent tool in modification of agricultural production (Kenney & Eleftherianos, 2016). Other biological control agent such as Bacillus subtilis has demonstrated nematicidal activity against various nematodes species including A. besseyi during in vitro experiments (Xia et al., 2011). Bacillus firmus in an aqueous suspension reduced the egg hatching in Meloidogyne incognitafrom by 98 to 100% 24 days post-treatment, while gall formation nematodes' populations, and the number of eggs were reduced on tomato seedlings during the glasshouse experiment (Terefe et al., 2009). The foliar application of non-parasitic Rhizobacterium (Burkholderia cepacia) reduced the A. fragariae number by 50-85 % in infested Hosta leaves and the soil around the plant. While the mortality of A. fragariae when exposed to B.cepacia in water suspension was 34% compared to the control (Jagdale and Grewal,2002). However, was ineffective against Meloidogyne incognita in the soil and laboratory culture (Meyer and Roberts, 2002).
9.5. Plant extracts
There are commercial products from plant extracts that have been previously tested against soil-dwelling nematodes such as cyst, root-knot, and other free-living nematodes, although more work is needed to confirm the product efficacy. Nemagold is a liquid extract of marigold Tagetes erecta, used aganist LBN. In a recent study, Azadirachtin (Neem tree extract) registered as AzaMax in the US caused about 64–77 % mortality in aqueous suspension when exposed to A. fragariae, while Neem oil demonstrated mortality of 90–100 % 24–72 h post-emergance to A. fragariae in aqueous suspension (An et al., 2017). Azadirachtin acts as an antifeedant, interferes with the molting process, reduces fecundity, and disrupts respiration and oviposition in targeted insect pests (Howard et al., 2009, Khalil, 2013). Khalil's (2013) recommended that Azadirachtin is an immense tool for the management of nematode pests, in addition, An et al. (2017) suggested azadirachtin as being toxic to A. fragariae. Recently an emulsifiable neem concentrate formulation registered as Azatin (azadirachtin 217 g/ L active ingredients) has been approved in the UK for use on protected ornamental plant production (MAPP 18301; Authorisation Number – 0360). The UK farmers have the option to use Azatin on ornamental plant production against insect pests, but there is no evidence of its effectiveness against LBN. The efficacy of Nemakill is a nematocide that contain cinnamon (32 %), clove (8 %), and thyme (15 %) oils was investigated in nematode-infested Hosta leaves (An et al., 2017). Nemakill caused a significant reduction of A. fragariae population in leaf-disc assays, while mortality of 100 % was recorded in aqueous suspensions 24 h post-emergance (An et al., 2017). Chałańska et al. (2017) found that soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria) extract was ineffective in reducing the population of A. ritzemabosi in Anemone leaves. There was a contradiction between the previous findings (Roner et al., 2007; Insunza et al., 2001) who reported nematicidal activity of Q. Saponaria's extract Chalanska et al. (2013) had earlier reported the effectiveness of Q. Saponaria for reducing the A. ritzemabosi population on Chrysanthemum leaves at higher concentrations (50%) compared to (10%) used by Chałańska et al. (2017). Other plant extracts investigated as potential nematicides include garlic extract (Allium sativum L.) as Bennison (2007) proved its effectiveness against LBN. In addition, other authors have reported garlic extracts have nematicidal activity in the laboratory and greenhouse (El-Nagdi and Youssef, 2013). The immense constituents of garlic oils are allium, diallyl disulfide, and trisulphide, which demonstrated toxic effects against the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in laboratory (Park et al., 2005). Iranshahi (2012) reported that hydrolyzation of sulfur compounds in A. sativum, A. cepa, and A. fistulosum excert isothiocyanate compounds with nematicidal effects on pathogens. The nematicidal activity of garlic was reported to show toxicity against the slug-pathogenic nematode Phasmarhabditis hermaphrodita with high mortality due to the presence of polysulfides (Anwar et al., 2009, Anwar et al., 2016). Garlic based products recommended as insecticides have now been registered in Denmark and Norway as ECO guard for cabbage root fly control and ECO spray in the UK received regulatory approval for a product called ‘Eagle Green Care’, a liquid nematicide for pest control on elite sports turf (Ministerially Approved Pesticide Product ‘MAPP’ No.14989). The other UK-approved garlic extract products include NEM guard granules (MAPP No. 15254) for carrot and parsnip, NEM guard PCN Granules (MAPP No. 17377) approved for potato, NEM guard DE (MAPP No. 16749) to control bulb nematodes (Ditylenchus dipsaci) on outdoor bulb onion; and against free-living nematodes on outdoor garlic, leek, fodder beet, and red beet.
9.6. Compost treatment against foliar nematode
Compost and compost tea as soil drenches might be an effective control strategy for foliar diseases in soilless production systems. This might prove in the benefit of assessing the efficacy of in vitro pathogen screening results as disease predictors under in vivo and field conditions. Testing teas compost as a foliar and soil-borne disease suppression under simulated field conditions might be a better predictor of field suppression than in vitro assays (Misiha et al., 2019).
9.7. Biofumigants
Isothiocyanates derived from mustard plants have been reported to have activity against soil-dwelling PPN (Ramirez et al., 2009). These compounds act as natural biofumigants (Brown and Morra, 1995), and have been reported to have suppressed soil-borne pests and diseases due to the biocidal effect of isothiocyanates derived from glucosinolates (Kirkegaard et al., 1996). Isothiocyanates/glucosinolates have demonstrated suppression of PPN (Ramirez et al., 2009), weeds (Brown and Morra, 1995), and pathogenic fungi (Kirkegaard et al., 1996). Various activities of biofumigants have been demonstrated against different species of PPN (Meloidogyne javanica, Tylenchulus semipenetrans) by mustard bio-fumigants (Brassica juncea) according to Zasada and Ferris, (2003). The incorporation of Brassica juncea (Indian mustard), Eruca sativa (Nemat), and Raphanus sativus significantly reduced the population of G. pallida on potato in field trials (Ngala et al., 2015). The prevention of nematodes' migration from infested soil /media to growing plants is a way to combine soil and foliar treatments. The author critically analyzed the importance of this factor as a potential route in healthy plant infestation through using infested pots or infected soil or when infected leaves fell on the soil surface. Previous studies have reported migration of nematodes from infested media to healthy plants (Jagdale and Grewal, 2006, Kohl et al., 2010).
9.8. Enhancing the plant resistance
Induced systemic resistance (ISR) is a mechanism of disease suppression that occurs as a plant response to colonization by certain beneficial compounds, which inducing the plant’s defense responses so that if a pathogen is subsequently encountered, the plant’s response will be faster and more healthy (Conrath et al., 2006). The ability of a susceptible plant to develop resistance to further infection after an initial infection by a microbial pathogen is called induced resistance (Hammerschmidt, 2014). Induced resistance can be described as two types: systemic acquired resistance (SAR) or induced systemic resistance (ISR) (Walters and Heil, 2007, Hammerschmidt, 2014, El-Deeb et al., 2018, , xxxx). The SAR restricts the pathogen growth and reducing symptoms after pathogen attack compared to control (Walters et al., 2014). SAR is important for the plants to resist disease and their recovery from disease infection. The infections from a wide range of pathogens can induced SAR in plants (locally and systemically), especially, pathogens that cause necrosis upon infection (Walters and Fountaine, 2009). This action is coordinated by producing of endogenous salicylic acid (SA) at the area of infection. The SA is a plant hormone that plays an active role in plant growth and development (Ryals et al., 1996). Induction of SAR requires the presence of pathogen-induced SA, which helps in plant defense against pathogens through the activation of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes (PR-I in particular) that produces pathogenesis-related antimicrobial proteins, and attack molecules in fungal and bacterial cell walls (Conrath et al., 2002, Walters et al., 2014).
The resistance carried out after SAR induction is effective against many pathogens; therefore, resistance by SAR is referred to a broad-spectrum resistance (Pieterse and Van Loon, 2007, Walters et al., 2014). on the other hand, ISR triggered by Acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM) or β-aminobutyric acid (BABA), and cis-Jasmone, they are natural inducers of resistance during plant-pathogen interactions (Parkunan, 2008;Pieterse and Van Loon, 2007). Also, ISRtriggered when plat roots colonized by particular strains of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) that usually coordinated by sensitive pathways of Jasmonic acid and ethylene (Conrath et al., 2002). ISR is similar to SAR as they do not act particularly against pathogens (Pieterse and Van Loon, 2007). However, ISR is reported to act independently of SA unlike SAR (Vallad and Goodman, 2004), and it is not associated with the expression of PR genes but depends on the production of ethylene and jasmonic acid (Ryan et al., 2008). While the two systemic responses are direct activation of defenses, the resistance can also be linked to the ability to recall previous pathogenic infection, root colonization, or treatment by chemicals, and is referred to "Priming", therefore, the plant response is rapid and more effective during subsequent pathogen invasion (Goellner and Conrath, 2007). Priming does not indicate any changes in gene expression or resistance level and may occur because of a chemical agent such as acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM) or a pathogen. (Walters and Fountaine, 2009). It is important to note that higher concentrations of agents inducing resistance in plants are usually responsible for priming (Heil and Bostock, 2002, Walters and Heil, 2007). So, directly induced resistance and priming differ only quantitatively rather than qualitatively (Walters and Fountaine, 2009). The mechanism of systemically induced plant defense involves a broad-spectrum disease resistance mediated by SA (Kessmann et al., 1994). When SA and its substitutes are applied to plants, they will induce resistance to pathogens (Oostendorp et al., 2001). The SAR could be more active in restricting pre-emergence diseases as previously demonstrated with various microorganisms (Ryals et al., 1996). A range of chemicals such as β-Aminobutyric acid (BABA), polyacrylic acid, Barium chloride, 2,6-dichloro isonicotinic acid (INA), e.t.c., have been reported to induce resistance to various pathogens when applied to plants (Malamy et al., 1996). These chemicals are not directly antimicrobial (Cole, 1999), the responses to systemic resistance can be associated with direct activation of plant defenses rather than any effect on the pathogen (Vallad and Goodman, 2004). Walters and Fountaine (2009) found that using Probenazole developed biotic and abiotic products, which act as (elicitors). Other chemical and microbial activators include ASM registered as Bion® (now Inssimo®) and Actigard® by Syngenta, Milsana® ( Reynoutria sachalinensis extract, KHH BioScience Inc., USA), Elexa (Chitosan Safe Science, USA), and Messenger (Harpin protein, Eden Bioscience, USA). The ethanolic extract of Reynoutria sachalinensis, from giant knotweed registered in the USA as Milsana®, and marketed as a plant activator on protected ornamental plants, but registered in Europe as Regalia®, controlling fungal pathogens on crops such as cucumber (Fofana et al., 2002), strawberry (Carlen et al., 2004) and organic tomato crops (Dafermos et al., 2012). Application of Milsana at intervals of 7–10 day mimic the controlling action of powdery mildew that obtained by commercial fungicide at tomato plants (Schmitt, 2002). Milsana also demonstrated control of powdery mildew on grapes under field conditions by inducing phytoalexins, which deliver resistance by plants towards the pathogen (Konstantinidou-Doltsinis et al., 2007). Therefore, Milsana helps the plants to resist pathogen infection rather than act directly on the pathogen. Several studies observed the mechanism of ASM in Tobacco and Arabidopsis defenses showed that ASM activates the SAR pathway by mimicing the activity of SA (Lawton et al., 1996). ASM has been reported to induce resistance to pathogens when applied to various plants (Kessmann et al., 1994). The activity of ASM on Tobacco indicates a high level of disease control of Pseudomonas syringae, Cercospora nicotianae, and Alternaria alternata by 99, 91and 89% respectively (Perez et al., 2003). Furthermore, previous reports on pre-treatment of rap seed oil with ASM against Phoma stem canker (Leptosphaeria maculans) reduced lesions by 25–50% (Liu et al., 2006). In addition, the Infection caused by the leaf scald pathogen, Rhynchosporium secalis on barley was reduced by 45% (Paterson et al., 2008). Harpins are glycine-rich proteins and heat-stable secreted by Type III secretion system from gram-negative plant pathogenic bacteria. They are directed to the extracellular space of the plant tissues as against inside the plant cells common with other bacteria effector proteins (Choi et al., 2013). Harpin's hypersensitive response elicitor induced resistance to Peronospora parasistica and Pseudomonas syringae in Arabidopsis through the activation of SAR genes (Dong et al., 1999). Foliar application of Harpin to soybean plants led to effective control of Heterodera glycines (soybean cyst nematode), and when used as a seed treatment significantly reduced the development of Fusarium graminearum in Soybeans (Navarro-Acevedo, 2016). It is important to note that there is no guarantee that the application of the elicitor alone can ensure the complete eradication of pathogens (Walters et al., 2005). Low control of powdery mildew and Rhynchosporium commune was witnessed on two barley cultivars (Optic and Cellar) after a field experimental treatment by ASM (Walters et al., 2014). However, during 3 years of experimental field trials, the ASM combined with fungicide gave maximum disease control (Walters et al., 2013). It was also reported that ASM controlled rust infection caused by Uromyces pisi on pea plants, but the control was incomplete (Barilli et al., 2009). Ivors and Meadows (2016) recommended combinations of ASM with fungicides and bactericides during tomato spray programs for increased plant resistance and reduction of early blight (Alternaria solani) in North Carolina, USA. The authors suggested that using of elicitor- pesticide combinations could be a valuable tool in reducing the total quantity of pesticide used, and delay pesticide resistance development thereby resulting in the increased long-term efficacy of pesticides (Ivors and Meadows, 2016). While controlled environments can provide high levels of disease control by plant elicitors, however, the performance under field conditions has not been consistent (Walters et al., 2005, WALTERS and FOUNTAINE, 2009). It has been suggested that under field conditions, the environment, genotype, and crop nutrition levels can influence the expressionof induced resistance by an elicitor, consequently, a better understanding of these interactions with the elicitor is disered to maximize the efficacy of induced resistance (Walters et al., 2005). The immense advantage of synthetic elicitors in the absence of any direct antimicrobial activity compared to normal traditional pesticides is assisting the pathogens' avoidance and developing resistance (Vallad and Goodman, 2004). The use of elicitors is deemed sustainable compared to current pesticides (Vallad and Goodman, 2004). There have been no studies yet on the induction of resistance against LBN on ornamental plants. Most of the available investigation has focused on root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, M. chitwoodi) in tomato plants (Cooper et al., 2005, Molinari and Baser, 2010) and a few studies on M. chitwoodi and Pratylenchus spp. in potato plants (Collins et al., 2006, Dos-Santos et al., 2013). The potential of ASM and Reynoutria sachalinensis as a single or in combination with other pesticides for control the LBN (A. fragariae) multiplication qualifying their use in the greenhouse and commercial field conditions. Having highlighted various ways to manage LBN in plants and especially on ornamental plants, the success recorded so far on the management of LBN are mainly based on chemicals (Jagdale and Grewal, 2002, Jagdale and Grewal, 2004, Chałańska et al., 2017).
9.10. Nematodes control by chemical treatments
Chemical treatments such as aldicarb, diazinon, parathion, and oxamyl have been used in the past for effective control of LBN (An et al., 2017). However, most of these chemicals are no longer available due to government regulations and environmental concerns. The chemicals have limited availability and adversely affected the nursery industry (Jagdale and Grewal, 2002). Depending on the plants species, modern chemical control methods may have variable results. The chemicals may produce successful mortality in an aqueous suspension, but are ineffective in treating infested leaves (Jagdale and Grewal, 2002). Some insecticides have been demonstrated to be effective incidentally or under test conditions against LBN on some ornamentals (An et al., 2017), but several are not registered as approved in the UK. In UK, after the withdrawal of the effective chemical aldicarb (Temik), an HDC project HNS 131 evaluated a range of alternatives for controlling LBN (Bennison, 2007). The results suggested oxamyl the most effective alternative for aldicarb, and reported abamectin as effective against LBN (Bennison, 2007). Abamectin (18 g L-1) is an emulsifiable concentrate containing (1.84% w/w) and it is a nerve poison. Therefore, the mechanism of product is targeting the transmissions in the neuromuscular systems of insects. The contact of abamectin with invertebrates stimulates a neural transmitter that causes the breakdown of nerve to nerve, and muscle nerve, hence the term nerve poisons. The targeted insects become paralyzed, stop feeding and die (Hague and Gowen, 1987). Abamectin has a translaminar movement and the mode of action results in mortality of approved pests. However, it is harmful if swallowed, causes serious eye irritation, and is very toxic to aquatic life (Cayrol et al., 1993). Abamectin has previously been reported to show control activity against mites, insects, root-knot nematodes, and LBN (Cayrol et al., 1993, La-Mondia, 1996). Furthermore, La-Mondia, 1999, Young and Maher, 2000 reported that abamectin demonstrated effective control against LBN on some ornamentals in vitro and in vivo experiments and suggested abamectin as a potential treatment for short term suppression of LBN in hardy ornamentals (Young, 2000). The potential of abamectin for the management of LBN (A. ritzemabosi) on infected Anemone hupehensis was recently reported by Chałańska et al. (2017). Significant mortality after 24–72 h was recorded when A. fragariae was exposed to an aqueous suspension of abamectin at a 2-fold dilution (An et al., 2017). Several studies doubted the efficacy of abamectin in managing LBN. While Young and Maher, (2000), An et al., 2017, Chałańska et al., 2017 reported the potentials of abamectin in the management of LBN. Bennison (2007) found that abamectin at (18 g L-1) concentration was ineffective in the control of LBN. Jagdale and Grewal (2002) investigated that combination of oxamyl and ethoprophos were induce indirect mortality when applied in the soil, oxamyl had the most consistent efficacy in reducing A. fragariae in Hosta leaves and soil. Oxamyl is grouped as a family of pesticides called carbamates. Its action is to block the normal function of cholinesterase, an essential nervous system enzyme of targeted insect pests (Anon, 1990). Oxamyl is a broad-spectrum insecticide on insects, and an acaricide for mites, ticks, and as a nematicide against several nematodes (Anon, 1990). Oxamyl is classified as extremely poisonous to humans, fish, birds, and other wildlife on prolonged or repeated exposure to the product (Cornell University Agricultural Extension, 1993). Oxamyl is applied directly and incorporated in the soil, readily adsorb in soil with high organic matter content and fairly slow in adsorbing in sandy soil, and a decrease in adsorption at temperature higher than 25° C (Anon, 1990;Arias-Estévez et al., 2008). Oxamy 10% (as Vydate 10 G) is approved in UK for the suppression of nematodes in potatoes, carrots, sugar beet and parsnip. The efficacy of oxamyl as a nematicide against free living nematodes has long been established, and work systemically against target pests (Osborn et al., 2010). The application of oxamyl as a soil drench was reported by to reduce the number of A. fragariae in red begonia leaves within 20 days. Oxamyl was reported to cause over 70% reduction in LBN population (A. fragariae) in Hosta leaves and the around soil around after 45 days of treatment compared to control (Jagdale and Grewal, 2002). There was an effective control of A. ritzemabosi in the leaves of infested Anemone hupehensis by oxamyl during a 2-year field trial (Chałańska et al., 2017). During this study, oxamyl had an Extension of Authorization for Minor Use (EAMU) for outdoor ornamental plant production, targeting insect pests and SBN. However, some farmers did not wish to use oxamyl as it is not compatible with biological control agents, which are being used for other pests within IPM programmes, and is difficult to use as it is supplied in Sure fill closed transfer packs which makes non-available. Consequently, ornamentals farmers were not able to use oxamyl. In addition, the use of oxamyl requires precautions for operator and environmental protection, along with a re-entry time to any treated glasshouses and a harvest interval. However, despite above restrictions and issues about oxamyl, its mode of action involves inhibition of lipogenesis in treated insects, reduced lipid content, inhibiting the growth of younger insects, and reducing the ability of adults insects to reproduce (Brück et al., 2009). A foliar applied systemic insecticide penetrates plant leaves when sprayed on. Spirotetramat is ambimobile transported through vascular bundles. It has moderate to low acute toxicity, irritates eyes and potentially skin sensitive (Vang et al., 2016). Nauen et al. (2008) observed that the plants’ phloem and xylem system enhance the absorption and distribution of spirotetramat throughout the entire plant. According to the authors, spirotetramat is an effective insecticide and potential nematicide. Smiley et al., 2011a, Smiley et al., 2011b also reported that spirotetramat works systemically within the plant, having both phloem and xylem mobility in different crop species. Spirotetramat has shown activity against Pratylenchus vulnus, the root feeding lesion nematodes in walnut orchards (DeBuse, 2011). Smiley et al., 2011a, Smiley et al., 2011b reported activity of spirotetramat against cereal cyst nematode (Heterodera avenae), where two time foliar applications at 2-week intervals reduced the postharvest egg density of H. avenaealong with the juveniles by 35% compared to control. Spirotetramat was reported to cause a significant reduction from development to reproductive maturity of Heterodera glycines and Meloidogyne incognita when applied as a foliar spray on soybean plants (Vang et al., 2016). Spirotetramat may have an effect on nematode reproduction and fecundity, and may not demonstrate any direct activity against nematodes including A. fragariae if tested in water suspension due to its mode of action (Vang et al., 2016). Spirotetratmat has an emergency action mobile unit (EAMU) on outdoor and protected crops of ornamental plant production and forest nursery for the control of aphids, mealybugs and whiteflies (Salazar-López et al., 2016). Proxy-acetic acid is an organic compound with a colorless liquid and a characteristic odor of acetic acid (Cristofari-Marquand et al., 2007). It is an oxidizing agent, can cause irritation to the skin, eyesandrespiratory system, while long-term exposure can cause permanent damage (Cristofari-Marquand et al., 2007). Proxy-acetic acid is an ecofriendly fungicide/algicide, approved as a general disinfectant on protected horticultural crops. Its uses include cleaning floors and benches between crops for the control of disease pathogens. Proxy-acetic acid is marketed in the UK as Jet 5 and in the US as Zerotol. Proxy-acetic acid (as Zerotol) has been investigated its activity against Aphelenchoides spp. in vitro and in vivo (Jagdale and Grewal, 2002). Results of studies on proxy-acetic acid showed significant mortality in water suspensions within 24 h of exposure to A. fragariae and reduction of nematode numbers in infested Hosta leaves when used as a foliar spray 45 days after treatment (Jagdale and Grewal, 2002;An et al., 2017). In addition, 75% mortality was obtained in vitro experiment when Proxy-acetic acid was investigated against the stem nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci. The use of insecticidal soap (fatty acid products) was reported as effective as a foliar spray 48 days after treatment against A. fragariae, while it gave low efficacy in water suspension (Jagdale and Grewal, 2002).
10. Conclusion
Our review article concludes that using pesticides to control plant nematodes is still the basis of resistance in most parts of the world. However, global awareness must be raised towards the possibility of incorporating eco-friendly methods, which are non-toxic to humans or the environment, due to their advantage in reducing nematodes populations and increasing crop production in sustainable management systems in the long term. The main feature of this review is providing new insights and recommendations on the use of environmentally friendly approaches to control nematodes in croplands and improves our understanding of the capacity of eco-friendly techniques in the context of sustainable development.
Funding
This review no received any funding.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Bennison, J., 2007. Hardy nursery stock: Evaluation of alternatives to aldicarb (Temik) for the control and management of leaf and bud nematodes: Project HNS 131 Final Report. Horticultural Development Company (HDC).
Young J. Investigations and development of new methods of control for bud and leaf nematodes in hardy nursery stock. Project HNS 86 Final Report. Horticultural Development Company (HDC) 2000;65:pp.[Google Scholar] | Nematodes are one of the largest phyla in the animal kingdom, estimated to be over half a million, and can successfully adapt to all ecosystems (Ferris et al., 2012). The mammalian's parasitic nematodes are considered one of the oldest groups of nematodes known to humanity. They constitute about 15% of the nematodes population and include nearly 50 species of humans' parasitic nematodes (Jasmer et al, 2003). The nematodes phylum includes entomopathogenic nematodes, which are used in the biological control of many pests and pathogenic organisms, i.e., Steinernema spp. and Heterorhabditis spp. that used to control insect pests like grubs within 48 h (Yeates et al., 2009, Buckley and Schmidt, 2003, Denno et al., 2008). In addition, Bacterivorous nematodes can effectively regulate the bacterial population, and they are predatory up to 5,000 bacteria per minute. Marine nematodes constitute 50% of the nematodes population and can live in saltwater with salinity exceeding 3.0% (De Mesel et al, 2004). Soil nematodes represent about 35% of the total number of nematode species, and most of them are free-living nematode (about 25%), and are often classified according to feeding groups, i.e., bacterivores, fungivores, omnivores-carnivores, and predators. These species have a close relationship with soil fertility. These nematodes play a vital role in nitrogen (N) mineralization, and thus contribute to soil quality. Plant-parasitic nematodes are only 10% of the total number of nematode species.
3. | yes |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/animal-parasitic-nematodes | Animal Parasitic Nematodes - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics | Animal and Human Parasitic Nematodes
Animal parasitic nematodes infect animals from all habitats – there are about 342 species which infect humans. Humans worldwide are infected by nematodes each year, mostly in tropical areas and developing countries, in the order of 3.5 billion. Nematodes parasitic on humans include ascaris, filarial nematodes, hookworms, pinworms, and whipworms. Species include Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Trichinella spiralis, Wuchereria bancrofti, Onchocerca volvulus, etc. They can attack the muscles, alimentary canal, eyes, and other body tissues. Entry can be through skin, ingestion of eggs in food, or through bites by an infected vector (e.g., mosquitoes that carry filarial worms). In some cases, animals may be intermediate hosts where the nematodes enter and grow for a period of time as larvae and then become dormant cysts. If a human eats the infected meat, the juveniles become active again and grow into adult worms. Ascaris and Trichuris spp. can survive dry conditions or unfavorable temperatures as eggs. Tapeworms also infect cows, fish, or pigs and then latch onto the intestinal wall of a human that consumes them. Heartworms causing heartworm disease infest hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats.
How Many Species of Vertebrate Parasitic Nematodes Exist?
All species of vertebrates examined thus far serve as hosts for at least one species of parasitic nematode. Some mammalian hosts harbor many species of nematodes that are distributed through several orders and families. Some of these nematodes are highly host-specific, surviving and reproducing successfully only in host individuals comprising a single species or perhaps a closely related group of species. Other nematodes show less specificity, being much more likely to jump from one suitable vertebrate host to another during opportune times during their life-history (Brant and Gardner, 2000).
Within a host, many different types of habitats may be occupied by nematodes. As a species, Homo sapiens harbors around 35 species of host-specific parasitic nematodes (Chitwood and Chitwood, 1977). To illustrate the diversity of habitats in a single animal host, humans will be used as an example. In a human, nematodes can occur as juveniles in muscle tissues, usually smooth muscle like the diaphram or the tongue (Trichinella), in the mucosa of the intestine (Strongyloides), as migrating forms in blood, and lungs (Ascaris), in blood or lymph as microfilariae (Filarioids of humans), as adults in the small and large intestines (Ancylostoma, Necator, Ascaris), as adults in mesentaeries and subcutaneous tissues (Onchocerca, Loa, Wuchereria) and Enterobius in the large intestine and cecum.
Cobb was well acquainted with animal parasitic nematodes, and his familiarity with host-specificity in the Nemata led him to estimate that as early as 1914, well over 80,000 species of nematodes would eventually be found parasitizing vertebrates alone. Similar estimates could be derived for parasites of invertebrates and plants resulting in totals of free-living and parasitic species numbers far in excess of the approximately 20,000 species of nematodes known today.
Cobb (1915) stated “There must be hundreds of thousands of species of nematodes. Of this vast number only a very few thousand have been investigated, and of these, comparatively few with any degree of thoroughness.”
Present estimates are that only about 20,000 species of parasitic nematodes have been described from all taxa of slightly more than 48,000 currently recognized species of vertebrates. In addition, many species of wild mammals each harbor more than 2 host-specific species of nematode so the above estimate of 8900 species of nematodes only from mammals can be considered very low.
As of this writing, the natural history, development, and transmission parameters of only around 561 species are known (Anderson, 1992). As parasites of only vertebrates, Anderson (1992) estimated that there were about 2300 described genera distributed among 256 families comprising about 33% of all nematode genera known. This proportion is about equal to the percentage of genera of Nemata presently known in marine and freshwater habitats. It is agreed by most workers that this bias is due to the larger number of parasitologists working on selected groups of Nemata relative to the number of specialists working on the free-living marine and freshwater forms.
If each of the approximately 4450 known species of mammals were infected with only 2 species of host-specific nematodes, we would expect to find a minimum of 8900 species of parasitic nematodes only in the Class Mammalia.
Pinworms, nematodes of the Order Rhabditida Superfamily Oxyuroidea (Fig. 1) show high levels of host specificity and it is well-known that almost all species of rodents and primates have one or more species-specific pinworm. Both recent and historical studies have shown that pinworm nematodes exhibit high levels of host specificity, and they have co-speciated with their primate and rodent hosts (Hugot, 1999). Currently, slightly more than 800 species of Oxyuroidea have been described with the vertebrates hosting about 500 species and invertebrates species with about 300. The greatest diversity in the Oxyuroidea to be found in the future is expected to come from examination of the catfishes of the Amazon basin (Rodrigues et al., 2020) and the Arthropoda, especially beetles, cockroaches (with around 4000 species of blattoidea described and more than 20–30,000 expected to be found) and millipedes (17,000 species described and more than 60,000 species expected to be found). This gives huge numbers of pinworms occurring just in the cockroaches and the millipedes if each species harbors its own species of pinworm. At least 2 species of pinworms (genus Thylastoma) occur in laboratory colonies of the American Cockroach (Periplaneta americana) and more are expected to be found in free-living populations (Hugot, Personal Communication).
When adequate surveys are completed, large numbers of species of Oxyuroidea are also expected to be described from Neotropical rodents of the family Muridae. Up to the present time, only around 7 species of pinworms have been described from Neotropical murids and these rodents potentially host from 400 to 800 undescribed species of Oxyuroidea, (given that only one to two new species of Oxyuroid nematode nematode is found in each species of rodent examined) (Hugot, Personal Communication). Another comparative study in the Oxyuroidea of rodents show that the larger the body-size of the rodent, the larger the body size of oxyurid nematodes that it harbors (Morand et al., 1996).
I.D. The Reproductive System
The reproductive system of most animal parasitic nematodes is adapted to produce extremely large numbers of eggs (e.g., Ascaris). Some characteristics of larger animal parasitic nematodes include very large body, very two large ovaries, and an equally large uterus. Free-living nematodes generally have much smaller bodies and are therefore individually less prolific. However, the reproductive systems of most nematodes have the following basic structural similarities: Most females have two ovaries, one anterior (as in Pratylenchus, Fig. 21b) and one posterior, each connected to an oviduct and uterus with the uteri connecting to the vagina, terminating in the vulva. Males usually have one testes as in the Secernentea or two as in the Adenophorea, a seminal vesicle, and a vas deferens (see Maggenti, 1991a) connecting to the outside via the cloaca (Fig. 13) which is a joining of the reproductive system and the rectum. Secondary sexual organs in male nematodes are usually much more pronounced and variable than that of the female (Figs. 2, 6, 11, 12, 13, 22, 23, 24, 25) and most males have one or two spicules (Fig. 22), a spicular pouch, sometimes with a spicular sheath (Fig. 24), and a gubernaculum (Fig. 23). Some males of the O. Strongylida have a well-developed copulatory bursa (Fig. 22).
Figure 22. Posterior end of a male trichostrongyloid showing the well-developed copulatory bursa, bursal rays, and the long thin paired spicules.
Figure 24. Posterior end of Trichuris from a Bolivian species of Ctenomys. The long spicule and everted spicular sheath can be seen.
Figure 25. Posterior end of the filaroid nematode Litomosoides from Ctenomys opimus from high altitude western Bolivia. Note the dimorphic nature of the spucules in this species: one being long and filamentous, the other short and stubby.
Some plant parasitic nemas produce eggs directly into the plant where the nematode lives (in the case of species of the genus Pratylenchus, the female produces eggs that hatch within the tissues of the plant and the juveniles begin feeding), whereas in others such as Heterodera (which are ectoparasites) the body of the female fills with eggs, forming a sac that eventually dries and transforms into a resistant cyst, with the juveniles within capable of resisting environmental extremes.
6 Concluding remarks
Recent studies have identified, for the first time, some natural product scaffolds with anthelmintic activity against an animal-parasitic nematode, thus contributing to anthelmintic drug discovery and opening up avenues for future development of selected candidates as anthelmintics (Herath et al., 2017, 2018, 2019a,b, 2020). This article emphasises the significance of considering natural products in anthelmintic drug discovery, and discussed the strengths, challenges and key areas deserving of improvement to enable anti-parasite drug discovery. The prospects of developing anthelmintic ‘lead’ candidates from identified natural product scaffolds via future chemical optimisation, efficacy and safety assessments, activity spectrum assessments, and target identification have also been identified. Thus, the future optimisation of a ‘lead’, and subsequent pre-clinical and clinical assessments should enable the development of anthelmintic drugs from natural products.
Sex pheromones
Greet (1984) was the first to report sex attraction in a free-living nematode, P. rigidus. Later, Green (1966) reported sex attraction in cyst nematodes, e.g., Globodera rostochiensis and Heterodera schachtii.Roche (1996) reported sex attractants from animal-parasitic nematodes, Ancylostoma caninum. Since 1966, more than 50 species of microbivorus, plant-parasitic, and animal-parasitic nematodes were reported to be influenced by the pheromones. Aumann et al. (1998) characterized female sex pheromones in H. schachtii and showed that volatile components of female sex pheromones can be analyzed directly by gas chromatography. Novel control methods may be developed by identifying and formulating various pheromones obtained from H. schachtii and other cyst nematode species; such techniques would lead to disorient males and reducing female fertilization in the field.
Sex pheromones recognize species, identify gender, and evaluate sex partners. Both females and males can act as an emitter or a receiver. The pheromones are volatile substances, which reinforce the selection of the right partner. Many species of nematodes use glycosides to regulate sex attraction, mate aggregation, and dispersal behaviors as well as dauer formation. Panagrellus redivivus is one such example, which emits attractants specific to the opposite sex (Duggal, 1978).
6 Final considerations
The fungus Duddingtonia flagrans is an efficient agent for the biological control of nematodes and has shown to be a plant-growth promoter. The large production of chlamydospores by D. flagrans has made its commercialization in some countries possible, but so far, only for the control of animal-parasitic nematodes. The efficiency of D. flagrans in controlling the parasitic nematodes of domestic animals encouraged research on plant-parasitic nematodes. The studies on the association of this fungus with plants are recent, but present promising results for the agriculture, since the fungus preys on plant-parasitic nematodes andcauses improvements in the nutritional status of the plants. This control alternative can contribute to the reduction in the use of anthelmintics and chemical nematicides in the veterinary and agriculture, respectively, leading to a reduction in the environmental impacts.
1.7 Parallels with Plant Parasites
Like animals, plants offer concentrated sources of nutrients and energy for parasites, but they also present distinct challenges and, as hosts, they are a completely different proposition. From an energetic perspective, plants are very different kinds of resources than multicellular animals. For any given body mass, the metabolic rate of plants is lower than that of animals, even after correction for temperature effects (Brown et al., 2004; Gillooly et al., 2001). This should mean that less energy can be extracted per gram of host tissue and per unit time from a plant than from an animal. Also, plants are sessile, with tough cell walls as well as thick outer surfaces, and they have no easy point of entry like a mouth for internal parasites. Nevertheless, if the parasitic strategies defined above are indeed adaptive peaks reached by convergent evolutionary trajectories, we should expect to find roughly equivalent strategies among plant parasites.
Excluding a few carnivorous taxa, plants are autotrophs that do not feed on other organisms, which rules out parasites using trophic transmission (unless the plant is used as intermediate host). However, other strategies are well represented among parasites of plants. Many large groups within the insect order Hemiptera, such as aphids and leafhoppers, qualify as micropredators. These phytophagous insects feed on small amounts of sap or other tissue on one individual plant, and then move on to other plants (Kuris and Lafferty, 2000); their virulence is clearly intensity dependent, as one would expect from micropredators. They also serve as carriers of several vector-transmitted parasites including fungi, viruses and bacteria (Agrios, 1997; Dixon, 1998); these can multiply on a plant host, and have the same kind of intensity-independent effects on their host as unicellular parasites of animals transmitted by vectors. Other hemipterans behave as directly transmitted parasites. Scale insects, for instance, feed on sap drawn from a plant's vascular system, inducing intensity-dependent effects on the plant; females are permanently attached to the plant host, while the young they produce disperse to other plants (Edwards and Wratten, 1980). Other insects plaguing plants are reminiscent of parasitoids or castrators. Consider lepidopterans: an adult female lays eggs on a plant, these hatch into caterpillars that feed on leaf tissue while increasing several-fold in body size, and then pupate as they metamorphose into adults. This resembles the behaviour of several parasitoid wasps and flies that attack insects, except that in the case of lepidopterans, the host plant survives. However, in cases involving small plants, the host's survival is greatly at risk when many caterpillars feed on its tissues (Edwards and Wratten, 1980), a very parasitoid-like outcome. Certain fungi can also castrate their plant hosts and usurp the latter's reproductive structures for their own purposes (Roy, 1993), as the castrators described earlier do. These few examples show that the same parasitic strategies emerge, whether the host is a plant or an animal. Plants are not only parasitised by insects or fungi; the rest of this section examines two different groups of plant parasites to determine whether they also adopt the previously described strategies.
1.7.1 Plant–parasitic nematodes
Transitions to parasitism on plants have occurred at least three times in the phylogenetic history of nematodes, if not more (Blaxter et al., 1998). Plant–parasitic nematodes display a few morphological and biochemical adaptations necessary for the exploitation of plant hosts. For instance, all nematodes parasitic on plants have an oral stylet, a sort of hollow protrusible spear that serves to perforate plant cell walls, to inject secretions into the plant cytoplasm and to suck in the cytoplasm (Davis et al., 2004; Jasmer et al., 2003). Also, they possess cellulases, the digestive enzymes needed to break down plant cellulose; these were possibly acquired via lateral gene transfer from bacteria in the distant past (Dieterich and Sommer, 2009; Smant et al., 1998). After they enter the plant, often in the root tissues, some nematodes remain migratory, spending their lives moving through or between plant cells within the host (Moens and Perry, 2009); others, like the root-knot nematodes Meloidogyne spp., quickly become sedentary, inducing the drastic transformation of a host cell into an enlarged, multinucleate feeding cell in which the parasite remains for life (Davis et al., 2004; Dieterich and Sommer, 2009).
Recently, Dieterich and Sommer (2009) commented that plant–parasitic nematodes “have almost nothing in common with animal parasites in terms of their parasitic lifestyle”. Jasmer et al. (2003), in contrast, found numerous similarities between the two groups of parasitic nematodes. I agree with the latter authors and feel that any differences lie mostly at a superficial, mechanistic level, and that at a strategic level, plant–parasitic nematodes are essentially directly transmitted parasites not really different from those exploiting animals. An individual plant–parasitic nematode invades one plant individual, stays there for life, reproduces and its progeny leave to infect other plants. Parasite-to-host size ratios for plant–parasitic nematodes clearly fall within the range seen for animal parasites (Fig. 1.5), since nematodes are invariably small whereas their plant hosts range from grasses to trees. The pathology caused to the host plant is clearly intensity dependent. These are clearly all attributes of directly transmitted parasites. Even several infection processes are reminiscent of what is observed in animal–parasitic nematodes. For instance, the penetration of the epidermal cell layer of plants by a combination of thrusting of the stylet combined with enzymatic secretions is not different from what hookworms do to penetrate mammalian skin (Jasmer et al., 2003). Also, the major cell modification induced by plant–parasitic nematodes to create both a home and a feeding structure for themselves is strikingly similar to the cellular rearrangement induced by animal–parasitic nematodes like Trichiuris spp. and especially Trichinella spiralis, the latter invading a muscle cell in its host and proceeding to restructure it completely (Davis et al., 2004; Despommier, 1993; Jasmer et al., 2003). Both the animal–parasitic nematodes and their plant counterparts achieve this by manipulating gene expression in their host's cells (Davis et al., 2004; Jasmer et al., 2003; Niebel et al., 1994). Finally, not unlike many animal parasites facing the problem of encountering mates, plant–parasitic nematodes have evolved asexual forms of reproduction like parthenogenesis (Dieterich and Sommer, 2009). Thus, at proximate and ultimate levels, it can be argued that the adaptive peak corresponding to the direct-transmission strategy defined earlier and which was an attractor in the evolutionary landscape of animal parasites has been one too in the evolution of plant parasites.
1.7.2 Parasitic plants
There are over 4000 species of parasitic angiosperms (flowering plants) that derive sustenance from other plants, and these are spread across 19 families (Heide-Jørgensen, 2008; Press and Graves, 1995). Here again, parasitism has evolved repeatedly and independently. Parasitic plants range along a continuum from hemiparasites, like mistletoes, to holoparasites such as dodder, Cuscuta spp. Hemiparasites may be facultatively parasitic only; they derive water and minerals from their hosts, as well as nutrients, but have retained some of their photosynthetic ability. Holoparasites are obligate parasites that have lost all chlorophyll, and that cannot assimilate carbon and inorganic nitrogen on their own. Parasitic plants can also be divided based on their site of attachment to the host, which is either the stem or the roots. The distinguishing feature possessed by all parasitic plants is a modified root, the haustorium, which penetrates the host plant and connects to its vascular system; it serves for both attachment and feeding (Heide-Jørgensen, 2008; Stewart and Press, 1990).
Parasitic plants differ from animal parasites in some interesting ways. In both the present parasite classification scheme and in earlier ones (Kuris and Lafferty, 2000), the number of host individuals and host species attacked by an individual parasite during a particular life stage or throughout its life played a key role in the division of parasites into distinct strategies. Many parasitic plants, however, can do something that animal parasites cannot: one individual parasite can simultaneously parasitise several host individuals, not necessarily all of the same species (Pennings and Callaway, 2002). While at first this may appear like a major departure from the strategies outlined earlier, it is in fact a relatively trivial difference. As hosts, plants are sessile and, at canopy level, often in close proximity if not actual physical contact with their neighbours. If similar opportunities existed for animal parasites, surely they too would exploit more than one host at a time, without necessarily using a parasitic strategy different from the six described earlier.
On the whole, parasitic angiosperms fit well within the definition of directly transmitted parasites. An individual attaches to one plant host for life (though it may simultaneously draw nutrients from adjacent hosts starting later in its life). The parasite can manipulate the physiology and morphology of the host plant by interfering with growth hormone production (Pennings and Callaway, 2002; Stewart and Press, 1990), possibly to the parasite's benefit. Its seeds then proceed to infect new hosts, either by breaking their dormancy only in response to chemical cues from suitable hosts (not unlike the eggs of many animal–parasitic nematodes), or following germination, by growing towards a host (Pennings and Callaway, 2002). The impact on host fitness is often minimal when the parasite is small, but increases in an intensity-dependent fashion, except that here ‘intensity’ means the mass of the parasitic plant instead of the number of parasites (Marvier, 1996; Pennings and Callaway, 2002). Eventually, after it reaches a certain size relative to that of its host, the parasitic plant causes severe reductions in host growth and reproduction, and even occasionally host death (Pennings and Callaway, 2002; Press and Phoenix, 2005; Stewart and Press, 1990). Although these effects are reminiscent of those induced by parasitoids and parasitic castrators, they are truly those of directly transmitted parasites at high infection intensity. Host death is neither necessary for the success of the parasitic plant nor an inevitable outcome (as it is for parasitoids), and the reproductive tissues of the host plants are not specifically targeted (as they would be by a parasitic castrator). The indeterminate growth of parasitic plants just means that eventually they reach a biomass at which the amounts of resources diverted from the host are unsustainable for the latter. Parasitic angiosperms range in size from small herbaceous species to large trees, and so do their host plants (Heide-Jørgensen, 2008; Press and Graves, 1995; Stewart and Press, 1990). Various parasite–host combinations thus span the whole range of parasite-to-host size ratios seen for directly transmitted parasites (Fig. 1.5). The main difference between directly transmitted parasites of animals and parasitic plants is that, in the latter, growth of the parasite will almost invariably cause the severe fitness losses in the host that are only rarely achieved by the former.
There are, however, true parasitoids among plants that parasitise other plants. In many tropical forests, strangler figs (Ficus spp.) use a host tree for physical support; although they never draw nutrients from their host, the support they get from the host is an essential resource allowing them to germinate in the canopy, where they receive ample sunlight (Putz and Holbrook, 1989). They extend a network of roots down to the ground from the canopy, encircling the trunk of the host tree. As these roots grow thicker, they squeeze, or ‘strangle’, the host, cutting off nutrient flow along its vascular system, and eventually killing it. The figs do not benefit from host death, just as parasitoid wasps or nematomorphs do not actually gain from death of their host; however, host death is an inevitable consequence of the exploitation strategy of all these parasites, uniting them as parasitoids. In the case of the fig-tree interaction, it takes years for the parasite to kill the host (Putz and Holbrook, 1989). This is simply due to the lower growth and metabolic rates of host and parasite compared to their animal counterparts: even though all happens on a different time scale, strangler figs are still parasitoids.
The result that acylthiourea as linker contributed to the increase of the nematicidal activity of 1,2,3-benzotriazin-4-one derivatives promoted us to explore further potential linkers. We selected piperazine as linker. The use of piperazine as linker in drugs is a well-known approach as demonstrated by seroquel, viagra, ziprasidone hydrochloride, ranolazine which often showed significant biological functions, including antimicrobial,64 antidepressant,65 antiproliferative,66 and antihistaminic activity.67 Most importantly, diethylcarbamazine is an anthelmintic drug of livestock to prevent animal parasitic nematode.68 The strategy of molecular design is shown in Fig. 21.10. The idea of R-group selection is to search for some heterocycles or active fragment from pesticides, fungicides, nematicides, and natural products.
Figure 21.10. The molecular design of series E.
At first, benzoyl as R-group was introduced into 1,2,3-benzotriazin-4-one containing piperazine. Compared with the compound in which R is hydrogen, it displayed 28.6% inhibition activity at the concentration of 20 mg/L. The preliminary bioassay results inspired us to synthesize more compounds bearing substituents on phenyl ring. Strong electron-donating CH3O-groups and electron-withdrawing NO2-groups were introduced to examine the influence of substituent electronic effect. It was found that, when 1,2,3-benzotriazin-4-one ring had no substituent, the compound bearing NO2 at ortho or para position of phenyl ring exhibited better bioactivity than the compound bearing OCH3 with the inhibition reaching 71.4% against M. incognita in both cases. Except NO2, the other electron-withdrawing groups F, Cl, CN, OCF3 did not bring surprise to us. It suggested that electron-withdrawing groups are not beneficial for the nematicidal activity. However, when OCH3 and NO2 substituents were introduced into different position of 1,2,3-benzotriazin-4-one ring, it was disappointing that compound bearing NO2 at ortho position of phenyl ring almost lost the bioactivity totally. This indicated that the activities varied significantly depending on the types and positions of the substituents on 1,2,3-benzotriazin-4-one ring. The attempt to introduce heterocycles failed except for benzothiadiazole, which showed 56.3% inhibitory activity at the concentration of 20 mg/L. In order to explore the importance of carbonyl phenyl group, methyl, cyclopropyl methylene were introduced into piperazine ring. The result is consistent with our expectations with the nematicidal bioactivity decreasing sharply without carbonyl phenyl group, which further confirmed the key role of carbonyl phenyl group in the structure.69
Introduction
After the Second World War, the colonial rules gradually came to an end, and a large number of countries got freedom. The freedom also brought along the food crisis in the newly liberated countries, because by enlarge their economy as well as indigenous food production systems were based on the colonial rule. However, with gradual planning and regular FAO support coupled with the green revolution, the indigenous crop production systems in the independent countries got established, and the cereal production gradually and steadily increased to present day 2996 million tons, which is around 3.5 times greater than the food produced globally in 1961 (FAOSTAT, 2022). At present, the annual global production of cereals, oilseeds, pulses, vegetables, and fruits accounts for 2996, 247, 89, 1148, and 887 million tons, respectively (Fig. 1; FAOSTAT, 2022). The production of fiber and beverage crops in 1961 was 0.114 and 5.48 million tons, which has increased to 0.515 and 19.2 million tons in 2020, respectively (FAOSTST, 2022).
Fig. 1. Global annual food production.
Despite stupendous increase in the global production of food and other commodities, the problem of hunger and the difference between rich and poor have gradually deepened, and the socioeconomic status of farmers in several Asian and African countries, in particular, is on a continuous decline. The crop growers have not been able to get adequate value of their produce, and often, the total earnings are less than the value of inputs given to grow the crop because of poor productivity as well as a lower market value. Among important factors, pest and disease attack is considered a major biotic factor responsible for poor economic returns from crop production. Plant nematodes constitute an important group of biotic pathogens, and attack all kinds of agricultural crops, significantly affecting their productivity (Khan & Jairajpuri, 2010a, 2010b, 2012; Sikora et al., 2018). Nematode infestation in agricultural crops becomes more significant because of the hidden nature of the causal agent as the nematodes generally inhabit in soil and attack underground parts of plants (Khan, 2008). As a result, farmers are not able to recognize the nematode infestations in the crops and for this reason do not take any management measures.
Nematodes belong to a highly diverse group of pseudocoelomate animals and are the most abundant and ubiquitous multicellular microorganisms that are found in all types of environments, be it freshwater, marine, or terrestrial habitat (Khan, 2008). They may be free-living or parasitic. Nematodes parasitize a large number of organisms including plants, animals, fungi, and even human beings. Animal parasitic nematodes were known to human beings as early as 1550–1530 BC, but the history of plant parasitic nematodes is of much recent origin, as the first plant parasitic nematode, Anguina tritici was discovered in 1743 by T. Needham (Needham, 1743), and the second plant nematode, Meloidogyne sp. was recorded around 112 years later in 1855 by M. J. Berkeley (Berkeley, 1855). Plant parasitic nematodes are of great agricultural significance as they reduce the quantity and quality of the crop produce (Khan, 2016; Sikora et al., 2018). Plant nematodes generally attack roots, and feed on the root hairs, rot epidermis, cortex, and/or stele, and on the basis of parasitism are grouped as ectoparasites, semiendoparasites, and endoparasites (Khan & Jairajpuri, 2010b). The ectoparasitic nematodes such as Tylenchorhynchus, Rotylenchus, Helicotylenchus, Belonolaimus, Hoplolaimus, Trichodorus, Longidorus, and Xiphinema feed on the root hairs and root surface (Khan & Jairajpuri, 2012). A few nematodes, namely Tylenchulus semipenetrans (citrus nematode) and Rotylenchulus reniformis (reniform nematode), insert only their anterior half into the host and are called semiendoparasitic nematodes (Khan et al., 2019). Some nematodes fully penetrate into the host and are called endoparasites. The root-knot nematodes, cyst-forming nematodes, root-lesion nematodes, burrowing nematodes, etc., are endoparasites, as their whole body lies inside the host tissue (Haque & Khan, 2021). Some nematodes such as Anguina, Aphelenchoides, and Ditylenchus, which attack stems, leaves, flowers, seeds, etc., are called foliar nematodes (Hunt, 1993).
The nematode infestation commonly debilitates the plant even without any specific symptoms, which usually appear as sparse foliage, stunted growth, and pale green leaves (Khan & Jairajpuri, 2010a, 2010b, 2012). Due to lack of knowledge about plant nematodes, farmers consider these symptoms to be of nutrition deficiency and apply fertilizers rather than a nematicide, which gives no control over the problem (Khan et al., 2019). However, the nematode infestation in the field can be distinguished on the basis of the pattern of symptoms, which usually appear in patches of plants, distributed irregularly in the field. The infested plants may also show wilting during the active period of transpiration despite having adequate soil moisture in the field. The nematode-infested plants become highly susceptible to the infection by soil-borne bacteria and fungi leading to the development of disease complexes (Khan, 1993). Nematodes often enhance the severity of wilts caused by fungi and bacteria, and may also break host resistance (Khan & Sharma, 2020). Some plant nematodes transmit certain plant pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Seed gall nematode, Anguina tritici, acts as a vector to carry Rathayibacter (=Clavibacter) tritici and Dilophospora alopecuri to the apical meristem of wheat (Khan & Dasgupta, 1993). Some dorylaim nematodes, Xiphinema, Trichodorous, etc. transmit NEPO and tobra viruses (Weischer, 1993).
On average, plant nematodes cause about 7%–12% yield loss, which varies greatly depending on environmental conditions, inoculum level, host and nematode species (Khan et al., 2019). However, on a specific crop, the yield loss may be higher, and sometime, a complete crop failure may take place. The nematode-induced crop losses are considerably high in the developing countries, where farmers are not aware of plant nematodes. Exceptionally small size of farms, nonavailability of effective nematicides, and poor socioeconomic status of the farming community are responsible for farmer's negligence toward nematodes, which lead to greater nematode damage to the crops (Khan & Jairajpuri, 2012). This does not mean that the developed countries do not face nematode problems; despite having planned and modern agriculture, plant nematodes cause considerable crop losses in the developed countries. Nematodes attack agricultural crops in every region and country, but the yield losses vary considerably depending on the management practices adopted by the growers. The nematode infestation in different crop groups and the associated yield losses are summarized in Table 1, and are described concisely, under the following headings:
Biological Aspects
Nutrition
Family C1 cysteine proteases are ubiquitously expressed in the digestive tract of larval and adult trematodes (for example, Caffrey et al.[52] and Chapter 444) and nematodes [36,53]. Together with Family A1 aspartic proteases, cysteine proteases form part of a network or cascade of hydrolytic activities that generates absorbable peptides and amino acids from ingested host proteins (e.g. hemoglobin and albumin in hematophagous parasites [54,55]). Interestingly, the same orthologs of Family C1 (cathepsins B, C, F and L) and A1 (cathepsin D) digestive proteases are employed by divergent protozoan and invertebrate parasites ranging from plasmodia through trematodes and nematodes to ticks [54,56]. This type of digestive proteolytic network pre-dates the appearance of and eventual predominance by Clan PA serine proteases in insects and higher metazoa [55]. Gut-associated helminth Family C1 proteases are developmentally regulated with either novel or increased expression at the onset of blood-feeding [22,57].
In some cases, gene suppression via RNA interference (RNAi) has helped demonstrate the importance of gut proteases to worm growth, such as for plant nematodes [58] and parasitic trematodes [59]. However, the technique has proven less reliable in establishing a similar importance for proteases from a number of animal parasitic nematodes, including H. contortus and Ostertagia ostertagi[60]. In other studies, for example, with C. elegans, no phenotypes have been recorded even after combinatorial RNAi of five gut-associated Family C1 proteases, suggestive of further functional redundancy with other uncharacterized C1 proteases and/or proteases of different mechanistic classes [61].
A conservation of promoter elements driving the expression of digestive cysteine proteases in nematodes has been demonstrated. Transformation of C. elegans with the promoter of the H. contortus AC-2 cysteine protease gene linked to the reporter lacZ led to the selective expression of the reporter in gut cells [62] and extension of this approach to other H. contortus cathepsin B gene promoters has shown similar gut-specific expression (Johnston and Britton, unpublished). With the increased availability of parasitic helminth genome data, the regulatory motifs controlling spatial expression can be investigated and promoter activity tested in C. elegans or by direct transient transfection of the relevant nematode [63,64] or flatworm parasites [65].
Development, Moulting and Excystment
RNAi or genetic mutant analysis has demonstrated the essential nature of a C. elegans cathepsin L-like protease, Ce-CPL-1, for processing of egg-yolk proteins and embryogenesis [66,67]. Conservation of function in related parasitic nematode species was demonstrated by gene rescue studies [25,50]. The importance of cathepsin L activity for development of filarial nematodes was also indicated by RNAi of Bm-cpl-1 and Bm-cpl-5, members of a cathepsin L gene family in B. malayi[20], that decreased both embryonic survival and the release of microfilaria from treated adult worms [68]. Recently, the application of in vivo RNAi in the mosquito intermediate host demonstrated essential roles for Bm-cpl-1 in larval development and migration, identifying this as a potential transmission blocking target [69]. For agriculturally important nematodes, transgenic expression of plant-derived cysteine protease inhibitors has been employed as a control strategy, presumably by interrupting digestive processes in the gut of the parasite (Marra et al.[70] and references therein). Likewise, the heterologous expression of the pro-domain of an Heterodera glycines (soybean cyst nematode) cysteine protease in soybean decreased both the number of H. glycines females recovered from roots and their fecundity [70]. Finally, the contribution of cysteine proteases to the development of H. glycines and Globodera pallida (potato cyst nematode) was demonstrated by RNAi that altered the gender ratio [71].
Family C1 proteases are closely linked with the process of cuticle moulting in nematodes, e.g. in C. elegans[67] and the filarial nematodes, Dirofilaria immitis (heartworm) [72] and Onchocerca volvulus (causes ‘river blindmess’) [73]. With the latter parasite, dipeptidyl fluoromethane inhibitors decreased the number of third-stage larvae moulting to the fourth stage in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The inhibitors apparently prevented separation of the old cuticle from the new. Following on, RNAi of either O. volvulus cathepsin L (Ov-CPL) or cathepsin Z (Ov-CPZ) proteases severely inhibited moulting of third-stage larvae [17]. Cysteine proteases are also associated with the excystment of larval metacercariae of the lung fluke, Paragonimus westermani[74], and the Chinese live fluke, Clonorchis sinensis[75] that occurs in the lumen of the host gut.
Tissue Migration
For the larval stages of many helminth parasites the ability to migrate through host tissue is vital. Although most of the published research deals with trematode parasites (see Chapter 444), cysteine proteases secreted by cestodes and nematodes have been reported to degrade the relevant connective tissue proteins such as collagen [34,49] fibronectin and laminin [76,77].
Immune Modulation, Therapy and Diagnosis
Because they are often present at the helminth’s interface with the host (surface, gut and ES products), Family C1 proteases have been investigated for their immune-modulatory effects [78–80] and their practical utility as vaccine [6] and diagnostic candidates [7,81,82].
Of obvious advantage to parasitism by helminths is the ability to hydrolyse host molecules relevant to both innate and acquired immune function. Examples include IgG [49,83] and Toll-like receptors, which in the case of F. hepatica cathepsin L, involves the specific cleavage of endosomal TLR3, thus diminishing the macrophage’s capacity to release pro-inflammatory molecules upon stimulation of both TLR3 and TLR4 [80]. Cysteine protease activity released from metacestodes of the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium, significantly depleted co-cultured CD4+ T-cells [84]; subsequently, it was shown that apoptosis was involved in that depletion [85]. It is still unclear exactly how the protease mediates this apoptosis, but if demonstrated in vivo, activity would be a powerful method by which cell-mediated immune responses are dampened.
It is also appropriate to note here that cystatins (cysteine protease inhibitors) released by helminths (particularly filarial parasites) are potent immune-modulators. They interfere with host Family C1 and C13 (legumain) protease activities, including those associated with antigen-processing by antigen-presenting cells (McKerrow et al.[86] and Gregory & Maizels [87] for reviews). In addition, nematode parasite cystatins (but not the C. elegans ortholog [88]) exert significant effects on host cytokine production, in particular the upregulation of IL-10 by macrophages that contributes to T cell hypo-responsiveness and an anti-inflammatory environment, thereby favoring parasite survival (reviewed in Hartmann & Lucius [89]). Recent data suggest that the cystatin-induced modulation of macrophage cytokine levels operates via the phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases ERK1/2 and p38 [90].
Cysteine proteases are potential or validated targets for chemotherapy of many parasitic protozoa [7,91]. Apart from S. mansoni and F. hepatica (see Abdulla et al.[5] and Alcala-Canto et al.[92] and references therein) similar drug development research with helminths is lacking, reflecting in part a greater effort placed on developing vaccines [6]. | Animal and Human Parasitic Nematodes
Animal parasitic nematodes infect animals from all habitats – there are about 342 species which infect humans. Humans worldwide are infected by nematodes each year, mostly in tropical areas and developing countries, in the order of 3.5 billion. Nematodes parasitic on humans include ascaris, filarial nematodes, hookworms, pinworms, and whipworms. Species include Ancylostoma duodenale, Necator americanus, Trichinella spiralis, Wuchereria bancrofti, Onchocerca volvulus, etc. They can attack the muscles, alimentary canal, eyes, and other body tissues. Entry can be through skin, ingestion of eggs in food, or through bites by an infected vector (e.g., mosquitoes that carry filarial worms). In some cases, animals may be intermediate hosts where the nematodes enter and grow for a period of time as larvae and then become dormant cysts. If a human eats the infected meat, the juveniles become active again and grow into adult worms. Ascaris and Trichuris spp. can survive dry conditions or unfavorable temperatures as eggs. Tapeworms also infect cows, fish, or pigs and then latch onto the intestinal wall of a human that consumes them. Heartworms causing heartworm disease infest hearts, arteries, and lungs of dogs and some cats.
How Many Species of Vertebrate Parasitic Nematodes Exist?
All species of vertebrates examined thus far serve as hosts for at least one species of parasitic nematode. Some mammalian hosts harbor many species of nematodes that are distributed through several orders and families. Some of these nematodes are highly host-specific, surviving and reproducing successfully only in host individuals comprising a single species or perhaps a closely related group of species. | yes |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7477.html | Clearwing Moth Management Guidelines--UC IPM | The larvae of several species of clearwing moths (family Sesiidae) are important wood-boring pests in landscapes. Hosts include alder, ash, birch, fir, oak, pine, poplar, sycamore, willow, and stone fruit trees such as apricot, cherry, peach, and plum.
IDENTIFICATION
Dying limbs, rough or gnarled bark, trunk and branch swellings, sap exudation, and sawdustlike frass (excrement), are good indications that wood-boring insects have infested a tree. Clearwing moth larvae bore beneath tree bark and push frass, sometimes mixed with gummy tree exudate, from their tunnels. Small piles or a scattered dusting of frass mark the location of tunnel openings and clearwing pupal cases may be visible.
Clearwing larvae are 1 to 1 1/2 inches long at maturity and have a dark brown head and a whitish to pink body that darkens before pupating. After clearwing larvae mature and pupate and moths emerge, their empty, thin-walled, brownish pupal cases may protrude from bark or drop to the ground near the base of the tree. Clearwing pupal cases closely resemble those of the American plum borer and another wood-boring moth, Prionoxystus robiniae (Cossidae), discussed in Pest Notes: Carpenterworm. However, carpenterworm pupal cases are typically greater than 1 1/2 inches long while those of clearwing and plum borer larvae are about 3/4 inch long. Also, adults of these other moths have a very different appearance and are not attracted to traps used for monitoring clearwing moths. See Management section below.
Clearwing moth adults have long, narrow front wings and shorter, wider hind wings. The hind wings, and in some species the front wings, are mostly clear. These moths fly during the day or at twilight, and their yellow and black coloring resembles that of paper wasps or yellowjackets. Adults display wasplike behavior by intermittently running while rapidly fluttering their wings. They differ in color depending on species and sex. They are often yellow, orange, or red on black or dark blue.
Larvae that closely resemble those of clearwing moths include another moth, the American plum borer, Euzophera semifuneralis (family Pyralidae), which bores in wood of fruit and nut trees (primarily at the junction of main scaffolds), mountain ash, olive, and sycamore. Other wood-boring pests in landscapes include beetles, such as the bark beetles (Scolytinae; see Pest Notes: Bark Beetles), longhorned beetles, or roundheaded wood borers (Cerambycidae), and flatheaded wood borers, or metallic wood borers (Buprestidae).
Clearwing moths develop through four life stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. Adults do not directly damage plants and live only about one week. Soon after emerging from the pupal case, female moths emit a pheromone that attracts males. After mating, the female deposits her tiny reddish to pale pink eggs in cracks, crevices, and rough or wounded areas on bark. Eggs hatch in about one to four weeks. The newly emerged larvae bore into the bark, cambium, or heartwood of the host tree. Mature larvae pupate beneath bark, except for the peachtree borer, which pupates in soil. The species listed in this section have one generation per year, except for the western poplar clearwing, which requires one to two years to complete one generation. After the adults emerge, their offspring re-infest susceptible trees; the same individual insects are not permanent inhabitants.
At least six species of clearwing moths—American hornet moth, ash borer, peachtree borer, redbelted clearwing, sycamore borer, and western poplar clearwing—are pests of broadleaf trees and shrubs in California. Other common species in California include the sequoia pitch moth, Synanthedon sequoiae, and Douglas-fir pitch moth, Synanthedon novaroensis, which attack pine, spruce, and Douglas-fir. These conifer-infesting clearwings are discussed in Pest Notes: Pitch Moths.
American Hornet Moth
The American hornet moth, Sesia tibialis, closely resembles the western poplar clearwing, and it infests many of the same plants. Hosts include aspen, cottonwood, poplar, and willow. It ranges from New England to the Pacific coast states. The American hornet moth is mostly blackish blue with some brown, orange, or yellow.
Ash Borer
Larvae of the ash borer, Podosesia syringae, also known as the lilac or lilac-ash borer, mine the wood of ash, lilac, olive, and privet. This clearwing moth occurs throughout the United States but varies in appearance and behavior depending on location. In the West, the male ash borer has long brownish legs and a black body with narrow yellow bands. In California, the ash borer occurs primarily in the Central Valley, where it attacks tree trunks and limbs, mostly within about 5 to 10 feet from the ground. Infestations occur most often when the bark has sustained injuries due to pruning, improper staking, or previous generations of ash borer. This insect is not the same as the emerald ash borer, Agrilus planipennis, a beetle which has caused extensive damage in the upper midwest and eastern United States.
Peachtree Borer
The peachtree borer, Synanthedon exitiosa, sometimes called greater peachtree borer, attacks all stone fruit trees, including apricot, cherry, peach, and plum. It is also found on almonds grafted to peach or plum rootstock. In California it occurs mainly in coastal areas and in the northern San Joaquin Valley. It occurs throughout the United States and is a different species than the lesser peachtree borer (S. pictipes), which occurs only in the eastern United States. Adult peachtree borers are mostly bluish black. Males have narrow yellow bands on their abdomen; females have a single orange band. Virtually all larval tunneling occurs within a few inches of the ground near the base of the main trunk, after which larvae emerge and pupate in soil.
Redbelted Clearwing
The redbelted clearwing, Synanthedon culiciformis, is common around Sacramento. It infests red and white ash and also occurs in alder and birch. The adult is mostly brownish black with an orangish-red band on the anterior of the abdomen. Its biology and management are similar to those of the ash borer.
Sycamore Borer
The sycamore borer, Synanthedon resplendens, occurs in the southwestern United States. It is prevalent in sycamore and also infests oak and ceanothus. The male is mostly yellow with a brownish-black head and black bands on its body. Its legs are yellow, except for black along the margins on the portions nearest to the body. The mostly clear wings have orangish to yellow margins. Sycamores tolerate extensive boring by this insect, and generally no control is recommended.
Western Poplar Clearwing
The western poplar clearwing, Paranthrene robiniae, also called the locust clearwing, is found throughout warm, low-elevation areas in the West. In Southern California and the Central Valley it is a pest of birch, poplar, and willow in nurseries and landscapes, especially when trees are stressed. There is large variability in susceptibility among poplar varieties, and willows tolerate infestation, apparently without serious harm.
The adult’s forewings range from an opaque pale orange to a brownish color; the hind wings are clear. The thorax is black with a yellow hind border, and the abdomen is yellow with three broad black bands. The entire body of the desert form of this insect is pale yellow. The pale, dark-headed larvae have two hornlike spines on their back. The adult resembles a yellowjacket wasp, but has a thick waist and feathery antennae of a moth, unlike the narrow threadlike waist and filamentous antennae of a wasp.
DAMAGE
Clearwing moth larval feeding can damage the plant’s food- and water-conducting tissues and cause tree bark to become gnarled or rough. With some clearwing species, such as those that attack pine, sycamore, and willow, these host trees tolerate the feeding, which apparently causes no serious harm. Feeding by other species, however, can weaken or kill branches. Branches that larval tunneling has weakened may break and fall, especially during windy weather. Sometimes entire trees may die. Other types of wood-boring insects produce similar damage.
MANAGEMENT
Mature woody plants usually tolerate and can recover from the attack of a few clearwing moth larvae. However, the presence of this pest often indicates that plants have been injured, stressed, or neglected. Providing trees with appropriate cultural care is the primary damage prevention strategy. Drought stress leads to attack by borers, although for poplars, willows, and birches inherent susceptibility can lead to clearwing infestations despite sufficient irrigation. In the Central Valley and other hot locations, key management methods are adequate irrigation and whitewashing the trunks of young or heavily pruned trees. To whitewash, apply white interior (not exterior) latex paint diluted with an equal amount of water to trunks to reduce light exposure and sunburn or sunscald damage.
Sometimes you can kill larvae by puncturing or crushing them. Heavy infestations of clearwing moths, on the other hand, may warrant treatment with beneficial nematodes to kill larvae, broad-spectrum insecticides to kill adults, or both.
Traps containing a clearwing moth sex attractant (pheromone) are used primarily for monitoring. However, these traps or special dispensers (e.g., those resembling twist ties) can be a management tool as well as a detection tool. Continual dispersion of clearwing moth pheromone throughout the mating season reduces the ability of the adult moth to mate. This mating disruption has controlled western poplar clearwing in poplar tree plantations in the state of Washington and has been somewhat effective in reducing Synanthedon spp. (dogwood borer, lesser peachtree borer, and peachtree borer) populations and damage in commercial orchards in the eastern United States. Mating disruption is relatively expensive and labor intensive and there is no research on effectiveness of clearwing moth mating disruption in California landscapes. Because the method depends on treating a relatively large, contiguous area, mating disruption is probably not suitable for preventing clearwing borer infestation of one or a few scattered trees in a landscape.
Monitoring
Because other wood-boring insects produce damage resembling that of clearwing moths, the cause should be correctly identified before any control action is taken. If you are planning insecticide applications, use traps to monitor moth emergence, inspect bark for fresh pupal cases, or both.
Bark Inspection
Immediately before adult moths emerge, clearwing pupae often force about half of their length out of a tunnel and through the surface of damaged bark. Carefully inspect around damaged bark at least once each week, starting before adult emergence is expected. Look for fresh clearwing moth pupal cases protruding from bark, from tree crotches, and around the base of trees. Because old pupal cases can persist for months, remove cases as you find them, then monitor frequently and with care to ensure that any you observe are new ones. With peachtree borer, extensive gumming is evident where infestation occurs but pupal cases generally are not observed because peachtree borer larvae drop from tunnels near the base of the tree and pupate in soil.
Traps
Traps baited with a pheromone (insect sex attractant) are available for certain clearwing moth species, including ash and peachtree borers. Male clearwing moths drawn to the pheromone dispenser become caught on the trap’s sticky coating. If a pheromone is available for the clearwing borer species of concern (check the websites of insect trap suppliers), hang a trap containing the pheromone about shoulder high on each of two or more trees. Follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for maintaining the trap, such as the frequency with which to replace pheromones. Because commercial traps typically attract more than one species of clearwing, identify trapped moths to be certain they are the species that attack your trees before you decide to take control action.
Using Traps
Because traps can attract moths from a distance, you don’t need to place the traps in infested trees. Place traps in locations that will be convenient to monitor and within about 25 yards of host trees; check the traps once a week for moths. For further assistance identifying whether the moths are a species that attacks your plants, use the adult descriptions here and color photographs in Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs or take the trap containing your moths to the University of California (UC) Cooperative Extension or agricultural commissioner office in your county. It is a good idea to save the identified moths for comparison against additional moths captured.
Clearwing moths may be captured in traps almost any time during the growing season. However, each species typically flies in numbers during only a few weeks or months each year. Ash borer and redbelted clearwing adults fly from April through July in California. Peachtree borer, sycamore borer, and western poplar clearwing adults are active primarily from May through July. In Southern California, western poplar clearwing adults have been found in November and February through May. Male moths emerge from the pupal stage before females do and fly primarily around dusk. Females are ready to mate and lay eggs almost immediately after they emerge.
Cultural Control
Make sure trees receive appropriate and sufficient irrigation and that roots have an adequate volume of uncompacted soil that provides sufficient aeration (oxygen for roots). Protect roots, trunks, and limbs from injury. Keep weed trimmers and lawn mowers away from trunks; using mulch or a ground cover in a several-foot-wide area around the trunk will keep the area free of turf and other vegetation and eliminate the need for mowing. Stake young trees only if needed to protect or support the trunk or anchor the root ball during the first year or so after planting.
At least in the Central Valley and other hot locations, whitewash the trunks of young or heavily pruned host trees as discussed above. Because tree wounds attract clearwing moths, avoid pruning live branches unless necessary to develop tree structure or remove severely infested, dying, or hazardous limbs. Except for hazardous limbs that should be removed whenever they appear, decide when to prune based on that tree species’ susceptibility to pruning-related problems. For example, prune only during fall through early winter to minimize the chance of attracting egg-laying clearwing moths and other wood borers. However, stone fruits that are especially susceptible to Eutypa canker and dieback, Eutypa lata, such as apricot and cherry, should be pruned during July or August. For the best time to prune to minimize pest problems, consult Pests of Landscape Trees and Shrubs, or contact the UC Cooperative Extension or UC Master Gardener Program in your county.
Biological Control
Various naturally occurring parasites and predators, including the small Apanteles species braconid wasps, will kill clearwing moths. For example, A. paranthrenidis often parasitizes poplar clearwing larvae. Larvae that Apanteles species parasitize have many small, oblong, white cocoons adhering to their body. A minute blackish-brown wasp emerges from each cocoon after the larva dies. The importance of parasites and predators in reducing clearwing moth populations has not been documented, but avoid disrupting natural enemies whenever possible by, for example, not spraying trees, such as sycamores and willows, that tolerate borers, by not spraying foliage when treating bark for clearwings, and by using physical controls for peachtree borer and preventive cultural methods for all species.
Nematodes
Certain species of beneficial nematodes kill insects. Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae commercially available nematodes are effective against at least some clearwing larvae, including peachtree borer, redbelted clearwing, sycamore borer, and western poplar clearwing. These nematodes are not hazardous to humans, pets, or plants. Instead, they kill only insects.
Nematodes can be inconvenient to obtain and usually must be mail ordered. It can be difficult to determine the quality of nematodes and they can be difficult to apply effectively. They are perishable, so store them as directed, usually under cool, dark conditions, and do not store nematodes for long periods of time. It is best to purchase fresh nematodes from a reputable producer or supplier.
Using Nematodes
Apply nematodes with a squeeze-bottle applicator or 20-ounce oil can at a concentration of 1 million or more nematodes per ounce of distilled water. First, clear the tunnel entrance of frass, then insert the applicator nozzle as far as possible into each gallery. Inject the suspension until it fills the gallery or liquid runs out another hole before plugging the tunnel entrances with rope putty or grafting wax. Agitate the applicator frequently to keep nematodes suspended in the liquid. By adding 2% red or orange latex pigment, you can mark treated tunnels. Thoroughly drenching bark with a nematode spray is more convenient than injecting tunnels, but spraying may be less effective, because nematodes die on dry surfaces.
Make nematode applications during warm, but not hot, weather (at least 60°F) in spring or fall when borer larvae are actively feeding. Applications are most effective when larval openings are relatively large and moist. Because light and heat kill nematodes, make applications in the evening, especially in hot areas and sunny locations. Nematode-infected larvae can continue to feed and push frass from their tunnels for about one week before dying. A second application one or two weeks after the first can increase the likelihood that borer larvae will become infected. To monitor the effectiveness of squirting in nematodes and plugging tunnels, check that the opening of each gallery is still plugged one week after application. Replug any that have been opened, and spray the plugged openings with bright-colored paint. Wait another week, and check to see if these plugs are intact. If paint no longer covers the gallery opening, the larva hasn’t died. Retreat the gallery.
Physical Control
During spring or fall, you can sometimes kill peachtree borers and larvae of other clearwing species by carefully using a knife or stiff wire to probe the trunk where gummy frass exudes from the bark. Because it is difficult to know whether puncturing or crushing has actually killed the larvae, reinspect trunks in a week, and probe tunnels again if you observe fresh gum exudate, which indicates a live larva is present. Minimize injuries to bark when probing tunnels and be sure not to create large wounds in cambial tissue.
Where the peachtree borer is a problem, remove suckers, and keep vegetation and mulch away from the base of the tree. Bare soil around trunks increases the likelihood you will observe any tunneling. In the Central Valley, bare soil around trunks increases heat and dryness. This reduces the survival of borer eggs and larvae and can prevent the peachtree borer from becoming a pest.
Chemical Control
If the trees are of high value, making two or more insecticide applications to bark when egg-laying moths are active may reduce future infestations by some clearwing species, including the ash borer, peachtree borer, and western poplar clearwing. If extensive portions of the tree are already dead or if borers have heavily infested trees, spraying may provide little or no benefit, and the tree may need to be removed. Only certain broad-spectrum, residual insecticides (those that persist for weeks) thoroughly sprayed onto bark are potentially effective in preventing clearwing borer attacks. Their use generally requires hiring a licensed pest control applicator as the products available for home users are not effective. Spraying may not be practical on large trees in landscapes in part because of drift or runoff, which can cause pesticide movement offsite that might contaminate surface waters, and the difficulty in effectively timing applications.
A sufficiently concentrated pyrethroid, such as certain permethrin products (Astro, Dragnet), can be sprayed on bark to kill adults before they lay eggs and kill hatching larvae before they bore into wood. Direct the spray at the trunk or primary scaffold branches and avoid spraying leaves. Insecticide sprays have not been found to be effective against clearwing larvae beneath bark. Soil or trunk application of systemic insecticides also have not been found to control clearwing moths or their larvae.
It requires careful timing for a bark spray to potentially be effective, and the long emergence time of western poplar clearwing further complicates timing. Determine when moths are emerging by frequently examining trunks and limbs, by inspecting pheromone-baited traps, or both, as discussed in the section Monitoring, above. About 10 to 14 days after you first catch pest moths in traps or observe fresh pupal cases, apply a broad-spectrum, residual, contact insecticide to the main trunk, on top and underneath the base of large limbs where they join the main trunk, and on the wounded bark of susceptible trees. Apply sufficient spray to thoroughly wet the bark. For the peachtree borer, allow the spray to run down the lower trunk, and thoroughly wet the soil within several inches of the tree base. There is no need to treat any foliage. Take steps to avoid allowing pesticide to drip down onto hard surfaces or elsewhere that is likely to lead to runoff or washoff that can contaminate water.
If fresh pupal cases on bark or adults in traps continue to be found for longer than about one month after the application, a second spray may be warranted. The following year, spraying once or twice again may help to further reduce the infestation. Trees may continue to decline unless you use insecticides in combination with improved tree-care practices.
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Certain species of beneficial nematodes kill insects. Steinernema carpocapsae and S. feltiae commercially available nematodes are effective against at least some clearwing larvae, including peachtree borer, redbelted clearwing, sycamore borer, and western poplar clearwing. These nematodes are not hazardous to humans, pets, or plants. Instead, they kill only insects.
Nematodes can be inconvenient to obtain and usually must be mail ordered. It can be difficult to determine the quality of nematodes and they can be difficult to apply effectively. They are perishable, so store them as directed, usually under cool, dark conditions, and do not store nematodes for long periods of time. It is best to purchase fresh nematodes from a reputable producer or supplier.
Using Nematodes
Apply nematodes with a squeeze-bottle applicator or 20-ounce oil can at a concentration of 1 million or more nematodes per ounce of distilled water. First, clear the tunnel entrance of frass, then insert the applicator nozzle as far as possible into each gallery. Inject the suspension until it fills the gallery or liquid runs out another hole before plugging the tunnel entrances with rope putty or grafting wax. Agitate the applicator frequently to keep nematodes suspended in the liquid. By adding 2% red or orange latex pigment, you can mark treated tunnels. Thoroughly drenching bark with a nematode spray is more convenient than injecting tunnels, but spraying may be less effective, because nematodes die on dry surfaces.
| no |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/choanotaenia | Choanotaenia - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics | Tapeworms
Despite a diet of predominately seeds, zebra finches can be infested with tapeworms, which generally require an insect or annelid host to complete their life cycle. At the authors’ facility, several birds died or were euthanized because of ill health within 2 weeks of arrival from a vendor. At necropsy, one zebra finch was found to have its intestines impacted with worms; eggs containing hexacanth embryos were noted on fecal flotation exams (Fig. 23.18). The cestodes were identified as Choanotaenia sp. (courtesy of Dr. Mike Kinsella; Fig. 23.19); exact speciation was not possible because some taxonomic features, e.g., a complete ring of rostellar hooks, were lost during processing. Interestingly, there is a report of estrildid finches experiencing an infestation of Choanotaenia spp. in Australia about 30 years ago (McOrist et al., 1984); the affected adult birds were depressed and had diarrhea prior to death. The two Choanotaenia spp. involved could not be determined, but one was similar to C. infundibulum, a tapeworm common in chickens and other birds (Morishita and Schaul, 2007), occasionally in insectivores and rodents, and at least once in a rhesus macaque (Jones et al., 1980). Another U.S. research institution had zebra finches with tapeworms that were identified as Raillietina sp. (Dr. Larry Carbone, personal communication). Oral praziquantel (10 mg/kg in water by oral gavage weekly for 3 weeks) is effective in eliminating adult tapeworms. Most animal facilities would lack the intermediate hosts for their continued propagation.
Intermediate Hosts of Parasites
Tapeworms (cestodes), flukes (trematodes), roundworms (nematodes), and thorny-headed worms (acanthocephalans) of many species that infest domestic and wild animals use beetles as intermediate hosts. Animals become infested by ingesting parasitized beetles that contaminate feed or bedding (tenebrionids, carabids) or that are attracted to animal dung (scarabaeids) or by ingesting water in which infective beetles have disintegrated.
Two tapeworms that infest the small intestines of poultry are the broad-headed tapeworm (Raillietina cesticillus) and Choanotaenia infundibulum (Fig. 9.11). Both parasites cause enteritis and hemorrhaging in chickens, turkeys, pheasants, and guinea fowl. A few tenebrionids and scarabaeids and more than 35 species of carabid beetles, notably in the genera Amara and Pterostichus, are intermediate hosts for R. cesticillus (Cheng, 1973). Some tenebrionid and dermestid species, including the lesser mealworm beetle, are intermediate hosts for C. infundibulum. Proglottids or tapeworm eggs ingested by beetle larvae or adults develop into cystercerci (encysted larvae) that can then infest birds that eat the beetles. Chicks are most susceptible to serious infestations and often die from worm burdens.
The beef tapeworm (Taenia saginata) can use dung beetles and carabids as intermediate hosts, although they are not essential for transmission. Beetles associated with infective dung or debris can ingest proglottids or eggs as in the case of poultry worms. Cattle and humans infested with the tapeworm may exhibit mild symptoms such as weight loss, abdominal pain, and increased appetite.
The dwarf tapeworms (Hymenolepis nana and H. diminuta) that usually infest rodents, especially rats and mice, can infest humans when the intermediate host beetles are accidentally ingested. Tenebrio molitor may act as an intermediate host for H. nana, although this worm is readily transmitted directly from one vertebrate host to another. Several species of tenebrionids (Tenebrio spp. and Tribolium spp.) are required intermediate hosts for H. diminuta. Larval and adult beetles infesting grain and cereals ingest worm eggs that develop into cysticercoid stages that infest rodents or humans, usually children, who ingest the beetles. Dwarf tapeworms produce minimal symptoms in rodents and people, although heavy infestations in children may cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, convulsions, and dizziness.
Beetles are known to be intermediate hosts for only a few trematodes. These are parasites of frogs that become infested by ingesting parasitized dytiscid beetles and pose no problem for other vertebrate animals.
Many nematodes infest livestock and wildlife, but only a few use beetles as intermediate hosts. Spirurid nematodes of various species infest livestock and, rarely, humans. Physocephalus sexalatus and Ascarops strongylina eggs develop in many species of scarabaeid dung beetles (Geotrupes spp., Onthophagus spp., and Scarabaeus spp.) that then may be ingested by pigs. Both wild and domestic swine can be infested with these stomach worms that cause digestive problems in heavily infested young animals. Gongylonema pulchrum is a parasite of the upper digestive tract of sheep, cattle, goats, and other ruminants as well as horses, dogs, and humans. The worms burrow in the mucosa and submucosa of the oral cavity and esophagus and may cause bleeding, irritation, numbness, and pain in the mouth and chest. Scarabaeid and tenebrionid beetles serve as intermediate hosts for the larvae. Scarabaeid dung beetles are also the intermediate hosts for Spirocerca lupi, the esophageal worm of dogs and wild canids. Physaloptera caucasica, another spirurid, often parasitizes monkeys in tropical Africa, where humans are also commonly infested. This nematode causes digestive distress by infesting the alimentary tract from the esophagus to the terminal ileum. Scarabaeid dung beetles are its intermediate hosts.
The acanthocephalans, aptly named for their thorny heads, include species found worldwide infesting swine, rodents, and carnivores such as dogs. Macracanthorhynchus hirudinaceus, which attaches to the small intestines of swine, causes enteritis and produces intestinal nodules that lower the value of these tissues when they are sold to make sausage casings. Eggs of this parasite are ingested by scarab beetle larvae of species belonging to various genera (Phyllophaga, Melolontha, Lachnosterna, Cetonia, Scarabaeus, and Xyloryctes), including May and June beetles, leaf chafers, dung beetles, and rhinoceros beetles. Infested beetle larvae, as well as the pupae and adults that develop from them, are infective to both pigs and humans. Humans and pigs often show no symptoms. However, in cases of heavy infestations, both human and porcine hosts may experience digestive problems, such as abdominal pain, loss of appetite, and diarrhea that can lead to emaciation.
Two other acanthocephalan worms that parasitize the small intestines of their hosts use scarab beetles or tenebrionids as intermediate hosts. They are Macracanthorhynchus ingens, which infests raccoons and occasionally dogs and humans, and Moniliformis moniliformis, a parasite of rodents and dogs.
Niclosamide (4): It is a safe and highly effective drug for treating tapeworm infections in cats, dogs, sheep, cattle, horses and poultry. A dose of 100-125 mg/kg of the drug has been found to provide excellent activity against Taenia ovis, T. hydatigena, T. taeniformis, T. pisifơrmis and M. multiceps in cats and dogs. Niclosamide also possesses 100% activity against E. granulosus in dogs at a dose of 50 mg/kg [69a]. The drug shows high activity against the intestinal tapeworms, Moniezia expansa, M. benedeni, Thysaniezia giardi and Aviŧellina spp. in sheep at an oral dose of 50-75 mg/kg; however, its activity against the bile-duct dwelling tapeworms is not satisfactory [9,67].
In horses, higher doses (200-300 mg/kg) of niclosamide may be needed to eliminate the mature and immature stages of Anophlocephala spp. However, the drug exhibits excellent efficacy against Choanotaenia infundibulum, Hymenolepis spp., and Dicranotaenia spp. etc. in chicken and ducks at an oral dose of 50-80 mg/kg [67–69]. A combination of niclosamide and tetramisole, called niclomisol-O, has been found to be highly effective against the intestinal nematodes, Haemonchus, Oesophagostomum, Bunostomum and Trichostrongylus spp. in sheep [63b].
Niclosamide shows weak activity against Fasciola spp., but is nearly 100% effective against immature paramphistomes in sheep at a dose of 50-90 mg/kg. The drug, therefore, may be used to control paramphistome outbreak in sheep flocks [68,69].
Terenol (resorantel, 5b): At a dose of 65 mg/kg, terenol shows high activity against Moniezia spp. in ruminants [69]. The above dose of the drug was also effective in removing 80-100% of the paramphistomes (P. cervi) from sheep, goats and cattle [68,69]. Terenol is effective against Gastrodiscus aegypticus infection in horses [69].
Oxyclozanide (7): This is an effective drug for treating Fasciola hepatica infection in sheep and cattle. The usual therapeutic dose of oxyclozanide is 13-15 mg/kg for mature flukes; however, repeated doses (15 mg/kg for 3) may be needed to eliminate immature flukes. Thus the drug may be used to control acute fascioliasis in ruminants [68–70].
Brotianide (8): The drug is currently used to treat fascioliasis in sheep. A dose of 7 mg/kg of brotianide shows 91-99% activity against 7-14 weeks old flukes; however, its activity against 6 weeks old flukes is weak (50-90%). It also possesses 85-90% activity against paramphistomes in sheep and cattle [68,69]. The maximum tolerated dose of brotianide is 27 mg/kg in sheep.
Hilomid (9a,b): At a dose of 60 mg/kg, this mixture of bromosalicylanilides (bromsalans) removes 12 week old F. hepatica from sheep. For eliminating flukes above 12 weeks of age, a lower dose of 30 mg/kg is sufficient [72–75]. The maximum tolerated dose of hilomid in sheep is only 60 mg/kg [69].
Rafoxaniđe (12): Rafoxanide is an effective drug for treating F. hepatica infection in sheep and cattle. An oral dose of 10-15 mg/kg of this anthelmintic eliminates 91-99% of the mature flukes and 50-90% of the younger flukes in ruminants. However, the above dose level of rafoxanide has been found to be almost 100% effective against immature and mature F. magna in cattle. About 92% of the immature paramphistomes may also be removed from sheep and goats at an oral dose of 15 mg/kg of rafoxanide [68,69]. It is effective against the roundworms, Haemonchus contortus and Oestrus ovis in sheep. The maximum tolerated dose in sheep is 45 mg/kg [68,69].
Clioxanide (13): The drug has been evaluated against mature and immature liver flukes in grazing sheep causing 98-100% reduction of adult worms of F. hepatica at a single oral dose of 25 mg/kg. Even a dose range of 10-25 mg/ kg of clioxanide was effective in eliminating adult liver flukes. However, a higher dose of 40 mg/kg was necessary for removing the young flukes. The drug was found to be well tolerated as only 0.03% of the animals died when 25,000 sheep were treated. The maximum tolerated dose of clioxanide in sheep is 100 mg/kg [69,76–78]. Clioxanide, therefore, may be used to cure fascioliasis in sheep and cattle with very low toxicity [79].
Closantel (14): It is a highly effective salicylanilide for eliminating liver flukes, F. hepatica, F. gigantica and blood-sucking nematodes, Haemonchus contortus in sheep, horses and cattle at an oral dose of 7.5-10 mg/kg [80,80a]. However, its activity against adult flukes is more pronounced than the younger ones. Closantel is also effective against Bunostomum spp. in ruminants [70] and against Fascioloides magna in sheep [81]. The drug has been shown to be highly active against H. contortus resistant to either benzimidazoles or levamisole [71]. The usual recommended dose of clioxanide in sheep is 7.5-10 mg/kg. In cattle it is given at a dose of 2.5 mg/kg as injectable solution [69].
5.1.1 Antechinus stuartii (Table 5)
This species is of particular parasitological interest because it has a diverse array of parasitic helminths (45 known species) given its small size, occupying an exceptional spectrum of host tissues (Beveridge and Barker, 1976; Spratt, 1986). A. stuartii belongs to the family which is morphologically closer to the South American microbiotheriids than most other Australian families and has an unusual life history, with a short (3–4 week) synchronous mating period followed by the death of all males (Lee and Cockburn, 1985). The gastrointestinal tract of Antechinus spp. is simple, with the short intestine and colon merging almost imperceptibly into one another (Hume et al., 1989) (Figure 5A).
The helminth fauna of A. stuartii is dominated numerically by the Trichostrongyloidea (12 species), particularly by the family Herpetostrongylidae, with representatives of eight other nematode superfamilies, three species of cestodes and three species of trematodes. The superfamilies or families of helminths represented are frequently those expected in carnivores or insectivores, with many of the species presumably requiring arthropods as intermediate hosts. In the case of the cestodes, the species of Potorolepis, P. aklei and P. bradleyi, belong to a distinctive Australian genus, but the affinities of this genus are unclear (Vaucher et al., 1984; Vaucher, 1992). Choanotaenia ratticola represents an acquisition from Rattus fuscipes, a native rodent which is commonly parasitized by this cestode (Obendorf, 1979) and which is abundant in habitats frequented by A. stuartii. Both cestode genera utilize insects as intermediate hosts.
The relationships of the diverse trichostrongyloid nematodes have been investigated by a number of authors, and they apparently have multiple phylogenetic origins. The six genera of trichostrongyloid nematodes present in A. stuartii belong to three families, Herpetostrongylidae, Mackerrastrongylidae and Dromaeostrongylidae.
The Herpetostrongylidae, containing the genera Woolleya, Dessetostrongylus, Patricialina and Nasistrongylus, is closely related to the family Viannaiidae since some members of both families possess three ventral body ridges. The Viannaiidae occurs in South American marsupials and rodents. This host and geographical association has lead to the hypothesis (Humphery-Smith, 1983) that the herpetostrongylid nematodes were part of the parasite fauna introduced by the dispersing microbiotheriids and that they have radiated subsequently within the Australian marsupials.
Two additional trichostrongyloid genera, Sprattellus and Tetrabothriostrongylus, belong to the family Mackerrastrongylidae which was considered by Durette-Desset and Chabaud (1981) to have diversified in monotremes and invaded marsupials secondarily. Whether this transition occurred in Australia or prior to the dispersion of the marsupials to Australia is not known.
The third family, Dromaeostrongylidae, represented by the genus Peramelistrongylus, is closely related to the Trichostrongylidae, of which the best known representatives parasitize domestic ruminants. The genera of the Trichostrongylidae appear to be derived from an ancestor similar to the genus Libyostrongylus, a parasite of ostriches, which is closely related to Dromaeostrongylus in another ratite bird, the emu (Durette-Desset and Chabaud, 1981). The remaining genera of the Dromaeostrongylidae, of which Peramelistrongylus is one, are apparently derived from a colonization of marsupials by this family. Peramelistrongylus occurs in the stomachs of dasyurid marsupials, bandicoots and the musky rat kangaroo, Hypsiprymnodon moschatus (see Spratt et al., 1991).
Thus the eight genera of trichostrongyloid nematodes in A. stuartii belong to three different phylogenetic lineages within the Trichostrongyloidea, one linked to similar parasites in South American marsupials, another apparently derived from monotremes and a third apparently derived from ratite birds endemic to the Australian region. None of their life cycles has been elucidated.
The metastrongyloid genus Marsupostrongylus contains numerous species parasitic in various families of Australian marsupials (Spratt, 1979, 1984) but no hypotheses have been advanced to explain their phylogenetic relationships. The Angiostrongylidae, to which the genus belongs (Anderson, 1978), contains genera in insectivores, carnivores and rodents as well as in Australian and South American marsupials. A hypothesis similar to that advanced for the Herpetostrongylidae by Humphery-Smith (1983) would account for its introduction to Australian marsupials with dispersal via microbiotheriids and subsequent radiation within Australian marsupials. Species of Marsupostrongylus studied to date utilize gastropod intermediate hosts (Mackerras, 1955; Spratt, 1979).
The spiruroid nematode, Spirura aurangabadensis, found in the oesophagus of A. stuartii and other dasyurid and peramelid marsupials, occurs in bats and primates in South-East Asia (Spratt, 1985). This nematode species may have reached Australia with bats, or could have been introduced by an arthropod intermediate host. The parasites of Australian bats are still very poorly known, and the nematode may be found in bats in the future.
Both the acuarioid parasites of A. stuartii, Antechiniella suffodiax and Synhimantus australiensis, have as their closest relatives genera in birds. Several species of Synhimantus occur in Australian birds (Mawson et al., 1986). Antechiniella is found in the endemic rodents, Rattus fuscipes, R. lutreolusand Hydromys chrysogaster, as well as in marsupials (Obendorf, 1979; Smales, 1991). Based on the ontogeny of its larval stages, Antechiniella is derived from the genera Streptocara or Rusguniella (see Quentin and Beveridge, 1986) which are common parasites of the oesophagus and proventriculus of waterfowl in Australia (Mawson et al., 1986).
A. stuartii also harbours plerocercoids, other metacestodes, larval ascaridoid and spirurid nematodes and larval acanthocephalans, indicating its importance in the diet of larger reptilian, mammalian and avian predators.
The helminth parasites of A. stuartii thus form a complex assemblage in terms of their phylogenetic origins. The Herpetostrongylidae and possibly the metastrongyloids may have been parasitic in the original dispersing marsupials which reached Australia, while the remaining helminths, or at least those for which suggestions can be advanced as to their origins, were apparently derived from monotremes, ratite birds, birds belonging to orders other than the ratites, and bats.
Although none of their life cycles has been elucidated, limited ecological observations have been made on the helminth parasites of A. stuartii. Seasonal changes in abundance occur, with abundance of several species or genera increasing in the winter months, June to August (Beveridge and Barker, 1976). There is a major increase in abundance in helminths in male A. stuartii during this period of the year, which coincides with the mating season, and is associated with increased concentrations of free corticosteroids in the plasma, and with a consequent involution of lymphoid tissue and increased susceptibility to infection by helminths (Barker et al., 1978; Lee and Cockburn, 1985). Although minor pathological changes due to the parasites are detectable, including interstitial pneumonia caused by the metastrongyloid Marsupostrongylus lanceolatus, gastric erosion and ulceration associated with Capillaria rickardi and chronic fibrotic lesions caused by the burrowing activity of Antechiniella suffodiax in the stomach, none of the helminth parasites appear to cause the total demise of the male antechinus population following mating. The mortality is due rather to gastric haemorrhage, babesiosis or listeriosis (Barker et al., 1978). Nonetheless, the period of mating, with the immunocompromised state of the male antechinuses, does lead to a substantial increase in numbers of helminths and presumably therefore to increased environmental contamination with eggs. The parasites involved presumably are able to take advantage of this situation and yet obviate the potentially devastating effect of the loss of half of the host population each spring following mating. The detailed ecological studies necessary for an understanding of this situation have not been undertaken.
Apart from the annual loss of all males, A. stuartii inhabits an environment which is prone to disturbance by fire. Bush fires reduce the number of hosts or remove hosts and parasites entirely from a given locality, which is then gradually recolonized as the vegetation regrows. Studies both before and after bush fires (Spratt, 1986) have shown that following fire, the numbers of A. stuartii remain low for several years then increase dramatically although the diversity of the helminth community of A. stuartii is not significantly lower in the period of recolonization.
A. stuartii supports a diverse helminth community of 32 species in southern New South Wales (Spratt, 1986). It shares many of its helminths with the related species, A. swainsonii, but the community is distinct from those found in other sympatric small marsupials and rodents (Spratt, 1986) (Figure 6). The parasite communities of the two species of Antechinus are most similar to that found in Sminthopsis leucopus, another small dasyurid. | Several species of tenebrionids (Tenebrio spp. and Tribolium spp.) are required intermediate hosts for H. diminuta. Larval and adult beetles infesting grain and cereals ingest worm eggs that develop into cysticercoid stages that infest rodents or humans, usually children, who ingest the beetles. Dwarf tapeworms produce minimal symptoms in rodents and people, although heavy infestations in children may cause abdominal pain, diarrhea, convulsions, and dizziness.
Beetles are known to be intermediate hosts for only a few trematodes. These are parasites of frogs that become infested by ingesting parasitized dytiscid beetles and pose no problem for other vertebrate animals.
Many nematodes infest livestock and wildlife, but only a few use beetles as intermediate hosts. Spirurid nematodes of various species infest livestock and, rarely, humans. Physocephalus sexalatus and Ascarops strongylina eggs develop in many species of scarabaeid dung beetles (Geotrupes spp., Onthophagus spp., and Scarabaeus spp.) that then may be ingested by pigs. Both wild and domestic swine can be infested with these stomach worms that cause digestive problems in heavily infested young animals. Gongylonema pulchrum is a parasite of the upper digestive tract of sheep, cattle, goats, and other ruminants as well as horses, dogs, and humans. The worms burrow in the mucosa and submucosa of the oral cavity and esophagus and may cause bleeding, irritation, numbness, and pain in the mouth and chest. Scarabaeid and tenebrionid beetles serve as intermediate hosts for the larvae. | yes |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://www.nematodes.com/ | Beneficial nematodes - Biological Pest Control for eliminating grubs ... | Beneficial nematodes are becoming much more popular for soil pest control. These microscopic, beneficial nematodes actively hunt, penetrate and destroy over 200 pests from up to 100 insect families. These pests are ones that either directly injure our desired lawn or plants, or immature grub stages of insects before they mature to adults that cause damage. Being natural, beneficial nematodes are safe to use around humans, children and pets. They won’t harm non-target organisms such as bees, or pollinators. These beneficial nematodes attack the larval stages of soil-dwelling pests, leaving the plants alone. The parasitic nematodes enter their prey through body openings and release bacteria that kills their host within 48 hours. The nematodes can then reproduce inside the pest. Nematodes are recommended for use whenever pest insects are present.
Beneficial Nematodes naturally occur in soil and are used to
control soil pest insects and whenever larvae or grubs are
present. Like all of our products, it will not expose humans or
animals to any health or environmental risks. Beneficial
nematodes only attack soil dwelling insects and leave plants and
earthworms alone. The beneficial nematodes enters the larva via
mouth, anus or respiratory openings and starts to feed. This
causes specific bacteria to emerge from the intestinal tract of
the nematode. These spread inside the insect and multiply very
rapidly. The bacteria convert host tissue into products which
can easily be taken up by the nematodes. The soil dwelling
insect dies within a few days. Beneficial nematodes are a
totally safe biological control in pest insects. The Beneficial
nematodes are so safe the EPA has waived the registration
requirements for application.
NATURE'S BEST WAY OF KILLING Grubs and Japanese Beetles.
We ship Healthy Beneficial Nematodes to all 48 States. Visit our website: www.buglogical.com or call 520-298-4400 for more information.
Though they are harmless to humans, animals, plants, and
healthy earthworms, beneficial nematodes aggressively pursue
insects. The beneficial nematodes can be used to control a broad
range of soil inhabiting insects and above ground insects in
their soil inhabiting stage of life. More than 200 species of
pest insects from 100 insect families are susceptible to these
nematodes. When they sense the temperature and carbon dioxide
emissions of soil-borne insects, beneficial nematodes move
toward their prey and enter the pest through its body openings.
The nematodes carry an associated bacterium (Xenorhabdus
species) that kills insects fast within 48 hours. The bacteria
is harmless to humans and other organisms and cannot live freely
in nature. Several generations of nematodes may live and breed
within the dead insect, feeding on it as a food source. When the
food source is gone, they migrate into the soil in search of a
new host. When the pest population is eliminated, the beneficial
nematodes die off and biodegrade. Beneficial nematodes are so
effective, they can work in the soil to kill the immature stages
of garden pests before they become adults.
,
Beneficial nematodes infest grubs and other pest insects
that are known to destroy lawns and plants.
The Nematodes are effective against grubs and the larval or
grub stage of Japanese Beetles, Northern Masked Chafer, European
Chafer, Rose Chafer, Fly larvae, Oriental Beetles, June Beetles,
Flea beetles, Bill-bugs, Cut-worms, Army worms, Black Vine
Weevils, Strawberry Root Weevils, Fungus Gnats, Sciarid larvae,
Sod Web-worms, Girdler, Citrus Weevils, Maggots and other
Dip-tera, Mole Crickets, Iris Borer, Root Maggot, Cabbage Root
Maggot and Carrot Weevils.
Beneficial nematodes belong to one of two genera: Steinernema
and Heterorhabditis are commercially available in the U.S.
Steinernema is the most widely studied beneficial nematode
because it is easy to produce. Heterorhabditis is more difficult
to produce but can be more effective against certain insects,
such as the white grubs, and Japanese beetles.
How beneficial nematodes work: The life cycle of
beneficial nematodes consists of six distinct stages: an egg
stage, four juvenile stages and the adult stage. The adult
spends its life inside the host insect. The third juvenile
stage, called a dauer, enters the bodies of insects (usually the
soil dwelling larval form. Some nematodes seek out their hosts,
while others wait for the insect to come to them. Host seeking
nematodes travel through the soil the thin film of water that
coats soil particles. They search for insect larvae using
built-in homing mechanisms that respond to changes in carbon
dioxide levels and temperature. They also follow trails of
insect excrement. After a single nematode finds and enters an
insect through its skin or natural openings, the nematode
release a toxic bacteria that kills its host, usually within a
day or two. In less than two weeks the nematodes pass through
several generations of adults, which literally fill the insect
cadaver. Steinernema reproduction requires at least two dauer
nematodes to enter an insect, but a single Heterorhabditis can
generate offspring on its own. The nematodes actively searches
for insect larvae. Once inside the larva the nematodes excretes
specific bacteria from its digestive trac before it starts to
feed. The bacteria multiply very rapid and convert the host
tissue into products that the nematodes take up and use for
food. The larva dies within a few days and the color changes
from white-beige to orange-red or red-brown. The nematodes
multiply and develop within the dead insect. As soon as the
nematodes are in the infectious third stage, they leave the old
host and start searching for new larvae. Infected grubs turn
color from white-beige to red brown 2-4 days after application
and becomes slimy. After a few weeks, dead larvae disintegrate
completely and are difficult to find.
Beneficial nematodes are also very effective against
termites, German cockroaches, flies, ant, and fleas.
APPLICATION:
Beneficial Nematodes are very easy to use. Mix with water and
spray or sprinkle on the soil along garden plants or lawn. Put
the contents of the Beneficial nematodes in a bucket of water
and stir to break up any lumps, and let the entire solution soak
for a few minutes. Application can be made using a water-can,
irrigation system, knapsack or sprayer. On sprayer use a maximum
pressure to avoid blockage, all sieves should be removed. The
sprayer nozzle opening should be at least 1/2 mm. Evenly spread
the spraying solutions over the ground area to be treated.
Continuous mixing should take place to prevent the nematodes
from sinking to the bottom. After application keep the soil
moist during the first two weeks for the nematodes to get
establish. For a small garden the best method is using a simple
sprinkling or water can to apply the Beneficial nematodes to the
soil. Apply nematodes before setting out transplants; for other
pest insects, Japanese Beetles and grubs, apply whenever
symptomatic damage from insects is detected. Best to apply water
first if soil is dry.Application and amount for 50 and 100 Mil. Nematodes.
The 50 Mil. + nematodes are packed in an inert carrying material that will dissolve in water when mixed.
You can use a watering can, pump sprayer; hose end sprayer and irrigation system, backpack sprayers, or motorized sprayer.
The 10 Mil. 50 Mil. and 100 Mil. Nematodes mix 1 teaspoon per gallon of water.
The Large yard size: 1/2 Acre Size (50 Million) you can use up to 40 Gallons of water
The Acre size 100 Mil. Nematodes you can use up to 100 Gallons of water.
Evenly spread the solution over the ground areas to be treated.
Continuous mixing should take place to prevent the nematodes from sinking to the bottom of the container. To avoid blockages, remove all filters from the sprayer.
You can sprinkle the soil with water again after application to move the nematodes into the soil.
Apply nematodes as soon as possible for best product performance.
Keep the soil most for the first week after application.
Proper storage and handling is essential to nematode health.
Always follow the package instructions for the best method of
mixing nematodes. Formulations vary depending on the species and
target insect. Nematodes can be stored in the refrigerator up to
a month (not the freezer) before they are mixed with water, but
once the nematodes are diluted in water, they cannot be stored.
Also, nematodes shouldnt be stored in hot vehicles, or left in
spray tanks for long periods of time.Nematodes need moisture in the soil for movement (if the soil
is too dry or compact, they may not able to search out hosts)
and high humidity if they are used against foliage pests.
Watering the insect-infested area before and after applying
nematodes keeps the soil moist and helps move them deeper into
the soil. Care should be taken not to soak the area because
nematodes in too much water cannot infect.
Exposure to UV light or very high temperatures can kill
nematodes.
Apply nematodes in the early evening
or late afternoon when soil temps are
lower and UV incidence is lower as well
(cloudy or rainy days are good too).
Nematodes function best with soil
temperatures between 48Fº and 93Fº day
time temperatures.
Application is usually easy.
In most cases, there is no need for special application
equipment. Most nematodes species are compatible with
pressurized, mist, electrostatic, fan and aerial sprayers!
Hose-end sprayers, pump sprayers, and watering cans are
effective applicators as well. Nematodes are even applied
through irrigation systems on some crops. Check the label of the
nematode species to use the best application method. Repeat
applications if the insect is in the soil for a longer period of
time. There is no need for masks or specialized safety
equipment. Insect parasitic nematodes are safe for plants and
animals (worms, birds, pets, children). Because they leave no
residues, application can be made anytime before a harvest and
there is no re-entry time after application.
How to use beneficial nematodes: For the home gardener,
localized spraying is probably the quickest and easiest way to
get the nematodes into the soil. Producers ship beneficial
nematodes in the form of dry granules, powder type clay, and
sponges. All of these dissolve in water and release the millions
of nematodes. Each nematode ready to start searching for an
insect in your lawn or garden. Nematodes should be sprayed on
infested areas at the time when pests is in the soil. Timing is
important, or else you will have to repeat the application.
Northern gardeners should apply the nematodes in the spring,
summer and fall, when the soil contains insect larvae. Most of
the beneficial nematodes are adaptive to cold weather. In fact ,
the very best time to control white grubs is in the spring and
fall. If your in a warmer climate, beneficial nematodes are
effective all year.
Fertilizers should be avoided roughly 2 weeks prior to and
after nematode application, because they may be adversely
affected by high nitrogen content.
Some pesticides work well with nematodes when their mutual
exposure is limited while other pesticides may kill nematodes.
Check labels or specific fact sheets to find out. Some chemicals
to avoid are bendiocarb, chlorpyrifos, ethoprop, and isazophos.
Fungicides to avoid are anilazine, dimethyl benzyl, ammonium
chloride, fenarimol, and mercurous chloride. The herbicides,
2,4-D and trichlopyr and nematicide, fenamiphos, should be
avoided as well.
During hot weather release nematodes in the evening
or afternoon when
temperature is cooler. Release once or twice a year or until
infestation subsides. Nematodes are shipped in the infectious
larvae stage of their life cycle and can be stored in the
refrigerator for up to 4 weeks. Always release very early in the
morning or late in the late afternoon.
Why are these organisms
beneficial?
Beneficial nematodes
seek out and kill all stages of harmful
soil-dwelling insects. They can be used
to control a broad range of
soil-inhabiting insects and above-ground
insects in their soil-inhabiting stage
of life.
Parasitic nematodes are beneficial for eliminating pest insects.
First, they have such a wide host range that they can be used successfully on
numerous insect pests. The nematodes' nonspecific development, which does not
rely on specific host nutrients, allows them to infect a large number of insect
species.
Nematodes enter pest bugs while they are still alive,
then they multiply inside the bugs (which eventually
die) and finally burst out of the dead bodies. The
number of nematodes inside a single bug (depending on
the species) ranges from 5,000 to 10,000. Although you
can barely see one young nematode with your naked
eye, large groups of these tiny wigglers pouring out of
the dead insects are easy to see. Then the nematodes
wriggle off to find other insects to "invade," starting
the whole cycle all over again.
Second, nematodes kill their insect hosts within 48
hours. As mentioned earlier, this is due to enzymes produced by the Xenorhabdus
bacteria.
Also, the infective juveniles
can live for some time without nourishment as they search for a host.
Finally, there is no evidence that parasitic nematodes
or their symbiotic bacteria can develop in vertebrates. This makes nematode use
for insect pest control safe and environmentally friendly. The United States
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has ruled that nematodes are exempt from
registration because they occur naturally and require no genetic modification by
man. Beneficial nematodes can be an excellent tool in the lawn and garden to
control certain pest insects. They can be used with organic gardening and are
safe for kids and pets.
Description
What is a nematode?
Nematodes are microscopic, whitish to
transparent, unsegmented worms. They occupy almost
every conceivable habitat on earth, both aquatic and
terrestrial, and are among the most common
multicelled organisms. Nematodes are generally
wormlike and cylindrical in shape, often tapering at
the head and tail ends; they are sometimes called
roundworms or eelworms. There are thousands of kinds
of nematodes, each with their particular feeding
behavior -- for example, bacterial feeders, plant
feeders, animal parasites, and insect parasites, to
name a few.
Insect-Parasitic
Nematodes. Traditionally, soil-inhabiting
insect pests are managed by applying pesticides to
the soil or by using cultural practices, for
example, tillage and crop rotation. Biological
control can be another important way to manage
soil-inhabiting insect pests. A group of organisms
that shows promise as biological control agents for
soil pests are insect-parasitic nematodes. These
organisms, which belong to the families
Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae, have been
studied extensively as biological control agents for
soil-dwelling stages of insect pests. These
nematodes occur naturally in soil and possess a
durable, motile infective stage that can actively
seek out and infect a broad range of insects, but
they do not infect birds or mammals. Because of
these attributes, as well as their ease of mass
production and exemption from EPA registration, a
number of commercial enterprises produce these
nematodes as biological "insecticides."
How
to order Beneficial Nematodes:All nematodes are not the same. Buglogical nematodes are more tolerant of high tempertures than any other brands. It is best to order
biological control nematodes and
have them delivered directly to you
from a reliable source.. This helps
insure that the nematodes you are
buying are still alive. Nematodes do
not live very long in storage.
Therefore, buying nematodes that are
stocked on a store shelf is very
risky. | Beneficial
nematodes only attack soil dwelling insects and leave plants and
earthworms alone. The beneficial nematodes enters the larva via
mouth, anus or respiratory openings and starts to feed. This
causes specific bacteria to emerge from the intestinal tract of
the nematode. These spread inside the insect and multiply very
rapidly. The bacteria convert host tissue into products which
can easily be taken up by the nematodes. The soil dwelling
insect dies within a few days. Beneficial nematodes are a
totally safe biological control in pest insects. The Beneficial
nematodes are so safe the EPA has waived the registration
requirements for application.
NATURE'S BEST WAY OF KILLING Grubs and Japanese Beetles.
We ship Healthy Beneficial Nematodes to all 48 States. Visit our website: www.buglogical.com or call 520-298-4400 for more information.
Though they are harmless to humans, animals, plants, and
healthy earthworms, beneficial nematodes aggressively pursue
insects. The beneficial nematodes can be used to control a broad
range of soil inhabiting insects and above ground insects in
their soil inhabiting stage of life. More than 200 species of
pest insects from 100 insect families are susceptible to these
nematodes. When they sense the temperature and carbon dioxide
emissions of soil-borne insects, beneficial nematodes move
toward their prey and enter the pest through its body openings.
The nematodes carry an associated bacterium (Xenorhabdus
species) that kills insects fast within 48 hours. The bacteria
is harmless to humans and other organisms and cannot live freely
in nature. Several generations of nematodes may live and breed
within the dead insect, feeding on it as a food source. | no |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | yes_statement | "nematodes" can "infest" "humans".. "humans" can be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://theconversation.com/what-are-parasites-and-how-do-they-make-us-sick-121489 | What are parasites and how do they make us sick? | What are parasites and how do they make us sick?
Author
Senior Lecturer and clinical academic gastroenterologist, Western Sydney University
Disclosure statement
Vincent Ho does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.
Partners
Languages
A parasite is an organism that lives in or on an organism of another species.
Three main classes of parasites can cause disease in humans: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites. Protozoa and helminths largely affect the gut, while ectoparasites include lice and mites that can attach to or burrow into the skin, staying there for long periods of time.
The majority of protozoa and helminths tend to be non-pathogenic (meaning they don’t cause disease) or result in very mild illness. Some, however, can cause severe disease in humans.
Protozoa
The protozoa giardia, for example, has a classic two-stage life cycle. In the first stage, called trophozoite, the parasite swims around and consumes nutrients from the small bowel. In the second stage it develops into a non-moving cyst.
Cysts excreted in faeces can contaminate the water supply, and ingesting contaminated food or water results in transmission. Close human to human contact and unsanitary living conditions can promote transmission.
Symptoms of giardia can include severe or chronic diarrhoea, abdominal cramps, fatigue, weakness and weight loss.
Once the parasite has been diagnosed, it can usually be treated effectively.From shutterstock.com
Other important protozoa are the plasmodium species. Plasmodium develop in mosquitoes, and infected mosquitoes transmit the parasite to humans by biting them. Plasmodium destroys red blood cells which impacts organ function and causes a disease in humans known as malaria.
Malaria causes the most deaths of all parasitic diseases. In 2017 it was estimated malaria resulted in 435,000 deaths globally, most of them young children in sub-Saharan Africa.
Helminths
Helminths, often called worms, are large multicellular organisms usually visible to the naked eye in their adult stages. As a general rule, helminths cannot multiply inside the human body.
One major group of helminths are flatworms. Flatworms literally have flattened soft bodies. Their digestive cavity has only one opening for both the ingestion and removal of food. It’s thought 80% of flatworms are parasitic.
Tapeworms are one type of flatworm. The most common human tapeworm in Australia is the dwarf tapeworm. The prevalence of dwarf tapeworm in isolated communities in northwest Australia is estimated to be around 55%.
Infestation in humans comes from ingesting dwarf tapeworm eggs. Transmission from person to person occurs via the faecal-oral route. As with other parasites, the major risk factors are poor sanitation and shared living quarters. Symptoms include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, weight loss and weakness.
Some parasites, like plasmodium, which causes malaria, are transmitted to humans via mosquito bites.From shutterstock.com
Another major group of helminths are nematodes, commonly known as roundworms. Nematodes are the most numerous multicellular animals on earth and can be found in almost every environment. Unlike flatworms, they do have a digestive system that extends from the mouth to the anus.
The eggs or larvae of these nematodes usually develop in soil before being transmitted to the human host. For this reason these nematodes are often called soil-transmitted helminths. A good example are hookworms which infest humans by penetrating the skin from contaminated soil. So wearing appropriate footwear is an important way to prevent hookworm transmission.
The pinworm Enterobius vermicularis has a different life cycle to the other nematodes. Pinworm larvae develop in eggs on the skin near the anus or under the fingernails.
Pinworm, also known as threadworm, is the most common helminth parasite in Australia. Itching around the anus is a major symptom of pinworm. Pinworms are easily passed from one person to another and it’s common for entire families to be infested.
Ectoparasites
The term ectoparasites generally refers to organisms such as ticks, fleas, lice and mites that can attach or burrow into the skin and remain there for long periods of time.
Scabies, for example, a contagious skin disease marked by itching and small raised red spots, is caused by the human itch mite. Scabies usually is spread by direct, prolonged, skin-to-skin contact.
Head lice are small, wingless insects that live and breed in human hair and feed by sucking blood from the scalp.
Head lice, a type of ectoparasite, are common in children.From shutterstock.com
Prevention and treatment
Some parasites can lie dormant for extended periods of time. This can make the diagnosis of parasitic infestation challenging as there may be no symptoms, or symptoms can be vague and non-specific.
The good news is we have very good medications to treat many different kinds of parasites once they’ve been diagnosed. These medications do have side effects but on the whole are very effective. | Symptoms include diarrhoea, abdominal pain, weight loss and weakness.
Some parasites, like plasmodium, which causes malaria, are transmitted to humans via mosquito bites. From shutterstock.com
Another major group of helminths are nematodes, commonly known as roundworms. Nematodes are the most numerous multicellular animals on earth and can be found in almost every environment. Unlike flatworms, they do have a digestive system that extends from the mouth to the anus.
The eggs or larvae of these nematodes usually develop in soil before being transmitted to the human host. For this reason these nematodes are often called soil-transmitted helminths. A good example are hookworms which infest humans by penetrating the skin from contaminated soil. So wearing appropriate footwear is an important way to prevent hookworm transmission.
The pinworm Enterobius vermicularis has a different life cycle to the other nematodes. Pinworm larvae develop in eggs on the skin near the anus or under the fingernails.
Pinworm, also known as threadworm, is the most common helminth parasite in Australia. Itching around the anus is a major symptom of pinworm. Pinworms are easily passed from one person to another and it’s common for entire families to be infested.
Ectoparasites
The term ectoparasites generally refers to organisms such as ticks, fleas, lice and mites that can attach or burrow into the skin and remain there for long periods of time.
Scabies, for example, a contagious skin disease marked by itching and small raised red spots, is caused by the human itch mite. Scabies usually is spread by direct, prolonged, skin-to-skin contact.
Head lice are small, wingless insects that live and breed in human hair and feed by sucking blood from the scalp.
Head lice, a type of ectoparasite, are common in children. | yes |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | no_statement | "nematodes" cannot "infest" "humans".. "humans" cannot be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4145145/ | Recent advances in our knowledge of Australian anisakid nematodes | Share
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Graphical abstract
Highlights
A list of anisakids reported in Australia and their taxonomic status were provided.
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Still most species have not been adequately described in Australia.
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It is possible that prevalence of anisakidosis in Australia is under estimated.
Abstract
Anisakidosis is an emerging infection associated with a wide range of clinical syndromes in humans caused by members of the family Anisakidae. Anisakid nematodes have a cosmopolitan distribution and infect a wide range of invertebrates and vertebrates during their life cycles. Since the first report of these parasites in humans during the early 60s, anisakid nematodes have attracted considerable attention as emerging zoonotic parasites. Along with rapid development of various molecular techniques during last several decades, this has caused a significant change in the taxonomy and systematics of these parasites. However, there are still huge gaps in our knowledge on various aspects of the biology and ecology of anisakid nematodes in Australia. Although the use of advanced morphological and molecular techniques to study anisakids had a late start in Australia, great biodiversity was found and unique species were discovered. Here an updated list of members within the family and the current state of knowledge on Australian anisakids will be provided. Given that the employment of advanced techniques to study these important emerging zoonotic parasites in Australia is recent, further research is needed to understand the ecology and biology of these socio economically important parasites. After a recent human case of anisakidosis in Australia, such understanding is crucial if control and preventive strategies are to be established in this country.
1. Introduction
Members of the family Anisakidae infect animals of almost all phyla, and are particularly prevalent in fish and aquatic associated animals. In the northern hemisphere, interest in these organisms grew tremendously following the discovery that larval stage of Anisakis from the North Sea herring, Clupea harengus, are able to infect humans (Van Thiel et al., 1960). Since then there have been many studies carried out that increased awareness, improved diagnostic techniques and broadened our knowledge about various aspects of their biology and pathogenicity. Anisakid nematodes are regarded as economically important parasites that are recognised as emerging seafood borne parasites with unique characteristics. It is known that even one single dead anisakid larva in properly cooked seafood may cause serious disease in humans (Audicana et al., 2002); anisakid larvae do not die immediately after the host’s death, migrating instead from internal organs to the flesh of the host, where they are more likely to be transferred to the definitive host(s). Unlike many other common parasitic diseases of humans, anisakidosis is not a problem of developing countries only (Gorokhov et al., 1999; Smith, 1999; Lopez-Serrano et al., 2000; Chai et al., 2005; Kapral et al., 2009; Shamsi and Butcher, 2011) (Fig. 1). Hence, it is not surprising that a review of the literature found a sharp increase in the number of publications since the 1960s (Fig. 2). However, to date only 2% of these publications are about Australian anisakids. In the Northern Atlantic and Northern Pacific, the economic importance of the fishing industry has prompted research on the parasites of marine fauna and as a result, many aspects of the biology and ecology of these parasites have been studied, but the parasites of Australian marine animals are poorly known.
The history of studies of anisakids in Australia shows a controversial taxonomy. Australian anisakids are known mostly by the works of Johnston and Mawson in the 1940’s but since then there has been no review on importance of those findings and the current status of taxa reported by them. In some recent publications on Australian anisakids wrong taxonomy, old nomenclature and assignment of species to wrong families occur, possibly due to the lack of compact information on changes to the taxonomy and nomenclature of Australian species of anisakids. For example, a common confusion relates to the genus Hysterothylacium which was resurrected in 1981 to include those species previously considered as Thynnascaris and Contracaecum (Deardorff and Overstreet, 1981) and is now classified under family Raphidascarididae (Fagerholm, 1991; Nadler and Hudspeth, 2000) instead of Anisakidae. However, literature review shows there are still 47 publications worldwide, some from Australia, in which Thynnascaris has been reported from various hosts or studied, without referring to its significant morphological features in details. Therefore, one cannot draw conclusions about the host, geographical distribution and pathogenic aspects of the specimens reported in these articles. More importantly, Hysterothylacium is still reported as an anisakid nematode instead of raphidascarids in some publications. For decision makers in the seafood industry, health sectors and fisheries in several parts of the world, it makes a significant difference in how they deal with anisakids versus raphidascarids. Hysterothylacium larvae are very abundant in fish (Shamsi et al., 2013) but they are not as harmful as members of anisakid nematodes for human health. An article that states fish are infected with Hysterothylacium spp. and places them under anisakids can potentially lead to raising a false alert among decision makers who are not necessarily taxonomists at potentially tremendous cost to the Australian fishing industry.
This review presents the history of research on Australian anisakid nematodes, a list of taxa reported in Australia followed by their current taxonomic status, the current state of knowledge on life cycle and health impacts of Australian anisakids, and the questions these findings raise.
Many of these species are unidentifiable by current standards, with brief and sometimes unillustrated descriptions. Sometimes new species have been described based on a single specimen, such as is the case for Contracaecum gypsophocae (Johnston and Mawson, 1941c,e) or based on immature parasites such as Phocascaris hydrurgae (Johnston and Mawson, 1941c). Some of the nomenclature has not been used by other authors for 50 years, such as the case of Stomachus which had been used rather than Anisakis (Johnston and Mawson, 1953). For many of these species, such as Contracaecum bancrofti, C. clelandi, C. sinulabiatum and C. magnicollare, there was no information on the location of the type material in the original paper (Johnston and Mawson, 1941d). Later, a list of type specimens of animal parasites held in Australian institutions was published (Spratt, 1983). Subsequent re-examination of some of these materials by other authors showed that in some cases, hosts or parasites were misidentified. For example, specimens from the fishes, Stegostoma fasciatum (Hermann) and Orectolobus maculatus (Bonnaterre), recorded as Terranova galeocerdonis (Johnston and Mawson, 1951a) were later identified as Terranova ginglymostomae (Bruce and Cannon, 1990). Some of these species have only been reported from Australia, such as Contracaecum bancrofti, C. clelandi, C. eudyptes, C. eudyptulae, C. heardi, C. magnicollare, C. nycticoracis, C. podicipitis and C. sinulabiatum, and doubts have been raised concerning their validity (Hartwich, 1963, 1964b).
Some of the species, e.g., Anisakis simplex, Contracaecum osculatum and C. spiculigerum have been also reported from other parts of the world and their taxonomic status have been changed based on evidence provided by molecular studies. It is important to investigate the relationship between Australian taxa and con-species parasites from elsewhere and to know where Australian species stand based on new evidences. Therefore, since 2009, Shamsi et al. have employed a combined morphological (light and scanning electron microscopy) and molecular (based on the first and second ribosomal internal transcribed spacers (ITS-1 and ITS-2)) approach and have evaluated the taxonomic status of some anisakid species in Australia (Shamsi et al., 2008; Shamsi et al., 2009a,b; Shamsi et al., 2012). This was the first step toward clarifying the taxonomic status of Australian anisakids using advanced techniques.
3. List of anisakid nematodes reported in Australia and their current taxonomic status
Before providing a list of Australian anisakid nematodes it is worth mentioning that the systematics and classification of these parasites and the relationships of genera and species have been the subject of extensive debate (e.g., Gibson, 1983; Sprent, 1983). Until the early 21st century, the proposed classifications were based primarily on an analysis of morphological features of high systematic significance. The lack of sufficient numbers of such characteristics and subjective interpretations of them have also led to considerable controversy over the classification of the Ascaridoidea and position and validity of the family Anisakidae within Ascaridoidea (e.g., Mozgovoi, 1953; Hartwich, 1957, 1964b, 1974; Yamaguti, 1961; Gibson, 1983; Sprent, 1983Fagerholm, 1991). Since the early 21st century, various molecular approaches have been employed to investigate taxonomic and systematic questions, such as the characterisation of distinct species and detection of genetic variation among anisakid nematodes. Nadler and Hudspeth (2000) used mitochondrial gene cytochrome oxidase subunit 2, small- and large-subunit nuclear rDNA sequences and morphological data, to produce a phylogenetic hypothesis for representatives of the superfamily Ascaridoidea. Their results were consistent with Fagerholm’s 1991 classification of anisakid nematodes. Based on these works, currently Anisakis, Contracaecum, Ophidascaris, Paranisakiopsis, Peritrachelius, Phocascaris, Pseudanisakis, Pseudoterranova, Pulchrascaris, Raillietascaris, Sulcascaris, Terranova are genera to be considered within family Anisakidae. Based on this classification, below is a list of reported species from Australia.
Anisakis brevispiculata: This is a recent report from a dwarf whale from New South Wales (Shamsi et al., 2012). A. brevispiculata was first described by Dollfus (1966) as a new species but was later synonymised with A. physeteris (Davey, 1971). However, recent molecular analysis have shown that A. brevispiculata is a valid species, genetically distinct from A. physeteris (Mattiucci et al., 2001). No further information has been published regarding its morphological characterisation and the value of different morphological characters for specific identification. In Australia, A. brevispicualata was redescribed based on a male specimen and its morphological differentiation from closely related species was discussed (Shamsi et al., 2012). Alignment of ITS-1 and ITS-2 sequences of A. brevispiculata found in Australia with those from the northern hemisphere (Nadler et al., 2005) showed that A. brevispiculata in Australia is genetically distinct (Shamsi et al., 2012).
A. diomedeae: It was first described by Johnston and Mawson (1942b) from albatrosses. The validity of this species is doubtful mainly because the identification and assignment to a new species were based on examination of immature specimens. In addition, members of the genus Anisakis do not develop into adults in birds. It was also commented later by one of the authors that these specimens might belong to a new genus and they need to be studied further (Mawson, 1983).
A. kogiae: This species currently considered invalid. A. kogiae was first described by Johnston and Mawson (1939) from a pygmy sperm whale from South Australia and Queensland waters but later was synonymised with A. simplex by Davey (1971). For further details, see below, under A. simplex.
A. marina: (= Capsularia marina; Stomachus marinus) has been reported from various hosts across Australian coasts (Johnston and Mawson, 1944, 1945b, 1949). In these reports “marina” mostly refers to larval stage of the parasite. Therefore, A. marina is not considered a valid taxon but regarded as Anisakis larval type. Both Capsularia and Stomachus have later been synonymised with Anisakis.
A. oceanicus: This species was first described from a whale, Globicephalus melas, in Australia (Johnston and Mawson, 1951b) but later synonymised with A. physeteris (Davey, 1971). Shamsi et al. (2012) raised the possibility that A. oceanicus might be a valid species, however examination of additional specimens as well as the type specimen of A. oceanicus is required before any conclusion can be drawn.
A. similis (= Stomachus similis): This species has been first reported from marine mammals in New South Wales and South Australia (Johnston and Mawson, 1939, 1941c) and then later from Queensland (Cannon, 1977a). Both have been synonymised with A. simplex (Davey, 1971). For further details, see below, under A. simplex.
A. simplex sensu lato: Currently, based on genetic analysis it is believed that A. simplex comprises three genetically distinct species, including A. pegreffii, A. simplex sensu stricto and A. simplex C (Nascetti et al., 1983; Mattiucci et al., 1997). Until recently, these species were considered indistinguishable based solely on morphological characteristics. Mattiucci et al. (2013a) used ventriculus length, tail shape, tail length/total body length ratio, plectane 1 width/plectane 3 width ratio and left and right spicule length/total body length ratios to distinguish these three sibling species and named A. simplex C as Anisakis berlandi. In Australia, recently two members of the A. simplex sensu lato have been reported, A. pegreffii and A. simplex C (= A. berlandi) from marine mammals (Shamsi et al., 2012). However, due to lack of comparable data, it is not known which species those early reports of A. simplex sensu lato (e.g., those reported as A. similis or Stomachus similis) belong to.
A. typica: In Australia this species was first reported by Cannon (1977a) from the melon-headed whale, in Queensland waters. Larval stages were later identified based on the ITS-1 and ITS-2 sequence data (Jabbar et al., 2012) from various fish species in the same region. In Davey’s revision of Anisakis spp., A. typica was considered a valid species (Davey, 1971). Later, Mattiucci and Nascetti (2006) provided molecular evidence based on the multileucos enzyme electrophoresis and supported validity of the taxonomic status of the species.
Contracaecum bancrofti: This species was first established by Johnston and Mawson (1941b) from Australian pelicans from Queensland and New South Wales in Australia but later Hartwich (1964a) synonymised it with C. micropapillatum. Therefore, C. bancrofti was treated as a synonym of C. micropapillatum in the checklist of parasites of Australian birds by Mawson et al. (1986). Later, Shamsi et al. (2009b) examined more specimens and re-established C. bancrofti as a valid species based on the morphological and genetic evidence.
C. clelandi: This species was described from Australian pelicans in Perth (Johnston and Mawson, 1941b) and since then it has not been reported elsewhere. Johnston and Mawson’s description of C. clelandi is incomplete in several respects but is sufficient to permit the recognition of C. clelandi as a valid species. However, an examination of the type specimen deposited in South Australian Museum revealed that the type specimen is female (Shamsi et al., 2008).
C. eudyptulae: This is a well established species which was first described by Johnston and Mawson (1942d) from the little penguin from Western Australia, Victoria, Tasmania and New South Wales. Later, a redescription of the species and genetic characteristaion of internal transcribed spacers were provided for this taxon (Shamsi et al., 2009b).
C. gypsophocae:Johnston and Mawson (1941c) described it as a new species in the Tasmanian fur seal (Gypsophoca tasmanica) from Derwent Heads (Tasmania, Australia) but later re-examined the specimens and synonymised it with C. osculatum (Johnston and Mawson, 1945a).
C. (=Thynnascaris) incurvum: First reported from swordfish in New South Wales by Johnston and Mawson (1943a) but was later synonymised as Hysterothylacium incurvum (Deardorff and Overstreet, 1981) and therefore based on the currently accepted classification, it does not belong to the family Anisakidae.
C. (Thynnascaris) legendrei: This species has been reported from various species of fish such as tiger flathead from different locations in Australia (Johnston and Mawson, 1943a, 1944, 1951a). It was later synonymised with H. incurvum (Deardorff and Overstreet, 1981) and therefore, based on the currently accepted classification, it does not belong to the family Anisakidae.
C. macquariae: This species was first described as a new species from Macquarie perch from New South Wales (Johnston and Mawson, 1940b). However, the description of excretory pore and morphology of the tail suggest that it should belong to the genus Hysterothylacium (Deardorff and Overstreet, 1981) which is no longer considered a member of the family Anisakidae.
C. magnipapillatum:Fagerholm et al. (1996) re-examined and redescribed nematode parasites obtained from ulcerated nodules in the proventriculus of the piscivorous black noddy tern, Anous minutus, by Johnston and Mawson (1941b) and considered it a senior synonym of C. magnicollare.
C. microcephalum: This widely distributed species has been reported from several birds in Australia, e.g., domestic duck and silver gull (Johnston and Mawson, 1941b, 1953). Recently a description of the species and its genetic characterisation from Australian piscivorous birds were published (Shamsi et al., 2009b).
C. nycticoracis: It was described as a new species based on the presence of a single male with broken spicule from a heron in New South Wales (Johnston and Mawson, 1941e). The description of this species is very brief and the figures provided in the article do not show sufficient detail of taxonomically important features to differentiate it from other Contracaceum spp. Therefore the validity of C. nycticoracis is questionable.
C. ogmorhini sensu lato: A few years after the original description of C. ogmorhini, by Johnston and Mawson (1941c) from Australia, they synonymised it with C. osculatum (Johnston and Mawson, 1945a). It was also considered a synonym of C. osculatum by Hartwich (1975). Campana-Rouget and Paulian (1960) considered C. ogmorhini a valid species, Fagerholm and Gibson (1987) provided a redescription of the species and recent molecular studies based on allozyme and mtDNA data, have shown that C. ogmorhini is a species complex comprised at least two distinct genotypes which cannot be differentiated morphologically; C. ogmorhini sensu stricto and C. margolisi (Mattiucci et al., 2003) with distinct geographical distribution and host species. C. ogmorhini sensu stricto occurs in southern hemisphere while C. margolisi occurs in the northern hemisphere.
C. osculatum sensu lato: This species was reported from Australian seals (e.g., Johnston, 1937). Later it was shown C. osculatum comprises a number of sibling species that cannot be differentiated from one another morphologically, hence assigned as A to E and C. osculatum baicalensis (Nascetti et al., 1993; Orecchia et al., 1994; D’Amelio et al., 1995). Only C. osculatum D and E are found in southern hemisphere. Due to lack of comparable data it is not known earlier reports of the species in Australia belong to C. osculatum D or E.
C. podicipitis: Described as a new species by Johnston and Mawson (1949) from crested grebe in South Australia and its validity has not been criticized since then.
C. pyripapillatum: This species was described morphologically and characterised genetically by Shamsi et al. (2008) for the first time from Australian pelican. It is morphologically most similar to C. multipapillatum, occurring in the same host species/individual (Shamsi et al., 2008) but can be differentiated based on the morphology of pre-anal papillae.
C. radiatum: This anisakid nematode has been commonly reported from the Antarctic Ocean, together with C. osculatum from seals (e.g., Johnston and Mawson, 1945a).
C. rudolphii: In Australia, anisakids from various cormorants comply morphologically with the description of C. rudolphii sensu lato (Hartwich, 1964a,b). However, morphological examination of Australian specimens followed by characterisation of internal transcribed spacers showed that they could be divided into two groups; C. rudolphii D and C. rudolphii E. These observations suggested that C. rudolphii in Australia consists of two distinct species (Shamsi et al., 2009a). In the northern hemisphere, C. rudolphii, has been reported from the stomach of a number of species of pelicans and cormorants (Hartwich, 1964a) where existence of four sibling species within C. rudolphii sensu lato named C. rudolphii A, C. rudolphii B and C. rudolphii C and C. rudolphii F was revealed (Mattiucci et al., 2002; Li et al., 2005; Zhang et al., 2009; D’Amelio et al., 2012). C. rudolphii D and C. rudolphii E from Australia are different from C. rudolphii A, B, C and F reported from northern hemisphere.
C. sinulabiatum: First described as a new species by Johnston and Mawson (1941b) and reported from various birds in Queensland and South Australia. Since then there has been no further report of this parasite. The location of the type specimen was not known, therefore later Hartwich (1964a) expressed doubt over the validity of the species. Spratt (1983) published the list of type species and it was considered a valid species in the Mawson et al. (1986) checklist.
C. spiculigerum: This parasite was reported from various birds across Australia (e.g., Johnston and Mawson, 1941b). However, Hartwich (1964a) subsequently examined the types of C. spiculigerum and found that the type material of C. spiculigerum was C. microcephalum. Therefore, he referred to this taxon as C. spiculigerum sensu auctorum and created the new name C. rudolphii.
C. variegatum: In Australia, C. variegatum was first reported in Australian Pelican and darter (Shamsi et al., 2009b). The taxonomy of this species has seen several major changes mainly due to the type specimen being a female (Rudolphi, 1809) but Hartwich (1964a) redescribed the species. Specimens reported and characterised from Australia show slight difference to previous descriptions of the species (Hartwich, 1964a; Nagasawa et al., 1999). Similar differences were observed between C. variegatum from Scottish waters and the type specimen (Fagerholm et al., 1996) suggesting it is likely that C. variegatum with a worldwide distribution, does not represent a single species.
P. hydrurgae: The main criticism about P. hydrurgae is that it was established based on immature specimens by Johnston and Mawson (1941c). The taxonomic status of genera Contracaecum and Phocascaris, both of which have aquatic life cycles and homeothermic final hosts has been the subject of several debates. Hartwich (1974) distinguished them based on morphological characteristics, whereas, Berland (1963) considered species of Contracaecum occurring in seals as Phocascaris and those species maturing in birds remained in the genus Contracaecum which later was supported by (Mattiucci et al., 2008). Since there is no strong evidence for a close relationship between these morphological features and the evolutionary lineages for Contracaecum and Phocascaris, the taxonomic status of these genera remains unclear (D’Amelio, 2003; Nadler et al., 2000).
Porrocaecum kogiae: It was described as a new species pygmy sperm whale in South Australia and Queensland (Johnston and Mawson, 1939). Members of Porrocaecum were later placed under genus Terranova.
Pseudoterranova piscicum:Mawson (1953) reported this species from various seals in Macquarie Island as Terranova piscicum. Later, those members of the genus Terranova that developed into adults in marine mammals were placed into genus Pseudoterranova (Gibson and Colin, 1982). Since then there have been several studies on Pseudoterranova spp. using advanced molecular approaches and some newly established species, such as P. decipiens D and E were reported from Antarctic waters. However the relationship with and/or differentiation from P. piscicum has not been discussed.
Raillietascaris varani: It was first described as Ophidascaris varani by Johnston and Mawson (1947b) based on a single male from Varanus varius in Queensland and subsequently was placed into the new genus, Raillietascaris by Sprent (1985).
Stomachus similis: This currently invalid taxon, has been reported from various seals in Australia (Mawson, 1953). See A. simplex for more details.
T. ginglymostomae: It was reported and redescribed from various sharks in Queensland (Bruce and Cannon, 1990).
T. piscicum: see Pseudoterranova piscicum.
T. pristis: Reported from elasmobranches in Queensland water by Bruce and Cannon (1990) who redescribed the species.
A summary of the current taxonomic status of the above mentioned taxa is provided in Table 1.
Table 1
Summary of the current taxonomic status of the anisakid nematodes reported in Australia. For full report see Section 3. Those taxa previously placed in the family Anisakidae and now in other families are not listed.
4. Life cycle of Australian anisakid nematodes
The common life cycle pattern for all genera and species within the family Anisakidae according to (Anderson, 2000) is as follows: eggs pass out in the faeces of the definitive host and enter the water where they embryonate into first stage larvae within the egg (L1). They then develop further and moult to the second stage (L2). Eggs or larvae can be ingested by first intermediate hosts (crustaceans, usually copepods) and then grow in their haemocoel. When infected copepods are eaten by second intermediate hosts, larvae reach the third larval stage (L3). A great variety of teleost fishes can play a role as paratenic hosts. Piscivorous fishes may accumulate enormous numbers of larvae due to preying upon infected small fishes. Larvae in small fishes can infect piscivorous fish without moulting. This general life history pattern is variable and there are differences in the type of intermediate/definitive hosts among different genera and species of anisakids. Adults of Anisakis spp., also known as “whaleworms”, are parasites of the stomach of pinnipeds, such as elephant seals, fur seals, grey seals, leopard seals, monk seals, ringed seals, sea lions and walrus as well as cetaceans such as dolphins, narwhals, porpoises and whales (Baker, 1992; Ugland et al., 2004). Marine crustaceans, such as euphausiids, are their first invertebrate intermediate hosts. For Contracaecum spp. various species of piscivorous birds and mammals associated with freshwater, brackish and marine environments (such as cormorants, pelicans and seals) are definitive hosts (Kloser et al., 1992) and a broad range of invertebrates, including coelenterates, ctenophores, gastropods, cephalopods, polychaetes, copepods, mysids, amphipods, euphasiids, decapods, echinoderms and chaetognaths can act as first intermediate hosts (Semenova, 1979), although their roles in the natural transmission of the larvae to fish intermediate hosts is not completely clear. Life cycles of the other genera within the family Anisakidae have not been studied as extensively. Species of reptiles and elasmobranches could act as the definitive hosts for other genera, such as Terranova and Ophidascaris.
In Australia, our knowledge on the life cycle of various anisakid nematodes is poor mainly because larval stage of anisakids cannot be identified to species based solely on morphological characteristics. Several taxonomically important features, such as spicules, papillae and lips are absent in larval stages. Hence, many aspects of their biology and ecology remain unknown.
Larval stages of anisakid nematodes in Australia were mainly studied by (Cannon, 1977c) who reported, described and illustrated several distinct larval types from marine fishes in south-eastern Queensland including Anisakis Type I, Terranova Types I and II, and Contracaecum Types I and II . He also described Hysterothylacium (=Thynnascaris) Types I, II, III and IV larvae which now are placed under Raphidascarididae. He also reported and described fourth stage larval ascaridoids found in bivalves, Pinna menkei, from Moreton Bay, in Spondylus ducalis and Amusium balloti from the Bundaberg region as well as a gastropod, Cypraea tigris, in Queensland (Cannon, 1978) which he found to be consistent with description of larvae found in pearl oysters, reported previously (Shipley and Hornell, 1906). In his study on the parasites of Queensland marine fishes in Australia, Cannon (1977b) suggested that Anisakis is essentially pelagic and has been found in the adult stage in the predators of nektons.
Since, Cannon, there have been few reports of larval anisakids from fishes in Australian waters. Some authors followed Cannon’s description to differentiate anisakid larvae occurring in Australian waters at least to different types (Hooper, 1983; Lymbery et al., 2002), whereas others simply placed them into different genera (Doupe et al., 2003).
One of the outcomes of employing molecular techniques to study Australian anisakids was the specific identification of anisakid larvae from a range of hosts, therefore clarifying part of the life cycle. Since larval stages of anisakid nematodes cannot be identified specifically using morphological characters, ITS-1 and ITS-2 sequences of larval stages of anisakid nematodes were compared with ITS-1 and ITS-2 sequences from well described adult stages, which allowed unequivocal identification of anisakid larvae to species (Shamsi et al., 2011b, 2012). Therefore, it was shown that Anisakis larval type I in Australia comprises at least three known species, including A. pegreffii, A. simplex C (= A. berlandi) and A. typica (Shamsi, 2007). It was also shown that Contracaecum larval type I, found in mullet, Mugil cephalus, and hardyheads (Atherinidae), were distinct from one another and comprised at least two distinct genotypes. Contracaecum larval type I from mullet was matched with adult C. multipapillatum and Contracaecum larval type I from hardyheads (Atherinidae) was matched with adult C. pyripapillatum (Shamsi et al., 2011b). By contrast, Contracaecum larval type II, found in two different host species including mackerel, Scomber australasicus, and king fish, Seriola lalandi, had identical ITS-1 and ITS-2 sequences to adult C. ogmorhini sensu stricto (Shamsi et al., 2011b). Finally, Contracaecum larval type III found in flathead, Platycephalus laevigatus, had identical ITS-1 and ITS-2 sequences as adults of C. rudolphii D (Shamsi et al., 2011b). This partly clarified the life cycle of these species. However, larval characteristics, intermediate hosts and life cycle patterns of other anisakids in Australia remain unclear. Twelve different morphotypes of Hysterothylacium larvae were described and genetically characterised from Australian waters (Shamsi et al., 2013) however they are now placed in the family Raphidascarididae and their details will not be discussed here.
5. Public health significance of anisakid nematodes in Australia
Despite the popularity of consuming seafood in Australia as well as the multicultural environment of the country in which different cuisines use raw or undercooked sea foods, there has been (to date) only one report of human anisakidosis acquired in Australia (Shamsi and Butcher, 2011) and two cases were diagnosed in Australia but acquired abroad (unpublished data). The Australian case of anisakidosis was due to Contracaecum larval type. The patient’s symptoms, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, sore throat, rhinorrhoea, nasal congestion and cough lasted about 3 weeks until a larva was passed in a bowel motion. As human infestations occur after eating infested seafood, and the patient had history of eating South Australian mackerel, it is implied that the mackerel eaten by the patient was infected.
The Australian case of Anisakidosis was unusual for two reasons. Firstly, infection of humans with Contracaecum type larva, as occurred in Australia is very rare. Most cases of anisakidosis around the world are due to Anisakis (Fumarola et al., 2009; Mattiucci et al., 2013b) or Pseudoterranova larval types (Arizono et al., 2011). Secondly, in most cases the anisakid larvae penetrate patient’s gastro-intestinal wall. The transient form of the anisakidosis in which larvae pass the alimentary tract and leave it alive, as it happened in Australia, have rarely been reported (Smith, 1999).
In Australia, larval and adult stages of various species of anisakids infest a broad variety of fish, including mackerels (Shamsi et al., 2011a). However, there has been only one human case of anisakidosis in the country. Given that the popularity of consuming raw or undercooked fish (e.g., sushi and sashimi) is increasing, it is possible that anisakidosis is under diagnosed in Australia due to the vague symptoms and limited diagnostic tests, which raises the question as to the extent of hidden cases of anisakidosis in this country. It is important to design and implement strategies to prevent anisakidosis in Australia. Educational campaigns would also be useful to inform the public and medical professionals/practitioners.
6. Significance of anisakid nematodes on Australian wildlife health
It has been shown that anisakid nematodes are relatively prevalent in Australian marine fish (Cannon, 1977c; Shamsi et al., 2011a; Doupe et al., 2003). There is no report on the impact of anisakids on the health of Australian fishes. It is noteworthy that infection of fish with anisakid nematodes is of importance not only because of anisakidosis in humans, but also because of the effect they have on the infected fish. Anisakid larvae, particularly when located in the musculature, can affect the commercial value of fish and thus result in significant economic losses to the fishing industry (Smith and Wootten, 1975; Angot and Brasseur, 1995). Moreover, anisakids can cause disease in fish. The symptoms and severity of disease can vary considerably depending on factors such as the species of fish, species and intensity of infecting parasite in the fish and the particular organ invaded (Woo, 1995). In brief, disease is most severe when the anisakid larvae infect the liver. Fibrosis of the liver can lead to atrophy of this organ and a significant loss in body weight. Other symptoms can also be granulomata, inflammation and necrosis of the muscularis externa of the pyloric caeca, gallbladder, intestine and body cavity, which can cause substantial mortality in fish (Woo, 1995).
It seems that these parasites may not be host specific at the larval stages which means a wide range of fish species can act as their intermediate or paratenic host. It has been shown that larval anisakids can pass through several fish species via predation and can be accumulated in larger fishes (Jensen, 1997). Hence, fishes of different species can play an important role in the distribution of anisakids in the environment. Different species of fish can be the source of infestation in humans as well as a wide range of marine mammals and piscivorous birds (Shamsi et al., 2011b).
There is controversy about the effect and pathogenicity of anisakid nematodes on marine mammals and piscivorous birds. Whilst some authors believe that infections with anisakid nematodes are not serious in marine mammal hosts (Geraci and St Aubin, 1987), others have stated that anisakids can be quite harmful in the alimentary tract of marine mammals (Stroud and Roffe, 1979; McColl and Obendorf, 1982; Jefferies et al., 1990; Abollo et al., 1998). Anisakids have also been reported from terrestrial mammals, such as dogs and pigs, which are fed fish harbouring anisakid larvae (Usui et al., 1973) with pathological changes resembling those found in marine mammal final hosts but differing in some aspects, for example in fewer macroscopic granulomata in pigs.
In other countries, there are numerous reports of infection of piscivorous birds with anisakid nematodes (e.g., Torres et al., 2005), describing their pathogenicity in different species of birds. Some authors considered large numbers of nematodes in the stomachs of pelecaniform birds as a benefit for the host, assisting in the digestion of food (Owre, 1962). By contrast, other authors reported immature Contracaecum nematodes attached tightly to ulcers in the proventriculus of white pelicans, causing an extensive inflammatory reaction with necrotic debris (Liu and Edward, 1971). In Australia the only study to investigate the impact of anisakids on marine mammals and piscivorous birds is by Norman (2005) who did not find a direct impact on animal health due to infection with anisakids.
In Australia anisakid nematodes have also been reported in reptiles (Glazebrook and Campbell, 1990). Anisakis spp. type I in pen-reared green turtles, Chelonia mydas caused haemorrhagic ulcers in the lower stomach and upper intestine (Glazebrook and Campbell, 1990). Ulceration of the gastric and intestinal mucosa, as well as visceral adhesions, have also been reported in farmed turtles in northern Australia (due to the migration of larval Anisakis from the lumen of the gut to the pleuro-peritoneal cavity) (Glazebrook and Campbell, 1990).
7. Conclusion
Despite considerable past achievements, there are still huge gaps in our knowledge about many aspects of the biology and ecology of these important parasites and huge potential remains for future work. In Australia, it is evident that there is a broad range of anisakid nematodes, infecting a broad variety of invertebrate and vertebrate hosts, however, most species have not yet been adequately described. There is a need to employ tools such as electron microscopy and molecular approaches for a reliable and accurate specific identification and differentiation of species, particularly those that have only been reported from Australia. In spite of a significant increase in the body of the literature on the biology and life cycle of anisakids, many aspects of their developmental stages and life cycle still remain unknown. For example, the part of the life cycle which occurs in crustaceans is not known. In addition, the specific identity of the larval stages of most species has not been determined. Therefore, the host-specificity of these parasites in different developmental stages, their life history patterns and geographical distributions remain unclear.
Acknowledgements
The author is especially grateful to her PhD supervisor Professor Ian Beveridge form the University of Melbourne for his continuous support and advice through her research on Australian anisakids. The author is a co-author in some publications cited in this article. The author has no conflict of interest regarding materials in this article.
Fagerholm H.P., Overstreet R.M., Humphrey-Smith I. Contracaecum magnipapillatum (Nematoda, Ascaridoidea): resurrection and pathogenic effect of a common parasite from the proventriculus of Anous minutus from the Great Barrier Reef, with a note on C. variegatum. Helminthologia. 1996;33:195–207.[Google Scholar]
Shipley A.E., Hornell J. The parasites of the pearl oyster. In: Herdman W.A., editor. Report to the Government of Ceylon on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. Part II. The Royal Society; London: 1906. pp. 77–106+plates. [Google Scholar] | It seems that these parasites may not be host specific at the larval stages which means a wide range of fish species can act as their intermediate or paratenic host. It has been shown that larval anisakids can pass through several fish species via predation and can be accumulated in larger fishes (Jensen, 1997). Hence, fishes of different species can play an important role in the distribution of anisakids in the environment. Different species of fish can be the source of infestation in humans as well as a wide range of marine mammals and piscivorous birds (Shamsi et al., 2011b).
There is controversy about the effect and pathogenicity of anisakid nematodes on marine mammals and piscivorous birds. Whilst some authors believe that infections with anisakid nematodes are not serious in marine mammal hosts (Geraci and St Aubin, 1987), others have stated that anisakids can be quite harmful in the alimentary tract of marine mammals (Stroud and Roffe, 1979; McColl and Obendorf, 1982; Jefferies et al., 1990; Abollo et al., 1998). Anisakids have also been reported from terrestrial mammals, such as dogs and pigs, which are fed fish harbouring anisakid larvae (Usui et al., 1973) with pathological changes resembling those found in marine mammal final hosts but differing in some aspects, for example in fewer macroscopic granulomata in pigs.
In other countries, there are numerous reports of infection of piscivorous birds with anisakid nematodes (e.g., Torres et al., 2005), describing their pathogenicity in different species of birds. | yes |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | no_statement | "nematodes" cannot "infest" "humans".. "humans" cannot be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://shop.e-nema.de/en/nemastar/1503010 | nemastar® - control leatherjackets, cutworms and mole crickets ... | The nematodes penetrate the pests or their larvae and secrete a bacterium that kills them. Inside the pests, the nematodes multiply and infest further pests. This process is repeated until the nematodes find no further hosts or all pests are killed. The SC nematodes specialize in mole crickets, cutworms and leatherjacket larvae, among others, and are completely harmless to humans and pets.
Advantages of nemastar®
100% biological
Lasting effect
No formation of resistance
No microplastic
High effectiveness
Nematodes directly from the manufacturer
Harmless for humans and pets
Video: How to use nematodes correctly
Control mole crickets, leatherjacket larvae and cutworms biologically
nemastar® contains nematodes of the species Steinernema carpocapsae. These are specialized, among other things, in the control of mole crickets, cutworms (larvae of butterfly owls) and leatherjacket larvae and are completely harmless to humans and animals. nemastar® is dissolved in water according to the package instructions and poured onto the infested plants. The nematodes then actively go in search of the pests and control them biologically and sustainably.
How do nematodes work?
Nematodes are threadworms about 0.5 mm long, of which there are over 20,000 different species worldwide. The species Steinernema carpocapsae specializes in controlling leatherjacket larvae, cutworms and mole crickets and is particularly effective. The nematodes penetrate the pests, where they secrete a bacterium with which they live in symbiosis. The bacterium kills the pest and the nematodes multiply inside it until it is consumed. The nematodes then move on to infest the next pest. This process repeats until all pests are controlled. This results in a lasting pest control.
About e-nema
We have been producing various nematode species on an industrial scale for over 25 years. We rely on the highest production standards and qualified employees from over 16 countries. What started in 1997 as a spin-off from the University of Kiel has now developed into a globally recognized medium-sized company with over 70 employees. E-nema stands for innovation and expertise in the field of nematode research and production. Our products are used in countries all over the world in a wide range of applications. From the professional mushroom grower to the passionate hobby gardener. | The nematodes penetrate the pests or their larvae and secrete a bacterium that kills them. Inside the pests, the nematodes multiply and infest further pests. This process is repeated until the nematodes find no further hosts or all pests are killed. The SC nematodes specialize in mole crickets, cutworms and leatherjacket larvae, among others, and are completely harmless to humans and pets.
Advantages of nemastar®
100% biological
Lasting effect
No formation of resistance
No microplastic
High effectiveness
Nematodes directly from the manufacturer
Harmless for humans and pets
Video: How to use nematodes correctly
Control mole crickets, leatherjacket larvae and cutworms biologically
nemastar® contains nematodes of the species Steinernema carpocapsae. These are specialized, among other things, in the control of mole crickets, cutworms (larvae of butterfly owls) and leatherjacket larvae and are completely harmless to humans and animals. nemastar® is dissolved in water according to the package instructions and poured onto the infested plants. The nematodes then actively go in search of the pests and control them biologically and sustainably.
How do nematodes work?
Nematodes are threadworms about 0.5 mm long, of which there are over 20,000 different species worldwide. The species Steinernema carpocapsae specializes in controlling leatherjacket larvae, cutworms and mole crickets and is particularly effective. The nematodes penetrate the pests, where they secrete a bacterium with which they live in symbiosis. The bacterium kills the pest and the nematodes multiply inside it until it is consumed. The nematodes then move on to infest the next pest. This process repeats until all pests are controlled. This results in a lasting pest control.
About e-nema
We have been producing various nematode species on an industrial scale for over 25 years. | no |
Nematology | Can nematodes infest humans? | no_statement | "nematodes" cannot "infest" "humans".. "humans" cannot be "infested" by "nematodes". | https://www.allaboutworms.com/thin-clear-worm-like-organisms-infest-this-readers-clothing-in-oklahoma | Thin, Clear Worm-like Organisms Infest This Reader's Clothing in ... | EXCITING UPDATE! A regular All About Worms reader named Heidi has, after extensive research, discovered both what are these parasites that look like hair that are infecting humans (or at least infecting her), and a cure to eradicate them! Read the write-up of the information that she shared with us here.
“I really hope you can help us” pleads this reader in Oklahoma, who is concerned about the “long, very thin, clear worm things” she has been finding in her clothes. “I don’t think that they are parasitic, but they are seriously horrible.” Upon moving in to a new place, our reader discovered these organisms on her clothing. After drying her clothes, the spots in which the worms were found were still damp. “I have tried everything I could think of to get them out of our clothes, but nothing has helped,” she reports. At this point, all of her clothes are infested, and she is looking for help from us.
Typically, the type of pests people find on their clothing are clothes moth larvae and carpet beetle larvae, but neither of these two organisms look like the ones our reader found. Contrarily, they are an ovate shape, and either white (in the case of the clothes moth larvae) or brown/black (carpet beetle larvae). The hair-think worms people typically find are horsehair worms, but these creatures are usually black in color and do not infest clothing.
With all of that said, other readers have reported finding similar organisms on their own clothing. One commenter suggested that these are nematodes (a parasitic roundworm otherwise known as a pinworm or threadworm). Of course, since we are not medical professionals, this is not an identification we can confirm or deny. However, we still still relay the information they provided, as it is a very interesting case. In a link she sent from an Amazon review she penned, we can see a “video of similar hair-like worms infesting clothing” in an Amazon package.
She suggests that the infestation she experienced began, and was perpetuated, by the clothes packages she ordered from Amazon. Other comments seem to suggest a similar connection, and they are all justifiably upset that these creatures seem to be coming from the same source. The reader who wrote the Amazon review said that her local county extension office identified them as horsehair worms, which was not correct. Likewise, doctors diagnosed her, and her daughter, with delusional parasitosis – a condition that leaves the sufferer believing they have parasites when they do not. Yet when she tested with a medical parasitologist, she came back positive with nematodes, confirming her suspicion.
On top of that, when she looked them up herself, she identified them as Filarial worms: dangerous, microscopic, parasitic worms which humans can contract from mosquitoes, and which can lead to Lymphatic filariasis. Most people who contract Lymphatic filariasis will never experience symptoms, but a small percentage can develop lymphedema, which is when an excess amount of fluid gathers in certain parts of the body, causing extreme swelling: this usually happens in the legs.
What we recommend that our reader do is consult a medical parasitologist to find out for herself what these creatures might be. She is free to relay the above story to her physician, so as to give them an idea as to what it could possibly be. To find a medical parasitologist, our reader can do one or more of the following:
1) Search for a medical parasitologist in their area using this directory of medical parasitology consultants: https://www.astmh.org/for-astmh-members/clinical-consultants-directory.
2) Search for a local parasitologist by doing a Google search for “medical parasitologist (name of the closest big city)” or “tropical medicine specialist (name of the closest big city)”.
3) Get in touch with Dr. Omar Amin at the Parasitology Center at https://www.parasitetesting.com.
Additionally, we recommend that she launders all of the infested clothing, and that she vacuum/steam clean any other infested items (such as rugs or carpets), so as to eliminate the free-roaming worms. She might need to repeat this a few times a week for a couple of weeks to completely eradicate them. Normally we do not recommend killing worms, but as these are potentially threatening to her health, it is best to protect one’s own safety, even at the expense of these worms.
In conclusion, we are not able to provide a concrete identification of these organisms, given the possibility that they are nematodes and we are not medical professionals. We urge her to consult a medical professional to get help from a medical professional. We hope that the information and advice in this article proves helpful to our reader, and we wish her the best.
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"I really hope you can help us" pleads this reader in Oklahoma, who is concerned about the "long, very thin, clear worm things" she has been finding in her clothes. "I don't think that they are parasitic, but they are seriously horrible." Upon moving in to a new place, our reader discovered these organisms on her clothing. After drying her clothes, the spots in which the worms were found were still damp. "I have tried everything I could think of to get them out of our clothes, but nothing has helped," she reports. At this point, all of her clothes are infested, and she is looking for help from us.
EXCITING UPDATE! A regular All About Worms reader named Heidi has, after extensive research, discovered both what are these parasites that look like hair that are infecting humans (or at least infecting her), and a cure to eradicate them! Read the write-up of the information that she shared with us here.
Frustrated I took measures into .my own hands ordered above meds from online. I purchased a Refurbished kirby Vacuum on FB marketplace…nothing cleans carpet like a Kirby. Sprayed the carpet with Bifenthrin 7.9(Amazon) mixed with Peppermint oil and took hot baths in Epsom Salt with Peppermint and Tea tree….Covered body from bead to toe with Virgin Coconut Oil
Instant relief after 3 days…..Day 9 and I’ve been mostly trouble fre since. I have not gotten rid of any clothing yet.
If anyone wants particulars on how to go about the above…email me email hidden; JavaScript is required.
Here’s what I found that really seems to help and I hope it helps someone find some peace. Use borasol mc with a sprayer, they really don’t like it and you can spray the house walls ceiling with it and just let it dry. You need to follow the safety rules when you put it down like goggles and open the window for some air. Spray it and leave for a few hours and that’s it for that product. I also used gentrol igr here and there just to get it into their environment you don’t have to put a lot. It’s taken me 5 years and many pest control people to get to this place. My wife is asthmatic but none of these seem to bother her. So once again…
Gentrol igr or gentrol complete with igr, borasol mc with a sprayer especially the toilet and I sprayed the whole floor with it too. You will notice the ear ringing will mostly stop stop unless they are close and then you can really start to pinpoint their location. I know it’s not perfect advice but I hope it helps.
My body is itching and breaking out so bad since I left southeast ar and moved into an apt where I believe is infested but Im not getting better with ivermectin and itching pills and pyrethrim creme and have sprayed my furniture and mattresses not sleeping in beds now in recliner and couch. 72 alone and just want to go be with my departed family members.
idk,whats goin on w these things…ok,but,its def real..im just worried that if enough time goes past that the concentration of these things in your body,will def be deadly,i know my girl has alot of them..and they are in her mouth and sinus so,they have to be goin into the brain,no??she does not want to go to the hospital..so,because of the way doctors look at you,they think your on drugs or crazy,and they dont treat you for it anyway,they wanna give you some bs….its fucked up..so we did extensive research ,like MIT research.of course right??like find out what it is right???so..yea its def. a hemotobe but,not hook,not pin,IT IS exactly what the lady found in her house,what this orig.article is all about,so,what options do you have?right?if ivermectin doesnt work and that is the treatment for parasites..then that is a big problem…and the doctors are no help…so what to do ??right.we all might need to pull our resouces together..and figure this out ,before were all dead
Dude I’m in Houston Texas and I’m finding these bastards in this house. In the carpet. In the counters where spare bedrooms and bathrooms have not been used to touched in forever. These things are alive and def not something commonly known.
At first people will say it’s just hair because they are too impossibly small and thin to believe it’s alive. But if you study them they are definitely alive and active. They will other finely threaded materials or actual hair and weave themselves amongst them.
They will even blend in with your own hair on your head. I remember thinking where the Fck could all this hair possibly be coming from. No one has lived in this spare room for over two years.
This is def a thing and it’s not cool. Freaky as hell. You can tell on some which end is which and I’ve pinched one between my fingers and watched the head actively track my fingers and go for one as soon as it was close enough. Like aggressively! Makes me wonder what was taking place when it latched on to my finger…and yes they will latch on to shit
Wow. Its finally become endemic. I slso jzve been dealing with this for about 6 years now. There is a connection to pesticides for gmo’s, shopping at Amazon, bio warfare and mold from all the research i have done.
After looking through the comments I just came here to say my husband and I went through the same thing. The whole works. I’ve been down every rabbit hole including things that aren’t mentioned here. I’ve suspected every pest imaginable and people did totally think I was insane until I finally caught a really good video of what I was talking about. We tried everything under the sun, natural and medical rememedies, pesticides, you name it. Ivermectin, other parasite treatments, antibiotics, enzymes, diatomaceous earth, essential oils, permethrin, bug bombs, apple cider vinegar, coconut oil, neem, steam cleaning everything with a professional grade steamer, hydrogen peroxide, bleach, Lysol, ammonia, (not at the same time lol), changing our diet, supplements, seeing doctors, calling in exterminators, bought brand new mattresses with encasements, threw out half of our belongings, but in the end NOTHING was resolved. I’m no longer dealing with this but I think I’ve come to the conclusion on what our issue was anyway. I highly, highly, urge anyone dealing with this to make sure your home doesn’t have a source of mold that you may not be aware of. It’s unbelievably frustrating when everyone thinks you’re insane, and you start getting in that dark place. Nothing like that has ever happened to me before but I’ll never forget it. Even if you think you don’t have mold, do a thorough inspection, and if you have connected floors/walls with neighbors, see if you can figure out if they do. Not only can mold cause so many skin/body/mind issues mimicking a variety of parasites, it also is very attractive to many different kinds of mites, bugs, etc. Mold mites being an obvious one. “Mold growing on any surface in the home will release additional spores. Ultimately, that will then travel and spread to other areas of the house. With mold traveling through the air, it can get into heating ducts, people’s skin, clothing, shoes, shopping bags, and even on the fur of a family pet.”
It turned out all of our efforts were useless because the inside of our walls were completely infested with mold and our place had to be condemned. On the outside it mostly looked ok, but it wasn’t. At all. Even if you only have a moisture problem but no mold yet, GET A DEHUMIDIFIER, dry everything out. Save yourself a potentially massive headache. Once we were out of there it took awhile STILL for our symptoms to subside and to stop finding stuff in our hair and skin but eventually it did in fact subside. Depending on how long you’ve been exposed, your mold sickness can take awhile to recover from. I’m not saying this is the case for everyone. I also found Ticks in my hair. I originally thought I had lice until I realized I must’ve walked into a tick nest, or we actually also had wood ticks living in our home. Morgellans was originally thought to be a delusional diagnosis, but new research has shown for some very sane individuals that there is in fact a link to Lyme Disease and the others that can co exist with it. Having to do with the bacteria that gets into your bloodstream. I strongly suggest looking into either of those things before you drive yourself into a darker depression or state of hopelessness. We got rid of almost everything we owned, got a new place and started fresh. With the exception of a couple old bags of closed. We eventually stopped having problems but not that long ago I opened up one of those bags looking for an old tshirt and felt the unmistakable sting of what feels like a bit but isn’t, and the little threads of hairlike things attached in there. It made my skin flair up for the rest of the day and I ended up throwing that out. No problems since though. Even if you don’t see anything obvious like water marks, white spots, black spots, or anything damp, it’s worth inspecting insulation, fixtures, etc to see if there is even a small leak or some source of moisture that’s causing an issue. Mold sickness is actually no joke and I’m so, so, so, relieved to be away from one of the worst 2 years of my life. And it certainly didn’t involve getting on an antipsychotic. You’re not alone, but please consider looking into your surroundings. Mold attracts the mites, the roaches, and all sorts of things. Leading you to jump from one conclusion to the other. If it’s not in your walls or something else, make sure you don’t own something. Make sure there isn’t some cardboard or paper that’s molded somewhere. Check your window sills. Your air units. Make sure you don’t have a cross contamination in your water system. Like a hose or some other inlet that’s submerged in water. Checked underneath your carpeting. Floor boards. It’s no wonder those damn carpet beetles love it too. Of course it’ll feel like it’s following you until you’ve identified the real source. But almost everything else, including the parasitic symptoms, the mites, while they can be very real, are probably being drawn in by something you may or may not be aware of. Just a few mold sickness symptoms include: skin irritation, skin infection, rashes, itchy red eyes, runny stuffy nose, post nasal drip, headache, dizziness, asthmatic symptoms, brain fog, anxiety, poor memory, body pains, weight gain or weight loss, numbness or tingling in the extremities, metallic taste in mouth, digestive issues, ringing in the ears, significant fatigue, changes in mood, excessive thirst/dehydration(even bedwetting in children), or can even give you symptoms that resemble hormone imbalances like hair loss.
If this helps even one person that would make me so happy. Good luck everyone!
Thanks Ken. Mold is definitely a catalyst and – everything eats something!! My daughter was identified on blood smear as carrying dividing cryptococcus (pigeon poop disease) from the pci tests. I won’t even get started on my home – built in the early 1900s. The mold is there. The parasites have adapted over the past 118 years. We live on swamp landfill right outside of the original union stockyards, smack dab in the heart of Chicago. There are fleas in the supposedly championed water. In a major city. We’re right in between Flint, MI and Mississipi. Water crises everywhere around us. Mold though ultimately feeds all the nasties. Making it the nastiest of pathogens. It will make sure you don’t get better. Raccoon, opossum, coyote and rats are abundant in this urban area. Qualified specialists are rare. The enzoonoses and mold are quite plentiful though. Sigh. It’s all related.
Also, isn’t one of the first things you learn as a kid about medicines is that – penicillin is in fact derived from mold. Fun fact. Mold will kill you and could potentially save you. Everything in moderation, I suppose!
Omg you saved my life and SANITY. Geeeeezzzz i never felt disrespected as i have been by doctors : diagnosis: need of a psychiatrist bahahahahah yea right. EVERY SINGLE SYMPTOM. You named at the end including “tinnitus” i have….. IM MOVING OUT. No way to wash the clothes proper??
Paule, I know what you mean about the doctors! I can’t believe the treatment I received. As soon as the first doc put “delusional” on my chart, it was all over. No medical professionals gave me a second look (or first look really) after my diagnosis list was poisoned with that. I went in to an ER with “ear and nose pain “ , I knew there was something alive in there, I could feel it chewing on me! Although I didn’t word it like that to anyone. It was also swollen, red, and fully plugged (ears and nose), and all had become asymmetrical and lumpy looking. I ALSO had a phone video of a black bug/worm crawling into my ear. The doc came in , looked in each ear and nose for about 3 seconds each, and said “good news, there are no worms”. When I asked him to watch the video, (2 minutes long), as soon as I hit play he said “fast forward to the part with a worm” (no idea why he settled on “worm” all the time). After about 5 seconds of video, he ran out of patience and started walking towards the door and said “good news, there is no worm” again. The doctor and nurses were so rude to me, everywhere I went. , I was shocked how no one even listened to anything I said. Ever. Since I was just “delusional “ to them, my feelings didn’t matter. I did not deserve to be listened to. I was not given even a moment of respect. If I ever became agitated about the way I was being treated, that just further confirmed to them that I was just a mental health problem. The put security on me, they came at me like “calm down -just sit down-calm down-just sit down”, ignoring any questions or concerns I spoke. It felt more like jail than a ER. It made me feel really bad for people with actual mental health problems. After that happened a few times, at different places, (because my chart listing “delusional” followed me where ever I went “), and I received basically the same treatment, my husband and I were just in shock. We thought , they are essentially denying me care, and calling me delusional instead of trying to see if anything was actually wrong with me. Every time! But no one would ever believe anything I said or did because now my chart had delusions written in it 3 times in a row. I looked at my online “my chart” and read some of the comments and notes the nurses and docs wrote about me. It was infuriating. Every single thing they added to the chart was meant to back up their claim of a mental health problem. For example, one nurse wrote in my chart: (“patient upset because “no one will look at the worms in my arm”. Spent time calming the patient and informed security”.) WHAT!?!? She put that statement in quotes in the chart as if I was in the ER screaming about “WORMS! WORMS!” the whole time. And at no time did she, or did she have to, calm me down. I’m more agitated right now, remembering this experience than I was in the ER that day. All of it is just so frustrating, and angering, and annoying, and SO concerning that I will never actually receive any real attention for any medical problem I ever have again. That first doc who was lazy and didn’t feel like looking into anything that day ( as in, doing her job) has totally condemned me to never be respected or listened to by any healthcare professional again. She was a urgent care doc, who spent probably less that ten minutes with me, and then had the audacity to assess that I was delusional? She was not a psychiatrist, she did not spend anywhere near enough time with me to make an informed assessment about my mental health like that. So in 10 minutes I’m labeled and screwed over for the rest of my life. Especially because I am a RN, I worked 8 years in a emergency department. Unfortunately, I’m currently between jobs as I have been doing COVID crisis stuff in NY, FL, and TX for the last 3 years. Now I needed to take time off to deal with my parasite (or whatever!?!) problem. Most places I have been seen don’t even believe I’m a nurse either. I’m sorry this has gotten so long. I’m still dealing with this problem, and not sure how it’s going to get fixed. I’m hoping an appointment with a infectious disease specialist next week will have some kind of answer. Thanks for your time reading this. It is a real shame that this can happen in our healthcare system. If anyone has any questions or information , feel free to email me anytime! -Leah email hidden; JavaScript is required
Dauer stage nictating nematodes. Thank you Bree. This explains a lot! Especially in the presence of yeast. You all are not crazy. This phenomenom is well described, however unlikely for typical doctors to recognize. Keep up the good fight.
I’m loosing my mind and my family thinks I’m nuts I been to the doctor and treated like I was nuts the things I thought I had I thought scabies but I was standing in the bathroom looking at looking for bugs in my hair and I felt like I had been stung and I looked didn’t see anything at first but it I scratched it and I seen a little hole and I would feel this on my toe or foot scabies can’t jump on you and I see reading here about the mold I have seen it in my house and I’m thinking it makes sense but I’m the only one affected by this I think it’s because I stay at home my husband travels and is home on weekends my son works 12 hour shifts and the mold is on the opposite side of the house my family thinks I’m crazy and that I am suffering from some medical condition I see the little strings on clothes and I have sores in my head and my right arm I’m so tired of no sleep I have a doctor appointment in a few days and I will take this information and hope everything goes good otherwise I might have to go to the nut house to get away and heal unless they have mold
Experiencing what looks to be and described to be the exact same thing as in the article. Evident, personally encountered, in two different locations of the Illawarra in NSW Australia, one location more heavily impacted than the other.
I came to that same conclusion! I thought it some kind of new mite related to spider mites. I’ve found alcohol helps with whatever they are and wouldn’t you know that’s what you’re suppose to use on spider mites. BUT have you seen the flying stage? Because that makes me think it’s not related… But I know while recording some moving threads / hairs I definitely saw little bugs zipping around the air around it.. I can’t usually see them with the naked eye but I can see them on video camera. What they said about the nematode I also thought that was a strong possibility and wouldn’t you know my legs are swollen completely with fluids literally leaking fluid. Hope I don’t end up with elephantitis. All I know is I’m definitely dealing with the same thing they show pictured above and my legs are swollen just like they’re saying could be a symptom of the nematode.
I agree I think it’s something new. I’ve been studying these things as well. It’s worrisome because they easily get in your nose, mouth, ears and amongst the hair on your head. This is the part where we lose people unfortunately but I absolutely think without a doubt that they are able to travel through the human body.
I have dealt with the same thing. I did have a roundworm or hookworm infection. I was prescribed Ivemectrim and it went away. Y’all these are highly contagious. I slept with an ex (who I was with during the infection) after I had cleared it up and it came right back. And I’m telling you I have pulled these out of sores on my body: completely entangles WITH AND IN MY SKIN AND FLESH. I’m obviously no doctor and cannot give you any medical advice but they do sell that at horse and farm supply stores because it is a Cadd dewormer like I said you’re not supposed to use it for those reasons I’m just saying that if you cannot access which you need to you’ll just do about anything and I understand. There is a spray also that you can dilute and spray all over couch anything like that you need to wash everything as soon as you take that anti-parasitic what you’ll need to do is wash everything spray everything down. I have videos of these moving up close for some reason it really did not like my saliva or whatever is in my saliva it opposed it quite aggressively. If you want to see the video or pictures or anything if you have any questions just shoot me an email I’m glad I’m not alone email hidden; JavaScript is required
Wow so I read each one and here in Kentucky I’m going on 24 months same clear sticky wet ones and sol8d elite with tips that are not normal black ones from under my skin and not my hair they are not I to have had them get all over my face I’ve shaved it 2 times in 4 days they are ruining me my clothes they grow in I’ve paid so much to oils to fish tank stuff to put on my body to garlic pls email hidden; JavaScript is required if any one knows email me
Seem to be experiencing somewhat of the same issues in a sense, although they are not in my clothing per say, I’ve seen them on my clothes but mine are in my head. I have been to many drs and I’m going insane. Seven years and no help. I am at my wits end everyone thinks I’m nuts and I feel like I am the only sane person around. What the hell is wrong with these people. I have more than just the clear ones .I have pics of some crazy stuff and videos that would blow your mind. I only know that it changes or morphs Andy don’t know what to do I stay sick a lot and extremely tired and I cannot think straight and my nerves are on high velocity. I’m afraid and alone with no one I’m homeless and can’t hold a job I feel as though I am dying and I cannot do anything and no one will help. I wish God would go ahead and take me I’m so exhausted and mentally shattered everyday I start over trying to find someone to help or listen but I think I will just lay down and let things go how they will I’m so sad and I don’t understand why people are so cruel and insistent on not believing what I know that they have seen . It is utterly disturbingto know that I have not one person in this entire world that cares for me and it took a freaking parasite to find the truth. I get mocked and made fun of cursed out and treated like a piece of crap and I am tired of crying and wishing and thinking maybe they will try to help or understand. They don’t won’t and never will whatever is happening to me is horrible and it has destroyed my life and will eventually take it as well ,I believe . I never imagined the end of my days being so alone and alone and for what, because I am plagued with some unknown parasite to the drs in the US. It is a shame and uncivilized and I am not crazy or delusional I want someone to tell me what these delusions that I have in pics in jars and videos of are and if they are delusions. , how did they manifest into reality physical , seeable,smellable touchable things if a researcher wants some excellent images then I believe that I have something for them
Are you still dealing with this issue? My boyfriend and I recently became infected and have crazy videos too. He’s a little bit more messed up over all of this but I’m starting to freak out myself. Please don’t give up. You can email me at email hidden; JavaScript is required if you want to talk
hi, i havent read all the comments here but your situation does sound like mongellons. i say this without seeing any photos. although it finally has been recognized by the medical people not all doctor the reality of it hence, they point you to the behavioral dept. I found out the dr. that stood out and announced that it is real and can be treated is located in long beach or garden grove, calif? it was years ago just google it. him and his wife, both from india, run their office together. their are other doctors im sure who follow his lead.
good luck, you are sane and its very real.
kew
In a spray bottle put hot water, dawn and salt. That kills them. Hemp lotion draws them out of the body and soaking in salt water as well. I’d like to try an even more concentrated form of thc, because I feel it’ll work better. I’ve tried everything from bleach, motor oil, neems oil, pesticides and anything else I could think of. Tons of videos to make sure I’m not going crazy. They are resilient and mold into ceramic tile, plastic, and whatever else isn’t metal. They seen to have different cycles where they either look like hair, yellow specks, white lint balls and there’s a liquid under my skin that I feel that’s where they live and breed.
So I feel like I have some answers, but have yet to find a solution. For me, I am an IV Heroin addict, and have had plenty of sober time, and have noticed in most cases there are worms that are so small they fit 30 inside a strand of 1 inch hair. They grow from microscopic to about 4 inches. They attract some sort of arachnid mite, which also has a web and lays eggs in a sticky secrete. So usually most people have both parasites and a web. The tiny hair that sticks to anything is usually the web, and the nematode also lives inside that. So it seems super unlikely and unreal, but I have been dealing with them for years. They do embed in almost everything, but they love paint, concrete, cardboard and sheetrock. I have super weird theories of how cardboard from China is related to this curse. The way to know if yours are real are after collecting and zooming in on your phones like all of us do, put them on a isolated undisturbed piece of concrete and spit on them. Come back a month later and the concrete will be diveted. They literally will eat the concrete or their eggs or their dead bodies are highly acidic and eat the concrete. Once that is established I make a pill and an oil that works at getting them gone. Also cleaning with ammonia and baking soda works at killing them. Baking soda direct on the skin works at pulling them out and then shaving removes them and kills them. I hate this shit with a passion but don’t really struggle as long as I routinely apply a concoction weekly. Contact me if you have questions or have a good video. My name is Ryan and I probably can help if your dealing with the shit described in this post. email hidden; JavaScript is required
omg i am dealing with exactly the same thing. i have also lost everything, i am
homeless from basically abandoning my house because I believed it was coming from the old house. i moved into a two month sub lease – a brand new extremely clean condo – after two weeks symptoms not getting better, I literally destroyed everything in the home, the little white hairs embedded them self in the wood tables, covered the carpets and continued to eat my clothing ( i can seriously touch an item for a minute or less and 24 hours later the seams are all chewed apart and all the threading is coming undone. it looks like small creamy like white worms in the seams or all my clothing ( they don’t seem
to be picky regarding materials). My eyelashes are now completely full of hard white bristles and i now pluck every hair out. my hairline has receded about 4 inches because i’m of these white/ clear hairs ( but not hair) growing at an extremely fast pace. I literally pluck it out and it reappears within seconds. My whole body is now covered in this type of hair, i am constantly shaving every inch of my body just to have them re appear within the hour. When i pull
the hair out of my shower drain it is covered in some sort of clear thick serum like liquid. I wash my clothes in the hottest water with bleach, vinegar pesticides tea tree oil , then dry and repeat again then place all clothing jn air right bags for weeks before attempting to wear again, for the
most part they are still covered with these active little fuckers. I shake my clothes and a crazy amount of dust goes into the air. Also anything i touch I can see the little pieces of hairs on it- especially plastic bags which will often shrivel up. I have also
been plagued as crazy, my whole family thinks i’m nuts i’ve been to the ER and was immediately given a psych evaluations. I was being asked who the president was, what year it was etc, they had no interest jn looking at my photos. i have lost almost all my hair, my face is full of scabs from plucking out these fuckers, i feel like a leper and have no idea what to do.I have tons of photos and videos ( videos of my hair moving , the seams of my clothing torn apart etc ) also when i zoom in on them
I see like translucent clear dots. When at my original home where this started I rented a rug doctor to clean my carpets- when i poured out the water it was like
carbonated and ‘popping’, i took a video and you could just see these clear glow in the dark looking dots . When i had my place fumigated I showed the pest person the videos and he said- i definitely see what you mean but I have no idea what it is.
I have gone broke throwing away clothes and buying new ones for me and my daughter, throwing away and buying new bedding ( like weekly) towels , cleaning supplies laundry detergent socks creams oils and serums . If anyone has any tips or questions like to chaat email me at; email hidden; JavaScript is required
Ditto to everything you said. My boyfriend keeps yelling at me to stop plucking out my hair. I can’t help it. It’s just like you said. My legs are also swollen now with clear liquid coming out of wounds that appear out of nowhere. Whatever is leaking out of my legs leaves a white / yellow residue streak down to my ankle. I just know that it’s related to these “hairs”.
Dani, as we’ve mentioned elsewhere, we have recently added a new provider on our resources page who we believe will absolutely take you seriously and help you; please look at our resources page and see “Lighthouse Complex Care”, they are a medical clinic that specializes in things like this. We are not affiliated with Lighthouse, and we receive no compensation or anything else from them, we just have been impressed with how caring and effective they are. Here is our resource page if you want to check them out: https://www.allaboutworms.com/get-medical-attention-and-tests-for-parasite
Hi! I’ve been dealing with the same issue!! I am driving my husband nuts trying to figure it out. I think I may be on to something but was wondering if anyone seeing them uses plant based products? I was using a plant based dryer sheet and once I switched, they’ve started to go away. I have also noticed cold water kills them, not hot? Also, does anyone see clusters of them around the house by baseboards or furniture? They look like dust bunnies but not.
Same issues NC… I’ve lost everything. Went from being a proud business owner to everyone thinking I’m off my rocker to CPS taking my daughter bc she was having symptoms and I took her to the doc. It seems as though nobody wants to see the reality. But yet so many ppl are struggling with this mess
. I’ve taken thousands of microscopic pics. It’s very clear that something is there. And that im not crazy…well all the way. Yet. . It’s even in my blood. All my hair on my head tangled up so bad I had to cut it all off. It’s insane. I believe it’s in the water. I also believe maybe it’s schistomiasis this is just from the research I have done compared to my microscope pics. It’s a freaking nightmare man. It’s been over a year. I’m broke. I’m alone. And I’m worried sick about my family. And honestly I’m blown away by the ignorance of the medical community I’ve dealt with. It’s sad..
Best wishes to all. But I’ve had it. I will get to the bottom of this mess If it kills me.
Nc here too and same. Everyone thinks I’m losing It or on drugs or both. I’ve damn near gotten my hair out of the knots. Been working on that two years next month. I don’t seem to have them under my skin. At least not anymore. Thought I had something under my skin last Summer that seems to have cleared up not sure what I did. Everyone thought I was going bald scratching up my head and wouldn’t believe me when I told them I was just trying to get my hair to come undone. It wound up so tight and wave itself to my head to have my hair didn’t grow for a year that’s what made me notice it was my hair too. I don’t know if this will help anyone or if this is the norm but condition shampoo then lightly condition and also my hair was going in a clockwise circle at the back of my head once I got that started I’ve been able to get my hair to let go granted it has been a very tedious and time-consuming task. Other than that I have no information but this s*** really does suck I can see how it’s driving everyone insane and the lack of belief is boggling
My daughter and I both are having the same problem. My husband does too but claims he doesn’t and just thinks we’re nuts. I lost my job as a LPN 2 weeks ago over this.. n told I need to get a psychiatrist! These hair worms are anything from small silky worms to long strands of hair all lengths all colors. They somehow integrate with our own hairs n bite our scalp n it’s painful n annoying. We have to sleep with the lights on bcuz it freaks me out so bad. Showers terrify me. My daughter was having issues n after several trips to doctor we figured out on our own that it was worms. I thought pin worms so we both took pin-x. Her problem got worse n I STARTED having problems…worms in the toilet n inside my pants. Then we determined we had hookworms. The doctor prescribed an antiparasitic. 2 weeks later I’m fighting “hair worms”. We haven’t talked to doctor about it yet bc we know how they’re gonna look at us. I seen where someone said take some to the county extension office so were gonna try that n see what they say they are n go from there. We have started wondering if it’s correlated to covid. I’ve never tested positive but was pretty certain I had it. My daughter had it twice n got very ill both times. The 1st time it was stomach sick. She vomitted daily for several months. I don’t go ANYWHERE but my daughter says everywhere she goes has these hair worms but when she tries to tell people they just think she’s crazy. We’ve wondered if maybe the chemtrails are putting them out there or maybe the masks? Just ideas as this seems to be a new problem that even doctors don’t wanna recognize. I have figured out that camphor blocks that I make a spray out of they don’t like. I spray it on everything daily sometimes several times n I don’t see near as many but if I back off on the cleaning ( vacuuming n bleach mopping numerous times a day) then they get out of hand. I’m probably going to wind up divorced over this.
Someone email me please. IVE LOST EVERYTHING OVER THIS. I’ve even contemplated hurting myself (not an issue right now, don’t be a snitch). I just can’t do it anymore. I lost my daughter because of it. Almost losing my home. I can’t work, sleep, nothing. Please help. email hidden; JavaScript is required
I live in Oklahoma and have had these hair like pests for years. In my house they are a big joke and we laugh it off . I call them squirms. Everyone rolls their eyes when we have any range of ailments and I immediately accuse these squirms. We have tiny white/ clear hair in our hair. I have had actual worm-like boogers that moves. There is not a portion of my body that is not affected. I have many many photos and videos to back me up. I believe they could be waterborne or possibly a parasite of a parasite. I first noticed them after my children caught lice, and we had a bed bug infestation AND roaches and mice. If I’m delusional it’s for good reason who wouldn’t be traumatized. Thankfully I moved and they tore down my old apartments. Still have squirms . I have literally had all these symptoms
I think they are the cause of possible learning difficulties in my kids as well as minor behavioral hiccups. I am afraid they are beyond the blood brain barrier and soon my smallest child who was born with a bad heart will fall over and seize out. I take a shower and they all come to the surface . I get rashes especially near my feet that is the itchiest thing I ever experienced. I saw a worm in my kids butt. She was wiggling after a bath so I made her let me look . It was long enough to stick out and dance it’s head around bout 1/2 inch and still be inside. I told Drs and they looked at me like I was stupid . They didn’t do any tests they told to get otc pin worm meds. Iknow these squirms will plague me until the day I die. I’m too afraid they’ll try to take my kids and call me crazy and call Me a tweaker if I stress the issue. Oh maybe it’s worth mentioning I had just 1.jusr got a new cat 2. Gotten my nails done professionally. I am a very candid person . Please email me email hidden; JavaScript is required
The worm in the photo at the beginning of this discussion has plagued me as well. I have never seen them on my body, or coming out of my body. I do have a roundworm infection, so I am intimately aware of the harm that can occur from a parasitic worm. My belief is that these clear, thin worms come into our homes on dryer sheets, like “Bounce” sheets. They probably exist in the factory, and inadvertently get into the fibers of the dryer sheet. Then they are freed by the heat and tumbling of the dryer. They are amazingly resilient. I have kept some in a jar for months, and they still move independently. Perhaps they are formed from the fibers of a cocoon. I have watched a worm create its own cocoon from a liquid it was spitting from its mouth. At least, I think it was its mouth. I don’t know what is used to create these dryer sheets, but it is not inconceivable that they could be made, in part, from natural fibers that are created by a worm, or from a crop that is often infected by a particular pest. After all, China has made vast fortunes by making fabric from silk worm cocoons. I no longer use dryer sheets in with my clothing, and the problem has greatly diminished. But my husband still uses them. So, I do find the worm fibers occasionally. They take a back seat to the worms that have infected my body and make each day a terrible struggle. God bless you, all who wrestle with worm problems, and are misunderstood by the medical and scientific communities. We are the mavericks in a new age of disease. Keep fighting! Our grandchildren and great grandchildren will thank us. PS: Dr Amin, who is listed as a source of help, died some years ago. The other doctor in North Carolina, is still practicing. Only one man to serve a nation full of suffering people. If we lived in India, we would have been cured by now.
Hello Kim, can you please share what leads you to believe that Dr. Amin has passed away? According to his colleague at the Parasite Institute, and Dr. Amin’s own Facebook account, he is still very much alive.
I have the same issue. Went to 6 different Dr’s. Lost half of my hair itching constantly finding these things all over everything I touch. My husband is not bothered by them? Anyway started in May 2021…finally in October went to Ohio State University. Dermatologist treated me with ivermectin, steroids,2 kinds of rx shampoo,1500 MG of antibiotics a day for 4 weeks. I’m a diehard Democrat…dont believe in the QANON crap…or 5g in vaccine….BUT!!! I do believe I started to get this 2 weeks after my moderna vaccine…(THIS IS STRICTLY MY OPINION). Had 8 types of Blood work done…Blood work came back as subcutaneous lupus, parasitic infection.NEVER HAD LUPUS…NOT IN MY DNA OR GENETICS.
I am not on my 3rd round of ivermectin and 4th round of steroids. Hair is still falling out…clothing still has thin thread like worms…still itching . But it’s probably 50% better. Also I’m a neat freak…and when this started to happen I through away EVERY BIT OF FABRIC….CLOTHING, RUGS,TOWELS,CURTAINS,BEDDING.
If anyone knows what this is please help us.
Email me info please. email hidden; JavaScript is required
Idk if this thread is still active but I’m almost positive this is carpet beetles!? I know google says the hairs can mess with you and all this and make you feel as if crawling on skin all the time and biting feeling, etc. but I just found out that straw itch mites are actually parasites if almost all other insects especially beetles and they’re known for being in furniture alongside a carpet Beetle nest and carpets with them and anywhere else the beetles might be at! And this makes a lot more sense about everything! I always thought and said there is some other critter working with these carpet beetles cuz I’ve never even found a live larvae on me, my clothes, or my dogs or bed or anything for that matter! Just found em in the edges of carpet and maybe a old cast in the corner of a room near the ceiling or something so it doesn’t make sense that it is just their hairs in the environment, not at all…! Anyways these mites sole purpose is to wait for an insect like a carpet beetle to come by (especially larvae) and they hop on and instantly lay eggs and start feeding on the fluids of the insect (carpet beetle), then it only takes no more than one day (24hrs literally!!!) for the eggs to hatch and those will run off to the beetle infestation site (nest) and do the same over and over again. This would explain why even after we vacuum over and over and even after we spray and sprinkle DE , etc. they just don’t fully go away! Mites are extremely hard to get rid of. Also they are microscopic so we can’t see them and this also makes perfect sense. Also mites use fibers and hairs and lint to make their nests so this could explain the fibers and why they move too!? I’m thinking it’s cuz the mite(s) is on the fiber but we can’t see it so it’s moving the fiber around and so forth. I really think I’ve finally made a breakthrough. The one thing is to do a very thorough sweep of your houses, check air ducts, pet food, old grain or pasta supplies, pet beds, under baseboards and at edges of carpet, hell even underneath the carpet if your like me and really don’t care at this point and will just re do the carpet if it means finding th source of the issue lol ?…but once we find the source of the infestation whether it’s bed bugs or carpet beetles or some other beetle, etc. then we can wipe out that main source where the eggs are hatching from and eradicate them then it’s easy to get rid of the mites. But you want to make sure you get rid of any insects in the house cuz the mites will potentially use any available insects for a host and food. By eliminating their food they too will die off in a couple of weeks. I got away from this 2 years ago by moving and starting off fresh and it now makes sense why the symptoms still lasted for about 2 months after I moved cuz the Mites and some of their eggs were most likely still in my dogs bed, my clothes, etc. and just had to wait for the very last ones to die for it to finally go away. But I literally just left and moved to a hotel to another hotel then finally to a long term lodging situation where it subsided and didn’t start back up again until I moved into a home my family just bought and after 2 months of being here it started again and I just found several larvae casts and caught 3 adult beetles in my carpet. I hope this helps and also check for mold cuz mold can cause try else same symptoms even if it’s just a little bit in the vents and air ducts over time it can do this too. And carpet beetles love mold too. Hoping this is the culprit. Good luck!
P.s. exterminators seem to not even think of this even though it pops up on google when you look up straw itch mites and explains the lifestyle /cycle they go about and says it all. I’m pretty sure this is it guys!
Has anyone figured out how to treat this issue yet or been able to have a pest company come spray for infestation if so what time you tell the pest control company you had or any idea what pesticides they used! Also what can I use on my dog to help her because I know that if I have all the same systems that each of you are explaining then she also has to be feeling it
I am so glad to have stumbled upon this website. I have EXACTLY the same problems. NOONE believes me either. It’s tough because of the physical issues and trying to hide your fears because your family thinks you are loony toons. I am going to a new dermatologist soon but will research spider mites further. I’ve read every cdc parasite page written. Pretty baseline not very helpful for me. Thanks guys, please keep posting.
I have exact same thing happening here outside of Toledo OH. Clear thin hair like worms that are poking holes through all of my clothes and furniture and carpets destroying everything leaving long strands of thread like material in its wake. I even have them on video moving through things even planting store bags. Most recently it ripped a hole in my bedroom pillow about 6 inches long. Every day I put clean clothes on and I can feel them moving through the fabric. 3 nights ago I was stung or bitten on my fingers during the evening with nothing in plain veiw. I had 3 tiny holes on my finger and my hand arm swelled up and my knuckles turned black. It looked almost as a spider bite But there was no spider around. I was tempted to go to the hospital but was worried about wat they may think of the truth. Some leave white hair like strands with little tiny black tips.. Even my cats are confused. They are so scared and jumpy any more always looking and hearing the noise they make. My one cat is scared to walk around the house any more. We can always see them chasing something but can never see anything. I can barely see them at a quick glimpse as like a tiny shadow or as maybe a nat flying in your Peripheral . I don’t know this stuff is very confusing and I don’t know what to do about it or how to handle it so I’ve been taking a torch lighter and lighting all the fabric and a quick pass by and these things disintegrate but they just keep coming ….help!
My family is experiencing the same and have been diagnosed with scabies, and then with pinworms. My daughter’s diaper was brought into the hospital and the doctor confirmed that they were pinworms and asked it be sent to a lab just to be told the results were negative for parasites. Complete disappointment because I felt I knew we wouldn’t have closure. It’s been months and doctor won’t take the time to listen, especially with covid taking precedence and main focus. I have other family members taking albenzadole and still have it. I’m using Dr Bronners Tea Tree Soap and also apple cidar vinegar concoction and it seems to piss them off and kinda keep them at bay…..sometimes. aloe vera is also helping, but I have to keep changing it up. I feel fatigue and like I have hair in the back of my throat constantly. I’m sick to stomach half the time to even eat as they seem to be in everything. I’m beside myself and so tired. I’m tired of talking about this and people thinking I’m crazy. There’s something going on and people are just ignoring it….scared and anxious.
Hi Its Bree.
Little good new but just beauty. My water came back with nematodes as did the stool sample that was sent to PCI in Arizona. Both were in larval stage so can’t be identified. But I don’t know how small a roundworm is but I don’t think that its the only thing Iam dealing with because like so many other stories on here this thing is smaller than a strand of hair. And clear. I can’t get a good enough pic but sometimes the thing is stuck to a strand of my own hair. I believe they can get in the strands. Just my thought. I looked at my hair strands under magnification and they have stuff all over them. I had some sent to a lab just to get a report back no parasite. Thats no what I was looking for I wanted a analisis of the hair strand its self. A breakdown of what that strand was made of. Didn’t get it. Somebody out there has a answer. I believe that. Good luck to you all. Just remember your not alone. I know just as much as the next person how lonely and depressing this is . I have not left my trailer hardley in 3 years in fear of spreading this and another human being going thru the hell that I am currently going thru. So positive for nematode in gut and water test. But those tiny clear worms definitely could be a round worm of sorts I believe or is it a different type altogether . I don’t know. I wish I had a answer. But I have not stop searching. And to Sam the gentleman who reached out to me , my phone got broke I had no way to retrieve your number if your out there contact me again. I do apologize. Life shows up no matter what we are already going through. God bless all.
My wife and I have been going through this since February. First it was just regular white worms from something else then it morphed into two or more different types. In February it changed to clear worms. It took awhile to figure it out after being told we were crazy and they couldn’t find any parasite. Well maybe it’s not the regular type of parasite I’ve told 5 different doctors!! My poor wife has scars all over her body bc unfortunately, the idea of a worm in her skin freaked her out so she would pick. And that makes it worse, especially to doctors because if they don’t know what it is, they say it’s on your head. I had them coming out of my nose in my upper lip, my fingers my scalp. Then my ferrets got it from us handling them or they’re food before we knew what was going on. We think we got it from a few different ways, I let a kid stay here that had worms in his foot unbeknownst to us, then we had a 100-year-old pipe crack in the two story house we live in and my landlord didn’t know for almost a week and a half. Although insulation on the heating ductwork got soggy wet and he never changed it. My downstairs neighbor cranks her heat and is a hoarder. She has the worms that look like paint dot with a tail. But won’t admit it. Once those clear worms infest it’s so hard to get rid of them we’re still dealing with it now I had them in my hair also. And I wear contacts so I ended up with them in my eyes I definitely have some pretty cool pictures but for some reason doctors don’t seem to care. But I’ve been out of work a year I’ve had to take my ferets to the vet a few times for different issues and I feel so bad for them because it gets caught in there fur. We’ve spent thousands on vet bills and cleaning products I’m financially broke and mentally broken as well. They have gotten into the water line and screwed everything up. Good luck with everything. I’m thinking about buying the test they offer on here from health labs. And call someone that deals aquariums.. I already went the exterminator route.
I have FIGURED IT OUT! Okay, so the clear/white “worm things” are in fact spider mite strands. The reason that I can’t seem to get rid of them is because the strands have eggs, larvae, and instars. They float and move all on their own. Spider mites are a nuisance, but not parasitic to us humans. The big problem I have is not spider mites, it is the bird/rodent mites that live naturally in my garage. They ARE parasitic to mammals…..trust me….THEY ARE HORRIBLE! They are also VERY difficult to get rid of. What I suggest is that you contact a few exterminators in your area. The first question you should ask is how do they kill “Nictating” (yes it is spelled correctly) C. Elegans(also spelled correctly) if they have no idea what you’re talking about, go on to the next one…by the way, that really is a thing, Google it! My email is email hidden; JavaScript is required if you have any questions or concerns please feel free to contact me. Good luck!
I have the same exact thing going on. they are coming out of my ears scalp nose everywhere.I wash my clothes with every detergent/sanitizing agent/vinegar/etc, theyll be off the clothes but in a minute im covered again. I have moved two times and thrown away my clothes and furniture but they dont go away. my poor dog is miserable. he is so confused and squeels, he started doing this thing where he cna smell them now and barks randomly at things. I Clean 3-4 x a day. I cant even get my work done, cause im too busy cleaning or inspecting my clothes etc.I was told i have morgellons. but this is not something fibrous coming out of my skin. its a worm. 100 percent. they burrow into the skin and hatch and break into a milliion pieces. they float in the air . they literally blend into whatever surface they are on, and they also have this white sticky paint drop looking phase, and I have to use a hard brush and bleach to get them off. I know this cause my carpet will suddenly have these white paint spills (super tiny drops) but ill get em off and then somewhere else another one appears. ON the walls and ceiling , random black smudge like lines and dots .
When I shower , i see little black tangled knots coming off my body and trying to fight the water down the drain. and If i look close , as im rinsing myself in the water, i see all these little white crystals or hairs . my body has debris that is not natural!! I lost all my hair. I would find white strands in my hair , and id take them out moving. They’d fight me as id try to get them out, they were in fact Alive. My ears are the worst. I feel like a million of them are in there hatching evry day and then getting into my scalp and skin . my whole body looks like its been attacked by mosquitos or mites . and they leave a little scab hole that looks like a worm hole. I have lost everything in this battle against these guys, I even had one of my teeth fall into my mouth in the middle of the night and inside the tooth i found weird orange brown thing. No one beilieves me. even when i show them my hairs moving in water. When i show them the lint roller that has all kinds of bugs that came off of my clothes or body. Is it a fly is it a worm is it a caterpillar. I doint know . all I know is its fuzzy and its hairlike and the eggs are black dotted ; and the white mold like phase is also a lifestage . it has to be something thats going around. something mutated perhaps yes. I truly believe clothes carry these things and spread them around. I cant help but think they were purposely put there to infest the populations. My familys home. my boyfriends home, everywhere i go I see them. I don’t think alot of people notice them yet..but when they become so many, then its something you cant ignore. when i look at the vents , theyre covered in tiny thin black hair like things /or worms. Theyre everywhere. Im probably inhaling them as I write this. I dont think its ever going to go away.
]My email is email hidden; JavaScript is required, please send me a message if you are experiencing the same, and or have any lead as to whats going on. doctors nowadays are lazy and ignorant. Just because they don’t know the answer, they turn us away and say we;re crazy / delusional. They wont even take a bit of their time to run tests. Some wont even take the time to look at my skin or scalp. LIKE SERIOUSLY????
Please keep us all informed. Both of you, the initial question as well as the above response as I 100% know what you refer to. I’m even thinking that it may be a new mutated or genetically altered accident as I find it difficult if not impossible to have identified myself. All I’ve had are responses implying that I am crazy or delusional. Please reply to this thread. Thanks.
I have experienced and see the same exact thing. Do roundworms molt? Or is is the filial form of a roundworm? I have several videos where you can clearly see the movement and motion of these annoying hair like worms. They are mostly clear some have black tips and they poke through clothes and are everywhere.
I am at a loss myself.
From Chicago area
I have the same thing. I even have them in my hair.. I bought a uv flashlight/black light flashlight in the camping sec. At Walmart for like $7.oo dollars and they do illuminate bright green blue. I am currently awaiting a appt for UCSF infectious disease dept. I don’t know if I have two separate issues going on or if this is related to the roundworm or if it is the round worm. I have been diagnosed with but couldn’t tell the type of round worm it was in larve stage. To early. My personal opinion is what ever I have going on is waterborne….just guessing.
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If you are dealing with skin parasites, blood parasites, intestinal parasites, or other types of parasites in humans, while All About Worms can’t identify parasites or diagnose symptoms for you, we can point you to the doctors, clinics, and labs who understand and specialize in dealing with parasites in humans! You will find that info on our site HERE
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Please include where you are located, and a picture if you can! By submitting your question and/or a picture, you understand and agree that any picture and text you submit may be used by All About Worms without restriction. NOTE: We cannot identify parasites or diagnose symptoms. For this reason we have put together this resource here.
All About Worms is a free resource, free to everyone. We don’t hide our information behind a paywall, or subject you to dozens of annoying videos or ads. But it does cost us money to keep the site going. So if we have provided value to you today, won’t you please let us know by putting a little something in our tip jar and including a little note? Thank you! | Contrarily, they are an ovate shape, and either white (in the case of the clothes moth larvae) or brown/black (carpet beetle larvae). The hair-think worms people typically find are horsehair worms, but these creatures are usually black in color and do not infest clothing.
With all of that said, other readers have reported finding similar organisms on their own clothing. One commenter suggested that these are nematodes (a parasitic roundworm otherwise known as a pinworm or threadworm). Of course, since we are not medical professionals, this is not an identification we can confirm or deny. However, we still still relay the information they provided, as it is a very interesting case. In a link she sent from an Amazon review she penned, we can see a “video of similar hair-like worms infesting clothing” in an Amazon package.
She suggests that the infestation she experienced began, and was perpetuated, by the clothes packages she ordered from Amazon. Other comments seem to suggest a similar connection, and they are all justifiably upset that these creatures seem to be coming from the same source. The reader who wrote the Amazon review said that her local county extension office identified them as horsehair worms, which was not correct. Likewise, doctors diagnosed her, and her daughter, with delusional parasitosis – a condition that leaves the sufferer believing they have parasites when they do not. Yet when she tested with a medical parasitologist, she came back positive with nematodes, confirming her suspicion.
On top of that, when she looked them up herself, she identified them as Filarial worms: dangerous, microscopic, parasitic worms which humans can contract from mosquitoes, and which can lead to Lymphatic filariasis. Most people who contract Lymphatic filariasis will never experience symptoms, but a small percentage can develop lymphedema, which is when an excess amount of fluid gathers in certain parts of the body, causing extreme swelling: this usually happens in the legs.
| yes |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | yes_statement | "nuclear" "power" can "solve" "climate" "change".. the solution to "climate" "change" lies in "nuclear" "power". | https://eu.boell.org/en/2021/04/26/7-reasons-why-nuclear-energy-not-answer-solve-climate-change | The 7 reasons why nuclear energy is not the answer to solve climate ... | Social Links
The 7 reasons why nuclear energy is not the answer to solve climate change
Analysis
New nuclear power costs about 5 times more than onshore wind power per kWh. Nuclear takes 5 to 17 years longer between planning and operation and produces on average 23 times the emissions per unit electricity generated. In addition, it creates risk and cost associated with weapons proliferation, meltdown, mining lung cancer, and waste risks. Clean, renewables avoid all such risks.
There is a small group of scientists that have proposed replacing 100% of the world’s fossil fuel power plants with nuclear reactors as a way to solve climate change. Many others propose nuclear grow to satisfy up to 20 percent of all our energy (not just electricity) needs. They advocate that nuclear is a “clean” carbon-free source of power, but they don’t look at the human impacts of these scenarios. Let’s do the math...
One nuclear power plant takes on average about 14-1/2 years to build, from the planning phase all the way to operation. According to the World Health Organization, about 7.1 million people die from air pollution each year, with more than 90% of these deaths from energy-related combustion. So switching out our energy system to nuclear would result in about 93 million people dying, as we wait for all the new nuclear plants to be built in the all-nuclear scenario.
Utility-scale wind and solar farms, on the other hand, take on average only 2 to 5 years, from the planning phase to operation. Rooftop solar PV projects are down to only a 6-month timeline. So transitioning to 100% renewables as soon as possible would result in tens of millions fewer deaths.
This illustrates a major problem with nuclear power and why renewable energy -- in particular Wind, Water, and Solar (WWS)-- avoids this problem. Nuclear, though, doesn’t just have one problem. It has seven. Here are the seven major problems with nuclear energy:
1.Long Time Lag Between Planning and Operation
The time lag between planning and operation of a nuclear reactor includes the times to identify a site, obtain a site permit, purchase or lease the land, obtain a construction permit, obtain financing and insurance for construction, install transmission, negotiate a power purchase agreement, obtain permits, build the plant, connect it to transmission, and obtain a final operating license.
The planning-to-operation (PTO) times of all nuclear plants ever built have been 10-19 years or more. For example, the Olkiluoto 3 reactor in Finland was proposed to the Finnish cabinet in December 2000 to be added to an existing nuclear power plant. Its latest estimated completion date is 2020, giving it a PTO time of 20 years.
The Hinkley Point nuclear plant was planned to start in 2008. It has an estimated completion year of 2025 to 2027, giving it a PTO time of 17 to 19 years. The Vogtle 3 and 4 reactors in Georgia were first proposed in August 2006 to be added to an existing site. The anticipated completion dates are November 2021 and November 2022, respectively, given them PTO times of 15 and 16 years, respectively.
The Haiyang 1 and 2 reactors in China were planned to start in 2005. Haiyang 1 began commercial operation on October 22, 2018. Haiyang 2 began operation on January 9, 2019, giving them PTO times of 13 and 14 years, respectively. The Taishan 1 and 2 reactors in China were bid in 2006. Taishan 1 began commercial operation on December 13, 2018. Taishan 2 is not expected to be connected until 2019, giving them PTO times of 12 and 13 years, respectively. Planning and procurement for four reactors in Ringhals, Sweden started in 1965. One took 10 years, the second took 11 years, the third took 16 years, and the fourth took 18 years to complete.
Many claim that France’s 1974 Messmer plan resulted in the building of its 58 reactors in 15 years. This is not true. The planning for several of these nuclear reactors began long before. For example, the Fessenheim reactor obtained its construction permit in 1967 and was planned starting years before. In addition, 10 of the reactors were completed between 1991-2000. As such, the whole planning-to-operation time for these reactors was at least 32 years, not 15. That of any individual reactor was 10 to 19 years.
2.Cost
The levelized cost of energy (LCOE) for a new nuclear plant in 2018, based on Lazard, is $151 (112 to 189)/MWh. This compares with $43 (29 to 56)/MWh for onshore wind and $41 (36 to 46)/MWh for utility-scale solar PV from the same source.
This nuclear LCOE is an underestimate for several reasons. First, Lazard assumes a construction time for nuclear of 5.75 years. However, the Vogtle 3 and 4 reactors, though will take at least 8.5 to 9 years to finish construction. This additional delay alone results in an estimated LCOE for nuclear of about $172 (128 to 215)/MWh, or a cost 2.3 to 7.4 times that of an onshore wind farm (or utility PV farm).
Next, the LCOE does not include the cost of the major nuclear meltdowns in history. For example, the estimated cost to clean up the damage from three Fukushima Dai-ichi nuclear reactor core meltdowns was $460 to $640 billion. This is $1.2 billion, or 10 to 18.5 percent of the capital cost, of every nuclear reactor worldwide.
In addition, the LCOE does not include the cost of storing nuclear waste for hundreds of thousands of years. In the U.S. alone, about $500 million is spent yearly to safeguard nuclear waste from about 100 civilian nuclear energy plants. This amount will only increase as waste continues to accumulate. After the plants retire, the spending must continue for hundreds of thousands of years with no revenue stream from electricity sales to pay for the storage.
3.Weapons Proliferation Risk
The growth of nuclear energy has historically increased the ability of nations to obtain or harvest plutonium or enrich uranium to manufacture nuclear weapons. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recognizes this fact. They concluded in the Executive Summary of their 2014 report on energy, with “robust evidence and high agreement” that nuclear weapons proliferation concern is a barrier and risk to the increasing development of nuclear energy:
Barriers to and risks associated with an increasing use of nuclear energy include operational risks and the associated safety concerns, uranium mining risks, financial and regulatory risks, unresolved waste management issues, nuclear weapons proliferation concerns, and adverse public opinion.
The building of a nuclear reactor for energy in a country that does not currently have a reactor allows the country to import uranium for use in the nuclear energy facility. If the country so chooses, it can secretly enrich the uranium to create weapons grade uranium and harvest plutonium from uranium fuel rods for use in nuclear weapons. This does not mean any or every country will do this, but historically some have and the risk is high, as noted by IPCC. The building and spreading of Small Modular Reactors (SMRs) may increase this risk further.
4.Meltdown Risk
To date, 1.5% of all nuclear power plants ever built have melted down to some degree. Meltdowns have been either catastrophic (Chernobyl, Russia in 1986; three reactors at Fukushima Dai-ichi, Japan in 2011) or damaging (Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania in 1979; Saint-Laurent France in 1980). The nuclear industry has proposed new reactor designs that they suggest are safer. However, these designs are generally untested, and there is no guarantee that the reactors will be designed, built and operated correctly or that a natural disaster or act of terrorism, such as an airplane flown into a reactor, will not cause the reactor to fail, resulting in a major disaster.
5.Mining Lung Cancer Risk
Uranium mining causes lung cancer in large numbers of miners because uranium mines contain natural radon gas, some of whose decay products are carcinogenic. A study of 4,000 uranium miners between 1950 and 2000 found that 405 (10 percent) died of lung cancer, a rate six times that expected based on smoking rates alone. 61 others died of mining related lung diseases. Clean, renewable energy does not have this risk because (a) it does not require the continuous mining of any material, only one-time mining to produce the energy generators; and (b) the mining does not carry the same lung cancer risk that uranium mining does.
6. Carbon-Equivalent Emissions and Air Pollution
There is no such thing as a zero- or close-to-zero emission nuclear power plant. Even existing plants emit due to the continuous mining and refining of uranium needed for the plant. Emissions from new nuclear are 78 to 178 g-CO2/kWh, not close to 0. Of this, 64 to 102 g-CO2/kWh over 100 years are emissions from the background grid while consumers wait 10 to 19 years for nuclear to come online or be refurbished, relative to 2 to 5 years for wind or solar. In addition, all nuclear plants emit 4.4 g-CO2e/kWh from the water vapor and heat they release. This contrasts with solar panels and wind turbines, which reduce heat or water vapor fluxes to the air by about 2.2 g-CO2e/kWh for a net difference from this factor alone of 6.6 g-CO2e/kWh.
In fact, China’s investment in nuclear plants that take so long between planning and operation instead of wind or solar resulted in China’s CO2 emissions increasing 1.3 percent from 2016 to 2017 rather than declining by an estimated average of 3 percent. The resulting difference in air pollution emissions may have caused 69,000 additional air pollution deaths in China in 2016 alone, with additional deaths in years prior and since.
7.Waste Risk
Last but not least, consumed fuel rods from nuclear plants are radioactive waste. Most fuel rods are stored at the same site as the reactor that consumed them. This has given rise to hundreds of radioactive waste sites in many countries that must be maintained and funded for at least 200,000 years, far beyond the lifetimes of any nuclear power plant. The more nuclear waste that accumulates, the greater the risk of radioactive leaks, which can damage water supply, crops, animals, and humans.
Summary
To recap, new nuclear power costs about 5 times more than onshore wind power per kWh (between 2.3 to 7.4 times depending upon location and integration issues). Nuclear takes 5 to 17 years longer between planning and operation and produces on average 23 times the emissions per unit electricity generated (between 9 to 37 times depending upon plant size and construction schedule). In addition, it creates risk and cost associated with weapons proliferation, meltdown, mining lung cancer, and waste risks. Clean, renewables avoid all such risks.
Nuclear advocates claim nuclear is still needed because renewables are intermittent and need natural gas for backup. However, nuclear itself never matches power demand so it needs backup. Even in France with one of the most advanced nuclear energy programs, the maximum ramp rate is 1 to 5 % per minute, which means they need natural gas, hydropower, or batteries, which ramp up 5 to 100 times faster, to meet peaks in demand. Today, in fact, batteries are beating natural gas for wind and solar backup needs throughout the world. A dozen independent scientific groups have further found that it is possible to match intermittent power demand with clean, renewable energy supply and storage, without nuclear, at low cost.
Finally, many existing nuclear plants are so costly that their owners are demanding subsidies to stay open. For example, in 2016, three existing upstate New York nuclear plants requested and received subsidies to stay open using the argument that the plants were needed to keep emissions low. However, subsidizing such plants may increase carbon emissions and costs relative to replacing the plants with wind or solar as soon as possible. Thus, subsidizing nuclear would result in higher emissions and costs over the long term than replacing nuclear with renewables.
Derivations and sources of the numbers provided herein can be found here. | Social Links
The 7 reasons why nuclear energy is not the answer to solve climate change
Analysis
New nuclear power costs about 5 times more than onshore wind power per kWh. Nuclear takes 5 to 17 years longer between planning and operation and produces on average 23 times the emissions per unit electricity generated. In addition, it creates risk and cost associated with weapons proliferation, meltdown, mining lung cancer, and waste risks. Clean, renewables avoid all such risks.
There is a small group of scientists that have proposed replacing 100% of the world’s fossil fuel power plants with nuclear reactors as a way to solve climate change. Many others propose nuclear grow to satisfy up to 20 percent of all our energy (not just electricity) needs. They advocate that nuclear is a “clean” carbon-free source of power, but they don’t look at the human impacts of these scenarios. Let’s do the math...
One nuclear power plant takes on average about 14-1/2 years to build, from the planning phase all the way to operation. According to the World Health Organization, about 7.1 million people die from air pollution each year, with more than 90% of these deaths from energy-related combustion. So switching out our energy system to nuclear would result in about 93 million people dying, as we wait for all the new nuclear plants to be built in the all-nuclear scenario.
Utility-scale wind and solar farms, on the other hand, take on average only 2 to 5 years, from the planning phase to operation. Rooftop solar PV projects are down to only a 6-month timeline. So transitioning to 100% renewables as soon as possible would result in tens of millions fewer deaths.
This illustrates a major problem with nuclear power and why renewable energy -- in particular Wind, Water, and Solar (WWS)-- avoids this problem. Nuclear, though, doesn’t just have one problem. It has seven. | no |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | yes_statement | "nuclear" "power" can "solve" "climate" "change".. the solution to "climate" "change" lies in "nuclear" "power". | https://www.greenamerica.org/nuclear-energy-not-climate-solution | Nuclear Power is Not a Climate Solution | Green America | Nuclear Power is Not a Climate Solution
This piece first appeared on August 22, 2020 in the publication New Labor Forum.
The climate crisis is the greatest challenge facing the world today. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has warned us that to keep global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, we need to reduce emissions by 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030 and reach net zero emissions by 2050. Proponents of nuclear power as a climate solution, including Gary S. Was and Todd R. Allen, authors of “The importance of nuclear energy in our future energy mix,” highlight the fact that nuclear reactors do not emit greenhouse gasses during operation while providing baseload generation. Nuclear, wind, and solar power all have significant and comparably lower lifecycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than coal and natural gas plants.[i] However, the proponents of nuclear power, such as Was and Allen, and billionaire Bill Gates, are overlooking the significant risks inherent in the technology and the fact that scaling up nuclear power would take too long and is too costly to be an effective climate solution.
Instead, we need to scale up renewable energy technologies like wind and solar to increase zero-carbon generation, while accelerating energy efficiency and storage technologies nationwide. Together, these solutions will provide consistent power and address baseload capacity traditionally provided by coal and nuclear plants.
Nuclear Power is Inherently Risky
Was and Allen argue that nuclear power is safe, and even good for your health. However, the significant risks inherent in nuclear power are well-documented, understood by the general public who are justifiably wary of the technology, and can be avoided by shifting power generation rapidly to renewable energy instead.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) summarizes the risks of nuclear power well: ‘‘Barriers to and risks associated with an increasing use of nuclear energy include operational risks and the associated safety concerns, uranium mining risks, financial and regulatory risks, unresolved waste management issues, nuclear weapons proliferation concerns, and adverse public opinion.’’[ii] Collectively these risks make nuclear power a non-starter for addressing climate change.
Nuclear power plants rely on radioactive uranium for fuel. Uranium mining is inherently risky and produces radon emissions and soil and water pollution. Uranium mining frequently occurs in areas where Indigenous peoples live and in sensitive ecological areas. The largest release of radioactive materials in U.S. history occurred in the Church Rock mines in New Mexico in 1979. Over 1,100 tons of solid radioactive mill waste and 93 millions of gallons of radioactive tailings contaminated 80 miles of riverbed of the Puerco River, deeply impacting the Navajo Nation.[iii] Despite this history, the Trump Administration is currently working to expand the mining of uranium, potentially putting the Grand Canyon and American Indian tribes at great risk.
Nuclear power plants pose potentially catastrophic risks during operation. The accidents and catastrophes at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima highlight the inherent risks of nuclear power, and scientists have estimated the likelihood of another Fukushima-like event to be 50 percent within 60-150 years, with smaller accidents occurring every year.[iv] In The U.S., the current fleet of reactors is aging, and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) is often extending the licenses of plants for an additional 20 years, even though an extensive report by the Associated Press of NRC records found that the agency colludes with industry to weaken regulations and ignore significant risks from cracked concrete, leaking valves, and corrosion at aging plants.[v]
Spent nuclear fuel poses a long-term risk as well. Some of this waste can remain radioactive for tens of thousands of years, posing risks to future generations, including risks of weaponization and proliferation. The common consensus is that nuclear waste is most safely stored in deep geological burials, but no country has yet done this for civilian reactor waste. In the United States, the proposed Yucca Mountain repository has been actively opposed by residents and legislators from Nevada and delayed for years, and the Trump Administration is now opposed to it, resulting in ongoing riskier temporary storage in 35 states nationwide.
As a result of these risks, nuclear power faces significant opposition from the U.S. public, while renewable energy is widely supported, which makes the path forward for renewables much easier. Opinion polls demonstrate that 51 percent of the public opposes nuclear power, with 21 percent strongly opposing it,[vi] compared to 92 percent support for solar and 85 percent for wind.[vii]
Nuclear Power is Too Expensive and Too Slow to Scale
Was and Allen argue that nuclear power is the most reliable and cost-effective source of baseload generation. They are ignoring the major delays and cost overruns of nuclear power plant construction in the United States and abroad that make it clear that scaling up nuclear power to address the climate crisis is simply not cost effective or timely.
In the mid-2000s, as United States utilities planned to construct new nuclear power plants, construction costs were already soaring to $5,500 to $8,500/Kw or $6-$9 billion per unit.[viii]
The actual cost of construction is even higher. Two nuclear plants were pursued in South Carolina and two in Georgia, each utilizing the Westinghouse AP1000 design. The South Carolina plants were abandoned due to construction delays and cost overruns, and are the subject of a U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission lawsuit alleging investors were defrauded after $9 billion was spent.[ix] The Georgia plants are still under construction, but five years behind schedule, and experiencing significant cost overruns. Originally budgeted at $14 billion, they are now projected to cost over $28 billion.[x]
Delays and cost overruns are not limited to plants in the U.S. alone. Several nuclear reactors are years behind schedule in Europe as well, including the Hinckey Point-C plant in the UK, a plant in Flamanville France that is eight years behind schedule, and the Olkiluoto lll plant in Finland, which is 11 years behind schedule.[xi] Extensive delays have resulted in significant cost overruns throughout the history of nuclear plants worldwide, on average nearly 20 percent.[xii] Significantly, the construction of nuclear power plants today costs 60 percent more than earlier generations of reactors,[xiii] at a time when the cost of wind and solar technologies are rapidly declining.
Proponents of nuclear power state that advanced reactors, including new, smaller modular reactors, will solve the cost issues, since they can be built in factories and do not require the same active safety systems as current reactors. But modular reactors are not ready for construction, their safety systems are not foolproof, and they will need substantial government subsidies.
The Secretary of Energy Advisory Board concluded in 2016, “there is no shortcut to reestablish a vigorous U.S. nuclear power initiative that could be a major source of carbon-free generation”, and found that new technologies could take 25 years and nearly $12 billion to develop.”[xiv] Notably, the commission was looking at “the capability to deploy new nuclear power plants at scale, at the rate of 3 to 5 gigawatts electric (GWe) per year, in the time period 2030–2050.” That extended time frame means nuclear power will not be able to scale up rapidly enough to help us avoid the worst impacts of climate change.
Efficiency and Renewables are the Way Forward
Pursuing new current-generation nuclear plants or advanced nuclear energy technology is a dead-end, and more importantly, would take resources away from scaling up the proven technologies of solar, wind, storage, and energy efficiency that are already paving the way to zero-emitting energy generation. As we scale renewables up, we can retire coal, natural gas, and nuclear plants.
As the IPCC states, in its special report on climate: “The political, economic, social and technical feasibility of solar energy, wind energy and electricity storage technologies has improved dramatically over the past few years, while that of nuclear energy and carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) in the electricity sector have not shown similar improvements.”[xv]
The IPCC is understating the case for renewables. Moving to 100 percent renewable energy worldwide is entirely possible. Researchers at Stanford University mapped a transition to 80 percent renewables (wind, hydro, geothermal, and solar) by 2030 and 100 percent by 2050 for 139 countries worldwide. The transition is technically and economically feasible, would meet the goal of keeping global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, would require no new hydropower, and would create 24 million net new jobs worldwide. It would also require a maximum of only .22 percent of new land across the countries, with significant solar going on rooftops and onshore wind integrating with other land uses.[xvi]
In the United States, as the cost of wind and solar energy plummeted, electricity from renewable energy doubled between 2008 and 2019, with 90 percent of new renewable capacity coming from wind and solar. [xvii] Renewable energy now provides nearly 20 percent of U.S. energy generation,[xviii] generated more power than coal in April 2020,[xix] and is rapidly increasing to 76 percent of new energy generation in the U.S. as utilities choose renewables solely based on cost.[xx]
To ensure wind and solar can provide consistent power and meet baseload generation as fossil fuels and nuclear plants phase down, energy storage technologies and installations are proliferating. Two new projects demonstrate the potential. Southern California Edison will bring 770 MW of battery storage facilities online in California in 2021, and a 409 MW storage facility will go online in 2021 in Florida as well.[xxi] A typical coal-fired power plant generates 600 MW, so these storage facilities are game changers.
And, to reduce the need for baseload power, the United States could gain considerably from increases in energy efficiency. A McKinsey and Company report found that fully deploying residential, commercial, and industrial energy efficiency measures in the United States could cut energy use by 23 percent nationwide and save $1 trillion.[xxii]
Renewable energy and energy efficiency are also major job creators. As of 2019, nearly 350,000 Americans were employed in solar energy, nearly 115,000 in wind, and 84,000 in storage, compared to 61,000 in nuclear. There are already nearly 2.4 million jobs in energy efficiency as well. Notably, until the novel coronavirus outbreak, wind, solar, storage, and energy efficiency jobs were increasing, while nuclear experienced job losses.[xxiii]
We don’t have time to lose. With the novel caronavirus wreaking havoc on the broader economy, and at least 35 million jobs lost, including tens of thousands of clean energy jobs, now is the time for the federal government to fully invest in a Green New Deal, and keep truly clean energy growing. Doing so would create several million green jobs, including in the growing renewable energy, storage, and energy efficiency sectors. It would also put the U.S. on a pathway to 80 percent renewables by 2030 and 100 percent by 2050, helping ensure our country is doing its part to keep global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius or less | Nuclear Power is Not a Climate Solution
This piece first appeared on August 22, 2020 in the publication New Labor Forum.
The climate crisis is the greatest challenge facing the world today. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has warned us that to keep global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, we need to reduce emissions by 45 percent from 2010 levels by 2030 and reach net zero emissions by 2050. Proponents of nuclear power as a climate solution, including Gary S. Was and Todd R. Allen, authors of “The importance of nuclear energy in our future energy mix,” highlight the fact that nuclear reactors do not emit greenhouse gasses during operation while providing baseload generation. Nuclear, wind, and solar power all have significant and comparably lower lifecycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions than coal and natural gas plants.[i] However, the proponents of nuclear power, such as Was and Allen, and billionaire Bill Gates, are overlooking the significant risks inherent in the technology and the fact that scaling up nuclear power would take too long and is too costly to be an effective climate solution.
Instead, we need to scale up renewable energy technologies like wind and solar to increase zero-carbon generation, while accelerating energy efficiency and storage technologies nationwide. Together, these solutions will provide consistent power and address baseload capacity traditionally provided by coal and nuclear plants.
Nuclear Power is Inherently Risky
Was and Allen argue that nuclear power is safe, and even good for your health. However, the significant risks inherent in nuclear power are well-documented, understood by the general public who are justifiably wary of the technology, and can be avoided by shifting power generation rapidly to renewable energy instead.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) summarizes the risks of nuclear power well: ‘‘Barriers to and risks associated with an increasing use of nuclear energy include operational risks and the associated safety concerns, uranium mining risks, financial and regulatory risks, unresolved waste management issues, nuclear weapons proliferation concerns, and adverse public opinion. | no |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | yes_statement | "nuclear" "power" can "solve" "climate" "change".. the solution to "climate" "change" lies in "nuclear" "power". | https://www.nrdc.org/stories/what-are-solutions-climate-change | What Are the Solutions to Climate Change? | Thinking about climate change can be overwhelming. We’ve been aware of its causes for decades now, and all around us, we bear witness to its devastating effects on our communities and ecosystems.
But the good news is that we now know exactly what it will take to win the fight against climate change, and we’re making measurable, meaningful progress. Game-changing developments in clean energy, electric vehicle technology, and energy efficiency are emerging every single day. And countries—including Canada, China, India, and the United States—are coordinating and cooperating at levels never seen before in order to tackle the most pressing issue of our time.
The bottom line: If the causes and effects of our climate crisis are clearer than ever, so are the solutions.
Ending Our Reliance on Fossil Fuels
The single-most important thing that we can do to combat climate change is to drastically reduce our consumption of fossil fuels. The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas in our buildings, industrial processes, and transportation is responsible for the vast majority of emissions that are warming the planet—more than 75 percent. In addition to altering the climate, dirty energy also comes with unacceptable ecological and human health impacts.
We must replace coal, oil, and gas with renewable and efficient energy sources. Thankfully, with each passing year, clean energy is making gains as technology improves and production costs go down. But in order to meet the goal of reducing global carbon emissions by at least 45 percent below 2010 levels before 2030—which scientists tell us we must do if we’re to avoid the worst, deadliest impacts of climate change—we must act faster.
There are promising signs. Wind and solar continue to account for ever-larger shares of electricity generation. In 2021, wind and solar generated a record 10 percent of electricity worldwide. And modeling by NRDC has found that wind, solar, hydro, and nuclear could account for as much as 80 percent of U.S. electricity by the end of this decade. (We can also fully realize our clean energy potential if we invest in repairing our aging grid infrastructure and installing new transmission lines.) While this transformation is taking place, automakers—as well as governments—are preparing for a future when the majority of vehicles on the road will produce zero emissions.
Technicians from Solaris Energy carry out the first-annual servicing and cleaning on a heat pump that was installed into a house originally built in the 1930s, in Folkestone, United Kingdom.
Credit:
Andrew Aitchison / In pictures via Getty Images
Greater Energy Efficiency
Energy efficiency has been referred to as “the first fuel”; after all, the more energy efficient our systems are, the less actual fuel we have to consume, whether rooftop solar energy or gas power. Considered this way, efficiency is our largest energy resource. As the technology harnessing it has advanced over the past 40 years, efficiency has contributed more to the United States’s energy needs than oil, coal, gas, or nuclear power.
What’s more, energy efficiency strategies can be applied across multiple sectors: in our power plants, electrical grids, factories, vehicles, buildings, home appliances, and more. Some of these climate-friendly strategies can be enormously complex, such as helping utility companies adopt performance-based regulation systems, in which they no longer make more money simply by selling more energy but rather by improving the services they provide. Other strategies are extraordinarily simple. For example, weatherproofing buildings, installing cool roofs, replacing boilers and air conditioners with super-efficient heat pumps, and yes, switching out light bulbs from incandescent to LED can all make a big dent in our energy consumption.
Renewable Energy
Transitioning from fossil fuels to clean energy is the key to winning the fight against climate change. Here are the most common sources of renewable energy—and one source of decidedly nonrenewable energy that often gets included (falsely) in the list.
Engineer Steve Marchi and his team perform a final review of rooftop solar panels as part of the solar expansion project at the Wayne National Forest Welcome Center, in Ohio.
Credit:
Alex Snyder/Wayne National Forest
Solar energy
Solar energy is produced when light from the sun is absorbed by photovoltaic cells and turned directly into electricity. The solar panels that you may have seen on rooftops or at ground level are made up of many of these cells working together. By 2030, at least one in seven U.S. homes is projected to have rooftop solar panels, which emit no greenhouse gases or other pollutants, and which generate electricity year-round (in hot or cold weather) so long as the sun is shining. Solar energy currently accounts for just under 3 percent of the electricity generated in the United States—enough to power 18 million homes—but is growing at a faster rate than any other source. By 2035, it could account for as much as 40 percent of electricity generation. From 2020 through 2026, solar will account for more than half of new electricity generation worldwide.
What to do when the sun doesn’t shine, you might ask. Alongside the boom in solar has been a surge in companion battery storage: More than 93 percent of U.S. battery capacity added in 2021 was paired with solar power plants. Battery storage is key to the clean energy revolution—and adapting to a warming world. Not only are batteries important at night when the sun isn’t out, but on hot days when homes draw a lot of electricity to power air conditioners, battery storage can help manage the energy demand and control the threat of power failures.
Turbines on Block Island Wind Farm, located 3.8 miles from Block Island, Rhode Island, in the Atlantic Ocean
Credit:
Dennis Schroeder/NREL, 40481
Wind energy
Unlike solar panels, which convert the sun’s energy directly into electricity, wind turbines produce electricity more conventionally: wind turns the blades of a turbine, which spin a generator. Currently, wind accounts for just above 9 percent of U.S. electricity generation, but it, like solar, is growing fast as more states and utilities come to recognize its ability to produce 100 percent clean energy at a remarkably low cost. Unsurprisingly, states with plenty of wide-open space—including Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas—have huge capacity when it comes to wind power, but many analysts believe that some of the greatest potential for wind energy exists just off our coasts. Offshore wind even tends to ramp up in the evenings when home electricity use jumps, and it can produce energy during the rainy and cloudy times when solar energy is less available. Smart planning and protective measures, meanwhile, can ensure we harness the massive promise of offshore wind while limiting or eliminating potential impacts on wildlife.
Svartsengi geothermal power plant in Iceland
Credit:
Daniel Snaer Ragnarsson/iStock
Geothermal and hydroelectric energy
Along with sunlight and wind, water—under certain conditions—can also be a source of renewable energy. For instance, geothermal energy works by drilling deep underground and pumping extremely hot water up to the earth’s surface, where it is then converted to steam that, once pressurized, spins a generator to create electricity. Hydroelectric energy uses gravity to “pull” water downward through a pipe at high speeds and pressures; the force of this moving water is used to spin a generator’s rotor.
Humans have been harnessing heat energy from below the earth’s surface for eons—just think of the hot springs that provided warmth for the people of ancient Rome. Today’s geothermal plants are considered clean and renewable so long as the water and steam they bring up to the surface is redeposited underground after use. Proper siting of geothermal projects is also important, as recent science has linked some innovative approaches to geothermal to an increased risk of earthquakes.
Hydroelectric plants, when small-scale and carefully managed, represent a safe and renewable source of energy. Larger plants known as mega-dams, however, are highly problematic. Their massive footprint can disrupt the rivers on which people and wildlife depend.
Biomass energy
With very few exceptions, generating electricity through the burning of organic material like wood (sourced largely from pine and hardwood forests in the United States), agricultural products, or animal waste—collectively referred to as biomass—does little to reduce carbon emissions, and in fact, does far more environmental harm than good. Unfortunately, despite numerous studies that have revealed the true toll of this form of bioenergy, some countries continue to buy the biomass industry’s false narrative and subsidize these projects. Attitudes are changing but, given the recent wood pellet boom, there is a lot more work to be done.
A new electric bus on King Street in Honolulu, on June 16, 2021
Credit:
Marco Garcia for NRDC
Sustainable Transportation
Transportation is a top source of greenhouse gases (GHG), so eliminating pollution from the billions of vehicles driving across the planet is essential to achieving net-zero global emissions by 2050, a goal laid out in the 2015 Paris climate agreement.
In 2021, electric vehicles (EVs) accounted for less than 8 percent of vehicle sales globally; by 2035, however, it’s estimated that they’ll account for more than half of all new sales. Governments around the world aren’t just anticipating an all-electric future; they’re bringing it into fruition by setting goals and binding requirements to phase out the sale of gas-powered internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. That year, 2035, is expected to mark a turning point in the adoption of EVs and in the fight against climate change as countries around the world—as well as numerous automakers—have announced goals to phase out gas-powered cars and light trucks. This shift will also benefit our grid: EVs are like a “battery on wheels” and have the potential to supply electricity back to the network when demand peaks, helping to prevent blackouts.
It’s also critical that we consider all of the different ways we get around and build sustainability into each of them. By increasing access to public transportation—such as buses, ride-sharing services, subways, and streetcars—as well as embracing congestion pricing, we can cut down on car trips and keep millions of tons of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere every year. And by encouraging zero-emission forms of transportation, such as walking and biking, we can reduce emissions even more. Boosting these alternate forms of transportation will require more than just talk. They require funding, planning, and the building out of supportive infrastructure by leaders across the local, state, and national levels.
To address the full set of impacts of the transportation sector, we need holistic and community-led solutions around things like land-use policies and the way we move consumer goods. Communities closest to ports, truck corridors, rail yards, and warehouses are exposed to toxic diesel emissions and face a high risk of developing acute and chronic public health diseases. Like all climate solutions, long-lasting change in the transportation sector requires building the power of historically marginalized communities.
An Association for Energy Affordability (AEA) worker installs a new energy-efficient window at an apartment in the South Bronx, New York City.
Credit:
Natalie Keyssar for NRDC
Sustainable Buildings
The energy used in our buildings—to keep the lights on and appliances running; to warm them and cool them; to cook and to heat water—makes them the single-largest source of carbon pollution in most cities across the United States. Making buildings more energy efficient, by upgrading windows and adding insulation to attics and walls, for example, will bring these numbers down. That’s why it’s all the more important that we raise public awareness of cost- and carbon-saving changes that individuals can make in their homes and workplaces, and make it easier for people to purchase and install energy-efficient technology, such as heat pumps (which can both heat and cool spaces) and certified appliances through programs like Energy Star in the United States or EnerGuide in Canada.
Beyond the measures that can be taken by individuals, we need to see a dedication from private businesses and governments to further building decarbonization, which simply means making buildings more efficient and replacing fossil fuel–burning systems and appliances with clean-powered ones. Policy tools can help get us there, including city and state mandates that all newly constructed homes, offices, and other buildings be outfitted with efficient all-electric systems for heating, cooling, and hot water; requirements that municipalities and states meet the latest and most stringent energy conservation standards when adopting or updating their building codes would also be impactful. Indeed, many places around the world are implementing building performance standards, which require existing buildings to reduce their energy use or carbon emissions over time. Most important, if these changes are going to reach the scale needed, we must invest in the affordable housing sector so that efficient and decarbonized homes are accessible to homeowners and renters of all incomes.
Nicolas Mainville joins a canoe trip with youth from the Cree First Nation of Waswanipi on a river in Waswanipi Quebec, Canada, which is part of the boreal forest.
Credit:
Nicolas Mainville/Greenpeace
Better Forestry Management and Sustainable Agriculture
Some of our strongest allies in the fight against climate change are the trees, plants, and soil that store massive amounts of carbon at ground level or underground. Without the aid of these carbon sinks, life on earth would be impossible, as atmospheric temperatures would rise to levels more like those found on Venus.
We can’t plant new trees fast enough to replace the ones we clearcut in carbon-storing forests like the Canadian boreal or the Amazon rainforest—nor can rows of spindly young pines serve the same function as old-growth trees. We need a combination of responsible forestry policies, international pressure, and changes in consumer behavior to put an end to deforestation practices that not only accelerate climate change but also destroy wildlife habitat and threaten the health and culture of Indigenous communities that live sustainably in these verdant spaces. At the same time, we need to treat our managed landscapes with as much care as we treat wild ones. For instance, adopting practices associated with organic and regenerative agriculture—cover crops, pesticide use reduction, rotational grazing, and compost instead of synthetic fertilizers—will help nurture the soil, yield healthier foods, and pay a climate dividend too.
A school of fish swimming through a mangrove forest in the Caribbean Sea, off Belize
Credit:
iStock
Conservation-Based Solutions
Intact ecosystems suck up and store vast amounts of carbon: Coastal ecosystems like wetlands and mangroves accumulate and store carbon in their roots; our forests soak up about a third of annual fossil fuel emissions; and freshwater wetlands hold between 20 and 30 percent of all the carbon found in the world’s soil. It’s clear we’re not going to be able to address climate change if we don’t preserve nature.
This is one reason why, along with preserving biodiversity, climate experts are calling on global leaders to fully protect and restore at least 30 percent of land, inland waters, and oceans by 2030, a strategy endorsed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. To help us reach that goal, we must limit industrial impacts on our public lands and waters, continue to protect natural landscapes, support the creation of marine protected areas, uphold bedrock environmental laws, and follow the lead of Indigenous Peoples, many of whom have been faithfully and sustainably stewarding lands and waters for millennia.
Emissions rise from the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, a steel mill in the Braddock and North Braddock communities near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
Credit:
Getty Images
Industrial Solutions
Heavy industry—the factories and facilities that produce our goods—is responsible for a quarter of GHG emissions in the United States and 40 percent globally. Most industrial emissions come from making a small set of carbon-intensive products: basic chemicals, iron and steel, cement, aluminum, glass, and paper. (Industrial plants are also often major sources of air and water pollutants that directly affect human health.)
Complicating matters is the fact that many industrial plants will stay in operation for decades, so emissions goals for 2050 are really just one investment cycle away. Given these long horizons for building and retrofitting industrial sites, starting investments and plans now is critical. What would successfully decarbonized industrial processes look like? They should sharply reduce heavy industry’s climate emissions, as well as local pollution. They should be scalable and widely available in the next decade, especially so that less developed nations can adopt these cleaner processes and grow without increasing emissions. And they should bolster manufacturing in a way that creates good jobs.
Technological Solutions
Technology alone won’t save us from climate change (especially not some of these risky geoengineering proposals). But at the same time, we won’t be able to solve the climate crisis without researching and developing things like longer-lasting EV batteries, nonpolluting hydrogen-based solutions, and reliable, safe, and equitable methods for capturing and sequestering carbon. Because, while these tools hold promise, we have to make sure we don’t repeat the mistakes of the past. For instance, we can take actions to reduce local harms from mining lithium (a critical component of electric vehicle batteries), improve recycling opportunities for solar cells, and not use carbon capture as an excuse to pollute. To accelerate research and development, funding is the critical third leg of the stool: Governments must make investing in clean energy technologies a priority and spur innovation through grants, subsidies, tax incentives, and other rewards.
Our Choices
Finally, it should go without saying that we, as individuals, are key to solving the climate crisis—not just by continuing to lobby our legislators and speak up in our communities but also by taking climate actions in our daily lives. By switching off fossil fuels in our homes and being more mindful of the climate footprint of the food we eat, our shopping habits, how we get around, our use of plastics and fossil fuels, and what businesses we choose to support (or not to support), we can move the needle.
But it’s when we act collectively that real change happens—and we can do even more than cut down on carbon pollution. Communities banding together have fought back fracking, pipelines, and oil drilling in people’s backyards. These local wins aren’t just good news for our global climate but they also protect the right to clean air and clean water for everyone. After all, climate change may be a global crisis but climate action starts in your own hometown.
We have a responsibility to consider the implications of our choices—and to make sure that these choices are actually helping to reduce the burdens of climate change, not merely shifting them somewhere else. It’s important to remember that the impacts of climate change—which intersect with and intensify so many other environmental, economic, and social issues—fall disproportionately on certain communities, namely low-income communities and communities of color. That’s why our leaders have a responsibility to prioritize the needs of these communities when crafting climate policies. If those on the frontlines aren’t a part of conversations around climate solutions, or do not feel the benefits of things like cleaner air and better job opportunities, then we are not addressing the roots of the climate crisis.
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Power plants that burn coal and gas are responsible for a third of U.S. carbon emissions.
Cut carbon pollution to tackle the climate crisis
Carbon pollution is a key driver of the climate crisis—and power plants that burn coal and gas are responsible for one-third of U.S. carbon emissions. Urge the EPA to finalize the most ambitious carbon limits possible! | Thinking about climate change can be overwhelming. We’ve been aware of its causes for decades now, and all around us, we bear witness to its devastating effects on our communities and ecosystems.
But the good news is that we now know exactly what it will take to win the fight against climate change, and we’re making measurable, meaningful progress. Game-changing developments in clean energy, electric vehicle technology, and energy efficiency are emerging every single day. And countries—including Canada, China, India, and the United States—are coordinating and cooperating at levels never seen before in order to tackle the most pressing issue of our time.
The bottom line: If the causes and effects of our climate crisis are clearer than ever, so are the solutions.
Ending Our Reliance on Fossil Fuels
The single-most important thing that we can do to combat climate change is to drastically reduce our consumption of fossil fuels. The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas in our buildings, industrial processes, and transportation is responsible for the vast majority of emissions that are warming the planet—more than 75 percent. In addition to altering the climate, dirty energy also comes with unacceptable ecological and human health impacts.
We must replace coal, oil, and gas with renewable and efficient energy sources. Thankfully, with each passing year, clean energy is making gains as technology improves and production costs go down. But in order to meet the goal of reducing global carbon emissions by at least 45 percent below 2010 levels before 2030—which scientists tell us we must do if we’re to avoid the worst, deadliest impacts of climate change—we must act faster.
There are promising signs. Wind and solar continue to account for ever-larger shares of electricity generation. In 2021, wind and solar generated a record 10 percent of electricity worldwide. And modeling by NRDC has found that wind, solar, hydro, and nuclear could account for as much as 80 percent of U.S. electricity by the end of this decade. (We can also fully realize our clean energy potential if we invest in repairing our aging grid infrastructure and installing new transmission lines.) | yes |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | yes_statement | "nuclear" "power" can "solve" "climate" "change".. the solution to "climate" "change" lies in "nuclear" "power". | https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/03/why-nuclear-power-cannot-solve-climate-change-alone/584059/ | Why Nuclear Power Can't Solve Climate Change by Itself - The Atlantic | When the fate of the planet is at stake, a single precedent starts to seem like a blueprint.
Most Americans, as far as pollsters can tell, want the United States to honor its commitment under the Paris Agreement on climate change. According to that pact, the United States must, by 2025, cut its carbon emissions 26 percent below their all-time peak. That will be hard. To make the Paris goal, the U.S. would have to cut carbon by 2.6 percent every year for the next seven years. And it has simply never cut its emissions that fast in such a sustained way before.
In fact, since the end of World War II, only one country has pulled off such a feat: France. Starting in 1974, France undertook an extensive build-out of its nuclear-power industry, and slashed its carbon emissions by an average rate of 2.9 percent every year from 1979 to 1988, while still growing its economy. No country has done anything like that before or since.
It has the promise of a good strategy. And last week, it’s just what the center-right commentator Andrew Sullivan ordered. Writing in New York, Sullivan argued that the United States should undertake “a massive nuclear energy program” as a “radically moderate answer to climate change.” Unlike renewables, nuclear power doesn’t cease to work when the sun sets or when the wind stops blowing. It is already technologically feasible, and it’s been quickly scaled up in the past. The ambition of a nuclear expansion could match that of the Green New Deal, except with all the twiddly socialism bits removed.
To his credit, Sullivan’s case for nuclear power includes long lists of its drawbacks. New nuclear plants are very expensive to build. Nuclear accidents, while extremely rare, are extremely expensive to remediate (if they can be remediated at all). But because the well-being of humanity is in jeopardy, these cons should bow to the pros, Sullivan says. After all, he asserts, nuclear power “can potentially meet all our energy demands.”
Isn’t it nice to think so? Sullivan’s sincere concern for the issue is welcome, and he is right to compliment the no-half-measures aspiration of the Green New Deal. He is also correct to argue that a nuclear build-out could lower the United States’ carbon emissions. But, alas, nuclear power is not a full answer—or even half an answer—to climate change. It simply cannot meet all of the U.S.’s energy demands. And by casting a nuclear build-out as a kind of moderate climate counteroffer, he reveals a misunderstanding about the Green New Deal itself—and what makes it notable.
Let there be no mistake: Nuclear power plants can generate enormous amounts of carbon-free electricity. A rapid increase in nuclear energy would slash emissions from the power sector, as the French example makes clear. Even today, France’s carbon density—its carbon emissions per capita—ranks well below that of Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, according to the Global Carbon Atlas.
But you can’t put a nuclear reactor in a tractor-trailer or a steel plant. Nuclear can only reduce emissions from the power sector, and “the energy system is bigger than just electricity,” says Sam Ori, the executive director of the Energy Policy Institute at the University of Chicago. “While I think nuclear has real potential as a means to decarbonizing electricity, you still have a lot of sectors to worry about.”
In fact, electricity makes up a smaller and smaller part of the climate problem. Right now, the power sector contributes only about a third of annual U.S. carbon emissions related to energy production. When you factor in land change and agriculture (read: deforestation and all those pesky cows), electricity is responsible for only about a quarter of annual U.S. emissions. And its share is declining. Carbon emissions from the U.S. power sector have fallen 28 percent since 2005. Meanwhile, emissions from other parts of the economy—transportation, agriculture, industry—have fallen by only 5 percent.
“Even if you figure out electricity, you still have to figure out industry. You still have to figure out transportation,” Ori told me. Although we have partial answers to some of the problems posed by those sectors—everyone could buy electric cars, for instance, and charge them off the new nuclear-powered grid—we don’t have total ones. We still have no electrified way of moving around freight. Electrified air travel remains notional. All the nuclear plants in the world could not reduce the importance of oil in steel production. Solving all these problems will require some kind of public policy, Ori said; even electric cars won’t replace their gas-powered brethren without a regulatory nudge. Sullivan’s nuclear build-out has nothing to say about such challenges.
Yet a Green New Deal does. If you look at Representative Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez’s actual Green New Deal resolution, you’ll see that its vision extends far beyond the power sector. It pledges to invest in U.S. industry and manufacturing so as to remove “pollution and greenhouse gas emissions … as much as is technologically feasible.” It makes an almost identical promise for the agricultural sector. The resolution is notably imprecise in how it will accomplish those goals, but it was written as a list of goals, not policies. At least it recognizes that those sectors exist. (The Washington Post editorial board’s “efficient, effective, and focused” Green New Deal also makes passing mention of them.)
So why does Sullivan believe that nuclear power constitutes a “radically moderate” counteroffer? I suspect he believes that it represents a concession on the part of environmentalists. For years, “No nukes” was the unifying demand of Big Green groups. In his piece, Sullivan claims that “nuclear power was left out entirely” from the Green New Deal, which he calls “staggering.” He links to a Popular Mechanics article that says the same thing.
The problem is that it was included in the Green New Deal. Ocasio-Cortez’s proposal demands 100 percent “clean, renewable, and zero-emission energy sources.” The watchwords here are clean and zero-emission, both coded language for nuclear power. I have covered debates over nuclear’s inclusion in the Green New Deal, and I agree that its status is shaky: The activist group Sunrise Movement has sometimes decried it and sometimes endorsed it. But the most detailed version of a Green New Deal online, from the leftist group Data for Progress, recognizes the importance of “clean sources such as nuclear.” And the author of that report told me explicitly on Twitter: “I support more nuclear.”
The fact is that many environmentalists have already made the concession to nuclear power that Sullivan demands, precisely because they believe that climate change is so dangerous as to be worth the trade-offs. And because many environmentalists are also progressives, they might also recognize the big-government allure of nuclear power.
“It is interesting to me that conservatives flock to nuclear power. They point to France! I can’t get over that,” Ori told me last week, sounding bewildered. “It’s a state-run industry in France. The way they were able to get to 80 or 90 percent nuclear is that they didn’t worry about market forces. They just did it.”
It was, in other words, industrial policy. So even if Sullivan misses the mark, the larger irony shouldn’t be lost. Once, the environmental movement rallied under the banner of “No nukes.” Now, in its hunt for precedents for the Green New Deal, it must admire Gallic nuclear appeal. | Writing in New York, Sullivan argued that the United States should undertake “a massive nuclear energy program” as a “radically moderate answer to climate change.” Unlike renewables, nuclear power doesn’t cease to work when the sun sets or when the wind stops blowing. It is already technologically feasible, and it’s been quickly scaled up in the past. The ambition of a nuclear expansion could match that of the Green New Deal, except with all the twiddly socialism bits removed.
To his credit, Sullivan’s case for nuclear power includes long lists of its drawbacks. New nuclear plants are very expensive to build. Nuclear accidents, while extremely rare, are extremely expensive to remediate (if they can be remediated at all). But because the well-being of humanity is in jeopardy, these cons should bow to the pros, Sullivan says. After all, he asserts, nuclear power “can potentially meet all our energy demands.”
Isn’t it nice to think so? Sullivan’s sincere concern for the issue is welcome, and he is right to compliment the no-half-measures aspiration of the Green New Deal. He is also correct to argue that a nuclear build-out could lower the United States’ carbon emissions. But, alas, nuclear power is not a full answer—or even half an answer—to climate change. It simply cannot meet all of the U.S.’s energy demands. And by casting a nuclear build-out as a kind of moderate climate counteroffer, he reveals a misunderstanding about the Green New Deal itself—and what makes it notable.
Let there be no mistake: Nuclear power plants can generate enormous amounts of carbon-free electricity. A rapid increase in nuclear energy would slash emissions from the power sector, as the French example makes clear. Even today, France’s carbon density—its carbon emissions per capita—ranks well below that of Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States, according to the Global Carbon Atlas.
But you can’t put a nuclear reactor in a tractor-trailer or a steel plant. | no |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | yes_statement | "nuclear" "power" can "solve" "climate" "change".. the solution to "climate" "change" lies in "nuclear" "power". | https://www.greenpeace.org/international/press-release/52633/fukushima-nuclear-power-not-climate-crisis-solution/ | Fukushima continued: Nuclear power is not a climate crisis solution ... | Fukushima continued: Nuclear power is not a climate crisis solution
Tokyo, Japan – Greenpeace Japan released the following statement on the 11th anniversary of the Great East Japan Earthquake and the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station accident. Sam Annesley, Executive Director of Greenpeace Japan:
“11 years have passed since the Great East Japan Earthquake and Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Station that caused incredible damage. We offer our deepest condolences to those who tragically lost their lives and our sincere respect to those who, despite their deep sorrow, have persevered to this day. The example of the disaster-affected areas, which have continued moving towards recovery over the past 11 years despite the unprecedented crises of a major earthquake, tsunami and nuclear accident, has given us great hope. However, as the memories of the disaster and accident fade, we are now faced with a serious problem that we must confront.
There are still 59 nuclear reactors in Japan including those that are permanently shutdown. As of the end of February 2022, 10 of them have restarted operations.[1] Recently, the Japanese government and electric power companies are actively promoting the notion that nuclear power plants are low carbon, and that they will be one of the key solutions to decarbonization.
However, nuclear power generation should never be a solution for decarbonization and climate change. While nuclear power plants can generate tremendous amounts of electricity, they also carry unfathomable risks. Such risks are not only limited to natural disasters and humanitarian crises such as Fukushima, but could also significantly escalate danger during conflicts, such as in the case of the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant situation in Ukraine earlier this month.[2]
Of the 10 nuclear reactors that have been restarted in Japan, only five have installed the equipment mandated under anti-terrorism measures to counter eventualities such as aircraft collisions. Even these reactors cannot be said to be 100% safe against the risk of future natural disasters and conflicts, as we experienced with the Fukushima accident.
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident is still ongoing. There are many people in Japan who were forced to leave their homes at the wake of the disaster and who are still living as evacuees. There are more than 12,000 plaintiffs nationwide in class action lawsuits filed by evacuees seeking compensation from the government and TEPCO.[3]
In addition, the Japanese government decided last year that it will release approximately 1.29 million tonnes of radioactively contaminated water currently stored in tanks on site in Fukushima into the ocean. Meanwhile, 150 tonnes of new radioactive water were being generated every day in 2021.[4] The fundamental issue of decommissioning the Fukushima Daiichi remains unresolved even after 11 years, with no clear goal or plan of action.[5]
After the nuclear disaster began, the Japanese government promoted coal-fired power generation as an alternative source of power, which only further accelerated the climate crisis. Now, the Japanese government once again is choosing the wrong option: trying to restart nuclear power plants to solve the climate crisis. Maintaining nuclear power generation for the purpose of decarbonization is nothing short of a deliberate act of self-imposed harm.
As a nation that has deeply suffered the devastation of both nuclear power plant accidents and nuclear bombs, we call on Japan to show global leadership by rejecting all forms of nuclear power generation, and to lead the world’s transition to a sustainable, renewable energy-driven future.”
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However, nuclear power generation should never be a solution for decarbonization and climate change. While nuclear power plants can generate tremendous amounts of electricity, they also carry unfathomable risks. Such risks are not only limited to natural disasters and humanitarian crises such as Fukushima, but could also significantly escalate danger during conflicts, such as in the case of the Zaporizhzhia nuclear power plant situation in Ukraine earlier this month.[2]
Of the 10 nuclear reactors that have been restarted in Japan, only five have installed the equipment mandated under anti-terrorism measures to counter eventualities such as aircraft collisions. Even these reactors cannot be said to be 100% safe against the risk of future natural disasters and conflicts, as we experienced with the Fukushima accident.
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident is still ongoing. There are many people in Japan who were forced to leave their homes at the wake of the disaster and who are still living as evacuees. There are more than 12,000 plaintiffs nationwide in class action lawsuits filed by evacuees seeking compensation from the government and TEPCO.[3]
In addition, the Japanese government decided last year that it will release approximately 1.29 million tonnes of radioactively contaminated water currently stored in tanks on site in Fukushima into the ocean. Meanwhile, 150 tonnes of new radioactive water were being generated every day in 2021.[4] The fundamental issue of decommissioning the Fukushima Daiichi remains unresolved even after 11 years, with no clear goal or plan of action.[5]
After the nuclear disaster began, the Japanese government promoted coal-fired power generation as an alternative source of power, which only further accelerated the climate crisis. Now, the Japanese government once again is choosing the wrong option: trying to restart nuclear power plants to solve the climate crisis. | no |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | yes_statement | "nuclear" "power" can "solve" "climate" "change".. the solution to "climate" "change" lies in "nuclear" "power". | https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/dec/03/nuclear-power-paves-the-only-viable-path-forward-on-climate-change | Nuclear power paves the only viable path forward on climate change | Nuclear power paves the only viable path forward on climate change
To solve the climate problem, policy must be based on facts and not prejudice. Alongside renewables, Nuclear will make the difference between the world missing crucial climate targets or achieving them
Thu 3 Dec 2015 08.00 ESTLast modified on Wed 25 Aug 2021 09.57 EDT
All four of us have dedicated our scientific careers to understand the processes and impacts of climate change, variously studying ocean systems, tropical cyclones, ice sheets and ecosystems as well as impacts on human societies. We have used both climate models and geological records of past climates to better understand lessons from warmer periods in the Earth’s history and investigate future scenarios.
We have become so concerned about humanity’s slow response to this challenge that we have decided we must clearly set out what we see as the only viable path forward. As scientists we do not take advocacy positions lightly, but we believe the magnitude of climate change now presents an unprecedented moral challenge that compels us to speak out.
To avoid the worst effects of climate change, including continued sea level rise, the total loss of Arctic sea ice and devastating effects on human societies and natural ecosystems alike, rapid global decarbonisation is needed. The voluntary measures put on the table at Paris by over 100 nations are a welcome step, but unless there are strong measures to reduce emissions beyond 2030, global emissions would remain at a high level, practically guaranteeing that young people inherit a climate running out of their control. A new and intensified approach is clearly needed.
Everyone agrees that the most urgent component of decarbonisation is a move towards clean energy, and clean electricity in particular. We need affordable, abundant clean energy, but there is no particular reason why we should favour renewable energy over other forms of abundant energy. Indeed, cutting down forests for bioenergy and damming rivers for hydropower – both commonly counted as renewable energy sources – can have terrible environmental consequences.
Nuclear power, particularly next-generation nuclear power with a closed fuel cycle (where spent fuel is reprocessed), is uniquely scalable, and environmentally advantageous. Over the past 50 years, nuclear power stations – by offsetting fossil fuel combustion – have avoided the emission of an estimated 60bn tonnes of carbon dioxide. Nuclear energy can power whole civilisations, and produce waste streams that are trivial compared to the waste produced by fossil fuel combustion. There are technical means to dispose of this small amount of waste safely. However, nuclear does pose unique safety and proliferation concerns that must be addressed with strong and binding international standards and safeguards. Most importantly for climate, nuclear produces no CO2 during power generation.
To solve the climate problem, policy must be based on facts and not on prejudice. The climate system cares about greenhouse gas emissions – not about whether energy comes from renewable power or abundant nuclear power. Some have argued that it is feasible to meet all of our energy needs with renewables. The 100% renewable scenarios downplay or ignore the intermittency issue by making unrealistic technical assumptions, and can contain high levels of biomass and hydroelectric power at the expense of true sustainability. Large amounts of nuclear power would make it much easier for solar and wind to close the energy gap.
The climate issue is too important for us to delude ourselves with wishful thinking. Throwing tools such as nuclear out of the box constrains humanity’s options and makes climate mitigation more likely to fail. We urge an all-of-the-above approach that includes increased investment in renewables combined with an accelerated deployment of new nuclear reactors.
For example, a build rate of 61 new reactors per year could entirely replace current fossil fuel electricity generation by 2050. Accounting for increased global electricity demand driven by population growth and development in poorer countries, which would add another 54 reactors per year, this makes a total requirement of 115 reactors per year to 2050 to entirely decarbonise the global electricity system in this illustrative scenario. We know that this is technically achievable because France and Sweden were able to ramp up nuclear power to high levels in just 15-20 years.
Nuclear will make the difference between the world missing crucial climate targets or achieving them. We are hopeful in the knowledge that, together with renewables, nuclear can help bridge the ‘emissions gap’ that bedevils the Paris climate negotiations. The future of our planet and our descendants depends on basing decisions on facts, and letting go of long-held biases when it comes to nuclear power. | Over the past 50 years, nuclear power stations – by offsetting fossil fuel combustion – have avoided the emission of an estimated 60bn tonnes of carbon dioxide. Nuclear energy can power whole civilisations, and produce waste streams that are trivial compared to the waste produced by fossil fuel combustion. There are technical means to dispose of this small amount of waste safely. However, nuclear does pose unique safety and proliferation concerns that must be addressed with strong and binding international standards and safeguards. Most importantly for climate, nuclear produces no CO2 during power generation.
To solve the climate problem, policy must be based on facts and not on prejudice. The climate system cares about greenhouse gas emissions – not about whether energy comes from renewable power or abundant nuclear power. Some have argued that it is feasible to meet all of our energy needs with renewables. The 100% renewable scenarios downplay or ignore the intermittency issue by making unrealistic technical assumptions, and can contain high levels of biomass and hydroelectric power at the expense of true sustainability. Large amounts of nuclear power would make it much easier for solar and wind to close the energy gap.
The climate issue is too important for us to delude ourselves with wishful thinking. Throwing tools such as nuclear out of the box constrains humanity’s options and makes climate mitigation more likely to fail. We urge an all-of-the-above approach that includes increased investment in renewables combined with an accelerated deployment of new nuclear reactors.
For example, a build rate of 61 new reactors per year could entirely replace current fossil fuel electricity generation by 2050. Accounting for increased global electricity demand driven by population growth and development in poorer countries, which would add another 54 reactors per year, this makes a total requirement of 115 reactors per year to 2050 to entirely decarbonise the global electricity system in this illustrative scenario. We know that this is technically achievable because France and Sweden were able to ramp up nuclear power to high levels in just 15-20 years.
Nuclear will make the difference between the world missing crucial climate targets or achieving them. | yes |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | yes_statement | "nuclear" "power" can "solve" "climate" "change".. the solution to "climate" "change" lies in "nuclear" "power". | https://www.yesmagazine.org/environment/2018/11/02/nuclear-power-will-not-save-us-from-climate-change | Nuclear Power Will Not Save Us From Climate Change - YES ... | Trending:
Nuclear Power Will Not Save Us From Climate Change
Underlying the IPCC report’s claims is the belief that technological solutions can fix the climate problem. Yet these fixes don’t address the root cause of climate change.
Photo by Image Source/Getty Images
How the IPCC’s solutions for reversing the Earth’s warming encourage business as usual.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s special report released in October rightfully elicited much public commentary about global warming and its truly frightening impacts. But in those initial reactions, less attention was paid to the unnerving implications of the report’s suggested solutions, which encourage us to roll the dice on unproven technologies and double down on nuclear power.
Let’s start by facing the frightening facts. The report shows that warming must be held to no more than 1.5°C above preindustrial levels to avoid truly catastrophic consequences. This requires emissions of CO2 to be limited to an amount that, at the current rate, will be breached in 10 to 15 years.
The report outlines four broad pathways to stay within that limit, all of which include large-scale deployment of various technological fixes to climate change. These include not just the sensible pursuit of solar energy and wind power but also of unproven technologies, such as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, which has not been demonstrated to work at scale.
Why bioenergy with carbon capture and storage? Because, in the models that the panel’s report relies on, the projections of energy use show that the emissions limit will be crossed over the next few decades. Therefore, modelers assume large-scale CO2 removal to reduce the amount of gas in the atmosphere. The means of removal include familiar ideas—like increasing forest cover—to technical ideas like bioenergy with carbon capture and storage and even more futuristic proposals like trying to capture CO2 directly from the air and adding limestone powder to the oceans.
The scariest of the four pathways outlined in the report is a “resource- and energy-intensive scenario in which economic growth and globalization lead to widespread adoption of greenhouse-gas-intensive lifestyles, including high demand for transportation fuels and livestock products.” In other words, business as usual in a world where the usual business leads to the edge of a cliff. What could justify such an approach? The belief that technology will save us.
These technologies would have to be deployed at massive scales. The amount of carbon dioxide that would have to be captured and stored (i.e., buried) is nearly 1,200 billion tons (gigatons). To put that in perspective, the report also states that “by the end of 2017, anthropogenic CO2 emissions since the preindustrial period are estimated to have reduced the total carbon budget for 1.5°C” by the rough equivalent of 2,200 gigatons of carbon dioxide—give or take 320 gigatons. So, within 80 years, an amount that is more than half of all the CO2 emitted over two and a half centuries will have to be captured and stored using a technology that has not been demonstrated.
Along with these futuristic technologies, a more familiar savior also comes to the rescue: nuclear power. In the report’s “energy-intensive scenario,” nuclear energy has to increase by a factor of around five. Wishful thinking about unproven technologies is easier to understand than the continued faith in the failed project of nuclear energy. Nuclear energy has been generating electricity since the 1950s, with more than 400 nuclear power plants operating in the world today—long enough for us to evaluate its ecological and economic costs, risks, and benefits.
One cannot resolve the climate problem under capitalism, which cannot survive without endless growth.
Despite governments subsidizing the technology in various ways over the decades, the economics of nuclear energy is a major problem: Nuclear reactors are expensive to construct, and prone to costing more than budgeted and taking longer to build than projected. The flagship projects in Europe—Olkiluoto (Finland) and Flamanville (France)—use the latest reactor design, the EPR (which stands for either European Pressurized Reactor or Evolutionary Power Reactor). In the United States, Vogtle (Georgia) and V. C. Summer (South Carolina) use the Advanced Passive (AP1000) reactor design. What they have in common is unexpected cost increases: Costs at V. C. Summer went up so high that the utility constructing the plant abandoned it after spending billions.
One would think that these trends would lead policymakers to abandon nuclear power, but faith that these failures can be resolved is fueling government and private investments in a new generation of reactor designs—advanced reactors, small modular reactors, and Generation IV reactors. On paper, these look great, just like the EPR and the AP1000. But there is no reason to believe these new designs will prove cheaper than current reactors—unless the designers, constructors, and regulators emphasize lowered costs over safety, which increases the risk of future Chernobyls and Fukushimas.
Back to the panel’s report. The models it uses do not deal with these problems of nuclear energy. They simply assume that nuclear reactors will be built. And because of the focus on CO2 emissions, they don’t highlight the accompanying problems such as increased quantities of radioactive waste that would have to be stored and isolated from human contact for hundreds of thousands of years.
The underlying cause here is “technological fundamentalism,” the belief that the increasing use of evermore sophisticated, high-energy, advanced technology can solve any problem, including those caused by the unintended consequences of earlier technologies. This Panglossian approach allows modelers to state the climate problem can be contained without giving up a social and political system that is founded on continued and endless economic growth.
This belief also allows for the idea that the business-as-usual approach can continue, and the solution is replacing coal, gas, and nuclear plants with solar panels, wind turbines, and batteries or other storage technologies. As supporters of the fossil fuel and nuclear industries like to point out, even these technologies have environmental and social impacts. To live sustainably on this planet—and despite what folks such as Elon Musk might promise, this is the only planet available for the vast majority of the world’s inhabitants—even these more benign technologies have to be limited in scale.
The alternative is obvious. The starting point of any serious discussion of climate change must be to recognize that it is not possible to limit global warming to either 1.5 or 2°C in any “resource- and energy-intensive scenario” where economic growth continues in the usual fashion. To put it more bluntly, one cannot resolve the climate problem under capitalism, which cannot survive without endless growth.
Arguments against capitalism are at least as old as capitalism itself. If one is honest about the implications of the latest report, climate change is providing another compelling argument for fundamental economic change.
Share
Robert Jensenis professor emeritus of journalism at the University of Texas at Austin and collaborates with the Ecosphere Studies program at The Land Institute. He is the author of 12 books, most recently The End of Patriarchy: Radical Feminism for Men and The Restless and Relentless Mind of Wes Jackson. robertwjensen.org, | Trending:
Nuclear Power Will Not Save Us From Climate Change
Underlying the IPCC report’s claims is the belief that technological solutions can fix the climate problem. Yet these fixes don’t address the root cause of climate change.
Photo by Image Source/Getty Images
How the IPCC’s solutions for reversing the Earth’s warming encourage business as usual.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s special report released in October rightfully elicited much public commentary about global warming and its truly frightening impacts. But in those initial reactions, less attention was paid to the unnerving implications of the report’s suggested solutions, which encourage us to roll the dice on unproven technologies and double down on nuclear power.
Let’s start by facing the frightening facts. The report shows that warming must be held to no more than 1.5°C above preindustrial levels to avoid truly catastrophic consequences. This requires emissions of CO2 to be limited to an amount that, at the current rate, will be breached in 10 to 15 years.
The report outlines four broad pathways to stay within that limit, all of which include large-scale deployment of various technological fixes to climate change. These include not just the sensible pursuit of solar energy and wind power but also of unproven technologies, such as bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, which has not been demonstrated to work at scale.
Why bioenergy with carbon capture and storage? Because, in the models that the panel’s report relies on, the projections of energy use show that the emissions limit will be crossed over the next few decades. Therefore, modelers assume large-scale CO2 removal to reduce the amount of gas in the atmosphere. The means of removal include familiar ideas—like increasing forest cover—to technical ideas like bioenergy with carbon capture and storage and even more futuristic proposals like trying to capture CO2 directly from the air and adding limestone powder to the oceans.
| no |
Nuclear Energy | Can nuclear power solve climate change? | no_statement | "nuclear" "power" cannot "solve" "climate" "change".. "climate" "change" cannot be "solved" by "nuclear" "power". | https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/bill-gates-future-nuclear-energy-ai/story?id=99160110 | Exclusive: Bill Gates on the future of nuclear energy, AI - ABC News | Exclusive: Bill Gates on the future of nuclear energy, AI
"Nuclear energy, if we do it right, will help us solve our climate goals."
ByWilliam Kim
May 8, 2023, 11:00 AM
4:01
TerraPower founder and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates talks to ABC's Rebecca Jarvis about the future of nuclear energy, during a visit the site of a new TerraPower nuclear plant near Kemmerer, Wyoming, May 5, 2023.
ABC News
TerraPower, founded by billionaire and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates in 2008, is opening a new nuclear power plant in Kemmerer, Wyoming. The plant will be the first of its kind, with the company hoping to revolutionize the nuclear energy industry in the U.S. to help fight climate change and support American energy independence.
"Nuclear energy, if we do it right, will help us solve our climate goals," Gates told ABC News. "That is, get rid of the greenhouse gas emissions without making the electricity system far more expensive or less reliable."
Gates met with ABC News' chief business, economics, and technology correspondent Rebecca Jarvis in Kemmerer to talk about the project.
"Nuclear has some incredible pluses," Gates said. "It's not weather dependent, you can build a plant, but the amount of energy coming out of a very small plant is gigantic."
TerraPower founder and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates talks to ABC's Rebecca Jarvis about the future of nuclear energy, during a visit the site of a new TerraPower nuclear plant near Kemmerer, Wyoming, May 5, 2023.
ABC News
While nuclear energy is well known for having a lot of potential, the safety risks associated with it have historically concerned some investors; however, Gates said he's confident TerraPower can build an innovative nuclear reactor that is safe and practical for the future.
Most nuclear reactors in the U.S. use water to cool the system, but water is not the best at absorbing heat, and there are pressure risks associated with overheating, which could eventually lead to a meltdown. This new reactor, which is set to open in 2030, will use liquid sodium instead of water to cool it. Sodium's boiling point is eight times higher than water, and, unlike water, liquid sodium does not need to be continually pumped back into the system.
"We've solved all the areas where there have been safety challenges. And we have dramatically less waste," Gates said. "A great thing is that the regulator in the United States is the best in the world and they do a very good job. So part of the process between now and 2030 is an immensely detailed review with that safety commission about how this design is far safer than anything that came before."
The new plant, which has been in the works for 15 years, faced delays at the end of 2022 after Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February of that year resulted in the loss of a special fuel source made in Russia. But Gates assured these issues are temporary.
"A lot of uranium mines and processing factories got shut down because people expected Russia to stay as a supplier. We do need to build that up domestically," Gates said. "But we have uranium domestically. We have the ability to do the processing domestically... In the long run, because of our uranium deposits here, because of the efficiency of the reactor, this thing can have a completely domestic supply chain."
Kemmerer, once the site of a booming coal industry, has since seen a decline in recent years, with the coal plant scheduled to shut down after operating for almost 60 years. Gates emphasized the importance of reintegrating older energy industries of the U.S. into future energy industries as a way of revitalizing communities. The nuclear plant plans to employ hundreds of construction workers and previous employees from the coal plant where skills overlap, while providing energy to hundreds of thousands of homes, the TerraPower said in a recent press release.
Gates also spoke with ABC News about his opinions on AI and what it means for the future of the world. He said he views the technology as game-changing, saying "It's pretty fundamental."
"We're often surprised how good it is. Sometimes we're surprised at what it can't do right. Early days, but revolutionary," Gates said.
He said he sees big potential for AI to create shockwaves in all industries where it will change the way we think about things.
TerraPower founder and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates talks to ABC's Rebecca Jarvis about the future of nuclear energy, during a visit the site of a new TerraPower nuclear plant near Kemmerer, Wyoming, May 5, 2023.
ABC News
"In health and education, used properly, it will be fantastic," Gates said. "That's a big deal. Improving education, you know, making sure students who are not in private schools or even suburban schools, that they have this way of getting great feedback. You know, I'm excited."
Gates also said how impressed he was at OpenAI's ChatGPT software and the leaps it had made within the last year, telling ABC News: "I was surprised last year that going from GPT-3 to GPT-4, it improved so much."
The risk of AI safety has also been on Gates' mind, he said, and he voiced some of his concerns regarding the rapid advance of the technology and the negative consequences if it were to be used with bad intentions.
"We're all scared a bad guy could grab it," Gates said, adding: "If you just pause the good guys, and you don't pause everyone else, you're probably hurting yourself."
And while Gates said he doesn't believe government regulators are up to speed about the technology and prepared to make big decisions yet, he does believe that the pros of AI outweigh the cons and that the conversation around it is headed in the right direction.
"The field, more than any field I know, is actually putting in a lot of the smart people into, OK, what comes next and how do we make sure that's beneficial," Gates said. "I see the AI, used properly, is providing a lot of benefits that, no, I wouldn't want to throw those away." | Exclusive: Bill Gates on the future of nuclear energy, AI
"Nuclear energy, if we do it right, will help us solve our climate goals. "
ByWilliam Kim
May 8, 2023, 11:00 AM
4:01
TerraPower founder and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates talks to ABC's Rebecca Jarvis about the future of nuclear energy, during a visit the site of a new TerraPower nuclear plant near Kemmerer, Wyoming, May 5, 2023.
ABC News
TerraPower, founded by billionaire and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates in 2008, is opening a new nuclear power plant in Kemmerer, Wyoming. The plant will be the first of its kind, with the company hoping to revolutionize the nuclear energy industry in the U.S. to help fight climate change and support American energy independence.
"Nuclear energy, if we do it right, will help us solve our climate goals," Gates told ABC News. "That is, get rid of the greenhouse gas emissions without making the electricity system far more expensive or less reliable. "
Gates met with ABC News' chief business, economics, and technology correspondent Rebecca Jarvis in Kemmerer to talk about the project.
"Nuclear has some incredible pluses," Gates said. "It's not weather dependent, you can build a plant, but the amount of energy coming out of a very small plant is gigantic. "
TerraPower founder and Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates talks to ABC's Rebecca Jarvis about the future of nuclear energy, during a visit the site of a new TerraPower nuclear plant near Kemmerer, Wyoming, May 5, 2023.
ABC News
While nuclear energy is well known for having a lot of potential, the safety risks associated with it have historically concerned some investors; however, Gates said he's confident TerraPower can build an innovative nuclear reactor that is safe and practical for the future.
| yes |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://allianceforscience.org/blog/2017/11/organic-farming-can-feed-the-world-until-you-read-the-small-print/ | Organic farming can feed the world — until you read the small print ... | Organic farming can feed the world — until you read the small print
By Mark Lynas
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A Europe-based research team made headlines last week with its conclusion that organic farming can feed the world after all. However, few people took the time to read the small print in their paper, which shows that the researchers’ conclusion depends on several highly questionable assumptions.
Mueller et al. use a food systems computer model to assess the environmental impacts of a theoretical conversion of world agriculture to 100 percent organic. This shows, based on estimates culled from the existing scientific literature, that global organic conversion would lead to a 16-33 percent increase in land use, with a corresponding 8-15 percent increase in worldwide deforestation.
So how do the authors achieve their headline conclusion? By combining a worldwide conversion to organic agriculture with a heroic parallel worldwide conversion to vegetarianism, allowing them to assume (in some scenarios) a 100 percent reduction in land-area competition from animal production. This is combined with a similarly heroic 50 percent reduction in global food waste.
The flaws in this logic are readily apparent. It is like arguing that smoking is good for your health if you reduce your exposure to other carcinogens sufficiently to offset the higher chance of cigarettes giving you lung cancer. Well, OK, but wouldn’t it be better to not smoke and also avoid the other carcinogens too?
In other words, what the researchers actually show is that 100 percent conversion to organic can only feed the world if two frankly impossible other conditions are met. That gives a very different headline from the one they chose to lead their study with.
The problem is that however desirable vegetarianism might be both environmentally and for human health, global consumption of animal products is going up not down as developing countries achieve higher standards of living. And the food waste issue is incredibly complex and intractable. Just think how much food each one of us throws away and why.
A better option would surely be to retain the yield and land-use improvements of conventional agriculture, and combine these with efforts to reduce waste and increase vegetarian diets in order to spare even more land for nature. With habitat loss being the major cause of biodiversity declines, this is surely the most environmentally-friendly approach.
But the Mueller et al. paper carries another potentially even more fatal flaw, one that the authors do not sufficiently address. Most of the literature on which their model is based assumes the continued existence of what I call laundered nitrogen, which seriously biases existing assessments of organic vs. conventional crop yield gaps.
This happens because the vast majority of existing organic crops depend on imported nitrogen laundered from animal manures. This nitrogen is ultimately derived from artificial fertilizers used to grow crops to feed the animals on conventional farms. In a worldwide organic scenario envisioned by the researchers, this would not be possible, so the nitrogen scarcity would be critical.
This would lead to worldwide famine. In one of the few attempts to quantify this impact properly, Vaclav Smil concluded that only about half the current world population can be supported without the Haber-Bosch process for artificial nitrogen fixation. Mueller et al. do show a substantial nitrogen deficit for a 100 percent organic planet, but argue that this is a good thing because it reduces greenhouse gases and pollution of water systems.
A similar challenge applies for synthetic pesticides, which are noisily avoided in organic farming. To my knowledge, none of the published studies account for the halo effect of existing synthetic pesticide use, which helps protect neighboring organic farms from severe pest outbreaks by area-wide suppression of pest populations.
The same goes for diseases. Currently the biggest threat to global harvests is probably wheat rust, a devastating fungal disease of wheat. Rust is now controlled by the application of fungicides. Without these chemicals huge outbreaks of rust would likely occur, and the spores would travel great distances on the winds, quickly affecting harvests globally.
Organic farmers can use non-synthetic pesticides such as copper and sulphur-based compounds (which can, in fact, be more toxic than their synthetic alternatives, though that’s a different story), but these products would struggle to prevent worldwide food shortages.
As with nitrogen, most existing assessments of organic farming productivity, as the Australian agricultural scientist David Connor has written, “confuse yield of individual crops with that of production systems.” In reality, as Connor argues, a 100 percent organic planet would either mean halving the world’s population or doubling cropland use. Famine or environmental devastation you decide!
Ironically, organic practitioners have rejected what might be the only way of getting out of this conundrum. As Michael Le Page has pointed out in New Scientist: “This divide will become ever greater in the future, because the organizations that set the rather arbitrary standards for what counts as ‘organic’ have firmly rejected the technology showing the greatest promise for reducing farming emissions: genetic modification.”
GMOs have therefore likely already done far more to reduce pesticide use than organic farming while not having the drawback of lower yields although I’m not aware of anyone having published an explicit comparison.
And developments in prospect could help even more. Here at the Alliance for Science we have already written about how boosting photosynthesis with genetic tweaks could drastically increase crop productivity, and how researchers are aiming for staple non-legume crops that could fix their own nitrogen.
Organic organizations have unfortunately also come out against new gene editing techniques, although bizarre organic standards allow the use of seeds developed using the much blunter instruments of radiation or chemical mutagenesis.
In a logical world, organic and conventional farms would be able to cross-fertilize and learn from each other while benefiting from scientific innovations such as genetic modification. Regrettably, the polarizing effect of the organic label continues to be a hindrance rather than a help in the search for more sustainable agriculture. | Organic farming can feed the world — until you read the small print
By Mark Lynas
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A Europe-based research team made headlines last week with its conclusion that organic farming can feed the world after all. However, few people took the time to read the small print in their paper, which shows that the researchers’ conclusion depends on several highly questionable assumptions.
Mueller et al. use a food systems computer model to assess the environmental impacts of a theoretical conversion of world agriculture to 100 percent organic. This shows, based on estimates culled from the existing scientific literature, that global organic conversion would lead to a 16-33 percent increase in land use, with a corresponding 8-15 percent increase in worldwide deforestation.
So how do the authors achieve their headline conclusion? By combining a worldwide conversion to organic agriculture with a heroic parallel worldwide conversion to vegetarianism, allowing them to assume (in some scenarios) a 100 percent reduction in land-area competition from animal production. This is combined with a similarly heroic 50 percent reduction in global food waste.
The flaws in this logic are readily apparent. It is like arguing that smoking is good for your health if you reduce your exposure to other carcinogens sufficiently to offset the higher chance of cigarettes giving you lung cancer. Well, OK, but wouldn’t it be better to not smoke and also avoid the other carcinogens too?
In other words, what the researchers actually show is that 100 percent conversion to organic can only feed the world if two frankly impossible other conditions are met. That gives a very different headline from the one they chose to lead their study with.
The problem is that however desirable vegetarianism might be both environmentally and for human health, global consumption of animal products is going up not down as developing countries achieve higher standards of living. And the food waste issue is incredibly complex and intractable. Just think how much food each one of us throws away and why.
A better option would surely be to retain the yield and land-use improvements of conventional agriculture, and combine these with efforts to reduce waste and increase vegetarian diets in order to spare even more land for nature. | no |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://rodaleinstitute.org/blog/can-organic-feed-the-world/ | Can Organic Feed the World? - Rodale Institute | Can Organic Feed the World?
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This blog post is part of a special series called “The Truth About Organic.” Want more? Download the full “The Truth About Organic” guide here.
On the Rise
The global population is expected to hit 9 billion by 2050. Photo: Rob Curran
With the global population set to hit 9.1 billion by 20501, it’s true that in the future we’ll need to grow more food than ever. But there’s a common misconception that organic isn’t up to the task. This week, we’ll take a look at:
why the question of yields may be the wrong question;
why so much of the current research on organic yields is wrong;
why more pesticides and synthetic fertilizers, no matter how precisely applied, aren’t the answer.
A Look at the Numbers
There’s an oft-cited statistic that says we’ll need to double our food production by 2050 in order to survive.2 That’s a scary number that seems to demand a production-at-all-costs approach.
But it’s important to know that the number isn’t totally accurate.
Agricultural production contributes almost a quarter of greenhouse emissions
Reports that estimate we’ll need to double food production use a baseline of data from 2005—nearly 15 years ago.3 Production, both conventional and organic, has increased substantially since then. The authors of more recent research say we need to increase production by anywhere from just 20% to 70% in order to meet demand in coming years.4
“Although achieving [this] increase will be challenging,” they said, “global agricultural output is at least on the right trajectory. In contrast, agriculture’s environmental performance is going in the wrong direction: Aggregate impacts are increasing and must drop sharply over the coming decades.”5
Yes, we need to produce more food. But more importantly, we need to mitigate farming’s harmful effects on the environment—fast.
“Global agricultural output is on the right trajectory, but it’s environmental performance is going in the wrong direction.”
Agriculture accounts directly for 11-13% of greenhouse emissions and indirectly for another 12%.6 With our climate increasingly unsteady, we can’t afford to continue with current methods that erode soil and pollute the environment.
Organic methods can produce competitive yields in good weather and outperform conventional in times of drought or flooding; and organic uses less energy and generates fewer emissions while revitalizing the soil and sequestering carbon. 7
If we’re going to decrease farming’s impact—and we must decrease farming’s impact—then we need organic. Because farming doesn’t only contribute to climate change; it’s greatly affected by it. And it is getting harder and harder to grow food in extreme weather.
The Problem with Yields
Conventional and organic methods are often compared based on how much crop they yield per acre or how much crop they yield per farmer.
We hear that in order to feed the world, the only solution is bigger farms with fewer farmers that achieve higher yields with new technologies like chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and GMOs—the conventional American way.
Is a marginal increase in yields achieved by further burdening ecosystems really worth it when other solutions exist?
Feeding the World with Organic
By abstaining from most toxic synthetic inputs, organic farmers protect the environment and prioritize soil health, wildlife habitat, clean and air water, and nutrient-dense foods. Their emphasis is typically less on maximizing crop yields and more on creating healthy, resilient ecosystems.
However, it’s untrue that the difference in yields between organic and conventional is drastic, or that organic doesn’t ever yield as much as conventional. In fact, organic outperforms conventional in adverse weather conditions like drought by as much as 40%.
At the Farming Systems Trial, side-by-side plots of organic and conventional corn show that organic can perform better than conventional in adverse weather.
As our climate grows more unsteady and generates more natural disasters, it’s imperative that our agricultural systems be not only resilient but regenerative. Only organic offers that promise.
Challenges to Current Research
Studies claiming that organic yields are unequivocally less are generally short-term, meaning they collect data over just a couple years. There is a serious dearth of long-term research on the differences between organic and conventional. Only long-term research accurately reflects changes in soil health, weather patterns and pest and disease cycles, giving a fuller picture of reality.
Our Farming Systems Trial, started in 1981, is the longest-running side-by-side trial of organic and conventional in North America. Our data shows:
Organic yields are competitive with conventional yields after a 5-year transition period
Organic systems produce yields up to 40% higher in drought
Organic methods leach no toxic chemicals into waterways
Organic uses 45% less energy
Organic releases 40% fewer greenhouse emissions
Organic earns 3-6x higher profits for farmers
The Farming Systems Trial is, however, limited. Our climate in Pennsylvania isn’t reflective of growing conditions the world over. That’s why we’re expanding our research and replicating the trial in new regions.
The Next Frontier: Nutrient-Density
70% of the crops grown in America are cereal grains, primarily corn and soybeans. The majority of that harvest becomes animal feed, high fructose corn syrup, and ethanol. While such large-scale grain production plays a role in the global food and biofuel supply—and isn’t going away—boosting yields of these crops isn’t going to feed the world.
We need more nutrient-dense foods to truly feed the world.
To truly feed the world, we’re going to need more foods that provide complete nutrition and more farmers to grow it.
We’re simply not growing enough of the right foods to meet global nutritional needs.8 At the same time, the nutrition in some fruit and vegetable crops has been declining for decades as we’ve bred for yields over flavor and health.9 Obesity, cancer, and autoimmune diseases are on the rise worldwide.
The answer to these problems isn’t maximum yields of corn and soy—it’s more nutritious food grown in a healthier way.
Untapped Potential
There is huge potential in small farmers in the developing world for increasing food production and global food security by growing diverse and nutrient-dense foods. 40% of the world’s current crop production comes from these small farmers, and they are poised to make a big difference.10
Farmers in the developing world have huge potential to increase their yields with sustainable methods. Photo: Nandhu Kumar
Given simple tools like viable seed and better crop varieties, these farmers can dramatically increase their productivity. Pair those tools with basic infrastructure and weather information to help time planting and harvest, and these small farmers could triple their yields.
All of these methods are organic and sustainable, and they don’t trap farmers in a cycle of binding contracts with chemical and seed companies like Bayer (Monsanto).
Instead, these practical changes can regenerate resources while dramatically increasing yields in many parts of the world.
The small-scale farmer is also nearly guaranteed to grow and raise diverse crops and livestock, enhancing biodiversity, a crucial marker of healthy ecosystems. They also are more likely to grow nutrient-dense varieties that enhance human health instead of corn or soy for animal feed.
The answer isn’t one or the other—large-scale farms or small. Demand for corn and soy will grow as more parts of the world demand animal products and biofuels integrate into more of our technology. It is possible to farm both sustainably—and we must.
Waste Not
A last point to consider is that before we demand radical increases in food production, we must address food waste. More than 800 million people are hungry today despite the fact that we grow enough to provide for the current population.11 Issues including poverty, natural disaster, political unrest, and other factors prevent many from accessing healthy food.12
Nearly a quarter of all landfill waste is compostable food
Additionally, one third of the food we produce globally gets lost or wasted.13 A third! What if we could recover that 33% of our global supply? Would arguments for increasing yields at the expense of the environment and human health still stand?
Most food waste happens in developed countries, where every year we waste almost as much as sub-Saharan Africa’s entire net production. While improvements in infrastructure and the supply chain are necessary, there’s still plenty we can do as individuals. Here are some ideas:
Choose ugly produce. Large quantities of retail produce are tossed every day simply because of aesthetic irregularities and blemishes.
Compost. Nearly a quarter (22%) of all landfill waste is organic matter14 that could be turned into healthy soil with a little time and effort. Get our backyard composting cheatsheet here.
Grow your own. You’re less likely to toss something when you put in the effort to nurture it yourself.
Shop and cook with the intention of using everything you buy and prepare. Split your entrée at the restaurant. Compost the leftovers.
Join the Organic Farmers Association, an organization that advocates for better policy to assist organic farmers and change the way we think about food production across the country.
The Bottom Line
Our growing population needs farming methods that conserve and regenerate resources while generating healthy food—not methods that use more chemicals, polluting the environment in order to grow more corn to feed more feedlot animals.
The truth is that yes, organic can feed the world!
Organic can compete with conventional yields and outperform conventional in adverse weather. Small farmers using organic methods have huge potential to expand global food production. And only organic methods actively regenerate resources and protect the environment from pollution and toxic waste. For a healthy future, we can’t afford anything less.
________________________________________________________________
Here at Rodale Institute, we believe in the power of regenerative organic agriculture to heal the world.
Every day, we’re working towards solutions that make an organic future not only possible but probable.
Beautiful article! I’m a polish student studying in Denmark and working on a semester project about biochar-based-fertilizers and African Black Earths. I’ve came across this article as I have a habit of employing my critical thinking powers on the mainstream statements that are often myths that reductionstic thinking have builded up… 🙂
I totally support organic regenerative agriculture; we have a certified organic fruit and vegetable farm ourselves. The issue I see is the fact that we need to take fields out of production in order to grow cover crops to build the soil. How would this work on a large scale? And, it takes 3 years to transition the soil so that organic crops can be grown. I’d love your thoughts on these issues. Thanks. | Would arguments for increasing yields at the expense of the environment and human health still stand?
Most food waste happens in developed countries, where every year we waste almost as much as sub-Saharan Africa’s entire net production. While improvements in infrastructure and the supply chain are necessary, there’s still plenty we can do as individuals. Here are some ideas:
Choose ugly produce. Large quantities of retail produce are tossed every day simply because of aesthetic irregularities and blemishes.
Compost. Nearly a quarter (22%) of all landfill waste is organic matter14 that could be turned into healthy soil with a little time and effort. Get our backyard composting cheatsheet here.
Grow your own. You’re less likely to toss something when you put in the effort to nurture it yourself.
Shop and cook with the intention of using everything you buy and prepare. Split your entrée at the restaurant. Compost the leftovers.
Join the Organic Farmers Association, an organization that advocates for better policy to assist organic farmers and change the way we think about food production across the country.
The Bottom Line
Our growing population needs farming methods that conserve and regenerate resources while generating healthy food—not methods that use more chemicals, polluting the environment in order to grow more corn to feed more feedlot animals.
The truth is that yes, organic can feed the world!
Organic can compete with conventional yields and outperform conventional in adverse weather. Small farmers using organic methods have huge potential to expand global food production. And only organic methods actively regenerate resources and protect the environment from pollution and toxic waste. For a healthy future, we can’t afford anything less.
________________________________________________________________
Here at Rodale Institute, we believe in the power of regenerative organic agriculture to heal the world.
Every day, we’re working towards solutions that make an organic future not only possible but probable.
Beautiful article! I’m a polish student studying in Denmark and working on a semester project about biochar-based-fertilizers and African Black Earths. | yes |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/jan/28/can-we-ditch-intensive-farming-and-still-feed-the-world | Can we ditch intensive farming - and still feed the world? | Farming ... | So we need to find more land to cultivate then?
Bringing more land under agricultural production is one answer to filling this gap, but it cannot solve the problem alone. Finding that amount of land in suitable conditions would spell the end for many of the earth’s remaining forests, peatlands and wild areas, and release the carbon stored in them, hastening climate change.
Intensive farming has already had a huge effect on biodiversity and the environment worldwide. Pesticides, which have helped boost cereal and fruit production, have also killed bees and myriad species of insects in large numbers.
Fertilisers that have improved poor soils have also had unintended harmful consequences. The largest ever maritime “dead zone” was discovered in the Gulf of Mexico last year, the result of fertiliser and manure from the meat industry running off the land. Chemical fertilisers also contribute directly to climate change, through the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide, and to air pollution through ammonia.
Chinese farm workers sort out leeks at an organic farm on the outskirts of Beijing. Photograph: Ng Han Guan/AP
So what are the other answers?
The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation, the world’s leading body charged with care of our future food supply, has called this year for “transformative change in our food systems”.
The most obvious alternative to industrialised intensive farming in the developed world is organic farming. The label organic, or bio, is a familiar one in many supermarkets, but makes up only 2% of food sales in the UK and about 5.5% in the US.
Organic farmers must adhere to strict rules on how they grow their crops and raise their livestock. These include using antibiotics on animals only when necessary, cutting out chemical fertilisers and pesticides almost completely in favour of natural alternatives such as manure and wood ash as fertilisers and plant-derived pesticides, and managing land to provide habitats for wildlife.
Rob Percival, head of policy at the Soil Association, says organic farming can feed the world, if consumption patterns are adjusted to encourage those who can afford meat to eat less of it. “We need an urgent shift in both production and consumption if we’re to avert the worst consequences of climate change, including a dietary shift towards less and better meat,” he says.
“Livestock grazing on pasture can support soil health and carbon sequestration, and manure can provide soil fertility for other crops.”
He adds that the productivity of organic farming is greater than previously thought, “and when the environmental and other damage caused by high energy and chemical inputs in non-organic farming are factored in, organic food is cheaper for society and better for the planet”.
A march for agroecology and civil resistance against seed and pesticide maker Monsanto in Bordeaux, France. Photograph: Georges Gobet/AFP/Getty Images
But isn’t organic a burden for farmers?
For many farmers, the investment and time needed to meet organic standards may be a stretch, but there are ways to move towards more sustainable farming without organic certification.
Agroecology is the name given to a broad range of farming techniques that seek to minimise the environmental impact of farming. It encompasses organic farming, but is informal and does not require certification and inspection.
“It is about using natural systems,” says Vicki Hird, food and farming campaigner at Sustain, an NGO. “Reducing the use of artificial chemicals, such as fertilisers and pesticides is an important part of it. Looking closely at the soil and other conditions, nourishing the soil, taking account of the natural pest cycles, natural predators and crop cycles.”
She argues that agroecology could be widely adopted as an alternative to damaging industrialised farming. Farmers can sow crops such as clover as cover to suppress weeds and return organic matter to the soil, and rotate crops, including vegetables such as legumes that fix nitrogen. It requires close attention to the land itself and the crops, rather than the standard mode of farming which is to plant cash crops at the highest yield possible.
“Diversity is the key,” says Hird. “Having these huge monocultures does not lend itself to being managed in a natural way, and can damage biodiversity.”
Diversifying into heritage crops, such as older varieties of fruit and vegetables and a wider variety of grains than the current few strains of wheat that are the norm in intensive agriculture, can also yield benefits. These crops have their own advantages, including natural resistance to certain diseases, pests or conditions.
“You might get a lower yield [by these methods],” Hird concedes, “but you get a higher level of nutrients in the food produced.”
What about permaculture?
Some farmers go further, and embrace concepts such as permaculture and biodynamics. The principles of permaculture involve understanding the relationships between plants and using them in combinations, while reusing any waste products, often as fertiliser.
Biodynamics takes a different approach, following the precepts of Rudolf Steiner and incorporating a spiritual aspect, for instance in some cases aligning planting and harvesting to lunar calendars.
Peatlands, which around the world have been grossly degraded, can also be managed organically through paludiculture. This requires re-wetting dried-out peatlands and looking to alternative plants that grow well there, including forestry and medicinal plants such as sphagnum moss, and allowing animals to graze.
And urban farming?
Urban farming can deliver food – or at least some fresh produce – efficiently to dense populations without the greenhouse gas emissions and nutrient loss associated with transporting it across long distances. Already, urban farming produces about a fifth of the world’s food.
There are currently more than 3,000 urban farming schemes in London alone. These carry an echo of the “market gardens” and dairies of the Victorian era, when small vegetable farms were sited in or near towns and cows were kept in green places in cities for fresh milk.
The cows of Hyde Park, dispensing fresh milk to Londoners, were a familiar sight until the first world war; in the near future, look out for hipsters drinking smoothies from the underground farms of Shoreditch.
These sound a bit niche. Don’t industrial farms produce most of the world’s food?
No. There are more than 570m farms worldwide; more than 90% are run by an individual or family and rely primarily on family labour. They produce about 80% of the world’s food.
Small farmers will be key to the transition, says Ronald Vargas, soil and land officer at the FAO. Many small farmers are poor and insecure, but FAO considers investment in smallholder production “the most urgent and secure and promising means of combating hunger and malnutrition, while minimising the ecological impact of agriculture”.
How can technology and innovation help?
There is no shortage of innovation and tech to help improve efficiencies and yields – on industrial farms and smallholdings. GPS, drones and fine-grained data on topography, soils and other aspects of farmland to allow farmers to target specific areas with fertilisers, pesticides and water, instead of blanket spraying.
For instance, Olam, a global agribusiness that produces cocoa, coffee, sugar, cotton and other crops, uses real-time monitoring on its plantations to finely judge fertiliser quantities and avoid the need for the pre-emptive use of pesticides. Its almond trees in Australia are fitted with sensors to monitor exactly how much water each tree needs, and when.
For family farmers in the developing world, mobile phones are revolutionising what is possible. They have given farmers in remote areas access to tools such as weather forecasts, market prices, yield information and practical advice. GPS is also allowing them to track their produce after it leaves the farm.
Drones and robots may seem futuristic but are already in use, delivering targeted pesticides and picking out damaged or diseased crops before they can infect others around them.
In parts of the world where space is at a premium, vertical farming is catching on. This refers to the practice of stacking crops, usually vegetables, in shallow containers in layers, which can reach any height available. It not only saves on space, but can also be managed to use water and energy more efficiently, as water can be pumped to the top and allowed to flow down by gravity.
Some systems use hydroponics, by which the plants are immersed in water containing mineral solutions, in place of soil. Temperatures can be carefully controlled, water reused, and nutrients recycled. Software systems can control the delivery mechanisms and monitor how the plants are faring.
Beating the drought in Egypt
Our new-found abilities to control light, temperature, air and other environmental factors open up new vistas for farming. Underground growing used to be reserved for mushrooms and niche crops such as forced rhubarb, grown in large warehouses.
If LEDs can take the place of sunlight, a far greater variety of plants can thrive in these conditions, making not only rooftops but basements and disused underground spaces from worked-out mines to old railway lines potentially viable venues for growing short-cycle foodstuffs.
What next?
Our reliance on artificial fertiliser and intensive farming techniques did not happen overnight, but took decades. Along the way, these methods revolutionised farming and enabled huge population growth and economic growth. We now have a wealth of scientific evidence that shows that continuing down the same path would risk runaway climate change, the extinction of species vital to human life, pollution of our water and air, and the death of our soils.
“Industrial agriculture exploits the available natural resources of our planet to an untenable and unsustainable extent,” says Vargas of the FAO. “The basic strategy to replace human labour with farm machinery, agrochemicals and fossil energy is a dead end in times of climate change, dwindling oil reserves and over-exploited natural resources.”
Experts say a second revolution is now needed, that will encompass not just our growing methods but consumption habits and our entire food economy. This would have to involve farmers, retailers, governments and consumers. In last century’s farming revolution, only one future was offered: industrialisation. For this century, there will be a plurality of alternatives, and combinations of new and ancient technology, and all have their place.
“There is not one huge conceptual change where you do everything differently and everything will be OK,” says Tim Searchinger of Princeton University and the World Resources Institute. “There is not one single answer. There are lots and lots of things we can and need to do.” | Ng Han Guan/AP
So what are the other answers?
The UN’s Food and Agriculture Organisation, the world’s leading body charged with care of our future food supply, has called this year for “transformative change in our food systems”.
The most obvious alternative to industrialised intensive farming in the developed world is organic farming. The label organic, or bio, is a familiar one in many supermarkets, but makes up only 2% of food sales in the UK and about 5.5% in the US.
Organic farmers must adhere to strict rules on how they grow their crops and raise their livestock. These include using antibiotics on animals only when necessary, cutting out chemical fertilisers and pesticides almost completely in favour of natural alternatives such as manure and wood ash as fertilisers and plant-derived pesticides, and managing land to provide habitats for wildlife.
Rob Percival, head of policy at the Soil Association, says organic farming can feed the world, if consumption patterns are adjusted to encourage those who can afford meat to eat less of it. “We need an urgent shift in both production and consumption if we’re to avert the worst consequences of climate change, including a dietary shift towards less and better meat,” he says.
“Livestock grazing on pasture can support soil health and carbon sequestration, and manure can provide soil fertility for other crops.”
He adds that the productivity of organic farming is greater than previously thought, “and when the environmental and other damage caused by high energy and chemical inputs in non-organic farming are factored in, organic food is cheaper for society and better for the planet”.
A march for agroecology and civil resistance against seed and pesticide maker Monsanto in Bordeaux, France. Photograph: Georges Gobet/AFP/Getty Images
But isn’t organic a burden for farmers?
For many farmers, the investment and time needed to meet organic standards may be a stretch, but there are ways to move towards more sustainable farming without organic certification.
| yes |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-01410-w | Strategies for feeding the world more sustainably with organic ... | Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain
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Abstract
Organic agriculture is proposed as a promising approach to achieving sustainable food systems, but its feasibility is also contested. We use a food systems model that addresses agronomic characteristics of organic agriculture to analyze the role that organic agriculture could play in sustainable food systems. Here we show that a 100% conversion to organic agriculture needs more land than conventional agriculture but reduces N-surplus and pesticide use. However, in combination with reductions of food wastage and food-competing feed from arable land, with correspondingly reduced production and consumption of animal products, land use under organic agriculture remains below the reference scenario. Other indicators such as greenhouse gas emissions also improve, but adequate nitrogen supply is challenging. Besides focusing on production, sustainable food systems need to address waste, crop–grass–livestock interdependencies and human consumption. None of the corresponding strategies needs full implementation and their combined partial implementation delivers a more sustainable food future.
Introduction
Intensification of agriculture has greatly increased food availability over recent decades. However, this has led to considerable adverse environmental impacts, such as increases in reactive nitrogen over-supply, eutrophication of land and water bodies, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and biodiversity losses1,2,3,4,5,6. It is commonly assumed that by 2050, agricultural output will have to further increase by 50% to feed the projected global population of over 9 billion7. This challenge is further exacerbated by changing dietary patterns. It is, therefore, crucial to curb the negative environmental impacts of agriculture, while ensuring that the same quantity of food can be delivered. There are many proposals for achieving this goal, such as further increasing efficiency in production and resource use, or adopting holistic approaches such as agroecology and organic production, or reducing consumption of animal products and food wastage8,9,10,11.
Organic agriculture is one concrete, but controversial, suggestion for improving the sustainability of food systems. It refrains from using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, promotes crop rotations and focuses on soil fertility and closed nutrient cycles4, 12. The positive performance of organic agriculture when measured against a range of environmental indicators has been widely reported13,14,15,16. However, organic systems produce lower yields17 and thus require larger land areas to produce the same output as conventional production systems. In consequence, environmental benefits of organic agriculture are less pronounced or even absent if measured per unit of product than per unit of area14, 18. Furthermore, abandoning synthetic N-fertilizers could lead to nutrient undersupply, even with increased legume cropping19. As a consequence, the ability of organic agriculture to feed the world sustainably has been challenged19, 20. Some authors contribute to the discussion on lower yields in organic agriculture by considering nutrient availability, but none of these provide a robust analysis of nutrient availability in organic production systems19,20,21. In addition, these studies do not pursue a detailed food systems approach, and do not address the role that animal feeding regimes, consumption trends and food wastage (i.e. food loss and waste) may play—all of which represent factors for strategies that could substantially reduce land demand, while alleviating environmental impacts and contributing to global food availability2, 10, 22,23,24,25,26.
We address this research gap by taking a food systems approach that goes beyond a focus on production, yields and environmental impacts per unit output of specific commodities. We first investigate the impacts of a conversion to organic agriculture on a range of environmental and production indicators. We then complement this scenario of organic conversion with two additional changes to the food system, namely (a) reductions of livestock feed from arable land (i.e. food-competing feed) with corresponding reductions in animal numbers and products supply (and thus human consumption) and in related natural resource use and environmental impacts25, 26; and (b) reductions of food wastage, with correspondingly reduced production levels and impacts10. Our leading research question is whether producing a certain total amount of food, in terms of protein and calories, with organic agriculture would lead to higher, or lower, impacts than producing the same amount of food with conventional agriculture. We then assess whether, and to which extent a combination of organic agriculture with the two other strategies mentioned above may contribute to mitigating potential adverse effects of a conversion to organic production. We thus assess the contexts in terms of complementary food system changes in which a conversion to organic agriculture may contribute to more sustainable food systems.
Despite the availability of a number of global models to assess various aspects of food production and consumption, few are able to consider organic production22, 27 and so far, none have captured the main agronomic characteristics of organic agriculture in a systematic way. We apply the SOL-model26 which is able to simulate important aspects of organic agriculture, such as increased legume shares, absence of synthetic fertilizers, lower yields (the ‘yield gap’) and lower use of food-competing feed components, such as grain legumes or cereals. The SOL-model is a mass-flow model of the global food system, which is built to cover physical and biological aspects at country level for a large number of commodities, thus allowing assessment and comparison of the physical viability and impacts of different scenarios. The SOL-model explicitly does not cover decisions of farmers and consumers, and price and market effects in an economic sense. The purpose is rather to examine the option space spanned by combining a number of food-system level strategies for increased sustainability, and to assess the potential and contribution of these strategies, and their combinations, towards increased sustainability in food systems. This assessment is undertaken with and without impacts of climate change on yields, to also assess the performance of these strategies under climate change (we refer to the Methods section for further details).
Our results show that adoption of organic agriculture by itself increases land demand with respect to conventional production, but it has advantages in terms of other indicators, such as reduced nitrogen surplus, and pesticide use. But when combined with complementary changes in the global food system, namely changed feeding rations, and correspondingly reduced animal numbers, and changed wastage patterns, organic agriculture can contribute to feeding more than 9 billion people in 2050, and do so sustainably. Such a combination of strategies can deliver adequate global food availability, with positive outcomes across all assessed environmental indicators, including cropland area demand.
Our analysis shows the necessary food system changes at the global level, but we emphasize that structural change in the food system and the pathways that lead to increasing the proportion of organically produced food will differ regionally, so local and regional characteristics need to be accounted for.
Results
Feasibility of organic agriculture
Compared to the base year (calculated using the average of 2005–2009 data; Methods section), cropland occupation increases by 6% in the 2050 reference scenario (which describes agriculture as forecast by the FAO, adopting their assumptions on yield increase, cropping intensities and regional dietary change, and, implicitly, via their production and consumption structure, on underlying elasticities)7. Switching to 100% organic production leads to further increases in land use: 16–33%, for low yield gaps (8% lower organic yields on average) to high yield gaps (on average 25% lower), as reported in the literature17, 21. Land occupation increases further, if adverse effects of climate change (CC) on yields (modelled by reduced yield increases until 2050, down to zero increases for strong CC impacts) are considered (up to +55% for zero organic, 71–81% for 100% organic, compared to the base year; Fig. 1). The differences in land occupation between scenarios with low and high organic yield gaps decrease with increasing CC impact, as the absolute differences in yields due to the yield gap becomes less with increasing CC impact and thus generally lower yields. Deforestation shows similar patterns to land occupation with 8–15% higher values for 100% organic in comparison to the reference in 2050, depending on assumptions of low or high yield gaps (Supplementary Fig. 9). Deforestation is modelled as the pressure on forests from increased land demand, assuming the same relative deforestation rates, i.e. ha-deforested per-ha cropland increase, in each country as reported in the baseline (using deforestation data from FAOSTAT; Methods section). This likely underestimates deforestation impacts for larger cropland increases, given that additional cropland will largely be sourced from forests, as grasslands are assumed to stay constant. Thus, the land occupation and deforestation indicators as used here serve to assess the pressure on land areas and forests that may arise from the dynamics captured in the different scenarios.
Fig. 1
Cropland occupation. Cropland occupation (billion ha) for the base year (average 2005–09), the reference scenario 2050 (0% organic) and scenarios with increasing percentages of organic production. Displays scenarios with low and high yield gaps17, 21 without, with medium and with full impacts of climate change on yields (no/medium/high ICC)
We modelled scenarios that combine conversion to organic production with other systematic interventions, namely the reduction of animal feed grown on arable land and a corresponding reduction in animal numbers and production26, and the reduction of food wastage. As a stand-alone measure, no more than 20% conversion to organic production would be possible if increases in land demand beyond 5% of the land demand in the reference scenario are to be avoided (no impacts of CC (ICC) assumed), and a conversion to 100% organic production without complementary measures would lead to huge land demand increases. Due to the yield gap, fully conventional production will always need less land than if a part of the production is organic, but this is of less importance, in terms of overall sustainability, if the complementary measures are implemented. A partial conversion to organic production (e.g. 40% with 100% reduction of food-competing feed components; medium ICC assumed), and for certain cases even a full conversion (e.g. with 50% food wastage reduction and 100% reduction of food-competing feed components; medium ICC), becomes viable, with equal or even reduced land demand compared to the reference scenario (Fig. 2). Similarly, although land demand would be lower with zero organic agriculture, production systems with positive shares of organic agriculture perform better with respect to a number of other environmental indicators (Figs. 3 and 5 below). To provide a conservative analysis of the potential for organic agriculture, these results are based on high assumed yield gaps for organic agriculture17. The results for low yield gaps and lower CC impact on yields for organic than for conventional production (Methods section) are provided in Supplementary Figs. 1–15. We emphasize that grassland areas are held constant in all scenarios, but animal numbers and livestock production decrease in response to reduced food-competing feed supply, and ensuing cropland demand decreases as it is no longer used for feed production. As a consequence of reduced production, consumption of animal products is also reduced.
The N-surplus acts as a proxy for oversupply of reactive nitrogen to ecosystems and related impacts. It is equal to N-inputs minus N outputs, and covers all N flows, including fertilizer inputs and biological fixation, as well as product outputs, emissions and leaching (Methods section). Due to N inputs from reduced mineral fertilizers and substitution by increased legume shares, the N-surplus is reduced with increasing shares of organic production, and reaches a balanced level at an organic share of 80%. It flips to a deficit of −15 to −35% compared to the base year with 100% conversion (Fig. 3). This reduction in N-surplus needs to be considered in the context of where nutrients are sourced and how they are recycled in organic agriculture: Farm yard manure, crop residues (e.g. roots, litter, compost) and nitrogen fixation (via legumes in the crop rotations) are the only sources of nitrogen in organic systems in the scenarios, because synthetic N-fertilizers are prohibited, and food and human waste is not used as fertilizer in the model, nor widespread in reality. This leads to a corresponding reduction of N-availability in the organic system, which is only partly offset by increased biological fixation.
Conversion to organic agriculture thus reduces the contribution of agriculture to the disruption of the nitrogen cycle. However, for high global conversion rates to organic agriculture, N-supply is likely to become challenging, even if food-competing feed and wastage shares are reduced (Fig. 3). Thus, additional measures are needed to ensure adequate N-supply on croplands. Potential measures include optimizing legume management, recycling nutrients from various organic wastes and increasing nutrient use efficiency. Note that in particular the utilization of food and human waste holds substantial further potentials to increase N supply28,29,30, but was not modelled in SOLm. In other studies, N-supply has been assessed with optimistic assumptions on N-fixation rates and off-season cover crop potential for legumes21, which has been contested19, 20.
We also emphasize that N-surplus values displayed here are global per-ha averages, including grasslands. They therefore overshadow regional variation and are only adequate as an indicator of impacts on the global nutrient cycle and not for assessing local nutrient supply. Furthermore, atmospheric N-deposition is not included28. Including it would increase N-surplus, and N-deficits would be less pronounced.
Overall, the results show that, for example, a food system with a combination of 60% organic production, 50% less food-competing feed and 50% reduced food wastage would need little additional land (Fig. 2) and have an acceptable N-supply (Fig. 3) when medium CC impacts on yields are assumed. When assuming low yield gaps and lower climate change impacts on yields for organic than for conventional agriculture, the viability of high shares of organic agriculture regarding land use correspondingly becomes more viable, while adequate N-supply becomes slightly more challenging, which is due to a relative decline of N-availability from crop residues and N-fixation in relation to yields (Supplementary Figs. 1–4).
Dietary implications of the different scenarios
We illustrate how the different food system strategies addressed in this paper may influence the consumption side by analyzing the dietary consumption in the different scenarios. All scenarios discussed here fulfil the condition of providing the same amount of calories as the reference scenario (only corrected accordingly when food wastage is reduced). In the model, legume shares are increased to 20% of the cropping areas in organic production systems. This leads to a slight change in dietary composition (shares in protein supply; Supplementary Fig. 5) and an increased protein/calorie ratio (i.e. the share of calories provided from protein) for full organic production of 12%, compared to 10.9% in the reference scenario. This is above the minimum level of 10% recommended by the Food and Nutrition Board of the US National Academy of Sciences31. The shares of animal products decrease from 38% in the reference scenario to 36% for 100% organic, as the additional legumes substitute meat. Generally, higher or lower impacts of climate change on yields, or high and low yield gaps, do not substantially affect human diets according to our model (Supplementary Figs. 6–8).
With a reduction in food-competing feed, dietary composition changes considerably. The share of animal products in total protein supply drops from 38 to 11% with 100% reduction in food-competing feed26. For 100% reduction in food-competing feed, driven by the lower animal numbers, the model increases legume area shares by up to 20% for all production systems to compensate for the loss in animal proteins. Therefore, increasing shares of organic production do not further increase legume area shares, which are already at 20% of total cropland, but leads to lower yields. This explains the decreasing legume shares in diets with increasing organic production shown in Supplementary Figs. 5–8. The role of legumes also shows that scenarios with reduced food-competing feed and scenarios with increasing organic shares ideally complement each other. Increasing legume shares are needed to compensate for decreasing animal protein supply (food-competing feed reduction scenarios) and to assure nitrogen supply (organic scenarios). The effects of climate change and yield gaps on diets are also much smaller than the impact of the level of reducing food-competing feed (Supplementary Figs. 5–8). This is due to the scenario definitions that stay as close as possible to the reference scenario, including relative commodity shares. This also applies to legume shares for which the effects of climate change and yield gaps are much smaller than the impact of the level of food-competing feed.
Environmental impacts
A 100% conversion to organic agriculture would lead to reduced impacts for a range of other environmental indicators besides the ones already discussed above (Fig. 4). An exception is the soil erosion potential, which increases by 10–20%, compared to the reference scenario (i.e. a 20–30% increase if compared to the base year; ranges relate to the effects with and without ICC). This is due to the increased land area under organic production and the conservative assumption of similar soil erosion rates under organic and conventional production. P-surplus remains at almost the same level as in the reference situation, due to the assumption that organic systems operate with similar levels of non-renewable P inputs as conventional systems. This is a conservative estimate, because soil-available P, and P from organic inputs is often taken into account by organic producers when deciding on fertilization levels. Due to lack of data, we do not model this. With respect to non-renewable energy demand, a 19–27% decrease can be achieved (mainly due to synthetic fertilizer reduction, and due to differences in energy use as reported in the Ecoinvent 2.0 database), compared to the reference situation (i.e. a 4–14% decrease if compared to the base year). Even GHG emissions can be somewhat reduced with this strategy, by 3–7% compared to the reference scenario if emissions from deforestation and organic soils are included, but still representing an increase of 8–12% in comparison to the base year. This net reduction under 100% conversion to organic agriculture arises because emissions from fertilized soils drop considerably and the emissions from synthetic fertilizer production that also contribute significantly drop to zero, while the emissions from livestock and methane from rice increase only slightly. In sum, these effects offset increased emissions due to higher land use and deforestation. As this reduction is thus mainly due to the generally lower nitrogen fertilization levels (no mineral fertilizers) with corresponding lower emissions from fertilizer application in organic production, it is important to emphasize that any increase in N-supply to address these critically low N levels in organic agriculture would correspondingly increase N2O-emissions from fertilizer applications. It would thus lessen the reduction in GHG emissions or even change it to a zero or slightly increasing effect. We also emphasize that these emissions calculations follow the IPCC guidelines and do not refer to recent meta-studies on emission factors32. Skinner et al.32 find rather higher emission factors for organic than for conventional production. On the other hand, they find that total N inputs are only a weak determinant for total emissions for organic production while they are a good determinant for conventional systems. However, evidence is not yet robust enough to deviate from the classical IPCC approach in such a global food systems model. We thus do not use adapted emission factors for different production systems and types of fertilizers and do not challenge the proportionality to inputs for organic production. A relatively small part of the difference in GHG emissions again reflects the difference in energy use. Without emissions from deforestation and organic soil loss, GHG emissions are reduced by 11–14% (still representing an increase from the baseline by 12–14%). Water use is similar to that in the reference scenario, which means an increase of 60%, compared to the base year. This occurs because, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, we assumed similar water demand per tonne output for organic and conventional systems. In contrast to total areas, total production volumes do not change much, as by assumption, all scenarios supply the same calorie and protein levels. Since synthetic pesticides are not used in organic agriculture, their impacts correspondingly drop to zero. However, this does not account for increases in non-synthetic pesticides in organic systems, such as copper (organic management allows for some non-synthetic pesticides that can potentially be harmful to the environment).
The impacts on the environmental indicators of complementing the conversion to organic agriculture with the 100% reduction of food-competing feed (FCF) and a 50% reduction of food wastage are shown in Fig. 5 (the top left panel uses the same data as Fig. 4). Supplementary Fig. 10 in addition displays the results for the intermediate scenarios with a 50% reduction of FCF and 25% food wastage reduction. The patterns remain similar, but complementing the conversion to organic agriculture with these additional strategies has the potential to achieve lower impacts along all indicators (at least without ICC). Large improvements are in particular achieved via the reduction of FCF. Supplementary Fig. 11 displays the results on environmental impacts when assuming low instead of high yield gaps. Main differences are the reduced land demand with lower yield gaps and the somewhat more challenging situation regarding N-supply.
Fig. 5
Year 2050 relative environmental impacts of a full conversion to organic agriculture in combination with complementary food systems strategies. Environmental impacts of organic (100% organic agriculture, yellow lines) and conventional (0% organic agriculture, blue lines) scenarios with concomitant changes in livestock feed and food waste strategies. All scenarios are shown relative to the reference scenario (i.e. 0% organic agriculture, no changes in livestock feed and food waste; dark grey line), with (dotted lines) and without (solid lines) impacts of climate change on yields; Calories are kept constant for all scenarios. The numbers on the axis indicate % impact, relative to the reference scenario; Calories are kept constant for all scenarios without food wastage reduction. Food-competing feed (FCF) use is at the levels of the reference scenario on the left, a and c, and changes towards zero FCF use to the right, b and d; wastage reduction changes from 0%, top a and b, to 50%, bottom c and d. Indicators displayed: cropland use, deforestation, GHG emissions (incl. deforestation, organic soils), N-surplus and P-surplus, water use, non-renewable energy use, soil erosion, pesticide use. Results for intermediate scenarios (50% reduction in FCF and 25% food wastage reduction) are displayed in Supplementary Fig. 10
Supplementary Figs. 12–15 display these results in another design for easier assessment of which share of organic production may be feasible according to the various environmental impacts for scenarios with 50% food-competing feed reduction, 25% or 50% food wastage reduction, intermediate CC impacts on yields, and high and low yield gaps. Most decisive for feasibility are land use and N-surplus.
We modelled a range of key environmental indicators, but we did not model impacts on biodiversity, given the complexity and—for many indicators—inadequacy to capture such in a global model. However, when linking to impacts that correlate with biodiversity, some indications for impacts on biodiversity can be given: Increased area use and deforestation under organic agriculture rather increase pressure on biodiversity, while the reduced pesticide use and nitrogen surplus reduce this pressure. Less ambiguity is again reached when combining conversion to organic agriculture with the other two food systems strategies, resulting in overall reduction of all environmental impacts including area use, and thus suggesting a general reduction of pressure on biodiversity under these combined scenarios.
Discussion
Organic agriculture can only contribute to providing sufficient food for the 2050 population and simultaneously reducing environmental impacts from agriculture, if it is implemented in a well-designed food system in which animal feeding rations, and as a consequence reduced animal numbers and animal product consumption, and food wastage are addressed. Solely converting to 100% organic production within an agricultural production system that should provide the same quantities and composition of outputs as in the reference scenario is not viable and would lead to increased agricultural land use. To be able to comprehensively assess the potential and challenges of a global conversion to organic agriculture, modelling the consequences of such a conversion needs to be based on a comprehensive food systems perspective, as has been adopted here, rather than simply addressing organic yield gaps. The key-challenges of land demand, and to a lesser extent N-supply, for large-scale conversion to organic production also reflect the multi-factorial perspective on maintaining soil fertility, nutrient recycling and ecosystem services, instead of adopting a maximum yield goal for single crops as a stand-alone performance criterion.
Reducing global average demand for animal products and their share in human diets is a strategy for more sustainable food systems on the basis of natural resource use, environmental impact and also human health arguments9, 33,34,35. We have shown that the favourable environmental performance of reduced animal numbers in livestock production that is free from food-competing feed and organic agriculture can be combined to provide a promising blueprint for more sustainable agricultural production, food supply and consumption. In our scenarios, livestock’s role is again focused on utilization of resources that otherwise would not be available for human food consumption, namely grasslands and other grazing lands, and by-products from food production26. Interestingly, in such a system, the need to reduce animal product output emerges from agronomic and physical/technical characteristics, namely by restricting feed supply to energy and protein that stem from resources that cannot be utilized for food production directly, such as grasslands and a range of processing by-products. It is not driven by dietary changes externally imposed at the consumer level, although such changes are a clear consequence of the production shifts.
Food consumption patterns also play a key role for sustainable agriculture with regard to a second aspect addressed in this model, namely food wastage. In the scenarios with organic conversion and reduction of food-competing feed, agriculture was required to provide the same amount of calories and protein as the reference scenario7, setting this demand as the benchmark to be met. However, this global average demand of 3028 kcal/cap/day as modelled by the FAO includes food wastage, that amounts to 30–40% globally, according to the most recent estimates from 201136. Reducing food wastage thus offers a complementary approach to reducing resource use and the environmental impact of agriculture.
In summary, our study shows that organic agriculture can contribute to providing sufficient food and improving environmental impacts, only if adequately high proportions of legumes are produced and with significant reductions of food-competing feed use, livestock product quantities, and food wastage. The development of organic agriculture in the future should take up these challenges on the consumption side, and not only focus on sustainable production. This would, in particular, reduce the necessity for yield increases, and a wise combination of production and consumption measures could provide an optimal food system. All of the difficult tasks: ‘increasing (organic) yields’, ‘increasing organic production’, ‘reducing food wastage’ and ‘reducing animal numbers and animal product consumption’ would be implemented together. Thus, none of those would be needed as a single measure at maximal coverage. All could be implemented at partial coverage only and in combination, leading to the improvements needed to increase sustainability of the global food system.
Methods
General description of the SOL-model
The SOL-model26 is a bottom-up, mass-flow model of the agricultural production and food sector. It is calibrated with FAOSTAT data37, in particular the food balance sheets38, and covers all countries and geographic territories as well as commodities covered in FAOSTAT. Given lack of data for a range of those, this amounts to detailed coverage of 180 primary crop and 22 primary livestock activities in 192 countries. Behind this, data on commodity trees from FAOSTAT are used, covering around 700 intermediate products. In the following, only the main aspects and general traits of the SOL-model are presented, as a detailed description is already available elsewhere26.
Each crop and livestock activity in the SOL-model is characterized by a set of inputs and outputs, i.e. all physical flows of quantities and nutrients related to the individual activities. Input to livestock activities are feed, energy input for buildings, processes conducted in stables (cleaning, feeding) and fences. Outputs include human-edible (meat, milk, eggs) and human-inedible products (skins, hides, bones, etc.), manure excretion, nutrient losses and GHG emissions (enteric fermentation, manure management; CH4, N2O, NO3 and NH3). Feed is further differentiated into four categories; (a) fodder crops grown on arable land, (b) concentrate feed derived from human-edible food (e.g. grains, pulses) grown on arable land, (c) grassland-based fodder and (d) fodder from agricultural/agri-industrial by-products. The feed grown on arable land (a and b) is in competition with food production (termed ‘food-competing feed’), while grassland-based feed and by-products are not (c and d).
For cattle, pigs, and chickens, country-specific herd structures have been calculated with a maximum entropy model39. This derives the most probable distribution of age-classes within the reported number of living and producing animals, as well as reported import and export numbers of living animals, and allows a more detailed assessment of feed and other input demand, as well as environmental impacts.
Fish and seafood is not a focus of the SOL-model and is addressed as described in more detail in the “Fish, seafood and aquaculture supply” section of the Supplementary Material of an earlier paper on the model26. The key assumptions are the following: in 2050, it is assumed that 60% of total fish and seafood supply are from aquaculture, and that 75% of aquaculture are fed, thus resulting in a supply of 45% of total fish and seafood supply in 2050 stemming from fed aquaculture. This share is correspondingly reduced with reductions in food-competing feed components, thus resulting in a drop of fish and seafood supply by almost 50% for the scenario with 100% reduction in food-competing feed. These numbers are based on a range of FAO and OECD references40,41,42,43. Further details, references and arguments for these choices are given in the above-named reference26.
The SOL-model is a physical mass balance model capturing biomass and nutrient flows to assess the physical feasibility of different scenarios. It does not take into account economic restrictions and market effects relating changes in quantities to changes in prices. Economic aspects are key for the social viability of these scenarios, but their inclusion would come at the expense of the detailed commodity and country differentiation, and would require many additional assumptions on price and cross-price elasticities. This would increase model complexity considerably and hamper straightforward interpretation regarding physical viability of the scenarios, which is our focus here.
The following sub-sections describe the additional model parts, data and assumptions used in this paper that are not yet described in the previous section and in an earlier paper and its supporting online material26.
Differentiation between organic and conventional agriculture
For the livestock sector, we do not assume any differences between organic and conventional production, besides a yield gap of 10%. For milk and eggs, the yield gap refers to output per animal per year; for meat, the yield gap refers to slaughter weight. In organic systems, often the same slaughter weight as in conventional systems is reached, but after a longer time than in conventional systems. In our model, this is treated equivalently (lower number of meat animals with same yield and higher number of animals with lower yields). In particular, we do not assume systematically different feeding rations between those two production systems. The yield gap of 10% is somewhat more conservative than the values reported in the literature, which amount to a yield gap of 3.2%21. We chose such a more conservative value, because the reference used21 reports rather low yield gaps in general and as the other, more conservative meta-studies on organic yield gaps17, 44, 45 do not report values for animals at all.
Crop management: Organic agriculture is characterized by the ban of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, and a particular focus on soil fertility and crop rotations, nutrient cycling and ecosystem dynamics46. In the SOL-model, this is captured by setting synthetic nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides for the organic production shares to zero, as well as assuming 20% of legume crops in crop rotations, i.e. a legume crop every 5 years, and by assumptions on yields. Legume crop-specific N-fixation rates were used47. The composition of legumes cropped in the organic systems was chosen to reflect the share between different legume crops as reported in the reference scenario. For the organic system, this rather over-estimates the relative share of food legumes with respect to green manure. Conservatively, it is assumed that rock-phosphate is used as a P-source in organic agriculture in similar relations to P-demand as mineral P-fertilizers are used in conventional agriculture.
Crop yields: Yields in organic agriculture are usually lower than in conventional agriculture. For the main results reported in the paper, we assume the most conservative estimates of organic yields that show a yield gap of on average 25%17. We do a sensitivity analysis regarding this yield gaps and also calculate with the organic yields for the lower end of the yield gap estimates, i.e. for the highest organic yield estimates (an average yield gap of 8%)21. The most recent meta-analysis44 shows an average yield gap of 20% and thus lies in between those two values. In particular, the analysis reporting low yield gaps, i.e. high organic yields21 has been highly contested19, 20 and we emphasize that we use the range spanned by the low17 and high21 organic yields for sensitivity analysis of potential yield gaps from the most conservative to the most optimistic estimates available in the literature, without further assessing the standing of the more optimistic end of this range. To be conservative, we reported only the results with high yield gaps in the paper, and report those for low yield gaps in the Supplementary Figures.
For the scenarios, we assume the same yield gaps for developing and developed countries, albeit data for the higher yield gap is reported for developed countries only17. This is based on the assumption that technological progress likely leads to a convergence of agricultural productivity in developed and developing countries, both for conventional and organic systems. Higher yields for organic production in developing countries are reported in the study with low yield gaps21, but the data from developing countries often compare optimally managed organic systems with traditional rather inefficient conventional systems, or are based on comparisons of non-conventional systems that however do not qualify as organic (e.g. the System of Rice Intensification SRI) with conventional systems. It can be assumed that optimally managed conventional systems would also perform much better, leading to similar yield gaps to those observed in developed countries.
Emission factors: Emission factors, such as for fertilizer applications or manure management, as well as per area soil erosion, deforestation pressure and water use are assumed to be identical between organic and conventional production. This is motivated by the aim to provide a conservative estimate on the performance of organic agriculture and the lack of robust data to motivate utilization of differing parameters between the two systems. Where the data allowed for differentiation, we assumed such, e.g. for energy use (CED) based on Ecoinvent 2.0 data.
Food wastage
FAOSTAT reports incomplete food wastage numbers only, and we therefore used the more detailed data from the Food Wastage Footprint10, 48. This data provides food wastage shares for commodity groups and world regions, that are then applied to all countries and commodities within the respective regions and commodity groups48. Wastage data is provided along the whole value chain from production to consumption and dumping (differentiating for five value chain steps: agricultural production, post-harvest handling and storage, processing, distribution, consumption; dumping includes GHG emissions from anaerobic decay of the wasted biomass), and the corresponding shares are added up to derive wastage shares at primary commodity levels. Scenarios with wastage reduction assume 25 and 50% less wastage, i.e. the wastage share for each commodity is reduced by 25% or 50% respectively. The scenarios thus trace effects from wastage reductions from 0% up to 50%. In the model, this results in a corresponding quantity of each commodity not being produced, thus leading to reduced input demand and impacts.
Climate change impact on crop yields
A couple of recent publications assess climate change impacts on yields49,50,51,52,53. They mainly focus on the most important crops (wheat, maize, rice, soy), and for most commodities no assessment is available. Furthermore, several specific aspects such as the potential inclusion of CO2-fertilization further complicate results. We thus decided to undertake a sensitivity analysis on climate change impacts on crop yields and to assume a broad range from an optimistic extreme of no climate change impacts on yields (as assumed in the reference scenario7) to a pessimistic estimate of no further yield increases if compared to the baseline. Some of the literature reports potential yield decreases with respect to current levels, but we decided to not include this possibility in the scenarios. We thus modelled scenarios with no climate change impact and full climate change impact reflecting zero further yield increase as extremes, and an intermediate scenario for illustration, which assumes that yield increases are only 50% of the reference scenario. Due to lack of data, we assumed animal yields to remain unaffected by climate change impacts.
Furthermore, we modelled scenarios where organic agriculture is affected less by climate change than conventional agriculture. This assumption reflects the argument that organic agriculture is better adapted to climate change than conventional agriculture; however, evidence for this is scarce and no conclusive statement on this can be given54, 55. For illustration, we modelled this situation by assuming that climate change impacts organic yields by merely 60% as much as conventional yields, but we report the corresponding results in the supplementary figures only and not in the main body of the paper.
Environmental indicators
This section shortly describes the environmental indicators used in the SOL-model. For further details, we refer to the literature26.
Land occupation: Land occupation measures the cropland and grassland areas utilized in agricultural production. For cropland, land occupation combines areas harvested and cropping intensities. The latter indicate how many times a hectare is harvested on average. Cropping intensities are usually less than one (due to fallow areas) and therefore land occupation reports higher values than areas harvested7.
In all scenarios, grassland areas are assumed to stay constant26. It has to be mentioned that many grasslands and grazing lands currently face high environmental and societal pressures. Focusing global ruminant production on those areas would thus necessitate to adequately address those challenges56.
Changes in land use are thus between arable and non-agricultural land only (e.g. forests). The indicator cropland occupation captures the total land demand in the scenarios, irrespective of where this may be sourced, while the indicator deforestation captures the pressure from this land demand on forests in countries where deforestation is an issue, assuming similar land sourcing patterns as in the baseline (cf. further down).
N-surplus: The N-surplus describes the difference between N-inputs and N-outputs. N-inputs for crops are mineral N-fertilizers, N-fixation, organic fertilizer, crop residues and seeds. N-inputs are derived based on available N (from mineral fertilizers, fixation, crop residues and manure), assigned to the various crops in relation to their relative N-demand as share of total N-demand of all crops. N from atmospheric deposition is not included in the N-surplus. Total N output of a crop equals the amount of nitrogen that is taken up by a crop during the growing period, i.e. the amount of N in yields and crop residues, as well as emissions (NO3, NH3 and N2O). For organic crop activities only organic N-inputs are possible (manure, N-fixation, crop residues), as no mineral N-fertilizers are allowed. For animals, N-inputs are feed and N-outputs are yields, manure and emissions from manure (NO3, NH3 and N2O). Input and output sources for N thus cover all relevant flows and compounds, in particular direct emissions, volatilization and leaching of N2O, NH3 and NO3 from manure management and fertilizer application of any kind. Emission factors are according to IPCC 2006 Guidelines (Tier 1). SOL-model results for the global aggregate N-surplus and for aggregates of sub-categories, such as N-Fixation, etc. in the base year are consistent with the literature (Supplementary Table 1)47, 57, 58.
Besides the yield gap, we did not assume any systematic differences between organic and conventional livestock activities that would affect N-surplus.
N-surplus is displayed as a global per-hectare average. This thus covers all N-inputs and outputs from croplands and grasslands and takes an average over all those areas. It thus cannot be directly compared to values for cropland reported in the literature. The use of per-ha numbers illustrates our focus on assessing the viability of organic production from an agronomic point of view, as N-supply is often seen as a challenge to organic production19,20,21. The choice of a surplus of between 10 kg/ha and 5 kg/ha as optimal is motivated from the literature that reports that N-surplus could be decreased by 50–70% for various cereals without affecting yields and as based on the numbers on potential N-input reduction and shares of excess N in relation to inputs, even higher reduction rates can derived59, 60; the optimal range chosen in the model signifies a reduction of 60–80% with respect to the reference scenario and we thus chose this somewhat higher range of 60–80% reduction of N-surplus as an illustrative optimal level to be aimed at in the assessment of how viable changes in N-surplus in the scenarios are from an agronomic perspective.
The potentially challenging situation regarding N-supply in organic agriculture has also been taken up in the literature21. They suggest that this challenge could be met when cropping intensities were to increase and fallow land and intercropping were to be systematically used for legume production. We did not incorporate this in the model as it would necessitate a range of additional uncertain assumptions, such as on water availability, overall adequacy of areas for off-season legume cropping and yields. The corresponding assessment21 is highly contested, as they assume legumes between the main crops on all areas, resulting in additional 1360 million ha legumes, and assuming a very high nitrogen fixing rate of about 100 kg N/ha. For this, we also refer again to the critical assessment of this analysis19, 20.
P-surplus: As for N, P-surplus is defined as the difference between P-inputs and outputs. P-flows are expressed as P2O5. Inputs and outputs are mineral P fertilizer, P2O5 in feed, manure, crop residues and yields. When assessing P-surplus, it has to be considered that large quantities of P are fixed in soils and the surplus thus rather expresses a ‘loss potential’, that can be realized, e.g. through erosion, than actual losses to the environment. SOL-model results for the total P-balance in the base year are consistent with literature values58.
Non-renewable energy use: The life cycle impact assessment methodology ‘cumulative energy demand’ (CED)61 is used to calculate non-renewable energy use. Renewable energy components are disregarded. The share of non-renewable energy for fuels and electricity was assumed to stay constant in all scenarios and no technical progress in energy efficiency was assumed.
Inventory data for each activity, including the differentiation between energy use in conventional and organic activities, were taken from LCA-databases, i.e. the ecoinvent 2.0 database and other sources62,63,64. Energy use is linked to farm activities and includes energy use for seeds, crop protection, fertilization, mechanization, organic fertilization, fences, stables and depots for roughage. Data for animal production were taken from the ecoinvent 2.0 database and other sources64, 65. Energy use for fertilizer production is modelled specifically for the fertilizer quantities used for each crop in each country. Energy carriers inputs were modelled according to the ecoinvent 2.0 and SALCA inventories66. Due to lack of data for trade, transportation energy use was disregarded. We emphasize that absolute numbers on energy use may be biased due to the data quality behind ecoinvent 2.0, which is partly rather old, but relative differences between scenarios are much less sensitive to such data problems.
Greenhouse gas emmissions: GHG emissions are based on Tier 1 and 2 approaches from the IPCC-Guidelines from 2006. Emissions for agricultural inputs and infrastructure are taken from the ecoinvent 2.0 database and LCA studies62,63,64. Emissions from deforestation and from agriculturally managed organic soils are taken from FAOSTAT (2). We did not differentiate emission factors between organic and conventional production systems and assumed the same feeding rations and the same shares in different manure management systems for organic and conventional production systems.
For the GHGs, Global Warming Potentials (GWP) from the IPCC2006 100a Tier 1 methodology were used, i.e. 25 t CO2e/t for CH4 and 297 t CO2e/t for N2O. IPCC Tier 1 methods were used to calculate the emissions from manure management and fertilizer application. The Tier 2 methodology was used for enteric fermentation, in order to capture the impacts of different feeding regimes. ecoinvent 2.0 and other data67 were used to calculate the GHG emissions from the production of mineral fertilizers and pesticides. GHG emissions from processes and buildings were derived from the respective CED-values and application of process-specific conversion factors derived from ecoinvent 2.0. When aggregating over the common emission categories only, SOL-model results for total GHG emissions in the base year are similar to the values reported in the literature (Supplementary Table 2)68, 69. These two literature references differ substantially in the values for emissions from enteric fermentation; SOL-model results are more similar to the values based on the emissions data in FAOSTAT68.
Water use: Water use was calculated from AQUASTAT data7 on consumptive irrigation water use per ton of irrigated production and data on irrigated areas for various crops and crop categories. We assumed similar irrigation values per ton of irrigated production for organic and conventional production. Differences between the systems then arise due to different yields and different area shares for different crops with different crop-specific irrigation values as reported in AQUASTAT.
Pesticide use: There is no consistent data set on pesticide use covering different countries, and we thus developed an impact assessment model for assessing pesticide use incorporating three factors: pesticide use intensity per crop j and farming system k (PUIj,k), pesticide legislation in a country i (PLi), and access to pesticides by farmers in a country i (APi) (Supplementary Table 3).
This model has been described in the supplementary information to Schader et al. (2015)26 and we quote from this description in the following, as we used the same model in this work.
Each factor was rated on a scale from 0 to 3 by FAO-internal and external experts (Jan Breithaupt, FAO, involving experts from regional FAO offices; Frank Hayer, Swiss Federal Office of the Environment; Bernhard Speiser, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture, FiBL) with experience in different countries and with different methods of calculating pesticide impacts (life cycle assessment, risk assessment). The descriptors for each scale have been designed so that risks from pesticides are 0 if only one of the three model parameters is equal to 0. For instance, if there are no harmful pesticides used in a crop, or if in a country legislation completely bans harmful pesticides or farms do not have access to pesticides at all, the impact factor for a crop-country combination will be 0.
As an example, the pesticide use impact factor (IFi,j,k) for coffee production in Ghana was 6 as: PUI was rated as 3, PL was rated as 2 and AP was rated as 1. Values for PL and AP are shown in the Supplementary Table 4 below, values for PUI can be found in Supplementary Table 5. To calculate crop and country-specific pesticide use IF, the three factors were multiplied together (Eqn 1).
Thus, for each crop in each country, a value between 0 and 9 has been assigned on a per-hectare basis, serving as an indicative proxy for overall pesticide use per crop and country (and per-ha). Aggregate values per country were derived by multiplying this pesticide use indicator with the respective crop areas and summing over all crops. The pesticide use intensity of organic activities was evaluated to be zero throughout all activities and countries. This neglects certain aspects of plant protection in organic agriculture, such as the use of copper.
Deforestation: FAOSTAT deforestation values for the base period 2005–2009 are set in relation to the change in agricultural land areas over this period in each country. This ratio is then used to derive deforestation values from area changes in the scenarios. Thereby, we have attributed 80% of deforestation to agriculture70. Assuming the same deforestation pressure by country in 2050 as in the baseline is a very strong assumption, but due to the lack of better data on a global level, we decided to uses those rates for a first assessment of deforestation pressure.
In some cases, no data on change in agricultural land area has been available for 2005–2009. Then, the ratio between deforestation areas (multiplied by 0.8) and total agricultural land area has been built for the base year. This ratio is then multiplied with the total agricultural land areas in the scenarios to derive values for deforestation. In these cases, we thus used total agricultural area (instead of the change in agricultural area) as a proxy for the pressure of agriculture on forests. In cases where total forest area increased, deforestation values have been set to zero.
Modelling deforestation in relation to agricultural area changes explains the drop in deforestation rates in the reference scenario, as annual land expansion rates to 2050 are projected to be lower than the observed rates for the base years 2005–2009.
Modelling deforestation in this way thus captures the pressure of land increase on forests in countries, where deforestation is an issue, by assuming a similar dynamics as in the baseline. It thus complements the land occupation variable that captures the land demand, irrespective of where it may be sourced from in a specific country. In particular for larger increases in land occupation, this approach may rather underestimates deforestation, as a large part of this additional land likely would have to be sourced from forests, given the assumption of constant grassland areas. A more detailed assessment of the deforestation dynamics with increased cropland demand would necessitate combination with data on the suitability of grassland, forest and other areas for crop production of various kinds, which is however beyond the scope of this paper.
Soil erosion: Soil erosion was based on data for soil quantities lost (tonnes soil per-ha per year) via water erosion on a per country basis26. Due to lack of data, wind erosion has not been included. Per-ha soil erosion rates were then combined with a soil susceptibility index for different crops to differentiate between crops with lower and higher soil erosion risks. This index was set 0 for permanent grasslands, 1 for crops with a short period of bare fallows and 2 for crops with longer periods of bare fallows such as maize or beets. This classification is based on expert consultations and literature71,72,73,74,75,76,77. The on average higher soil organic matter contents in organic agriculture are likely to reduce soil erosion rates78, 79. However, in order to produce conservative estimates at global level, we did not consider this impact in our model. Potential differences in soil erosion between organic and conventional systems thus arise from the different area allocation to different crops, thus changing relative shares of crops more or less susceptible to erosion.
Scenario description
Based on an assessment of (i) the situation today (‘base year’) capturing the average situation for 2005–2009 as provided by FAOSTAT and additional data26, the following scenarios are calculated in the SOL-model: for 2050 (ii) the reference scenario from the FAO7; The reference scenario is the basis for (iii) scenarios with an increasing share of organic production, up to a 100% conversion. In addition, scenarios are assessed, assuming increased organic production combined with reduced food wastage by 25 and 50% with respect to the regional and commodity group specific values from the FAO10 (the latter value of 50% being among the Sustainable Development Goals for 2030), and with reduced animal product supply, modelled via food-competing feed reduction by 50 and 100%. The 100% reduction assumes entirely grass-fed ruminant production, and monogastrics fed only on by-products from food production26. The scenarios investigated in the SOL-model take the reference scenario as a starting point and make additional assumptions on specific parts of interest (Table 1). The SOL-model then derives the inputs, outputs and environmental impacts for all crop and livestock activities, given these additional assumptions. For all scenarios, we assess food availability (expressed as calorie and protein supply per capita per day.), dietary patterns, land occupation, animal numbers and a range of environmental impacts such as N-surplus and P-surplus (i.e. the net difference between N/P in-flows and out-flows), water use, deforestation and GHG emissions.
All scenarios are then assessed in comparison to the reference scenario. For this, one of three conditions is chosen, namely that the scenarios provide the same amount of calories for food or the same amount protein for food, or use the same acreage of cropland and grassland as the reference scenario. Only in case of scenarios with wastage reduction, the total amount of calories or protein to be produced has been reduced accordingly. These conditions are imposed country-wise. This is achieved by changing cropland areas, production and domestically available quantities upwards or downwards accordingly to meet this goal (grassland areas being kept constant). Patterns for the different commodities thereby remain as close as possible to the pattern observed in the reference scenario (i.e. relative shares between commodity groups and between commodities within these groups). Changes in some of these patterns are however unavoidable in several scenarios, for example if the share of legumes increases and the animal product shares decrease. However, while meat consumption may drop in one scenario, the relative share of chicken and pig meat is retained on country level, just as the relative shares of different legumes is retained on country levels when total legume shares increase.
The main results in the paper are displayed with the same-calorie condition, as this is most illustrative to capture food availability aspects that are in the centre of interest, and as results show that the scenarios meeting the same-calorie condition always produce the same or a higher quantity of protein as the reference scenario and are thus adequate in protein supply. This is due to the higher legume shares in organic production and the lower organic yields for cereals and other staple crops for calorie provision. Table 1 provides an overview of the scenarios calculated and some further information is provided afterwards and in the literature on the SOL-model26.
The general condition to produce the same amount of calories or protein as in the reference scenario is chosen to assure comparability of viability and impacts of the different scenarios with the reference scenario. Clearly, for many countries, these amounts are very high and it can legitimately be discussed, whether providing such amounts of food is a useful and realistic strategy; this is partly captured in the scenarios that include food wastage reductions. For other countries, the amounts forecasted are clearly at the lower end and for food security reasons should be increased. Given that the total global amount of calories and protein available is well enough to feed the world of 9 billion people, different assumptions on trade and on domestically available quantities in the reference scenarios could in principle deal with these issues. All this is not taken up in the scenarios presented here, for the above-mentioned reasons of comparability.
Commodity quantities in the scenarios are derived from the quantities reported in the reference scenario, by adapting some commodity quantities according to the scenario assumptions: (a) organic production with lower yields leads to reduced quantities from the same areas; (b) reduced wastage leads to reduced production; (c) reduced food-competing feed leads to lower animal numbers that can be fed from this feed and thus to less animal products that can be produced from it; (d) areas that become free due to reduced feed production are cropped with other crops according to their relative distribution in the domestic production; (e) legume shares are increased according to the share of organic production or food-competing feed reduction (up to 20%). Areas used for that are taken proportionally from all other areas of domestic production.
To all products, the same utilization shares, import and export ratios as in the reference scenario are then applied to derive domestically available quantities (utilization of commodities for feed is reduced according to the changes required for food-competing feed reduction, if such is part of the scenario). For each country, the total per capita food calorie supply derived from this domestically available quantity is then scaled to equal the food calorie supply of the reference scenario. The same scaling factor is then applied to the total production within this country. This approach thus mimics the production and trade patterns (regarding relative quantities of different commodities) of the reference scenario as close as possible, given the specific scenario assumptions to allow for transparent comparison of the physical changes related to the different scenarios. In this, the SOL-model is explicitly not an economic model, as changes of production is not governed by an explicit trade-module with (cross-)price elasticities, but by direct assumptions on the relative shares of different commodities. This allows for a transparent assessment of the physical and agronomic viability of the scenarios in comparison to the reference scenario and does not entail projections on how the global food trade would adapt to the changes defining the scenarios.
Fertilizer inputs to crops are determined as follows: First, country-specific mineral N-fertilizer use as reported in the reference scenario is allocated to the different crop activities according to their demand and a crop-specific supply/demand ratio for this is then derived. In the scenarios, mineral fertilizers are applied to conventional crops using this same supply/demand ratio. Organic crops do not receive any mineral N-fertilizer. Crop residues and manure are then applied proportionally to the remaining N-demand after taking these mineral fertilizer applications into account. Thereby, a share of 50% of manure is assumed to remain on grasslands. N-fixation is a fertilizer input for legume crops only, as the N fixed by legumes applied to other crops is covered via the crop residues from legumes. Organic P input is then derived from the quantities of crop residues and manure and the respective P contents. Mineral P inputs are also taken from the reference scenario data on country level and are then allocated to the different crops according to the demand remaining after accounting for these P inputs from organic sources.
Data Availability
Model code and data used are accessible in the folder ‘MullerEtAl_NCOMMS2017’ at paper.fibl.ch.
Contributions
A.M., C.S. designed the research, collected data, programmed the model and wrote the paper. N.E.-H.S., K.-H.E. designed the research, collected data and wrote the paper. P.S. designed the research and wrote the paper. J.B. collected data and programmed the herd structure sub-model. A.I. and P.K. collected data and designed the animal feed research part. F.L. collected data, designed the animal feed research part and wrote the paper. M.S., U.N. designed the research and wrote the paper. All authors gave final approval to the manuscript.
Electronic supplementary material
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. | But when combined with complementary changes in the global food system, namely changed feeding rations, and correspondingly reduced animal numbers, and changed wastage patterns, organic agriculture can contribute to feeding more than 9 billion people in 2050, and do so sustainably. Such a combination of strategies can deliver adequate global food availability, with positive outcomes across all assessed environmental indicators, including cropland area demand.
Our analysis shows the necessary food system changes at the global level, but we emphasize that structural change in the food system and the pathways that lead to increasing the proportion of organically produced food will differ regionally, so local and regional characteristics need to be accounted for.
Results
Feasibility of organic agriculture
Compared to the base year (calculated using the average of 2005–2009 data; Methods section), cropland occupation increases by 6% in the 2050 reference scenario (which describes agriculture as forecast by the FAO, adopting their assumptions on yield increase, cropping intensities and regional dietary change, and, implicitly, via their production and consumption structure, on underlying elasticities)7. Switching to 100% organic production leads to further increases in land use: 16–33%, for low yield gaps (8% lower organic yields on average) to high yield gaps (on average 25% lower), as reported in the literature17, 21. Land occupation increases further, if adverse effects of climate change (CC) on yields (modelled by reduced yield increases until 2050, down to zero increases for strong CC impacts) are considered (up to +55% for zero organic, 71–81% for 100% organic, compared to the base year; Fig. 1). The differences in land occupation between scenarios with low and high organic yield gaps decrease with increasing CC impact, as the absolute differences in yields due to the yield gap becomes less with increasing CC impact and thus generally lower yields. | yes |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://ourworldindata.org/how-many-people-does-synthetic-fertilizer-feed | How many people does synthetic fertilizer feed? - Our World in Data | How many people does synthetic fertilizer feed?
Predictions of a global food crisis — that the world’s food production would not be able to keep pace with population growth — have a long history. In the 18th century the English cleric Thomas Robert Malthus hypothesized that gains in per capita resources would inevitably be outstripped by population until food supplies finally acted as a barrier to further growth.1
Such predictions have continued well into the 20th and 21st centuries; in his controversial 1968 book The Population Bomb, Paul Ehrlich argued that global population would continue to grow until the point of mass starvation.2
Both Malthus and Ehrlich should be surprised to see the current state of the world. Today, we can support a global population of around 7.4 billion (and growing), with many consuming far in excess of requirements.3
There are a number of scientific and technological innovations which have allowed for rapid growth in crop productivity, particularly in the second half of the 20th century. None of these had a more dramatic impact than the ability to produce synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.
In fact, it’s estimated that nitrogen fertilizer now supports approximately half of the global population. In other words, Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch — the pioneers of this technological breakthrough — are estimated to have enabled the lives of several billion people, who otherwise would have died prematurely, or never been born at all.4
It may be the case that the existence of every second person reading this attributes back to their 20th century innovation.
Atmospheric alchemy: making fertilizer from air
Understanding the significance of nitrogen fertilizer requires a brief explanation of its role in global crop production. In addition to water and sunlight, crops need three key nutrients to grow: nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium. Nitrogen is often the nutrient that is limiting to further crop production, despite Earth’s atmosphere containing more than 78 percent. This is because in the atmosphere, nitrogen exists in its largely unreactive N2 form, rather than in a reactive form which plants can utilize.
For millennia, agricultural crop had to rely on the limited quantity of reactive nitrogen which was naturally occurring in soils and ecosystems.5
This remained the case until 1908 when the German chemist Fritz Haber developed a process by which atmospheric N2 could be converted into ammonia (NH3) – a form of reactive nitrogen which plants can use.6
Carl Bosch, another German chemist and engineer, was able to take Fritz Haber’s laboratory-scale process and develop it at an industrial scale. The combined “Haber-Bosch process” remains the primary industrial method for the production of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer.
How many people does nitrogen fertilizer feed?
In simple terms, crops typically respond positively to nutrient inputs. As we explore in detail in our entry on Crop Yields, crop yields and fertilizer application typically show a strong positive relationship. Fertilizer application, combined with other productivity factors such as improved crop varieties, genetic breeding, irrigation and mechanization led to a significant inflection in crop yield trends across the world in the 20th century. It should be noted that this growth in agricultural output — from both industrial and organic farming — has undoubtedly resulted in important ecological and resource pressures. However, as we cover in detail in a recent blog post, organic farming (that is, agriculture without synthetic inputs) can often have a greater environmental impact than conventional agriculture.
So, how many people does synthetic nitrogen fertilizer actually feed? Below we draw upon several published estimates, which tend to converge on a similar share of the global population. Results published by Erisman et al. (2012) in the scientific magazine Nature are shown in the chart.7
These results also tie closely with Vaclav Smil’s widely-quoted estimates, which we discuss later.8
In the chart we see the actual global population trend in blue — growing from around 1.65 billion in 1900 to almost 7.4 billion in 2015.
The line in grey represents estimates of the number of people fed by synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. As we see, nitrogen fertilizers only became available following the commercialization of the Haber-Bosch process from 1910 onwards. Since then, Erisman et al. estimate it has supported 42 percent of global births over the past century. This amounts to 44 percent of the global population in 2000 being fed by nitrogen fertilizers, rising to 48 percent in 2008. Here we have extended this estimate to 2015 with the continuation of the assumption that 48 percent of the global population are fed by nitrogen fertilizers. Since the share supported by the process continues to rise, this may in fact be a conservative estimate. This means that in 2015, nitrogen fertilizers supported 3.5 billion people that otherwise would have died.
The red line represents the size of the global population which would therefore be supported without the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. This is shown simply as the actual population minus the number of people reliant on them for food production. Without this innovation, global population may have been reduced to only 3.5 to 4 billion people.
How can we estimate the number of people fed?
Firstly, it’s important to note that these estimates are understandably difficult to derive with a high degree of certainty. This difficulty arises for several reasons. Notably there have been a number of additional contributors to productivity gains in agriculture throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, including crop breeding, irrigation, mechanization, and farm management techniques — untangling the individual role of nitrogen fertilizers alone is challenging. Secondly, the global food system is complex and geographically highly unequal: high-income countries have moved beyond the stage of aiming to meet basic nutritional requirements from food production, and now dedicate a large share of food production to meat (which is a much less efficient nitrogen converter) and bioenergy production.9
Nonetheless, general estimates tend to converge on a figure in the range of 40-50 percent of the population. Let’s look at three widely cited estimates:
Utilizing a range of long-term evaluations, spanning a total of 362 seasons of crop production, of crop yields and nutrient budgets across the world, Stewart et al. (2005) concluded that between 30-50 percent of yield increases could be attributed to synthetic fertilizer inputs (and typically even higher in the tropics).10
Smil (2004) reached similar conclusions, suggesting with high confidence that global crop harvests would be approximately half of current levels without nitrogen fertilizer inputs.11
Vaclav Smil derives his calculations based on the use of nitrogen crop, livestock and human protein (of which the building blocks are nitrogen) balances. His nitrogen balance concluded that 85 percent of all nitrogen in food protein for humans is derived from cropland; the remainder came from seafood or livestock on grazing land. Since nitrogen fertilizer provided around half of the nutrient in this harvested crop, he estimated that it provided 40 percent of dietary protein in the mid-1990s. He concluded that 40 percent of the global population in 2000 were dependent on food production from synthetic fertilizers.
Erisman et al. (2012) have since updated these estimates to the year 2008, estimating a similar (but slightly higher) share of 44 percent in 2000 and 48 percent in 2008.
The complexities of the global food system make it challenging to provide a firm figure, however, it’s likely that just under half of the global population is dependent on synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. This is further shown in the chart. As a result, the Haber-Bosch process is likely to have enabled the lives of at least 3 to 3.5 billion people today.
Additional discussion:
Could we have achieved the same without synthetic nitrogen?
If Fritz Haber had not discovered how to make synthetic nitrogen, would we have found alternative solutions to support a population as large as today’s?
Addressing this question partly relies on retrospective guesswork about whether, in the absence of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer, we would have managed to supply nitrogen via other methods. If Fritz Haber or Carl Bosch (or any scientist to follow) hadn’t developed a method for transforming inert atmospheric nitrogen into reactive nitrogen plants could utilize, what is the likelihood that other solutions would have filled the gap?
One solution would have been to greatly increase the production of nitrogen-fixing legume crops. As noted earlier, leguminous crops (i.e. peas, beans and other pulses) possess a unique ability to transform (or ‘fix’) atmospheric nitrogen into reactive nitrogen in the soil. Growing these crops can therefore increase soil nitrogen sources over time. Whilst this might have credibly increased the total availability of reactive nitrogen to some extent, it’s unlikely to have been a widely-scalable solution for several reasons.
Firstly, legumes tend to be lower-yielding relative to cereals and other staple crops. This is true of yields today, but also true of historical yields — in the late nineteenth century, Western European legume yields were typically less than half that of staple cereals.12
Farmers in the 19th and early 20th century would have had little incentive to widely adopt these crops. Secondly, despite the many nutritional and environmental benefits of legumes, they form only a small component of most peoples’ diets. Furthermore, preferences for pulses and legumes tend to decline as incomes rise and food choices widen. The overall appetite for legumes — both from a farmer’s and dietary preference perspective means it would have been high unlikely that they would have been able to supply nitrogen at a scale close to that of the Haber-Bosch process throughout the 20th century.
Another potential nitrogen source is that of organic wastes — nitrogen is supplied in many organic farming systems today in the form of animal manure. Couldn’t we have relied on these non-synthetic nitrogen sources instead? In fact, we did; prior to Haber-Bosch and the creation of synthetic nitrogen inputs, most agricultural systems relied on the recycling of manure, wastes and other biomass back into the soil to maintain nitrogen balance. The issue is that these existed in limited supply: recycling nutrients, by definition, means you have a limited supply. This allowed societies to sustain moderate levels of nitrogen but did not allow them to create more. As Smil (2004) discusses in detail, previous societies could typically support only small numbers of domesticated animals, and as a result, had very limited supplies of manure and animal wastes.13
Synthetic nitrogen not only increased crop yields, but also enabled an expansion in livestock numbers. Increased productivity and excess crops allowed farmers to allocate an increasing share of output to livestock — particularly grain-fed animals. Overall, this has increased the amount of reactive nitrogen which can be recycled through our agricultural systems; with more livestock, we also have more manure to recycle. But it’s important to recognise that such levels of organic nitrogen sources are only available because of previous synthetic nitrogen inputs. The creation of synthetic nitrogen delivered reactive nitrogen to the soil which could then be recycled in the form of organic wastes and biomass. If organic nitrogen could today support a large share of the global population then it is because synthetic nitrogen has enabled it to do so by adding reactive nitrogen to our agricultural systems. Without Fritz Haber’s discovery, this would never have been a possibility.
Our World in Data presents the empirical evidence on global development in entries dedicated to specific topics. This blog post draws on data and research discussed in our entry on Fertilizers.
Endnotes
Malthus (1798). An Essay on the Principle of Population: Or, A View of Its Past and Present Effects on Human Happiness; with an Inquiry Into Our Prospects Respecting the Future Removal Or Mitigation of the Evils which it Occasions. J.Johnson. London. Later edition available online.
It is also true that around 815 million people were undernourished in 2016. However, as is often the case with food insecurity and famine, this is largely attributed to sociopolitical, stability and economic factors rather than an inability to produce enough food.
Legumes are the one exception to this condition. Legumes — such as peas, beans and other pulses — have the unique ability of being able to convert atmospheric N2 into reactive nitrogen, which can then be used for crop growth.
A global estimate therefore hides these inequalities; it may be the case that less than 48 percent of the population in high-income countries rely on nitrogen fertilizer to meet basic food requirements, whereas this share is higher in lower-income nations.
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Licenses: All visualizations, data, and articles produced by Our World in Data are open access under the Creative Commons BY license. You have permission to use, distribute, and reproduce these in any medium, provided the source and authors are credited. All the software and code that we write is open source and made available via GitHub under the permissive MIT license. All other material, including data produced by third parties and made available by Our World in Data, is subject to the license terms from the original third-party authors. | It should be noted that this growth in agricultural output — from both industrial and organic farming — has undoubtedly resulted in important ecological and resource pressures. However, as we cover in detail in a recent blog post, organic farming (that is, agriculture without synthetic inputs) can often have a greater environmental impact than conventional agriculture.
So, how many people does synthetic nitrogen fertilizer actually feed? Below we draw upon several published estimates, which tend to converge on a similar share of the global population. Results published by Erisman et al. (2012) in the scientific magazine Nature are shown in the chart.7
These results also tie closely with Vaclav Smil’s widely-quoted estimates, which we discuss later.8
In the chart we see the actual global population trend in blue — growing from around 1.65 billion in 1900 to almost 7.4 billion in 2015.
The line in grey represents estimates of the number of people fed by synthetic nitrogen fertilizers. As we see, nitrogen fertilizers only became available following the commercialization of the Haber-Bosch process from 1910 onwards. Since then, Erisman et al. estimate it has supported 42 percent of global births over the past century. This amounts to 44 percent of the global population in 2000 being fed by nitrogen fertilizers, rising to 48 percent in 2008. Here we have extended this estimate to 2015 with the continuation of the assumption that 48 percent of the global population are fed by nitrogen fertilizers. Since the share supported by the process continues to rise, this may in fact be a conservative estimate. This means that in 2015, nitrogen fertilizers supported 3.5 billion people that otherwise would have died.
The red line represents the size of the global population which would therefore be supported without the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. This is shown simply as the actual population minus the number of people reliant on them for food production. Without this innovation, global population may have been reduced to only 3.5 to 4 billion people.
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Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://foodtank.com/news/2016/06/dirt-democracy-and-organic-farming-a-recipe-to-feed-the-world/ | Dirt, Democracy, and Organic Farming: A Recipe to Feed the World ... | Dirt, Democracy, and Organic Farming: A Recipe to Feed the World
How many scientists does it take to debunk the myth that we need more food to feed the world? In the past decade, hundreds of scientists and experts have made it clear: Feeding the world is not about increasing how many bushels of grain we can grow, it’s about dirt, democracy, and our diets.
A new report from Friends of the Earth, Farming for the Future, compiles the data and details how we can create a food system that feeds all people, now and into the future.
Democracy
Scientists estimate that farmers already produce enough food to feed 10 billion people — far more than the current population of roughly 7.3 billion. Still, at least 800 million go hungry every day and many more are undernourished. Why? Because hunger is not caused by a scarcity in food, it’s caused by a scarcity in democracy and unequal access to land, water, credit, and fair markets.
Small farmers are the backbone of world food supply, making up 90 percent of farmers worldwide and providing more than 80 percent of the food consumed in much of the developing world. Increasing their access to resources is fundamental to food security and poverty reduction.
Diets
The great plenty of the United States grain belt is not “feeding the world.” It is primarily feeding cars, cows, chickens and pigs; 40 percent of U.S. corn goes to biofuels and another 35 percent is used for animal feed. These trends are replicated globally. Reducing meat consumption in line with standard dietary guidelines could free up land and resources to grow nutritious food directly for people. It could also save up to US$31 trillion globally by reducing healthcare costs and environmental damage associated with livestock production, according to one analysis.
Reducing food waste is also key; one-third of food produced globally is lost to waste, spoilage or left in the field, creating scarcity out of abundance.
Today’s industrial food system is hurtling headlong in the wrong direction. Environmental harm caused by industrial agriculture costs the world US$3 trillion each year, including US$1.8 trillion from livestock production, according to the Food and Agriculture Organization. Evidence of harm is everywhere: from soil erosion and major greenhouse gas emissions, to depletion of water resources and oceanic dead zones associated with synthetic fertilizer run-off.
The good news is millions of farmers around the world are leading the way to a more sustainable food future by using organic and other ecological farming methods. Not only can they yield enough to feed a growing population, research shows that agroecological practices like intercropping, cover cropping, crop rotation, conservation tillage, composting and managed livestock grazing can foster biodiversity, natural soil fertility, water conservation and biological control of insects.
Compared with industrial agriculture, organic farming is less energy intensive and sequesters more carbon in the soil, making it a crucial climate change mitigation strategy. Organic farming systems provide greater resilience in the face of climate-related weather impacts like drought and floods by improving soil structure and soil water-holding capacity.
Organic also outperforms industrial agriculture on measures of economic stability and well-being and protects the health of consumers, farmers, farmworkers, and rural communities by eliminating the use of highly toxic pesticides.
The public relations spin
Why is the myth that we need more food to feed the world so persistent despite all of this evidence? As Friends of the Earth’s 2015 report Spinning Food documents, agrichemical companies and their allies spend tens of millions of dollars a year to spread misleading messages about the safety and necessity of chemical-intensive industrial agriculture. This narrative — along with a political process captured by corporate interests — bolsters a system that delivers billions of dollars a year in profits to agribusinesses from costly inputs — including pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, antibiotics, growth hormones and genetically engineered seeds.
Policies for a sustainable food future
The myth that we need more food to feed the world is used to justify policies, research and markets that keep us on the path of business as usual. The following policy priorities address the true causes of hunger and lead the way to a sustainable food future:
Boost public investment in conservation programs, research, and technical assistance to expand support for transition to organic and more diversified, sustainable production systems;
Increase small- and mid-scale food producers’ access to arable land, water, credit, and fair markets, with a focus on women, disadvantaged, beginning, and young farmers;
Reject international trade agreements that prioritize export commodity production and erode public investments in local and regional diversified food production;
Shift subsidies and policies away from support for biofuel and livestock feed crops and into support for diversified, nutritious crops and mixed crop/livestock systems; linking existing subsidies, including crop insurance to the implementation of diversified farming and conservation practices;
Strengthen the regulation of industrial agriculture and concentrated animal feeding operations to reduce air and water pollution and curb greenhouse gas emissions;
Enact stricter regulation of use of synthetic chemical inputs, including banning the routine use of antibiotics in animal agriculture and bee-killing neonicotinoid pesticides;
Reduce the billions of tons of food wasted each year.
Friends of the Earth and our allies are helping to lead a groundswell of citizen, consumer and farmer action focused on building a sustainable, healthy, and equitable food system for all. Please join us!
Kendra Klein, PhD, is Senior Staff Scientist at Friends of the Earth where she leads work on food and farming solutions. She is a writer, researcher, and advocate with over sixteen years of experience in environmental sustainability, food, agriculture, and environmental health. Prior to joining FOE, she coordinated farm-to-institution work at the California Healthy Food in Health Care campaign and worked at Breast Cancer Action on chemical policy reform and corporate accountability related to pink ribbon fundraising. Kendra has apprenticed on organic farms in California and Hawaii. She is a 2011 Switzer Environmental Fellow and has written for The Nation, Gastronomica, Civil Eats, Food Tank, and EcoWatch. She holds a BA in Interdisciplinary Studies from Miami University of Ohio and a PhD in Environmental Science, Policy & Management from UC Berkeley. | Evidence of harm is everywhere: from soil erosion and major greenhouse gas emissions, to depletion of water resources and oceanic dead zones associated with synthetic fertilizer run-off.
The good news is millions of farmers around the world are leading the way to a more sustainable food future by using organic and other ecological farming methods. Not only can they yield enough to feed a growing population, research shows that agroecological practices like intercropping, cover cropping, crop rotation, conservation tillage, composting and managed livestock grazing can foster biodiversity, natural soil fertility, water conservation and biological control of insects.
Compared with industrial agriculture, organic farming is less energy intensive and sequesters more carbon in the soil, making it a crucial climate change mitigation strategy. Organic farming systems provide greater resilience in the face of climate-related weather impacts like drought and floods by improving soil structure and soil water-holding capacity.
Organic also outperforms industrial agriculture on measures of economic stability and well-being and protects the health of consumers, farmers, farmworkers, and rural communities by eliminating the use of highly toxic pesticides.
The public relations spin
Why is the myth that we need more food to feed the world so persistent despite all of this evidence? As Friends of the Earth’s 2015 report Spinning Food documents, agrichemical companies and their allies spend tens of millions of dollars a year to spread misleading messages about the safety and necessity of chemical-intensive industrial agriculture. This narrative — along with a political process captured by corporate interests — bolsters a system that delivers billions of dollars a year in profits to agribusinesses from costly inputs — including pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, antibiotics, growth hormones and genetically engineered seeds.
| yes |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://theecologist.org/2017/nov/27/major-new-scientific-research-finds-organic-farming-can-feed-world | Major new scientific research finds that organic farming can feed the ... | New scientific research has identified the important role that organic agriculture can play in feeding a global population of 9 billion sustainably by 2050.
Published in the journal Nature Communications, by scientists from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), the key question the research examines is: "whether producing a certain total amount of food, in terms of protein and calories, with organic agriculture would lead to higher, or lower, impacts than producing the same amount of food with conventional agriculture".
The scientists’ answer is that organic agriculture can feed the world with lower environmental impacts - if we cut food waste and stop using so much cropland to feed farm animals. The authors conclude: "A 100% conversion to organic agriculture needs more land than conventional agriculture but reduces N-surplus and pesticide use."
Unsustainable diets
However, they go on to explain that, if food waste is reduced and arable land is not used to produce animal feed, with less production and consumption of animal products, ‘land use under organic agriculture remains below’ the current area of farmland.
The authors note that organic agriculture has faced claims that far greater land use and associated deforestation would be necessary to feed the world organically due to an average yield gap of 20% on intensive production. Yet when other sensible and necessary changes are made, organic farming can provide enough food for healthy diets, and organic food is produced with far fewer unsustainable inputs.
The Soil Association welcomes this study, which rightly looks at organic farming as part of an interconnected global food system, and which highlights the need to address the impacts of unsustainable diets, animal feed production, and food waste. Other commentators have commented on the report’s findings about the role of organic farming.
Alternative food
Dr Geoff Squire, Principal Scientist, Ecological Sciences, James Hutton Institute, said: "The models suggest that certain combinations of organic production area, reduction in food waste, and transfer of feed-producing to food-producing activities on arable land, coupled with greater use of nitrogen-fixing legumes can sustain the world’s 2050 population with no more than existing farmland."
One thing that makes this study different to others is that it has designed a new global food system model which aims comprehensively to capture organic production systems for the first time.
The SOL model takes the FAO food systems projections for 2050 of different environmental impacts, such as land use, nitrogen surplus and deforestation. It then applies alternative food system scenarios to the model, including reducing food waste, lowering animal feed production, and lower inputs, especially of nitrogen, and lower yields of organic agriculture.
The researchers are clear that organic agriculture does not have all the answers, however, as environmental campaigners and food policy experts argue, no farming system can operate sustainably, and achieve the large reductions in greenhouse gas emissions needed to save the planet, without reduced and altered food consumption.
As the authors say: "Reducing global average demand for animal products and their share in human diets is a strategy for more sustainable food systems on the basis of natural resource use, environmental impact and also human health arguments."
Specifically this research looks at the issue of feed for livestock (animal feed grown on land that could produce food for people) and finds that the potential for arable land used for animal feed to be freed up for human consumption is enormous.
The research states that: ‘Organic agriculture can only contribute to providing sufficient food for the 2050 population and simultaneously reducing environmental impacts from agriculture, if it is implemented in a well-designed food system in which animal feeding rations, and as a consequence reduced animal numbers and animal product consumption, and food wastage are addressed.’
Previous research has shown huge environmental potential in these areas. In a plea for more connected food systems thinking, the report states: ‘The development of organic agriculture in the future should take up these challenges on the consumption side, and not only focus on sustainable production.’
Wildlife campaigners
The Soil Association strongly agrees. We have been encouraging healthy consumption alongside environmentally sustainable production for many years with our Food for Life programme.
The importance of a transition to a well-designed food system is precisely what many organisations and individuals are campaigning to achieve - from farmers and food experts, to wildlife campaigners and health professionals.
This study provides further evidence that organic farming has an important role to play, as part of that. Nobody’s suggesting that we should switch to 100% organic agriculture overnight – indeed, one of the authors suggests a more modest target of 50% organic as a first step, which would mean an enormous and hugely beneficial increase in organic farming and growing.
Nevertheless, in the longer term, this research is a timely reminder that, alongside other vital changes to the food system: ‘organic agriculture can contribute to feeding more than 9 billion people in 2050, and do so sustainably.’
This Author
Peter Melchett has been Policy Director of the Soil Association, the UK's main organic food and farming organisation, working on campaigns, standards and policy, since 2001. He runs an 890-acre organic farm in Norfolk, with beef cattle and arable seed crops.Find out more about Soil Association Certification.
More from this author
The government’s consultation on future farming policy in England ended last week. Many see it as a unique opportunity to make some positive changes - not least in the provision of information about differences in quality and production systems, says PETER MELCHETT of the Soil Association
A new study sets out the huge benefits of organic farming to people and the environment, writes Peter Melchett, including more wildlife, healthier consumers and farm workers, lower greenhouse gas emissions, reduced soil erosion and increased water retention. We need more of it, fast!
The European Parliament just voted to re-authorise glyphosate, writes Peter Melchett - but with significant restrictions on its use. So what does the vote mean for the world's biggest selling herbicide? And how come the UK's National Farmers' Union welcomed the decision as an unqualified victory?
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The Ecologist is an environmental news and analysis website with a focus on environmental, social and economic justice.
Our aim is to educate and inform as many people as possible about the wonders of nature, the crisis we face and the best solutions and methods in managing that crisis. Find out about our mission, and our team, here. The website is owned and published by The Resurgence Trust, a company limited by guarantee registered in England and Wales (5821436) and a charity registered in England and Wales (1120414). To receive the magazine, become a member now. The views expressed in the articles published on this site may not necessarily reflect those of the trust, its trustees or its staff. | New scientific research has identified the important role that organic agriculture can play in feeding a global population of 9 billion sustainably by 2050.
Published in the journal Nature Communications, by scientists from the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), the key question the research examines is: "whether producing a certain total amount of food, in terms of protein and calories, with organic agriculture would lead to higher, or lower, impacts than producing the same amount of food with conventional agriculture".
The scientists’ answer is that organic agriculture can feed the world with lower environmental impacts - if we cut food waste and stop using so much cropland to feed farm animals. The authors conclude: "A 100% conversion to organic agriculture needs more land than conventional agriculture but reduces N-surplus and pesticide use. "
Unsustainable diets
However, they go on to explain that, if food waste is reduced and arable land is not used to produce animal feed, with less production and consumption of animal products, ‘land use under organic agriculture remains below’ the current area of farmland.
The authors note that organic agriculture has faced claims that far greater land use and associated deforestation would be necessary to feed the world organically due to an average yield gap of 20% on intensive production. Yet when other sensible and necessary changes are made, organic farming can provide enough food for healthy diets, and organic food is produced with far fewer unsustainable inputs.
The Soil Association welcomes this study, which rightly looks at organic farming as part of an interconnected global food system, and which highlights the need to address the impacts of unsustainable diets, animal feed production, and food waste. Other commentators have commented on the report’s findings about the role of organic farming.
| yes |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://blog.ucsusa.org/science-blogger/organic-agriculture-is-key-to-helping-feed-the-world-sustainably/ | Organic Agriculture Is Key to Helping Feed the World Sustainably ... | Organic Agriculture Is Key to Helping Feed the World Sustainably
Organic agriculture is a relatively untapped resource for feeding the Earth’s population, especially in the face of climate change and other global challenges. That’s the conclusion my doctoral candidate Jonathan Wachter and I reached in reviewing 40 years of science comparing the long-term prospects of organic and conventional farming.
Hundreds of scientific studies now show that organic agriculture can produce sufficient yields, be profitable for farmers, protect and improve the environment, and be safer for farm workers. Thirty years ago, there were just a couple handfuls of studies comparing organic with conventional agriculture. In the last 15 years, the number of these kinds of studies has skyrocketed.
The review study, “Organic Agriculture in the 21st Century,” is featured as the cover story for the February issue of the journal Nature Plants. It is the first to compare organic and conventional agriculture across the four goals of sustainability identified by the National Academy of Sciences: productivity, economics, environment, and social wellbeing.
The yield question
Critics have long argued that organic agriculture is inefficient, requiring more land to yield the same amount of food. It’s true that organic farming produces lower yields, averaging 10 to 20 percent less than conventional. Proponents contend that the environmental advantages of organic agriculture far outweigh the lower yields, and that increasing research and breeding resources for organic systems would reduce the yield gap. Sometimes excluded from these arguments is the fact that we already produce enough food to more than feed the world’s 7.4 billion people but do not provide adequate access to all individuals.
In some cases, organic yields can be higher than conventional. For example, in severe drought conditions, which are expected to increase with climate change in many areas, organic farms can produce as good, if not better, yields because of the higher water-holding capacity of organically farmed soils.
What science does tell us is that mainstream conventional farming systems have provided growing supplies of food and other products but often at the expense of other sustainability goals.
Environmental benefits
Conventional agriculture may produce more food, but it often comes at a cost to the environment. Biodiversity loss, environmental degradation, and severe impacts on ecosystem services have not only accompanied conventional farming systems but have often extended well beyond their field boundaries. With organic agriculture, environmental costs tend to be lower and the benefits greater.
Overall, organic farms tend to store more soil carbon, have better soil quality, and reduce soil erosion compared to their conventional counterparts. Organic agriculture also creates less soil and water pollution and lower greenhouse gas emissions. And it’s more energy-efficient because it doesn’t rely on synthetic fertilizers or pesticides.
Organic agriculture is also associated with greater biodiversity of plants, animals, insects and microbes as well as genetic diversity. Biodiversity increases the services that nature provides, like pollination, and improves the ability of farming systems to adapt to changing conditions.
Profitability
Despite lower yields, organic agriculture is more profitable for farmers because consumers are willing to pay more. Higher prices, called price premiums, can be justified as way to compensate farmers for providing ecosystem services and avoiding environmental damage or external costs.
Wellbeing
Although studies that evaluate social equity and quality of life for farm communities are few, what is available suggests that both organic and conventional farming leave room for improvement. Still, organic farming comes out ahead when it comes to providing jobs for workers and reducing farmworkers’ exposure to pesticides and other chemicals. Many organic certification programs also have wellbeing goals for farmworkers, as well as animals.
An assessment of organic farming relative to conventional farming illustrates that organic systems better balance the four areas of sustainability: production (orange), environment (blue), economics (red), and social wellbeing (green). Source: Nature Plants
Beyond organic
Organic agriculture has been able to provide jobs, be profitable, benefit the soil and environment, and support social interactions between farmers and consumers. Yet, no single type of farming can feed the world. Rather, what’s needed is a blend of organic and other innovative farming systems, including agroforestry, integrated farming, conservation agriculture, mixed crop/livestock, and still undiscovered systems.
Policy changes needed
With only 1% of global agricultural land in organic production, organic agriculture can contribute a larger share in feeding the world. Yet, significant barriers to farmers adopting organic agriculture hinder its expansion. Such hurdles include existing policies, the costs of transitioning to organic certification, lack of access to labor and markets, and lack of appropriate infrastructure for storing and transporting food. Governments should focus on creating policies that help develop not just organic but also other innovative and more sustainable farming systems. Specifically, agricultural policies should:
Dr. John Reganold is Regents Professor of Soil Science and Agroecology at Washington State University and has spent 30-plus years bringing a blend of innovative research and teaching on sustainable farming systems into the mainstream of higher education and food production. His research has measured the effects of organic, integrated, and conventional farming systems on productivity, financial performance, environmental quality, and social wellbeing on five continents. His former students are on the front lines of sustainability around the world, bringing food security to sub-Saharan Africa for the U.S. Agency for International Development, adapting quinoa to the salty soils of Utah, working on agroecology for Pacific Foods in Oregon, and turning wastes into resources in Haiti.
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The UCS Science Network is an inclusive community of more than 25,000 scientists, engineers, economists, and other experts, focused on changing the world for the better. The views expressed in Science Network posts are those of the authors alone. | Organic Agriculture Is Key to Helping Feed the World Sustainably
Organic agriculture is a relatively untapped resource for feeding the Earth’s population, especially in the face of climate change and other global challenges. That’s the conclusion my doctoral candidate Jonathan Wachter and I reached in reviewing 40 years of science comparing the long-term prospects of organic and conventional farming.
Hundreds of scientific studies now show that organic agriculture can produce sufficient yields, be profitable for farmers, protect and improve the environment, and be safer for farm workers. Thirty years ago, there were just a couple handfuls of studies comparing organic with conventional agriculture. In the last 15 years, the number of these kinds of studies has skyrocketed.
The review study, “Organic Agriculture in the 21st Century,” is featured as the cover story for the February issue of the journal Nature Plants. It is the first to compare organic and conventional agriculture across the four goals of sustainability identified by the National Academy of Sciences: productivity, economics, environment, and social wellbeing.
The yield question
Critics have long argued that organic agriculture is inefficient, requiring more land to yield the same amount of food. It’s true that organic farming produces lower yields, averaging 10 to 20 percent less than conventional. Proponents contend that the environmental advantages of organic agriculture far outweigh the lower yields, and that increasing research and breeding resources for organic systems would reduce the yield gap. Sometimes excluded from these arguments is the fact that we already produce enough food to more than feed the world’s 7.4 billion people but do not provide adequate access to all individuals.
In some cases, organic yields can be higher than conventional. For example, in severe drought conditions, which are expected to increase with climate change in many areas, organic farms can produce as good, if not better, yields because of the higher water-holding capacity of organically farmed soils.
What science does tell us is that mainstream conventional farming systems have provided growing supplies of food and other products but often at the expense of other sustainability goals.
| yes |
Conservation | Can organic farming feed the world? | yes_statement | "organic" "farming" has the potential to "feed" the "world".. it is possible for "organic" "farming" to provide enough food for the "world"'s population. | https://youmatter.world/en/organic-farming-feed-world-2050/ | Today's Organic Farming Practices Can't Feed the World by 2050 | Because of its lower environmental impact compared to industrial farming, organic farming is increasingly showing up on the agenda for a more sustainable world. A new study suggests its nitrogen – a fundamental nutrient that fuels agricultural production – limitations make it unsuitable to feed the world by 2050.
Can Organic Farming Feed the Entire world? Under Today’s Premises, It Cannot.
One of the study’s first sentences is that:
“Organic farming has lower yields than conventional agriculture and requires the introduction of nitrogen (N) fixing legumes in crop rotations.“
It was with this motto in mind a team of scientists from Portugal and Austria developed a study that concluded it will not be possible to feed all of humanity in 2050 (9-9.5 billion people) just by switching to organic farming as we practice it today.
The work was published in the scientific journal Global Environmental Change, highlighting that organic farming, which prohibits the use of synthetic fertilizers, cannot provide enough nitrogen for crops to be viable globally.
“The results clearly demonstrate that the complete transition to organic production in 2050, as presently practiced, leads to a lack of nutrients to produce the food needed to feed the world’s population regardless of dietary changes.”
Tiago Morais, one of study’s researchers
One reason is that organic farming has a lower productivity per yield, meaning it needs more space to produce the same amount of food compared to non-organic farming methods.
The study also assumed there would be no additional deforestation – which is very important for the climate agenda – and that, therefore, there won’t be enough area for (today’s) organic farming methods if they were to replace industrial farming practices.
Can Organic Farming Become Viable Until 2050?
In the search for solutions to make organic agriculture viable by 2050 – considering its limitations of needing a larger area and its insufficient nitrogen production – the study highlights the need for betting on different strategies.
One solution is to increase the efficiency of the food given to animals or to make compost out of solid urban waste and then use it to fertilize the land.
Another solution would be to increase – via food engineering – the ability of legumes to obtain nitrogen from the atmosphere. This would mean making all legumes fix nitrogen at the same rate as the best legumes do.
Optimizing crop rotations, reducing food waste, decarbonizing the process (Haber-Bosch) by which we produce synthetic fertilizer, or using biogas from animal waste are other solutions to organic farming that need to be further explored and improved.
“Combining these solutions, we could have an organic agriculture that has enough nitrogen and does not need to create deforestation to have enough area to feed humanity in 2050,” said Tiago Domingos, one of the study’s main researchers.
From an Organic Farming Perspective, What Is the Most Eco-Friendly Diet?
As we’ve seen, the model used in the study analyzed a series of solutions to feed humanity in 2050 – considering both organic and conventional farming. But it also explores the question of what would be the most sustainable diet according to both types of farming.
From the point of view of conventional farming, the least impactful diet is the vegan one where no animal products are used – nothing new so far.
However, a 100% move to organic farming would hardly be compatible with a purely vegan diet.
Why?
Because it is very important to have a “significant” animal component in the agricultural system since they make nitrogen available to the agricultural systems through manure, Tiago Domingos explained. | Because of its lower environmental impact compared to industrial farming, organic farming is increasingly showing up on the agenda for a more sustainable world. A new study suggests its nitrogen – a fundamental nutrient that fuels agricultural production – limitations make it unsuitable to feed the world by 2050.
Can Organic Farming Feed the Entire world? Under Today’s Premises, It Cannot.
One of the study’s first sentences is that:
“Organic farming has lower yields than conventional agriculture and requires the introduction of nitrogen (N) fixing legumes in crop rotations. “
It was with this motto in mind a team of scientists from Portugal and Austria developed a study that concluded it will not be possible to feed all of humanity in 2050 (9-9.5 billion people) just by switching to organic farming as we practice it today.
The work was published in the scientific journal Global Environmental Change, highlighting that organic farming, which prohibits the use of synthetic fertilizers, cannot provide enough nitrogen for crops to be viable globally.
“The results clearly demonstrate that the complete transition to organic production in 2050, as presently practiced, leads to a lack of nutrients to produce the food needed to feed the world’s population regardless of dietary changes.”
Tiago Morais, one of study’s researchers
One reason is that organic farming has a lower productivity per yield, meaning it needs more space to produce the same amount of food compared to non-organic farming methods.
The study also assumed there would be no additional deforestation – which is very important for the climate agenda – and that, therefore, there won’t be enough area for (today’s) organic farming methods if they were to replace industrial farming practices.
Can Organic Farming Become Viable Until 2050?
In the search for solutions to make organic agriculture viable by 2050 – considering its limitations of needing a larger area and its insufficient nitrogen production – the study highlights the need for betting on different strategies.
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