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Zymology | Can you make beer at home without a license? | yes_statement | it is possible to make "beer" at "home" without a "license".. brewing "beer" at "home" can be done without a "license". | https://lcc.nebraska.gov/homebrewing-faq | Homebrewing FAQ | Liquor Control Commission | Homebrewing FAQ
GUIDANCE DOCUMENT
This guidance document is advisory in nature but is binding on an agency until amended by such agency. A guidance document does not include internal procedural documents that only affect the internal operations of the agency and does not impose additional requirements or penalties on regulated parties or include confidential information or rules and regulations made in accordance with the Administrative Procedure Act. If you believe that this guidance document imposes additional requirements or penalties on regulated parties, you may request a review of the document.
This guidance document may change with updated information or added examples. The Commission recommends you check this document for the most up to date questions.
Information for Home Brewers
Nebraska Statute 53-168.06 has been amended due to the passage of LB235.
53-168.06 No person shall manufacture, bottle, blend, sell, barter, transport, deliver, furnish, or possess any alcoholic liquor for beverage purposes except as specifically provided in the Nebraska Liquor Control Act. Nothing in the act shall prevent: (1) The possession of alcoholic liquor legally obtained as provided in the act for the personal use of the possessor and his or her family and guests; (2) The making, transport, and delivery of wine, cider, beer, mead, perry, or other alcoholic liquor by a person from fruits, vegetables, honey, or grains, or the product thereof, by simple fermentation and without distillation, (a) if made solely for the use of the maker and his or her family and guests if such alcoholic liquor is not sold or offered for sale, or (b) if made without a permit for an exhibition, festival, or tasting competition, including exhibitions, festivals, or tasting competitions that are for nonprofit organizations such as fundraising events, legally conducted under the act, if such alcoholic liquor is not sold or offered for sale. Alcoholic liquor served pursuant to this subdivision (b) shall clearly be identified as alcoholic liquor that was manufactured under an exception to the rules and regulations of the commission by signage, and the location of the manufacturer shall be available upon request. Free or reduced admission to the exhibition, festival, or tasting competition shall not be considered a sale of the alcoholic liquor; …
If following the guidelines as outlined above, no Special Designated License (SDL) is required. The signage as outline above is the responsibility of the Home Brewer.
An acceptable disclaimer: Beverages served from this table were not produced using a licensed commercial facility and is considered “homebrew” and is manufactured under an exception to the rules and regulations of the Liquor Control Commission.
If the exhibition, festival, or tasting competition is hosted by a permanent liquor license holder, no SDL would be required due to 53-175 allowing for exemptions (outlined in 53-168.06) to be on the licensed retail premises. Please remember to remove all home brewed product from the premises immediately after the event, exhibition, tasting competition or festival regardless of location.
Frequently Asked Questions
LB235 Questions
Q: When does LB235 become law? A: LB235 revises Nebraska State Statute 53-168.06 and goes into effect 8/29/19.
Q: What is the position of the Commission regarding home brew donated at festivals, exhibitions and tasting competitions? A: This is allowed per §53-168.06 provided it is not sold or offered for sale.
Q: Can a home brewer participate in a brewer’s competition? A: Yes per §53-168.06
Q: Is there a limit to how much beer can be allowed for tastings or sampling? A: Federal regulation 25.205 indicates 200 gallons per calendar year if there are two or more adults residing in the household, or 100 gallons per calendar year if there is only one adult residing in the household. Any adult is any individual who is 21 years of age or older. All rules and statutes apply for over service, serving to minors, etc.
Q: Can I charge for my beer? A: No per §53-168.06. You must be licensed in order to receive profits from the sale of alcohol. (§53-1,100)
Q: Can there be free will donations? A: No, this is considered soliciting monetary compensation and is considered selling product.
Q: Who is responsible for signs noted in the statute? A: The home brewer is responsible for all signs.
Q: Can a home brewer be recognized as a brewery or brewery-in-process? A: No, home brewers are just that, home brewers. They can be recognized as belonging to a home brewers club, but must be labeled as a home brewer.
Q: Can the signs the home brewers provide noting they are home brewers be the same? A: Yes! If all home brewers have the same signs with the same info and it has been approved by the NLCC, this is ok and encouraged.
Q: Does the location of where the product was made need to be available? A: Yes, the location of where the beer was made needs to be available upon request. Upon request the NLCC must be able to see documentation. Keep information on file. It does not have to be on hand at the event.
Homebrewing Competitions
Q: Should competitions or exhibitions have the home brewer’s information? A: Yes, locations holding an event should have contact information of the home brewers.
Q: Can a home brewer transport into and out of the state for competitions? A: Yes and maybe. Nebraska law allows the transport into Nebraska homebrew from outside the state for competitions. If you wish to transport homebrew into another state, you need to contact the state liquor authority in that state to make sure you are in compliance. Please remember to abide by the federal production limits as well.
Q: Can there be prizes given for competitions? Would the prize be considered selling product? A: There can be prizes for competitions. Accepting/Receiving a prize for a competition would not be considered selling your home brewed product.
General Homebrew Questions
Q: Is home brewed beer subject to excise tax? A: No, home brewed beer is not for sale and therefore not subject to excise tax in Nebraska.
Q: Do out of state home brewers need to follow the Nebraska guidelines and statutes? A: Yes, all home brewers, in state and out of state must follow the statutes and guidelines while in Nebraska.
Q: Should home brewers add tags and/or labels on the container when transporting/serving noting home brewed product and the destination? A: This is recommended as a standardization for home brewers.
Q: Can home brewers go to a licensed craft brewers premise and hold meetings and bring product? A: As long as the craft brewery has approved and home brew product is kept separate from the product at the licensed premise and out of the brewery’s production area.
Q: Are there stipulations on where in a licensed brewery a home brewer can bring their product? A: Yes, do not bring home brewed product into the production area. Home brewed product should be kept in the public areas outlined at the brewery.
Q: Can I refuse someone beer? A: Yes, if you think they are underage or are visibly intoxicated, do not serve them. Check ID’s and event bands. If in doubt, do not serve.
Q: Should I include ABV’s on the beer signs? A: This is a great idea! While not required, it is recommended for public knowledge.
Q: Are Non-Profit home brewers groups allowed to fundraise when using an SDL? A: Yes, as long as the individual home brewer is not selling beer or receiving profits in any way. However, homebrew is not permitted to be sold, so fundraising cannot be through the sale of the homebrew.
Q. How much can a home brewer produce per year in Nebraska? A. Home brewers are limited by Federal regulation to 100 gallons per calendar year in a single adult household, or 200 gallons per year if there is more than one adult in the household.
Any other additional questions regarding home brewing should be directed to the
Nebraska Liquor Control Commission – email: lcc.frontdesk@nebraska.gov or call (402) 471-2571 | Alcoholic liquor served pursuant to this subdivision (b) shall clearly be identified as alcoholic liquor that was manufactured under an exception to the rules and regulations of the commission by signage, and the location of the manufacturer shall be available upon request. Free or reduced admission to the exhibition, festival, or tasting competition shall not be considered a sale of the alcoholic liquor; …
If following the guidelines as outlined above, no Special Designated License (SDL) is required. The signage as outline above is the responsibility of the Home Brewer.
An acceptable disclaimer: Beverages served from this table were not produced using a licensed commercial facility and is considered “homebrew” and is manufactured under an exception to the rules and regulations of the Liquor Control Commission.
If the exhibition, festival, or tasting competition is hosted by a permanent liquor license holder, no SDL would be required due to 53-175 allowing for exemptions (outlined in 53-168.06) to be on the licensed retail premises. Please remember to remove all home brewed product from the premises immediately after the event, exhibition, tasting competition or festival regardless of location.
| yes |
Zymology | Can you make beer at home without a license? | yes_statement | it is possible to make "beer" at "home" without a "license".. brewing "beer" at "home" can be done without a "license". | https://lcb.wa.gov/enforcement/breweries-faq | Breweries FAQ | Washington State Liquor and Cannabis Board | Search form
Breweries FAQ
I heard there was a state tax increase on beer in Washington. Where can I learn more?
The Washington State beer tax high rate increased June 1, 2010. The rate does not apply to Washington State Microbreweries, Domestic breweries, or Out-of-State beer producers who have been approved to report and pay at the reduced tax rate.
When are tax reports due?
Tax reports must be submitted or postmarked on or before the 20th of the month following activity. A report must be filed each month, including those months when there is no activity. When the 20th falls on a Saturday, Sunday or a legal holiday, the filing must be postmarked by the U.S. Postal Service no later than the next postal business day.
If you do not have any activity to report, you can file tax reports in advance.
Breweries may file their monthly tax reports and make payments online using the WSLCB’s Online Tax Reporting and Payment System. The system is available 24 hours a day, allows you to view previously filed reports, and is secure and confidential.
Can a domestic brewery or microbrewery hold a retail liquor license?
Yes, the brewery or microbrewery licensee may hold up to two retail liquor licenses operated on or off the premises of the brewery or microbrewery. The retail license can be a tavern; beer and/or wine restaurant; or a spirits/beer/wine restaurant.
Can a microbrewery holding a spirits/beer/wine restaurant or beer/wine restaurant hold a caterer’s endorsement?
Yes. You must complete an Application for Added Endorsement.
Can I contract produce beer for someone else?
An in-state microbrewery can contract produce for another in-state microbrewery.
Both microbreweries must be a bona fide microbrewery and produce malt beverages.
Both microbreweries must claim production against their allotted 60,000 barrels.
There must be a written contract between the two microbreweries.
Do I need a federal permit to make beer?
If the product you produce will be sold, then you need a federal permit along with a state liquor license. Visit the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau, U.S. Department of the Treasury, at www.ttb.gov/ for more information about federal permits.
Homemade beer
Can I make homemade beer at my home for private consumption?
Yes. A license is not required if the beer is for private consumption and is not for sale.
Homemade beer is not required to be consumed in the home where it was produced.
Homemade beer may be removed from the home for private consumption.
The amount of homemade beer an adult may remove from the home is 20 gallons.
Use of homemade beer at organized affairs, exhibitions, or competitions is considered private consumption.
Additional locations
What is allowed at my additional location?
You may sell drinks by the glass of beer of your own production, sell bottles to go, and offer food.
Pouring off premises
Can a brewery pour beer off their brewery premises?
Yes, but only at the following:
At a grocery store sampling event.
A beer tasting exhibition (event designed specifically for beer) or judging event. | Can a domestic brewery or microbrewery hold a retail liquor license?
Yes, the brewery or microbrewery licensee may hold up to two retail liquor licenses operated on or off the premises of the brewery or microbrewery. The retail license can be a tavern; beer and/or wine restaurant; or a spirits/beer/wine restaurant.
Can a microbrewery holding a spirits/beer/wine restaurant or beer/wine restaurant hold a caterer’s endorsement?
Yes. You must complete an Application for Added Endorsement.
Can I contract produce beer for someone else?
An in-state microbrewery can contract produce for another in-state microbrewery.
Both microbreweries must be a bona fide microbrewery and produce malt beverages.
Both microbreweries must claim production against their allotted 60,000 barrels.
There must be a written contract between the two microbreweries.
Do I need a federal permit to make beer?
If the product you produce will be sold, then you need a federal permit along with a state liquor license. Visit the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau, U.S. Department of the Treasury, at www.ttb.gov/ for more information about federal permits.
Homemade beer
Can I make homemade beer at my home for private consumption?
Yes. A license is not required if the beer is for private consumption and is not for sale.
Homemade beer is not required to be consumed in the home where it was produced.
Homemade beer may be removed from the home for private consumption.
The amount of homemade beer an adult may remove from the home is 20 gallons.
Use of homemade beer at organized affairs, exhibitions, or competitions is considered private consumption.
Additional locations
What is allowed at my additional location?
You may sell drinks by the glass of beer of your own production, sell bottles to go, and offer food.
| yes |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://www.healthline.com/health/how-to-get-rid-of-split-ends | How to Get Rid of Split Ends | How to Conceal or Get Rid of Split Ends
What causes split ends?
Split ends happen when the ends of your hair become dry, brittle, and frayed. They may resemble the end of an unraveled rope.
Exposure to extreme weather conditions, and hair care techniques such as blow drying, straightening, and curling may cause split ends. They’re also caused by chemical hair products. With so many people using hair products daily, split ends are common. Almost everyone will deal with split ends at some point.
Split ends can’t be repaired. The only reliable way to get rid of them is to cut them off.
The latest trend to get rid of split ends is a process called velaterapia, also known as candle cutting. The process was made famous after supermodel Alessandra Ambrosio posted a picture on Instagram of her stylist holding a candle to her hair.
Candle cutting requires twisting a section of your hair and burning it halfway through with a lighted candle. It’s thought that burning off your split ends can create a seal to help protect the ends from splitting again. Still, some hair care experts worry it may actually cause split ends and damage hair follicles.
If you want to try candle cutting, seek the help of an experienced professional. Doing the method on your own may result in burned hair or skin.
Hair masks are often marketed as a split end cure. Although they moisturize hair, and may help conceal split ends or help prevent them, they won’t make them go away.
Leave-in conditioners are usually applied to clean, gently towel-dried hair. Sectioning your hair during application may help you apply the conditioner correctly from roots to tips.
You can find hair masks and leave-in conditioners at most drug stores and beauty supply stores, or you can make your own.
When preparing your own conditioner, opt for ingredients that help nourish your hair:
Sweet almond oil
Extracted from almonds, sweet almond oil is hydrating and won’t weigh hair down. It may be used neat as a leave-in conditioner or rubbed into damp hair. An added bonus? It smells terrific!
Panthenol
Panthenol is a byproduct of pantothenic acid (vitamin B-5). It helps strengthen hair, retain moisture, and improves the texture of damaged hair. Panthenol is often the main ingredient in many hair masks and conditioners.
Argan oil
Rich argan oil comes from the kernels of argan trees native to Morocco. Argan oil is deeply moisturizing and adds shine to hair. To use argan oil on split ends, rub several drops into damp or dry hair and comb through.
Although anyone can get split ends, people of African descent may be more at risk. According to a 2015 study, Afro-textured hair is especially prone to damage. This is due to the location of its oval-shaped hair shafts.
It also has a natural retro curvature of hair follicles, slower hair growth, and less hair density. These factors make Afro-textured hair more fragile and more likely to break, as well as to develop knots and split ends.
Women going through menopause may also develop more split ends. As estrogen levels drop, the natural oils produced in the scalp decrease. Hair may become drier and more likely to break.
In general, split ends can impact the look of your hair and, left unmanaged, cause hair damage over the long term.
When it comes to split ends, prevention is key. Although you might have no intention of eliminating your styling tools, using them a little less and keeping your hair well-conditioned may help prevent hair breakage.
How we reviewed this article:
Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. We avoid using tertiary references. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. | How to Conceal or Get Rid of Split Ends
What causes split ends?
Split ends happen when the ends of your hair become dry, brittle, and frayed. They may resemble the end of an unraveled rope.
Exposure to extreme weather conditions, and hair care techniques such as blow drying, straightening, and curling may cause split ends. They’re also caused by chemical hair products. With so many people using hair products daily, split ends are common. Almost everyone will deal with split ends at some point.
Split ends can’t be repaired. The only reliable way to get rid of them is to cut them off.
The latest trend to get rid of split ends is a process called velaterapia, also known as candle cutting. The process was made famous after supermodel Alessandra Ambrosio posted a picture on Instagram of her stylist holding a candle to her hair.
Candle cutting requires twisting a section of your hair and burning it halfway through with a lighted candle. It’s thought that burning off your split ends can create a seal to help protect the ends from splitting again. Still, some hair care experts worry it may actually cause split ends and damage hair follicles.
If you want to try candle cutting, seek the help of an experienced professional. Doing the method on your own may result in burned hair or skin.
Hair masks are often marketed as a split end cure. Although they moisturize hair, and may help conceal split ends or help prevent them, they won’t make them go away.
Leave-in conditioners are usually applied to clean, gently towel-dried hair. Sectioning your hair during application may help you apply the conditioner correctly from roots to tips.
You can find hair masks and leave-in conditioners at most drug stores and beauty supply stores, or you can make your own.
When preparing your own conditioner, opt for ingredients that help nourish your hair:
Sweet almond oil
Extracted from almonds, sweet almond oil is hydrating and won’t weigh hair down. It may be used neat as a leave-in conditioner or rubbed into damp hair. An added bonus? | no |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://skinkraft.com/blogs/articles/split-ends | How To Fix Split Ends Without Cutting Them? – SkinKraft | How To Fix Split Ends Without Cutting Them?
The team at 'Skinkraft blogs' performs extensive research and sources facts from in-house doctors to give out accurate, scientific and useful information. We do not encourage plagiarism from our writers. Every blog on Skinkraft is fact-checked by our team of dermatologists and formulators.
All referenced studies and research papers are from reputable academic associations.
All statistics and facts used in a blog link to the original source.
All content related to drugs, procedures, treatments, ingredients, and side effects are clearly indicated to the reader.
The ultimate goal of our blogs is to make the reader well aware of skin and hair health, and enable them to take informed decisions.
Image: Shutterstock
Split ends start slowly, and rob you of your peace gradually with frizz, dryness and damage. Isn’t it? But the good news is that you don't have to live with them forever. While getting a trim is one of the easiest solutions, this article is more than that. Let us first understand the origin of split ends and its causes before jumping to the treatments and preventive measures.
What Are Split Ends?
Split ends occur when a single strand of hair splits into two. Medically called trichoptilosis, split ends can occur anywhere on the strand, but are common on the ends. Split ends in large numbers deserve attention. If left untreated, they can lead to overall damage and brittleness of the hair.
Can You Actually Repair Split Ends?
Yes, split ends can be repaired and hair health can be restored. While trimming off hair is the best solution, there are other effective methods to get rid of split ends. Before we get into that, let’s look at the main causes of split ends first.
What Causes Split Ends?
Genetics
Hot water showers
Harsh brushing of hair
Wrapping hair in towel
Sleeping in tight hairstyles
Heat styling like straighteners, curlers, blow dryers
Chemical treatments like dying, perming, straightening
Poor diet
Hair care products containing alcohol
Sun exposure
Lack of humidity
Different Types Of Split Ends And What They Mean
1. The Basic Split
This is the most common and beginning stage of split ends. Though cortical cells are packed tightly, large sections begin to separate. This kind of split end can be treated and should not be delayed.
2. The Mini Split
Similar to the basic one, it is common and occurs in the early stage. It is not beyond repair. All you need is proper nourishment.
3. Fork In The Road
These are not very common and are signs of larger damage. They will need deep conditioning treatments.
4. The Tree
The tree signifies larger damage on one side due to split ends that appear like tree branches. You may need a haircut in this case.
5. The Candle
Candle refers to loss of the outer cuticle without any split end. Nourishing oils can fix it.
6. The Knot
Single strand knots is a common sight in curly and damaged hair. The curl tangles itself to form a knot and can lead to breakage. If you have curly hair, be extra gentle while brushing your hair.
How To Remove Split Ends?
1. Best Split Ends Repair Treatments
A. Candle Burning
One of the latest methods to get rid of split ends is candle cutting or velaterapia, which is done at a professional salon. It comprises twisting sections of hair and burning it with a lighted candle half way through. This ensures that the split ends are sealed and do not split again.
Word Of Caution:
If you want to go for this treatment, seek professional help. Doing it on your own might burn your hair and skin.
B. Hair Dusting
Don’t want to let go of your hair length? We feel you. Hair dusting has become popular for a reason. It is a technique in which a professional slides the scissors and comb patiently across the length of your hair to chop off tiny ends, while retaining your overall hair length.
C. Hide With A Serum
You don’t want to visit a salon for the next few days? No worries. Though serums may not actually treat your split ends, you can cover them up with a shine serum.
D. Hydrate Your Hair
Dry hair can end up in split ends. Look for shampoos, hair masks and conditioners with hydrating ingredients that suit your hair type. There are tons of reparative sprays containing amino acids to fix the damage.
Back To Science:
Amino acids, proteins and peptides are the structural units of your hair.
2. Natural Remedies For Split Ends
A. Egg Yolk
Egg yolk has proteins required for healthy hair. Make egg yolk hair mask with olive oil, apply for half an hour and wash with regular shampoo.
B. Honey
Honey acts as a humectant by attracting moisture and sealing it in your hair. Apply a pack of honey, olive oil and curd and leave it on your hair for 30 minutes before washing your hair.
C. Beer
Applying beer on your hair can supply sugars and proteins to your hair. After shampooing, wash hair with beer, leave it on for two minutes and rinse off.
D. Papaya
Papaya contains folic acid, which is helpful in blood circulation in your scalp and hair. Blend papaya and curd and apply it on your hair. Wash after 30 minutes.
E. Aloe Vera
Aloe vera is moisturizing and anti-microbial in nature. Simply use the gel obtained from cutting the stem of aloe plant to apply on your hair. Shampoo your hair after half an hour.
How To Prevent Split Ends?
1. Brush Your Hair Gently
Brushing your hair harshly can cause split ends. If you can hear a sound while brushing your hair, stop! To get rid of the tangles, start from the bottom.
2. Heat Tools? Keep Them Down
If you are already having split ends, remember that straightening irons and blow dryers can cause further damage due to the heat. Try to keep the temperature low while you style your hair.
3. Keep Your Hair Clean
Never leave even the last bit of the conditioner on your hair. Rinse completely. Also make sure you wash your hair thoroughly to remove all the oil. Use heat styling machines only when your hair is clean and is protected by a heat protection spray.
4. Do Not Pick At Your Split Ends
Don't be tempted to pick, peel or tear your split ends. You are only causing friction at the cuticle and inviting more split ends.
5. Switch To Satin Pillowcases
Cotton pillowcases cause a lot of friction in the hair leading to split ends and breakage. Satin or silk pillowcases are gentle on your hair.
Wrapping Up
If your split ends are new and in the initial stages, it is ideal to opt for treatment options immediately before it gets worse. Split ends, when left untreated can damage your entire hair. Good hair care is a preventive measure besides all the treatment options listed above. So avoid excessive use of harsh chemicals and heat styling techniques to keep split ends at bay. | What Are Split Ends?
Split ends occur when a single strand of hair splits into two. Medically called trichoptilosis, split ends can occur anywhere on the strand, but are common on the ends. Split ends in large numbers deserve attention. If left untreated, they can lead to overall damage and brittleness of the hair.
Can You Actually Repair Split Ends?
Yes, split ends can be repaired and hair health can be restored. While trimming off hair is the best solution, there are other effective methods to get rid of split ends. Before we get into that, let’s look at the main causes of split ends first.
What Causes Split Ends?
Genetics
Hot water showers
Harsh brushing of hair
Wrapping hair in towel
Sleeping in tight hairstyles
Heat styling like straighteners, curlers, blow dryers
Chemical treatments like dying, perming, straightening
Poor diet
Hair care products containing alcohol
Sun exposure
Lack of humidity
Different Types Of Split Ends And What They Mean
1. The Basic Split
This is the most common and beginning stage of split ends. Though cortical cells are packed tightly, large sections begin to separate. This kind of split end can be treated and should not be delayed.
2. The Mini Split
Similar to the basic one, it is common and occurs in the early stage. It is not beyond repair. All you need is proper nourishment.
3. Fork In The Road
These are not very common and are signs of larger damage. They will need deep conditioning treatments.
4. The Tree
The tree signifies larger damage on one side due to split ends that appear like tree branches. You may need a haircut in this case.
5. The Candle
Candle refers to loss of the outer cuticle without any split end. Nourishing oils can fix it.
6. The Knot
Single strand knots is a common sight in curly and damaged hair. The curl tangles itself to form a knot and can lead to breakage. If you have curly hair, be extra gentle while brushing your hair.
| yes |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://www.wearecentred.com/collections/split-ends | Split Ends Treatment | CENTRED Hair Recovery | Split Ends
Split ends can be avoided with the right care. Our inside out collection is designed to nourish, strengthen and protect hair from root to tip. Skin care grade ingredients like Squalane, vitamin E and Glycerin help to restructure the hair strands cuticle layer, improving the appearance of hair and protecting from future damage.
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Spilt Ends
Split ends is when the protective outer layer of your hair, the cuticle, is damaged and worn away by heat styling, chemical processing, and everyday wear and tear. This leaves the inner core of proteins that make up your hair exposed, making them vulnerable to splitting and breakage.
How do you get Split ends?
Split ends happen when the ends of your hair become dry, brittle, and frayed. They may resemble the end of an unravelled rope. Exposure to extreme weather conditions, and hair care techniques such as blow drying, straightening, and curling may cause split ends. They're also caused by chemical hair products. With so many of us using hair products daily, split ends are very common. Almost everyone will deal with split ends at some point in our lives.
Can you fix split ends?
Split ends can’t be repaired. The only way to get rid of them is to cut them off. But, with continued care and maintenance, you can keep your damaged hair looking and feeling as healthy as possible. Hair masks are often marketed as a split end cure. Although they moisturize hair, and may help conceal split ends or help prevent them, they won’t make them go away.
Our Daily Calma conditioner doubles up as a mask and helps to fortify and strengthen the hair follicles and help lock in moistures your hair.
Did you know the curlier your hair the more fragile it tends to be! This means people with curly hair, especially type 4 hair and 4C hair, may be extra vulnerable to split ends. Additionally, when you have curls, kinks and coils, your split ends are more likely to cause tangles, since they can catch on other hairs coiling around them.
How do I stop getting split ends?
Protect your hair while you dry it – Even if you don’t have damaged hair, a good leave-in conditioner should be a must for anyone. Some leave-in does not protect you from styling or they might even evaporate right after leaving flyaways untamed and your frizz coming out.
Our Unwind detangling primer is a multipurpose spray enriched with Vitamins to help hydrate and protect your hair before styling. The ultra-fine mist is formulated with Vitamin E to help lock in moisture and protect hair from heat, UVA and mechanical damage. A light spritz doubles up as a gorgeous hair fragrance too.
Reduce Friction - Certain fabrics and materials cause more damage to your cuticle than others. Hats, scarves, and sweaters accelerate the development of split ends, as do cotton pillowcases and towels. If your hair is long enough that it brushes the back of your shirt or jacket, this causes damage too. Try to use a silk pillow and tie up your hair before bed.
Your Diet – Believe it or not, the overall health of your body impacts the strength of your hair. If your body is dehydrated, malnourished, or lacks protein. The chances are your hair will be too and making you more susceptible to split ends. Promote healthy, strong hair from within by adding our Tender Love & Hair supplements to your self-care routine.
Trimming frequently - If you trim your hair regularly we recommend every 4-6 months, or soon as you start to see split ends.You will catch it before it progresses and will probably only need to take off ¼ to ½ inch with each trim.
Do split ends damage your hair?
Once a hair strand splits at the end, the damage will only progress. Left untouched, a split end will continue to split all the way up the hair shaft, damaging the entire strand beyond repair. The split ends might look small on their own, but split ends through your hair make your ends look frizzy, scraggly and unhealthy.
Do split ends stop hair growth?
The more split ends you have You will also experience more tangles, and in turn you will experience more breakage and shedding. This is what people mean when they say split ends keep your hair from growing and they prevent length retention. | Additionally, when you have curls, kinks and coils, your split ends are more likely to cause tangles, since they can catch on other hairs coiling around them.
How do I stop getting split ends?
Protect your hair while you dry it – Even if you don’t have damaged hair, a good leave-in conditioner should be a must for anyone. Some leave-in does not protect you from styling or they might even evaporate right after leaving flyaways untamed and your frizz coming out.
Our Unwind detangling primer is a multipurpose spray enriched with Vitamins to help hydrate and protect your hair before styling. The ultra-fine mist is formulated with Vitamin E to help lock in moisture and protect hair from heat, UVA and mechanical damage. A light spritz doubles up as a gorgeous hair fragrance too.
Reduce Friction - Certain fabrics and materials cause more damage to your cuticle than others. Hats, scarves, and sweaters accelerate the development of split ends, as do cotton pillowcases and towels. If your hair is long enough that it brushes the back of your shirt or jacket, this causes damage too. Try to use a silk pillow and tie up your hair before bed.
Your Diet – Believe it or not, the overall health of your body impacts the strength of your hair. If your body is dehydrated, malnourished, or lacks protein. The chances are your hair will be too and making you more susceptible to split ends. Promote healthy, strong hair from within by adding our Tender Love & Hair supplements to your self-care routine.
Trimming frequently - If you trim your hair regularly we recommend every 4-6 months, or soon as you start to see split ends. You will catch it before it progresses and will probably only need to take off ¼ to ½ inch with each trim.
Do split ends damage your hair?
Once a hair strand splits at the end, the damage will only progress. | no |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://www.lorealparisusa.com/beauty-magazine/hair-care/damaged-hair/how-to-get-rid-of-split-ends | Split Ends: How to Identify, Treat and Prevent Them - L'Oréal Paris | How to Fix and Prevent Split Ends
You don’t have to swear by haircuts to keep your hair healthy and void of split strands.
March 15, 2023
If you’re tired of frizz, flyaway hairs and hairstyles that don’t last you probably can’t imagine there’s anything worse than split ends. Whether you’re trying to grow out your hair for a super long style or simply want a polished look, dead hair caused by split ends can really ruin your plans. And while split ends can result from a number of causes, there’s a chance you’ve developed certain hair habits that aren’t doing your ends any good — like washing with shampoo that strips hair or not always using protection (from hot tools of course).
In an effort to help your mane (and ours), we’re diving into all things split ends, including what causes split ends, how to get rid of and prevent split ends, the best split end repair tips (including for facial hair) and the best hair care products for split ends to help you in your process. So if you’re at a loss for how to stop hair breakage that leads to this pesky hair care concern, keep reading so you can start your journey to healthier, more lustrous hair.
What are Split Ends?
Before diving into the nitty-gritty of how to address split ends, it’s important to first know what you’re dealing with. Essentially, split ends occur when the outermost protective layer of your hair’s cuticle deteriorates over time due to environmental factors, as well as styling processes and normal wear and tear. Think: excess sun exposure, brushing, rough detangling, heat styling, and chemical treatments.
Split ends are sometimes dry and brittle, but they can also feel soft, so it’s not always easy to identify them. If you really want to know if your strands are splitting, take a look at an individual piece of hair. There will be small breaks toward the end of the strand. Severe split end hairs often look like little trees with branches shooting off in one direction or another.
5 Types of Split Ends You Should Know About
Split ends can take on several looks and some are more easily identifiable than others — none of them are desirable. That said, some types of split ends are easier to treat than others because the hair damage is not as far along. Check out these five common types of split ends
1. Traditional Split
This type of split end looks like a capital “Y” and is one of the more easily identifiable split ends, especially for straight hair. The hair is doing a pretty even split down the center of the hair shaft to create this shape.
2. Partial Split
When the hair is dry or dehydrated you may experience a partial or basic split on your hair’s ends. Luckily, this type of split end is more easily repaired than others, and can often be healed with the right hair mask or hydrating treatment.
3. Tree Split
This is the type of split end hair we mentioned earlier. It’s one of the most common types of split ends and easier to identify because, unfortunately, it has some of the most visible damage with split hairs going into different directions like branches on a tree. If you have a tree split your hair shaft is damaged, versus with a partial split which indicates lack of moisture.
4. Feather Split
A feather split end is similar to a tree split in that your hair ends have split several times. Your cuticle peels away and the hair begins to “feather” out in different directions. If you’re constantly perming your hair or getting keratin treatments you could see this type of split end happen.
5. Incomplete Split
An incomplete split end is exactly what it sounds like — a split end that’s not fully formed. It happens when the hair is weakened but the end doesn’t entirely split and instead causes a sort of loop or bubble in the hair that makes it sort of resemble a sewing needle. If not treated with the proper hair care products it can eventually turn into a deep split or even a tree or feather split.
What Causes Split Ends?
There are quite a few factors that contribute to split ends. In fact, the American Academy of Dermatology (AAD) states that many of the hair care myths you once thought to be beneficial to your hair can actually do more damage than good. Check out these common practices that could be the culprits for your split ends.
1. Overbrushing
Remember that saying about brushing your hair for 100 strokes a day? Scratch that! The AAD states that brushing should be kept to a minimum, as excessive hair brushing can actually result in split ends.
2. Heat Styling
It’s no secret that hot styling tools can cause damage to your strands — and lead to split ends. The AAD recommends using flat irons on dry hair only, on a low or medium heat setting, no more often than every other day. Curling irons, according to the AAD, should only be left on the hair for a second or two.
3. Your Hairstyle
Not only can heat styling do damage, but certain hairstyles — even heat-free ones — can do harm. The AAD warns against continuously wearing different braided hairstyles, cornrows, ponytails, and hair extensions, as these styles pull on the hair and can cause tension that leads to breakage.
4. Your Hair Accessories
Rubber bands and snaggy clips should be avoided at all costs since these types of accessories can cause hair damage, including split ends. It may be tempting to use supplies other than hair ties meant to secure a ponytail when it seems like they do a better job or they’re cheaper, but you may pay in other ways if you go this route.
5. Hair Bleaching and Coloring
Constantly bleaching your hair can cause several types of hair damage, especially split ends. Lightening your hair can strip it of necessary oils, causing dryness, and if you don’t address dry strands they can eventually split. Since using permanent hair color (with or without bleaching first) can alter your hair cuticle, coloring can also lead to split ends.
6. Chemical Treatments
Chemical treatments such as perms, relaxers and keratin straighteners penetrate the hair shaft in order to change the pattern of the hair. Anything that actually gets into the hair’s cuticle can cause damage if done excessively or not followed up with proper hair care and hydration.
7. Aggressive Rubbing
We often recommend that people forgo their bath towel for a micro-fiber towel or cotton t-shirt when drying their hair. The main reason is that excessive rubbing and friction can lead to split ends and other types of hair breakage, whereas the latter hair drying options tend to be gentler on strands.
Do Split Ends Stop Hair Growth
Typically split ends won’t stop hair growth since this type of damage affects the ends of the hair, not the root (where hair growth begins). However, if you don’t address split ends by trimming or using a hair treatment that seals them, the damage can creep up to the roots. Once that happens you may see some issues with hair growth. If this happens you should make an appointment with a professional such as a dermatologist or trichologist to figure out the best course of action for you.
How to Get Rid of Split Ends
If you’re already noticing some trees and feathers at the ends of your strands, you may be wondering how you get rid of split ends. There are hair treatments, conditioners and shampoos for split ends that promise to help repair this type of damage, especially if it’s mild. Unfortunately, if your split ends are more severe and the nourishing ingredients in these products can’t reverse the damage, you may need to cut off your damaged ends.
If you’re heading to social media to find tutorials on how to trim split ends, we should warn you that it’s best to turn to a salon instead of DIY at home. The last thing you want is for your damaged hair fix to turn into a haircut nightmare.
Cutting your ends can be an excuse to embrace a new hairstyle, so losing a bit of length doesn’t have to feel so tragic. One beauty look we’re loving right now is the lob haircut (long bob) that’s longer in the front and shorter in the back. It’s the best of both styles, plus you get rid of that undesirable damaged hair.
How to Prevent Split Ends
The good news in all of this is that there are a variety of steps you can take to help prevent split ends from forming in the first place. Below are a few tips you should try to maintain your hair’s healthy look.
2. Use a Hair Mask for Split Ends
Wouldn’t it be great if there was a hair mask that could help repair split ends, as well as other types of hair damage while providing your tresses with some much needed love? Lucky for those with damaged hair, there is. The L’Oréal Paris Elvive Total Repair 5 Damage Erasing Balm rinse-out hair mask is formulated specifically to repair five different signs of hair damage: split ends, weakness, rough texture, dull appearance, and dehydration. This powerful treatment mask can repair up to one year’s worth of hair damage. Simply swap it into your routine a couple of times a week in place of your conditioner.
3. Add Additional Split Ends Treatments to Your Routine Each Week
While hair mousse and hair gel are fabulous for styling, if you have split ends you need a product that can style and also help protect your strands and reduce future damage. That’s exactly what the L’Oréal Paris Elvive Dream Lengths No Haircut Cream Leave In Conditioner does. This hydrator seals split ends and strengthens long hair while offering 450-degree heat protection. Apply it as a leave-in moisturizer, then style your hair as usual.
4. Change the Way Your Detangle
It’s probably your first instinct to grab a brush and run it through your freshly-washed tresses. But hair is actually most susceptible to being damaged when it’s wet — which means when you’re brushing out tangles post-shower, you could actually cause breakage. Instead of using a brush to detangle knotty hair, opt for a wide-tooth comb to gently work out knots while your hair is still wet.
5. Wear Ponytails Wisely
It’s true that your tried-and-true ponytail could be causing split ends. When you’re constantly putting your hair up, you can cause stress on your hair, which can lead to breakage from the roots to the ends (especially if you’re not careful with the take down). If you want to reduce the appearance of split ends for as long as possible, decrease the frequency with which you sport a pony. When you do want to wear one, keep it loose (we see you messy bun) and don’t create too much tension on your strands. Additionally, be mindful of the accessories you use and always use a proper hair tie instead of reaching for destructive rubber bands and ponytail holders with metal that can snag on your hair.
6. Get Regular Trims
Getting routine trims helps you snip budding split ends and keep away other hair damage that can cause split ends. For anyone trying to preserve their length this may sound undesirable but it’s actually helpful if you want your long strands to be healthy and easy to style. If you’re worried about removing too many inches, try hair dusting, which is like a baby haircut meant to remove split ends and other unwanted damage.
7. Stay Away From Heat and Chemicals
You totally saw this coming — heat styling, chemical treatments and constant bleaching will put you on a fast track to split hair. Avoid chemicals in the hair and stay away from constant bleaching. If you do bleach or color your hair, make sure you’re waiting weeks between sessions so that you’re not causing unnecessary hair damage.
Similarly, try to stay away from the hot tools and sport low-tension, heatless hairstyles as much as possible. If you do need to pick up your blow dryer, flat iron or curling iron, always use heat protectant on your hair first.
How to Manage Facial Hair Split Ends
Most of us may only think of the hair on our heads having split ends, but beards can fall victim to split ends, too. Yup, fellas, you need to know this. The key to avoiding and managing beard split ends is similar to how you should take care of the rest of your mane — with regular trims and hydration. Here's the breakdown:
1. Trim Regularly
You don’t necessarily have to keep your beard short (#longbearddontcare we see you), but you do have to keep it trimmed. An unruly beard that isn’t groomed can result in some unflattering split ends. So make time to regularly trim your beard and keep damaged hair off of your face.
2. Moisturize Daily
Hydration is key — we really can’t stress this enough when it comes to keeping any hair healthy. While you shouldn’t use a conditioner on your beard, you should use a moisturizer formulated specifically for facial hair. One infused with ingredients such as hyaluronic acid and vitamin E will be beneficial in keeping your signature scruff in its best condition. Apply it as the last step in your skin care routine morning and evening.
No matter how much you want to avoid trimming your ends, even if you take the best care of your hair, eventually the day will come when you’ll need a haircut. If you plan to DIY, make sure you’re prepared. | If you’re heading to social media to find tutorials on how to trim split ends, we should warn you that it’s best to turn to a salon instead of DIY at home. The last thing you want is for your damaged hair fix to turn into a haircut nightmare.
Cutting your ends can be an excuse to embrace a new hairstyle, so losing a bit of length doesn’t have to feel so tragic. One beauty look we’re loving right now is the lob haircut (long bob) that’s longer in the front and shorter in the back. It’s the best of both styles, plus you get rid of that undesirable damaged hair.
How to Prevent Split Ends
The good news in all of this is that there are a variety of steps you can take to help prevent split ends from forming in the first place. Below are a few tips you should try to maintain your hair’s healthy look.
2. Use a Hair Mask for Split Ends
Wouldn’t it be great if there was a hair mask that could help repair split ends, as well as other types of hair damage while providing your tresses with some much needed love? Lucky for those with damaged hair, there is. The L’Oréal Paris Elvive Total Repair 5 Damage Erasing Balm rinse-out hair mask is formulated specifically to repair five different signs of hair damage: split ends, weakness, rough texture, dull appearance, and dehydration. This powerful treatment mask can repair up to one year’s worth of hair damage. Simply swap it into your routine a couple of times a week in place of your conditioner.
3. Add Additional Split Ends Treatments to Your Routine Each Week
While hair mousse and hair gel are fabulous for styling, if you have split ends you need a product that can style and also help protect your strands and reduce future damage. That’s exactly what the L’Oréal Paris Elvive Dream Lengths No Haircut Cream Leave In Conditioner does. | yes |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://stylecaster.com/beauty/hair-nails/430409/split-ends/ | Split Ends: What No One Ever Tells You About Them – StyleCaster | Split ends. Everyone gets them and nobody ever wants them. Unfortunately for most of us, they are simply unavoidable, no matter how hard we try to prevent them. There are, however, some little known facts and tips about split ends that can help prevent more split ends from occurring and also make sure your current damaged ends don’t become worse.
Read on to learn what you may be doing wrong and how to change up your hair routine to avoid the hair epidemic that is split ends for as long as possible.
1. You can’t undo damages: Once your hair is split, it can not be repaired. There are definitely tricks to make the split ends appear healthier and less noticeable, but the only real fix is to snip off the split end.
2. Trim your hair: We all know that getting regular trims every 6 to 8 weeks is the best way to maintain healthy hair, but many of us don’t have the time or budget for that. So, if you notice a split end in between trips to the hair salon, don’t wait until your next visit and just trim the strand yourself. If you don’t, the hair could split all the way up to the root, causing further damage.
3. Don’t over-wash your hair: Washing your hair every other day allows your hair to repair itself with its own natural oils, leaving your hair smoother and better protected. If you wash your hair every day, you are stripping your hair of these oils which can make your hair more susceptible to breakage and split ends.
4.How you shampoo and condition makes a difference: Shampooing your scalp and conditioning your ends is the best way to do it. Don’t pile your hair on the top of your head and start scrubbing away; that will lead to split ends. Instead, just shampoo your scalp and let the remaining suds rinse through your strands. Also, when conditioning the ends of your hair, make sure you give the conditioner some time to really soak into the strands before rinsing it out.
5. Seal with cold water: Rinsing your hair with colder water will not only help seal the hair’s cuticles and ends, but also add some glossy shine to your luscious locks.
6. Be gentle: When towel drying your hair, make sure you are not rubbing and pulling your hair in a harsh manner. Instead, wrap a towel or old t-shirt around your wet hair and gently squeeze out the excess moisture.
7. Use the right brush: If you are brushing wet hair, be careful because hair is most prone to breakage when wet. With that said, using a wide tooth comb is the best way to detangle wet hair. A wide tooth comb will slip through your strands with ease and cause little to no damage in the process.
8. Dry hair thoroughly: Always make sure to dry your hair thoroughly when you have split ends. Frizzy hair will only make your damaged ends look worse. If you don’t have time to let your hair fully air dry and using a hair dryer is your only option, putting the dryer on the cool or low heat setting and using a heat protectant are two musts.
9. Fake it until you make it: Adding a serum or an oil to the ends of your hair after styling is a great way to mask your split ends from the public and make them a lot less noticeable.
10. At-home treatments: If expensive shampoo and serums or trips to the salon are out of your price range, there are many at-home remedies you can try to aid in your split end dilemmas. Try DIY hair mask once a week for healthy hair results. | Split ends. Everyone gets them and nobody ever wants them. Unfortunately for most of us, they are simply unavoidable, no matter how hard we try to prevent them. There are, however, some little known facts and tips about split ends that can help prevent more split ends from occurring and also make sure your current damaged ends don’t become worse.
Read on to learn what you may be doing wrong and how to change up your hair routine to avoid the hair epidemic that is split ends for as long as possible.
1. You can’t undo damages: Once your hair is split, it can not be repaired. There are definitely tricks to make the split ends appear healthier and less noticeable, but the only real fix is to snip off the split end.
2. Trim your hair: We all know that getting regular trims every 6 to 8 weeks is the best way to maintain healthy hair, but many of us don’t have the time or budget for that. So, if you notice a split end in between trips to the hair salon, don’t wait until your next visit and just trim the strand yourself. If you don’t, the hair could split all the way up to the root, causing further damage.
3. Don’t over-wash your hair: Washing your hair every other day allows your hair to repair itself with its own natural oils, leaving your hair smoother and better protected. If you wash your hair every day, you are stripping your hair of these oils which can make your hair more susceptible to breakage and split ends.
4.How you shampoo and condition makes a difference: Shampooing your scalp and conditioning your ends is the best way to do it. Don’t pile your hair on the top of your head and start scrubbing away; that will lead to split ends. Instead, just shampoo your scalp and let the remaining suds rinse through your strands. Also, when conditioning the ends of your hair, make sure you give the conditioner some time to really soak into the strands before rinsing it out.
5. | no |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://www.wikihow.com/Remove-and-Prevent-Split-Ends | How to Remove and Prevent Split Ends (with Pictures) - wikiHow | This article was co-authored by Arthur Sebastian. Arthur Sebastian is the Owner of Arthur Sebastian Hair Salon in San Francisco, California. Arthur has worked as a hair stylist for over 20 years and received his Cosmetology License in 1998. He believes that the true work of a successful hair stylist comes from passion and a love for hairdressing.
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Split ends aren't fun, and they always seem to reappear not too long after you get rid of them. Fortunately, there are things you can do to get rid of split ends and protect your hair so they don't come back.
Check for damaged hair. You don’t actually need to locate split ends to tell if your hair is damaged. It will feel dry and tangled if it is. However, if you want to find the split ends, closely examine your hair with the help of a mirror and good lighting. Split ends occur most often at the tip but can show up anywhere in your hair. Split ends and related damage can occur in several different forms. If you find any of the following, you may want to remove them:[1]XResearch source
Hair tips splitting into two or more strands
White dots at the end of your hair
Single strand knots (more common in dry, curly hair)
2
Trim them yourself. If you're not due for a full haircut, you can take care of the split ends yourself. Trim them off using a small pair of hair shears, since scissors can fray your hair and lead to more split ends. Cut single strands about 0.25 inches (0.64 cm) above the split. If you cut too close to the damage, the split may reappear.[2]XResearch source
Some splits form a small ball directly above the damage. Make sure to cut above this.
Keep in mind that only trimming the split ends may change or ruin the look of your haircut. For best results, see a hair stylist to get your hair trimmed.
Cut your hair regularly. A hairdresser can always trim off split ends, but will usually remove about 1⁄4 to 1 inch (0.6 to 2.5 cm) of your hair along with them. Eventually, all hair will wear out enough to require this treatment. How long you wait between haircuts depends on your hair type, hair health, and how much time you're willing to spend hunting down your own split ends. This can be anywhere from 4 weeks to 3 months.[3]XExpert SourceArthur Sebastian Professional Hair StylistExpert Interview. 29 April 2019.
If you aren't trimming split ends yourself, avoiding the hairdresser will not save your long hair. Neglected split ends will become weaker and weaker, eventually breaking off.
Take steps to save hair length. If trimming off split ends are affecting your hair length goals, consider having your hair cut into layers. Ask the hairdresser to trim damaged hair in the surface layer, while leaving lower layers — and length intact. If you have afro-textured hair, a mild texturizer can achieve a similar effect, allowing you to manipulate your hair more easily and avoid trimming healthy hair.
Treat hair repair products with caution. There are conditioners and other commercial treatments that claim to "heal" split ends. These seal the split ends shut to hide them from view, but the damage is still there. You can use these as a temporary fix, but relying on them long-term may dry out your hair and lead to worse damage.[4]XTrustworthy SourcePubMed CentralJournal archive from the U.S. National Institutes of HealthGo to source
Use conditioner. After shampooing, rinse your hair and squeeze it out to remove most of the water. Then, apply conditioner along the length of your hair, but make sure to focus on the ends. Let it soak at least 3 minutes before you rinse it out.[6]XExpert SourceArthur Sebastian Professional Hair StylistExpert Interview. 29 April 2019.
Deep condition regularly. If your conditioner regimen isn't working, try a "deep condition" once or twice a month. Skip the fancy deep conditioning products, though. The best product to use for deep conditioning is coconut oil, which has the right chemical structure to sink deep into your hair. To deep condition:[7]XResearch source
Get your hair just wet enough so it is damp.
Place a dollop of coconut oil on your palm. If it's in a solid state, gently rub it between your palms until it becomes liquid.
Find a gentle comb or brush. Your brush or comb should aid you in untangling your hair, not pulling it out. The best option for people with thick hair is a wide-toothed, wooden comb or pick. People with thin hair may use a narrow-toothed, wooden comb or a brush with boar bristles or another flexible, natural bristle.
6
Brush or comb gently. Start at the bottom and work your way up. When you encounter a tangle, stop and untangle it with your fingers before you continue brushing.
Stop teasing or backcombing your hair. This pulls up the scales of your hair, making it easy to break them off.
Do not brush more than necessary. Once the brush or comb runs through your hair without obstruction, you're done.
Hair is very fragile when wet. Brush it only when dry, unless you have curly hair, which should only be brushed when it is wet.
Eat a balanced diet. Make sure to eat the recommended amounts of vitamins and protein to ensure that your body produces the healthiest hair possible. Healthy fats such as omega-3 fatty acids can also help keep your hair whole and shiny.[8]XResearch source
Vitamin E is particularly useful. Vitamin E can be found in many foods, such as nuts, seeds, avocado, vegetable oils, some leafy greens, and some fish.
3
Oil your hair for protection. Use a nutrient-rich oil such as almond oil, argan oil, egg oil, castor oil, or extra-virgin olive oil. This can lubricate the hair shaft, preventing it from splitting. Oil up to twice a week, leave it on overnight under a cap, and it wash off in the morning.[9]XResearch source
Avoid products that contain paraffin or kerosene, which cause drying.
Apply oil to the middle and ends of your hair. Applying oil near the scalp can cause a buildup of dandruff or damage the roots.
Apply a hair mask. A hair mask once every 1 or 2 weeks can help keep your hair healthy, moisturized, and damage-free. Leave it on for thirty minutes, everywhere except near your scalp.[11]XResearch source
Protect your hair from heat. Heat denatures the keratins (proteins) of the hair shaft weakening it and making it prone to split ends. Heat treatments are a major cause of damage and split ends. This includes hot blow drying, heat styling, straightening and curling through heat, and steam treatments.[12]XExpert SourceArthur Sebastian Professional Hair StylistExpert Interview. 29 April 2019. If you do use these treatments, take these precautions:[13]XResearch source
Do not straighten or use other high-heat treatments more often than once every two weeks, or preferably once a month.
Look for irons or other tools that allow for exact temperature control. Keep them set to below 356ºF (180ºC).
Protect your hair before swimming in a pool, ocean, or lake. Consider applying a special pre-swimming moisturizer product. Alternatively, use a leave-in conditioner, oil your hair, and/or wear a swim cap. Rinsing your hair thoroughly before swimming may reduce its absorption of harmful chemicals. Be sure to rinse and shampoo your hair as soon as possible after swimming.
Reduce reliance on dye, perms, and bleach. Hair dyes, perms, and bleach are particularly damaging, but any product can damage your hair. Try to limit how often you get your hair colored, permed, and bleached. Instead, opt for occasional touch ups to dye and bleach, such as once every 6 to 8 weeks.
For example, if you have dyed or bleached hair, get root touch ups only as needed. Do not re-dye all of your hair every time the roots grow out.
If you have a perm, only get it touched up when it is absolutely necessary, or consider not getting it permed again at all if your hair is damaged.
You can get split ends from brushing hair roughly, overusing heat styling tools, or from chemical services. Fine hair may be more prone to split ends.
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Unfortunately not. Split ends can be temporarily sealed but not repaired. The best thing to do with split ends is to cut them off before they spread.
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If you don't cut split ends they could continue to split up the hair shaft. The longer you wait, the higher the damage can spread.
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About This Article
This article was co-authored by Arthur Sebastian. Arthur Sebastian is the Owner of Arthur Sebastian Hair Salon in San Francisco, California. Arthur has worked as a hair stylist for over 20 years and received his Cosmetology License in 1998. He believes that the true work of a successful hair stylist comes from passion and a love for hairdressing. This article has been viewed 3,484,659 times.
To get rid of split ends, cut your hair a 1/4 inch above the splits using shears. If you're worried about messing up your hair, go to a hairdresser to get your hair trimmed. Once your split ends are gone, only wash your hair 3 times a week using a mild shampoo so you don't cause more damage. Also, avoid towel drying your hair and brushing it when it's wet — these things can cause split ends. For tips on preventing split ends with oils and hair masks, read the article!
Thanks to all authors for creating a page that has been read 3,484,659 times.
Reader Success Stories
Naomi Loise
Mar 15, 2016
"Very informative. I now know what I'll do to tame my split ends. I find that split ends can appear in anyone's hair. Even if you're using masks that are deeply hydrating for the hair, they can still appear. My advice is to get regular trims, use split end products, and this article should help. Anyway, it's not a big deal if you have split ends, as everyone has them. Don't go working yourself up over something pathetic."..." more
"Very informative. I now know what I'll do to tame my split ends. I find that split ends can appear in anyone's hair. Even if you're using masks that are deeply hydrating for the hair, they can still appear. My advice is to get regular trims, use split end products, and this article should help. Anyway, it's not a big deal if you have split ends, as everyone has them. Don't go working yourself up over something pathetic."..." more
Reeha Suleman
Jul 16, 2016
"I loved the part on finding out (yes, honey!) lightens your hair. I'm an 11 year old girl from the UK and I had split ends, but used these tips! "..." more
Serene
Apr 18, 2016
"A very informative article with facts about remedies and oils that can be used. Also, the point of not oiling the scalp and not combing wet hair."..." more
Ashlynne Reids
Mar 7, 2017
"I was worried about my hair for a minute, because I have split ends. The tips that have been stated helped a lot. Thanks!"..." more
Alisha Faye
Sep 10, 2016
"I liked the way they told me about using a type of brush and how to use it, because that really helps!" | 8 weeks.
For example, if you have dyed or bleached hair, get root touch ups only as needed. Do not re-dye all of your hair every time the roots grow out.
If you have a perm, only get it touched up when it is absolutely necessary, or consider not getting it permed again at all if your hair is damaged.
You can get split ends from brushing hair roughly, overusing heat styling tools, or from chemical services. Fine hair may be more prone to split ends.
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Unfortunately not. Split ends can be temporarily sealed but not repaired. The best thing to do with split ends is to cut them off before they spread.
Thanks! We're glad this was helpful. Thank you for your feedback.
As a small thank you, we’d like to offer you a $30 gift card (valid at GoNift.com). Use it to try out great new products and services nationwide without paying full price—wine, food delivery, clothing and more. Enjoy!
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If you don't cut split ends they could continue to split up the hair shaft. The longer you wait, the higher the damage can spread.
Thanks! We're glad this was helpful. Thank you for your feedback.
As a small thank you, we’d like to offer you a $30 gift card (valid at GoNift.com). | no |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://aussiehair.com/a-beauty/damage/how-to-get-rid-of-split-ends-at-home/ | How to get rid of split ends at home | How to get rid of split ends at home
Letâs face it â split ends suck! Ugh. That annoying moment when youâre running your hands through your luscious locks, only to find a load of pesky split ends rearing their not-so-lovely heads. A tell-tale sign that you might have slightly overdone it with the straightener or brush (sigh).
Letâs get down to it, split ends - or trichoptilosis - are the splitting or fraying of the hair shaft. When the hair has been compromised somewhat and lost that elasticity it just tears. Ouch! A perennial beauty bother, they occur when your hair splinters due to damage to the oldest part of the hair shaft. The only real way to get rid of split ends is to cut them off. Because - much like trying to repair a broken nail - once a hair is split, there's nothing that can magically fuse the pieces back together again forever. But whilst all that pulling, heating and colouring your hair into oblivion can cause split ends, it doesnât need to ruin your day. Thereâs a way to fight this dreaded foe and avoid losing length with an expensive trip to the hairdressers.
SOS HEAT SAVIOUR CONDITIONING SPRAY
The Aussie SOS Heat Saviour Spray is a heat protection spray designed to restore dry and damaged hair from styling. Beat the heat!
SPLIT END TREATMENT
That damage and breakage is caused by heat treatments, chemical treatments, colouring, dryness, and just plain old wear-and-tear. Split ends are a result of damage, so the main way to reduce them is to reduce damage to the hair. Sounds simple right? Your ultimate split end repair regime starts hereâ¦
If youâre looking for a quick-fire remedy on how to treat split ends, start by minimising the damage. Thatâs right, stop the split. Take a look at your haircare regime⦠if yours lacks the âcareâ part youâve got the answer. The first steps in any hair regime are often when unintentional hair crimes are committed leading to dry, damaged tips. The ultimate split end remedy is simply changing up your bad habits.
Everyday brushing can be the most overlooked but inadvertent causes of split ends as each stroke risks damage to the oldest parts of your hair. If your hair is anywhere below your chin to mid back, the ends can be as much as six to ten years old. If you're unsure if youâre being too rough with the brush simply listen to the sound is makes as it glides through your hair. If it's virtually silent, you're doing it right. If you hear a scraping or â eek â a ripping sound, youâre doing too much. But you didnât need us to tell you that right? Hair is fragile, so treat it gently in your daily interactions, and certainly donât believe any old wives tales that tell you to brush your hair 100 times a day. Rather, brush from the ends up towards the roots, gently untangling as you go. If your brush meets resistance, stop, remove it, and start a little further down.
AUSSIE RECONSTRUCTOR HAIR OIL
Been overdoing things lately? Aussie's non-greasy oil is a lightweight treat that will revive and restore dry and damaged hair, leaving it super soft, shiny, and smelling aussome without any weigh down!
Infused with a bonza triple oil blend of Australian Macadamia Nut Oil, Jojoba Seed Oil, and Avocado Oil, the formula is also vegan, with no animal-derived ingredients or by-products. This wonderfully lightweight hair treatment is the ultimate multi-tasker to revive hair in need of TLC. The formula is also vegan, with no animal-derived ingredients or by-products.
SPLIT END REPAIR WITH THE RIGHT HAIRCARE PRODUCTS
Once you notice your ends splitting, it can be hard not to see them. Poking out of ponytails or ruining your otherwise neat up-do, they seem to be everywhere you look. If your ends are giving you grief, and you want to know how to get rid of split ends at home, give them a tonne of TLC with shampoos and conditioners that proactively work against further damage. If they go untreated, the split can literally run up the length of the hair, giving it a fluffy, wispy silhouette that literally nothing but a mega-chop will fix. Sounds pretty dire right?
First, after shampooing, use a hydrating conditioner that will heal and seal those dry and damaged ends. Aussie SOS Kiss Of Life Conditioner works to replenish dry hair, while providing lasting, deep hydration from root to tip. Use this every single time you wash. No quibbles, no opt-out clause guys. Even better, if you have more time, put your hair health first and indulge in a weekly mask ritual that will restore your sad and straggly tresses with inner nourishment. Salvage those strands with Aussie 3 Minute Miracle Reconstructor. Our deep treatment conditioner is even enriched with Australian Macadamia Nut Oil Extract. This iconic super repair formula works wonders in three miraculous minutes, ensuring the hair is fortified from within.
Rough drying hair involves using heat which can dry out strands and lead to splitting, so if you really want to protect the hair and avoid split ends, apply a leave-in conditioner or heat protector after towel-drying to protect your tresses from heat-styling. Aussie SOS Heat Saviour Conditioning Spray acts as protective barrier against the damaging effects of every type of heat damage. Split ends are difficult to repair, so prevent the need for a split ends remedy by taking preventative steps when drying and styling.
Wherever possible air dry until your locks are up to 50-80% dry and then use the hairdryer to create shape and smooth the cuticles. When wielding your hairdryer, aim the nozzle at your roots and the mid-lengths of your hair, avoiding your ends so you don't burn them, adding extra terror to your tips.
Have you ever noticed those temperature dials on your straightener and curling iron? Nowâs the time to use them, as the higher the heat, the more damage youâre inflicting on your poor ends. Try lowering the temperature to see what point you can still achieve the look you love, but without subjecting your tresses to torturous temperatures. If you still notice any frazzled ends once you've finished styling your hair, smooth frayed cuticles with a dab of shine serum. Aussie Mega Smooth Hair Oil adds a little polish to dry ends to make your hair look, and feel, like silk. | The ultimate split end remedy is simply changing up your bad habits.
Everyday brushing can be the most overlooked but inadvertent causes of split ends as each stroke risks damage to the oldest parts of your hair. If your hair is anywhere below your chin to mid back, the ends can be as much as six to ten years old. If you're unsure if youâre being too rough with the brush simply listen to the sound is makes as it glides through your hair. If it's virtually silent, you're doing it right. If you hear a scraping or â eek â a ripping sound, youâre doing too much. But you didnât need us to tell you that right? Hair is fragile, so treat it gently in your daily interactions, and certainly donât believe any old wives tales that tell you to brush your hair 100 times a day. Rather, brush from the ends up towards the roots, gently untangling as you go. If your brush meets resistance, stop, remove it, and start a little further down.
AUSSIE RECONSTRUCTOR HAIR OIL
Been overdoing things lately? Aussie's non-greasy oil is a lightweight treat that will revive and restore dry and damaged hair, leaving it super soft, shiny, and smelling aussome without any weigh down!
Infused with a bonza triple oil blend of Australian Macadamia Nut Oil, Jojoba Seed Oil, and Avocado Oil, the formula is also vegan, with no animal-derived ingredients or by-products. This wonderfully lightweight hair treatment is the ultimate multi-tasker to revive hair in need of TLC. The formula is also vegan, with no animal-derived ingredients or by-products.
SPLIT END REPAIR WITH THE RIGHT HAIRCARE PRODUCTS
Once you notice your ends splitting, it can be hard not to see them. | yes |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://www.stylecraze.com/articles/types-of-split-ends/ | Different Types Of Split Ends – How To Identify And Treat Them | Tiffany Young is the CEO and founder of ThinHairThick and a certified trichology practitioner with 6 years of experience. She is also a recognized expert in the hair and beauty industry with celebrity clientele. Her own personal struggles w... more
Tiffany Young is the CEO and founder of ThinHairThick and a certified trichology practitioner with 6 years of experience. She is also a recognized expert in the hair and beauty industry with celebrity clientele. Her own personal struggles w... more
Arshiya Syeda is a senior editor at StyleCraze with 7 years of experience. Prior to that, she was a content writer and combined her writing and research skills to write over 200 high-performing articl... more
Arshiya Syeda is a senior editor at StyleCraze with 7 years of experience. Prior to that, she was a content writer and combined her writing and research skills to write over 200 high-performing articl... more
Split ends can damage your hair and affect its overall appearance. There are many types of split ends, and each is caused by different factors. The fast-paced life may not allow us to spend enough time on hair maintenance. We depend on instant solutions most of the time instead of addressing the root cause. And this severely damages the hair roots and scalp. Simple hair styling techniques like straightening, curling, excessive coloring, and even frequent brushing or combing may cause hair damage and split ends. Knowing the type of split ends you have will help you determine how to reduce hair breakage and damage and prevent them.
In this article, we will discuss what do split ends look like, their causes, and how you can handle them without compromising on your hair quality. Read further to know more.
Fun Fact
In medical terminology, split ends are referred to as “trichoptilosis” or “schizotrichia.”
Different Types Of Split Ends – What They Mean And How To Treat Them
1. The Basic Split
Also known as traditional split ends, basic split ends are the most common type of splits. These are caused when the cortical cells of the hair begin to separate from each other, although they are still largely held together. Basic split ends form due to dehydration, dryness, strain, and friction.
How To Fix
You need to nourish and hydrate your hair more often.
Oiling your hair once a week with coconut or olive oil can help you get rid of these basic splits.
4. The Tree Split
In the tree split, several branches emerge from a single split end and the cortical cells begin to separate. This means one side of the hair shaft has been damaged more than the other. Sunburn and excessive weathering maybe some of the reasons behind tree split ends.
How To Fix
If you notice this type of split ends, you need to pay immediate attention to your hair and get a professional haircut. If not nourished properly, your hair can look intensely frizzy. Also, use a wide-toothed comb that does not snag at the split ends.
5. The Candle Split
The candle split is slightly different from the other types of splits in that it has not yet been converted into a split, but it can any time soon. Your hair looks much thinner at the ends, and the damage on the outer cuticle is pretty evident.
How To Fix
First, you need a trim to halt the candle split end from traveling up your hair shaft. You can then go for a nourishing oil massage or a split end treatment to nourish your hair back to good health.
6. The Single-Strand Knot
Image: Shutterstock
The single-strand knot normally occurs in curly hair when a curl is tangled and causes a knot in a single strand, initiating multiple tangles. This leads to breakage while brushing your hair.
How To Fix
To avoid single-strand knots, you should be very careful every time you brush your curls. You can use any natural oil or a detangling hair product and a wide-toothed comb to gently loosen and detangle the single-strand knot. Use a hair serum, a leave-in conditioner, and moisturizing hair masks regularly to make your locks smooth and resistant to single-strand knots.
7. The Feather Split
The feather split looks like a feather, with many splits along one side of the hair shaft. A feather split is a sign that your hair may be beyond repair since it is very difficult to fix. This type of split end can be caused by frequent chemical treatments, hair coloring, or irregular trimming.
How To Fix
If you have feather splits – do not panic. The important thing is to catch the split end before it results in any further damage. First, consult your hairstylist or book a professional hair treatment at a spa. You must also keep your hair tied in a bun as leaving it open can increase friction on the ends, causing your strands to split further.
8. The Crinkle Split
The crinkle split end occurs due to environmental pollutants or when the hair is frequently stretched to the breaking point. This can give a wrinkled look to your hair, making it look shabby and rough.
How To Fix
A good oil massage or a professional spa treatment can help you eliminate crinkled splits.
9. The Mid-Shaft Split
Also called the incomplete split, the mid-shaft split end is caused in the middle of the hair strand and closes towards the end. This simply means that the hair shaft is still in the process of splitting but has not been entirely damaged.
Mid-shaft splits can still be controlled. You can start working on a better hair care regimen to take good care of your locks. Be cautious while combing or brushing, and let your tresses breathe by moisturizing them regularly.
10. The Long Split
In the long split, the hair shaft starts to separate from a specific spot. This is generally caused by using too many hair accessories that split and weaken the hair at a specific spot.
How To Fix
Again, this type of split is at the initial stage, and you can work on it! With good replenishment of nutrients to the hair, a long split can be repaired or prevented.
11. The Deep Or Basic Y Split
The basic Y is a typical split end and the one we all dread the most. The cuticle peels at a precise spot due to damage from physical stressors or chemicals.
How To Fix
There is no cure for this, but precautions should be taken to avoid such deep splits. It is suggested to get an immediate trim and keep your hair hydrated and damage-free in the future.
12. The Taper Split
In this type of split end, the cuticle peels away and leaves the cortex visible. Your hair ends are thin and tapered, and you may even see a hole between the strands. The taper split is typically an outcome of chemical damage to the hair.
How To Fix
Frequent trims can stop taper splits from traveling up the hair shaft. Avoid using hair colors or harsh hair treatments to prevent this type of split ends.
13. The Thickened Split
In the thickened split, the hair texture thickens along the shaft, giving a rough and damaged look to the hair. Although the ends are intact, the quality of the texture is greatly reduced. This type of split ends mainly caused due to certain medications or hormonal imbalances.
How To Fix
Using a moisturizing shampoo and conditioner can make your hair look smoother and improve the hair texture. Apart from that, consider speaking to your healthcare provider to get tested for any hormonal issues that need to be treated.
14. The Whitened Split
The whitened split is when you notice white spots on your hair ends. These visible spots occur due to severe chemical treatments.
How To Fix
You must book an appointment for professional hair treatment as these types of split ends are clearly visible. Make changes in your diet and the way you look after your hair. Oiling and moisturizing are a must in this condition.
15. The Right-Angle Split
The right-angle split is the beginning of a split as the bend is visible, but the split is still underway. This is a bend that is caused by frequently tying the hair in a specific hairstyle.
16. The Offshoot Split
Caused by pollutants or chemical heat, the offshoot split is a cross that occurs between a tangle and a bend. The hair strand thickens along the shaft and then bonds together again in this type of split.
How To Fix
Oiling, trimming, hair spas, and keeping your hair neatly tied can avoid such split ends. Take a quick look at the different types of split ends.
For healthy, split-free hair that is soft to the touch, you should be aware of the causes that contribute massively to hair damage and split ends. Let us study these factors in more detail below.
Factors That Cause Split Ends
Image: Shutterstock
Pollution
Pollution, smoke, and other environmental pollutants are the major contributors to damaged hair. They settle on your scalp and result in itchiness and dryness, thus causing different types of splits.
Over-Washing
Over-washing removes the natural oils from the scalp and dries out your tresses. A mild shampoo will help a lot in shielding your hair from damage and split ends. Also, limit your hair washing to no more than twice a week. If more frequent washing is required due to your lifestyle, be sure to concentrate the shampoo only on the scalp. Avoid the ends of the hair strands.
Weather
The constant change in temperature and cold winds can wreak havoc on your hair and cause severe loss in moisture, resulting in damaging split ends.
Heat Styling
By cranking the temperature up on your hair and constantly exposing it to heat styling tools like flat irons and curling irons, you stand to make your locks rough, brittle, and weak over time.
Chemical Treatments
Your hair bears the brunt of chemical stressors such as keratin treatments, bleach, and relaxers, resulting in lifeless and brittle tresses that become rough.
Hard Water
Hard water has higher levels of magnesium and calcium content, which leave a soap film on your hair and prevent it from absorbing moisture. This makes your hair look lifeless and causes different types of split ends.
Trivia
Curly hair types tend to be more prone to split-ends as natural oils cannot easily coat the entire hair strand, leaving it vulnerable to dryness and brittleness.
Now, let’s check out some tips for minimizing and preventing different types of split ends.
How To Prevent Split Ends
Keep your hair tangle-free and use a deep conditioner to moisturize your hair after each wash.
Always be gentle while combing and brushing your hair, and try detangling your hair using your fingers first. Avoid brushing the hair when wet, as it will cause the cuticles to stretch.
Seek professional help when using chemicals like hair colors and relaxers.
Get protein treatment and hair spas to prevent hair damage.
Use heat protectant and ceramic heat styling tools when using heat on your hair.
Get regular trims.
Keep your hair hydrated and oil your hair regularly.
Split ends are an annoyance that may hamper your hair’s look and healthy hair growth. They can be caused due to weather changes, over-washing, or overuse of heat styling tools. Different types of split ends suggest different degrees of hair damage. Baby splits indicate your hair is dehydrated and requires moisture, while tree splits are the result of your hair shaft being damaged. Following basic hair care methods along with a simple, quick trim can help treat and prevent split ends and frays in the future. Therefore, it is strongly advised that you keep track of your hair care routine and nourish your hair on a regular basis.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can shampoo fix split ends?
No. Shampoo can’t get rid of split ends. You must trim the split ends to eliminate them and use moisturizing products like deep conditioners, serums, and leave-in products to prevent split ends.
Can split ends get worse?
Yes. If you don’t trim away the split ends, they can keep progressing upwards on your hair strand, creating fissures, splints, and fractures before breaking off your hair.
Does cold water help split ends?
Cold water may help prevent split ends as it helps seal the hair cuticles and ends.
Are split ends the same as dead ends?
No. Dead ends have a rough, dry texture, while split ends still have the soft texture of your hair.
Do split ends look white?
Yes. Split ends may have white tips that indicate that the hair is fractured and damaged.
Key Takeaways
Triangle or fork splits are a sign of widespread damage to the hair fiber.
The whitened splits occur due to severe chemical treatments.
Pollution, smoke, and other environmental pollutants can lead to splits.
Split ends may be really inconvenient! In this video, you’ll learn how to identify and cut them. Watch this video to learn how to get rid of those bothersome split ends and keep your hair looking healthy and beautiful.
Related
Tiffany Young is the CEO and founder of ThinHairThick and a certified trichology practitioner with 6 years of experience. She is also a recognized expert in the hair and beauty industry with celebrity clientele. Her own personal struggles with hair loss created an opportunity for her to deep-dive into learning all things related to medical conditions and external factors that...more
Arshiya Syeda is a senior editor at StyleCraze with 7 years of experience. Prior to that, she was a content writer and combined her writing and research skills to write over 200 high-performing articles on hairstyles, hair care, and skin care. She holds a bachelor's degree in literature and psychology from Osmania University, Hyderabad, and a post-graduate diploma in psychological...more
StyleCraze provides content of general nature that is designed for informational purposes only. The content is not intended to be a substitute for professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Click here for additional information. | Frequently Asked Questions
Can shampoo fix split ends?
No. Shampoo can’t get rid of split ends. You must trim the split ends to eliminate them and use moisturizing products like deep conditioners, serums, and leave-in products to prevent split ends.
Can split ends get worse?
Yes. If you don’t trim away the split ends, they can keep progressing upwards on your hair strand, creating fissures, splints, and fractures before breaking off your hair.
Does cold water help split ends?
Cold water may help prevent split ends as it helps seal the hair cuticles and ends.
Are split ends the same as dead ends?
No. Dead ends have a rough, dry texture, while split ends still have the soft texture of your hair.
Do split ends look white?
Yes. Split ends may have white tips that indicate that the hair is fractured and damaged.
Key Takeaways
Triangle or fork splits are a sign of widespread damage to the hair fiber.
The whitened splits occur due to severe chemical treatments.
Pollution, smoke, and other environmental pollutants can lead to splits.
Split ends may be really inconvenient! In this video, you’ll learn how to identify and cut them. Watch this video to learn how to get rid of those bothersome split ends and keep your hair looking healthy and beautiful.
Related
Tiffany Young is the CEO and founder of ThinHairThick and a certified trichology practitioner with 6 years of experience. She is also a recognized expert in the hair and beauty industry with celebrity clientele. Her own personal struggles with hair loss created an opportunity for her to deep-dive into learning all things related to medical conditions and external factors that...more
Arshiya Syeda is a senior editor at StyleCraze with 7 years of experience. Prior to that, she was a content writer and combined her writing and research skills to write over 200 high-performing articles on hairstyles, hair care, and skin care. | no |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | yes_statement | "split" "ends" can be "repaired".. it is possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are ways to fix "split" "ends". | https://kevinmurphy.com.au/us/en/causes-and-cures-for-split-ends.html | Causes And Cures For Split Ends | Causes And Cures For Split Ends
Whether it comes to natural or coloured hair, split ends are a daily annoyance for most people with medium to long hair lengths. Also known as trichoptilosis, split ends appear when weakened hair follicles split apart and break. Unlike other hair problems, it’s more challenging to find a magical cure for this because of the mechanics involved. You can cure dry hair with hydration but split ends require another level of intervention. Only by detecting and eliminating the causes of split ends can you prevent them from occurring again and achieve the magnificent, healthy hair you deserve!
So, how do split ends occur?
Our hair has stages of growth. The part of the strand the furthest away from the scalp is the oldest. Because of its age and constant exposure to different factors, strand ends become weak, and can suffer from discolouration. Despite the many potential causes of split-ends/trichoptilosis, the two major causes are:
The way you comb your hair,
Friction between strands that lack elasticity and hydration.
Combing is one of the most repeated mechanical routines that can damage hair. This is because the strand length breaks under the sheer force of the brush at certain angles. During combing, you may feel resistance if your hair is prone to tough tangles. Naturally, that will make you pull the comb or brush harder which will unintentionally damage the strands.
Can existing split ends be repaired?
You’ve probably seen many products on the market sold as “split-ends repair“. However, most of them offer nothing more than hydration and temporary results. Various ingredients in hair care products can give the strands a softer and smoother appearance that will camouflage the damage. Still, the vast majority of conditioners and masques can’t properly repair damaged hair. That’s because the follicles at the roots absorb the nutrients and essentials from our scalp and make the strands grow. But once the hair is at the surface, the strands are not alive anymore. Even though you may disguise the problem with serums and masques, the best way to fix split ends is by trimming them off. The second best way is to not let them occur in the beginning!
What are you doing wrong?
Have you ever wondered why, even after putting a lot of effort into your hair care regimen, split ends still occur? You’re not alone! You just need to find and adjust your hair regimen to suit your hair’s needs or you risk constantly weakening the hair with different routines. Most likely, the main culprit of split ends is the latter, as irregular hair maintenance or missing heat protection is one of the primary causes of hair damage.
If you’re struggling with split ends, the only way to mend and salvage your hair length is to switch to reconstructive hair care regimens, such as KEVIN.MURPHY REPAIR
Think of it like a diet. When you exercise and eat well, you feel stronger and healthier. Being consistent with your hair care is just as important for your hair’s health! So, what should you avoid?
Chemical damage
Colour and other chemical alterations to hair are an obvious choice for those who want a change. These processes usually involve heat and chemicals together and, if not done properly, they can be potentially harmful to your strands. In these kinds of treatments, overexposure to chemicals affects keratin and the surface of the hair shaft, making it brittle and dry. So whether you’re colouring, bleaching, perming or rebonding your hair, make sure to have it done by an expert!
Heat damage
For some of us, the thought of leaving the house without some level of styling is unthinkable. Whether we choose a quick styling with blow-dry, curl, or straightener, we all know that heat helps to make hair more manageable. However, exposure to high temperatures affects hair elasticity and dries and weakens the strand! Damaged hair becomes more susceptible to split ends, so using a high-performing heat-protective product before styling is a huge help in preventing split ends.
Delicate hair demands special care and maintenance, mainly when strengthening and adding volume. Since thin strands are more susceptible to damage, it’s essential to avoid any chemical, heat-induced, or mechanical damage that could harm it irreparably.
Over-washing
Washing your hair too frequently with aggressive shampoos can strip the natural oils your skin releases to lubricate and protect the strand from harmful factors. If you constantly wash these away, the scalp glands will work overtime to undo your damage with more oil and make your hair greasy, while the bottom part of your hair becomes dry and brittle. Such frail and dull hair is more susceptible to damage and often suffers from split ends!
Sleeping habits
Believe it or not, your sleeping habits can affect your hair health, especially if you’re tossing and turning a lot during the night. Such movements cause hair friction with the pillow, bending and breaking the strands. So, the best way to protect it is to tame it while you sleep. With medium or long-length hair, try loose braiding, a loose bun, or even a different pillow case (e.g. silk) to reduce the friction.
Neglecting regular trims
You might adore your long hair, but if you’re skipping necessary trimming, you will only make things worse. Hair grows approximately 0.5 inches per month or approx. 6 inches per year. If you have damaged hair shafts, the splits can travel up the strand within a couple of months, destroying the length of the hair and undoing all your hard work and patience. A trim in time saves 9!
Fun fact: Did you know men’s beards can also have split ends? Achieving magnificent and healthy beard is impossible without proper care. While some men can’t wait to grow their beards, it’s important to trim them frequently and get rid of dry stands that turn to split ends.
How does the environment cause split ends?
So, now we know the everyday causes of split-ends from lack of proper maintenance. However, many external factors can also affect the state of your hair. High temperatures, polluted environment, sun exposure and hardwater are just some things that can lead to weakening and drying of the strands, causing split-ends!
Even though we can’t control the weather or the environment, we can reduce their impact through quality products with antioxidants, detoxicating properties, and UV protection.
Ways to trim split ends
The best way to remove split ends is to have it done by a professional. Using thinning shears or non-professional scissors can shed the hair ends and make it look worse. So, if you have thick hair and need to trim it a little, your hairstylist will find the safest way to do it for you.
The end of split ends
The most common causes of split ends are everyday routines that include combing, styling, and inevitable friction that breaks the damaged hair parts. Regardless of what you do, sadly, you can never completely eliminate all factors that cause hair damage. However, altering your daily routine and maintenance can slow down the aging of your hair and prevent further deterioration. Start from the very beginning by nourishing the scalp and follicles. It is vital to secure the strength and health of the strands by eliminating harmful hair product ingredients from your hair regimen.
Opt for shampoos, conditioners and masques with the right mix of vitamin, herbal and mineral oils and extracts. And with the occasional trim, you can say farewell to split-ends! | Combing is one of the most repeated mechanical routines that can damage hair. This is because the strand length breaks under the sheer force of the brush at certain angles. During combing, you may feel resistance if your hair is prone to tough tangles. Naturally, that will make you pull the comb or brush harder which will unintentionally damage the strands.
Can existing split ends be repaired?
You’ve probably seen many products on the market sold as “split-ends repair“. However, most of them offer nothing more than hydration and temporary results. Various ingredients in hair care products can give the strands a softer and smoother appearance that will camouflage the damage. Still, the vast majority of conditioners and masques can’t properly repair damaged hair. That’s because the follicles at the roots absorb the nutrients and essentials from our scalp and make the strands grow. But once the hair is at the surface, the strands are not alive anymore. Even though you may disguise the problem with serums and masques, the best way to fix split ends is by trimming them off. The second best way is to not let them occur in the beginning!
What are you doing wrong?
Have you ever wondered why, even after putting a lot of effort into your hair care regimen, split ends still occur? You’re not alone! You just need to find and adjust your hair regimen to suit your hair’s needs or you risk constantly weakening the hair with different routines. Most likely, the main culprit of split ends is the latter, as irregular hair maintenance or missing heat protection is one of the primary causes of hair damage.
If you’re struggling with split ends, the only way to mend and salvage your hair length is to switch to reconstructive hair care regimens, such as KEVIN.MURPHY REPAIR
Think of it like a diet. When you exercise and eat well, you feel stronger and healthier. Being consistent with your hair care is just as important for your hair’s health! So, what should you avoid?
Chemical damage
Colour and other chemical alterations to hair are an obvious choice for those who want a change. | no |
Trichology | Can you repair split ends? | no_statement | "split" "ends" cannot be "repaired".. it is not possible to "repair" "split" "ends".. there are no methods to fix "split" "ends". | https://www.gemmaetc.com/2023/07/does-baking-soda-fix-split-ends.html | Does Baking Soda Fix Split Ends? [Avoid Baking Soda Damage] | Does Baking Soda Fix Split Ends?
Have you ever noticed split ends in your hair when it gets longer? We all know that split ends aren’t the look we are trying to achieve and can cause visible damage.
Many of us have heard of home remedies promising the prevention or even repair of split ends, does baking soda fix split ends? Keep on reading to see if baking soda can help repair damaged hair, to give you healthier hair.
What Are Split Ends?
Split ends occur when the external protective outer layer of the hair cuticle wears away due to external factors like heat styling, chemical treatments, and mechanical manipulation such as brushing or combing.
To comprehend how to fix split ends, it’s essential to know what causes them in the first place.
The frayed hair shaft is a result of extended exposure to heat, lack of moisture, aggressive handling or even nutritional deficiencies.
All these components contribute to weakening the hair shaft, leading to breakage and splitting.
It’s important for you not just to repair split ends but also to stop them from occurring again by addressing these contributing factors.
Repairing split ends requires more than trimming them off. Hair needs nourishment from within and protection from environmental elements on the outside.
How To Prevent Split Ends From Forming
Split ends can be a major issue for those of us with long hair. Split ends, or trichoptilosis, are caused by your hair being dry and brittle due to various environmental and lifestyle factors. Thankfully, there are some preventative measures we can take to help keep split ends at bay.
The first thing that you should do is make sure to use a good quality shampoo and conditioner that helps retain moisture in the hair shaft.
This will also help seal the cuticle after washing, which can also reduce the chances of splits happening as you brush your hair.
Make sure you only use a small amount when styling products too, as this can lead to buildup on the roots which may eventually cause damage.
Since applying too much heat for an extended period of time can cause your strands to become damaged easily, which can result in more split ends forming over time.
Regularly trimming off any existing split ends is essential too, so they don’t travel further up the strand causing more damage. It is best to go for shorter trims every three months rather than longer ones every six months as regular maintenance works better in the long run.
Finally, it always pays off making sure that your body’s nutrition levels stay up through balanced meals and dietary supplementation, so you help yourself from within by giving your body all it needs internally.
This will contribute greatly towards keeping you healthy overall; including helping fight off split ends at least from developing in the first place.
Is It Possible To Repair Split Ends?
Yes, it is possible to repair split ends, but the only way to fully get rid of them is by cutting them off. It is important to understand that split ends can’t be repaired completely as they are caused by damage to the hair shaft, so the only way to stop this from happening again is preventative care.
Split ends occur when the protective layers of your hair are damaged either through heat styling, chemical treatments or due to lack of moisture and proper nourishment.
The best way to repair split ends is firstly with regular trims every 6–8 weeks as this will help keep them at bay and ensure they stay away for longer.
There are plenty of serums and oils available that can help you restore some strength back into your strands – look for ones that contain natural ingredients such as Coconut oil or Argan oil if you have dry hair.
To further reduce their appearance, apply a leave – in conditioner or deep conditioning treatment once a week and make sure you avoid using hot tools such as straighteners and curling wands when styling your hair – air-drying whenever possible will also work wonders.
Lastly, it’s essential you ensure your strands are hydrated – drinking lots of water throughout the day can help keep your hair looking healthy and strong over time.
Does Baking Soda Fix Split Ends?
Now, baking soda is an amazing household helper with multiple uses—it cleans, deodorizes, and can even neutralize smells.
But when it comes to using baking soda to mend damaged hair or split ends specifically—there isn’t much scientific evidence that supports this claim.
Using baking soda for hair involves creating a paste with water and applying it to your mane.
The idea here is that its alkalinity can help open up the hair cuticle and make it easier for moisture penetration, which might seem like a way to hydrate and heal those pesky split ends.
However, be aware—the effects of baking soda on hair aren’t entirely beneficial.
Continued application of such an alkaline substance can disrupt your scalp’s natural pH balance, leading to dryness, brittleness, or even more damage.
It could strip your hair of its essential oils, leaving it without moisture—a condition that can cause more split ends rather than fix them.
You see, while you might feel tempted by quick DIY solutions like using baking soda on your hair, hoping they’ll bind back together—it’s not that simple nor a good idea.
Remember that real knowledge of anything requires understanding the facts and recognizing myths from truths accurately—hair care is no different.
How To Use Baking Soda To Repair Damaged Hair
While it isn’t a miraculous fix for split ends, you can still use baking soda in moderation to help tackle certain hair issues.
As a mild alkaline compound, baking soda functions as a natural cleanser that can get rid of dirt and extra oil from your hair without taking away its natural sebum.
So, if you’re looking to mend baking soda damaged hair or just want to give your strands some loving care, here’s how to use baking soda to repair damaged hair.
Preparing the Baking Soda Solution: Mix one part of baking soda with three parts of water until you get a smooth paste. This ratio is perfect for shoulder-length hair; adjust the amount according to your hair length.
Applying The Mixture: Soak your hair thoroughly, then apply the mixture beginning from the roots going down towards the tips. Make sure all strands are covered.
Letting It Sit: Let the mixture sit on your hair for around 10–15 minutes, so it has time to break down oils and impurities.
Keep in mind that using baking soda should be done sparingly – no more than once every two weeks – as overuse can lead to dryness and potential damage due to its high pH level.
Can Baking Soda And Apple Cider Vinegar Reduce The Appearance Of Split Ends
You’ve heard about how baking soda can fix split ends, but you’re also curious if combining apple cider vinegar into the mix can further improve the results.
To have healthier hair, concentrate on maintaining a balanced diet and using products created especially for your hair type and needs. Don’t forget: getting professional advice is always the safest approach when dealing with hair health.
How Often Should I Apply Baking Soda for Split Ends?
You should apply a baking soda treatment for split ends once a week. Combine equal parts of baking soda and water, then apply it to your hair, concentrating on the ends.
Leave the mixture on for around 15 minutes before rinsing.
Monitor how your hair reacts – if it starts becoming dry or brittle, reduce how often you do this.
Remember, it’s not the type that matters, but how you use it. Using too much can make your hair dry, while using too little may not give the desired results.
Summary
So, does baking soda fix split ends? Unfortunately, not really. While it can help remove product build-up from your hair strands and restore balance to the scalp’s pH levels, it doesn’t contain the nutrients required for real repair of damaged hair.
That being said, you can use baking soda in moderation to give your hair a deep cleanse and make them shinier and softer.
When using any product or home remedy on your mane, remember that consistency is key. Keep in mind that excess usage of any ingredient (even natural ones) can cause harm instead of good.
All products featured on Gemma Etc. are PR samples or gifted items, unless otherwise indicated. This post may contain affiliate links. If you wish to find out more, please see my Disclaimer within my navigation bar.
Gemma Etc.
Hi, my name is Gemma, and I’m the writer behind GemmaEtc.com. I’m a true beauty obsessive, and love writing about anything to do with beauty. In addition to Gemma Etc., I also own MakeupMuddle.com, and love sharing my thoughts and feelings about beauty and lifestyle products. | It is best to go for shorter trims every three months rather than longer ones every six months as regular maintenance works better in the long run.
Finally, it always pays off making sure that your body’s nutrition levels stay up through balanced meals and dietary supplementation, so you help yourself from within by giving your body all it needs internally.
This will contribute greatly towards keeping you healthy overall; including helping fight off split ends at least from developing in the first place.
Is It Possible To Repair Split Ends?
Yes, it is possible to repair split ends, but the only way to fully get rid of them is by cutting them off. It is important to understand that split ends can’t be repaired completely as they are caused by damage to the hair shaft, so the only way to stop this from happening again is preventative care.
Split ends occur when the protective layers of your hair are damaged either through heat styling, chemical treatments or due to lack of moisture and proper nourishment.
The best way to repair split ends is firstly with regular trims every 6–8 weeks as this will help keep them at bay and ensure they stay away for longer.
There are plenty of serums and oils available that can help you restore some strength back into your strands – look for ones that contain natural ingredients such as Coconut oil or Argan oil if you have dry hair.
To further reduce their appearance, apply a leave – in conditioner or deep conditioning treatment once a week and make sure you avoid using hot tools such as straighteners and curling wands when styling your hair – air-drying whenever possible will also work wonders.
Lastly, it’s essential you ensure your strands are hydrated – drinking lots of water throughout the day can help keep your hair looking healthy and strong over time.
Does Baking Soda Fix Split Ends?
Now, baking soda is an amazing household helper with multiple uses—it cleans, deodorizes, and can even neutralize smells.
| yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/320315 | 9 home remedies for a toothache | A toothache can result from tooth decay, an infection, loose or broken fillings, or receding gums. Home treatment options include applying a cold compress, gargling with salt water, and drinking peppermint tea.
If the pain lasts for more than 1 or 2 days, it is best to see a dentist immediately to have it treated.
Until then, the following simple remedies made from ingredients usually available at home may provide temporary relief from the discomfort.
Rinsing the mouth with warm salt water helps to loosen debris lodged in cavities or between teeth. It may also reduce swelling, boost healing, and relieve a sore throat.
A saltwater rinse can be made by dissolving 1 teaspoon of salt in a glass of warm water and swish around in the mouth for about 30 seconds before spitting out. This process can be repeated as often as needed.
Thyme is known for its medicinal uses and is an effective remedy for chest infections, such as bronchitis or whooping cough. Thymol, the main component of the essential oil, has antiseptic and antifungal properties.
One drop of thyme essential oil can be added to a glass of water to make a mouthwash.
Another method is to sprinkle a few drops of thyme essential oil and water onto a cotton ball. After adding the water, press it against the painful tooth.
Hydrogen peroxide is dangerous if swallowed so great care must be taken when rinsing.
It should be mixed in equal parts of 3 percent hydrogen peroxide and water and swished in the mouth for about 30 seconds. After spitting it out, the mouth should be rinsed several times with plain water.
A hydrogen peroxide rinse must never be swallowed, and this remedy is not recommended for children.
These home remedies are meant to provide temporary relief only. It is important to seek immediate treatment from a dentist once a toothache lasts for more than a day or two.
If dental pain is not treated straight away, it might lead to more serious problems, such as gum disease or a dental abscess. An abscess is caused when bacteria infect the innermost part of the tooth called a dental pulp.
How we reviewed this article:
Medical News Today has strict sourcing guidelines and draws only from peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical journals and associations. We avoid using tertiary references. We link primary sources — including studies, scientific references, and statistics — within each article and also list them in the resources section at the bottom of our articles. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy.
Rashed, H. T. (2016, May 30). Evaluation of the effect of hydrogen peroxide as a mouthwash in comparison with chlorhexidine in chronic periodontitis patients: A clinical study. Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry, 6(3), 206–212 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4916793/ | A toothache can result from tooth decay, an infection, loose or broken fillings, or receding gums. Home treatment options include applying a cold compress, gargling with salt water, and drinking peppermint tea.
If the pain lasts for more than 1 or 2 days, it is best to see a dentist immediately to have it treated.
Until then, the following simple remedies made from ingredients usually available at home may provide temporary relief from the discomfort.
Rinsing the mouth with warm salt water helps to loosen debris lodged in cavities or between teeth. It may also reduce swelling, boost healing, and relieve a sore throat.
A saltwater rinse can be made by dissolving 1 teaspoon of salt in a glass of warm water and swish around in the mouth for about 30 seconds before spitting out. This process can be repeated as often as needed.
Thyme is known for its medicinal uses and is an effective remedy for chest infections, such as bronchitis or whooping cough. Thymol, the main component of the essential oil, has antiseptic and antifungal properties.
One drop of thyme essential oil can be added to a glass of water to make a mouthwash.
Another method is to sprinkle a few drops of thyme essential oil and water onto a cotton ball. After adding the water, press it against the painful tooth.
Hydrogen peroxide is dangerous if swallowed so great care must be taken when rinsing.
It should be mixed in equal parts of 3 percent hydrogen peroxide and water and swished in the mouth for about 30 seconds. After spitting it out, the mouth should be rinsed several times with plain water.
A hydrogen peroxide rinse must never be swallowed, and this remedy is not recommended for children.
These home remedies are meant to provide temporary relief only. It is important to seek immediate treatment from a dentist once a toothache lasts for more than a day or two.
If dental pain is not treated straight away, it might lead to more serious problems, such as gum disease or a dental abscess. | yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.healthline.com/health/dental-and-oral-health/home-remedies-for-toothache | 11 Home Remedies for Toothache | For thousands of years, garlic has been recognized and used for its medicinal properties. It also has antibacterial properties. Not only can it kill harmful bacteria that cause dental plaque, but it can also act as a pain reliever.
To use garlic on a toothache, crush a garlic clove to create a paste and apply it to the affected area. You may wish to add a tiny bit of salt. Alternatively, you can slowly chew a clove of fresh garlic.
You can do the following remedies at home, but you may need to source the ingredients from your local health food store or online.
Your mouth, teeth, and gums are likely sensitive at this time, so it’s especially important to purchase these ingredients from a reputable manufacturer. This can reduce your risk of potential irritation.
The aptly named toothache plant is a flowering plant that grows in tropical and subtropical regions. Its active compound, spilanthol, has anti-inflammatory properties, according to a 2021 review. It also provides a numbing sensation when chewed.
Though this plant is generally considered safe, you shouldn’t use it if:
If your toothache is severe or is the result of a more serious medical condition, it’s crucial that you see your dentist so you can treat it properly. Many toothaches will require medical attention. An over-the-counter pain reliever such as ibuprofen could help until you see a dentist.
You should also see your dentist if you experience any of the following symptoms:
You can prevent the likelihood of toothaches occurring by practicing good oral hygiene. Floss at least once daily and brush your teeth for 2 minutes at least twice daily. You can also consider using mouthwash.
How do you get rid of a toothache at night?
To reduce swelling and prevent blood from pooling in your head, try sleeping with your head elevated. You can also take over-the-counter pain medication, such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), acetaminophen (Tylenol), or aspirin.
How do you get rid of a toothache in 5 minutes?
You can try to get rid of a toothache in 5 minutes by rinsing with hydrogen peroxide, salt water, or wheatgrass.
Next, you can apply clove oil, vanilla extract, or garlic paste to the affected area.
Finally, apply a cold compress or ice pack. If the pain doesn’t resolve or if it’s severe, talk with your dentist.
How can I get rid of a toothache without medication?
Depending on the cause of your tooth discomfort, it may not always be possible to get rid of a toothache without medication.
However, you can try cleaning your mouth by brushing, flossing, and rinsing with mouthwash, salt water, or hydrogen peroxide and seeing whether that brings some relief.
You can also use a cold compress, oil pull, and chew on fresh garlic. If your pain is severe or long lasting, though, make sure to visit your dentist.
A toothache can cause significant discomfort. While it’s important to see a dentist to figure out the root cause of your pain, there are some home remedies, like cold compresses and saltwater rinses, that may help you in the meantime.
How we reviewed this article:
Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. We avoid using tertiary references. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. | Though this plant is generally considered safe, you shouldn’t use it if:
If your toothache is severe or is the result of a more serious medical condition, it’s crucial that you see your dentist so you can treat it properly. Many toothaches will require medical attention. An over-the-counter pain reliever such as ibuprofen could help until you see a dentist.
You should also see your dentist if you experience any of the following symptoms:
You can prevent the likelihood of toothaches occurring by practicing good oral hygiene. Floss at least once daily and brush your teeth for 2 minutes at least twice daily. You can also consider using mouthwash.
How do you get rid of a toothache at night?
To reduce swelling and prevent blood from pooling in your head, try sleeping with your head elevated. You can also take over-the-counter pain medication, such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), acetaminophen (Tylenol), or aspirin.
How do you get rid of a toothache in 5 minutes?
You can try to get rid of a toothache in 5 minutes by rinsing with hydrogen peroxide, salt water, or wheatgrass.
Next, you can apply clove oil, vanilla extract, or garlic paste to the affected area.
Finally, apply a cold compress or ice pack. If the pain doesn’t resolve or if it’s severe, talk with your dentist.
How can I get rid of a toothache without medication?
Depending on the cause of your tooth discomfort, it may not always be possible to get rid of a toothache without medication.
However, you can try cleaning your mouth by brushing, flossing, and rinsing with mouthwash, salt water, or hydrogen peroxide and seeing whether that brings some relief.
You can also use a cold compress, oil pull, and chew on fresh garlic. If your pain is severe or long lasting, though, make sure to visit your dentist.
A toothache can cause significant discomfort. | yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.healthline.com/health/dental-and-oral-health/emergency-toothache-relief | Emergency Toothache Relief: Home Remedies, OTC Remedies | Most causes of sudden tooth pain are easily treatable by your dentist, so you should make an appointment right away. In the meantime, there are some remedies you can try to find temporary relief from the pain.
NSAIDs
Keep in mind, however, that taking ibuprofen over a long period of time can irritate or damage your stomach, kidneys, and liver.
Acetaminophen
If you can’t take NSAIDs, acetaminophen (Tylenol) is a good option for temporary pain relief from a toothache. Be sure to read the label and follow instructions for the correct dosage. Taking too much acetaminophen could also damage your liver.
Toothache drops and gels
Medicated gels or drops can also help reduce toothache pain. These products typically contain ingredients like benzocaine, which help numb the area when applied topically.
Temporary fillings
Temporary tooth fillings, available OTC at pharmacies, and include repair kits for softening the edge of a lost filling or loose cap.
These repair kits aren’t meant to last long, so you’ll need to contact a dentist to have the temporary filling replaced with a permanent one.
Home remedies can also be used to help with a toothache until you can visit a dentist.
Clove oil
Clove oil is a popular home remedy for toothaches. In fact, cloves have been used for centuries for tooth pain. A 2016 research review showed that cloves contain an active ingredient called eugenol, which numbs the skin it touches. You may be able to find clove oil at the medicinal section of your supermarket.
Squeeze a few drops of clove oil into 1 teaspoon of olive oil (or another carrier oil) in a small dish. Then soak a cotton swab into the mixture. Place the soaked cotton ball over the painful tooth and allow it to sit for 5 to 10 minutes.
Clove oil is considered safe in general, but is not recommended for use in children.
Saltwater rinse
Salt is an antiseptic that can also reduce inflammation. A 2016 study showed that rinsing your mouth with saltwater promotes healthy gums and improves healing of sores or ulcers.
To make a saltwater rinse, combine 1 teaspoon of salt with an 8-ounce glass of lukewarm water and mix well. Swish the solution in your mouth for up to 30 seconds, then spit it out.
Hydrogen peroxide rinse
For temporary relief, consider rinsing your mouth with hydrogen peroxide diluted in water. Start with a 3-percent concentration of hydrogen peroxide (this is what you’ll find in a brown bottle sold at most drugstores). Mix 1 part hydrogen peroxide with 2 parts water.
After swishing in your mouth for about 60 seconds, spit out the solution. Do not swallow it. Afterward, rinse with water.
Garlic
Garlic contains a compound called allicin, which has antibacterial and antimicrobial properties. A 2015 research review showed that it may help kill some of the bacteria associated with toothaches.
A 2018 research review showed that allicin is created when garlic cloves are crushed, chewed, or chopped. The compound is only present for a small amount of time, so you’ll need fresh garlic cloves for this remedy.
You can either gently chew on a peeled clove of garlic to release allicin or crush the garlic using a mortar or the back of a spoon and apply it directly to the affected tooth with a cotton swab or your fingers.
Peppermint tea
Peppermint tea may help to numb the painful area of your mouth. A 2013 study showed that peppermint tea also has antimicrobial properties, so it can fight against the oral bacteria that lead to tooth decay.
First, make a cup of tea by boiling water and adding a teaspoon of dried peppermint leaves or a teabag of peppermint tea. Remove the tea bag or strain the tea leaves and allow it to cool. Rinse your mouth with the cooled tea. You can repeat as needed for relief.
Aloe vera
Aloe vera is a plant that has anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties. Aloe vera can help ease some of the inflammation related to gum disease or other irritation in your mouth.
A 2015 research review showed that aloe vera gel could improve symptoms of periodontitis, a serious gum disease that destroys the bone supporting your teeth. One 2016 study even found aloe vera mouth rinse to be just as effective in reducing periodontal disease as chlorhexidine, a commonly used germicidal mouthwash.
You can find aloe vera mouthwash at grocery stores. Swish in your mouth for 30 seconds or so, twice per day, and spit out.
Elevate your head
Try sleeping with your head elevated on a pillow or several pillows. This will prevent pressure caused by blood flow into your head and mouth and may reduce swelling.
Ice packs
Ice can be helpful for facial swelling or an injury to your mouth. Ice constricts blood vessels, which can reduce pain. You can apply an ice pack or a bag of ice wrapped in a towel to your jaw or face in 15-minute intervals. Don’t eat or chew the ice cubes. The hard ice can damage your teeth even more.
If you don’t have insurance to help pay for dental care, your state or local health department may have a list of programs that offer free or low-cost dental care. Contact the health department in your area to find out about available financial assistance programs.
Here are a few other options to consider for free or reduced-cost dental care:
Medicaid, a state-run program, sometimes offers dental insurance for people and families who meet certain income and other eligibility requirements.
The United States Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) may offer dental coverage if you’re a veteran.
Dental schools and dental hygiene schools in your area may offer low-cost services. All services are supervised by licensed dentists, but you’ll have to call ahead to see if they offer emergency services.
If you have a toothache, schedule an appointment with a dentist immediately. In the meantime, you can try OTC medications, like ibuprofen or a topical analgesic, or home remedies, like gloves and garlic.
While you can’t always prevent a toothache, staying on top of your dental health habits can help keep your teeth in better shape. Brushing and flossing twice a day using a soft-bristled toothbrush and fluoride toothpaste could make a toothache less likely to happen.
Last medically reviewed on June 15, 2021
How we reviewed this article:
Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. We avoid using tertiary references. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy. | Most causes of sudden tooth pain are easily treatable by your dentist, so you should make an appointment right away. In the meantime, there are some remedies you can try to find temporary relief from the pain.
NSAIDs
Keep in mind, however, that taking ibuprofen over a long period of time can irritate or damage your stomach, kidneys, and liver.
Acetaminophen
If you can’t take NSAIDs, acetaminophen (Tylenol) is a good option for temporary pain relief from a toothache. Be sure to read the label and follow instructions for the correct dosage. Taking too much acetaminophen could also damage your liver.
Toothache drops and gels
Medicated gels or drops can also help reduce toothache pain. These products typically contain ingredients like benzocaine, which help numb the area when applied topically.
Temporary fillings
Temporary tooth fillings, available OTC at pharmacies, and include repair kits for softening the edge of a lost filling or loose cap.
These repair kits aren’t meant to last long, so you’ll need to contact a dentist to have the temporary filling replaced with a permanent one.
Home remedies can also be used to help with a toothache until you can visit a dentist.
Clove oil
Clove oil is a popular home remedy for toothaches. In fact, cloves have been used for centuries for tooth pain. A 2016 research review showed that cloves contain an active ingredient called eugenol, which numbs the skin it touches. You may be able to find clove oil at the medicinal section of your supermarket.
Squeeze a few drops of clove oil into 1 teaspoon of olive oil (or another carrier oil) in a small dish. Then soak a cotton swab into the mixture. Place the soaked cotton ball over the painful tooth and allow it to sit for 5 to 10 minutes.
Clove oil is considered safe in general, but is not recommended for use in children.
| yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://michaelsinkindds.com/7-home-remedies-for-toothache-a-dentists-opinion/ | 7 Home Remedies for Toothache: A Dentist's Opinion | 7 Home Remedies for Toothache….A Dentist’s Opinion
As a dentist, I typically don’t go to Google to get information about dental problems, but I know that a lot of people do – particularly in the middle of the night or when their dentist’s office is closed. One day I decided to find out what w actually comes up on the internet when people search for toothache remedies. So I did some Google searches myself. What I discovered is most of the advice is for home remedies for toothaches. Some I was familiar with, some I wasn’t.
The majority of the home remedies I found online are not what I typically recommend to my patients. But I was curious if any of them actually work. So, I did some research (mainly to dispel some of the myths) and to my surprise, some of them actually make sense scientifically.
Here’s the list, my opinion on each, and some NYC humor to go along with it:
Common Home Remedies for Toothache
1. ASPIRIN
Many people believe that a good way to relieve tooth pain is to place an aspirin on the gum of the affected tooth. Don’t do it! Aspirin is acidic and will burn your gums. You’d be surprised by how many people I have seen over the years who tried it and caused harm to their soft tissue. Note: If you had a headache, would you put an aspirin on your forehead? Swallow the aspirin.
2. GARLIC
In addition to using it to ward off vampires, garlic also has medicinal value. When garlic is crushed or finely chopped two chemicals that join to form allicin, which has antibiotic properties and can offer a bit of pain relief. If you try this, make sure you crush the garlic and be aware that it can be irritating to your gums, so put it only in the cavity in the affected tooth. Note: Garlic powder is not a substitute for fresh garlic. (It’s great on pizza, though.)
3. ONION
A lot of the websites I found tell you to put a piece of raw onion on the affected tooth. Because onion has antimicrobial properties it may provide a slight bit of tooth pain relief. Note: This is not good for one’s social life.
4. CLOVES
Oil of cloves, also known as eugenol, has both antimicrobial and pain relieving properties and is a common ingredient in many dental products. Here’s how to use it to relieve tooth pain: mix 2-3 drops with olive or cooking oil and saturate a piece of cotton with the mixture. Place the cotton directly into the cavity of the affected tooth. Place a piece of dry cotton over the tooth and bite down. You can also grind or crush whole cloves with a few drops of cooking oil for the same effect. Note: You might get some relief, but you’ll smell like the holiday ham. (I can think of worse smells.)
5. BOURBON OR WHISKEY
The alcohol in bourbon and whiskey is both an antiseptic and an astringent. Some of my patients believe they get pain relief from swishing it around in their mouths. However, any pain relief they perceive is likely due to the irritating effects of the alcohol on their gums districting their brain from the pain signals coming from the tooth. Note: You’re better off drinking the booze. (Neat – not on the rocks because cold aggravates painful teeth.)
6. WARM SALT WATER
Warm salt water is one of the most recommended and most effective ways of soothing a toothache. Here’s how to use it: place 1/4 – 1/2 tsp. of salt in 8 ounces of very warm (not hot) water. Swish the mixture around in your mouth, then spit it out. The salt water will draw fluid away from the tissues of the affected area and reduce pressure on your nerve endings. Note: Eating salty potato chips will not have the same effect.
7. BAY BERRY BARK AND VINEGAR
I found quite a bit on the web that recommends mixing bay berry bark and vinegar into a thick paste and applying it onto the hurting tooth as a home remedy for toothache. I’ll give this one an honorable mention. Disclaimer: I have no idea what bay berries are.
And there you have it – a review of the most commonly recommended home remedies for tooth pain you can find on the web.
But Remember!
A toothache is a horrible experience and ALWAYS signals that something is wrong. When left untreated it can lead to serious health problems beyond just your affected tooth. So, if you’re in pain or have swelling in or around your mouth, you must contact a dentist as soon as possible. Even if your toothache goes away, the problem that caused it will not.
At my office, when a patient calls with an emergency when the office is closed, they will get my personal cell number (so help is literally a phone call away.) I usually tell them to drink a big glass of straight bourbon and call it a night (kidding).
Dr. Michael Sinkin is a general dentist in New York City. He loves being a dentist and is known throughout the city for taking wonderful care of his patients and for his wicked sense of humor. For more about Dr. Sinkin, click here.
DISCLAIMER: The advice I offer in response to your questions is intended to be informational only and generic in nature. Namely, I am in no way offering a definitive diagnosis or specific treatment recommendations for your particular situation. My intent is solely educational and my responses to your actual questions serve as springboard to discussion of a variety of dental topics that come up in day-to-day dental practice. Any advice offered is no substitute for proper evaluation and care by a qualified dentist.
Michael Sinkin
Reader Interactions
Comments
Loved it, very well written, the notes and disclaimers made me laugh especially “If you had a headache, would you put an aspirin on your forehead? Swallow the aspirin” was really awesome but I do agree to the main idea of the blog to concern a professional in such situations rather than trying such remedies and taking risk. Thank you for sharing it.
Hi, Dr. Simkin. I found your website through Google and hope you’re still answering. My regular dentist is out of town for a week and (just my luck) I have some sensitivity, bordering occasionally on pain, in the upper right area of my mouth. Not sure if it’s a gum or tooth issue. Tylenol seems to help enormously. When I called my dentist’s office, the receptionist told me he is away, made an appointment for me in a week (his first day back), and said if I felt it was an emergency, she would set me up with his back-up dentist. How do I judge whether waiting a week is doing harm? I love and trust my dentist, and I have a complicated and tricky set of teeth and gums, so I’m wary of seeing somebody not familiar with my story. But am I taking too high a risk trying to wait it out? Again, with Tylenol, it’s perfectly manageable, but I fear there’s an issue lurking that will escalate suddenly, and I’ll regret waiting. What do you think? Thanks so much!!!
Dear Geri, I fully appreciate your apprehension over seeing a new dentist and based upon what youve told me. That said, I am sure that your dentist has full confidence in the dentist with whom he has entrusted his patients well-being in his absence. See how it goes, and have a little faith in your dentist’s judgement should you run into a problem. Good luck! Dr. Michael Sinkin
I’ve been having pain on my 2nd to last bottom right molar since a week already. Went to the dentist and she said that I have no cavities. She also mention that my last bottom right molar shows that the nerve is almost touching the filling of my tooth, that I needed a root canal. So why do I feel pain on the 2nd to last molar when the last molar is the one that she said needs a root canal? Do I really need to get a root canal for the last molar or can I just extract the molar?
Dear Angie, There is a phenomenon known as referred pain where the cause of one’s tooth pain is perceived to be from another tooth. Referred pain is not an obscure occurrence. That said, before any treatment decision is made careful diagnostic evaluation is critical, lest the wrong tooth is treated. Might I suggest speaking to your dentist as to his level of confidence that the tooth that may need root canal is the actual cause of your pain (as opposed to the 2nd to last tooth)? You could also see an endodontist (a root canal specialist) for a second opinion. I hope I was helpful. In Health, Dr. Sinkin
Hi Doctor! Thank you for your kindness i. Answering all these questions after all this time!
I had a root canal done about 5 years ago on one of my molars. For the past few days it has been aching really bad. The pain travels to my neck and ear. I’m going to try and schedule something soon with someone, but I’m wondering, how is this possible if a root canal was already done? It hurts worse now than it did pre-root canal. I can’t even bite down or sleep well 🙁
While your tooth may have had root canal that doesn’t mean that you can’t/don’t have sensation. The tooth is not vital in the sense that in as much as the nerve has been removed you won’t respond to cold, sweets or temperature changes. But the tooth is very much a part of your body and will respond to pressure and biting forces because it is surrounded and connected to living tissue such as bone,connective tissue (what is commonly referred to as the periodontal ligament) and of course gums. One possible cause of pain is a gum infection around the tooth. This can manifest itself by the symptoms you describe. Also, when a tooth fractures (especially along the root), severe pain on biting and abscess formation can result. Sometimes, even years after root canal was completed, a reinfection can occur around the root. Possibly, there is an extra nerve canal that was not detected when the original treatment was performed. Whatever the cause, clearly you need to see your dentist for an evaluation and hopefully your problem can be easily addressed. Best of luck, Dr. Sinkin
Hi ive had a broken tooth since last year i think its been hurting so much latly and i cant go to the dentist till jan and my teeth cannot stand cold water should i try the onion or garlic trick? Also asprin dont rly help either thanks and plz reply and im female
Aside from alternatives to aspirin like Advil or Tylenol (only if you can take them) I can recommend frequent warm salt water rinsing. I’m afraid that home remedies only go so far. You may have an access forming which will most certainly need a dentist’s care. If there’s any way you can get to the dentist before January, do it! If it’s a financial issue, perhaps your dentist will work with you to delay or spread out payments. Good luck.
Hey I have a throbbing pain I my last top left molar. I had broke it months ago and have never felt pain. This pain started a few days ago. First it was a couple of my top left teeth, then the next day the pain was barely there. Then this morning no pain. Then a few hours later I had pain. Took a nap after taking 2 -599mg Tylenol and not my lad too left molar is throbbing. It hurts to bite down. It feels like it might be swollen since that side seems to but down a little lower then the right. What should I do? What could this be? What’s sown temporary relief?? Pleas help thanks
Dear Jenn, Sorry for your troubles. Clearly what you need to do is to see a dentist. The swelling that you describe might very well be an abscess (infection). Please, seek out professional care before matters worsen. Good luck. Dr. Sinkin
Dr. Sinkin, you are so wonderful and kind for answering these dental questions. I am 46 and have had all 4 wisdom teeth out. This weekend I developed serious pain in one of my top molars. Out of the blue with no previous problems. I have an appointment for the dentist tomorrow but of course I have tremendous anxiety and fear. My whole face is throbbing and I look like a chipmunk. This pain is seriously worse than child birth.
Dear Michelle, I am so sorry for your suffering. What you didn’t say was when your wisdom teeth were extracted. So I can’t surmise is whether you are experiencing post-operative sequella or if there might be another problem going on. Either way, you obviously did right by scheduling a dental appointment. I am confident that your dentist will be able to get to the “root” of the problem. Please try to find some calm. The intensity of your pain may be greater than the underlying problem causing it and pain in and of itself can engender a lot of anxiety and stress. Good luck and feel better. Dr. Sinkin
Hello, I have a broken maxillary bicuspid that my dentist told me was infected, and she recommended extraction. The problem? I live in an a very remote area where the only options are oral surgery at a hospital known for having an inordinately high rate of death during non-risky procedures. I have multiple sclerosis, and our hospital’s high rate of septic deaths concerns me greatly. Because infection alone can lead to disability for me thanks to the M.S., I’m automatically wary of any place with less than stellar reputation for infections. On top of the M.S., I also have a midline anomaly which in youth complicated my dental health (have one singular front tooth, exactly in the middle).
Oral surgery when I was young to “make room” in my mouth removed 8 teeth, including 2 impacted teeth up top that they’d said were blocked by baby teeth, but I recall actually losing the teeth that were in the way (i.e., the surgeon actually removed permanent teeth even though he assumed they were deciduous teeth, probably because other teeth were still stuck beneath them), so I think what I had maybe fits under the category of “supernumary teeth” even though it was only two of them.
After surgery, I began having sinus problems, requiring 2 sinus surgeries, one of which my surgeon said was the worst case of swelling he’d seen in his 3,000 times performing the procedure. I had large gaps in my upper jaw due to the oral surgery, that eventually filled in but I suspect I’ve experienced some bone loss in my alveolar plate over the years (I’m 40, have family history of severe osteoporosis, and the broken tooth crumbled pretty easily…. it’s immediately adjacent to a bridge, and it actually broke while I was flossing!).
After the oral and sinus surgeries, I went on to develop chronic migraines and M.S….. I’ve no idea how this is all related, if at all, but I’m far too worried about post-surgical complications in an area with one neurologist in a 600 mile radius (no joke), and a “Hotel California” type hospital. I’m considering traveling to a city near my family, where I could get an oral surgeon well versed in some of the sinus issues and hopefully some of the congenital dental anomalies I have as well.
MY QUESTION FOR YOU: What subspecialty of oral surgeon should I seek out for this? Is a craniofacial surgeon appropriate?
And should I return to my dentist for antibiotic treatment for the infection, until I can get to a surgeon out of state? I feel like the infection may be affecting my M.S. Thank you.
That is quite a story….sounds, more like A Little Shop of Horrors than Hotel California! May I suggest you see a board-certified (or equivalent if you’re not in the U.S) oral and maxillary surgeon to evaluate your condition. And yes, you should definitely return to your dentist immediately if you have an infection.
Hi doc, I’m 15 years old and have got agonising tooth ache in the top and bottom of my mouth on the right side. I have tried doing the salty water and I’ve also taken 2 nefopam. I cannot sleep because the pain is agonising and as it is a Sunday//Monday morning all emergency dentists are closed until 9am. I don’t know what has caused this however I have got decay in the base of my tooth. My gums are inflamed and the pain just won’t go away! Help me please???
I am sorry for your troubles. Nefopam is not a commonly prescribed medication, but is in the family of non-opioid centrally acting pain relievers. You simply need to see a dentist. Warm salt water swishing and possibly an NSAID, like ibuprofen (assuming you have no allergies or have not experienced effects from similar medications) or Tylenol is all I can recommend. Given your age, I am reticent to give you any advice that would postpone your needed dental visit. Good luck and feel better. Great,
Dear Tiffany, I can’t tell you the number of times that I have received cries for help because of tooth pain and financial distress. Either condition is bad enough, but together….uggh! There are certain over-the-counter dental products that you may try, like Dent-Temp. You can usually find them a well stocked pharmacy. Follow the directions on the package. You will need to see a dentist at some point as your tooth most likely has decay which will only get worse. Be well and good luck. Dr. Sinkin
I need a root canal and that particular tooth the hole got a bit bigger and started killing me a couple days ago. Oragel and 800mg ibuprofen was doing the job until last night. I’ve put on some clove and more oragel and the pain is OKAY right now. More of that throbbing pain where my gums hurt too…I have taken some clindamycine for the past couple days just in case. Do you recommend a medicated filling will hold until I get the funds for the root canal? I have one in another tooth that actually needs the same tx, and it’s held for over a year! No pain…thanks . and I did contact my dentist but she hasn’t answered me as of yet.
Dear Maria, You are certainly resourceful and have managed your mini-crisis effectively. It is possible that an over-the-counter temporary filling may buy you some more time as it usually contains cloves and might offer continued relief. BUT…sealing up a potentially abcessed tooth may make the situation worse. Even if you need root canal and finances are a problem, your dentist could offer palliative care as a stop-gap measure and help you with a treatment plan that will address your needs in a staged treatment approach. Reach out to your dentist again and see if a personalized plan can be devised that considers your dental, personal and financial particulars. Good luck. And, please if you find relief from our discussion of home remedies, remember that pain is a symptom of an underlying condition that needs professional attention. Don’t get lulled into a false sense of security. Good luck, Dr. Sinkin
I understand your position and thank you for taking the time to reply. I have considered the nerve, gums and protecting adjacent teeth. I’m going to practice building a tooth before I simply stick material on the actual tooth. I’m just unsure of what is actually required to make the resin adhere to the tooth. The acid etching especially makes me nervous and finding laymen information is not easy. Seeing a dentist is just not an option. I understand a person in pain will do or pay anything to make it stop, what i don’t understand is how many dentists can take advantage of that.
Dear Dr, I’m 56 and a mouthful of problems and very limited funds. The two pressing issues are a broken front tooth that has ruined my smile and a broken(missing filling)/infected molar. I’m getting some vlc composite resin to build a new front tooth and possibly fill my molar. My question is this: will it work to use a light activated one step etching cement on the broken tooth and then just apply the resin onto that? I don’t think just putting the resin into the tooth and curing the thin applications will actually stick to existing tooth by itself. I’m not needing anything perfect , just better than what it is now. Thank you
Dear Bob, I truly sympathize with your situation, but I can’t in good conscience advise you how to proceed. It’s a bit more complicated than just sticking material on your tooth. There’s the tooth’s nerve to consider, the surrounding gum tissue, the adjacent teeth, your bite, how are you going to shape and polish once you light cure it? You really need to see a dentist. That’s my advice to you. Best of luck, Dr.Sinkin
So i went to the dentist Thursday to have braces put on and 4 teeth pulled…well on the top right tooth it’s hurting still really bad. That’s the tooth my dentist crumbled into pieces while trying to pull it out. Is it suppose to hurt like this…i feel like my nerve is throbbing…my other teeth feel fine,except the one she damaged into pieces. HELP!!! Pain pain go away i cant sleep and i even took my pain meds!!!
Yes, it’s possible to feel the pain you are experiencing because you are obviously feeling it! You need to see your dentist as soon as possible. The other extractions went well, but this one clearly has complications. Your dentist should be able to give you some relief and reassurance. Feel better, Dr. Sinkin
Dear Dr I have two fractured teeth in the back of my mouth can’t afford to go to dentist I am a stay at home mom and caregiver for my grandmother so I am in severe pain and tried salt water orajel pain meds and the only relief I have got is for like 5 mins and it’s when I put liquid children’s tylenol on the tooth any suggestions I’m hurting really bad maybe another abcess so I started taking some cipro I had laying around the house
Oh boy! I am so sorry for your troubles. By the sounds of it, you really need to see a dentist – home remedies will be of limited value and may only offer some very temporary relief. Based on your comments, you have experienced dental abscesses before and while antibiotics can address the acute infection, if you don’t address the “root” cause, it will return (and the bacteria may become more resistant to the antibiotic). If you have no allergies or sensitivities to medication or other underlying medical conditions, I suggest Ibuprofen. Warm salt water is always helpful. Over the counter aids that contain eugenol {oil of cloves) can be applied topically for relief. With all of your responsibilities, you can’t afford to develop a more serious infection. Seeking out a low cost dental clinic may be the way to go. Call your personal doctor or your children’s pediatrician and ask for some guidance and possible recommendation for a dentist. He/she might be willing to prescribe a broad spectrum antibiotic that is better suited to your problem than Cipro. You can also call the local dental society for a recommendation. But, you need to see a dentist before you have a real crisis. I wish you well.
I started getting a toothache on my top molar a couple weeks before my cleaning. It’s very sensitive to anything cold but the pain lingers on and is a dull ache. Similar to the soreness I felt after getting my wisdom teeth out. I had the cleaning yesterday and they said everything looked good and thought the pain could be from a leaky filling since I have a large filling in that tooth that goes down the side but couldn’t find any infection or cavity. I’m scheduled for a crown in a month (the soonest they could get me in). Is it really possible a leaky filling could cause this much pain and the tooth is really alive? Everything online makes it sound like I’d need RCT… Also what would you recommend to handle the pain for the next month? So far I’ve just been taking painkillers and using salt water rinses. I’ve heard a lot of good stuff on clove oil but not to use it for extended periods. I’ll take any recommendations! Thanks!
Home remedies are not what you need right now. Lingering discomfort after cold stimulus can be a sign of pulpitis (inflammation of the nerve). The type of pain you describe is likely to be nerve-related. Call your dentist immediately and speak with him/her directly (not the staff). Explain what you are experiencing exactly the way you described it in your comment. If you can’t be seen right away, ask for a referral to an endodontist (root canal specialist) to evaluate your tooth.
I happened upon your site and figured I would ask your opinion. I have several tooth issues however, the problem I am having right now that is causing me severe pain is in tooth #31. It has a massive cavity that has sloped the molar from about half way from the top mid section down to the gum line against my cheek. Not having dental insurance until June of this year I have tried many different remedies some work for a bit, some do not. I have seen a dentist but the expense involved is too much for me to currently pay. The dentist did today give me penicillin vk 500mg and tramadol 37.5-325. How long before the tramadol is in my system to help relieve some of the pain and will the penicillin kill off the bacteria enough to cause some relief from the pain? Also, I seem to have better relief from cold things than I do with anything heated. Like cold air, ice, etc. Any idea why that would be? Thanks for any advice.
Dear Vito, I’m sorry for your dental problems. Unfortunately (as I have stated many times), dental, and for that matter, medical conditions, requiring treatment arise independent of one’s insurance status. TraMadol is an opioid pain medication that is not intended for long term use, especially in your described situation which is of an acute nature. Yes, it will offer relief by dulling your central nervous system’s pain response, but until the cause of the problem is addressed resolution and ultimate relief will not occur. The penicillin prescription will address the infection that I assume you have (why else would you be given an antibiotic?) but the source of your dental abscess needs remedied. It would guess that you do have an inflamed/infected dental pulp based on the size of the cavity you describe and the pain elicited by heat and cold. A deteriorating nerve can generate gas build up within the tooth. Heat causes the gas to expand placing more pressure on the nerve endings and hence, pain. Cold water reduces the gas expansion. Waiting until June is unlikely a viable option as you may develop a more serious infection and more pain. If my assessment is correct, your tooth may require either root canal (and a crown) or extraction. If you have as many dental problems as you indicated you need to see a dentist and triage (prioritize treatment) your dental landscape and eliminate infections and decay with the mindset that definitive care (i.e. crowns, bridges, possible implants, partial dentures) may take a back seat to getting your mouth stable. Seek out a dentist who can help diagnose and plan for treatment for your multiple problems in a thoughtful and logical sequence that takes into consideration your limited financial resources. This can be done. It may take longer to cross the finish line, but dental health and comfort is achievable. Good health.
I had a broken tooth, which my dentist said left a big hole. He said it could be filled, which is what he did about 2 months ago. He said there is about a 75 percent chance that it will stay. Tonight, I have some throbbing in the gum. The throbbing is not painful, but if I barely push on the tooth with my tongue or start to bite down on something, it hurts up in my gum. I have brushed, flossed, and used salt water. Just no idea why it would be swollen. The filling is all still there. Wondering what your thoughts are.
Dear Lisa, I can’t diagnose without the benefits of an exam and x-rays, but here’s my impression. You had a very large filling placed and by your dentist’s description I suspect he repaired your tooth by patching it. Finances may have had a play in your treatment often in this type of situation we opt for a crown. Since the filling is very large your tooth’s nerve may have been traumatized or damaged. The swelling in your gum could be an abcess forming. Schedule an appointment with your dentist for an evaluation as soon as possible. Better safe than sorry.
I had my wisdom tooth pulled 2 weeks ago, the yesterday the molar next to it because he accidentally broke it and it was beyond painful. When he pulled my wisdom tooth he dug down into my gum and got the tongue side good. It caused bone to pop through my gum, jaw bone I’m assuming. When I went to get my molar pulled yesterday he sanded the jaw bone part which was ok until the swelling went down ands now I have a long sharp piece of bone cutting up my tongue. Will the bone die and come out or will the gum grow over it. I’ve seen a lot about it coming out, but he said my gum would just grow back over it. Will it? Should I have it sanded some more since it’s soooo sharp. And are all these common enough problems that I shouldn’t find a new dentist. I’m worried because it seems like every time he does something he messes something else up. Thank you in advance.
I am really not sure how to respond to your report of what happened…but on the surface I would say that you experienced enough complications to seek a second opinion. I just don’t have enough facts to render an informed opinion: was your wisdom tooth impacted or badly decayed? was your adjacent tooth healthy or broken down with decay or large fillings? how is your general health? do you have diabetes, osteoporosis, etc. Potentially many factors can be in play to help shed light on your experience. So I won’t comment on the why’s or how’s of what happened. That said, I believe that you should get another professional to evaluate your condition.
Difficult extractions can yield the type of complications you describe. Pieces of bone called sequestrae can break through the gum days, weeks, sometimes months after such an extraction and can usually be removed like a splinter. Sometimes the bone needs to be reshaped if the gum is to thin or the sharp promenance of remaining bone encompasses too large an area. And sometimes there is “collateral damage” during truly difficult procedures. I suggest you seek out an oral surgeon for an evaluation. You have questions about your dentist’s ability. Seek out a second opinion before making any decisions. Good luck and I’m sorry for your troubles. Dr Sinkin
Thanks for the response. On another note, I had a different tooth pulled about a 1½ yrs ago, the dentist fought to have me save it but I couldn’t afford to at the time so I decided to have it pulled and get a bridge or implant in the future. He cut my tooth into pieces and pulled the roots out in sections leaving a bunch of splinters behind, I still have some splinters, how would I go about getting them out of my gums? I can feel them shifting in my gums which is uncomfortable but bearable and on occasion I rub over it with slight pressure til I feel a piece break through and I can pull it out with tweezers, I’m seeing a new dentist next week but the previous one claimed he didn’t see any pieces on xray or visual exam and sort of brushed me off. I know it shouldn’t take this long to expel splinters, is there something I can request from the new dentist to get rid of them?
Would like to know your opinion on swishing with peroxide, I’ve dine this in the past for gum infection and it cleared it up well. I use 3% peroxide mixed half and half with water and within 5 minutes my toothache is dulled to the point I barely notice it. My wisdom tooth went bad fast, within 6 months after it first cut through it just started crumbling so the back half of it is gone and now the nerve is bothering me. Just waiting for my appointment to have it pulled next week but was wondering if swishing peroxide is a good or bad idea.
Dear Nikki, In as much as you have made arrangements to have your wisdom tooth problem appropriately addressed, the home remedy of rinsing with a diluted solution of hydrogen peroxide is probably ok. Long-term use of a peroxide rinse is not something I would recommend and in fact, I would discourage as it can dry the tissue of the mouth and disturb the normal pH (acidity). Overuse of Hydrogen peroxide can also disrupt the delicate balance of healthy bacteria that resides in the oral cavity. I recommend that my patients rinse with warm salt water which has a soothing effect. Feel better and good luck with your treatment. Dr Sinkin
I stumbled upon your website and I’m glad I did. It is very nice to have a dentist to ask a question to. I am 50 and I have only some front teeth no back teeth left.I can barely afford to pay my bills as it is. I don’t know what to do anymore. I live in Texas. I have dental insurance but I don’t have enough money to do the work that I need I think I need dentures or partials. Just venting thanks for listening.
I am so sorry for your travails. Since you have dental insurance, you may want to call your insurance carrier and see if they have participating dentists that will accept your insurance. Might I suggest that you seek out a dental school or teaching hospital with a dental residency program. You may find affordable care there and they can help you with your insurance claim. We also found a list that may help you: http://www.needhelppayingbills.com/html/texas_free_dental_clinics.html And, another option is a third party lending institution such as Care Credit (http://www.carecredit.com/) that offer loans for dental care with attractive rates and a variety of terms. I wish you the best, don’t give up hope.
I guess I’d be a rare case … I’m allergic to most medicines n locals. I’ve called a few oral surgeons in my area it’ll cost over $1200 to pull one tooth n I can’t afford that. Nor have I been to the dentist in 20 yrs cuz the last one almost killed me with novacaine Yay me. Wanted to say thank you for your garlic remedies. After 6 days of salt water it worked the pain has lowered in intensity…. ty
Dear Barbara, I am glad you found relief from a more unconventional remedy. That said, you really need to see a dentist before you develop an infection. It is not uncommon for people to have allergies/sensitivity to medications, local anesthetics are no exception. Fortunately, there are many local anesthetics available. Some people are allergic to the preservative in the anesthetic solution. Some people are sensitive (not allergic) to the epinephrine in some formulations which can yield palpitations. ou should find a dentist who can listen to your past experiences and come up with a treatment approach. Novacaine has not been used in dentistry for many many years, but it is a term commonly used for local anesthetics (much like Kleenex is a term used for a tissue). I believe a reasonable treatment approach is possible with necessarily involving general anesthesia. Dr Sinkin
I went to the dentist about a year ago to get a filling. about a month ago the tooth that I had fixed came out in pieces. What is the cause of this? Is it normal for this to happen, or is it a mistake made by the dentist. I see a new dentist Tuesday for pain from that tooth, because I’m terrified to go back to the original doc. Also, is tooth whitening toothpaste bad if you have bad teeth that need repairing?
No, it is not normal for a tooth to crumble like that, but I have no way of knowing the condition your tooth was in when it was last treated. Why don’t we wait to see what your new dentist thinks. Good luck today. Dr. Sinkin
I am 6months pregnant and have such severe pain that I can’t eat or sleep. Saw my dentist today and have to wait two weeks to have a cavity filled because of inflammation in my gums from periodontal disease. I tried Tylenol with absolutely no pain relief. What can I do? I have to eat and sleep for the health of my baby but cannot because I’m in so much pain.
You are in quite a predicament, but something sounds amiss. I understand why your dentist might not be able to place a “permanent” filling in your tooth if your gums,are so inflamed. But, there is much that can be done in the way of dental treatment that can give you relief. I suggest you call your dentist back and tell him that the pain has worsened and you need help. If it’s your tooth hurting, a medicated filling or possibly root canal (if the nerve is exposed or “infected”) can be relief. If your gums are the cause of your pain, then a different course of treatment may be warranted, such as a a deep cleaning and possible antibiotic therapy. That you are six months pregnant is all the more reason to have the problem addressed sooner than later. As an aside, untreated gum disease is not desirable in any circumstance, especially during pregnancy and it has been correlated to low birth weight. If your dentist doesn’t respond to your request for care, I would seek out a second opinion. There is no home remedy I can offer aside from Tylenol and warm salt water rinses.
Hello doctor thank you for answering our questions 🙂 my questions are, I’ve been told all of my back molars have severely “hooked roots” and dentists refuse to work on my teeth, they say I need a speacialist, why is that 🙁 and also a friend of mine told me to start oil pulling, what are your thoughts on that. Thanks again Dr.
It’s not exactly clear to me why dentists refuse to treat your molars unless you are in need of extractions or root canal treatment. Root formation continues for about two years after the tooth first erupts through the gums. It is not uncommon for the roots to curve or deviate from a straight line, especially if forces are applied to the tooth as occurs during orthodontic treatment. Teeth with severely curved roots can be challenging to treat if they need to be removed. That’s the difference between a simple extraction and a more involved surgical extraction which might be more easily performed by an oral surgeon. Root canal treatment can be more complicated in a severely curved root and special techniques are utilized to negotiate the tortuous path to the root tip. A root canal specialist has more experience with these more challenging situations. Certainly in these situations if your dentist feels that you would be better served by the hands of a specialist, he/she is exercising good clinical judgement. Oil pulling is a topic for another day.
Hey Buck, Sounds like it’s time to make a phone call to a dentist. Fillings generally don’t just fall out unless you were chewing something gooey like taffy or a jolly rancher. You may have had a cavity underneath which destabilizedc and undermined the restoration. If this was the case the decay process may have continued. It will not get better by itself and will likely worsen. You don’t want to develop an abcess. So please seek out a dentist for care. Best wishes. Dr. Sinkin
Hello, I’m 24 female I have a broken tooth that is completely gone well, two actually. One on the top left side of my mouth and the bottom right side. Both molars. I am unable to afford a dentist as are others that I have asked for loans. I have tried to go to clinics to go on a sliding scale but unfortunately I “make to much money” to get a proper disscount.. this pain is absolutely killing me to the point where I want to go to the e.r… do you have any tips for me please.. I’ve taken 4 800mlg ibuprofen and nothing has worked, not any of your rememdies. 🙁
Dear Catie, I am so sorry for your troubles. At 24, you are at a possible dental crossroads of sorts. 2 broken teeth and possibly other as yet undiagnosed unknown dental problems lying in the lurch. You need a good, conscientious dentist to relieve your pain -even as a stopgap measures to alleviate your pain. Dental first-aid-not necessarily definitive treatment like root canal or extraction to give you relief from pain and time to l figure out a way towards dental health. Such emergency dental care will not break the bank and should be of modest cost. An emergency room is not the best place to solve your problem. Besides, the cost of an emergency room visit is far in excess of what the cost should be to deal with your current situation. (Whether you personally pay the E.R., your medical insurance pays or the hospital absorbs the cost if you’re uninsured and passes it onto everyone else.) And the likelihood is all you will get from the hospital is pain medication and possibly antibiotics to treat your symptoms and not solve your actual dental problems. As I said before, at 24 you could be at a critical point which depending on your course of action can have significant impact on your dental future. Seek out a dentist who can help you with your problem and can offer some guidance. Ask your physician and anyone else you know who can make a recommendation of a good dentist who will be willing to help you. Good luck.
I have a broken tooth in the back of my mouth at the top. And it got my gums hurting to. It’s only one my left side. Do you think aspirin will help and do you think baby orajel will help until I get to the dentist? What can I do?
Dear Tasha, I suspect that this is not your first dental emergency. Taking aspirin or any of the NSAID (like ibuprofen, Advil, Alleve) assuming you have no sensitivities to such medications or tylenol will help with the pain. Orajel can help the gums if they’re irritated but not if you have an access forming- in which case you need an antibiotic. You need to see a dentist and hopefully he can save your lone left tooth from the same I’ll fate its neighbors suffered.
Dear Dr. Sinkin: I am writing to ask how I can get through two weeks with a cracked tooth in the top of my mouth. I cracked it while eating almonds and unfortunately there is a sharp point of tooth pushing into my cheek. It is particularly painful at night when I am sleeping. My dentist is away for two weeks. Many thanks for any hints you can give me. Julia
Dear Julia, My first question is whether your dentist has someone covering his emergencies…2 weeks is a long time not to have contingencies. If sufficient tooth remains, get some Dentemp from the pharmacy. Dentemp is a putty-like temporary filling that can fill the void. Good luck to you. Dr. Sinkin
You are right about the aspirin, somebody told me to put one on my gums around the tooth and it burned my gums up, no wonder they say drink plenty of water after taking an aspirin. I get the chewable baby aspirin now, lot milder.
I’m begging for a pro bono dentist. I have had 2 broken off teeth in the back of my mouth for years. They hurt for 4-5 days periodically but in the last few weeks the pain has became so intense I cant stand it. I’ve had the role on the floor and cry pain. Thats just the beginning. this pain is more like its been hurting for 2 weeks straight not subsiding. I took 8 Vicodin 10/325’s all broken in half the other day barely touched the pain. It did knock me out though. I’m 24 white male i have a son and wife. please one of you dentists rip these devils out of my face. Have mercy.
I have no doubt that your pain is real and I’m sorry for your suffering. Dental schools and hospital-based dental residency programs offer dental care for a very modest fee. You owe it to yourself, and your health, to do so. Good luck!
Salt water mom always had us do that- booze Ok that may help…. Garlic, onions not so much. I know I need this tooth pulled- hopefully this week a UW Dental school (their great, – cheaper- no insurance- & low on funds). I could sit in the ER for hours for a little relief- we’ll see how the night goes. I don’t- I have a regular dentist right now. I wish there were call in Dental ER’s – lol something, I’ve been married faster. —- So I didn’t have to sit in the reg ER for 6 – 8 hours…. It would be so cool to have a couple of pain pills called into Walgreens until I get to the dentist tomorrow- Tues at the very latest …. Just random venting – thanks doc~!! | I’ll give this one an honorable mention. Disclaimer: I have no idea what bay berries are.
And there you have it – a review of the most commonly recommended home remedies for tooth pain you can find on the web.
But Remember!
A toothache is a horrible experience and ALWAYS signals that something is wrong. When left untreated it can lead to serious health problems beyond just your affected tooth. So, if you’re in pain or have swelling in or around your mouth, you must contact a dentist as soon as possible. Even if your toothache goes away, the problem that caused it will not.
At my office, when a patient calls with an emergency when the office is closed, they will get my personal cell number (so help is literally a phone call away.) I usually tell them to drink a big glass of straight bourbon and call it a night (kidding).
Dr. Michael Sinkin is a general dentist in New York City. He loves being a dentist and is known throughout the city for taking wonderful care of his patients and for his wicked sense of humor. For more about Dr. Sinkin, click here.
DISCLAIMER: The advice I offer in response to your questions is intended to be informational only and generic in nature. Namely, I am in no way offering a definitive diagnosis or specific treatment recommendations for your particular situation. My intent is solely educational and my responses to your actual questions serve as springboard to discussion of a variety of dental topics that come up in day-to-day dental practice. Any advice offered is no substitute for proper evaluation and care by a qualified dentist.
Michael Sinkin
Reader Interactions
Comments
Loved it, very well written, the notes and disclaimers made me laugh especially “If you had a headache, would you put an aspirin on your forehead? Swallow the aspirin” was really awesome but I do agree to the main idea of the blog to concern a professional in such situations rather than trying such remedies and taking risk. Thank you for sharing it.
Hi, Dr. Simkin. I found your website through Google and hope you’re still answering. | no |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.azfd.com/blog/toothache-home-remedies-really-work/ | Do Toothache Home Remedies Work? | Blog | AZ Family Dental | Do Toothache Home Remedies Really Work?
January 19, 2015
Warning: This article was written as an informative piece to list some of the common folklore home remedies for tooth pain. If you are having tooth pain, for best results contact a dental professional.
Undoubtedly, at one point when you suffered a toothache, a well-meaning but ill-informed friend or relative suggested you put a bit of bourbon on a cotton ball and place it on the throbbing tooth to ease the pain. Maybe they told you to rub a bit of clove oil on the sore spot.
While many people swear by these home remedies, the truth is none are scientifically proven to ease your tooth pain in the long term. The only way to successfully treat a toothache is to go to your trusted family dentist, such as AZ Family Dental, which can diagnose the problem and treat the cause.
Still, many people believe in the power of home remedies, so we thought we’d take a look at the most popular toothache treatment methods and discuss how effective (or ineffective) they are at offering long-term toothache pain relief. We will also explore the AZ Family Dental and what can happen if it is left untreated, plus give you toothache tips for easing pain that really work.
Why Use Toothache Home Remedies?
Natural toothache remedies have been around since the first caveman suffered the first cavity. Why do these remedies persist in these days of advanced medicine and excellent healthcare? There are three main reasons:
1.Fear of treatment. People get scared that a toothache will mean painful or expensive dental treatment. Rather than get their cavity filled, they would rather put off a visit to the dentist. 2. Belief in natural remedies. There are people who believe strongly in homeopathic remedies. They would rather get toothache relief without drugs or medical intervention simply because they avoid any office visit at all costs. 3. Lack of time. In today’s busy society, many people do not want to take the time to go to the dentist outside their usual two cleanings per year. They figure they can use a toothache home remedy to deal with the pain until their next appointment, when they will fully address the issue with their dentist.
The problem with all three of these reasons is that the longer you go without treatment, the more serious your toothache can become. Toothache symptoms might be caused by:
Cavities
Inflammation of the pulp in your teeth
Tooth enamel erosion
Bruxism, or grinding of the teeth
Periodontitis
Sinus pressure
Temporomandibular joint disorder
Angina
Heart attack
These afflictions do not just disappear overnight. Does toothache go away on its own? Generally, no. That’s why the best toothache remedy is seeing a dentist. A problem that might have been remedied with a simple filling a few months ago could morph into a complicated infection that requires antibiotics or even dental surgery.
By using home remedies, you put off the inevitable dental work that must be done, and in the long run you may even cost yourself money. After all, it’s a lot more expensive to treat a dental problem with complications than one that’s straightforward with a clear course of treatment. Still, many people persist in trying to treat themselves.
The Most Popular Toothache Remedies
Like old wives’ tales, the most popular toothache home remedies have been around for years. Here’s a breakdown of the seven most popular home remedies for toothaches, along with a look at directions and how safe and effective they are.
1. Clove Oil
Why Cloves?
Cloves contain a natural anesthetic called eugenol, which numbs whatever it comes in contact with.
How to Use It for Toothache Relief
Drip a drop or two of the oil onto a cotton ball and apply it to the throbbing tooth.
Does It Work?
Clove oil may numb the affected area temporarily, but it is short-term relief lasting only a few minutes.
Is It Safe?
Not entirely. Clove oil can make pain worse if it comes in contact with other sensitive areas of your mouth, and it will hurt your tongue as well.
2. Peppermint Tea Bags
Why Peppermint Tea Bags?
Wet, used tea bags are often used to calm sensitive skin. Peppermint has numbing properties similar to cloves, useful for treating pain.
How to Use It for Toothache Relief
You can use peppermint tea bags in two ways. First, apply a cooled tea bag right on the throbbing area. Second, put the tea bag in the freezer for a few minutes, then apply it to the tooth. Keep the tea bag on for at least 20 minutes.
Does It Work?
There is anecdotal evidence that tea bags can lessen the pain. However, there is no long-term benefit, as pain comes back minutes after the bag is removed.
Is It Safe?
Yes. An herbal toothache pain relief method will not hurt you in any way.
3. Salt Water Treatment
Why Salt Water?
Salt water cleanses are often used to clean out an infected area, loosening debris and providing temporary relief.
How to Use It for Toothache Relief
Swish a small amount of salt water or saline solution in your mouth for 30 seconds. You can repeat once or twice.
Does It Work?
The cleansing effect of the salt can get rid of some nasty bacteria or festering pus, but salt water rinses provide no long-term benefits.
Is It Safe?
Yes. Salt water is all natural and, as toothache remedies go, one of the safest things you can do for your mouth.
4. Hydrogen Peroxide Rinse
Why Hydrogen Peroxide?
Hydrogen peroxide, much like salt water, is a cleansing aid, but it is even more effective than saline because it can attack bacteria rather than just rinsing it away.
How to Use It for Toothache Relief
Mix equal parts 3 percent hydrogen peroxide and water, and swish the mixture in your mouth for 30 seconds. You can repeat once or twice.
Does It Work?
The rinse may provide a few minutes of temporary toothache pain relief, and it can help ward off gingivitis, which is a potential cause of toothache pain.
Is It Safe?
No. The dangers of using hydrogen peroxide outweigh the benefits. If this solution is ingested, it can cause stomach or intestinal problems, and if you do not mix in enough water, the hydrogen peroxide can burn your mouth.
5. Bourbon-Soaked Cotton Ball
Why bourbon?
Bourbon has numbing properties, as do most alcohols.
How to Use It for Toothache Relief
Put a bit on a cotton ball, and cover the throbbing tooth with the cotton ball.
Does It Work?
Bourbon may provide a few minutes of relief, but the reduction of toothache symptoms is temporary. They will come roaring back as soon as the alcohol evaporates.
Is It Safe?
No, especially if you are using it to treat a child. Though many think the small amount of alcohol used in this popular toothache home remedy is minimal enough to be safe for kids, the truth is that any amount of alcohol ingested by a child can have serious consequences, such as seizures or throwing up.
6. Garlic
Why Garlic?
Garlic acts similarly to an antibiotic, and it can inhibit the growth of bacteria that is attacking your tooth.
How to Use It for Toothache Relief
You can use garlic in two ways. First, mash a garlic clove and a dash of salt, and apply the paste to the throbbing tooth. Second, pop a clove or two of garlic into your mouth and chew. Repeat two or three times per day.
Does It Work?
The garlic may temporarily relieve pain, but it depends on what the cause of your toothache is. For example, if it is caused by temporomandibular joint disorder, garlic may not offer any relief at all.
Is It Safe?
Yes. However, you may find people backing away from you at parties – noshing on garlic is a classic cause of bad breath.
7. Vanilla Extract
Why Vanilla Extract?
Alcohol is one of the active ingredients in vanilla extract, and as we have already established, alcohol acts as a numbing agent. Also, the scent of vanilla is believed by many to be soothing and relaxing, which can help ease pain.
How to Use It for Toothache Relief
You can use vanilla extract in two ways. First, dab a small amount of it on your finger and rub the throbbing tooth and gum area. Second, apply a small amount of vanilla extract to a cotton ball and place it on the affected area. Repeat two or three times per day.
Does It Work?
Vanilla extract can offer temporary relief of tooth pain, but it lasts for minutes and requires frequent reapplication.
Is It Safe?
No. While the amount of alcohol in vanilla is fairly minimal, it is still alcohol, and this method is especially unsafe for children.
How Should I Treat My Toothache?
As you can see, home remedies are not generally effective in toothache treatment, and in some cases they can even be dangerous. A few of these natural remedies for toothaches may be useful to numb pain temporarily before you can get an appointment with your dentist, but none of them are long-term solutions.
What can you do to treat your toothache? Going to the dentist is the best remedy for a toothache, because you want to treat the toothache’s cause, not just the pain you are feeling.
Toothache tips to help you through this painful period:
When you call to make your appointment, ask your dentist’s office if there is anything it recommends to deal with pain.
Get an appointment as fast as possible, even if that means moving around your work schedule or canceling another event.
Use ice to numb the pain. Though this provides no long-term relief, it is simple and requires no special ingredients, plus it’s not dangerous to your oral health.
Record everything you can about your pain: when it started, how frequent it is, where it is in your mouth. This will help your dentist determine your toothache treatment plan.
Discuss possible root causes of the toothache with your dentist. If the toothache has been caused by angina, you should be getting treatment for that as well.
For the future, remember to practice proper dental hygiene, such as flossing and brushing regularly, which will help to ward off further toothaches.
Questions About Toothaches
Home remedies for toothaches are often used because people do not understand what is causing their pain or worry that their toothache may be a symptom of another, more serious problem. Here are some frequently asked questions about toothaches, and answers that should put your mind at ease.
Question: Is toothache a sign of pregnancy?
Answer: Yes, it can be.
For a couple trying to get pregnant, a woman’s toothache may be cause for celebration rather than despair. That is because hormonal changes in your body during pregnancy can lead to toothaches caused by more sensitive teeth, tooth decay, and gum disease. A toothache during pregnancy may also be associated with severe morning sickness that results in frequent vomiting, eating away the protective enamel around the teeth, or increased consumption of sweets due to sugar cravings.
Question: Does a toothache just go away?
Answer: No, this almost never happens.
Many people wonder if they can wait out a toothache, hoping it will simply disappear rather than require treatment. This is generally a poor strategy. Toothache causes range from the somewhat serious, including cavities or erosion of tooth enamel, to the very serious, including an abscess or chest pains. These conditions will not go away on their own, and chances are even if your tooth pain subsides for a short amount of time, it will return as the underlying cause worsens.
Question: Can a toothache cause an ear infection?
Answer: No, but it may be the other way around.
A toothache can be a symptom of an ear infection. If an ear infection goes undiagnosed, the pain may eventually spread to the nearby jaw and teeth, resulting in the toothache. The good news is, this pain is easily treatable. Antibiotics can fight the ear infection, and most earaches will go away on their own within six weeks even without medical treatment.
Question: Should I go to the emergency room for a toothache?
Answer: Yes, under certain circumstances.
As we have established, toothaches can be a symptom of serious conditions, even a precursor to a heart attack. Other indicators of heart attack include:
Shortness of breath
Sweating
Anxiety
Vomiting
Stomach discomfort
Upper body pain
If you are experiencing those other symptoms, then a trip to the emergency room may be in order. However, in most cases, you should skip the ER and make an appointment with your family dentist, who knows your dental history and will be able to identify the problem much more quickly than an ER doctor without access to that background.
The Best Course of Action for Toothache Symptoms
Toothache home remedies may offer temporary relief from tooth pain, but in order to find long-term relief, you must visit your family dentist to get the treatment and care your teeth need.
In the long run, this will also save you money. The quicker you get treatment for your toothache, the less serious the problem. If you let the toothache go for weeks or months in hopes of avoiding a trip to the dentist or saving money, there is a real chance the problem will grow worse. That is not the path you want to take.
Are you suffering from tooth pain that just won’t go away? Contact AZ Family Dentist today to set up an appointment to get your toothache treated. We serve the greater Glendale, AZ, area, including Scottsdale, Phoenix, Peoria, and beyond.
Meet Dr. Matt Parker
Dr. Matthew Parker is committed to providing the same level of care to each patient that he would to a member of his own family. He enjoys attending continuing education courses and is always looking for new ways to improve the quality of the dental work he provides. | We will also explore the AZ Family Dental and what can happen if it is left untreated, plus give you toothache tips for easing pain that really work.
Why Use Toothache Home Remedies?
Natural toothache remedies have been around since the first caveman suffered the first cavity. Why do these remedies persist in these days of advanced medicine and excellent healthcare? There are three main reasons:
1.Fear of treatment. People get scared that a toothache will mean painful or expensive dental treatment. Rather than get their cavity filled, they would rather put off a visit to the dentist. 2. Belief in natural remedies. There are people who believe strongly in homeopathic remedies. They would rather get toothache relief without drugs or medical intervention simply because they avoid any office visit at all costs. 3. Lack of time. In today’s busy society, many people do not want to take the time to go to the dentist outside their usual two cleanings per year. They figure they can use a toothache home remedy to deal with the pain until their next appointment, when they will fully address the issue with their dentist.
The problem with all three of these reasons is that the longer you go without treatment, the more serious your toothache can become. Toothache symptoms might be caused by:
Cavities
Inflammation of the pulp in your teeth
Tooth enamel erosion
Bruxism, or grinding of the teeth
Periodontitis
Sinus pressure
Temporomandibular joint disorder
Angina
Heart attack
These afflictions do not just disappear overnight. Does toothache go away on its own? Generally, no. That’s why the best toothache remedy is seeing a dentist. A problem that might have been remedied with a simple filling a few months ago could morph into a complicated infection that requires antibiotics or even dental surgery.
By using home remedies, you put off the inevitable dental work that must be done, and in the long run you may even cost yourself money. | no |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://brightonbaydental.com.au/toothache-pain-relief/ | Toothache Pain Relief — When Do You Need A Emergency Dental ... | Toothache Pain Relief — When Do You Need A Emergency Dental Care?
Severe tooth pain often indicates a dental emergency and requires immediate treatment from an emergency dentist. Tooth pain can be caused by several ailments, including deep decay, dental injuries, tooth abscess, or an impacted wisdom tooth. Intense tooth pain can prevent you from eating, working, or sleeping, significantly reducing your quality of life.
If you experience persistent throbbing tooth pain or sharp pain that radiates along your jaw to your ear, contact an emergency dentist at Bright-On Bay Dental. We provide emergency dental services and can help you address the cause of your toothache.
At-Home Toothache Pain Relief
While there are many ways to find toothache pain relief, some home remedies may provide temporary numbness or reduce pain. However, seeing a dentist as soon as possible is vital as toothaches can indicate a dental emergency.
Home remedies should only be used temporarily and should not replace professional dental care.
Over-the-counter medications
Over-the-counter medications are a widely available and effective treatment for most toothache pain relief. The most common type of over-the-counter medication used to treat tooth pain is an analgesic, commonly called a pain reliever.
These medications work by blocking pain signals from the tooth to the brain. Common analgesics include acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and aspirin.
Salt water rinse
Salt water has long been used as a home remedy for tooth pain. The natural properties of salt help to reduce inflammation and kill bacteria that can cause infection. Salt water can help to draw out excess fluid and reduce swelling.
To use a saline rinse, mix 1 teaspoon of salt in 8 ounces of warm water. Swish the mixture around in your mouth for 30 seconds, then spit it out.
Numbing gel
Another common at-home toothache treatment is numbing gel. Numbing gels are applied directly to the gums and temporarily numb the nerves in the area.
These gels typically contain a local anaesthetic, such as lidocaine, which numbs the affected area. This can provide relief from tooth pain for a short period.
Tea bags
While it may seem like an old wives’ tale, using a cold, dampened tea bag can help to relieve tooth pain.
Emergency Treatment for Toothache Pain Relief
While home remedies and over-the-counter medications may temporarily relieve toothache symptoms, you should see an emergency dentist for treatment immediately if you are experiencing severe or persistent tooth pain.
Severe tooth pain is a sign of several dental emergencies, so immediate treatment can help ensure a positive outcome.
If you are suffering from severe tooth pain, there are several options your dentist may recommend to treat the cause of the toothache itself.
Dental crown
If you are suffering from severe tooth pain, your dentist may recommend a dental crown to be used as an emergency treatment for toothache pain relief.
A dental crown is a type of dental restoration that covers the entire surface of a tooth. It can be used to protect a tooth that has been damaged by decay or injury or to relieve tooth pain that is caused by advanced gum disease.
While a dental crown is not always necessary for treating tooth pain, it can be an effective option for those who cannot find relief from other methods.
Root canal therapy
In many cases, toothaches are caused by an infection of the tooth pulp. If left untreated, this infection can spread to other parts of the body and lead to more serious health problems.
Root canal therapy is a treatment to remove the infected tooth pulp and relieve the associated pain. While root canal therapy is often associated with discomfort, it is typically much less painful than suffering from an untreated tooth infection.
Tooth extraction
Tooth extraction involves removing the tooth from the socket in the bone. In most cases, tooth extraction is a successful treatment for tooth pain and can provide relief within a few days.
Toothache Relief at Bright-On Bay Dental
The emergency dentist at Bright-On Bay Dental provides treatment for dental emergencies, alleviating your toothache by addressing the pain. If you need treatment, you can rest assured that Bright-On Dental will do all we can to ensure the least possible discomfort accompanies your procedure.
If you are experiencing a toothache or dental emergency, call Bright-On Bay Dental at (02) 9538 7028 to schedule a consultation today!
Note: Any surgical or invasive procedure carries risks. Before proceeding, you should seek a second opinion from an appropriately qualified health practitioner.
References
Postoperative Anti-Inflammatory Efficacy of 2% Saline Rinses and a Herbal-Mouthwash After Non-Surgical Periodontal Therapy for the Management of Periodontal Inflammation in Young Adults with Chlorhexidine Allergy: A Randomized Controlled Trial https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35088565/ | Toothache Pain Relief — When Do You Need A Emergency Dental Care?
Severe tooth pain often indicates a dental emergency and requires immediate treatment from an emergency dentist. Tooth pain can be caused by several ailments, including deep decay, dental injuries, tooth abscess, or an impacted wisdom tooth. Intense tooth pain can prevent you from eating, working, or sleeping, significantly reducing your quality of life.
If you experience persistent throbbing tooth pain or sharp pain that radiates along your jaw to your ear, contact an emergency dentist at Bright-On Bay Dental. We provide emergency dental services and can help you address the cause of your toothache.
At-Home Toothache Pain Relief
While there are many ways to find toothache pain relief, some home remedies may provide temporary numbness or reduce pain. However, seeing a dentist as soon as possible is vital as toothaches can indicate a dental emergency.
Home remedies should only be used temporarily and should not replace professional dental care.
Over-the-counter medications
Over-the-counter medications are a widely available and effective treatment for most toothache pain relief. The most common type of over-the-counter medication used to treat tooth pain is an analgesic, commonly called a pain reliever.
These medications work by blocking pain signals from the tooth to the brain. Common analgesics include acetaminophen, ibuprofen, and aspirin.
Salt water rinse
Salt water has long been used as a home remedy for tooth pain. The natural properties of salt help to reduce inflammation and kill bacteria that can cause infection. Salt water can help to draw out excess fluid and reduce swelling.
To use a saline rinse, mix 1 teaspoon of salt in 8 ounces of warm water. Swish the mixture around in your mouth for 30 seconds, then spit it out.
Numbing gel
Another common at-home toothache treatment is numbing gel. Numbing gels are applied directly to the gums and temporarily numb the nerves in the area.
| no |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.shinysmilespediatricdentistry.com/blog/2020/04/06/how-can-i-treat-my-childs-toothache-while-at-hometoothache-and-how-you-can-treat-one-at-home/ | Toothache | At-Home Remedies | Shiny Smiles Pediatric Dentistry | April 6, 2020
It’s bad enough when you experience a toothache but when your child is dealing with throbbing pain, they may not understand why it’s happening or what to do about it. With the spread of COVID-19 keeping most people indoors, you may not want to take a trip to your local drug store to buy something that can help, so what can do you? Take a few minutes to learn what at-home remedies can be used to help relieve your child’s discomfort until you’re able to get them in to see an emergency dentist. You may be surprised how many are already in your pantry!
Why Can’t I Take My Child to the Emergency Dentist?
Unfortunately, COVID-19 has caused most dental offices to close. Many are only seeing patients dealing with severe emergencies. While your child’s toothache might seem severe because of the pain they’re experiencing, staff will likely recommend trying to treat the problem at home until it is safe to reopen to all patients.
What At-Home Remedies Can Be Used?
If you open up your pantry or cabinets, you may discover that you have many of the following items that can help your little one. No one wants to see their child in pain, so to give them the relief they need, try using these helpful items:
Clove Oil: Pour a few droplets onto a cotton ball and place it onto the tooth in question. This will help to numb it and decrease discomfort.
Saltwater: Dissolved 1 teaspoon of salt into a boiling pot of water. After allowing it to cool, have your child swish it around in their mouth for 30 seconds. This will cleanse their mouth and reduce pain. It is only advisable to use this if your child is old enough to spit the contents out.
Hydrogen Peroxide: If your child is old enough, allow them to swish hydrogen peroxide around in their mouth before having them spit it out. This will temporarily relieve pain.
Ice Pack: Whether you use an ice pack or cold compress, wrap it in a towel and place it against the area for 15 minutes. This will help to numb the nerves causing the pain.
Tooth Sensitivity Toothpaste: If your child’s tooth is creating a painful feeling after they eat or drink anything hot or cold, try giving them a tooth sensitivity toothpaste. It may be that the dentin layer of their tooth is exposed, which is causing sharp pain.
By using these tips and regular household items, you can better help your child achieve the relief they need, even if it’s only temporary. If the pain is severe enough, their pediatric dentist will work to get them in as quickly as possible to prevent worsening damage from occurring.
About the Author Dr. Lily Hoang is a board-certified pediatric dentist and parent. She achieved her doctorate at Western University of Health Sciences in Pomona, CA before going a step further and finishing her Advanced Education in General Dentistry certification at the Lutheran Medical Center in Brooklyn and her pediatric certification at the University of Nevada in Las Vegas. Dr. Hoang and her team want what is best for your child, which means helping to instill good oral hygiene habits from an early age. To learn more about us and how we can help you take better care of your child’s smile while at home, visit our website or call (469) 925-0861. | April 6, 2020
It’s bad enough when you experience a toothache but when your child is dealing with throbbing pain, they may not understand why it’s happening or what to do about it. With the spread of COVID-19 keeping most people indoors, you may not want to take a trip to your local drug store to buy something that can help, so what can do you? Take a few minutes to learn what at-home remedies can be used to help relieve your child’s discomfort until you’re able to get them in to see an emergency dentist. You may be surprised how many are already in your pantry!
Why Can’t I Take My Child to the Emergency Dentist?
Unfortunately, COVID-19 has caused most dental offices to close. Many are only seeing patients dealing with severe emergencies. While your child’s toothache might seem severe because of the pain they’re experiencing, staff will likely recommend trying to treat the problem at home until it is safe to reopen to all patients.
What At-Home Remedies Can Be Used?
If you open up your pantry or cabinets, you may discover that you have many of the following items that can help your little one. No one wants to see their child in pain, so to give them the relief they need, try using these helpful items:
Clove Oil: Pour a few droplets onto a cotton ball and place it onto the tooth in question. This will help to numb it and decrease discomfort.
Saltwater: Dissolved 1 teaspoon of salt into a boiling pot of water. After allowing it to cool, have your child swish it around in their mouth for 30 seconds. This will cleanse their mouth and reduce pain. It is only advisable to use this if your child is old enough to spit the contents out.
Hydrogen Peroxide: If your child is old enough, allow them to swish hydrogen peroxide around in their mouth before having them spit it out. This will temporarily relieve pain.
Ice Pack: Whether you use an ice pack or cold compress, wrap it in a towel and place it against the area for 15 minutes. | yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.jeffersondentalclinics.com/blog/what-causes-tooth-pain-and-how-to-alleviate-the-symptoms | Toothaches: What Causes Tooth Pain and How to Treat It | Jefferson ... | Toothaches: What Causes Tooth Pain and How to Treat It
If you ever had a toothache, then you know the pain. It can be tough to eat, you might avoid hot or cold foods, and even talking can be problematic. Toothaches are common, and they can be caused by underlying dental issues or non-dental conditions.
Determining the cause of your tooth pain is the first step in treating it, so let’s look at the causes of toothaches. Then we’ll discuss treatment options, including some home remedies that offer temporary relief.
Types of Toothaches and What They Mean
Like most types of pain, toothaches aren’t all the same. One person might experience a dull ache while another has sharp pains. Understanding the type of pain is important.
Dull ache
A dull, continuous ache can mean a few things. Unlike other toothaches, you might be able to resolve some of these at home, but others require a trip to the dentist.
If you simply have something stuck in your teeth or gums, it’s possible to remove it with a good brush and floss. However, bruxism and tooth abscesses require help from a dental professional.
Sensitivity
Does eating ice cream or drinking hot coffee trigger pain? Experiencing temperature sensitivity typically means your enamel is worn down. You might be able to improve the situation by switching to a toothpaste for sensitive teeth.
However, if you notice that the pain lasts for a minute or more, it’s time to contact your dentist. Severe and lasting pain could indicate tooth decay, exposed roots, or other things that need to be treated by a dental professional.
Sharp Pain
Sharp, stabbing pain is typically a sign that you need to see a dentist soon. It could be anything from a loose filling or crown to a fractured tooth.
Throbbing
A throbbing pain is another indicator that you need a dental professional sooner than later. It’s typically cause for an emergency dental visit, especially if you also notice a strange taste in your mouth or discoloration of your gums.
If you have a toothache that lasts more than a few days, you should see your dentist as soon as possible because this indicates a bigger problem.
Persistent or severe pain is another reason to see your dentist – wouldn’t it be nice to have relief?
A fever, earache, or jaw pain when you open your mouth are all indicative of a much larger problem.
If you experience any of these situations, it’s important to see a dentist immediately. Jefferson Dental & Orthodontics offers emergency dental care to ensure you get the care you need.
Dental Causes of Tooth Pain
There are several types of tooth pain that can mean different things. Understanding the root of your tooth pain can give you a good idea about the underlying cause and what type of treatment to expect. Remember, tooth pain generally doesn’t resolve on its own, you need to address the underlying problem.
1. Tooth Decay
When bacteria builds up and damages your tooth enamel it creates a cavity, which can cause pain. There are several signs you have a cavity, like small spots on your teeth.
2. Cracked Or Fractured Tooth
If you notice pain when you drink a cup of hot coffee or tea, it can be an indicator of a crack in the tooth. In some cases, it can also signal a leaking dental restoration, like a crown or filling.
When a tooth is cracked or fractured, you may experience throbbing pain caused by bacteria in the tooth. Bacteria present inside the tooth produce gas as a byproduct. When the bacteria releases the gas inside the tooth, there is nowhere for the gas to escape and the pressure inside the tooth builds and applies to the nerve tissue within the cracked tooth pain ensues.
3. Tooth Abscess
Damaged teeth can lead to tooth abscesses. The pulp inside the tooth dies and creates a pocket of bacteria and pus.
4. Exposed Dentin
From ice water to a candy bar, if you experience pain when eating sweets or drinking cold beverages, you may have exposed dentin. Dentin is the second layer of the tooth which has an osmotic property that allows fluids to move in and out of the tooth. These liquids flow through the dentin and can irritate the nerves inside the pulp of the tooth.
5. Chronic Bruxism
Commonly known as tooth grinding, bruxism can cause tooth sensitivity and facial pain. Many people grind their teeth in their sleep and may not even be aware of the habit until they notice tooth, gum, and jaw pain.
6. Gum Disease
Receding or inflamed gums can cause pain by leaving multiple tooth roots exposed. When gums recede and expose the roots, bacteria settles in and builds up around the tooth roots and can even break down the bone that stabilizes your teeth. The teeth loosen and cavities can develop.
7. Wisdom Teeth Pain
Pain from wisdom teeth can vary, but it’s most common in people with impacted wisdom teeth, teeth that have not erupted yet. Many people experience wisdom tooth growing pain and gum pain. If you experience pain in erupted wisdom teeth, it could signal a cavity or infection in or around the tooth.
Non-Dental Causes of Tooth Pain
You may be surprised to learn that not all tooth pain comes from dental conditions. Many people experience tooth pain without having any of the above issues. It doesn’t mean their tooth pain is any less painful!
Sinus inflammation or infection can trigger significant pain in your teeth and jaw.
Diabetics who have difficulty controlling their blood sugar levels are at higher risk for tooth decay and related pain.
Cluster headaches can radiate pain into the teeth and jaw.
Viral infections, like shingles, can also trigger tooth pain.
Trigeminal neuralgia, a nerve disease, presents as sharp pains on one side of your face.
Some people experience jaw pain when they have a heart attack.
A vitamin B12 deficiency can cause tooth pain.
Treatment of these conditions should be discussed with your medical doctor. Maintaining regular appointments with your dentist can help manage any issues with your teeth and gums. You can also use some of the home remedies listed below to temporarily ease the pain.
Dental Treatment for Toothache
Treatment options vary depending on the cause and how extensive it is. Only dental treatments can offer long-term solutions, and you might require more than one intervention to find relief.
Fillings
Dental fillings treat cavities. It’s one of the most common dental procedures and often the first step in alleviating a toothache caused by a cavity.
Root Canal
When a tooth becomes infected, you need more than a filling to resolve the issue. Root canal treatment involves the removal of the infected tissue before sealing the tooth to prevent future infection.
Braces
If your tooth pain comes from issues with tooth or jaw alignment, orthodontic treatment might be your best option. Correcting alignment issues could resolve toothaches that stem from crowded teeth pushing against each other.
Extraction
Sometimes the only option for treating a toothache is to pull the tooth out. Tooth extractions can help in several situations.
The tooth is too damaged and the dentist cannot repair it.
Extra teeth or baby teeth are blocking underlying teeth from coming in so they need to be removed to make room.
Wisdom teeth often require extraction because they push against the existing teeth, which can disrupt alignment and cause pain.
Sometimes, an infection is too extensive for a root canal to help, so the tooth requires extraction instead.
Your dentist can determine the best treatment options and discuss them with you. If you’re experiencing tooth pain and concerned about treatment, Jefferson Dental & Orthodontics can help.
Home Remedies for Toothaches
What happens when you wake up with a toothache in the middle of the night? It’s not like you can rush over to your dentist’s office at two in the morning. You still need sleep, right? Try some of these home remedies to ease the pain so that you can get some rest.
Over-the-counter medications, like acetaminophen or ibuprofen, can reduce your pain. You could also try a numbing agent with benzocaine to numb the affected area.
Cold compresses, like ice cubes in a towel, applied directly to your face for fifteen to twenty minutes can reduce pain.
Saltwater or hydrogen peroxide rinse could alleviate pain. The saltwater rinses protect against infection, remove debris, and act as an antibacterial. Food-grade hydrogen peroxide diluted with water can help as well.
Peppermint tea has antibacterial and antioxidant compounds. Swish the tea around your mouth or suck on the tea bag to reduce pain.
Clove paste (made from ground cloves and water) can reduce pain and inflammation in the affected area. You can also chew on a single clove.
Chew on a clove of garlic to relieve pain and take advantage of the strong antibacterial effects.
Keep in mind that home remedies can provide temporary relief until you can get to the dentist, but they won’t resolve the underlying issue.
Toothache FAQs
Do you still have questions about toothaches? We thought you might, so we compiled a list of the most common questions and answers to help!
How Do I Prevent a Toothache?
It’s impossible to prevent every cause of a toothache because accidents happen, but maintaining good oral care routines is your best line of defense. Since most of the causes of toothaches on our list relate to tooth decay and gum disease, start with brushing and flossing properly each day.
How Do You Make a Toothache Go Away?
The only permanent cure for a toothache is to treat the underlying cause. You can temporarily relieve the pain and discomfort with the above remedies, but only a dental professional can give you a permanent fix.
Why Is Toothache Worse At Night?
Toothaches tend to hurt more at night because we lie down. Lying prone in bed encourages the blood to rush to your head and that increased circulation puts more pain on the affected tooth.
Additionally, teeth grinding can make the situation worse. Oh, and you don’t have any distractions other than trying to fall asleep so that toothache can command more of your attention!
Will a Toothache Go Away?
No, a toothache will not go away on its own. Unless you resolve the underlying cause, it will keep bothering you.
How Long Can You Go with a Toothache?
Toothaches aren’t a test of will or pain tolerance, they alert you to a problem in your mouth that needs to be corrected. That said, unless you experience the emergency situations noted above, you can wait a day or two until you can get to the dentist. Remember, that the longer you put off treatment, the more you could end up dealing with down the line.
Which is the Best Painkiller for Toothache?
Typically, ibuprofen is the best option for most people. It helps with the pain but also reduces inflammation. However, if you have a health condition that prevents you from taking NSAIDs, you might want to try Tylenol or a topical agent.
When to See a Dentist for Your Tooth Pain
Some people treat their tooth pain with over-the-counter medications or home remedies, which may do the trick – temporarily. However, if your toothache stems from an underlying dental issue, no home remedy is going to permanently solve your problem and the pain will return in full force. Make an appointment with your dentist as soon as possible.
Seeing your dentist for a professional teeth cleaning and check-up twice per year can help catch underlying issues early. Your dental team can identify potential issues before they develop into problem areas. If you’re due for a check-up, book an appointment at the Jefferson Dental & Orthodontics office nearest you.
Our Jefferson Dental Content Committee supports our team by educational and informational articles related to what we do, oral care tips, and current events in our communities.
This blog provides general information and discussions about oral health and related subjects. The information and other content provided in this blog, website or in any linked materials are not intended and should not be considered, or used as a substitute for, dental advice, diagnosis or treatment. This blog does not constitute the practice of any medical, dental or other professional health care advice, diagnosis or treatment. We cannot diagnose conditions, provide second opinions or make specific treatment recommendations through this blog or website.
If you or any other person has an oral health concern, you should consult with your dentist or seek other professional dental treatment immediately. Never disregard professional medical/dental advice or delay in seeking it because of something that you have read on this blog, website or in any linked materials. If you are experiencing a dental emergency, please visit your local Jefferson Dental & Orthodontics office — we accept walk-ins. | Since most of the causes of toothaches on our list relate to tooth decay and gum disease, start with brushing and flossing properly each day.
How Do You Make a Toothache Go Away?
The only permanent cure for a toothache is to treat the underlying cause. You can temporarily relieve the pain and discomfort with the above remedies, but only a dental professional can give you a permanent fix.
Why Is Toothache Worse At Night?
Toothaches tend to hurt more at night because we lie down. Lying prone in bed encourages the blood to rush to your head and that increased circulation puts more pain on the affected tooth.
Additionally, teeth grinding can make the situation worse. Oh, and you don’t have any distractions other than trying to fall asleep so that toothache can command more of your attention!
Will a Toothache Go Away?
No, a toothache will not go away on its own. Unless you resolve the underlying cause, it will keep bothering you.
How Long Can You Go with a Toothache?
Toothaches aren’t a test of will or pain tolerance, they alert you to a problem in your mouth that needs to be corrected. That said, unless you experience the emergency situations noted above, you can wait a day or two until you can get to the dentist. Remember, that the longer you put off treatment, the more you could end up dealing with down the line.
Which is the Best Painkiller for Toothache?
Typically, ibuprofen is the best option for most people. It helps with the pain but also reduces inflammation. However, if you have a health condition that prevents you from taking NSAIDs, you might want to try Tylenol or a topical agent.
When to See a Dentist for Your Tooth Pain
Some people treat their tooth pain with over-the-counter medications or home remedies, which may do the trick – temporarily. However, if your toothache stems from an underlying dental issue, no home remedy is going to permanently solve your problem and the pain will return in full force. Make an appointment with your dentist as soon as possible.
| no |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://starrydentalnj.com/helpful-methods-for-dealing-with-excruciating-toothaches/ | Helpful Methods for Dealing with Excruciating Toothaches | Helpful Methods for Dealing with Excruciating Toothaches
An excruciating toothache can affect you at any time of the day or night, sending you searching for emergency services to alleviate the pain you experience. The need for an emergency dentist magnifies in proportion when you suffer teeth pain at night. The pain makes you anxious and leaves you wondering whether any home remedies are useful to find relief from the discomfort.
Toothaches are annoying, especially at night, because they prevent you from getting a good night’s rest. Whether the toothache results from an untreated cavity or food particles trapped between your teeth, finding many home remedies are not challenging so long as you are willing to look around for them before contacting the dentist in Westwood for help.
This article provides information on some home remedies you can use to relieve the teeth pain you are experiencing at night.
Over-The-Counter Medications
If you have any over-the-counter pain relief medications lying around, it is a straightforward method of reducing mild to moderate toothaches. However, you must not exceed the dosage recommendation printed on the packaging. If your toothache is unbearable, you must consider seeing a dentist and requesting more potent pain relievers.
Cold Compress
A cold compress used on your cheeks can help ease the pain of a toothache. Apply a bag of ice wrapped in a towel on the affected side of your face and jaw to constrict the area’s blood vessels. This home remedy helps to reduce pain and allow you to sleep peacefully. Please do not place the ice pack continuously on the cheeks but limit it to 15 to 20-minute intervals every few hours during the evening to prevent pain when getting into bed.
Elevation
Letting blood accumulate in the head causes additional pain and inflammation. You may find relief from using an extra pillow and elevating your head when sleeping for the comfort you need.
Saltwater Rinse
A standard home remedy for a toothache is the time-tested saltwater rinse. Saltwater helps to reduce inflammation as it is a natural antibacterial agent. It is also useful to protect against infections developing in damaged teeth. A saltwater rinse helps remove any food particles and debris trapped in your teeth and gums.
Medicated Ointments
You may need to visit the neighborhood pharmacy searching for medicated ointments like lidocaine to numb the area affecting your teeth. The creams are helpful to reduce pain but not beneficial for use by young children.
Hydrogen Peroxide Rinse
Hydrogen peroxide rinse is useful to reduce plaque and the after-effects of gum disease. It is also a practical solution when dealing with toothaches in the middle of the night. Merely mix some food grade hydrogen peroxide with water and swish the solution in your mouth, taking care to ensure you don’t swallow it. Please do not use the solution on children who may accidentally swallow it.
Clove Oil
A compound found in cloves called eugenol is an effective remedy to reduce tooth pain. Eugenol acts similarly like an analgesic numbing the area of the toothache. When using this remedy, you must soak ground cloves in water and make a paste. Apply the paste to the aching tooth, or use an empty bag to put it in and place the load in your mouth. Alternatively, you can try sucking on or chewing a single clove and allow it to sit near the painful tooth for relief.
Garlic
You may not find it challenging to locate garlic in the household as it is a common ingredient but can also relieve toothaches. Merely chewing on a clove of garlic and placing it near the painful tooth may reduce pain. However, the strong taste of garlic may deter many people from chewing on a raw clove. Therefore the solution may not be appropriate for everyone.
Why Are Toothaches Prominent at Night?
Toothaches are painful at any time of the day or night. However, when you lie down, your blood rushes to your head to increase the pain and pressure you feel from a toothache. Furthermore, with fewer distractions when sleeping during the night, you are more likely to focus on the toothache, finding it challenging to fall asleep.
What Happens After Using Home Remedies
It is incredibly essential for you to see the dentist in Westwood even after finding relief from the home remedies you used. You must understand home remedies are temporary measures that helped by providing some relief. You may have an infection in your mouth that needs attention from a dental professional. Leave the toothache or the underlying reasons untreated, and you may have to use the temporary measures frequently besides losing sleep. Therefore contacting a dentist to diagnose the condition and treat it is the best way to deal with an excruciating toothache.
Toothaches can affect anyone sending them searching for emergency dentistry to find relief. Practical temporary measures are also available to deal with toothaches, as mentioned in this article. | Helpful Methods for Dealing with Excruciating Toothaches
An excruciating toothache can affect you at any time of the day or night, sending you searching for emergency services to alleviate the pain you experience. The need for an emergency dentist magnifies in proportion when you suffer teeth pain at night. The pain makes you anxious and leaves you wondering whether any home remedies are useful to find relief from the discomfort.
Toothaches are annoying, especially at night, because they prevent you from getting a good night’s rest. Whether the toothache results from an untreated cavity or food particles trapped between your teeth, finding many home remedies are not challenging so long as you are willing to look around for them before contacting the dentist in Westwood for help.
This article provides information on some home remedies you can use to relieve the teeth pain you are experiencing at night.
Over-The-Counter Medications
If you have any over-the-counter pain relief medications lying around, it is a straightforward method of reducing mild to moderate toothaches. However, you must not exceed the dosage recommendation printed on the packaging. If your toothache is unbearable, you must consider seeing a dentist and requesting more potent pain relievers.
Cold Compress
A cold compress used on your cheeks can help ease the pain of a toothache. Apply a bag of ice wrapped in a towel on the affected side of your face and jaw to constrict the area’s blood vessels. This home remedy helps to reduce pain and allow you to sleep peacefully. Please do not place the ice pack continuously on the cheeks but limit it to 15 to 20-minute intervals every few hours during the evening to prevent pain when getting into bed.
Elevation
Letting blood accumulate in the head causes additional pain and inflammation. You may find relief from using an extra pillow and elevating your head when sleeping for the comfort you need.
Saltwater Rinse
A standard home remedy for a toothache is the time-tested saltwater rinse. Saltwater helps to reduce inflammation as it is a natural antibacterial agent. | yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.guardiandirect.com/dental-care/cant-visit-dentist-covid-home-remedies-tooth-pain | Can't visit your dentist during COVID-19? Here are six home ... | Can't visit your dentist during COVID-19? Here are six home remedies for tooth pain
Over-the-counter and/or home remedies for tooth pain include saltwater rinse, flossing and more.
Tooth pain can be difficult to deal with. It can affect how you bite, chew, and even sleep.¹ The best course of action for dealing with tooth pain is visiting your dentist¹–but due to the COVID-19 pandemic, that may not be possible in many areas. Find out the best home remedies for tooth pain to help you get rid of tooth pain fast.
Types of tooth pain
Tooth pain is often a sign of dental damage or disease. Different types of tooth pain can signal different types of dental problems. Tooth pain can usually be divided into two categories: sharp tooth pain and dull, throbbing tooth pain.³
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Sharp tooth pain
Maybe you feel a shooting pain when you eat or drink something hot or cold. Or perhaps you feel a sharp pain in your tooth when you bite down or brush your teeth. While momentary hot or cold sensitivity usually doesn’t signal a serious problem, sharp, short-lived tooth pain is usually a sign of exposed tooth pulp.⁴
Sharp tooth pain causes
Some conditions that can expose tooth pulp and cause sharp tooth pain include:⁵
Dull tooth pain causes
How to relieve tooth pain at home
Tooth pain relief is possible, even if you can’t see your dentist right away. While only a dentist will be able to definitively diagnose and treat the cause of your toothache, various tooth pain remedies are available over the counter for home use.
Floss. Flossing between your teeth can remove food wedged between the teeth or along the gumline¹⁰ , which can cause temporary tooth pain. If using string floss is too painful, try using an ADA-recommended water flosser.
Saltwater. A simple saltwater rinse can cleanse your mouth of bacteria, prevent swelling, and remove food wedged between the teeth. Swish the rinse around in your mouth for ten to fifteen seconds, then spit it out.¹¹
Pain-relieving gel. You can buy over-the-counter oral topical gels from most supermarkets.
Over-the-counter pain medication. Various over-the-counter pain medications (like acetaminophin or aspirin) can help alleviate tooth pain. In fact, the ADA recommends using them over prescription antibiotics.¹²
Cold compress. Applying ice or a cold compress to the outside of your cheek can help numb tooth pain and reduce swelling.
Clove oil. Available at most supermarkets and drugstores, clove oil contains a natural anesthetic and antibacterial called eugenol which has been observed to help reduce toothache pain.¹³ Dip a clean tissue or cotton swab in the clove oil, then gently wipe the oil over the gums wherever your tooth hurts.
Although these remedies may provide temporary tooth pain relief, they likely won’t resolve the root cause of your toothache. Severe tooth pain is often a sign of a larger problem that requires professional dental treatment.
When to see a dentist about tooth pain
The American Dental Association advises seeing a dentist about tooth pain.¹⁴ Many dental offices throughout the country are closed or offering limited emergency services due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, if you are experiencing severe dental pain, that could be considered urgent dental care, The American Dental Association lists examples of urgent dental care treatments that dentists should still treat at this time on their website.
If your tooth pain is not an emergency, your dentist may be able to see you remotely via a teledentistry consultation, which includes the use of technology (computers, digital cameras, etc.) to deliver a variety of services without the patient and dentist being in the same location.
If you're experiencing severe tooth pain, contact your dentist to see if your case could qualify as an emergency. Emergency dental care is often covered as part of most dental insurance plans.
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Brought to you by The Guardian Life Insurance Company of America (Guardian), New York, NY. Material discussed is meant for general illustration and/or informational purposes only and it is not to be construed as tax, legal, investment or medical advice. This is not dental care advice and should not be substituted for regular consultation with your dentist. If you have any concerns about your dental health, please contact your dentist's office.
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Join our new digital insurance community that includes tips, resources and useful information from Guardian Direct. | Or perhaps you feel a sharp pain in your tooth when you bite down or brush your teeth. While momentary hot or cold sensitivity usually doesn’t signal a serious problem, sharp, short-lived tooth pain is usually a sign of exposed tooth pulp.⁴
Sharp tooth pain causes
Some conditions that can expose tooth pulp and cause sharp tooth pain include:⁵
Dull tooth pain causes
How to relieve tooth pain at home
Tooth pain relief is possible, even if you can’t see your dentist right away. While only a dentist will be able to definitively diagnose and treat the cause of your toothache, various tooth pain remedies are available over the counter for home use.
Floss. Flossing between your teeth can remove food wedged between the teeth or along the gumline¹⁰ , which can cause temporary tooth pain. If using string floss is too painful, try using an ADA-recommended water flosser.
Saltwater. A simple saltwater rinse can cleanse your mouth of bacteria, prevent swelling, and remove food wedged between the teeth. Swish the rinse around in your mouth for ten to fifteen seconds, then spit it out.¹¹
Pain-relieving gel. You can buy over-the-counter oral topical gels from most supermarkets.
Over-the-counter pain medication. Various over-the-counter pain medications (like acetaminophin or aspirin) can help alleviate tooth pain. In fact, the ADA recommends using them over prescription antibiotics.¹²
Cold compress. Applying ice or a cold compress to the outside of your cheek can help numb tooth pain and reduce swelling.
Clove oil. Available at most supermarkets and drugstores, clove oil contains a natural anesthetic and antibacterial called eugenol which has been observed to help reduce toothache pain.¹³ Dip a clean tissue or cotton swab in the clove oil, then gently wipe the oil over the gums wherever your tooth hurts.
| yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | yes_statement | it is possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies can be used to "treat" a "toothache" without the need to see a "dentist". | https://www.lovettdental.com/dental-blog/common-dental-problems-remedies-you-can-find-at-home/ | Common Dental Problems – Home Remedies | Common Dental Problems – Home Remedies
Without your healthy teeth, how will you be able to enjoy delicious foods? You won’t even be able to say the words you want to say. You need to take care of your teeth before some common dental problems ruin them.
From toothache to bad breath, many common dental problems develop into threats to your overall health. Getting problems treated by your local dentist is crucial to your dental health. But there are various home remedies you can try to help make your dentist’s job easier.
Natural Remedies to Most Common Dental Problems
Our advice, of course, is to get your teeth regularly looked at by a dentist. But in times when your toothache is at its worst or mouth ulcers make it hard to eat, some home remedies can help.
Toothache
When you have a toothache, it is always best to get a dentist to look at it to make sure nothing is seriously wrong. However, a toothache doesn’t always happen at the most convenient time. So when a visit to the dentist isn’t possible, you can home remedies such as:
Chewing on a piece of cinnamon should help relieve your toothache since cinnamon has antibacterial properties.
Put crushed garlic cloves on the affected tooth as this can help relieve pain thanks to their analgesic and antibacterial properties.
Apply a cold compress to treat pain as it can reduce inflammation and swelling.
Bad Breath
It is embarrassing to have bad breath. Seeing your dentist will help you identify the root cause and a solution for your bad breath. And you can try to keep your breath fresh using various tricks at home, including:
Wash your mouth with water to dilute the bacteria.
Eat Vitamin C-rich foods like citrus fruits to keep your mouth fresh.
Ingest mint, as it has a cooling effect that freshens your breath.
Ingest cloves, as they are effective at treating bad breath.
Yellow Teeth
Yellow teeth are one of the most common dental problems. And it’s a sign of poor dental health. Yellow teeth also make you lose confidence and can make you uncomfortable to smile. Your dentist can fix this problem with a teeth whitening procedure. But there are various ways you can support dental treatment while at home, including:
Vinegar: Apple cider vinegar may be able to remove the stains of your teeth, and thus, whitening them. At the same time, gargling apple cider vinegar can kill the disease-causing bacteria in your mouth. However, make sure not to use too much of it. Otherwise, it may cause the enamel of your teeth to weaken.
Foods Rich in Vitamin C: Vitamin C can lighten your teeth. As such, lemon, oranges, tomatoes, strawberries, and other vitamin C rich foods can help correct your yellow teeth. Remember, though, to only use them once or twice a week as they are acidic. Also, brush your teeth right after.
Mouth Ulcers
Mouth ulcers are one of the worst common dental problems. They can get infected, which makes them worse, and that’s why proper treatment is essential. But if you can’t see a dentist right away, some home remedies you can try include:
Rub a small ice cube on the ulcer to reduce the pain.
Chew on a clove bud using the juice to wash the ulcer, which reduces pain thanks to its analgesic effect.
Apply coconut oil directly to the ulcer, which can reduce the pain and inflammation.
Chew on a few leaves of tulsi plant 3-4 times a day to make the ulcer go away and prevent it from recurring.
Common Dental Problems Are Preventable
These home remedies can temporarily relieve the symptoms of common dental problems. But for long-term solutions, contact us today at 832-804-7427 to find a time to visit your dentist’s office and treat the root cause of your oral health problem. | Common Dental Problems – Home Remedies
Without your healthy teeth, how will you be able to enjoy delicious foods? You won’t even be able to say the words you want to say. You need to take care of your teeth before some common dental problems ruin them.
From toothache to bad breath, many common dental problems develop into threats to your overall health. Getting problems treated by your local dentist is crucial to your dental health. But there are various home remedies you can try to help make your dentist’s job easier.
Natural Remedies to Most Common Dental Problems
Our advice, of course, is to get your teeth regularly looked at by a dentist. But in times when your toothache is at its worst or mouth ulcers make it hard to eat, some home remedies can help.
Toothache
When you have a toothache, it is always best to get a dentist to look at it to make sure nothing is seriously wrong. However, a toothache doesn’t always happen at the most convenient time. So when a visit to the dentist isn’t possible, you can home remedies such as:
Chewing on a piece of cinnamon should help relieve your toothache since cinnamon has antibacterial properties.
Put crushed garlic cloves on the affected tooth as this can help relieve pain thanks to their analgesic and antibacterial properties.
Apply a cold compress to treat pain as it can reduce inflammation and swelling.
Bad Breath
It is embarrassing to have bad breath. Seeing your dentist will help you identify the root cause and a solution for your bad breath. And you can try to keep your breath fresh using various tricks at home, including:
Wash your mouth with water to dilute the bacteria.
Eat Vitamin C-rich foods like citrus fruits to keep your mouth fresh.
Ingest mint, as it has a cooling effect that freshens your breath.
Ingest cloves, as they are effective at treating bad breath.
Yellow Teeth
Yellow teeth are one of the most common dental problems. And it’s a sign of poor dental health. | yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | no_statement | it is not possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies alone are not sufficient to "treat" a "toothache" without professional dental care. | https://www.aliviodentalcare.com/author/admin/page/2/ | admin – Dentist Downers Grove | General & Cosmetic Dentistry ... | Knowing what to do in a dental emergency can make all the difference. To save your teeth, you should follow these instructions when you need urgent dental care.
One moment you’re feeling great and having fun playing football. The next—you just knocked out one of your own teeth.
And you have no idea what to do next!
You’ve been taught what to do in some medical emergencies. After all, you know that you’re supposed stop, drop, and roll for fire or perform the heimlich when someone is choking. But what are you supposed to do for a dental emergency?
Generally, there are 2 options for dental emergencies: go straight to the ER or care for the injury until you’re able to see your dentist. To help you decide what is best in different dental emergencies, here’s what you need to know:
Is Your Condition Urgent?
Not every dental issue requires a visit to the ER. Sometimes, it may be wiser financially to see your usual dentist if your condition isn’t in need of immediate medical attention.
Non-Emergency Conditions
Even if these don’t require emergency medical care, it’s still important to see our dentist as soon as possible it you have one or more of the following problems:
Dull toothache
Lost filling, bridge, or crown
Broken or chipped tooth (unless there is sever pain)
Damaged
Objects caught between teeth
Broken braces or wires
Urgent Dental Care Emergencies
Some dental problems can be treated at home until your dentist can see you, whereas others may require urgent attention. Here are some examples of dental emergencies.
Injured jaw
Painful swelling
A permanent tooth that has been partially or fully knocked-out
Severe toothache
Tooth infection that leads to fever, severe pain, and swelling
It’s crucial that you know the difference between non-emergency dental issues and problems that require urgent care. Call your dentist immediately if you experience any of those problems.
Handling Dental Emergencies
If you experience a dental emergency at night or over the weekend when dentists’ offices are closed, it’s important that you know how to deal with the issues in the meantime. This list compiled from WebMD can help you know what to do in different dental emergencies:
Toothaches – Rinse your mouth thoroughly with warm water. If you have food or an object lodges between your teeth causing pain, remove it with dental floss. If you are experiencing swelling, apply cold pack to the outside on your cheek or mouth in the area. You can also take an over-the-counter painkiller, but don’t put it against the gums near the aching tooth— it may actually burn the gum tissue.
Broken or chipped tooth – If you’re able, save any pieces of the tooth. Wash the broken pieces if any and rinse your mouth with warm water. Apply gauze to bleeding area until the bleeding stops or for about 10 minutes. Ice the area of the broken or chipped tooth on the outside of the mouth or cheek to relieve pain and swelling.
Partially dislodged tooth – An extruded tooth will likely need immediate attention in order to save the tooth. Leave the tooth in its socket, even if feels like it’s about to come out. Until you’re able to see your dentist, you can take an over-the-counter pain reliever and apply a cold compress to the outside of the mouth.
Knocked Out Tooth – If you’re able to retrieve the tooth, rinse off the tooth with water if it’s dirty. Be sure to hold it by the crown and not the roots. Don’t remove any tissue fragment. Try to put the tooth back in it’s socket if possible, making sure that it’s facing the right way. Don’t force it in. If you’re unable to reinsert the tooth, put it in a small container of milk or a cup of water that contains a pinch of table salt. The highest chance of saving your tooth is seeing your dentist within 1 hour of it being knocked out, so it’s important that you seek attention right away.
Lost Crown or Filling – If you’re unable to see your dentist immediately, there are a few things you can do to handle the situation. If you’re experiencing pain, you can apply clove oil or powder to the sensitive area with a cotton swab. If you can, try to place the crown back over the tooth. You can use an over the counter dental cement, a denture adhesive, or toothpaste to hold the crown in place until you see your dentist. If you have a lost dental filling, you can also use a piece of sugarless gum to temporarily hold it in place.
Food/Object caught in teeth – If something lodged between your teeth is causing you pain, try to use dental floss the carefully remove it. Be gentle, and do not use a sharp object like a pin to poke at the object, as this could scratch your teeth and gums. If you can’t remove it yourself, see your dentist.
Loose brackets – You can use a small piece of orthodontic wax to temporarily reattach loose bracket. You can also use the wax as a cushion by placing it over the braces to it doesn’t scratch your mouth. In this case, it’s important that you see your orthodontist as soon as you can.
Broken braces or wires – Do not cut the wire yourself. Try using the eraser end of the pencil to push the wire into a more comfortable position to prevent it from poking other parts of your mouth. If you’re unable to reposition the wire, you can use a small cotton ball, orthodontic wax, or a piece of gauze to cover the end of the wire until you see your dentist.
Tooth Abscess – An abscessed tooth is an infection at the root of a tooth, usually caused by severe tooth decay. If left untreated, they can lead to damaged tissue and teeth, with the infection spreading to the lymph nodes and other parts of the body. So, it’s important that you see your dentist as soon as possible if you think you may have an abscessed tooth. In the meantime, rinse your mouth several times a day with a mild saltwater solution to ease pain.
Many dental practices have an emergency number that you can call if you are in urgent need of dental care when office hours are closed. If for some reason you are still unable to get in contact with your dentist, you should visit the ER in the event of a serious dental emergency.
How to Prevent Dental Emergencies
Of course, accidents will happen no matter how careful you are. Still, there a few ways that you can help prevent dental emergencies:
Wear a mouthguard or facecage during high intensity sports or activities.
Stick to a healthy dental regimen.
Visit your dentist regularly.
Avoid foods that are hard on your teeth.
Stop bad habits like chewing on pencils or fingernails.
You never know when a dental emergency could happen, which is why it’s important to be prepared. As you use these guidelines for urgent dental care, take preventative measures, and have access to affordable dental care, you should have nothing to worry about.
Oral Health & Your Heart
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a disease involving the heart and blood vessels. It’s the No. 1 cause of death and disability in the United States today, with almost 700,000 Americans dying of heart disease each year.1 That represents almost 29% of all deaths in the United States.1
Heart disease and gum disease have several things in common. For example, inflammation is common in both cases, and inflammation can contribute to narrowing coronary arteries and breaking down the tissue that holds teeth in place.2 Emerging research suggests a possible association between gum disease and CVD, as the oral bacteria of gum disease can enter the bloodstream and cause a defense reaction throughout the body.3,4 Also, bacteria from the mouth can travel to important organs in the body, including the heart, and begin a new infection.4
79.4 millionAmericans had one or more forms of CVD in 2004.5
Treating CVD depends on what form of the disease a patient has. The most effective treatments are always lifestyle changes. Whether CVD development is related to gum disease or not, keeping up with good brushing and flossing habits is essential.
CVD—What’s the Cost?
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)–including heart disease and stroke–causes the deaths of more American men and women, regardless of their race or ethnic background, than any other disease.6 What’s more, CVD costs Americans billions of dollars each year–about $300 billion–in health care treatments, medications, and lost productivity because of disability and death.6
If You’re at Risk for CVD…
See a physician and discuss proper ways to prevent it, as well as different possible treatments if you find out you have it.
Also, talk to your dentist or hygienist about gum disease and ask if it’s a potential problem for you and your overall health.
Make sure you visit your medical and dental professionals on a regular basis to remain as healthy as possible.
What You Can Do
A Healthy Diet Can Help Decrease Your Risk1:
Keep your total cholesterol below 200 mg/dL
Eat plenty of fruits and vegetables
Limit or eliminate extra salt or sodium
Reduce the amount of saturated fat in your diet
Surprise! Oral Health Could Affect Your Heart
Researchers have found that people with severe gum disease are almost twice as likely to suffer from some form of cardiovascular disease (CVD) as those without gum disease. Gum disease is caused by a bacterial infection in the mouth–specifically in the soft tissue that supports the teeth. When your body reacts to this infection, your gums become inflamed, they may bleed, and in severe cases, your teeth may become loose.
The earliest form of gum disease is called gingivitis and the most severe is periodontal disease. When bacteria infect your mouth, inflammation results as your body fights the infection. Systemic inflammation has been shown to be associated with an increased risk of CVD.
Preventing gum disease and the accumulation of bacteria in the mouth by brushing and flossing twice a day–as well as seeing your dentist and dental hygienist on a regular basis–could ultimately be one way to also help prevent CVD problems.
In 2004, more than 147,000 Americans killed by CVD were under 65 years of age.5
5 Tips to Help Prevent Cardiovascular Problems
Abstinence from tobacco use
Cardiovascular exercise (aerobics); talk to your doctor before starting an exercise program
Healthy eating habits
Some medications (discuss with your doctor)
Aspirin therapy (talk to your doctor before starting any new medication program)
Disclaimer
The content of this guide is for information purposes only. It does not substitute for the dentist’s professional assessment based on the individual patient’s case.
Bringing Teeth into Alignment with Orthodontic Treatment
The American Association of Orthodontists reports that in the United States 4.5 million people are wearing braces or other dental appliances to straighten teeth and provide a healthy, beautiful smile.1. As many of us know, an orthodontist is a dentist with additional clinical training to treat malocclusions (improper bites), which may result from tooth irregularity and jaw issues.
Why Do Teeth Become Crooked?
Terry Pracht, DDS, past president of the American Association of Orthodontics says that both heredity and environmental factors can create crooked teeth and bite problems. Dr. Pracht mentions that hereditary factors include crowded teeth, teeth where there is too much space and malocclusions. He also mentions that crooked teeth can be caused by thumb sucking and tongue thrusting as well as accidents occurring to the jaw.1
What are Treatment Options to Straighten Teeth or Malocclusions?
There are three stages of orthodontic treatment. The first is when appliances are used to gain space in the mouth. For example, palatal expanders are used to expand the width of the palate and lingual bars are used to expand the lower jaw. The active corrective stage is next when the braces are placed on the teeth. The teeth are then adjusted and then straightened and malocclusions are corrected over a period of time based upon the severity of the irregularity of the teeth and jaw issues. The third stage is the retention stage after braces are removed and when the teeth are monitored through the use of a retainer (removable or fixed) and semi-annual orthodontic visits are conducted to maintain the straightened smile.
Types of Braces
Braces from over 30 or so years ago included large metal bands that were enclosed and cemented around each tooth. Braces can be attached to the cheek side of the teeth as well as the tongue side of the teeth depending on what your orthodontist recommends to you for treatment. Braces, arch wires and bands can be colorful and a lot of fun for children, adolescents and teenagers to choose from.
Today, tiny brackets are placed onto the front surface of the tooth and are made of metal or ceramic. The brackets are bonded to the front tooth surface with a glue-like material and metal bands can be used on the back teeth. Arch wires are placed inside the brackets and are made of a heat-activated nickel-titanium source that can become warm due to the temperature in the mouth, which will allow it to apply constant pressure on the teeth as well as when the arch wires are adjusted at the orthodontist’s office.
Another newer alternative to braces is the Invisalign® system which uses a series of clear removable aligners that are worn during the day and night to help in moving teeth into the correct alignment. When eating or brushing and flossing, the aligners may be removed.
Caring for Braces
Your dentist or dental hygienist will provide you with thorough instruction of how to properly clean your braces. There are many toothbrushes you can use both manual (specifically designed for orthodontic patients), power, electric or sonic. Ask your dental professional which is be best for you. Brushing should be conducted at least 2-3 times per day at a 45 degree angle in a back and forth motion. Be sure to remove plaque at the gum line to prevent gingivitis (inflammation of the gum tissue). Be sure to angle the toothbrush at the gum line and then gently brush around the brackets to remove plaque and food debris.
It is very important to clean in between your teeth with a floss threader and floss, a stimudent (tooth pick cleaner) or a proxabrush (interproximal cleaning brush) may be used if there is space between the teeth. Oral irrigators may be recommended to remove food debris and irrigate the gum tissue to remove disease and odor-causing bacteria that may be there if you have gingivitis. An antibacterial toothpaste and over-the-counter antimicrobial mouth rinses could also be used with the oral irrigator or alone.
How to Maintain a Smile After the Braces are Off
After your dentist has determined that your braces can be removed, it is very important that a retainer (a plastic appliance) be worn during the day or night as recommended by them. The retainer can be cleaned with warm water or toothpaste and a toothbrush after you wear it and placed in a plastic container when not in use.
See your dental professional for a twice a year professional cleaning and regular maintenance appointments.
Diabetes and Oral Health
During the past 10 years, much research has been undertaken on the link between diabetes and periodontal disease. Periodontal disease is the sixth leading complication of diabetes. If you have been diagnosed with diabetes, you are 3 to 4 times more likely to develop periodontal disease, with a higher rate of more severe levels of bone loss and gum infection.1
What Is Diabetes? Diabetes is a serious disease in which the body does not produce or properly use insulin, a hormone needed to convert sugar, starches, and other foods into energy. Normally, insulin helps get sugar from the blood to the body’s cells, where it is used for energy. When you have diabetes, your body has trouble making and/or using insulin, so your body does not get the fuel it needs and your blood sugar stays too high. High blood sugar sets off processes that can lead to complications, such as heart, kidney, and eye disease, or other serious problems.2,3
If you have been diagnosed with diabetes,you are 3 to 4 times more likely to develop periodontal disease.
Are There Different Types of Diabetes? It is estimated that more than 20 million adults and children in the United States have some form of diabetes–14 million having been diagnosed with the disease and 6 million being unaware they have it. There are different types of the disease: type 1, type 2, and gestational diabetes, as well as prediabetes. Most Americans (around 90%) who are diagnosed with diabetes have type 2 diabetes.2,3
What Is Periodontal Disease? Periodontal disease, or gum disease, is a bacterial infection of the gums, ligaments, and bone that support your teeth and hold them in the jaw. If left untreated, you may experience tooth loss. The main cause of periodontal disease is bacterial plaque, a sticky, colorless microbial film that constantly forms on your teeth. Toxins (or poisons) produced by the bacteria in plaque irritate the gums, causing infection.4
Diabetes Control and Periodontal Treatment
Periodontal disease may make it more difficult for you to control your blood sugar. Your body’s reaction to periodontal disease can increase your blood sugar level. Consequently, it is important for patients with diabetes to treat and eliminate periodontal infection for optimal diabetes control. Periodontal treatment combined with antibiotics has been shown to improve blood sugar levels in patients with diabetes, suggesting that treating periodontal disease could decrease insulin requirements.1
What Are the Warning Signs?
DIABETES
Constant hunger or thirst
Frequent urination
Blurred vision
Constant fatigue
Weight loss without trying
Poor wound healing (cuts or bruises that are slow to heal)
Dry mouth
Itchy, dry skin
Tingling or numbness in the hands or feet
Most people with diabetes do not notice any warning signs
PERIODONTAL DISEASE
Red and swollen gums that bleed often during brushing or flossing and are tender to the touch
Gums that have pulled away from the teeth, exposing the roots
Milky white or yellowish plaque deposits, which are usually heaviest between the teeth
Pus between the teeth and gums accompanied by tenderness or swelling in the gum area
A consistent foul, offensive odor from the mouth
IMPORTANT: Physicians and Dentists Need to Work Together
It is important that your dentist be kept up-to-date on your diabetic condition and treatment and that your physician be kept up-to-date on your oral condition and treatment, so that they can work together to help you control your diabetes and prevent or control periodontal disease.1
If your diabetic condition is well controlled, periodontal treatment would be the same for you as for a patient without diabetes. In early stages, treatment usually involves removing the plaque and calculus from the pockets around your teeth. If the periodontal disease is more severe or if your diabetes is not well controlled, treatment will be more specialized and tailored toward your specific condition. Your dentist may recommend more frequent oral prophylaxes (dental cleanings) involving scaling and root planing or may recommend periodontal surgery.1
Diabetes and Your Mouth
Periodontal disease is not the only problem that can occur if you have diabetes. Although you might not be able to prevent these problems, you can minimize the trouble they cause you5:
Dry mouth: Xerostomia occurs when your salivary glands don’t produce sufficient saliva to keep your mouth moist, causing tissues in your mouth to become inflamed and sore. It can make chewing, tasting, and swallowing more difficult, as well as cause difficulty in eating, making it more difficult to control blood sugar.
Fungal infection: Candida albicans is a fungus that normally lives inside the mouth without causing any problems. But when you have diabetes, deficient saliva in your mouth and extra sugar in your saliva allow the fungus to cause an infection called candidiasis (thrush), which appears as sore white or red areas in your mouth.
Burning mouth syndrome: If you feel severe burning and pain in your mouth even though you don’t see any problems causing it, you may have this syndrome.
Oral surgery complications:If you need oral surgery, diabetes— particularly if poorly controlled—can complicate oral surgery. Diabetes retards healing and increases risk of infection. Your blood sugar levels also may be harder to control after oral surgery. Your dentist should work closely with your physician to minimize possible complications. If you need oral surgery, the American Diabetes Association recommends that you:
Remind your dentist that you have diabetes and discuss any specific diabetes-related issues.
Eat before your dental visit so your blood sugar is within normal range.
Take your usual medications. Your dentist should consult with your physician about whether you can adjust your diabetes medications or take an antibiotic to prevent infection before surgery.
Plan for your eating needs after surgery. If you’re having dental work that may leave your mouth sore, plan to eat soft or liquid foods that will allow you to eat without pain.
Wait until your blood sugar is under control. It’s best to have surgery when your blood sugar levels are within your goal range. If your dental needs are urgent and your blood sugar is poorly controlled, talk to your dentist and physician about receiving dental treatments in a hospital.
Because there are more permanent teeth than primary teeth, the permanent premolars come in behind the primary molars. Permanent molars emerge into an open space. The jaw lengthens as a child grows to create space for these permanent molars.
It takes about six years, between the ages of six and 12, for children to lose their primary (deciduous) teeth and gain their permanent teeth. This is called the period of “mixed dentition,” because for much of the time, children will have both primary and permanent teeth. Teeth form under the gum before they erupt (emerge through the gum). The crown, or visible part of the tooth, forms before the roots do. Before the roots form, the developing tooth is called a “tooth bud.”
Eventually, the 20 primary teeth are replaced by 32 permanent teeth. The primary molars are replaced by permanent premolars (also called bicuspids) and the permanent molars come in behind the primary teeth. Most often, the first teeth to emerge are the lower two front teeth (incisors) and the upper and lower first molars, the molars closest to the front of the mouth. They are followed by the upper two front teeth. The order that teeth emerge can vary. Parents should be more concerned about symmetry (the same teeth coming in at the same time on both sides) than the time teeth emerge.
Schedule appointment with your dentist to have your kid’s teeth examined to ensure a healthy transition to permanent teeth. Teeth which they would want to feel proud of for their whole life that lies ahead of them.
By following the information in this guide, you and your family can have healthy teeth and gums to last a lifetime. As a parent, you can work with your children to help them understand why good oral care is important and show them how to do it right!
Four Steps to a Bright Smile
Brush at least twice a day with a fluoride toothpaste, especially after eating breakfast and before bedtime.
Floss every day.
Limit the number of times you eat snacks each day.
Visit your dentist regularly.
Its easy to guide your family toward good oral health. All it takes is the right information and a little practice to keep them moving in the right direction!
Fluoride your family’s best defense
Fluoride is the best cavity fighter you can find as you guide your family to a lifetime of bright smiles! It keeps the whole familys teeth strong no matter what their ages.
How fluoride works
Every day, the enamel on teeth is attacked by acids produced in dental plaque. These acids can make teeth weaker, and can result in decay.
Thats where fluoride comes in. When it reaches your teeth, fluoride is absorbed into the enamel. It helps to repair the enamel and prevent tooth decay. It can even help stop the decay process.
How to get fluoride
You can get the benefits of fluoride from different places. It can work from the outside of your teeth, and from the inside of your body. To work the best, you need to get it both ways! At home, you and your family should brush with fluoride toothpaste at least twice a day, especially after eating breakfast and before bedtime.
Snacking and tooth decay
If fluoride is our greatest protection against decay, then frequent snacking can be our teeths biggest enemy. Every day, you and your family face snacking challenges. Heres what you need to know:
Its how often you snack that matters
The truth is that what your family eats isnt as important as when and how often they snack! It all has to do with the plaque reaction, and this is how it works:
The plaque reaction
Everyone has plaque bacteria in their mouths. But when these plaque bacteria meet up with the sugars and starches that are found in snacks such as cookies, candies, dried fruits, soft drinks or even pretzels or potato chips, the plaque reacts to create acid, and a plaque attack occurs.
The fact is, most snacks that you eat contain either sugars or starches that give plaque this opportunity to make acid. And each plaque attack can last for up to 20 minutes after you have finished your snack. During this period, the plaque acid is attacking tooth enamel, making it weak. Thats when cavities can start!
Fighting back against plaque
The good news is, you can take a stand against plaque! By brushing twice daily with a fluoride toothpaste and by reducing the number of times you snack each day, you and your family can help prevent tooth decay.
When it comes to snacking, its best to choose something nutritious and to snack in moderation. Its also better to eat the whole snack at one time! Heres why: eating five pieces of a snack at one time exposes your teeth to possible tooth decay for approximately 20 minutes. Nibbling on those same five pieces at five different times exposes your teeth to possible tooth decay for approximately 100 minutes. What a difference!
You need to watch babys sweets, too!
Infants are just as susceptible to decay as older children and adults. In fact, Early Childhood Cavities can be a very serious condition. See the Preventing Early Childhood Cavities section below for more information.
The dental checkup
The dentist is your familys partner on the Bright Smiles, Bright Futures® pathway. Be sure to schedule regular dental appointments for the whole family. A child’s first visit should take place before his or her third birthday.
Dental checkups early in a childs life allow children to have a positive dental health experience. TIP: Take your young toddler with you to your own appointment first. That way, the dental office becomes a familiar place.
Your dental checkup: what to expect
Fluoride treatments:
Your dentist may treat your childs teeth with extra fluoride in the form of a gel to make teeth stronger. This gel goes in a tray that fits into the mouth that children wear for a few minutes to let the fluoride sink into their teeth. It comes in neat flavors for kids!
Dental sealants:
These are thin, protective plastic coatings applied by the dentist to the permanent back teeth (molars). They fill in the grooves on the chewing surfaces of the teeth where foods and bacteria can get stuck and cause cavities. Once applied, sealants can last for several years.
X-rays:
These pictures show the dentist whats going on inside the teeth and beneath the gum line. During the X-ray, your child will wear a lead apron to prevent unnecessary exposure to radiation.
Early Childhood Cavities is a childhood disease that can be prevented. The following steps can help guard your baby against this painful condition and ask your dentist or physician for more information.
Its best not to put a bottle in bed with your baby. But if you must put a bottle in bed with your baby, put only plain water in it. Any liquid except water, even milk and juice, can cause cavities.
You can use a bottle to feed your baby at regular feeding times, but allowing the bottle to be used as a pacifier can be a major cause of cavities. | Here are some examples of dental emergencies.
Injured jaw
Painful swelling
A permanent tooth that has been partially or fully knocked-out
Severe toothache
Tooth infection that leads to fever, severe pain, and swelling
It’s crucial that you know the difference between non-emergency dental issues and problems that require urgent care. Call your dentist immediately if you experience any of those problems.
Handling Dental Emergencies
If you experience a dental emergency at night or over the weekend when dentists’ offices are closed, it’s important that you know how to deal with the issues in the meantime. This list compiled from WebMD can help you know what to do in different dental emergencies:
Toothaches – Rinse your mouth thoroughly with warm water. If you have food or an object lodges between your teeth causing pain, remove it with dental floss. If you are experiencing swelling, apply cold pack to the outside on your cheek or mouth in the area. You can also take an over-the-counter painkiller, but don’t put it against the gums near the aching tooth— it may actually burn the gum tissue.
Broken or chipped tooth – If you’re able, save any pieces of the tooth. Wash the broken pieces if any and rinse your mouth with warm water. Apply gauze to bleeding area until the bleeding stops or for about 10 minutes. Ice the area of the broken or chipped tooth on the outside of the mouth or cheek to relieve pain and swelling.
| yes |
Stomatology | Can you treat a toothache at home without seeing a dentist? | no_statement | it is not possible to "treat" a "toothache" at "home" without "seeing" a "dentist".. "home" remedies alone are not sufficient to "treat" a "toothache" without professional dental care. | https://www.contemporaryfamilydental.com/blog/ | Blog | Contemporary Family Dental | Family Dentistry | Blog
Dental Blogs
Is It Time for a Dental Bridge?
However you found yourself with a tooth or a few teeth missing, our Grand Rapids, MI, dentists have several ways you can reclaim your smile. An appealing option for many patients is a dental bridge because of its permanency and how it looks as though it has always belonged. Here’s how dental bridges work and whether your smile would benefit from having one placed. What Are Dental Bridges? Appropriately named, a dental bridge literally “bridges the gap” left by one or more missing teeth. It is a fixed, or permanent, solution that replaces lost teeth and gives you a beautifully natural smile. Traditional dental bridges consist of two or more dental crowns with a false tooth in between. The crowns are placed over anchoring teeth on either side of the gap, also known as “abutment teeth”. Bridges can also be supported by dental implants if natural teeth are not present. Why You Might Need a Dental Bridge Every patient is different. Our dentists will need to examine your entire mouth to determine what will work best for you. We may even find that other restorative solutions like dental implants are the more appropriate choice. Placing a dental bridge may be...
Night Guards: Signs You Need One & How They Work
Mystery headaches or jaw pain when you wake up could be any number of things but for most people, the culprit is often either bruxism or a TMJ disorder. Fortunately, a custom-made night guard from our Grand Rapids, MI, dentists can help ease the discomfort felt in the mornings. Here are a few details about night guards and when it’s time to ask our dentists about getting one of your own. Explaining Bruxism and TMJ Disorders Experienced by many worldwide, bruxism is a common condition in which you grind and clench your teeth excessively. It can happen during the day or at night and oftentimes goes unnoticed by the affected individual. Both adults and children can experience bruxism. Fortunately, most cases are easily treated with dental appliances, like night guards. More often than not, bruxism results from high levels of stress, anxiety, or an abnormal bite. Temporomandibular joint, or TMJ disorders can also play into an individual’s need for a night guard. Think of your temporomandibular joint as a sliding hinge that connects the jawbone to your skull. When there is compromised or dysfunctional movement of the jaw joint, pain can occur in the facial muscles. Our dentists will have...
What Counts as a Dental Emergency?
It’s normal to feel worried or panicked when something is wrong with your smile. Our Grand Rapids dentists understand this but ask that you use discretion when evaluating your oral health issue. Not everything is worthy of immediate treatment or fits into the category of dental emergencies. Here’s what classifies as a dental emergency and when we recommend seeking care from our team of dentists. How to Tell It's an Emergency As soon as any type of pain is felt in your mouth, it can be easy to label it as an emergency. While it is wise to ask our dentists about discomfort you may be feeling, not everything is severe enough for a visit. Urgent dental emergencies include: Knocked-out tooth Broken or cracked tooth Abscessed tooth Persistent or severe toothache Soft tissue injuries (to cheeks, gums, tongue, or lips) that result in bleeding Are you experiencing one or more of the above? Call our Grand Rapids dental office right away and our team may evaluate your teeth and gums. Appropriate treatment will then be determined to alleviate your condition. What You Can Do at Home (Before Seeing Us) It goes without saying that a dental emergency is best treated...
How Are Cosmetic Bonding and Contouring Different?
Not everyone is pleased with their smile. For that reason, our Grand Rapids cosmetic dentists are here to help you feel more confident with a range of treatments. Two of which are cosmetic bonding and cosmetic contouring. Though they sound similar, they are in fact different. Here’s a breakdown of the two procedures. 1. Cosmetic Bonding Do you have chipped, cracked, or gapped teeth? If so, there is a chance that cosmetic bonding might be the right dental procedure for you. Best for smaller restorations, bonding involves the application of a tooth-colored composite resin to a tooth’s surface. The material is then shaped, hardened, and polished for a natural and visibly seamless result you’ll love showing off. Compared to other cosmetic procedures, bonding is an affordable, effective option most appropriate for teeth in areas of low bite pressure, i.e., front teeth. It should also be noted that minimal enamel is removed by our dentists during the procedure, but more of your natural tooth structure is preserved unlike with veneers. In general, bonding can be used to: Enhance the look of discolored teeth Repair decayed, chipped, or cracked teeth too minor for a crown Close spaces between teeth Elongate certain teeth...
4 Reasons People Avoid the Dentist (and Shouldn’t)
For many people out there, there’s one thing they haven’t done in some time and that’s visited the dentist. A variety of factors may be at play to prevent a trip but regardless, if you identify with this group, you’re not alone. Our Grand Rapids dentists have treated countless patients who have gone months or even years without seeking oral care. Here are 4 reasons why people skip out on the dental office and how we can help you get back on track if you’re in a similar boat. The Importance of Regular Cleanings You’ve likely heard it before, but our dentists recommend that you receive a teeth cleaning and exam every six months unless directed otherwise. Professional cleanings at least twice a year help ensure that any built-up plaque or tartar is removed from your teeth. Of course, brushing your teeth at least twice a day and flossing daily are beneficial. However, these habits alone do not effectively get rid of all bacteria, plaque, and tartar. Specialized dental tools and one of our trained hygienists are needed for that task as some buildup, namely tartar, can prove too stubborn to remove on your own. It’s Common for People to...
Why You Might Need Full Mouth Restoration
We all have busy schedules and pausing our daily routines for the improvement of our smile isn’t always in the cards. However, it’s important to consider how much you show your teeth and whether you feel confident. If you’ve suffered from a recent accident or have neglected your oral care, our Grand Rapids dentists may recommend a full mouth restoration. Here’s what you need to know about full mouth restoration and the instances in which it may be necessary. What Is Full Mouth Restoration? Just as it sounds, full mouth restoration consists of multiple procedures that are all designed to restore teeth in the upper and lower jaws. Also known as full mouth reconstruction or rehabilitation, this multi-pronged treatment starts with an oral exam. This comprehensive examination will allow our dentists to see exactly what needs to be done with regards to your teeth, gums, and jaws. From there, we can create a personalized treatment plan, so you receive the care you truly need for a healthier smile. Common procedures included as part of full mouth restoration are: Dental Implants Dental Bridges Dental Crowns Dentures Scaling and Root Planing Tooth Extractions Tooth-Colored Fillings TMJ Treatment Our Dentists May Consider Reconstruction...
Can Yellow Teeth Become White?
We have good news: you don’t have to live with yellow teeth forever! That’s right, our Grand Rapids cosmetic dentists offer both professional in-office and at-home teeth whitening treatments for patients wanting a brighter smile. Here's what you need to know about tooth discoloration, how our dentists can help, and natural “remedies” that are best avoided. Common Causes Behind Discolored Teeth Most of the time, the hidden cause behind yellowed or discolored teeth is not so hidden after all. For example, if you’re like many adults around the world, you drink coffee in the mornings. Unfortunately, coffee can easily stain your teeth when consumed on a regular basis. Avid tea drinkers also fall into this camp thanks to its intense color pigments that cling to your enamel. The pigments are known as chromogens and are contained in other beverages like red wine as well. Your teeth changing color can also be attributed to: Smoking or other tobacco use Natural aging Oral trauma or injury Certain medications Excessive fluoride exposure (fluorosis) Poor dental hygiene If you identify with one of the reasons listed above, our cosmetic dentists can help by either performing our in-office teeth whitening procedure or giving...
Common Signs a Filling Has Fallen Out
Cavities happen. Fortunately, our Grand Rapids dentists can use tooth-colored fillings to treat them and restore your smile. While fillings are built to stay in place for quite some time, they can fall out under certain circumstances. Here are 4 signs that can mean your filling has fallen out, the possible underlying causes, and what to do next. Why Would a Filling Come Loose? A tooth filling can come loose for a variety of reasons. Potential causes can range from a new cavity that’s developed under or around the filling to teeth grinding at night. Whatever it ends up being, you’re left with the same result and should see one of our dentists so we can replace the filling. Other reasons for a loose/absent filling may include: Trauma, accidents, and facial injuries Consumption of hard, sticky, or crunchy foods Hard chewing while eating Chemical reaction that affects the bond of the filling to the tooth More often than not, it’s obvious when a filling starts to loosen up or falls out. For instance, some patients notice while they’re eating, brushing their teeth, or flossing. Still, it’s not always apparent, especially if the filling is small to begin with. Your Tooth...
6 Easy Tips for Preventing Cavities
No one likes having tooth pain or sensitivity and finding out the source is a pesky cavity. Fortunately, there are ways that you and our Grand Rapids dentists can help prevent cavities altogether. While we expect to see you in for your regularly scheduled cleaning, you can also fight tooth decay outside of our dental office. Here’s what you need to know about cavities and 6 tips for avoiding them. What Is a Cavity? A cavity is a hole in the tooth that has been caused by tooth decay. Any individual, no matter their age, can develop cavities if proper oral hygiene habits are not practiced. For many patients, cavities occur due to a combination of foods consumed and inadequate brushing. Despite being preventable, cavities are very common. They’re also easily treated so you can enjoy a healthy, restored smile. When one is found, our dentists will remove the decay and treat the affected area with a tooth-colored filling. With this type of filling, no one will be able to tell you’ve had a cavity filled as the material used matches your natural tooth enamel. You can smile confidently knowing there is no risk of any metal showing at all....
5 Popular Smile Correction Procedures
A smile is something you should be proud of and want to confidently show off to everyone in your life. Life is too short to cover your mouth every time you laugh with friends or get caught in a candid photo. You deserve to feel your best and a great way to get started is with a cosmetic dental procedure. At Contemporary Family Dental, we offer several forms of cosmetic treatment to choose from. If you’re not sure or only vaguely have an idea of what you’d like to do, our Grand Rapids dentists can perform an oral examination and make recommendations. Keep reading to learn how 5 cosmetic procedures can benefit your life and what each one involves. Why Choose Cosmetic Treatment? Cosmetic dentistry can seem intimidating at first if you don’t know which procedure you should pursue. However, when you settle on one (or multiple), it can be life changing. Simply seeing yourself in the mirror with new veneers or brighter teeth can give you a much-deserved confidence boost. The main goal of cosmetic dentistry is to improve the appearance of your teeth and gums. It is widely accepted by our dentists and beyond that this form of...
When Should You Have a Dental Crown Replaced?
Most dental restorations are designed to last for a significant period of time, although not forever. Unfortunately, even with proper care, everyday life can still catch up with restorative solutions like dentures, dental bridges, and yes, crowns. But when is the right time to replace a crown? Our Grand Rapids dentists will first need to perform an oral examination to see exactly what the issue is before determining next steps. If there is obvious damage and or you are experiencing pain where your original crown was placed, please don’t hesitate to contact our office. Here’s what you need to know about the longevity of dental crowns and when you should have them replaced. How Long Do Crowns Last? No one wants to undergo a restorative procedure only to have what's placed quickly deteriorate soon after. Fortunately, dental crowns can last for up to 15 years, or sometimes longer, if proper oral hygiene is practiced. Brushing at least twice a day and flossing daily will keep plaque from building up and causing damage to your crown(s). The lifespan of a crown is also dependent on an individual’s diet and whether there is excessive grinding or clenching of teeth. When you consume...
Types of Dental Emergencies You Should Never Ignore
Pushing aside a serious dental issue is never recommended and can result in permanent damage if it’s not treated soon enough. A dental emergency requires the swift attention of our Grand Rapids dentists to ensure your teeth and gums do not worsen beyond simple treatment. Keep reading to learn more about a few of the most common dental emergencies and how to act when faced with one. What Constitutes an Emergency? When you’re experiencing dental pain, anything can seem like it qualifies as an emergency. Actually, a dental emergency describes an instance where there is unexpected severe pain, discomfort, or trauma to the mouth. For example, a minor chip on a tooth is not an emergency but a tooth that has become dislodged is as it poses more of a serious risk to your oral health. Injuries to the teeth or gums can be harmful and you should seek out immediate care when they occur. Dental emergencies often involve but are not limited to: Bleeding that is uncontrolled and not showing signs of stopping Infection paired with swelling Severe dental pain Knocked Out or Broken Tooth Whether it happens while you’re playing sports or hanging out at home, it’s usually...
Tooth Pain: How to Tell When a Toothache is Serious
You’d be hard pressed to find someone out there that loves toothaches. They’re hard to ignore, painful, and can mean something is wrong with your teeth or gums. Any time you are experiencing persistent tooth pain it’s time to make an appointment with our Grand Rapids dentists here at Contemporary Family Dental. But what should you be looking out for when it comes to toothaches? Here is what you need to know about symptoms, causes, and when it’s time to visit our office. What Defines a Toothache? Regardless of the cause, a toothache is general pain that is in or around a tooth. A handful of factors can contribute to a toothache occurring. Some minor toothaches can be treated with at-home remedies while others end up being more severe. Knowing when to listen to your body and seek professional dental care from our Grand Rapids dentists is important. If a serious toothache is not quickly dealt with, there is a chance that tooth extraction will be the only solution. We want to keep your smile healthy at all costs. If your pain is too much to self-manage and lasts longer than 2 days, please contact our office right away. Causes...
Are Dental Implants the Fountain of Youth in Dentistry?
As a child, I remember trekking through the woods behind my house in search of the mysterious fountain of youth. Fast forward 30 years and my lower back pain is no indication of a successful quest. Wouldn’t it be nice if our childhood fantasies actually came true? I mean throw us a bone. At the end of the day, nothing truly lasts forever, but some things last a lot longer than others. So, how does this relate to dental implants? While they can’t last a lifetime they can outlast you. How Long Do Dental Implants Last? Has your mother or father ever said, “this is why we can’t have nice things”? Maybe you dropped your phone or left your windows down in a thunderstorm. The point is things, last longer when properly cared for. Dental implants are no different. Let me ask you a question. If your oil change light came on would you say, “that's just a recommendation, Ol’ Bessie here can take a few thousand more miles”? Fast forward a few thousand miles and you may find yourself on the side of a highway during rush hour. You then proceed to get your car towed only to have...
Dental Implants: A Comprehensive Definition Using a Turkey Sandwich
Let me ask you a question… how often do you speak and chew in a day? The simple answer is: A LOT! For me my bites are heavily influenced by what is brought home from the grocery store (if it’s a bag of chips and salsa - game over). On a real note, we speak an average of 7,000+ words a day. If you are missing a tooth or multiple teeth those 7,000+ words and countless bites become more difficult. So what’s the solution? Dental implants, the most durable device for replacing teeth. Even better, they look and function like real teeth! What are Dental Implants? The typical Google definition is: a surgical component that works with the bone of the jaw or skull to hold a dental prosthesis like a crown, denture, bridge, facial prosthesis or to act as an orthodontic anchor. This definition sounds like it was pulled straight from a 700 page dental school textbook, not super helpful. I mean what even is ‘dental prosthesis?’ Here is a better definition for those of you who don’t pass time reading medical textbooks and journals: think of dental implants like tree roots. Roots become part of the soil, similarly...
Oral Hygiene Tips for Baby Boomers
If you’re part of the Baby Boomer generation and were born between 1946 and 1964, it’s likely your dental health is not a high priority. Maybe you’re dealing with other health issues, or maybe you believe that whatever chance you had to protect your oral health is long gone. However, our Grand Rapids, MI, dentists urge that it’s never too late to practice better oral hygiene for a healthier smile. This is the last blog post in our “Oral Hygiene Tips” blog series. Throughout this series, we’ve explored the different oral health risks people must face at different stages of life. Our dentists have helped patients of all generations improve their oral health and protect their smiles. Here are actions that Baby Boomers and seniors in general can take to protect their teeth and gums. Oral Health Risks for Baby Boomers Although seniors may be more at risk for oral health problems, every patient is different. A lifetime of good oral hygiene habits can go a long way in protecting your smile as you enter retirement. However, some health risks strike without warning and may complicate your dental care. Our family dentists are here to help no matter what the...
Here’s Why Invisalign Would Win A Cage Match Against Braces
Invisa-what? Invisalign is a form of clear aligners used in orthodontics to straighten teeth. Think of them like braces… just better. Now, I don’t just say that without proof. Here’s why Invisalign would win in a cage match against braces: 1. Growing up did you ever dream of having a superpower? Maybe it was flying or super strength, but what about invisibility? Invisalign gives your teeth just that… like its name implies they are virtually invisible. Sure it’s not a real superpower, but it beats traditional braces, which are definitely NOT invisible! 2. Think to yourself, “do I like… popcorn at the movies eating my kid’s hard candy from Halloween while they sleep the redeeming quality of gum after a few pieces of garlic bread starting my day with a freshly toasted bagel downing a bag of chips while watching Sunday night football Or what about nuts, ice (I mean come on... ICE?), chewy candy, pizza crust, crunchy vegetables and fruits, hard crackers, pretzels, etc.” Chew on that, no pun intended. Those are all pulled from a list titled, “Foods To Completely Avoid With Braces.” Guess who wins round 2 of the Invisalign vs. Braces cage match? You guessed it - Invisalign. All of those...
Oral Hygiene Tips for Generation X (Ages 41–56)
If you’re in your forties or fifties—part of what’s more popularly known as Generation X, or Gen X for short—then you probably feel pretty confident about your oral health. After all, you’ve been brushing and flossing for literal decades, and dental treatments like dentures still feel far off in the future. What could you possibly need to worry about? But even middle-aged adults still have a thing or two to learn about oral hygiene. As we age and change, so do our teeth and gums. Each stage of life presents new challenges to maintaining a healthy smile. In our Oral Hygiene Tips blog series, we’re examining the oral health risks and healthy practices of different generations. Our Grand Rapids family dentists have helped patients of all ages achieve healthier smiles. Previously, we’ve looked at oral hygiene tips for children, Gen Z, and millennials. Now, let’s take a look at what oral health risks await Generation X (ages, 41–56, for our purposes). Oral Health Risks for Generation X Even if you’ve been practicing good oral hygiene habits for decades, your age puts you at an increased risk for certain health issues. For Gen Xers, you’ll need to keep an eye out...
Oral Hygiene Tips for Millennials (Ages 25–40)
Millennials are now the largest generational cohort in America. They include everyone from young adults graduating from college to CEOs of Fortune 500 companies to parents leading PTA meetings. They also, unfortunately, include adults dealing with more serious oral health issues, possibly for the first time. In our Oral Hygiene Tips blog series, we’re examining the oral health risks and healthy practices of different generations. Our Grand Rapids family dentists have helped patients of all ages achieve healthier smiles. Previously, we’ve looked at oral hygiene tips for children as well as preteens and teenagers. Now, let’s take a look at the state of oral health for the millennial generation (ages 25–40, for our purposes). Oral Health Risks for Millennials In general, there are two major oral health risks to keep an eye on as you enter your twenties and thirties: Gum disease Stress-related oral health issues Gum Disease Periodontal disease (also known as gum disease) can strike at any age, but it becomes particularly prevalent at this stage of life. In fact, nearly half of all adults ages 30 and older have some form of periodontal disease, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Specifically, you’ll want...
Oral Hygiene Tips for Gen Z (Ages 6–24)
Adolescence is famous for being a season of change, especially in the body. However, many people forget that your oral health needs also change during this time. The oral hygiene tips you learned as a child may need to be tweaked or expanded to serve you well as a teenager. In our Oral Hygiene Tips blog series, we’re diving deep into the oral health concerns you should be aware of at every age. Our Grand Rapids family dentists are eager to help patients adopt new oral health practices at different life stages. Our first blog dealt with oral health risks and hygiene tips for children. In this blog, let’s take a look at common risks and practices for Generation Z, more commonly known simply as Gen Z. Oral Health Risks for Preteens and Teenagers Preteens and teenagers need to pay special attention to the following aspects of their dental health: Dental emergencies Orthodontic treatment Eating disorders Gum disease and oral cancer Dental Emergencies It’s estimated that three out of four American households have at least one school-aged child participating in youth sports. While sports are a great form of exercise, they can also unfortunately be the cause of many dental...
Oral Hygiene Tips for Children (Ages 0–9)
Did you know that different oral health risks occur at different ages? That means you’ll need new oral hygiene habits and dental treatments at each stage of your life. Don’t worry though, our Grand Rapids dentists will help you along the way as you move through every phase. In our Oral Hygiene Tips blog series, we’re looking at the kinds of oral health issues you should expect and the habits you should practice at certain ages to avoid said issues. For our first blog, here are some oral health risks and hygiene tips for children. Top Oral Health Risks for Children The two most prevalent health risks for young children under the age of 9 are cavities and common dental emergencies. While cavities are preventable, the same can’t always be said for an emergency. Fortunately, whether your little one needs a filling, urgent dental care, or a professional cleaning, our dentists are here for your family. 1. Cavities Approximately 42% of children ages 2 to 11 have had dental caries (cavities) in their baby teeth. While this statistic is troubling, you may be thinking, “Wait a minute — why does it matter if cavities form in baby teeth? Aren’t they...
5 Ways to Prevent Dental Emergencies
Dental emergencies can be just as urgent and dangerous as other health emergencies. However, you don’t have to wait until you’re experiencing a dental emergency before you take action. There’s plenty you can do while your smile is still healthy to prevent dental emergencies from happening in the first place: Practice good oral hygiene Use fluoride toothpaste and mouth rinse Watch what you’re eating and drinking Learn healthy ways to manage your stress Seek treatment for dental pain quickly 1. Practice Good Oral Hygiene If you decide to adopt just one preventative practice, make it this one. Practicing good oral hygiene is one of the best things you can do to prevent dental emergencies. What is good oral hygiene? Our definition, informed by recommendations from the American Dental Association (ADA), includes three easy habits: Brushing your teeth for two minutes, twice a day Flossing daily Getting your teeth professionally cleaned every six months Brushing and flossing get rid of plaque, which is a thin layer of bacteria that damages your teeth and can lead to tooth decay and gum disease. Most plaque can be removed by brushing and flossing, but any plaque that’s left behind can develop into tartar, which...
Why You Should See the Dentist Every Six Months
Good oral hygiene is the foundation of your oral health. That means brushing your teeth twice a day, flossing daily, and scheduling a teeth cleaning every six months. But if you’re already brushing and flossing, why do you need a teeth cleaning? Do you really need to see the dentist twice a year? The answer is yes — for the most part. Here are a few reasons why you should see your dentist every six months. Get a Stronger, More Thorough Teeth Cleaning Brushing and flossing on your own is critical in preventing tooth decay and gum disease. Plaque, the slick film you feel on your teeth in the morning, forms naturally every day, and brushing and flossing is the only way to get rid of it. If you don’t brush and floss, then bacteria will consume the plaque and produce acids that will wear down your teeth and gums. Plaque that builds up over time eventually turns into tartar, a harder substance that can’t be removed with at-home oral hygiene habits. Even if you’re a devoted brusher and flosser, there may be parts of your teeth that are difficult to reach where plaque can build up over time, turning...
What an Unhealthy Smile Costs You
You may have considered what it would cost to have a healthy smile, but what does an unhealthy smile cost you? When you consider the effects of an unhealthy smile, perhaps you think of crooked or discolored teeth, bad breath, or even tooth loss. But a lack of oral hygiene can lead to health problems beyond those in your mouth. Your body is made of interconnected systems, and the mouth serves as the primary gateway for what enters the body. That means that an unhealthy mouth can result in health problems elsewhere in your body. Similarly, the mouth can serve as a diagnostic tool for other health issues that seem to have little to do with your smile. How Your Oral Health Affects Your Overall Health Did you know your mouth is full of bacteria? Don’t worry — for the most part, this is actually a good thing! A healthy mouth needs to have enough good bacteria to fight off disease-carrying microorganisms that may enter the mouth when you breathe, drink, or eat. Unfortunately, not all bacteria in your mouth are quite so beneficial. Plaque forms naturally on your teeth when you consume sugar or carbohydrates. If not brushed or...
What Is a Dental Emergency? Coronavirus/COVID-19 Dental Help
Dentists offer an essential healthcare service. Contemporary Family Dental is open for emergency dental services and urgent dental care during the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic. But what is a dental emergency? What’s the difference between a dental emergency and urgent dental care? Contemporary Family Dental Is Open for Dental Emergencies A dental emergency is “potentially life-threatening” and requires “immediate treatment,” according to the American Dental Association (ADA). Examples of dental emergencies include: Uncontrolled bleeding Soft tissue bacterial infection with swelling in or around the mouth that may compromise your ability to breathe Facial trauma that may compromise your ability to breathe If you are experiencing a dental emergency, call us immediately for an appointment at (616) 209-3969. Contemporary Family Dental Is Open for Urgent Dental Care Urgent dental care is necessary “to relieve severe pain and/or risk of infection.” These are situations when it’s best for you to see a dentist instead of filling one of the few beds in your hospital’s emergency room. If you’re suffering from any of the following, you can call our office to schedule an appointment with our dentists: Severe dental pain Painful tooth fracture Abscess or infection resulting in swelling Required preoperative treatment for critical...
COVID-19 Updates
COVID-19 Update - June 30, 2021: We are jumping with joy to be able to see all of your beautiful smiles again and grateful to have made it this far together! Thank you for your continued support. We are so very appreciative of you and your trust in us as your dental team. We are excited to share some updated COVID guidelines with you! With the recent changes in the State of Michigan here is what to expect when you visit our office: Curbside Check-In is still an option, however, you are welcome to come in and wait in our lobby when you arrive for your appointment. We do ask that you come by yourself if at all possible. For appointments for minor children, we ask that only one parent or guardian accompany them to the appointment and stay on the premises. We encourage you to wear a mask or face covering into the office, however, it is no longer mandatory. We will be taking your temperature using a touchless thermometer and will ask you to fill out a short COVID-19 screening form. What are we continuing to do to keep you and our community safe? The health and safety of...
Need a Dentist Fast? Teledentistry Can Help!
Sometimes when you have a dental emergency, you need to get a dentist’s opinion right away. However, it’s not always convenient to stop by the dentist’s office. When you need a dentist fast, teledentistry is here to help! With our new teledentistry platform you can virtually chat with one of our dentists anytime, anywhere. Here are just a few times when our emergency dentists might recommend teledentistry to suit your needs. After-Hours Emergencies According to the American Dental Association, most emergency rooms do not have dentists on staff to properly treat dental emergencies. Instead, they can only prescribe painkillers and sometimes antibiotics that do not treat the source of the patient’s pain. 39% of these patients must return to the emergency room at some point to seek further treatment, as their dental needs are not adequately addressed. On top of that, emergency room visits are expensive. Dental-related visits to the ER can cost anywhere from $400 to $1500, depending on the treatment. An e-visit with our emergency dentists, on the other hand, is just $49—a small charge that is automatically credited towards your dental treatment if you need to come in for a follow-up visit. Emergencies When You’re Busy Whether...
How to Maximize Your Remaining Dental Benefits Before They Expire
Your dental insurance likely renews on January 1st, which means if you haven’t yet made an appointment for a dental visit, now is the time. You can maximize your dental benefits by making an appointment for dental treatment before the year is over. Our family dentists want you to know what your insurance covers during a visit to our office. Here are just a few of the procedures you might consider. Teeth Cleanings Your dental insurance will typically cover at least two dental examinations every year, so if you haven’t made an appointment for a teeth cleaning yet, now is the time! Our family dentists are happy to provide teeth cleanings for patients of all ages, so the whole family can feel comfortable in our office. At your dental exam, we’ll thoroughly clean your teeth and check your mouth for any signs of dental issues, such as oral cancer or gum disease. We’ll also remove any plaque that’s built up along your gum line to help prevent gingivitis. Regular teeth cleanings help us monitor your oral health and prevent potential problems from getting worse. Restorative Dentistry If you’ve been putting off dental treatment like fillings, crowns, root canals, or extractions,...
Dental Emergency? Schedule an E-visit!
When something goes wrong with your teeth, it can be hard to know whether you should see an emergency dentist immediately or if you can afford to wait. Fortunately, our office now proudly offers virtual dental visits for situations when you’re pressed for time or unsure if you should make an in-person appointment. You can now have a consultation with one of our emergency dentists from the comfort of your own home! Here’s what you need to know about teledentistry, the latest innovation from our office. If you have any questions or concerns about emergency dental e-visits, please feel free to contact us and we'll get back to you as soon as possible with an answer to your questions. What Is Teledentistry? Teledentistry is an innovative way to access convenient dental care when you need it most, using your computer, tablet, or phone. Similar to telemedicine, it’s like a dental visit that takes place online. It works like a video call: our team will be able to see you, take a look at whatever issue you’re experiencing, and counsel you through a dental emergency or concern. Our emergency dentists can provide any of the following services through our teledentistry platform:...
How Do You Get Used to Wearing Dentures?
Our Grand Rapids dentists may recommend dentures to replace missing teeth. Yet, it’s important to understand that there’s a transitional period after placement where you’re still becoming accustomed to wearing dentures. For instance, it’s not uncommon for people to lisp until they get used to speaking around dentures. Patients also may not realize that it’s still important to protect their gum health even with false teeth. Here are a few helpful tips for how to get used to wearing your new dentures. For the Best Dentures Experience, Our Dentists Recommend: 1. Prioritizing Your Gum Health Even if you have full dentures, it’s important that you continue to brush your gums. Otherwise, food particles and plaque will build up on the surface of your gums and increase your risk of gingivitis. While gingivitis is reversible, the same can’t be said once it progresses into periodontitis, a chronic, long-term condition. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, approximately 47.2% of Americans aged 30 and older have periodontal disease. Don’t be one of them. Since your dentures sit on top of your gums, you’ll want to do everything you can to avoid any stage of periodontal disease. Our dentists recommend...
Am I Too Old to Get Invisalign®?
It's a myth that you can't straighten teeth after a certain age. In fact, many people choose to delay orthodontic treatment until they're able to afford it later in life. While you're never too old to get Invisalign®, it’s important to be aware that your treatment may take longer than if you had started as a teen. In addition, every patient is different. This is why we recommend seeing one of our Invisalign dentists in Grand Rapids, MI. Continue reading to learn why it’s never too late to get Invisalign. Compared to teenagers, adults often make better patients when they: Remember their motivation Don’t take their health for granted Listen to our dentists Practice better oral hygiene Remember Your Motivation Have you ever covered your smile in a group photo? Do you feel self-conscious about your teeth when meeting people for the first time? Your smile affects not only your oral health, but your confidence. Adults are better able to understand the value of a beautiful smile. which is why they're often more motivated to wear their Invisalign braces the necessary 20 to 22 hours a day. Don't Take Your Health for Granted It's easy to take good oral health...
Adjusting to Dentures: The First 30 Days
If you’re thinking about dentures as an option to replace a few teeth or an entire arch, congratulations! Dentures are an effective way to restore the look and function of a natural smile. However, there is an adjustment period in which you’ll need to spend some time getting used to the feeling of having them in your mouth. Our Grand Rapids dentists are more than happy to answer any questions or concerns you have. Here are a few things to keep in mind about the first 30 days with your new dentures. How to Get Used to Dentures: In the First 24 Hours Like the name suggests, immediate dentures can be worn immediately after extracting teeth. If we need to extract teeth, our dentists may prescribe you pain relievers and antibiotics to take as directed while the site heals. It’s important that you don’t remove your dentures during the first 24 hours, so the gums have a chance to heal. Your full dentures act much like a band aid during your first day, which is why you’ll even need to wear your dentures to bed. After 24 hours, we highly recommend removing your dentures before going to sleep. That way,...
Am I a Candidate for the Dental Implant Procedure?
Have you recently lost a tooth? If so, you may be interested in the dental implant procedure to help you smile with confidence. A dental implant is an artificial tooth root (typically made of titanium) that’s placed in your jaw to later support a crown. Unlike dentures, dental implants are stable and often able to last a lifetime with proper care. Continue reading to learn if you’re a candidate for dental implants and how our Grand Rapids, MI, dentists can help. Candidates for Dental Implants The ideal candidate for dental implants is a non-smoker, has healthy gums, and has sufficient bone density in their jaw to support an implant. However, don’t feel like you have to be the “perfect candidate” for dental implants to request a consultation with one of our dentists. There is plenty we can do to find the right solution for your smile. Do You Have Healthy Gums? It’s important to understand that the condition of both your teeth and gums ultimately affect oral health. If you have receding gums due to advanced periodontal disease, you may not be a candidate for the dental implant procedure. This is because teeth are more likely to fall out when...
Are Dental Implants Better Than Dentures?
Our dentists use both dentures and dental implants to replace teeth. Do you know what tooth replacement options are right for you? Each patient is different which is why it’s important to know the pros and cons of each. We are here to help you make an informed decision about your dental treatment. For more information, contact our office today to request a consultation with one of our dental implant dentists in Grand Rapids, MI. Dentures Vs. Dental Implants Dentures Dentures are an oral appliance made to look and function like natural teeth. Depending on the extent of tooth loss, our dentists may recommend a full or partial denture. While a full denture replaces an entire arch of teeth, a partial denture only replaces a few teeth. Dentures sit on top of your gums and must be removed before you go to sleep so your gums have a chance to recover. When you’re not wearing your dentures, they’ll need to be submerged in a glass of water or denture cleanser so they don’t dry out, crack, and warp. Types of Dentures We can help you explore the different types of dentures available, including partial, conventional or complete, and immediate dentures....
How Long Do You Have to Wear Invisalign®?
Wish you could straighten teeth without traditional metal braces? Ask our Invisalign® dentists in Grand Rapids, MI if you’re a candidate for clear aligners. Like the name suggests, Invisalign are nearly invisible aligners that straighten your teeth little by little. Since Invisalign is removable, you’ll need the willpower and self-discipline to wear your aligners consistently. While Invisalign can straighten teeth in as little as 12 to 18 months, each patient is different. Continue reading to learn how long you’ll need to wear Invisalign to achieve your best smile. How Long Do I Need to Wear Invisalign Per Day? You should wear your Invisalign braces between 20 and 22 hours a day. Otherwise, your teeth won’t move according to schedule. While you may feel some slight discomfort when you first wear Invisalign, it’s important that you continue wearing your teeth aligners as directed by our dentists. Otherwise, you won’t be able to make progress as quickly as you’d like. Can You Eat With Your Invisalign On? No, you can’t eat while wearing your Invisalign. Unlike traditional metal braces, Invisalign braces are removable so you can continue eating your favorite foods during treatment. This means that you won’t have to stay...
How to Care for Invisalign®
Invisalign® consists of nearly invisible aligners that gradually straighten teeth for teen and adult patients in as little as 12 to 18 months. If you’ve ever felt self-conscious of crooked teeth but aren’t a fan of metal braces, our Grand Rapids Invisalign dentists can help you get started. During your initial consultation, we’ll be able to discuss whether Invisalign is the right choice for your smile. Our dentists can also answer any additional questions or concerns you might have about Invisalign clear aligners. Here’s what you need to know when it comes to caring for your clear aligners. Invisalign Take-Home Instructions If possible, our dentists recommend using the Invisalign cleaning system to clean your aligners, which uses crystals to remove plaque in about 15 minutes. You may also gently brush your aligners with a non-abrasive toothpaste under lukewarm water. Be sure to also: Brush and floss after meals. Avoid staining drinks. Store clear aligners in their case. Wear your aligners at least 20 to 22 hours a day, only taking them out to eat, brush, or floss. Brush and Floss After Meals Brush and floss your teeth after eating to avoid staining your clear aligners. While this may seem like...
Improve Your Smile This Spring with Cosmetic Dentistry
After such a long dreary winter, one of the best things you can do for your well-being is enhance the appearance of your smile. Our Grand Rapids, MI, cosmetic dentists understand that your smile says a lot about your personality, which is why we offer cosmetic dentistry services to help you feel more confident. Whether you’re interested in professional teeth whitening or porcelain veneers, you can trust our team to plan and carry out your smile makeover this spring. It’s been our experience that people are more interested in improving their appearance just before summer, whether through gym memberships or cosmetic dentistry. Here’s how you can enjoy a beautiful, healthy smile in time for summer. 5 Ways to Change Up Your Smile Include: Invisalign® Cosmetic Bonding Cosmetic Contouring Porcelain Veneers Teeth Whitening 1. Invisalign Straighten teeth in as little as 12 to 18 months with Invisalign aligners! Like the name suggests, Invisalign are nearly invisible plastic trays that fit over your top and bottom teeth. If you think you would feel self-conscious with traditional metal braces, ask our Invisalign dentists if you’re a candidate for clear aligners. Invisalign is perfect for teenagers and adults who want to straighten teeth. 2....
Pros and Cons of Invisalign®
It’s never too late to straighten your teeth with Invisalign®. If you’re interested in achieving a straighter smile, request a consultation with one of our Invisalign dentists in Grand Rapids, MI. Like the name suggests, Invisalign are nearly invisible aligners that can straighten teeth in as little as 12 to 18 months. If you’ve ever felt self-conscious of crooked teeth, it’s time to ask us about Invisalign braces. Continue reading to learn about the pros and cons of Invisalign. Pros of Invisalign Aligners are nearly invisible No metal on your teeth Removable Straighten teeth in as little as 12 to 18 months Eat an unrestricted diet There are many advantages to choosing Invisalign over traditional metal braces. For example, many of our patients appreciate that Invisalign braces are subtle enough to go unnoticed by friends, family, and co-workers. If you think you would feel self-conscious with metal on your teeth, ask one of our dentists if you’re a candidate for Invisalign treatment. It’s never too late to get the smile you’ve always wanted. Another benefit to wearing Invisalign aligners is that they are removable so you’re able to continue eating your favorite foods during treatment. Unlike braces, you’ll be able...
What Happens If You Don’t Replace Missing Teeth?
Your teeth are held in place by tooth roots, jawbone tissue, gums, and other teeth. Once you lose one tooth, your risk of further tooth loss increases significantly. This can lead to reduced self-confidence and other complications down the road. Fortunately, our restorative dentists can help you explore different ways to replace missing teeth before they affect your oral health. Here are 5 reasons why tooth replacement is a good idea. For more information, request an appointment with one of our dentists in Grand Rapids, MI. Is it Necessary to Replace Missing Teeth? Tooth replacement is in your best interest and highly recommended. As soon as you replace a missing tooth, you improve the overall health of your mouth. The space left by a missing tooth negatively affects your nutrition, the surrounding teeth, and your jawbone. For example, replacing a missing tooth with a dental implant benefits the look and function of your mouth while contributing to your overall oral health. We also offer other restorative options, such as dentures and dental bridges. Why Tooth Replacement is a Good Idea: 1. Expanded Diet Missing teeth make eating the foods we love difficult and even painful. If you limit your diet...
Use Your Dental Benefits in the New Year
For the new year you need to consider things like your dental insurance renewal, your annual maximum for dental insurance, how deductibles will work, what’s considered preventative dentistry, and more depending on your insurance. One of the most common New Year’s resolutions is to be healthier. For 2020, a whole new decade, our Grand Rapids dentists challenge you to protect your oral health by scheduling your teeth cleaning and oral examination at least once every 6 months. For more information on dental benefits in 2020, keep reading. When Does My Dental Insurance Renew? Most dental insurance plans reset at the start of the calendar year, which is January 1. However, before you schedule an appointment with our Grand Rapids dentists, be sure to check the specific details of your insurance policy. To do this you’ll need to call your insurance company. Most insurance cards have a customer service number on the back. Give that a ring and ask them about your dental coverage for this year. Some dental benefits renew at the start of your contract year, which is when your policy took effect. If insurance is provided through your work, check with your employer on when your insurance policy...
February is National Children’s Dental Health Month
Did you know February is National Children’s Dental Health Month? Our team of dentists is dedicated to helping you and your children maintain dental health. Our Grand Rapids dentists want to help you and your child understand the importance of maintaining a healthy mouth through brushing, flossing, and scheduling teeth cleaning appointments at least every 6 months. Our office is ready to help you set up an appointment for your child with one of our dentists. Why is it important to raise awareness of children’s dental health? Tooth decay is the #1 chronic childhood disease in the United States, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fortunately, our dentists are able to help prevent cavities with dental sealants and other treatments. National Children’s Dental Health Month is a good reminder for us all that children are building the foundations for their oral health. Our dentists are proud to help young patients learn healthy oral hygiene habits that’ll last a lifetime. February is also beneficial for parents because it reminds us to take care of our own oral health. Brushing and flossing your teeth every day is a great way to set an example for your children. It’ll also...
Why Do I Have Sensitive Teeth in Winter?
We may feel the drop-in temperature in our toes, but we shouldn’t be feeling it in our teeth! Some of us experience a shock of tooth pain as we breathe in the crisp air or sip hot chocolate. Sensitive teeth are common in temperature extremes, so we notice it more during the winter season. If you have any questions or concerns about your teeth sensitivity during the winter, then please feel free to contact us and we'll get back to you with an answer as soon as possible. If you experience sensitive teeth due to cold weather, it may be because of one of these reasons though: Brushing too hard or using a toothbrush with hard bristles Teeth grinding at night Receding gums, typically from gum disease Tooth decay Cracked tooth Abscessed tooth Fortunately, our dentists can help you find a solution to relieve sensitive teeth and dental pain so that you can enjoy the snow and not worry about experiencing pain whenever you open your mouth. Why Do My Teeth Feel So Sensitive? Sensitive teeth are fairly common, yet shouldn’t be ignored. At times, you may naturally feel tooth sensitivity when going from something like hot tea to cold...
What to Expect During Root Canal Therapy
Root canal therapy is one of the last things we can do to save an abscessed tooth. Your dental pulp resides in the innermost chamber of your tooth and is made of living tissue. Once a cavity is deep enough to penetrate your dental pulp, you may need root canal therapy to save your smile. Who Needs Root Canal Therapy? If you’re suffering from a toothache, don’t ignore it. Tooth pain is your body’s way of telling you something is wrong. Ignoring a toothache for too long can turn a minor cavity into a dental emergency, requiring root canal therapy to save your tooth. You may need root canal therapy if you have: Severe toothache Prolonged tooth sensitivity to cold or heat Tooth darkening Swollen, tender gums Dental abscess (looks like a pimple on the gums) Four Steps of a Root Canal Procedure 1. Getting Dental X-rays First, our root canal dentists will need to take X-rays of your teeth to determine how deep your cavity runs and whether the infection has spread to surrounding bone tissue. While your teeth may appear perfectly healthy on the surface, the inside of your tooth may tell a different story. The X-rays will...
How to Save Money with Preventive Dentistry
Preventative dentistry helps you save money because if an oral health concern is treated early on, it is often less expensive than when treated later. For example, a filling is less expensive than a dental crown when you need to treat a cavity. Likewise, things like regular dental checkups can help prevent dental health problems like gingivitis and tooth decay. Instead of waiting until you’re in unbearable pain to see one of our dentists, you could save a lot of money in the long run if we’re able to treat minor issues immediately. Continue reading to learn why preventive dentistry is important for not only saving money, but for protecting your oral health. What Could Preventative Dentistry Help You Avoid? When it comes to preventing oral health problems, preventive dentistry involves a lot of practices you can do at home, like brushing your teeth the right way and regularly. You may think brushing your teeth twice a day is annoying, but that mixed with flossing, and a healthy diet, could help you avoid things like: Cavities Gum disease Enamel loss Tooth loss Other oral health issues All of these problems start to cost you money down the road. A cavity...
How to Protect Your Smile from Periodontal Disease
Did you know nearly half of Americans age 30 and older have periodontal disease, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)? More commonly known as gum disease, periodontal disease is caused by untreated plaque and tartar buildup on your teeth and gums. The bacteria in dental plaque irritates your gums and causes them to bleed more easily, resulting in gum disease. Fortunately, our dentists can help protect your smile from periodontal disease. Keep in mind that while gum disease can be cured in its early stages with good oral hygiene habits and professional teeth cleanings, the same can’t be said of periodontitis (the advanced form of gum disease). Periodontal disease deteriorates the bone structure supporting your teeth and causes your gums to recede, putting you at a higher risk for tooth loss. Let’s take a look at how you can protect your smile from periodontal disease. 1. Know the Signs of Gum Disease The best way to treat gum disease is to catch it in its early stages. Unfortunately, many people are unaware they have gum disease until it has progressed past the point of treatment. Advanced gum disease can only be managed, not cured. That’s why...
How to Prevent Gum Disease from Getting Worse
Gum disease can strike even those who keep up with their oral hygiene. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), nearly half of Americans age 30 and older have periodontal disease. While gum disease can be reversed in its early stages, the same can’t be said once it progresses to periodontal disease. If you think you may have gum disease, don’t waste any time scheduling an appointment with one of our dentists. We can protect your smile even if you’ve already been diagnosed with gum disease. What Are the Symptoms of Gum Disease? Some of the most common symptoms of gum disease include: Sore gums Bleeding gums Receding gums Pain when chewing Sensitive teeth Tooth loss However, many of these symptoms can also indicate other oral health conditions. If you think you might have gum disease, it’s important to call our office and make an appointment. What Are the Main Causes of Gum Disease? Gum disease is caused by untreated plaque buildup on the surface of your teeth and gums. When the bacteria in plaque consumes the sugar and starch left inside your mouth, it produces acid that erodes tooth enamel. You have a higher risk of...
How Dental Crowns & Fillings Are Different
Do you have a cavity? Dental crowns and fillings are both capable of repairing damage done to teeth. However, there are differences between the two that could affect which one our dentists recommend during your next appointment. Deciding between a crown and a filling depends on multiple factors, including cost, length of procedure, durability, and the extent of your tooth's decay. Our restorative and cosmetic dentists can evaluate your specific case and help you decide whether a filling or a crown is right for you. Quick Comparison: Crowns vs. Fillings A dental crown: Treats severe tooth damage or decay Completely covers a damaged or decayed tooth Requires impressions Takes two dental visits Is more expensive A tooth filling: Treats minor tooth damage or decay Fills in a decayed tooth but does not cover it Doesn’t require impressions Takes one dental visit Is more affordable When You Need a Crown If your teeth are severely damaged or decayed, you’re better off spending the extra money for a dental crown. For intensive tooth repair, a filling wouldn’t be capable of properly restoring the tooth to its natural function and appearance. Dental crowns are different from fillings because they cover the entire visible...
Can Cosmetic Dentistry Improve Your Quality of Life?
It’s the goal of our cosmetic dentists to make sure all of our patients feel confident when they smile. That confidence comes not just from having a brighter, straighter smile, but also from having healthy teeth and gums. Cosmetic dentistry doesn’t just improve your smile — it can also improve your quality of life. Stronger teeth, good oral hygiene, and more smiling can all help. Why Is It Good to Smile? When you smile — that is, when you’re not afraid to open your mouth and show your teeth — you convey a sense of well-being and confidence. People respond positively to a healthy smile, whether they’re a future boss or a prospective partner. In fact, smiling can be contagious. How healthy is smiling? Good question! Smiling can improve your health by relieving stress, lowering your blood pressure, and improving your mood. Smiling can also lift your face and help you look younger. All these benefits can have a profound effect on your overall quality of life. If you’ve ever felt self-conscious about your smile, ask our cosmetic dentists about your options during your next appointment with us. How Can I Improve the Look of My Teeth? The goal of...
5 Benefits of Porcelain Veneers
Interested in a smile makeover? You may want to consider getting porcelain veneers. Veneers are wafer-thin porcelain shells that our dentists can bond to the fronts of your teeth. Porcelain veneers match the color and shape of your natural teeth so you can smile with confidence. Of course, there are other cosmetic dentistry procedures you might consider — teeth whitening, for example, or cosmetic bonding. But every procedure has its own advantages and disadvantages. Porcelain veneers may be right for you if you want to: Cover chips, cracks, and discoloration Preserve your natural tooth structure Commit to only two appointments Enjoy simple maintenance Smile with confidence for years to come 1. Cover Chips, Cracks, and Discoloration Porcelain veneers are able to fix small cosmetic issues that are visible when you smile or talk, such as minor chips or cracks. During your consultation, our dentists will determine if you’re a good candidate for veneers. If the tooth is too fragile, we may instead recommend a dental crown to restore the tooth to its natural strength and appearance. Either way, our dentists will be able to find the right solution for your smile. 2. Preserve Your Natural Tooth Structure Once you remove...
Oral Hygiene Routine for Healthy Teeth
A standard oral health routine for healthy teeth includes brushing twice a day, flossing once a day, and using mouthwash once a day. These simple practices can help preserve your mouth from things like periodontal gum disease and tooth decay. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention reports that 1 in 5 people are affected by tooth decay, especially children. Fortunately, your dentist can help you avoid oral health issues when you schedule a teeth cleaning and oral examination every 6 months. To learn more about proper oral hygiene, keep reading. What’s at Risk? When it comes to your oral health, you may wonder what’s really at risk? Your teeth feel fine right now, they look pretty good, and you’re not feeling pain in your gums. Most oral health problems can’t be seen at first. Did you know plaque is an invisible film of bacteria that sticks to your teeth and gums? Over time, plaque produces acid from consuming sugars and starches. This acid erodes tooth enamel and attacks your gums, putting you at risk for oral health issues. Dentists are able to remove plaque and tartar (hardened plaque), but there are things you can do at home to keep...
5 Ways to Prevent Gum Disease
Did you know that almost half of Americans over 30 have gum disease? The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimated in 2010 that roughly 47% of adult Americans have mild, moderate, or severe periodontitis. That’s nearly 65 million people. Early forms of gum disease, like gingivitis, can be cured with a teeth cleaning from your dentist every 6 months and with a healthy oral hygiene routine at home. But once it progresses into periodontal disease, the condition is irreversible. Fortunately, there are steps you can take to prevent gum disease, both on your own and with the help of our dentists. Gum Disease Prevention Tips 1. Practice Good Oral Hygiene You won’t just wake up one day with a severe case of periodontal disease. Gum disease progresses over time, which means that good oral hygiene can go a long way in preventing it from reaching an irreversible stage. First, plaque — that sticky layer of microbes you probably felt on your teeth this morning — builds up over time unless you brush and floss regularly. Next, the plaque will mix with other minerals on your teeth and harden into tartar, which usually requires a teeth cleaning to remove....
Use Your Dental Benefits before Jan. 1st
Do your holiday plans include a trip to the dentist? They should. Most insurance companies give you a certain amount to spend on dental care each year. However, you could be missing out on these benefits if you don’t see your dentist at least twice a year for preventive care. Scheduling your appointment near the end of the year is the perfect way to make sure you take full advantage of your dental benefits. You have until the end of the year to use up your dental benefits. You might as well get full use of your dental insurance before it resets on January 1. Continue reading to discover the other “dirty little secrets” dental insurance companies don’t want you to know. Reasons to Use Dental Benefits Use it or Lose it! Most insurance companies give you an annual amount to spend on dental care. If you don’t use your benefits, they’re gone forever. Year-end visits are the best way to use dental benefits all you can. If you’ve been putting off your next appointment because you were afraid of what we might find, schedule your appointment before the end of the year. Our dentists and the American Dental Association…
What Is Cosmetic Dentistry?
Do you feel self-conscious when you smile? You’re not alone. More than half of Americans cover their mouths when they smile because they feel insecure about their teeth. The goal of cosmetic dentistry is to fix that. What Can Cosmetic Dentistry Do? Cosmetic dentistry improves the appearance of your teeth that are visible when you smile and talk. Our cosmetic dentists have years of experience to help you gain the smile you have always wanted. Cosmetic dentistry can help with: Crooked teeth Slight gaps between teeth Chipped teeth Cracked teeth Tooth discoloration Other minor damage to the front teeth At Contemporary Family Dental, we offer a range of cosmetic dental services so you can start smiling with confidence, including: Teeth whitening White fillings Porcelain veneers Dental bonding Teeth reshaping Invisalign® Teeth Whitening Our teeth whitening dentists can brighten your teeth by several shades in just one appointment. We offer two options for our patients so they can choose to whiten in our office or in the comfort of their own homes. During your consultation, our dentist will discuss what types of professional teeth whitening are right for your smile. White Fillings If you have a cavity, our dentists will need...
Look Younger with Dental Implants
Do missing teeth make you feel self-conscious about your smile? If so, it’s time to schedule an appointment with one of our Grand Rapids restorative dentists and discuss the dental implant procedure. You may be a candidate for dental implant surgery if you have sufficient jawbone density, a strong immune system, and do not smoke or use tobacco products. Here’s what you need to know about how dental implants can help you look younger than your chronological age. The Dental Implant Process First, let’s talk about dental implants, what they are, and how they work. An implant is a prosthetic tooth root made of titanium that supports a dental crown. When you lose a tooth, your body starts to reabsorb the jawbone in that area in a process called osseointegration. A dental implant mimics the natural stimulation provided by your tooth’s root, keeping your jawbone from becoming reabsorbed and preserving your natural bone structure. Steps in the Dental Implant Procedure: If needed, you may have a bone grafting procedure performed to ensure that you have enough healthy bone for the implant to take hold. Our dentists will perform the implant surgery, permanently embedding the post in your jaw. It will...
Am I a Candidate for Invisalign®?
Wish you could straighten teeth without traditional metal braces? Ask one of our Grand Rapids Invisalign® dentists if you’re a candidate for clear aligners. Like the name suggests, Invisalign consists of nearly invisible aligners that fit over your teeth and gradually move them into optimal alignment. Our experienced dentists can not only help you fix crooked or overcrowded teeth but can correct bite issues as well with Invisalign. Here’s what you need to know about Invisalign clear aligners and whether they are right for you. What Invisalign Can Treat In the past, Invisalign couldn’t treat severe bite issues. Today, our dentists can use SmartForce® attachments so most (if not all) of your orthodontic treatment is done with clear aligners. SmartForce attachments are tooth-colored “bumps” we bond to the fronts of your teeth. These bumps gently push against your aligners so you can achieve the smile you want in less time. Invisalign can treat a range of conditions, including: Crooked teeth Crowded teeth Overbite Underbite Cross bite Open bite To learn if you’ll need SmartForce attachments, schedule a consultation with one of our Invisalign dentists. Invisalign May Work for You If: 1) You’re Motivated to Wear Aligners Have you ever...
Invisalign® Clear Aligners FAQ
Wish you could straighten teeth without traditional metal braces? Invisalign® might be the right choice for your smile. Schedule a consultation with one of our dentists to learn if you’re a candidate for Invisalign clear aligners. We get a lot of questions about Invisalign treatment, which is why we created this list of frequently asked questions. What is Invisalign? As the name suggests, Invisalign is a series of nearly invisible aligners that move your teeth little by little into a straighter smile. The aligners fit over your teeth and exert enough pressure to move them into place. How does Invisalign work? You’ll need to wear your Invisalign aligners 20 to 22 hours a day. Otherwise, your teeth won’t move according to schedule. Every few weeks, you’ll need to see your Invisalign dentist so they can evaluate your progress and hand you the next set of aligners in your series. Many of our patients are able to achieve noticeably straighter teeth within 18 months. Will Invisalign hurt? While your new clear aligners will hurt during the first day or so, many of our patients believe that having straighter teeth is worth the temporary discomfort. We recommend taking over-the-counter pain relievers until...
How Do Night Guards Prevent Teeth Grinding?
Do you ever wake up with jaw pain? If so, you may have a condition called bruxism that causes you to grind your teeth at night. Many patients are unaware they’re grinding or clenching their teeth at night until our Grand Rapids dentists notice worn enamel or have to repair cracks and chips to their smiles. Here’s what you need to know about teeth grinding and how a custom-made night guard can help cut down on the behavior. What Are the Signs of Teeth Grinding? If left untreated, the force exerted from teeth grinding will overwork your jaw muscles and cause you to wake up feeling sore. While bruxism destroys your teeth, it’s often done unconsciously. In fact, many people are unaware they have bruxism until they’re told by our dentists. The sound of teeth grinding can also be enough to wake your partner. Teeth grinding symptoms include: Headaches Toothaches Sore jaw TMJ disorder Worn tooth enamel Tooth sensitivity Chipped or cracked teeth Loose teeth If you recognize any of the above symptoms (especially those that happen when you wake up), call our Grand Rapids dental office to schedule your appointment. The longer you wait to see a dentist, the...
Do I Need Wisdom Teeth Removal?
About 85% of wisdom teeth eventually require extraction, according to the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons. For this reason, our dentists in Grand Rapids will carefully monitor your oral health to prevent issues caused by impacted wisdom teeth. Here’s what you need to know about wisdom teeth removal and signs the procedure may be in your future. Why We Have Wisdom Teeth Many dentists believe our ancestors needed wisdom teeth and huge jaws to chew tough plants, roots, and raw meat. Despite our change in diet over time and tendency to eat softer foods today, we still carry the gene that allows wisdom teeth to form. However, since modern humans now have much smaller jaws, there often isn’t enough room for wisdom teeth to erupt. Therefore, if one of our dentists discovers an impacted wisdom tooth or eruptionwill cause severe crowding, they’ll recommend extraction. Signs You Need Wisdom Teeth Removal Not all patients experience symptoms of impacted wisdom teeth. For this reason, it’s important to schedule regular visits with our dentists every 6 months so we can monitor the development and trajectory of your wisdom teeth through oral examinations. Call our Grand Rapids dental office immediately if you...
Dental Implant FAQs
Many of our patients prefer dental implants to replace missing teeth. Dental implants are embedded in your jawbone to give you more stability than other tooth replacement options, such as dentures. Continue reading to learn the answers to some of the most frequently asked questions our Grand Rapids, MI, dentists get about the dental implant procedure. What are Dental Implants? A dental implant is a prosthetic tooth root (typically made of titanium) used to anchor a porcelain crown. If you have missing teeth, your dentist may recommend dental implants to restore the appearance and function of your smile. Am I a Candidate for the Dental Implant Procedure? To be a candidate for the dental implant procedure, you must have healthy gum and jawbone tissue. However, if you don’t have sufficient jawbone tissue for the procedure, one of our dental implant dentists may recommend a bone graft. What are the Benefits of Dental Implants? Unlike other tooth replacement options, dental implants are anchored to your jawbone for long-lasting stability. This means that you’ll never have to worry about your dental implants slipping like you would with dentures. With dental implants, you’ll be able to eat all your favorite foods again. Your...
Disclaimer: This website is provided for information and education purposes only. No doctor/patient relationship is established by your use of this website. No diagnosis or treatment is being provided. The information contained here should be used in consultation with a doctor of your choice. No guarantees or warranties are made regarding any of the information contained within this website. This website is not intended to offer specific medical, dental or surgical advice to anyone. Further, this website and Contemporary Family Dental take no responsibility for websites hyper-linked to or from this website and such hyperlinking does not imply any relationships or endorsements of the linked websites. | Keep reading to learn more about a few of the most common dental emergencies and how to act when faced with one. What Constitutes an Emergency? When you’re experiencing dental pain, anything can seem like it qualifies as an emergency. Actually, a dental emergency describes an instance where there is unexpected severe pain, discomfort, or trauma to the mouth. For example, a minor chip on a tooth is not an emergency but a tooth that has become dislodged is as it poses more of a serious risk to your oral health. Injuries to the teeth or gums can be harmful and you should seek out immediate care when they occur. Dental emergencies often involve but are not limited to: Bleeding that is uncontrolled and not showing signs of stopping Infection paired with swelling Severe dental pain Knocked Out or Broken Tooth Whether it happens while you’re playing sports or hanging out at home, it’s usually...
Tooth Pain: How to Tell When a Toothache is Serious
You’d be hard pressed to find someone out there that loves toothaches. They’re hard to ignore, painful, and can mean something is wrong with your teeth or gums. Any time you are experiencing persistent tooth pain it’s time to make an appointment with our Grand Rapids dentists here at Contemporary Family Dental. But what should you be looking out for when it comes to toothaches? Here is what you need to know about symptoms, causes, and when it’s time to visit our office. What Defines a Toothache? Regardless of the cause, a toothache is general pain that is in or around a tooth. A handful of factors can contribute to a toothache occurring. Some minor toothaches can be treated with at-home remedies while others end up being more severe. Knowing when to listen to your body and seek professional dental care from our Grand Rapids dentists is important. If a serious toothache is not quickly dealt with, there is a chance that tooth extraction will be the only solution. We want to keep your smile healthy at all costs. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://www.gardeningchannel.com/using-dishwater-to-water-plants-which-greywater-is-safe-in-the-garden/ | Using Dishwater to Water Plants: Which Greywater is Safe in the ... | Using Dishwater to Water Plants: Which Greywater is Safe in the Garden?
The next time you come up dry due to watering restrictions, consider using dishwater to keep your flowers and veggies from dying of thirst. The detergent residue in the water won’t hurt them; as you might recall, dish soap is often used as a base for natural pesticides, because it helps the mixture stick to the plants, isn’t toxic, and can be easily washed off later. Just make sure your dish soap does not contain boron or bleach. You can read more in the article below about boron compounds and chlorine and how they can hurt plants.
Now, one caveat here: dishwater is classified as a type of “greywater,” because it tends to be cloudy rather than clear. While it’s not considered sewage as such, in some areas, you’re required by law to dispose of greywater through a proper sewer system. Therefore, it’s a good idea to check your local regulations before dousing the daisies with dishwater.
Also, keep in mind that while dishwater is fine to use on your plants, not all greywater is created equal. If you’ve used water to wash poultry parts, for example, don’t use it to water anything you’ll later be eating, because of the risk of bacterial contamination. Bathwater, of course, is right out.
Comments
I do not disagree with NOT using water from a bathtub or from washing poultry, as examples, for watering food one might eat. EXCEPT for fruit and other trees, and flower gardens. If fruit trees are properly pruned, there should be no danger of fruit contamination. This is especially true in climates where heat and sun are going to sterilize ground surfaces. It infuriates me that towns and cities pour ‘grey water’ back into our rivers and then complain about trees being an inconvenience to water and manage. As a former forester from Northwestern Ontario, where fire incidence IS increasing with global warming AND a former town councillor from that area (Nipigon, Ontario), it was bothersome to me that no one had the initiative to encourage separation of sewage so that grey water would maintain a healthy green perimeter around towns which were becoming increasingly worried about fire incursion. Alberta’s Fort McMurray wildfire devastation (and California, etc.’s growing problems) raise my ire when it comes to water, climate management personal responsible use of water and maintaining healthy trees where we are able. Don MacAlpine, former forester, Nipigon, Ontario, now in Regina, Sk. CANADA
Hello – Thanks for your thoughtful comments. I live in Sonoma County, California and we have lived through multiple years of devastating fires. Many of us attribute a good portion of that to climate issues, and a lot of it to urban interface and forestry management. Our community has used grey water for decades: for vineyards, silage crops, public landscaping, even regenerating thermal wells for generating electricity. The efforts are built from public – private planning and investment in the necessary secondary distribution and storage system. We are a dry county – only two rivers, and small streams and limited annual rainfall. But we are doing our best to use the water resources available – twice. | Using Dishwater to Water Plants: Which Greywater is Safe in the Garden?
The next time you come up dry due to watering restrictions, consider using dishwater to keep your flowers and veggies from dying of thirst. The detergent residue in the water won’t hurt them; as you might recall, dish soap is often used as a base for natural pesticides, because it helps the mixture stick to the plants, isn’t toxic, and can be easily washed off later. Just make sure your dish soap does not contain boron or bleach. You can read more in the article below about boron compounds and chlorine and how they can hurt plants.
Now, one caveat here: dishwater is classified as a type of “greywater,” because it tends to be cloudy rather than clear. While it’s not considered sewage as such, in some areas, you’re required by law to dispose of greywater through a proper sewer system. Therefore, it’s a good idea to check your local regulations before dousing the daisies with dishwater.
Also, keep in mind that while dishwater is fine to use on your plants, not all greywater is created equal. If you’ve used water to wash poultry parts, for example, don’t use it to water anything you’ll later be eating, because of the risk of bacterial contamination. Bathwater, of course, is right out.
Comments
I do not disagree with NOT using water from a bathtub or from washing poultry, as examples, for watering food one might eat. EXCEPT for fruit and other trees, and flower gardens. If fruit trees are properly pruned, there should be no danger of fruit contamination. This is especially true in climates where heat and sun are going to sterilize ground surfaces. It infuriates me that towns and cities pour ‘grey water’ back into our rivers and then complain about trees being an inconvenience to water and manage. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://www.onehundreddollarsamonth.com/water-saving-tip-use-your-dishwater-to-water-your-flower-garden/ | Water Saving Tip - Use Your Dishwater to Water Your Flower ... | Water Saving Tip – Use Your Dishwater to Water Your Flower Garden
You’ve rolled up your sleeves and scrubbed all the filth off those dishes. Now you’re left with a sink full of murky water that would normally be washed down the drain. Not so fast!
Why not dig out your watering can, fill it up and use that water on your flower garden. Sprinkler season is in full effect, but turn them off for a bit and use the water that would otherwise go to waste. Two birds, one stone.
I have done this for years…always have a 5 gallon bucket in the shower. The dish water/rinse water is also re-used, normally to just flush. Why not use it twice…after all, it’s the same water going down the same drain pipe to the same septic system.
As someone else already posted….two birds, one stone.
We live on a farm since of course you couldn’t do this anywhere else … but … all our non-septic water drains into our orchard to connect with pipes to the trees. We started this years ago with just the kitchen drain but as we gradually replaced old pipes with new pvc ones, we connected them all to the pipe to the orchard. (washer, dishwasher, bathroom sink, kitchen sink).
It takes a bit to set up but we recycle our washing machine water Wash water with soap gets pumped out to the yard. The rinse water is returned to the washer for the next load. This reduces the amount of soap you need to use also. At 20 gallons a cycle it adds up when you have to pay for water, reduces the liquid that goes into the septic tank, and keeps the lawn/plants maintained
We live east of San Diego and started using 5 gallon buckets in our deep kitchen sink to capture water when we were all mandated to reduce water usage. There are only 2 of us but I am always amazed how much water we retrieve. That used to go down the drain! We are using it to water a small asian pear tree that has never produced any viable fruit in the past. This year it actually has fruit! and I attribute it to the regular kitchen sink water it gets. I also rinse pasta over the bucket, dump any water used to boil potatoes or pasta into the bucket and the water used to rinse out the recyclables goes into the bucket as well. The little tree doesn’t seem to mind. We also piped our washing machine water out to the front yard a few years ago when gray water stopped being demonized. My next goal is to get rain water storage set up.
I’m lucky enough to have a well on my property (old farmhouse in the middle of town), so I use that to connect to my hose for plants. I love not worrying about paying for that water. I do, however, collect any water that runs while I’m waiting for it to heat up (for showers or dishes, etc); that water I pour into our Brita pitcher to drinks once it’s filtered.
We live in the high desert of Southern California and have recycled our washing machine water to the back acre to water fruits trees for over twenty years. The trees do very well, and as another reader mentioned, it keeps all that water out of the septic tank. During the current drought, we have been using a bucket in the sink to capture just about all of the water used in the kitchen. Very little goes down the drain, and for an added bonus, we have had several very productive tomato bushes spring up amid the front yard landscaping. Yes, this is a very good idea. | Water Saving Tip – Use Your Dishwater to Water Your Flower Garden
You’ve rolled up your sleeves and scrubbed all the filth off those dishes. Now you’re left with a sink full of murky water that would normally be washed down the drain. Not so fast!
Why not dig out your watering can, fill it up and use that water on your flower garden. Sprinkler season is in full effect, but turn them off for a bit and use the water that would otherwise go to waste. Two birds, one stone.
I have done this for years…always have a 5 gallon bucket in the shower. The dish water/rinse water is also re-used, normally to just flush. Why not use it twice…after all, it’s the same water going down the same drain pipe to the same septic system.
As someone else already posted….two birds, one stone.
We live on a farm since of course you couldn’t do this anywhere else … but … all our non-septic water drains into our orchard to connect with pipes to the trees. We started this years ago with just the kitchen drain but as we gradually replaced old pipes with new pvc ones, we connected them all to the pipe to the orchard. (washer, dishwasher, bathroom sink, kitchen sink).
It takes a bit to set up but we recycle our washing machine water Wash water with soap gets pumped out to the yard. The rinse water is returned to the washer for the next load. This reduces the amount of soap you need to use also. At 20 gallons a cycle it adds up when you have to pay for water, reduces the liquid that goes into the septic tank, and keeps the lawn/plants maintained
We live east of San Diego and started using 5 gallon buckets in our deep kitchen sink to capture water when we were all mandated to reduce water usage. There are only 2 of us but I am always amazed how much water we retrieve. That used to go down the drain! We are using it to water a small asian pear tree that has never produced any viable fruit in the past. This year it actually has fruit! and I attribute it to the regular kitchen sink water it gets. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://forum.gardenersworld.com/discussion/987113/is-washing-up-water-ok-to-water-plants-with | Is washing up water ok to water plants with? — BBC Gardeners ... | Is washing up water ok to water plants with?
Hi there. I've read and heard a couple of times now that using spent washing-up water is ok to use in the garden to water plants with (as long as there's no bleach in it) and as I'm keen to re-use waste where possible, I'm interested to know your thoughts on this please? I would imagine it's perhaps best to let the suds evaporate first? Many thanks in advance.
I would not want to use washing up water on my plants as its the residues of food - fat, salts etc. that would be the things I would be concerned about. I would also be unhappy about washing up liquids - unless organic - leaching their chemical content into the water table as these chemicals are highly toxic to aquatic life.
This is what I used on my garden during the mid 1970s drought and I have never had such fabulous plants, but that might have had something to do with the fact that I was religiously watering the things instead of neglecting them slightly. I also used the bathwater which meant walking downstairs with buckets of sudsy water.....I'm sure it was a great exercise regime. Its not something I would like to do long term as I think the plants deserve something clean occasionally and I have no idea how much detergent formulae have changed since those far off days but I'd say, give it a go. We should use more grey water......it would be great if loos could be plumbed into the system to reuse washing up and bath/shower water for flushing.
Prolonged dry spells were always called 'teaspoons in the heather' weather in my Mum's garden. None of the plants came to any harm from the dishwater. The odd dinted flower from being clattered by the teaspoon that lingers at the bottom of the washing up bowl though
“Light thinks it travels faster than anything but it is wrong. No matter how fast light travels, it finds the darkness has always got there first”
I can't see how it would harm anything. You could tip it on soil rather than leaves then it definitely wouldn't. I wash up in the sink, no bowl, but then it goes to the septic tank so it's still available to plants in that area
Hi everyone, I must firstly apologise for the fact I'm only replying now; it's been a mad few days but I don't think the details are applicable to this forum!
Secondly, a big THANK YOU for all your responses. On balance I think I'll give it a go. We use very little liquid in our bowl and unless there was excess oils/salt residue in there, it should be ok. I shall ask my husband to decant the bowl into our watering cans and use once thoroughly cooled down. | Is washing up water ok to water plants with?
Hi there. I've read and heard a couple of times now that using spent washing-up water is ok to use in the garden to water plants with (as long as there's no bleach in it) and as I'm keen to re-use waste where possible, I'm interested to know your thoughts on this please? I would imagine it's perhaps best to let the suds evaporate first? Many thanks in advance.
I would not want to use washing up water on my plants as its the residues of food - fat, salts etc. that would be the things I would be concerned about. I would also be unhappy about washing up liquids - unless organic - leaching their chemical content into the water table as these chemicals are highly toxic to aquatic life.
This is what I used on my garden during the mid 1970s drought and I have never had such fabulous plants, but that might have had something to do with the fact that I was religiously watering the things instead of neglecting them slightly. I also used the bathwater which meant walking downstairs with buckets of sudsy water..... I'm sure it was a great exercise regime. Its not something I would like to do long term as I think the plants deserve something clean occasionally and I have no idea how much detergent formulae have changed since those far off days but I'd say, give it a go. We should use more grey water...... it would be great if loos could be plumbed into the system to reuse washing up and bath/shower water for flushing.
Prolonged dry spells were always called 'teaspoons in the heather' weather in my Mum's garden. None of the plants came to any harm from the dishwater. The odd dinted flower from being clattered by the teaspoon that lingers at the bottom of the washing up bowl though
“Light thinks it travels faster than anything but it is wrong. No matter how fast light travels, it finds the darkness has always got there first”
I can't see how it would harm anything. You could tip it on soil rather than leaves then it definitely wouldn't. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://www.homesteadingtoday.com/threads/question-about-using-dishwater-on-plants.130864/ | Question about using dishwater on plants.... | Homesteading Forum | Question about using dishwater on plants....
I have decided to use dishpans to wash and rinse my dishes instead of letting so much water run down the drain. I am trying to conserve water since we haven't had any rain to amount to anything in several weeks. I am trying to reuse any that can be reused also.
The rinse water is pretty clear and clean so I feel like it is all right to water plants with but what about the water the dishes are washed in. Is it all right to pour around plants like the garden plants?
Back years ago when everyone used dish pans they used to have the best gardens right out the back door where they threw the water. The soaps they used back then were real soap instead of the detergents we have today so you might want to use caution until your sure of the results.
MIL uses regular dish detergent (Dawn?) to do the dishes at the farm, and always pours it out on the plants. So far, so good!
I think I'd avoid any anti-bacterial detergents, though.
Too bad there aren't phosphates in detergent anymore -- think of how your garden would grow!
Pony!
“So go out and live real good and I promise you'll get beat up real bad. But, in a little while after you're dead, you'll be rotted away anyway. It's not gonna matter if you have a few scars. It will matter if you didn't live.” ― Rich Mullins
Thank you for your help. We are trying to reuse anything that we can and with the lack of rain recently, we thought this would be a good reuse of water. I don't know why I haven't thought of this before.
We are carrying the bath water out and putting it around our garden plants and my houseplants that are outside right now. It is more work but we are saving on our water bill and helping with the lack of water around our plants.
You are all doing a VERY low tech grey-water system! And it does not hurt your plants. Two things you never want in the water: 1)chlorine bleach (toxic to plant roots - it will kill a tree in nothin' flat! - use only non-chlorinated bleach) and 2)dishwasher detergent (nasty stuff). Watch your water temperature - don't dump HOT water on plants.
In southern California we had a greywater system. We ran the water from our washing machine through a low-tech filter system that was made of wood chips before it hit the roots of our small citrus orchard. Our plants were VERY VERY happy and our lawn was gorgeous. Most coastal cities in southern California use grey-water for all the city landscaping. Happy plants and no shortage of water!
Don't tell the epa, but the water from my sinks and tub drains out to different gardens. It was set up that way when we bought this place and I think it's a great way to reuse grey water. I do have to be careful not to put anything that could damage the garden down the sink, but I don't use anything caustic so that's not really a big problem. The only thing that goes into the septic system is the comodes.
It's not a good idea to use dishwater on your vegetables, and in fact it's not a good idea at all because of the fats and grease that you are adding to your soil. Not to mention the high concentration of bacteria. Grey water from the shower or laundry should only be used on fruit trees and ornamentals, never on your vegetables. You should also be concerned about the amount of phosphorus that you are putting into the soil - so read the labels on your detergent bottles. Remember that over time, you will be significantly changing the composition of your soil (negatively) by using grey water.
This has become a huge issue here in Australia, much of which is seriously affected by drought, and is frequently discussed on both news and gardening programs on the media. Check out some of the advice given at this site:
We keep a bucket in the shower and catch water as it warms and as we shower. Any soap is very diluted before it goes to the garden.
I save all water as I'm waiting for it to warm up in the kitchen sink and put in a five gallon bucket on the porch. To this I add dishwater and rinse water. In all, it is soooooo diluted that I don't worry a bit about concentrated anything. Except ANTIBACTERIAL--that is the devil's own in my opinion. We don't use it because it changes the bacteria in the water table and in the environment.
Given the state of air pollution and chlorine and other chemicals in our water thanks to the petrochemicals and weed killers and pesticides used, I think a tiny bit of diluted dish detergent is nothing to worry about.
I wash floors and clean with ammonia which is a wonderful fertilizer as well.
When we have the time, I'll replumb the wash water out to the fruit trees.
I'd like to add that this is how it was done for generations and generations. Our grandparents didn't run down to the creek and haul the water for all the veggies every day.They not only threw their dishwater out there but added their diluted urine to it. That's a whole nuther argument and one that is used to this day in many nations around the world.
If the soap and tiny bits of grease worry you, just use it to flush toilets--either way, you are saving clean drinking water for it's purpose--drinking!
I poured the rinse water around the garden plants. I threw the water that I washed the dishes in out on the lawn. We carried the bath water and poured it around the tomatoes. I use natural soaps for bathing so the water doesn't have all those chemicals in it. When I say natural soaps I mean the homemade kind of soap.
We are to a point right now that we need to use any water that we can to keep our plants going. It is so dry that our beans sticks have come up out of the ground and are about to fall and they were stuck a good nine inches into the soil.
I don't think I ever remember the weather being like this. We usually get up to a 100 degrees two or three times in the summer but we have already reached above 100 seven times this summer and the hottest part of our summer is usually in August.
And no rain in sight.
Just wish my washing machine was hooked up where I could use the water from it but it drains down a hill....Yes, I know it isn't supposed to be like that but it is.
I wanted to add about adding bacteria to the soil (Sorry culpepper, I do not agree and still respect your posts and enjoy reading them).
First, the bacteria that is the result of bits of food that are decaying are GOOd Bacteria that are the reason that compost makes great soil. These bacteria are what the worms feed on that add fertilizer to the soil as well as make tunnels for water to flow to the roots. In addition, they are involved in the "take-up" of nutrients from the soil by roots. Good healthy soil has lots of nutrients in it because it has lots of bacteria in it.
Second, if you are worried about becoming sick from eating something a sick person bit, that should not worry you. First, most illnesses are virus borne and the soil outdoors is not a proper medium for them to live, and multiply in. They are quickly reduced to nothing by normal biological processes.
If you are really worried about it, don't use dishwater that was used on someone with an infectious disease.
The bits of food in the water become fertilizer. The detergent is also fertilizer (not to mention a natural insecticide).
That said, I wouldn't dump a cup of oil or more in one place in the garden. As I was taught in girl scouts, I broadcast oil in small amounts over a large portion of soil (not in the veg garden). Never had a problem.
Ok...I want to get this right....
Dishwasher soap is bad but regular hand liquid dish soap is ok.
Amonia is good but chlorine bleach is bad?
Regular store bought bath soap is ok but home made bath soap is better?
And regular laundry detergent is ok?
Thanks, Windy
I know this thread has sort of died out even so, I am thinking using gray water is a way of saving on your water bill and conserving water during drought times.
I would love to set up a system to run the water from my washing machine to different parts of our garden. However, I use borax in my wash and do plan to make my own laundry detergent using borax as soon as I can locate some washing soda without having to order from someplace that charges ten prices for shipping.
I am wondering about the borax and the effect it would have on the plants. Borax is a natural cleanser, right? And the washing soda? Would it damage the plants?
Also, I use vinegar to cut any excess detergent left in the clothes. Vinegar kills plants so it stands to reason that if I were to use the gray water I could not use the vinegar. Right.
I am sorry to dwell on this but I really want to figure out how to recycle used water for watering our plants without damaging the plants.
Becky W. how did you set up your little filtering system and what kind of wood chips did you use, if you don't mind me asking?
My hubby has agreed to help set up a grey water irrigation system if we can figure out what is harmful to the plants and what is not.
Suggestions appreciated. Or if any of you know any sites that could help with this, I would appreciate that information also.
The soil in MS is acidic so the alkaline borax shouldn't be a problem at all unless you used it too much in a single spot. Spread around the garden I would not worry about it. The vinegar is diluted in the rinse water and should be balanced by the borax enough it won't harm the plants.
Thank you both for the help. I read the site about the greywater grannygardner.
We are going to try the grey water but will just carry it to the plants from our home. If it works well this summer then we will try a more extensive system next summer if possible.
We will just be careful not to splash the water on the plants and veggies. I always wash my veggies through several waters so they are washed very good.
We finally got some good rain on Saturday afternoon and night but with the temps in the high 90's and low 100's it won't be long until we will be dry again. So it will be toting time again. But that is better than having our water bill double because we have to water our garden. Maybe it will help keep the "powers that be" from putting a limit on water usage. I know one person won't do that much good but I can always pass the word around.
Thank you all for your information and in-put. I appreciate each of you being so willing to help. | Question about using dishwater on plants....
I have decided to use dishpans to wash and rinse my dishes instead of letting so much water run down the drain. I am trying to conserve water since we haven't had any rain to amount to anything in several weeks. I am trying to reuse any that can be reused also.
The rinse water is pretty clear and clean so I feel like it is all right to water plants with but what about the water the dishes are washed in. Is it all right to pour around plants like the garden plants?
Back years ago when everyone used dish pans they used to have the best gardens right out the back door where they threw the water. The soaps they used back then were real soap instead of the detergents we have today so you might want to use caution until your sure of the results.
MIL uses regular dish detergent (Dawn?) to do the dishes at the farm, and always pours it out on the plants. So far, so good!
I think I'd avoid any anti-bacterial detergents, though.
Too bad there aren't phosphates in detergent anymore -- think of how your garden would grow!
Pony!
“So go out and live real good and I promise you'll get beat up real bad. But, in a little while after you're dead, you'll be rotted away anyway. It's not gonna matter if you have a few scars. It will matter if you didn't live.” ― Rich Mullins
Thank you for your help. We are trying to reuse anything that we can and with the lack of rain recently, we thought this would be a good reuse of water. I don't know why I haven't thought of this before.
We are carrying the bath water out and putting it around our garden plants and my houseplants that are outside right now. It is more work but we are saving on our water bill and helping with the lack of water around our plants.
You are all doing a VERY low tech grey-water system! And it does not hurt your plants. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://www.weekand.com/home-garden/article/dish-soap-hurt-flowerbeds-18029446.php | Will Dish Soap Hurt My Flowerbeds? | Will Dish Soap Hurt My Flowerbeds?
Gardeners often make homemade insecticidal sprays from dish soap and water, and the spray helps to control a number of common garden pests. Some environmentally conscious homeowners recycle dishwater by using it to irrigate flowerbeds. Usually, small amounts of well-diluted dish soap don't hurt flowerbeds, and soapy water is better than no water for plants during a drought. Don't assume that dish soap is completely safe, however. It must be applied according to certain guidelines to prevent plant damage.
Understanding Insecticidal Soap Spray
An alternative to highly toxic insecticides, insecticidal soap spray is effective against soft-bodied pests such as aphids, spider mites, scales, thrips and mealybugs; it may dissolve the pests' waxy outer cuticle. The soap doesn't kill as effectively wasps, flies, beetles and other insects with hard outer coatings, which makes it safer for beneficial insects such as lady beetles and bees. Insecticidal soap shouldn't be used, however, if you notice honeybees or lady beetles on plant leaves.
Mixing a Spray Solution Safely
Although commercial insecticidal soap sprays are readily available, homemade sprays made from liquid dish soap are safe to use if they are prepared properly. A weak solution made of 2 tablespoons of liquid dish soap mixed with 1 gallon of water is effective and won't harm most ornamental plants. If that weak solution doesn't work, up to 5 tablespoons of liquid dish soap can be mixed with 1 gallon of water, but use the soap with care because a strong solution is more likely than a weak solution to damage plants. Avoid using an ultra-concentrated dish soap to make insecticidal soap. Also avoid using products with ingredients such as degreasers, power scrubbers, air fresheners, bleach, fragrance, lotion and antibacterial agents to make an insecticidal soap because they may damage plants.
Spraying Insecticidal Soap
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And insecticidal soap spray should be reapplied to pest-affected garden plants every four to seven days until the pests are controlled. Unlike chemical sprays, insecticidal soap spray kills only when it coats an insect. The spray has no residual affect and is no longer effective after it dries. Insecticidal soap spray is safer and more effective when applied to healthy, well-watered plants and may damage weak or sensitive plants. If you are unsure about a plant's sensitivity or health, then spray an inconspicuous leaf on the plant, and check it for signs of damage 48 hours later. Early morning is the best time to apply an insecticidal soap spray, which should never be used when the temperature is above 90 degrees Fahrenheit or when the sun shines directly on the plants being treated.
Using Dishwater for Plants
Many public health officials recommend that dishwater, also known as graywater, be used for watering plants only when fresh water isn't available for irrigation. Although dishwater will keep plants alive, it may contain food particles and other materials that can attract rodents and insect pests to the flowerbeds on which it is used. If you use dishwater for watering your flowerbeds, then it's critical to take precautions to keep the beds' plants and soil safe. Avoid pouring dishwater directly at the bases of plants because it may cause root and stem rot. Pour the dishwater evenly on the soil around the perimeter of each plant. Apply dishwater along a tree's or shrub's drip line. A drip line is an imaginary line, or circle, on the ground where water drips from a plant's outermost branches. Dishwater from dish soap that contains bleach shouldn't be used to water any kinds of plants. If your home has a water softener, then use dishwater sparingly because the water contains a higher level of sodium than normal water; sodium can harm plants over time.
M.H. Dyer began her writing career as a staff writer at a community newspaper and is now a full-time commercial writer. She writes about a variety of topics, with a focus on sustainable, pesticide- and herbicide-free gardening. She is an Oregon State University Master Gardener and Master Naturalist and holds a Master of Fine Arts in creative nonfiction writing. |
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And insecticidal soap spray should be reapplied to pest-affected garden plants every four to seven days until the pests are controlled. Unlike chemical sprays, insecticidal soap spray kills only when it coats an insect. The spray has no residual affect and is no longer effective after it dries. Insecticidal soap spray is safer and more effective when applied to healthy, well-watered plants and may damage weak or sensitive plants. If you are unsure about a plant's sensitivity or health, then spray an inconspicuous leaf on the plant, and check it for signs of damage 48 hours later. Early morning is the best time to apply an insecticidal soap spray, which should never be used when the temperature is above 90 degrees Fahrenheit or when the sun shines directly on the plants being treated.
Using Dishwater for Plants
Many public health officials recommend that dishwater, also known as graywater, be used for watering plants only when fresh water isn't available for irrigation. Although dishwater will keep plants alive, it may contain food particles and other materials that can attract rodents and insect pests to the flowerbeds on which it is used. If you use dishwater for watering your flowerbeds, then it's critical to take precautions to keep the beds' plants and soil safe. Avoid pouring dishwater directly at the bases of plants because it may cause root and stem rot. Pour the dishwater evenly on the soil around the perimeter of each plant. Apply dishwater along a tree's or shrub's drip line. A drip line is an imaginary line, or circle, on the ground where water drips from a plant's outermost branches. Dishwater from dish soap that contains bleach shouldn't be used to water any kinds of plants. If your home has a water softener, then use dishwater sparingly because the water contains a higher level of sodium than normal water; sodium can harm plants over time.
M.H. Dyer began her writing career as a staff writer at a community newspaper and is now a full-time commercial writer. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://extension.psu.edu/programs/master-gardener/counties/potter/news/potter-county-experiencing-drought-conditions | Potter County Experiencing Drought Conditions — Potter County ... | Potter County Experiencing Drought Conditions
According to the National Integrated Drought Information System (NIDIS), over 96% of Potter County is experiencing "Moderate Drought" conditions.
Photo credit: Leona Smith
In this stage, irrigation use increases; hay and grain yields are lower than normal; honey production declines, and wildfires and ground fires increase. June 2022 was the 12th driest on record for the past 128 years. We can all testify to the effects of the lack of rain on our own gardening experiences.
Water is essential for healthy plant growth. The movement of water from the soil through the roots and up into the leaves is part of the process of transpiration within each plant.
Drought has both short-term and long-term effects on plants:
Damage is first apparent in the wilting, yellowing, and dropping of leaves. Leaves may curl and look scorched.
Plants will eventually begin to show signs of decline as the tips of branches become dry and brown.
Early morning is the best time to water as the rate of evaporation from soil is lower at that time.
Apply water slowly to the base of plants. This will reduce water usage by about 50%. The soaker hose or "leaky pipe" is a hose that allows water to seep out all along its length at a slow rate. Apply irrigation under the mulch if possible.
Critical watering periods for vegetables. You can target the timing and amount of water to add. As a rule of thumb, water is most critical during the first few weeks of development, immediately after transplanting, and during flowering and fruit production.
Control weeds. Weeds can out-compete garden plants for water. Pull them when they are small, making sure to remove all the roots. When returning to your garden after a time away, be sure to pull the weeds that are ready to flower or go to seed first.
Save rainwater for your plants. Save as much rainwater as you can by putting a rain collector under the downspouts from your roof. In the house, save the water that you run from the tap while you're waiting for the temperature to get hot or cold. In Pennsylvania, we cannot use water that has been in contact with people (bath water, shower water, or dishwater) to water our plants.
Mulch and mulch properly: Use 1 to 2 inches around vegetable plants. Mulch will keep the soil temperature cooler and it will keep moisture in the ground rather than letting it go out into the environment. By using an organic mulch, you will also be adding organic material and nutrients to the soil. Mulching minimizes evaporation of water from the soil surface, reducing irrigation need by around 50%. Grass clippings make excellent mulch for the vegetable garden. Apply fresh clippings in thin layers (up to 1/4 inch thick) and allow each layer to dry before adding more. The clippings quickly dry down and additional layers can be added weekly. Do not place fresh clippings in thick piles, as they will mat, decay, and cause odors. Do not use clippings from lawns that have been treated with herbicides or other pesticides in the past month. A couple of sheets of newspaper may be used under the clippings to help control weeds. Do not apply newspapers more than a couple of sheets thick, or a soil carbon to nitrogen imbalance may occur. Glossy print materials should not be used since their inks may not be soy-based like newspapers.
Black or colored plastic mulch conserves moisture and also increases soil temperatures. They are used on tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, and vine crops in cooler areas. Lay down plastic early in the season so plant growth shades the plastic from extreme summer temperatures. Do not apply plastic in mid summer.
Plant in blocks, rather than rows. This creates shade for roots and reduces evaporation. Control weeds, as they are competing with the vegetables for water. Group plants with similar water needs on the same section of irrigation. Cucumber and zucchini and squash, for example, require similar water applications. Check the soil for moisture before you water. Irrigate when the top 2-4 inches of soil is dry to the touch. This is especially important if using mulch, where water can be held in the soil for longer periods of time. Protect plants and soil from wind to reduce evaporation.
References:
Loos, M. T. Drought Resistance in the Home Landscape, Ohio State University Extension Fact Sheet. | Apply water slowly to the base of plants. This will reduce water usage by about 50%. The soaker hose or "leaky pipe" is a hose that allows water to seep out all along its length at a slow rate. Apply irrigation under the mulch if possible.
Critical watering periods for vegetables. You can target the timing and amount of water to add. As a rule of thumb, water is most critical during the first few weeks of development, immediately after transplanting, and during flowering and fruit production.
Control weeds. Weeds can out-compete garden plants for water. Pull them when they are small, making sure to remove all the roots. When returning to your garden after a time away, be sure to pull the weeds that are ready to flower or go to seed first.
Save rainwater for your plants. Save as much rainwater as you can by putting a rain collector under the downspouts from your roof. In the house, save the water that you run from the tap while you're waiting for the temperature to get hot or cold. In Pennsylvania, we cannot use water that has been in contact with people (bath water, shower water, or dishwater) to water our plants.
Mulch and mulch properly: Use 1 to 2 inches around vegetable plants. Mulch will keep the soil temperature cooler and it will keep moisture in the ground rather than letting it go out into the environment. By using an organic mulch, you will also be adding organic material and nutrients to the soil. Mulching minimizes evaporation of water from the soil surface, reducing irrigation need by around 50%. Grass clippings make excellent mulch for the vegetable garden. Apply fresh clippings in thin layers (up to 1/4 inch thick) and allow each layer to dry before adding more. The clippings quickly dry down and additional layers can be added weekly. Do not place fresh clippings in thick piles, as they will mat, decay, and cause odors. Do not use clippings from lawns that have been treated with herbicides or other pesticides in the past month. | no |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://www.southernwater.co.uk/help-advice/how-to-save-water/how-to-save-water-in-the-garden | How to save water in the garden | Our region
Save water in your garden
You can care for your garden and save water at the same time by following these simple water-saving tips.
We all love beautiful, thriving gardens, but it’s important to think about how we can garden responsibly to save water and protect our environment, to make sure there’s enough to go around in the future.
Save water and slow the flow in your garden
Use a watering can instead of a hose or sprinkler - Avoid using hosepipes or sprinklers which can use as much as 1,000 litres of clean water an hour. Re-use dishwater or water used to boil vegetables or pasta, and fill a watering can instead. Using a watering can could save up to 4,050 litres a year, that’s equivalent to more than 50 full bathtubs.
Leave your lawn - Lawns go brown in dry weather, but they soon bounce back after rainfall. So, they don’t need watering in between. However, you can retain the lawn’s moisture for longer by giving the roots some shade – try trimming your grass slightly longer during dry spells and leave the cuttings on the ground.
Time your watering - Water plants before the sun comes out in the morning if you can - then it's less likely to evaporate, and will do the most good. Watering in the evening encourages the slugs and snails to come out at night.
Spead some mulch - Apply a thick layer of mulch, compost or chip bark on your soil between plants to help keep the moisture in and suppress weeds.
Fit a water butt - Water your garden for free by collecting rainwater in a water butt. Each one holds up to 200 litres of water which you can use around your garden. Rainwater is rich in nutrients, so your plants will love it too. If your area is prone to surface flooding, why not try a slow-drain water butt instead?
Install a water butt
Just one water butt can hold enough rainwater to fill a watering can 25 times. Based on the average rainfall in the South East, you could fill your butt up to 450 times a year. All that free water means you can use less tap water, saving you money on your bills.
Rainwater is full of nutrients, so your plants will prefer it to tap water. Plus, the less tap water you use, the less we have to take from rivers, reservoirs and underground sources. So, you’ll be reducing pressure on the environment.
It’s easy to fit a water butt – watch our film to find out how.
Water efficient plants
Did you know that many plants can thrive with minimal watering? So, you can create a garden that is both beautiful and uses less water.
Take a look at the handy plant guide by Waterwise to discover water-efficient plants for every position, soil type and flowering time. | Our region
Save water in your garden
You can care for your garden and save water at the same time by following these simple water-saving tips.
We all love beautiful, thriving gardens, but it’s important to think about how we can garden responsibly to save water and protect our environment, to make sure there’s enough to go around in the future.
Save water and slow the flow in your garden
Use a watering can instead of a hose or sprinkler - Avoid using hosepipes or sprinklers which can use as much as 1,000 litres of clean water an hour. Re-use dishwater or water used to boil vegetables or pasta, and fill a watering can instead. Using a watering can could save up to 4,050 litres a year, that’s equivalent to more than 50 full bathtubs.
Leave your lawn - Lawns go brown in dry weather, but they soon bounce back after rainfall. So, they don’t need watering in between. However, you can retain the lawn’s moisture for longer by giving the roots some shade – try trimming your grass slightly longer during dry spells and leave the cuttings on the ground.
Time your watering - Water plants before the sun comes out in the morning if you can - then it's less likely to evaporate, and will do the most good. Watering in the evening encourages the slugs and snails to come out at night.
Spead some mulch - Apply a thick layer of mulch, compost or chip bark on your soil between plants to help keep the moisture in and suppress weeds.
Fit a water butt - Water your garden for free by collecting rainwater in a water butt. Each one holds up to 200 litres of water which you can use around your garden. Rainwater is rich in nutrients, so your plants will love it too. If your area is prone to surface flooding, why not try a slow-drain water butt instead?
Install a water butt
Just one water butt can hold enough rainwater to fill a watering can 25 times. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | yes_statement | "dishwater" can be used to "water" "plants".. it is possible to "use" "dishwater" for "watering" "plants". | https://www.woodstockga.gov/your_government/departments/public_works/environmental_management/water_conservation.php | Water Conservation | OUTDOORS
Most plants only need one inch of water every seven to 10 days to stay healthy. A deep soaking with water aimed at the roots once a week will provide all the moisture they need.
Current water restrictions in effect limit watering in most Georgia cities to between midnight and 10:00 am. Watering in the heat of the day is a waste anyway, as the water will just evaporate. Set your sprinklers to come on between 4:00 am and 10:00 am.
Use mulching material; pine bark, cedar chips, etc. around the roots of plants and trees to help the soil retain water.
Make sure your sprinklers aimed appropriately so that they aren’t watering the sidewalks and streets in front of your house.
INDOORS
Save dishwater and bathwater for watering plants. (When you shower, keep a bucket in the shower to collect the water.) The soap isn’t harmful. In fact, it kills aphids and other plant-destroying insects. You can also save cooking water to water plants.
Don’t let the water run while you brush your teeth.
Run the dishwasher and washing machine only when they are full.
Fix any leaky fixtures, toilets, faucets, etc., as soon as you discover the leak.
You can usually just replace a washer or two for a couple of dollars.
Don’t flush bugs, tissues, or pet waste. Wrap them up and throw them into the trash.
Showers use less water than baths, especially if you keep them to five minutes or less; try keeping a timer to try and keep the time down.
Keep a water pitcher in the refrigerator. Running the tap to get cold water wastes gallons.
By doing your part to conserve water, and encouraging your neighbors to do theirs, you can help to protect Georgia’s water resource supply. | OUTDOORS
Most plants only need one inch of water every seven to 10 days to stay healthy. A deep soaking with water aimed at the roots once a week will provide all the moisture they need.
Current water restrictions in effect limit watering in most Georgia cities to between midnight and 10:00 am. Watering in the heat of the day is a waste anyway, as the water will just evaporate. Set your sprinklers to come on between 4:00 am and 10:00 am.
Use mulching material; pine bark, cedar chips, etc. around the roots of plants and trees to help the soil retain water.
Make sure your sprinklers aimed appropriately so that they aren’t watering the sidewalks and streets in front of your house.
INDOORS
Save dishwater and bathwater for watering plants. (When you shower, keep a bucket in the shower to collect the water.) The soap isn’t harmful. In fact, it kills aphids and other plant-destroying insects. You can also save cooking water to water plants.
Don’t let the water run while you brush your teeth.
Run the dishwasher and washing machine only when they are full.
Fix any leaky fixtures, toilets, faucets, etc., as soon as you discover the leak.
You can usually just replace a washer or two for a couple of dollars.
Don’t flush bugs, tissues, or pet waste. Wrap them up and throw them into the trash.
Showers use less water than baths, especially if you keep them to five minutes or less; try keeping a timer to try and keep the time down.
Keep a water pitcher in the refrigerator. Running the tap to get cold water wastes gallons.
By doing your part to conserve water, and encouraging your neighbors to do theirs, you can help to protect Georgia’s water resource supply. | yes |
Horticulture | Can you use dishwater to water plants? | no_statement | "dishwater" cannot be used to "water" "plants".. using "dishwater" for "watering" "plants" is not recommended. | https://www.vegetable-gardening-online.com/watering-tomato-plants.html | Watering Tomato Plants For Best Results | Recycling Water
The chemicals and bleach in gray-water hinders the
ability of plants to soak in nutrition and may contaminate the water
table as well.
Water-Conserving Devises
Garden centers sell all sorts of water-conserving devices for use when vegetable gardening.
However, you can make your own.
Soaker or seep hoses are a good option, especially in beds of
vegetables.
Pierce a length of hose with tiny pinprick holes along its
length and lay it among your plants, attaching one end to the faucet.
Soaker hoses work best in short lengths.
Drip Systems for Watering Tomatoes
Installing a drip system to water your vegetable garden plants is a
great way to go.
Drip systems conserve water, and offer a slow steady
supply of water to the tomato plant without disturbing the plant root
system.
It is actually very easy to install a drip system, so don't be
overwhelmed by the idea!
Adding a timer to the drip system will allow
you to water your garden automatically at the same time each day, or
every other day as desired.
Add Mulch to Conserve Water
Adding a 2-3 inch layer of organic mulch to the topsoil of your garden
will help prevent the soil from drying too quickly through evaporation.
Mulching also is an effective way of adding slow-release fertilizer or
nutrients to your garden plants each time you water.
How Much Water is Enough?
In general, most vegetable garden plants, including tomato plants,
require about 1" of water per week.
During especially hot dry weather,
or if you haven't added a layer of mulch to prevent evaporation, it may
be necessary to water an extra half-inch per week.
Many expert gardeners
greatly reduce the amount of water to their tomatoes
after the plants have reached maturity and have set fruit.
The idea
behind this is that stressing the plants a bit encourages fruit to
develop more quickly.
I think this technique is helpful, but is not
absolutely necessary if it is not convenient for you to do this.
How to Water Tomatoes While You're on Vacation
Again, installing a drip watering system on a timer is the best way to
ensure regular and adequate water for your vegetable garden.
If you
don't have a drip system, there are several other workable, but less
convenient ways to do this.
If you cannot find a neighbor to entrust with watering your tomato plants while you are away for a few days, help your precious tomato plants by mulching well and covering the plants with straw for insulation.
Place container-grown tomato plants in buckets or trays of shallow water until your return.
Enlivened Water
Some bio-dynamic gardeners follow an ancient practice of enlivening the
water for their gardens.
They take a tub of rainwater and stir it with a
wooden spoon clockwise for 40 turns.
This method is justified by modern
science because water that goes through a spiraling shape picks up
energy.
Watering tomato plants with water that is energized promotes healthier growth. | Recycling Water
The chemicals and bleach in gray-water hinders the
ability of plants to soak in nutrition and may contaminate the water
table as well.
Water-Conserving Devises
Garden centers sell all sorts of water-conserving devices for use when vegetable gardening.
However, you can make your own.
Soaker or seep hoses are a good option, especially in beds of
vegetables.
Pierce a length of hose with tiny pinprick holes along its
length and lay it among your plants, attaching one end to the faucet.
Soaker hoses work best in short lengths.
Drip Systems for Watering Tomatoes
Installing a drip system to water your vegetable garden plants is a
great way to go.
Drip systems conserve water, and offer a slow steady
supply of water to the tomato plant without disturbing the plant root
system.
It is actually very easy to install a drip system, so don't be
overwhelmed by the idea!
Adding a timer to the drip system will allow
you to water your garden automatically at the same time each day, or
every other day as desired.
Add Mulch to Conserve Water
Adding a 2-3 inch layer of organic mulch to the topsoil of your garden
will help prevent the soil from drying too quickly through evaporation.
Mulching also is an effective way of adding slow-release fertilizer or
nutrients to your garden plants each time you water.
How Much Water is Enough?
In general, most vegetable garden plants, including tomato plants,
require about 1" of water per week.
During especially hot dry weather,
or if you haven't added a layer of mulch to prevent evaporation, it may
be necessary to water an extra half-inch per week.
Many expert gardeners
greatly reduce the amount of water to their tomatoes
after the plants have reached maturity and have set fruit.
The idea
behind this is that stressing the plants a bit encourages fruit to
develop more quickly.
| no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/plague | Plague | Plague
Key facts
Plague is caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, a zoonotic bacteria usually found in small mammals and their fleas.
People infected with Y. pestis often develop symptoms after an incubation period of one to seven days.
There are two main clinical forms of plague infection: bubonic and pneumonic. Bubonic plague is the most common form and is characterized by painful swollen lymph nodes or 'buboes'.
Plague is transmitted between animals and humans by the bite of infected fleas, direct contact with infected tissues, and inhalation of infected respiratory droplets.
Plague can be a very severe disease in people, with a case-fatality ratio of 30% to 60% for the bubonic type, and is always fatal for the pneumonic kind when left untreated.
Antibiotic treatment is effective against plague bacteria, so early diagnosis and early treatment can save lives.
Currently, the three most endemic countries are the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Peru.
Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, a zoonotic bacteria, usually found in small mammals and their fleas. It is transmitted between animals through fleas. Humans can be infected through:
the inhalation of respiratory droplets/small particles from a patient with pneumonic plague.
Plague is a very severe disease in people, particularly in its septicaemic (systemic infection caused by circulating bacteria in bloodstream) and pneumonic forms, with a case-fatality ratio of 30% to 100% if left untreated. The pneumonic form is invariably fatal unless treated early. It is especially contagious and can trigger severe epidemics through person-to-person contact via droplets in the air.
Historically, plague was responsible for widespread pandemics with high mortality. It was known as the "Black Death" during the fourteenth century, causing more than 50 million deaths in Europe. Nowadays, plague is easily treated with antibiotics and the use of standard precautions to prevent acquiring infection.
Signs and symptoms
People infected with plague usually develop acute febrile disease with other non-specific systemic symptoms after an incubation period of one to seven days, such as sudden onset of fever, chills, head and body aches, and weakness, vomiting and nausea.
There are two main forms of plague infection, depending on the route of infection: bubonic and pneumonic.
Bubonic plague is the most common form of plague and is caused by the bite of an infected flea. Plague bacillus, Y. pestis, enters at the bite and travels through the lymphatic system to the nearest lymph node where it replicates itself. The lymph node then becomes inflamed, tense and painful, and is called a ‘bubo’. At advanced stages of the infection the inflamed lymph nodes can turn into open sores filled with pus. Human to human transmission of bubonic plague is rare. Bubonic plague can advance and spread to the lungs, which is the more severe type of plague called pneumonic plague.
Pneumonic plague, or lung-based plague, is the most virulent form of plague. Incubation can be as short as 24 hours. Any person with pneumonic plague may transmit the disease via droplets to other humans. Untreated pneumonic plague, if not diagnosed and treated early, can be fatal. However, recovery rates are high if detected and treated in time (within 24 hours of onset of symptoms).
Where is plague found?
As an animal disease, plague is found in all continents, except Oceania. There is a risk of human plague wherever the presence of plague natural foci (the bacteria, an animal reservoir and a vector) and human population co-exist.
Plague epidemics have occurred in Africa, Asia, and South America; but since the 1990s, most human cases have occurred in Africa. The three most endemic countries are the Democratic Republic of Congo, Madagascar, and Peru. In Madagascar cases of bubonic plague are reported nearly every year, during the epidemic season (between September and April).
Diagnosing plague
Confirmation of plague requires lab testing. The best practice is to identify Y. pestis from a sample of pus from a bubo, blood or sputum. A specific Y. pestis antigen can be detected by different techniques. One of them is a laboratory validated rapid dipstick test now widely used in Africa and South America, with the support of WHO.
Treatment
Untreated pneumonic plague can be rapidly fatal, so early diagnosis and treatment is essential for survival and reduction of complications. Antibiotics and supportive therapy are effective against plague if patients are diagnosed in time. Pneumonic plague can be fatal within 18 to 24 hours of disease onset if left untreated, but common antibiotics for enterobacteria (gram negative rods) can effectively cure the disease if they are delivered early.
Prevention
Preventive measures include informing people when zoonotic plague is present in their environment and advising them to take precautions against flea bites and not to handle animal carcasses. Generally people should be advised to avoid direct contact with infected body fluids and tissues. When handling potentially infected patients and collecting specimens, standard precautions should apply.
Vaccination
WHO does not recommend vaccination, expect for high-risk groups (such as laboratory personnel who are constantly exposed to the risk of contamination, and health care workers).
Managing plague outbreaks
Find and stop the source of infection. Identify the most likely source of infection in the area where the human case(s) was exposed, typically looking for clustered areas with large numbers of small animal deaths. Institute appropriate infection, prevention and control procedures. Institute vector control, then rodent control. Killing rodents before vectors will cause the fleas to jump to new hosts, this is to be avoided.
Protect health workers. Inform and train them on infection prevention and control. Workers in direct contact with pneumonic plague patients must wear standard precautions and receive a chemoprophylaxis with antibiotics for the duration of seven days or at least as long as they are exposed to infected patients.
Ensure correct treatment: Verify that patients are being given appropriate antibiotic treatment and that local supplies of antibiotics are adequate.
Isolate patients with pneumonic plague. Patients should be isolated so as not to infect others via air droplets. Providing masks for pneumonic patients can reduce spread.
Surveillance: identify and monitor close contacts of pneumonic plague patients and give them a seven-day chemoprophylaxis. Chemoprophylaxis should also be given to household members of bubonic plague patients.
Obtain specimens which should be carefully collected using appropriate infection, prevention and control procedures and sent to labs for testing.
Disinfection. Routine hand-washing is recommended with soap and water or use of alcohol hand rub. Larger areas can be disinfected using 10% of diluted household bleach (made fresh daily).
Ensure safe burial practices. Spraying of face/chest area of suspected pneumonic plague deaths should be discouraged. The area should be covered with a disinfectant-soaked cloth or absorbent material.
Surveillance and control
Surveillance and control requires investigating animal and flea species implicated in the plague cycle in the region and developing environmental management programmes to understand the natural zoonosis of the disease cycle and to limit spread. Active long-term surveillance of animal foci, coupled with a rapid response during animal outbreaks has successfully reduced numbers of human plague outbreaks.
In order to effectively and efficiently manage plague outbreaks it is crucial to have an informed and vigilant health care work force (and community) to quickly diagnose and manage patients with infection, to identify risk factors, to conduct ongoing surveillance, to control vectors and hosts, to confirm diagnosis with laboratory tests, and to communicate findings with appropriate authorities.
WHO Response
WHO aims to prevent plague outbreaks by maintaining surveillance and supporting at-risk countries to prepare. As the type of animal reservoir differs according to the region and influences the risk and conditions of human transmission, WHO has developed specific guidelines for the Indian sub-continent, South-America and Sub-Saharan Africa.
WHO works with ministries of health to support countries facing outbreaks for field control activities. | Plague is an infectious disease caused by the bacteria Yersinia pestis, a zoonotic bacteria, usually found in small mammals and their fleas. It is transmitted between animals through fleas. Humans can be infected through:
the inhalation of respiratory droplets/small particles from a patient with pneumonic plague.
Plague is a very severe disease in people, particularly in its septicaemic (systemic infection caused by circulating bacteria in bloodstream) and pneumonic forms, with a case-fatality ratio of 30% to 100% if left untreated. The pneumonic form is invariably fatal unless treated early. It is especially contagious and can trigger severe epidemics through person-to-person contact via droplets in the air.
Historically, plague was responsible for widespread pandemics with high mortality. It was known as the "Black Death" during the fourteenth century, causing more than 50 million deaths in Europe. Nowadays, plague is easily treated with antibiotics and the use of standard precautions to prevent acquiring infection.
Signs and symptoms
People infected with plague usually develop acute febrile disease with other non-specific systemic symptoms after an incubation period of one to seven days, such as sudden onset of fever, chills, head and body aches, and weakness, vomiting and nausea.
There are two main forms of plague infection, depending on the route of infection: bubonic and pneumonic.
Bubonic plague is the most common form of plague and is caused by the bite of an infected flea. Plague bacillus, Y. pestis, enters at the bite and travels through the lymphatic system to the nearest lymph node where it replicates itself. The lymph node then becomes inflamed, tense and painful, and is called a ‘bubo’. At advanced stages of the infection the inflamed lymph nodes can turn into open sores filled with pus. | no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17223184-000-did-bubonic-plague-really-cause-the-black-death/ | Did bubonic plague really cause the Black Death? | New Scientist | Did bubonic plague really cause the Black Death?
THE DISEASE that spread like wildfire through Europe between 1347 and 1351 is still the most violent epidemic in recorded history. It killed at least a third of the population, more than 25 million people. Victims first suffered pain, fever and boils, then swollen lymph nodes and blotches on the skin. After that they vomited blood and died within three days. The survivors called it the Great Pestilence. Victorian scientists dubbed it the Black Death.
As far as most people are concerned, the Black Death was bubonic plague, Yersinia pestis, a flea-borne bacterial disease of rodents that jumped to humans. But two epidemiologists from Liverpool University say we’ve got it all wrong. In Biology of Plagues, a book released earlier this year, they effectively demolish the bubonic plague theory. “If you look at how the Black Death spread,” says Susan Scott, one of the authors, “one of the least likely diseases to have caused it is bubonic plague.” If Scott and co-author Christopher Duncan are right, the world would do well to listen.
Whatever pathogen caused the Black Death appears to have ravaged Europe several times during the past two millennia, and it could resurface again. If we knew what it really was, we could prepare for it. “It’s always important to re-evaluate these questions so we are not taken by surprise,” says Steve Morse, an expert on emerging viral diseases at Columbia University in New York. Yet few experts in infectious diseases have even read the book, let alone taken its ideas seriously. New Scientist has, and it looks to us as though Scott and Duncan are on to something.
The idea that the Black Death was bubonic plague dates back to the late 19th century, when Alexandre Yersin, a French bacteriologist, unravelled the complex biology of bubonic plague. He noted that the disease shared a key feature with the Black Death: the bubo, a dark, painful, swollen lymph gland usually in the armpit or groin. Even though buboes also occur in other diseases, he decided the two were the same, even naming the bacterium pestis after the Great Pestilence.
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But the theory is riddled with glaring flaws, say Scott and Duncan. First of all, bubonic plague is intimately associated with rodents and the fleas they carry. But the Black Death’s pattern of spread doesn’t fit a rat and flea-borne disease. It raced across the Alps and through northern Europe at temperatures too cold for fleas to hatch, and swept from Marseilles to Paris at four kilometres a day – -far faster than a rat could travel. Moreover, the rats necessary to spread the disease simply were not there. The only rat in Europe in the Middle Ages was the black rat, Rattus rattus, which stays close to human habitation. Yet the Black Death jumped across great tracts of open country-up to 300 kilometres between towns in France-in only a few days with no intermediate outbreaks. “Iceland had no rats at all,” notes Duncan, “but the Black Death was reported there too.”
In contrast, bubonic plague spreads, as rats do, slowly and sporadically. In 1907, the British Plague Commission in India reported an outbreak that took six months to move 300 feet. After bubonic plague arrived in South Africa in 1899, it moved inland at just 20 kilometres a year, even with steam trains to help.
The disease that caused the Black Death stayed in Europe until 1666. During its 300-year reign, Scott and Duncan have found records of outbreaks that occurred somewhere in France virtually every year. Every few years, these outbreaks spawned epidemics that ravaged the rest of Europe. For Yersinia to do this, it would have to become established in a population of rodents that are resistant to the disease. It couldn’t have been rats, because the plague bacterium kills them-along with all other European rodents. As a result, Europe, along with Australia and Antarctica, remain the only regions of the world where bubonic plague has never settled. So, once again, the Black Death behaved in a way plague simply cannot.
Nor is bubonic plague contagious enough to have been the Black Death. The Black Death killed at least a third of the population wherever it hit, sometimes more. But when bubonic plague hit India in the 19th century, fewer than 2 per cent of the people in affected towns died. And when plague invaded southern Africa, South America and the south-western US, it didn’t trigger a massive epidemic.
The most obvious problem with the plague theory is that, unlike bubonic plague, the Black Death obviously spread directly from person to person. People in the thick of the epidemic recognised this, and Scott and Duncan proved they were right by tracing the anatomy of outbreaks, person by person, using English burial records from the 16th century. These records, which detail all deaths from the pestilence by order of Elizabeth I, clearly show the disease spreading from one person to their neighbours and relatives, separated by an incubation period of 20 to 30 days.
The details tally perfectly with a disease that kills about 37 days after infection. For the first 10 to 12 days, you weren’t infectious. Then for 20 to 22 days, you were. You only knew you were infected when you fell ill, for the final five days or less-but by then you had been infecting people unknowingly for weeks. Europeans at the time clearly knew the disease had a long, infectious incubation period, because they rapidly imposed measures to isolate potential carriers. For example, they stopped anyone arriving on a ship from disembarking for 40 days, or quarantina in Italian – -the origin of the word quarantine.
Telltale timing
Epidemiologists know that diseases with a long incubation time create outbreaks that last months. From 14th-century ecclesiastical records, Scott and Duncan estimate that outbreaks of the Black Death in a given town or diocese typically lasted 8 or 9 months. That, plus the delay between waves of cases, is the fingerprint of the disease across Europe over seasons and centuries, they say. The pair found exactly the same pattern in 17th-century outbreaks in Florence, Milan and a dozen towns across England, including London, Colchester, Newcastle, Manchester and Eyam in Derbyshire. In 1665, the inhabitants of Eyam selflessly confined themselves to the village. A third of them died, but they kept the disease from reaching other towns. This would not have worked if the carriers were rats.
Despite the force of their argument, Scott and Duncan have yet to convince their colleagues. None of the experts that New Scientist spoke to had read their book, and a summary of its ideas provoked reactions that range from polite interest to outright dismissal. Some of Scott’s colleagues, for example, have scoffed that “everyone knows the Black Death was bubonic plague”.
“I doubt you can say plague was not involved in the Black Death, though there may have been other diseases too,” says Elisabeth Carniel, a bubonic plague expert at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. “But I haven’t had time to read the book.” Carniel suggests that fleas could have spread the Black Death directly between people. Human fleas can keep it in their guts for a few weeks, leading to a delay in spread. But this would be unlikely to have happened the same way every time.
Moreover, people with enough Yersinia in their blood for a flea to pick it up are already very sick. They would only be able to pass their infection on in this way for a very short time-and whoever the flea bit would also sicken within a week, the incubation time of Yersinia. This does not fit the pattern documented by Scott and Duncan. Neither would an extra-virulent Yersinia, which would still depend on rats.
There have been several other ingenious attempts to save the Yersinia theory as inconsistencies have emerged. Many fall back on pneumonic plague, a variant form of Yersinia infection. This can occur in the later stages of bubonic plague, when the bacteria sometimes proliferate in the lungs and can be coughed out, and inhaled by people nearby. Untreated pneumonic plague is invariably fatal and can spread directly from person to person.
But not far, and not for long-plague only becomes pneumonic when the patient is practically at death’s door. “It is simply impossible that people sick enough to have developed the pneumonic form of the disease could have travelled far,” says Scott. Yet the Black Death typically jumped between towns in the time a healthy human took to travel. Also, pneumonic plague kills quickly-within six days, usually less. With such a short infectious period, local outbreaks of pneumonic plague end much sooner than 8 or 9 months, notes Scott. Rats and fleas can restart them, but then the disease is back to spreading slowly and sporadically like flea-borne diseases. Moreover, pneumonic plague lacks the one thing that links Yersinia to the Black Death: buboes.
If the Black Death wasn’t bubonic plague, then what was it? Possibly-and ominously-it may have been a virus. The evidence comes from a mutant protein on the surface of certain white blood cells. The protein, CCR5, normally acts as a receptor for the immune signalling molecules called chemokines, which help control inflammation. The AIDS virus and the poxvirus that causes myxomatosis in rabbits also use CCR5 as a docking port to enter and kill immune cells.
In 1998, a team led by Stephen O’Brien of the US National Cancer Institute analysed a mutant form of CCR5 that gives some protection against HIV. From its pattern of occurrence in the population, they think it arose in north-eastern Europe some 2000 years ago-and around 700 years ago, something happened to boost its incidence from 1 in 40,000 Europeans to 1 in 5. “It had to have been a breathtaking selective pressure to jack it up that high,” says O’Brien. The only plausible explanation, he thinks, is that the mutation helped its carriers survive the Black Death. In fact, say Scott and Duncan, Europeans did seem to grow more resistant to the disease between the 14th and 17th centuries.
Yersinia, too, enters and kills immune cells when it causes disease. But when O’Brien’s team pitted Yersinia against blood cells from people with and without the mutation, they found no dramatic difference. “The results were equivocal,” says O’Brien. “We don’t know if the mutation protected or not.” Further experiments are under way. Similar mutations occur elsewhere in the world, but at nowhere near the high frequency of the European mutant. This suggests that pathogens such as smallpox exerted some selective force, but nothing like whatever happened in Europe, says O’Brien.
The association between CCR5 and viruses suggests that the Black Death was a virus too. Its sudden emergence, and equally sudden disappearance after the Great Plague of London in 1666, also argue for a viral cause. Like the deadly flu of 1918, viruses can sometimes mutate into killers, and then disappear.
But what sort of virus was the Black Death? Scott and Duncan suggest a haemorrhagic filovirus such as Ebola, since the one consistent symptom was bleeding. In fact they think “haemorrhagic plague” would be a good new name for the disease.
They are not the first to blame Ebola for an ancient plague. Scientists and classicists in San Diego reported in 1996 that the symptoms of the plague of Athens around 430 BC, described by Thucydides, are remarkably similar to Ebola, including a distinctive retching or hiccupping. Apart from that, many of the symptoms of that plague- – and one in Constantinople in AD 540 – -were similar to the Black Death.
Of course, the filoviruses we know about are relatively hard to catch, with an incubation period of a week or less, not three weeks or more. But there are other haemorrhagic viruses: Lassa fever in Africa is fairly contagious, and incubates for up to three weeks. Eurasian hantaviruses can incubate for up to 42 days, but are not usually directly contagious between people. Both can be as deadly as the Black Death.
Out of Africa
Perhaps we can narrow the search to Africa. Europeans first recorded the Black Death in Sicily in 1347. The Sicilians blamed it on Genoese galleys that arrived from Crimea just as the illness exploded. But the long incubation period means the infection must have arrived earlier. Scott suspects it initially came from Africa, just a short hop away from Sicily. That continent is historically the home of more human pathogens than any other, and the people who lived through the epidemics that wracked Athens and Constantinople said their disease came from there. The epidemic in Constantinople, for instance, seems to have come via trade routes from the Central African interior. “And I’m sure that disease was the same as the Black Death,” says O’Brien.
One way to solve the puzzle could be to look for the pathogen’s DNA in the plague pits of Europe. Didier Raoult and colleagues at the University of the Mediterranean in Marseilles examined three skeletons in a 14th-century mass grave in Montpellier last year (New Scientist, 11 November 2000, p 31). They searched the skeletons for fragments of DNA unique to several known pathogens-Yersinia, anthrax or typhus. They found one match: Yersinia. In their report they wrote: “We believe that we can end the controversy. Medieval Black Death was [bubonic] plague.”
Not so fast, says Scott. Southern France probably had bubonic plague at that time, even if it wasn’t the Black Death. Moreover, attempts by Alan Cooper, director of the Ancient Biomolecules Centre at Oxford University, and Raoult’s team to replicate the results have so far failed, says Cooper. Similar attempts to find Yersinia DNA at mass graves in London, Copenhagen and another burial in southern France have also failed.
It’s too early to conclude that the failure to find Yersinia DNA means the bacterium wasn’t there, though. The art of retrieving ancient DNA is still in its infancy, Cooper warns. Pathogen DNA – -especially that of fragile viruses – -is extremely difficult to reliably identify in remains that are centuries old. “The pathogen decays along with its victim,” he says. Scientists have had difficulty, for example, in retrieving the 1918 flu virus, even from bodies less than a century old and preserved by permafrost. And even if the technique for retrieving ancient DNA improves, you need to know what you’re searching for. There is no way now to search for an unknown haemorrhagic virus.
But the possibility that the Black Death could strike again should give scientists the incentive to keep trying. The similarity of the catastrophes in Athens, Constantinople and medieval Europe suggests that whatever the pathogen is, it comes out of hiding every few centuries. And the last outbreak was its fastest and most murderous. What would it do in the modern world? Maybe we should find it, before it finds us. | Did bubonic plague really cause the Black Death?
THE DISEASE that spread like wildfire through Europe between 1347 and 1351 is still the most violent epidemic in recorded history. It killed at least a third of the population, more than 25 million people. Victims first suffered pain, fever and boils, then swollen lymph nodes and blotches on the skin. After that they vomited blood and died within three days. The survivors called it the Great Pestilence. Victorian scientists dubbed it the Black Death.
As far as most people are concerned, the Black Death was bubonic plague, Yersinia pestis, a flea-borne bacterial disease of rodents that jumped to humans. But two epidemiologists from Liverpool University say we’ve got it all wrong. In Biology of Plagues, a book released earlier this year, they effectively demolish the bubonic plague theory. “If you look at how the Black Death spread,” says Susan Scott, one of the authors, “one of the least likely diseases to have caused it is bubonic plague.” If Scott and co-author Christopher Duncan are right, the world would do well to listen.
Whatever pathogen caused the Black Death appears to have ravaged Europe several times during the past two millennia, and it could resurface again. If we knew what it really was, we could prepare for it. “It’s always important to re-evaluate these questions so we are not taken by surprise,” says Steve Morse, an expert on emerging viral diseases at Columbia University in New York. Yet few experts in infectious diseases have even read the book, let alone taken its ideas seriously. New Scientist has, and it looks to us as though Scott and Duncan are on to something.
The idea that the Black Death was bubonic plague dates back to the late 19th century, when Alexandre Yersin, a French bacteriologist, unravelled the complex biology of bubonic plague. | yes |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2022/10/19/1129965424/how-black-death-survivors-gave-their-descendants-an-edge-during-pandemics | How Black Death survivors gave their descendants a genetic edge ... | How Black Death survivors gave their descendants a genetic edge : Goats and SodaNearly half of Europeans died from the plague. Now a new study shows a protective gene mutation that survivors passed on to help with future outbreaks might cause other problems.
Researchers extracted DNA from the remains of people buried in the East Smithfield plague pits, which were used for mass burials in 1348 and 1349.
Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA)
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Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA)
Researchers extracted DNA from the remains of people buried in the East Smithfield plague pits, which were used for mass burials in 1348 and 1349.
Museum of London Archaeology (MOLA)
When the bubonic plague arrived in London in 1348, the disease devastated the city. So many people died, so quickly, that the city's cemeteries filled up.
"So the king [Edward III], at the time, bought this piece of land and started digging it," says geneticist Luis Barreiro at the University of Chicago. This cemetery, called East Smithfield, became a mass grave, where more than 700 people were buried together. "There's basically layers and layers of bodies one on top of each other," he says. The city shut down the cemetery when the outbreak ended.
In the end, this bubonic plague, known as the Black Death, likely killed 30 to 50% of people in parts of Europe and the United Kingdom. That's a mortality rate that's at least 200 times higher than the one estimated for COVID, Barreiro points out.
"We all think that COVID-19 was insane and completely changed the world and our societies," Barreiro says. "COVID has a mortality rate of about 0.05% – something like that. Now try to project – if it's even possible – a scenario where 30 to 50% of the population dies."
Now a new study, published Wednesday in the journal Nature, shows that the Black Death altered more than society: It also likely altered the evolution of the European people's genome.
In the study, Barreiro and his colleagues found that Black Death survivors in London and Denmark had an edge in their genes – mutations that helped protect against the plague pathogen, Yersinia pestis. Survivors passed those mutations onto their descendants, and many Europeans still carry those mutations today.
But that edge comes at a cost: It increases a person's risk of autoimmune diseases. "The exact same genetic variant that we find to be protective against Yersinia pestis is associated with an increased risk for Crohn's disease today," Barreiro says.
The study demonstrates how past pandemics could prepare the human immune system to survive future pandemics.
"The evolution is faster and stronger than anything we've seen before in the human genome," says evolutionary biologist David Enard at the University of Arizona, who wasn't involved in the study. "It's really a big deal. It shows what's possible [for humans], in terms of adaptation in response to many different pathogens."
In the study, Barreiro and his team set out to answer a simple question: Did the Londoners, who survived the Black Death, carry a mutation – or even mutations – in their genome that protected them from the disease?
But to answer that question, they had to do something that almost sounds like wizardry: They had to extract DNA from people who died of the plague 700 years ago.
That's where the East Smithfield cemetery becomes so important. Because London officials used this cemetery only during the Black Death, from about 1348 to 1349, scientists know the age of the bodies buried there with extreme precision. And Barreiro and his team could analyze DNA from people who died during three specific time points: before the Black Death, during it and afterwards.
Then they looked specifically at genes involved with the immune system to see if any mutations correlated with survival during the plague. The team also ran a similar experiment with DNA extracted from people buried in Denmark.
When they combined the two experiments, the researchers hit the jackpot.
Using DNA extracted from teeth of people who died before and during the Black Death pandemic, researchers were able to identify genetic differences that dictated who survived and who died from the bacterium.
Matt Clarke/McMaster University
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Matt Clarke/McMaster University
Using DNA extracted from teeth of people who died before and during the Black Death pandemic, researchers were able to identify genetic differences that dictated who survived and who died from the bacterium.
Matt Clarke/McMaster University
They found not one, but four mutations that likely gave Londoners an advantage during the Black Death. And the advantage was quite substantial. One mutation, which occurred in a gene called ERAP2, gave people a 40% advantage of survival against the plague.
That's the biggest evolutionary advantage ever recorded in humans, Enard says. And the advantage arose lightning fast, he says, over the course of a few decades.
Before this study, the strongest example of natural selection in humans was the rise of lactose tolerance in Europeans, Enard says. That evolved over the course of thousands of years and still offered only a few percentage points of advantage in terms of survival.
The ERAP2 gene helps to launch a major arm of the immune response earlier on in an infection. People who carry a mutation in the ERAP2 can likely kill invading pathogens more quickly than those without this mutation, Barreiro and his team found. The mutation likely enhances an inflammatory process that helps clear out an infection.
But too much inflammation can become problematic, says paleogeneticist Maria Avila Arcos at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. "If your immune system is super strong, then that can lead to autoimmune diseases. That's kind of the balance."
Indeed, several mutations that protect against the Black Death, including ERAP2, also increase the risk of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, today.
Avila Arcos says the new study has a big limitation: It focuses only on a very narrow population, essentially Londoners and people who lived in Denmark at the time. But the Black Death struck many different groups across Europe, Asia and North Africa. "There might be way more cellular mechanisms people used to cope with this devastating outbreak," she says. "But we're just seeing the mechanisms shared across the English and Danish."
By limiting the scope of research to only one small population, the study's findings could also be misinterpreted by the popular media to confirm racist misconceptions about European immunity, says medical historian Monica H. Green, who's studied the Black Death for 15 years.
"There's a general idea, found in a lot of these popularizing essays, books and so forth, that Europeans are immunologically superior to every other population on the planet precisely because Europe has had this long history of exposure to all these diseases, like the Black Death," she explains. "Basically, if Europeans survived, that automatically means that they're the superior race."
She's concerned the findings of this new study will reinforce this idea because there's no data on other populations, such as people in Asia or northern Africa.
"If there's not comparable genetic work on these populations," she says, "then the racists are going to come along and interpret these new findings in any way that they want."
Correction Oct. 22, 2022
In an earlier version of this story, a caption incorrectly identified the pathogen that causes plague as a virus. It is a bacterium. | ," says geneticist Luis Barreiro at the University of Chicago. This cemetery, called East Smithfield, became a mass grave, where more than 700 people were buried together. "There's basically layers and layers of bodies one on top of each other," he says. The city shut down the cemetery when the outbreak ended.
In the end, this bubonic plague, known as the Black Death, likely killed 30 to 50% of people in parts of Europe and the United Kingdom. That's a mortality rate that's at least 200 times higher than the one estimated for COVID, Barreiro points out.
"We all think that COVID-19 was insane and completely changed the world and our societies," Barreiro says. "COVID has a mortality rate of about 0.05% – something like that. Now try to project – if it's even possible – a scenario where 30 to 50% of the population dies. "
Now a new study, published Wednesday in the journal Nature, shows that the Black Death altered more than society: It also likely altered the evolution of the European people's genome.
In the study, Barreiro and his colleagues found that Black Death survivors in London and Denmark had an edge in their genes – mutations that helped protect against the plague pathogen, Yersinia pestis. Survivors passed those mutations onto their descendants, and many Europeans still carry those mutations today.
But that edge comes at a cost: It increases a person's risk of autoimmune diseases. "The exact same genetic variant that we find to be protective against Yersinia pestis is associated with an increased risk for Crohn's disease today," Barreiro says.
The study demonstrates how past pandemics could prepare the human immune system to survive future pandemics.
"The evolution is faster and stronger than anything we've seen before in the human genome," says evolutionary biologist David Enard at the University of Arizona, who wasn't involved in the study. "It's really a big deal. It shows what's possible | no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.historytoday.com/archive/black-death-greatest-catastrophe-ever | The Black Death: The Greatest Catastrophe Ever | History Today | Miniature from the Toggenburg Bible (Switzerland), 1411. The disease is widely believed to be the plague, although the location of bumps and blisters is more consistent with smallpox.
The disastrous mortal disease known as the Black Death spread across Europe in the years 1346-53. The frightening name, however, only came several centuries after its visitation (and was probably a mistranslation of the Latin word ‘atra’ meaning both ‘terrible’ and ‘black)’. Chronicles and letters from the time describe the terror wrought by the illness. In Florence, the great Renaissance poet Petrarch was sure that they would not be believed: ‘O happy posterity, who will not experience such abysmal woe and will look upon our testimony as a fable.’ A Florentine chronicler relates that,
All the citizens did little else except to carry dead bodies to be buried [...] At every church they dug deep pits down to the water-table; and thus those who were poor who died during the night were bundled up quickly and thrown into the pit. In the morning when a large number of bodies were found in the pit, they took some earth and shovelled it down on top of them; and later others were placed on top of them and then another layer of earth, just as one makes lasagne with layers of pasta and cheese.
The accounts are remarkably similar. The chronicler Agnolo di Tura ‘the Fat’ relates from his Tuscan home town that
... in many places in Siena great pits were dug and piled deep with the multitude of dead [...] And there were also those who were so sparsely covered with earth that the dogs dragged them forth and devoured many bodies throughout the city.
The tragedy was extraordinary. In the course of just a few months, 60 per cent of Florence’s population died from the plague, and probably the same proportion in Siena. In addition to the bald statistics, we come across profound personal tragedies: Petrarch lost to the Black Death his beloved Laura to whom he wrote his famous love poems; Di Tura tells us that ‘I [...] buried my five children with my own hands’.
The Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague, a disease caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis that circulates among wild rodents where they live in great numbers and density. Such an area is called a ‘plague focus’ or a ‘plague reservoir’. Plague among humans arises when rodents in human habitation, normally black rats, become infected. The black rat, also called the ‘house rat’ and the ‘ship rat’, likes to live close to people, the very quality that makes it dangerous (in contrast, the brown or grey rat prefers to keep its distance in sewers and cellars). Normally, it takes ten to fourteen days before plague has killed off most of a contaminated rat colony, making it difficult for great numbers of fleas gathered on the remaining, but soon- dying, rats to find new hosts. After three days of fasting, hungry rat fleas turn on humans. From the bite site, the contagion drains to a lymph node that consequently swells to form a painful bubo, most often in the groin, on the thigh, in an armpit or on the neck. Hence the name bubonic plague. The infection takes three–five days to incubate in people before they fall ill, and another three–five days before, in 80 per cent of the cases, the victims die. Thus, from the introduction of plague contagion among rats in a human community it takes, on average, twenty-three days before the first person dies.
When, for instance, a stranger called Andrew Hogson died from plague on his arrival in Penrith in 1597, and the next plague case followed twenty-two days later, this corresponded to the first phase of the development of an epidemic of bubonic plague. And Hobson was, of course, not the only fugitive from a plague-stricken town or area arriving in various communities in the region with infective rat fleas in their clothing or luggage. This pattern of spread is called ‘spread by leaps’ or ‘metastatic spread’. Thus, plague soon broke out in other urban and rural centres, from where the disease spread into the villages and townships of the surrounding districts by a similar process of leaps.
In order to become an epidemic the disease must be spread to other rat colonies in the locality and transmitted to inhabitants in the same way. It took some time for people to recognize that a terrible epidemic was breaking out among them and for chroniclers to note this. The timescale varies: in the countryside it took about forty days for realisation to dawn; in most towns with a few thousand inhabitants, six to seven weeks; in the cities with over 10,000 inhabitants, about seven weeks, and in the few metropolises with over 100,000 inhabitants, as much as eight weeks.
Plague bacteria can break out of the buboes and be carried by the blood stream to the lungs and cause a variant of plague that is spread by contaminated droplets from the cough of patients (pneumonic plague). However, contrary to what is sometimes believed, this form is not contracted easily, spreads normally only episodically or incidentally and constitutes therefore normally only a small fraction of plague cases. It now appears clear that human fleas and lice did not contribute to the spread, at least not significantly. The bloodstream of humans is not invaded by plague bacteria from the buboes, or people die with so few bacteria in the blood that bloodsucking human parasites become insufficiently infected to become infective and spread the disease: the blood of plague-infected rats contains 500-1,000 times more bacteria per unit of measurement than the blood of plague-infected humans.
Importantly, plague was spread considerable distances by rat fleas on ships. Infected ship rats would die, but their fleas would often survive and find new rat hosts wherever they landed. Unlike human fleas, rat fleas are adapted to riding with their hosts; they readily also infest clothing of people entering affected houses and ride with them to other houses or localities. This gives plague epidemics a peculiar rhythm and pace of development and a characteristic pattern of dissemination. The fact that plague is transmitted by rat fleas means plague is a disease of the warmer seasons, disappearing during the winter, or at least lose most of their powers of spread. The peculiar seasonal pattern of plague has been observed everywhere and is a systematic feature also of the spread of the Black Death. In the plague history of Norway from the Black Death 1348-49 to the last outbreaks in 1654, comprising over thirty waves of plague, there was never a winter epidemic of plague. Plague is very different from airborne contagious diseases, which are spread directly between people by droplets: these thrive in cold weather.
This conspicuous feature constitutes proof that the Black Death and plague in general is an insect-borne disease. Cambridge historian John Hatcher has noted that there is ‘a remarkable transformation in the seasonal pattern of mortality in England after 1348’: whilst before the Black Death the heaviest mortality was in the winter months, in the following century it was heaviest in the period from late July to late September. He points out that this strongly indicates that the ‘transformation was caused by the virulence of bubonic plague’.
***
Another very characteristic feature of the Black Death and plague epidemics in general, both in the past and in the great outbreaks in the early twentieth century, reflects their basis in rats and rat fleas: much higher proportions of inhabitants contract plague and die from it in the countryside than in urban centres. In the case of English plague history, this feature has been underlined by Oxford historian Paul Slack. When around 90 per cent of the population lived in the countryside, only a disease with this property combined with extreme lethal powers could cause the exceptional mortality of the Black Death and of many later plague epidemics. All diseases spread by cross-infection between humans, on the contrary, gain increasing powers of spread with increasing density of population and cause highest mortality rates in urban centres.
Lastly it could be mentioned that scholars have succeeded in extracting genetic evidence of the causal agent of bubonic plague, the DNA-code of Yersinia pestis, from several plague burials in French cemeteries from the period 1348-1590.
It used to be thought that the Black Death originated in China, but new research shows that it began in the spring of 1346 in the steppe region, where a plague reservoir stretches from the north-western shores of the Caspian Sea into southern Russia. People occasionally contract plague there even today. Two contemporary chroniclers identify the estuary of the river Don where it flows into the Sea of Azov as the area of the original outbreak, but this could be mere hearsay, and it is possible that it started elsewhere, perhaps in the area of the estuary of the river Volga on the Caspian Sea. At the time, this area was under the rule of the Mongol khanate of the Golden Horde. Some decades earlier the Mongol khanate had converted to Islam and the presence of Christians, or trade with them, was no longer tolerated. As a result the Silk Road caravan routes between China and Europe were cut off. For the same reason the Black Death did not spread from the east through Russia towards western Europe, but stopped abruptly on the Mongol border with the Russian principalities. As a result, Russia which might have become the Black Death’s first European conquest, in fact was its last, and was invaded by the disease not from the east but from the west.
The epidemic in fact began with an attack that the Mongols launched on the Italian merchants’ last trading station in the region, Kaffa (today Feodosiya) in the Crimea. In the autumn of 1346, plague broke out among the besiegers and from them penetrated into the town. When spring arrived, the Italians fled on their ships. And the Black Death slipped unnoticed on board and sailed with them.
***
The extent of the contagious power of the Black Death has been almost mystifying. The central explanation lies within characteristic features of medieval society in a dynamic phase of modernisation heralding the transformation from a medieval to early modern European society. Early industrial market-economic and capitalistic developments had advanced more than is often assumed, especially in northern Italy and Flanders. New, larger types of ship carried great quantities of goods over extensive trade networks that linked Venice and Genoa with Constantinople and the Crimea, Alexandria and Tunis, London and Bruges. In London and Bruges the Italian trading system was linked to the busy shipping lines of the German Hanseatic League in the Nordic countries and the Baltic area, with large broad-bellied ships called cogs. This system for long-distance trade was supplemented by a web of lively short and medium-distance trade that bound together populations all over the Old World.
The strong increase in population in Europe in the High Middle Ages (1050-1300) meant that the prevailing agricultural technology was inadequate for further expansion. To accommodate the growth, forests were cleared and mountain villages settled wherever it was possible for people to eke out a living. People had to opt for a more one-sided husbandry, particularly in animals, to create a surplus that could be traded for staples such as salt and iron, grain or flour. These settlements operated within a busy trading network running from coasts to mountain villages. And with tradesmen and goods, contagious diseases reached even the most remote and isolated hamlets.
In this early phase of modernisation, Europe was also on the way to ‘the golden age of bacteria’, when there was a great increase in epidemic diseases caused by increases in population density and in trade and transport while knowledge of the nature of epidemics, and therefore the ability to organise efficient countermeasures to them, was still minimal. Most people believed plague and mass illness to be a punishment from God for their sins. They responded with religious penitential acts aimed at tempering the Lord’s wrath, or with passivity and fatalism: it was a sin to try to avoid God’s will.
Much new can be said on the Black Death’s patterns of territorial spread. Of particular importance was the sudden appearance of the plague over vast distances, due to its rapid transportation by ship. Ships travelled at an average speed of around 40km a day which today seems quite slow. However, this speed meant that the Black Death easily moved 600km in a fortnight by ship: spreading, in contemporary terms, with astonishing speed and unpredictability. By land, the average spread was much slower: up to 2km per day along the busiest highways or roads and about 0.6km per day along secondary lines of communication.
As already noted, the pace of spread slowed strongly during the winter and stopped completely in mountain areas such as the Alps and the northerly parts of Europe. Yet, the Black Death often rapidly established two or more fronts and conquered countries by advancing from various quarters.
Italian ships from Kaffa arrived in Constantinople in May 1347 with the Black Death on board. The epidemic broke loose in early July. In North Africa and the Middle East, it started around September 1st, having arrived in Alexandria with ship transport from Constantinople. Its spread from Constantinople to European Mediterranean commercial hubs also started in the autumn of 1347. It reached Marseilles by about the second week of September, probably with a ship from the city. Then the Italian merchants appear to have left Constantinople several months later and arrived in their home towns of Genoa and Venice with plague on board, some time in November. On their way home, ships from Genoa also contaminated Florence’s seaport city of Pisa. The spread out of Pisa is characterized by a number of metastatic leaps. These great commercial cities also functioned as bridgeheads from where the disease conquered Europe.
In Mediterranean Europe, Marseilles functioned as the first great centre of spread. The relatively rapid advance both northwards up the Rhône valley to Lyons and south-westwards along the coasts towards Spain – in chilly months with relatively little shipping activity – is striking. As early as March 1348, both Lyon’s and Spain’s Mediterranean coasts were under attack.
En route to Spain, the Black Death also struck out from the city of Narbonne north-westwards along the main road to the commercial centre of Bordeaux on the Atlantic coast, which by the end of March had become a critical new centre of spread. Around April 20th, a ship from Bordeaux must have arrived in La Coruña in northwestern Spain; a couple of weeks later another ship from there let loose the plague in Navarre in northeastern Spain. Thus, two northern plague fronts were opened less than two months after the disease had invaded southern Spain.
Another plague ship sailed from Bordeaux, northwards to Rouen in Normandy where it arrived at the end of April. There, in June, a further plague front moved westwards towards Brittany, south-eastwards towards Paris and northwards in the direction of the Low Countries.
Yet another ship bearing plague left Bordeaux a few weeks later and arrived around May 8th, in the southern English town of Melcombe Regis, part of present-day Weymouth in Dorset: the epidemic broke out shortly before June 24th. The significance of ships in the rapid transmission of contagion is underscored by the fact that at the time the Black Death landed in Weymouth it was still in an early phase in Italy. From Weymouth, the Black Death spread not only inland, but also in new metastatic leaps by ships, which in some cases must have travelled earlier than the recognized outbreaks of the epidemic: Bristol was contaminated in June, as were the coastal towns of the Pale in Ireland; London was contaminated in early August since the epidemic outbreak drew comment at the end of September. Commercial seaport towns like Colchester and Harwich must have been contaminated at about the same time. From these the Black Death spread inland. It is now also clear that the whole of England was conquered in the course of 1349 because, in the late autumn of 1348, ship transport opened a northern front in England for the Black Death, apparently in Grimsby.
***
The early arrival of the Black Death in England and the rapid spread to its southeastern regions shaped much of the pattern of spread in Northern Europe. The plague must have arrived in Oslo in the autumn of 1348, and must have come with a ship from south-eastern England, which had lively commercial contacts with Norway. The outbreak of the Black Death in Norway took place before the disease had managed to penetrate southern Germany, again illustrating the great importance of transportation by ship and the relative slowness of spread by land. The outbreak in Oslo was soon stopped by the advent of winter weather, but it broke out again in the early spring. Soon it spread out of Oslo along the main roads inland and on both sides of the Oslofjord. Another independent introduction of contagion occurred in early July 1349 in the town of Bergen; it arrived in a ship from England, probably from King’s Lynn. The opening of the second plague front was the reason that all Norway could be conquered in the course of 1349. It disappeared completely with the advent of winter, the last victims died at the turn of the year.
The early dissemination of the Black Death to Oslo, which prepared the ground for a full outbreak in early spring, had great significance for the pace and pattern of the Black Death’s further conquest of Northern Europe. Again ship transport played a crucial role, this time primarily by Hanseatic ships fleeing homewards from their trading station in Oslo with goods acquired during the winter. On their way the seaport of Halmstad close to the Sound was apparently contaminated in early July. This was the starting point for the plague’s conquest of Denmark and Sweden, which was followed by several other independent introductions of plague contagion later; by the end of 1350 most of these territories had been ravaged.
However, the voyage homewards to the Hanseatic cities on the Baltic Sea had started significantly earlier. The outbreak of the Black Death in the Prussian town of Elbing (today the Polish town of Elblag) on August 24th, 1349, was a new milestone in the history of the Black Death. A ship that left Oslo at the beginning of June would probably sail through the Sound around June 20th and reach Elbing in the second half of July, in time to unleash an epidemic outbreak around August 24th. Other ships that returned at the end of the shipping season in the autumn from the trading stations in Oslo or Bergen, brought the Black Death to a number of other Hanseatic cities both on the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. The advent of winter stopped the outbreaks initially as had happened elsewhere, but contagion was spread with goods to commercial towns and cities deep into northern Germany. In the spring of 1350, a northern German plague front was formed that spread southwards and met the plague front which in the summer of 1349 had formed in southern Germany with importation of contagion from Austria and Switzerland.
***
Napoleon did not succeed in conquering Russia. Hitler did not succeed. But the Black Death did. It entered the territory of the city state of Novgorod in the late autumn of 1351 and reached the town of Pskov just before the winter set in and temporarily suppressed the epidemic; thus the full outbreak did not start until the early spring of 1352. In Novgorod itself, the Black Death broke out in mid-August. In 1353, Moscow was ravaged, and the disease also reached the border with the Golden Horde, this time from the west, where it petered out. Poland was invaded by epidemic forces coming both from Elbing and from the northern German plague front and, apparently, from the south by contagion coming across the border from Slovakia via Hungary.
Iceland and Finland are the only regions that, we know with certainty, avoided the Black Death because they had tiny populations with minimal contact abroad. It seems unlikely that any other region was so lucky.
How many people were affected? Knowledge of general mortality is crucial to all discussions of the social and historical impact of the plague. Studies of mortality among ordinary populations are far more useful, therefore, than studies of special social groups, whether monastic communities, parish priests or social elites. Because around 90 per cent of Europe’s population lived in the countryside, rural studies of mortality are much more important than urban ones.
Researchers generally used to agree that the Black Death swept away 20-30 per cent of Europe’s population. However, up to 1960 there were only a few studies of mortality among ordinary people, so the basis for this assessment was weak. From 1960, a great number of mortality studies from various parts of Europe were published. These have been collated and it is now clear that the earlier estimates of mortality need to be doubled. No suitable sources for the study of mortality have been found in the Muslim countries that were ravaged.
The mortality data available reflects the special nature of medieval registrations of populations. In a couple of cases, the sources are real censuses recording all members of the population, including women and children. However, most of the sources are tax registers and manorial registers recording households in the form of the names of the householders. Some registers aimed at recording all households, also the poor and destitute classes who did not pay taxes or rents, but the majority recorded only householders who paid tax to the town or land rent to the lord of the manor. This means that they overwhelmingly registered the better-off adult men of the population, who for reasons of age, gender and economic status had lower mortality rates in plague epidemics than the general population. According to the extant complete registers of all households, the rent or tax-paying classes constituted about half the population both in the towns and in the countryside, the other half were too poor. Registers that yield information on both halves of the populations indicate that mortality among the poor was 5-6 per cent higher. This means that in the majority of cases when registers only record the better-off half of the adult male population, mortality among the adult male population as a whole can be deduced by adding 2.5-3 per cent.
Another fact to consider is that in households where the householder survived, other members often died. For various reasons women and children suffer higher incidence of mortality from plague than adult men. A couple of censuses produced by city states in Tuscany in order to establish the need for grain or salt are still extant. They show that the households were, on average, reduced in the countryside from 4.5 to 4 persons and in urban centres from 4 to 3.5 persons. All medieval sources that permit the study of the size and composition of households among the ordinary population produce similar data, from Italy in southern Europe to England in the west and Norway in northern Europe. This means that the mortality among the registered households as a whole was 11-12.5 per cent higher than among the registered householders.
Detailed study of the mortality data available points to two conspicuous features in relation to the mortality caused by the Black Death: namely the extreme level of mortality caused by the Black Death, and the remarkable similarity or consistency of the level of mortality, from Spain in southern Europe to England in north-western Europe. The data is sufficiently widespread and numerous to make it likely that the Black Death swept away around 60 per cent of Europe’s population. It is generally assumed that the size of Europe’s population at the time was around 80 million. This implies that that around 50 million people died in the Black Death. This is a truly mind-boggling statistic. It overshadows the horrors of the Second World War, and is twice the number murdered by Stalin’s regime in the Soviet Union. As a proportion of the population that lost their lives, the Black Death caused unrivalled mortality.
This dramatic fall in Europe’s population became a lasting and characteristic feature of late medieval society, as subsequent plague epidemics swept away all tendencies of population growth. Inevitably it had an enormous impact on European society and greatly affected the dynamics of change and development from the medieval to Early Modern period. A historical turning point, as well as a vast human tragedy, the Black Death of 1346-53 is unparalleled in human history.
Ole J. Benedictow is Emeritus Professor of History at the Universtiy of Oslo, Norway. | The peculiar seasonal pattern of plague has been observed everywhere and is a systematic feature also of the spread of the Black Death. In the plague history of Norway from the Black Death 1348-49 to the last outbreaks in 1654, comprising over thirty waves of plague, there was never a winter epidemic of plague. Plague is very different from airborne contagious diseases, which are spread directly between people by droplets: these thrive in cold weather.
This conspicuous feature constitutes proof that the Black Death and plague in general is an insect-borne disease. Cambridge historian John Hatcher has noted that there is ‘a remarkable transformation in the seasonal pattern of mortality in England after 1348’: whilst before the Black Death the heaviest mortality was in the winter months, in the following century it was heaviest in the period from late July to late September. He points out that this strongly indicates that the ‘transformation was caused by the virulence of bubonic plague’.
***
Another very characteristic feature of the Black Death and plague epidemics in general, both in the past and in the great outbreaks in the early twentieth century, reflects their basis in rats and rat fleas: much higher proportions of inhabitants contract plague and die from it in the countryside than in urban centres. In the case of English plague history, this feature has been underlined by Oxford historian Paul Slack. When around 90 per cent of the population lived in the countryside, only a disease with this property combined with extreme lethal powers could cause the exceptional mortality of the Black Death and of many later plague epidemics. All diseases spread by cross-infection between humans, on the contrary, gain increasing powers of spread with increasing density of population and cause highest mortality rates in urban centres.
Lastly it could be mentioned that scholars have succeeded in extracting genetic evidence of the causal agent of bubonic plague, the DNA-code of Yersinia pestis, from several plague burials in French cemeteries from the period 1348-1590.
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Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://jmvh.org/article/the-history-of-plague-part-1-the-three-great-pandemics/ | The History of Plague – Part 1. The Three Great Pandemics - JMVH | The History of Plague – Part 1. The Three Great Pandemics
Plague is an acute infectious disease caused by the bacillus Yersinia pestis and is still endemic in indigenous rodent populations of South and North America, Africa and Central Asia. In epidemics plague is transmitted to humans by the bite of the Oriental or Indian rat flea and the human flea. The primary hosts of the fleas are the black urban rat and the brown sewer rat. Plague is also transmissible person to person when in its pneumonic form. Yersinia pestis is a very pathogenic organism to both humans and animals and before antibiotics had a very high mortality rate. Bubonic plague also has military significance and is listed by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention as a Category A bioterrorism agent.1
There have been three great world pandemics of plague recorded, in 541, 1347, and 1894 CE, each time causing devastating mortality of people and animals across nations and continents. On more than one occasion plague irrevocably changed the social and economic fabric of society.
In most human plague epidemics, infection initially took the form of large purulent abscesses of lymph nodes, the bubo (L. bubo = ‘groin’, Gr. boubon = ‘swelling in the groin’), this was bubonic plague. When bacteraemia followed, it caused haemorrhaging and necrosis of the skin rapidly followed by septicaemic shock and death, septicaemic plague. If the disease spread to the lung through the blood, it caused an invariably fatal pneumonia, pneumonic plague, and in that form plague was directly transmissible from person to person.
The three great plague pandemics had different geographic origins and paths of spread. The Justinian Plague of 541 started in central Africa and spread to Egypt and the Mediterranean. The Black Death of 1347 originated in Asia and spread to the Crimea then Europe and Russia. The third pandemic, that of 1894, originated in Yunnan, China, and spread to Hong Kong and India, then to the rest of the world.2
The causative organism, Yersinia pestis, was not discovered until the 1894 pandemic and was discovered in Hong Kong by a French Pastorien bacteriologist, Alexandre Yersin. Four years later in 1898 his successor, Paul-Louis Simond, a fellow Asia and migrated westward on the sea routes from China and India. The brown rat flourished in Europe where there were open sewers and ample breeding grounds and food and in the 18th and 19th centuries replaced the black rat as the main disease host.4, 9
The primary vectors for transmission of the disease from rats to humans were the Oriental or Indian rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, and the Northern or European rat flea, Nosopsyllus fasciatus. The human flea, Pulex irritans, and the dog and cat fleas, Ctenocephalides canis and felis, were secondary vectors. In the pandemics, the infected fleas were able to spread the plague over long distances as they were carried by rats and by humans travelling along trade routes at sea and overland, and also by infesting rice and wheat grain, clothing, and trade merchandise. When infected, the proventriculus of the flea becomes blocked by a mass of bacteria. The flea continues to feed, biting with increasing frequency and agitation, and in an attempt to relieve the obstruction the flea regurgitates the accumulated blood together with a mass of Yersinia pestis bacilli directly into the bloodstream of the host. The fleas multiply prolifically on their host and when the host dies they leave immediately, infesting new hosts and thus creating the foundations for an epidemic.10, 11
The Justinian Plague of 541-544
The first great pandemic of bubonic plague where people were recorded as suffering from the characteristic buboes and septicaemia was the Justinian Plague of 541 CE, named after Justinian I, the Roman emperor of the Byzantine Empire at the time. The epidemic originated in Ethiopia in Africa and spread to Pelusium in Egypt in 540. It then spread west to Alexandria and east to Gaza, Jerusalem and Antioch, then was carried on ships on the sea trading routes to both sides of the Mediterranean, arriving in Constantinople (now Istanbul) in the autumn of 541.12, 13
The Byzantine court historian, Procopius of Caesarea, in his work History of the Wars, described people with fever, delirium and buboes He wrote that the epidemic was one ‘by which the whole human race came near to be annihilated’. Procopius wrote of the symptoms of the disease :
“ … with the majority it came about that they were seized by the disease without becoming aware of what was coming either through a waking vision or a dream. … They had a sudden fever, some when just roused from sleep, others while walking about, and others while otherwise engaged, without any regard to what they were doing. And the body showed no change from its previous colour, nor was it hot as might be expected when attacked by a fever, nor indeed did any inflammation set in, but the fever was of such a languid sort from its commencement and up till evening that neither to the sick themselves nor to a physician who touched them would it afford any suspicion of danger. It was natural, therefore, that not one of those who had contracted the disease expected to die from it. But on the same day in some cases, in others on the following day, and in the rest not many days later, a bubonic swelling developed; and this took place not only in the particular part of the body which is called boubon, that is, “below the abdomen,” but also inside the armpit, and in some cases also beside the ears, and at different points on the thighs.”14
The focus of the Justinian pandemic was Constantinople, reaching a peak in the spring of 542 with 5,000 deaths per day in the city, although some estimates vary to 10,000 per day, and it went on to kill over a third of the city’s population. Victims were too numerous to be buried and were stacked high in the city’s churches and city wall towers, their Christian doctrine preventing their disposal by cremation. Over the next three years plague raged through Italy, southern France, the Rhine valley and Iberia. The disease spread as far north as Denmark and west to Ireland, then further to Africa, the Middle East and Asia Minor. Between the years 542 and 546 epidemics in Asia, Africa and Europe killed nearly 100 million people.15, 16
The pandemic had a drastic effect and permanently changed the social fabric of the Western world. It contributed to the demise of Justinian’s reign. Food production was severely disrupted and an eight year famine followed. The agrarian system of the empire was restructured to eventually become the three field feudal system. The social and economic disruption caused by the pandemic marked the end of Roman rule and led to the birth of culturally distinctive societal groups that later formed the nations of medieval Europe.12
Further major outbreaks occurred throughout Europe and the Middle East over the next 200 years – in Constantinople in the years 573, 600, 698 and 747, in Iraq, Egypt and Syria in the years 669, 683, 698, 713, 732 and 750 and Mesopotamia in 686 and 704. In 664 plague laid waste to Ireland, and in England it came to be known as the Plague of Cadwaladyr’s Time, after a Welsh king who contracted plague but survived it in 682. The plague continued in intermittent cycles in Europe into the mid-8th century and did not re-emerge as a major epidemic until the 14th century.
The ‘Black Death’ of Europe in 1347 to 1352
The Black Death of 1347 was the first major European outbreak of the second great plague pandemic that occurred over the 14th to 18th centuries. In 1346 it was known in the European seaports that a plague epidemic was present in the East. In 1347 the plague was brought to the Crimea from Asia Minor by the Tartar armies of Khan Janibeg, who had laid siege to the town of Kaffa (now Feodosya in Ukraine), a Genoese trading town on the shores of the Black Sea. The siege of the Tartars was unsuccessful and before they left, from a description by Gabriel de Mussis from Piacenza, in revenge they catapulted over the walls of Kaffa corpses of people who had died from the Black Death. In panic the Genoese traders fled in galleys with ‘sickness clinging to their bones’ to Constantinople and across the Mediterranean to Messina, Sicily, where the great pandemic of Europe started. By 1348 it had reached Marseille, Paris and Germany, then Spain, England and Norway in 1349, and eastern Europe in 1350. The Tartars left Kaffa and carried the plague away with them spreading it further to Russia and India.17
A description of symptoms of the plague was given by Giovanni Boccaccio in 1348 in his book Decameron, a set of tales of a group of Florentines who secluded themselves in the country to escape the plague :
“.. in men and women alike it first betrayed itself by the emergence of certain tumours in the groin or armpits. Some of which grew as large as a common apple, others as an egg, some more, some less, which the common folk called gavocciolo. From the two said parts of the body this deadly gavocciolo soon began to propagate and spread itself in all directions indifferently; after which the form of the malady began to change, black spots or livid making their appearance in many cases on the arm or the thigh or elsewhere,..“17
The term “Black Death” was not used until much later in history and in 1347 was simply known as “the pestilence” or “pestilentia”, and there are various explanations of the origin of the term. Butler [11] states the term refers to the haemorrhagic purpura and ischaemic gangrene of the limbs that sometimes ensued from the septicaemia. Ziegler17 states it derives from the translation of the Latin pestis atra or atra mors, ‘atra’ meaning ‘terrible’ or ‘dreadful’, the connotation of which was ‘black’, and ‘mors’ meaning ‘death’, and so ‘atra mors’ was translated as meaning ‘black death’.
The social impacts of the Black Death in Europe during the 14th century
The overall mortality rate varied from city to city, but in places such as Florence as observed by Boccaccio up to half the population died, the Italians calling the epidemic the mortalega grande, ‘the great mortality’. [18] People died with such rapidity that proper burial or cremation could not occur, corpses were thrown into large pits and putrefying bodies lay in their homes and in the streets. People were as much afraid they would suffer a spiritual death as they were a physical death since there were no clergy to perform burial rites:
“Shrift there was none; churches and chapels were open, but neither priest nor penitents entered – all went to the charnelhouse. The sexton and the physician were cast into the same deep and wide grave; the testator and his heirs and executors were hurled from the same cart into the same hole together.”18
Transmission of the disease was thought to be by miasmas, disease carrying vapours emanating from corpses and putrescent matter or from the breath of an infected or sick person. Others thought the Black Death was punishment from God for their sins and immoral behaviour, or was due to astrological and natural phenomena such as earthquakes, comets, and conjunctions of the planets. People turned to patron saints such as St Roch and St Sebastian or to the Virgin Mary, or joined processions of flagellants whipping themselves with nail embedded scourges and incanting hymns and prayers as they passed from town to town.17, 19, 20
“When the flagellants – they were also called cross brethren and cross bearers – entered a town, a borough or a village in a procession their entry was accompanied by the pealing of bells, singing, and a huge crowd of people. As they always marched two abreast, the procession of the numerous penitents reached farther than the eye could see.” [20]
The only remedies were inhalation of aromatic vapours from flowers and herbs such as rose, theriaca, aloe, thyme and camphor. Soon there was a shortage of doctors which led to a proliferation of quacks selling useless cures and amulets and other adornments that claimed to offer magical protection.
In this second pandemic, plague again caused great social and economic upheaval. Often whole families were wiped out and villages abandoned. Crops could not be harvested, travelling and trade became curtailed, and food and manufactured goods became short. As there was a shortage of labour, surviving villager labourers, the ‘villeins’, extorted exorbitant wages from the remaining aristocratic landowners. The villeins prospered and acquired land and property. The plague broke down the normal divisions between the upper and lower classes and led to the emergence of a new middle class.17, 9 The plague lead to a preoccupation with death as evident from macabre artworks such as the ‘Triumph of Death’ by Pieter Breughel the Elder in 1562, which depicted in a panoramic landscape armies of skeletons killing people of all social orders from peasants to kings and cardinals in a variety of macabre and cruel ways.
In the period 1347 to 1350 the Black Death killed a quarter of the population in Europe, over 25 million people, and another 25 million in Asia and Africa.[15] Mortality was even higher in cities such as Florence, Venice and Paris where more than half succumbed to the plague. A second major epidemic occurred in 1361, the pestis secunda, in which 10 to 20% of Europe’s population died.13 Other virulent infectious disease epidemics with high mortalities occurred during this time such as smallpox, infantile diarrhoea and dysentery. By 1430, Europe’s population was lower than it had been in 1290 and would not recover the pre-pandemic level until the 16th century.13, 21
Quarantine
In 1374 when another epidemic of the Black Death re-emerged in Europe, Venice instituted various public health controls such as isolating victims from healthy people and preventing ships with disease from landing at port. In 1377 the republic of Ragusa on the Adriatic Sea (now Dubrovnik in Yugoslavia) established a ships’ landing station far from the city and harbour in which travellers suspected to have the plague had to spend thirty days, the trentena, to see whether they became ill and died or whether they remained healthy and could leave. The trentena was found to be too short and in 1403 in Venice, travellers from the Levant in the eastern Mediterranean were isolated in a hospital for forty days, the quarantena or quaranta giorni, from which we derive the term quarantine.8,18 This change to forty days may have also been related to other biblical and historical references such as the Christian observance of Lent, the period for which Christ fasted in the desert, or the ancient Greek doctrine of “critical days” which held that contagious disease will develop within 40 days after exposure.22 In the 14th and 15th centuries following, most countries in Europe had established quarantine, and in the 18th century Habsburg established a cordon sanitaire, a line between infected and clean parts of the continent which ran from the Danube to the Balkans. It was manned by local peasants with checkpoints and quarantine stations to prevent infected people from crossing from eastern to western Europe.8
The leather costume of the plague doctors at Nijmegen
In the 15th and 16th centuries doctors wore a peculiar costume to protect themselves from the plague when they attended infected patients, first illustrated in a drawing by Paulus Furst in 1656 and later Jean-Jacques described a similar costume worn by the plague doctors at Nijmegen, an old Dutch town in Gelderland, in his 1721 work Treatise on the Plague. They wore a protective garb head to foot with leather or oil cloth robes, leggings, gloves and hood, a wide brimmed hat which denoted their medical profession, and a beak like mask with glass eyes and two breathing nostrils which was filled with aromatic herbs and flowers to ward off the miasmas. They avoided contact with patients by taking their pulse with a stick or issued prescriptions for aromatic herb inhalations passing them through the door, and buboes were lanced with knives several feet long.19
The Great Plague of London of 1665 to 1666
Plague continued to occur in small epidemics throughout the world but a major outbreak of the pneumonic plague occurred in Europe and England in 1665 to 1666. The epidemic was described by Samuel Pepys in his diaries in 1665 and by Daniel Defoe in 1722 in his A Journal of a Plague Year. People were incarcerated in their homes, doors painted with a cross. The epidemic reached a peak in September 1665 when 7,000 people per week were dying in London alone. Between 1665 and 1666 a fifth of London’s population died, some 100,000 people.[17] The Great Fire of London in 1666 and the subsequent rebuilding of timber and thatch houses with brick and tile disturbed the rats’ normal habitat and led to a reduction in their numbers, and may have been a contributing factor to the end of the epidemic.9
An old English nursery rhyme published in Kate Greenaway’s book Mother Goose 1881 reminds us of the symptoms of the plague :
‘Ring, a-ring, o’rosies, (a red blistery rash)
A pocket full of posies (fragrant herbs and flowers to ward off the ‘miasmas’)
Atishoo, atishoo (the sneeze and the cough heralding pneumonia)
We all fall down.’ (all dead)
Plague waxed and waned in Europe until the late 18th century, but not with the virulence and mortality of the 14th century European Black Death.
The Third Pandemic of 1894
The plague re-emerged from its wild rodent reservoir in the remote Chinese province of Yunnan in 1855. From there the disease advanced along the tin and opium routes and reached the provincial capital of K’unming in 1866, the Gulf of Tonkin in 1867, and the Kwangtung province port of Pakhoi (now Pei-hai) in 1882. In 1894 it had reached Canton and then spread to Hong Kong. It had spread to Bombay by 1896 and by 1900 had reached ports on every continent, carried by infected rats travelling the international trade routes on the new steamships.3,23 It was in Hong Kong in 1894 that Alexandre Yersin discovered the bacillus now known as Yersinia pestis, and in Karachi in 1898 that Paul-Louis Simond discovered the brown rat was the primary host and the rat flea the vector of the disease.3, 4, 24, 25
In 1900 the plague came to Australia where the first major outbreak occurred in Sydney, its epicentre at the Darling Harbour wharves, spreading to the city, Surry Hills, Glebe, Leichhardt, Redfern, and The Rocks, and causing 100 deaths. John Ashburton- Thompson, the chief medical officer, recorded the epidemic and confirmed that rats were the source and their fleas were the vectors in the epidemic. There were 12 major outbreaks of plague in Australia from 1900 to 1925 with 1371 cases and 535 deaths, most cases occurring in Sydney.26
The third pandemic waxed and waned throughout the world for the next five decades and did not end until 1959, in that time plague had caused over 15 million deaths, the majority of which were in India. There have been outbreaks of plague since, such as in China and Tanzania in 1983, Zaire in 1992, and India, Mozambique and Zimbabwe in 199415, 27. In Madagascar in the mid-1990’s, a multi-drug resistant strain of the bacillus was identified15, 28. Currently around 2,000 cases occur annually, mostly in Africa, Asia and South America, with a global case fatality rate of 5% to 15%.28
Bubonic plague is a virulent disease with a significant mortality rate, transmitted primarily by the bite of the rat flea or through person-to-person when in its pneumonic form. There have been innumerable epidemics of plague throughout history, but it was the pandemics of the 6th, 14th and 20th centuries that have had the most impact on human society, not only in terms of the great mortalities, but also the social, economic and cultural consequences that resulted. The course of development of communities and nations was altered several times. Much has changed to prevent the recurrence of pandemic plague, such as the development of the germ theory and the science of bacteriology, public health measures such as quarantine, and antibiotics such as streptomycin, but plague today is still an important and potentially serious threat to the health of people and animals. | In most human plague epidemics, infection initially took the form of large purulent abscesses of lymph nodes, the bubo (L. bubo = ‘groin’, Gr. boubon = ‘swelling in the groin’), this was bubonic plague. When bacteraemia followed, it caused haemorrhaging and necrosis of the skin rapidly followed by septicaemic shock and death, septicaemic plague. If the disease spread to the lung through the blood, it caused an invariably fatal pneumonia, pneumonic plague, and in that form plague was directly transmissible from person to person.
The three great plague pandemics had different geographic origins and paths of spread. The Justinian Plague of 541 started in central Africa and spread to Egypt and the Mediterranean. The Black Death of 1347 originated in Asia and spread to the Crimea then Europe and Russia. The third pandemic, that of 1894, originated in Yunnan, China, and spread to Hong Kong and India, then to the rest of the world.2
The causative organism, Yersinia pestis, was not discovered until the 1894 pandemic and was discovered in Hong Kong by a French Pastorien bacteriologist, Alexandre Yersin. Four years later in 1898 his successor, Paul-Louis Simond, a fellow Asia and migrated westward on the sea routes from China and India. The brown rat flourished in Europe where there were open sewers and ample breeding grounds and food and in the 18th and 19th centuries replaced the black rat as the main disease host.4, 9
The primary vectors for transmission of the disease from rats to humans were the Oriental or Indian rat flea, Xenopsylla cheopis, and the Northern or European rat flea, Nosopsyllus fasciatus. The human flea, Pulex irritans, and the dog and cat fleas, Ctenocephalides canis and felis, were secondary vectors. | no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_the_Black_Death | Theories of the Black Death - Wikipedia | Explanations and theories about the nature and transmission of the Black Death
Theories of the Black Death are a variety of explanations that have been advanced to explain the nature and transmission of the Black Death (1347–51). A number of epidemiologists from the 1980s to the 2000s challenged the traditional view that the Black Death was caused by plague based on the type and spread of the disease. The confirmation in 2010 and 2011 that Yersinia pestis DNA was associated with a large number of plague sites has led researchers to conclude that "Finally, plague is plague."[1]
Yersinia pestis seen at 2000× magnification. This bacterium, carried and spread by the flea, is generally thought to have been the cause of millions of deaths.[2]
Several possible causes have been advanced for the Black Death; the most prevalent is the bubonic plague theory.[3] Efficient transmission of Yersinia pestis is generally thought to occur only through the bites of fleas whose mid guts become obstructed by replicating Y. pestis several days after feeding on an infected host. This blockage results in starvation and aggressive feeding behaviour by fleas that repeatedly attempt to clear their blockage by regurgitation, resulting in thousands of plague bacteria being flushed into the feeding site, infecting the host. However, modelling of epizootic plague observed in prairie dogs, suggests that occasional reservoirs of infection such as an infectious carcass, rather than "blocked fleas" are a better explanation for the observed epizootic behaviour of the disease in nature.[4]
One hypothesis about the epidemiology—the appearance, spread, and especially disappearance—of plague from Europe is that the flea-bearing rodent reservoir of disease was eventually succeeded by another species. The black rat (Rattus rattus) was originally introduced from Asia to Europe by trade, but was subsequently displaced and succeeded throughout Europe by the bigger brown rat (Rattus norvegicus). The brown rat was not as prone to transmit the germ-bearing fleas to humans in large die-offs due to a different rat ecology.[5][6] The dynamic complexities of rat ecology, herd immunity in that reservoir, interaction with human ecology, secondary transmission routes between humans with or without fleas, human herd immunity, and changes in each might explain the eruption, dissemination, and re-eruptions of plague that continued for centuries until its unexplained disappearance.
The plague comes in three forms and it brought an array of signs and symptoms to those infected. The classic sign of bubonic plague was the appearance of buboes in the groin, the neck, and armpits, which oozed pus and bled. Most victims died within four to seven days after infection. The septicaemic plague is a form of "blood poisoning", and pneumonic plague is an airborne plague that attacks the lungs before the rest of the body.
The bubonic plague was the most commonly seen form during the Black Death. The bubonic form of the plague has a mortality rate of thirty to seventy-five percent and symptoms include fever of 38–41 °C (101–105 °F), headaches, painful aching joints, nausea and vomiting, and a general feeling of malaise. The second most common form is the pneumonic plague and has symptoms that include fever, cough, and blood-tinged sputum. As the disease progressed, sputum became free flowing and bright red and death occurred within 2 days. The pneumonic form of the plague has a high mortality rate at ninety to ninety-five percent. Septicemic plague is the least common of the three forms, with a mortality rate close to one hundred percent. Symptoms include high fevers and purple skin patches (purpura due to DIC). Both pneumonic and septicemic plague can be caused by flea bites when the lymph nodes are overwhelmed. In this case they are referred to as secondary forms of the disease.
David Herlihy[7] identifies from the records another potential sign of the plague: freckle-like spots and rashes. Sources from Viterbo, Italy refer to "the signs which are vulgarly called lenticulae", a word which bears resemblance to the Italian word for freckles, lentiggini. These are not the swellings of buboes, but rather "darkish points or pustules which covered large areas of the body".
The uncharacteristically rapid spread of the plague could be due to respiratory droplet transmission, and low levels of immunity in the European population at that period. Historical examples of pandemics of other diseases in populations without previous exposure, such as smallpox and tuberculosis transmitted by aerosol amongst Native Americans, show that the first instance of an epidemic spreads faster and is far more virulent than later instances among the descendants of survivors, for whom natural selection has produced characteristics that are protective against the disease.[citation needed]
Historians who believe that the Black Death was indeed caused by bubonic plague have put forth several theories questioning the traditional identification of Rattus sp. and their associated fleas as plague's primary vector.
A 2012 report from the University of Bergen acknowledges that Y. pestis could have been the cause of the pandemic, but states that the epidemiology of the disease is different, most importantly the rapid spread and the lack of rats in Scandinavia and other parts of Northern Europe. R. rattus was present in Scandinavian cities and ports at the time of the Black Death but was not found in small, inland villages. Based on archaeological evidence from digs all over Norway, the black rat population was present in sea ports but remained static in the cold climate and would only have been sustained if ships continually brought black rats and that the rats would be unlikely to venture across open ground to remote villages. It argues that while healthy black rats are rarely seen, rats suffering from bubonic plague behave differently from healthy rats; where accounts from warmer climates mention rats falling from roofs and walls and piling high in the streets, Samuel Pepys, who described trifling observations and events of the London plague of 1665 in great detail, makes no mention of sick or dead rats, nor does Absalon Pederssøn in his diary, which contains detailed descriptions of a plague epidemic in Bergen in 1565. Ultimately, Hufthammer and Walløe offer the possibility of human fleas and lice in place of rats.[8]
Michael McCormick, a historian supporting bubonic plague as the Black Death, explains how archaeological research has confirmed that the black or "ship" rat (Rattus rattus) was already present in Roman and medieval Europe. Also, the DNA of Y. pestis has been identified in the teeth of the human victims, the same DNA which has been widely believed to have come from the infected rodents.[11] Pneumonic expression of Y. pestis can be transmitted by human-to-human contact, but McCormick states that this does not spread as easily as previous historians have imagined. According to him, the rat is the only plausible agent of transmission that could have led to such a wide and quick spread of the plague. This is because of rats' proclivity to associate with humans and the ability of their blood to withstand very large concentrations of the bacillus.[12] When rats died, their fleas (which were infected with bacterial blood) found new hosts in the form of humans and animals. The Black Death tapered off in the eighteenth century, and according to McCormick, a rat-based theory of transmission could explain why this occurred. The plague(s) had killed a large portion of the human host population of Europe and dwindling cities meant that more people were isolated, and so geography and demography did not allow rats to have as much contact with Europeans. Greatly curtailed communication and transportation systems due to the drastic decline in human population also hindered the replenishment of devastated rat colonies.[13][clarification needed]
Although Y. pestis as the causative agent of plague was still widely accepted during this period, scientific and historical investigations in the late 20th century through publication of conclusive evidence in 2011 led some researchers to doubt the long-held belief that the Black Death was an epidemic of bubonic plague.
The arguments for an alternate causative agent were based on differences in mortality levels, disease diffusion rates, rat distribution, flea reproduction and climate, and distribution of human population.[14]
In 1984, Graham Twigg published The Black Death: A Biological Reappraisal, where he argued that the climate and ecology of Europe and particularly England made it nearly impossible for rats and fleas to have transmitted bubonic plague. Combining information on the biology of Rattus rattus, Rattus norvegicus, and the common fleas Xenopsylla cheopis and Pulex irritans with modern studies of plague epidemiology, particularly in India, where the R. rattus is a native species and conditions are nearly ideal for plague to be spread, Twigg concluded that it would have been nearly impossible for Yersinia pestis to have been the causative agent of the plague, let alone its explosive spread across Europe. Twigg also showed that the common alternate theory of entirely pneumonic spread does not hold up. He proposed, based on a reexamination of the evidence and symptoms, that the Black Death may actually have been an epidemic of pulmonary anthrax caused by Bacillus anthracis.
In 2002, Samuel K. Cohn published the controversial article, “The Black Death: End of the Paradigm”.[15] Cohn argued that the medieval and modern plagues were two distinct diseases differing in their symptoms, signs, and epidemiologies.[16] Cohn's argument that medieval plague was not rat-based is supported by his claims that the modern and medieval plagues occurred in different seasons (a claim supported in a 2009 article by Mark Welford and Brian Bossak[17]), had unparalleled cycles of recurrence, and varied in the manner in which immunity was acquired. The modern plague reaches its peak in seasons with high humidity and a temperature of between 50 °F (10 °C) and 78 °F (26 °C), as rats' fleas thrive in this climate.[18] In comparison, the Black Death is recorded as occurring in periods during which rats' fleas could not have survived, i.e. hot Mediterranean summers above 78 °F (26 °C).[15] In terms of recurrence, the Black Death on average did not resurface in an area for between five and fifteen years after it had occurred.[19] In contrast, modern plagues often recur in a given area yearly for an average of eight to forty years. Last, Cohn presented evidence displaying that individuals gained immunity to the Black Death, unlike the modern plague, during the fourteenth century. He stated that in 1348, two-thirds of those suffering from plague died, in comparison to one-twentieth by 1382.[15] Statistics display that immunity to the modern plague has not been acquired in modern times.
In the Encyclopedia of Population,[20] Cohn pointed to five major weaknesses in the bubonic plague theory:
very different transmission speeds – the Black Death was reported to have spread 385 km in 91 days (4.23 km/day) in 664, compared to 12–15 km a year for the modern bubonic plague, with the assistance of trains and cars
difficulties with the attempt to explain the rapid spread of the Black Death by arguing that it was spread by the rare pneumonic form of the disease – in fact this form killed less than 0.3% of the infected population in its worst outbreak (Manchuria in 1911)
different seasonality – the modern plague can only be sustained at temperatures between 10 and 26 °C and requires high humidity, while the Black Death occurred even in Norway in the middle of the winter and in the Mediterranean in the middle of hot dry summers
very different death rates – in several places (including Florence in 1348) over 75% of the population appears to have died; in contrast the highest mortality for the modern bubonic plague was 3% in Bombay in 1903
the cycles and trends of infection were very different between the diseases – humans did not develop resistance to the modern disease, but resistance to the Black Death rose sharply, so that eventually it became mainly a childhood disease
Cohn also pointed out that while the identification of the disease as having buboes relies on accounts of Boccaccio and others, they described buboes, abscesses, rashes and carbuncles occurring all over the body, the neck or behind the ears. In contrast, the modern disease rarely has more than one bubo, most commonly in the groin, and is not characterised by abscesses, rashes and carbuncles. This difference, he argued, ties in with the fact that fleas caused the modern plague and not the Black Death. Since flea bites do not usually reach beyond a person's ankles, in the modern period the groin was the nearest lymph node that could be infected. As the neck and the armpit were often infected during the medieval plague, it appears less likely that these infections were caused by fleas on rats.[21]
In 2001, Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan, respectively a demographer and zoologist from Liverpool University, proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an Ebola-like virus, not a bacterium. Their rationale was that this plague spread much faster and the incubation period was much longer than other confirmed Y. pestis–caused plagues. A longer period of incubation will allow carriers of the infection to travel farther and infect more people than a shorter one. When the primary vector is humans, as opposed to birds, this is of great importance. Epidemiological studies suggest the disease was transferred between humans (which happens rarely with Yersinia pestis and very rarely for Bacillus anthracis), and some genes that determine immunity to Ebola-like viruses are much more widespread in Europe than in other parts of the world. Their research and findings are thoroughly documented in Biology of Plagues.[22] More recently the researchers have published computer modeling[23]
demonstrating how the Black Death has made around 10% of Europeans resistant to HIV.
In a similar vein, historian Norman Cantor, in In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It Made (2001), suggested the Black Death might have been a combination of pandemics including a form of anthrax, a cattle murrain. He cited reported disease symptoms not in keeping with the known effects of either bubonic or pneumonic plague, the discovery of anthrax spores in a plague pit in Scotland, and the fact that meat from infected cattle was known to have been sold in many rural English areas prior to the onset of the plague. The means of infection varied widely, with infection in the absence of living or recently dead humans in Sicily (which speaks against most viruses). Also, diseases with similar symptoms were generally not distinguished between in that period (see murrain above), at least not in the Christian world; Chinese and Muslim medical records can be expected to yield better information which however only pertains to the specific disease(s) which affected these areas.
Cutaneous anthrax infection in humans shows up as a boil-like skin lesion that eventually forms an ulcer with a black center (eschar), often beginning as an irritating and itchy skin lesion or blister that is dark and usually concentrated as a black dot. Cutaneous infections generally form within the site of spore penetration between two and five days after exposure. Without treatment about 20% of cutaneous skin infection cases progress to toxemia and death.[24] Respiratory infection in humans initially presents with cold or flu-like symptoms for several days, followed by severe (and often fatal) respiratory collapse. Historical mortality was 92%.[25] Gastrointestinal infection in humans is most often caused by eating anthrax-infected meat and is characterized by serious gastrointestinal difficulty, vomiting of blood, severe diarrhea, acute inflammation of the intestinal tract, and loss of appetite. After the bacteria invades the bowel system, it spreads through the bloodstream throughout the body, making more toxins on the way.[24]
However recently the more and more evidences appear that the causative agent of the Black Death was Y. pestis.
In 2000, Didier Raoult and others reported finding Y. pestis DNA by performing a "suicide PCR" on tooth pulp tissue from a fourteenth-century plague cemetery in Montpellier.[26]
Drancourt and Raoult reported similar findings in a 2007 study.[27]
However, other researchers argued the study was flawed and cited contrary evidence. In 2003, Susan Scott of the University of Liverpool argued that there was no conclusive reason to believe the Montpellier teeth were from Black Death victims.[28]
Also in 2003, a team led by Alan Cooper from Oxford University tested 121 teeth from sixty-six skeletons found in 14th century mass graves, including well-documented Black Death plague pits in East Smithfield and Spitalfields. Their results showed no genetic evidence for Y. pestis, and Cooper concluded that though in 2003 "[w]e cannot rule out Yersinia as the cause of the Black Death ... right now there is no molecular evidence for it."[28][29][30] Other researchers argued that those burial sites where Y. pestis could not be found had nothing to do with the Black Death in the first place.[31]
In October 2010 the journal PLoS Pathogens published a paper by Haensch et al. (2010),[32] a multinational team that investigated the role of Yersinia pestis in the Black Death. The paper detailed the results of new surveys that combined ancient DNA analyses and protein-specific detection which were used to find DNA and protein signatures specific for Y. pestis in human skeletons from widely distributed mass graves in northern, central and southern Europe that were associated archaeologically with the Black Death and subsequent resurgences. The authors concluded that this research, together with prior analyses from the south of France and Germany
"...ends the debate about the etiology of the Black Death, and unambiguously demonstrates that Y. pestis was the causative agent of the epidemic plague that devastated Europe during the Middle Ages."
Significantly, the study also identified two previously unknown but related clades (genetic branches) of the Y. pestis genome that were associated with distinct medieval mass graves. These were found to be ancestral to modern isolates of the modern Y. pestis strains Orientalis and Medievalis, suggesting that these variant strains (which are now presumed to be extinct) may have entered Europe in two distinct waves.
The presence of Y. pestis during the Black Death and its phylogenetic placement was definitely established in 2011 with the publication of a Y. pestis genome using new amplification techniques used on DNA extracts from teeth from over 100 samples from the East Smithfield burial site in London.[33][34][35]
Surveys of plague pit remains in France and England indicate that the first variant entered western Europe through the port of Marseilles around November 1347 and spread through France over the next two years, eventually reaching England in the spring of 1349, where it spread through the country in three successive epidemics. However, surveys of plague pit remains from the Netherlands town of Bergen op Zoom showed that the Y. pestisgenotype responsible for the pandemic that spread through the Low Countries from 1350 differed from that found in Britain and France, implying that Bergen op Zoom (and possibly other parts of the southern Netherlands) was not directly infected from England or France in AD 1349, suggesting that a second wave of plague infection, distinct from those in Britain and France, may have been carried to the Low Countries from Norway, the Hanseatic cities, or another site.[32]
^ abHaensch, Stephanie; Bianucci, Raffaella; Signoli, Michel; Rajerison, Minoarisoa; Schultz, Michael; Kacki, Sacha; Vermunt, Marco; Weston, Darlene A.; Hurst, Derek; Achtman, Mark; Carniel, Elisabeth; Bramanti, Barbara (September 2010). Besansky, Nora J (ed.). "Distinct Clones of Yersinia pestis Caused the Black Death". PLOS Pathogens. 6 (10): e1001134. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1001134. PMC2951374. PMID20949072. We confirm that Y. pestis caused the Black Death and later epidemics on the entire European continent over the course of four centuries. Furthermore, on the basis of 17 single nucleotide polymorphisms plus the absence of a deletion in glpD gene, our aDNA results identified two previously unknown but related clades of Y. pestis associated with distinct medieval mass graves. These findings suggest that plague was imported to Europe on two or more occasions, each following a distinct route. These two clades are ancestral to modern isolates of Y. pestis biovars Orientalis and Medievalis. Our results clarify the etiology of the Black Death and provide a paradigm for a detailed historical reconstruction of the infection routes followed by this disease. | In contrast, the modern disease rarely has more than one bubo, most commonly in the groin, and is not characterised by abscesses, rashes and carbuncles. This difference, he argued, ties in with the fact that fleas caused the modern plague and not the Black Death. Since flea bites do not usually reach beyond a person's ankles, in the modern period the groin was the nearest lymph node that could be infected. As the neck and the armpit were often infected during the medieval plague, it appears less likely that these infections were caused by fleas on rats.[21]
In 2001, Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan, respectively a demographer and zoologist from Liverpool University, proposed the theory that the Black Death might have been caused by an Ebola-like virus, not a bacterium. | yes |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-05349-x | Evolution of immune genes is associated with the Black Death | Nature | Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain
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Subjects
Abstract
Infectious diseases are among the strongest selective pressures driving human evolution1,2. This includes the single greatest mortality event in recorded history, the first outbreak of the second pandemic of plague, commonly called the Black Death, which was caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis3. This pandemic devastated Afro-Eurasia, killing up to 30–50% of the population4. To identify loci that may have been under selection during the Black Death, we characterized genetic variation around immune-related genes from 206 ancient DNA extracts, stemming from two different European populations before, during and after the Black Death. Immune loci are strongly enriched for highly differentiated sites relative to a set of non-immune loci, suggesting positive selection. We identify 245 variants that are highly differentiated within the London dataset, four of which were replicated in an independent cohort from Denmark, and represent the strongest candidates for positive selection. The selected allele for one of these variants, rs2549794, is associated with the production of a full-length (versus truncated) ERAP2 transcript, variation in cytokine response to Y. pestis and increased ability to control intracellular Y. pestis in macrophages. Finally, we show that protective variants overlap with alleles that are today associated with increased susceptibility to autoimmune diseases, providing empirical evidence for the role played by past pandemics in shaping present-day susceptibility to disease.
Main
Infectious diseases have presented one of the strongest selective pressures in the evolution of humans and other animals1,2. Not surprisingly, many candidates for population-specific positive selection in humans involve immune response genes, consistent with the hypothesis that exposure to new and/or re-emerging pathogens has driven adaptation5,6. However, it is challenging to connect signatures of natural selection with their causative pathogens unless the underlying loci are still associated with susceptibility to the same pathogen in modern populations7,8. Clarifying the dynamics that have shaped the human immune system is key to understanding how historical diseases contributed to disease susceptibility today.
We sought to identify signatures of natural selection in Europeans imposed by Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for bubonic plague3. The first recorded plague pandemic began with the Plague of Justinian in ad 541 (refs. 9,10). Nearly 800 years later, the Black Death (1346–1350) marked the beginning of the second pandemic of plague, which spread throughout Europe, the Middle East and Northern Africa, reducing the population by up to 30–50%4,11. With no recent exposure to plague, Europeans living through the Black Death probably represented immunologically naive populations with little to no prior adaptation to Y. pestis. The high mortality rate suggests that genetic variants that conferred protection against Y. pestis infection might have been under strong selection during this time. Indeed, the nearly decadal plague outbreaks over the subsequent four hundred years of the second pandemic in Europe often (but not always) were associated with reduced mortality rates11,12, which could have been due to pathogen evolution or changing cultural practices, but potentially also linked to human genetic adaptation to Y. pestis.
Positive selection on immune genes
Genomic targets of selection imposed by Y. pestis during the Black Death, if present, have remained elusive13,14,15. To better identify such loci, we characterized genetic variation from ancient DNA extracts derived from individuals who died shortly before, during or soon after the Black Death in London and across Denmark. This unique sampling design differentiates, to the greatest extent possible, signatures due to Y. pestis from those associated with other infectious diseases or other selective processes (although we cannot exclude these entirely). From London, individuals were sampled from three cemeteries close to one another, tightly dated by radiocarbon, stratigraphy and historical records to before, during and after the Black Death (Fig. 1, Supplementary Table 1 andSupplementary Methods). From Denmark, individuals were sampled from five localities, geographically spread across the country, which were dated via archaeological means (such as burial arm positions), stratigraphy and historical records. We grouped all individuals into those that lived pre-Black Death (London: around ad 1000–1250, Denmark: around ad 850 to around ad 1350) and post-Black Death (London: ad 1350–1539, Denmark: around ad 1350 to around ad 1800). Within London, we also included individuals buried in the plague cemetery, East Smithfield, all of whom died during a two-year window of the Black Death between 1348 and 1349 (ref.16). Analysis of the mitogenomic diversity from these individuals identifies solely European mitogenomic haplotypes, avoiding a possible confound between natural selection and population replacement from non-European sources17.
Fig. 1: East Smithfield mass burial and sample locations, along with date ranges and final sample numbers used for the present study.
a, East Smithfield Black Death mass burial site from 1348–1349 (reproduced with permission of the Museum of London Archaeology, copyright MOLA). b, Site locations and archaeological site codes (in parentheses) for samples from London (inset, after ref. 48, Museum of London Archaeology) and from across Denmark. c, Top, population size estimates for London for around six centuries (data are from refs. 13,49,50) (Supplementary Table 1). Bottom, site locations with associated date ranges. Coloured boxes indicate date range for samples, numbers in boxes indicate samples meeting all criteria for inclusion in final analyses (see main text and Supplementary Information). Number in green star stems from East Smithfield and the dashed line refers to the time of the Black Death.
In total we screened 516 samples (n = 318 from London; n = 198 from across Denmark) for the presence of human DNA using a modified polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for the single copy nuclear c-myc gene17,18 and identified 360 with sufficient endogenous DNA content for downstream enrichment and sequencing of additional nuclear loci (Supplementary Methods). As many of our samples were poorly preserved and had low endogenous DNA content, we used hybridization capture to enrich for and sequence 356 immune-related genes, 496 genome-wide association study (GWAS) loci previously associated with immune disorders and 250 putatively neutral regions (1.5 kb each), as defined by Gronau and colleagues19 (Supplementary Table 2; Supplementary Methods). The targeted immune genes were manually curated on the basis of their role in immune-related processes, and include innate immune receptors, key immune transcription factors, cytokines and chemokines, and other effector molecules (Supplementary Table 3). To ensure that deamination and other forms of ancient DNA damage did not lead to spurious genotype calls, we trimmed 4 base pairs (bp) from the start and end of each sequencing read (Supplementary Fig. 1) and excluded all singleton variants (n = 106,757). Our final dataset contained 33,110 biallelic variants within the targeted regions (2,669 near GWAS loci, 19,972 in immune genes and 10,469 in putatively neutral regions), with a mean coverage of 4.6× reads per site per individual (see Supplementary Table 1 for per-individual coverage). We further filtered our results by excluding samples with missing genotype calls at more than 50% of those sites (retaining n = 206 individuals, Fig. 1c) and excluding variants with genotype calls for less than 10 individuals per time period and population. Using genotype likelihoods, we then calculated the minor allele frequency (MAF) per population at each time point. Finally, we retained only sites with a mean MAF (averaged across London and Denmark) greater than 5% (n = 22,868 sites), as our power to detect selection for variants below 5% is very low (Supplementary Fig. 2).
To detect alleles that may have conferred protection from, or susceptibility to, Y. pestis, we searched within candidate regions (immune genes and GWAS loci) for variants that exhibit unexpectedly large changes in allele frequency between pre- and post-Black Death samples. Specifically, we identified alleles for which the degree of differentiation (FST) was larger than expected by chance, when compared to variants in the putatively neutral genetic regions sampled from the same populations. We used the larger sample set from London as our discovery cohort. Burials in London were also more precisely dated and better geographically controlled than those from Denmark, improving our relative ability to detect selection in the cohort from London (Supplementary Methods). We found an enrichment of highly differentiated variants for all frequency bins with MAF greater than 10%, relative to a null expectation established using our neutral loci (Fig. 2a). Across these variants, differentiation at immune loci exceeded the 99th percentile of neutral variants at 2.4× the rate expected by chance (binomial test P = 7.89 × 10−12). For variants with an MAF greater than 30%, this enrichment was even more pronounced (3.9× the rate expected by chance; binomial test P = 1.16 × 10−14), probably due to increased power (Supplementary Fig. 2). Simulations show that differences in recombination rate and background selection between neutral and candidate loci are insufficient to explain the observed enrichments (Extended Data Fig. 1). To further validate the signatures of selection we observed among immune loci from our London sample, we performed the same analyses using the allele frequencies estimated from our Danish cohort. These samples were also enriched for highly differentiated sites relative to the expectation from neutral loci (1.6× the rate expected by chance, binomial test P = 9.21 × 10−4; Fig. 2b), further supporting evidence for plague-induced selection on immune genes.
Fig. 2: Positive selection at immune loci.
a,b, Enrichment of highly differentiated sites in functional regions relative to neutral regions when comparing the pre-Black Death (BD) population to the post-BD population in London (a) and Denmark (b). c, FST between London before and after the Black Death, limited to the 535 sites that show qualitative patterns consistent with natural selection (namely allele frequency changes in the same direction in both London and Denmark after the Black Death, and the opposite direction for individuals who died during the Black Death (Supplementary Table 4)). Manhattan plot showing loci with patterns indicative of positive selection. Point size and colour intensity (which alternates by chromosome) represents the –log10P value comparing populations in London before and after the plague, points coloured in orange represent the four positions and their associated genes, which are highly differentiated in Denmark as well. d–g, Patterns of allelic change over time for the four strongest candidates for positive selection. Error bars represent the standard deviation based on bootstrapping individuals from that population and each time point 10,000 times. Allele frequencies for London are shown in red and for Denmark are shown in blue. Modern allele frequencies are derived from 1000 Genomes data for Great Britain in London51.
To identify specific loci that represent the strongest candidates of selection, we applied a series of stringent criteria that leveraged the time periods and populations in this unique dataset. First, we identified 245 common variants (MAF greater than 10%) that were highly differentiated (FST greater than 95th percentile defined using neutral sites) when comparing pre- versus post-Black Death samples in London alone (Supplementary Table 4). Next, we reasoned that variants conferring increased susceptibility to, or protection from, Y. pestis should show opposing frequency patterns before, during and after the Black Death. Specifically, variants associated with susceptibility should increase in frequency among people who died during the Black Death and should decrease in frequency among individuals sampled post-Black Death (that is, the survivors and/or descendants of the survivors). Conversely, protective variants should show an inverse pattern. Using this reasoning, we narrowed down our list of putatively selected loci from 245 to 35 (Supplementary Table 4). Finally, we asked if these loci were also highly differentiated before and after the Black Death in our Danish replication cohort (that is, among the top 10% most highly differentiated sites, and in the same direction as seen in London). Four loci met these criteria, representing the strongest candidates for selection (Fig. 2c–g). We calculated the selection coefficient (s) for each of these variants using a Hidden Markov Model (HMM) framework (based on ref. 20, Supplementary Methods). Statistical support for non-neutral evolution (s ≠ 0) among our four candidate loci is strong when compared to that of neutral loci (P < 0.001 for each locus; Supplementary Table 5). Despite the large confidence intervals—an inherent limitation when trying to estimate s over a few generations—the absolute values for the point estimate of s range from 0.26 to 0.4, which are among the strongest selective coefficients yet reported in humans, to our knowledge (Extended Data Fig. 2 and Supplementary Table 5).
Functional dissection of candidate loci
None of our top candidate variants overlaps with (nor is in strong linkage disequilibrium with) coding variants, although one, near the ERAP2 gene, is strongly linked to a variant that affects splicing21,22. Their selective advantage may stem from an impact on gene expression levels, particularly in immune cell types that participate in the host response to Y. pestis infection. Macrophages in particular are recruited to sites of infection, where they interact with bacteria and contribute to plague resistance23,24. Macrophages phagocytize Y. pestis, but some bacteria survive and spread to the lymph node, where they replicate uncontrollably25,26. To test whether the four candidate loci we identified, or genes near them, are involved in the transcriptional response to Y. pestis, we incubated monocyte-derived macrophages from 33 individuals with heat-killed Y. pestis and compared their expression profiles to unstimulated control samples using RNA sequencing (Supplementary Methods). As expected, macrophages responded robustly to Y. pestis, such that principal component 1 of the gene expression data, which separates baseline versus Y. pestis stimulated conditions, explains 56% of the total variance (Extended Data Fig. 3).
Seven genes within 100 kb of our four candidate loci were expressed in this dataset: locus 1 (rs2549794): ERAP1, ERAP2, LNPEP; locus 3 (rs11571319): CTLA4, ICOS; and locus 4 (rs17473484): TICAM2, TMED7. NFATC1, the only gene within 100 kb of locus 2 (rs1052025), was not expressed in this dataset. With the sole exception of LNPEP, all of these genes were differentially expressed in response to Y. pestis stimulation (Fig. 3a), supporting their putative role in the host response. Macrophages from an additional panel of eight individuals infected with live and fully virulent Y. pestis showed similar directional changes in gene expression to those observed in response to heat-killed bacteria. This was true genome-wide (r = 0.88, P < 1 × 10−10, Extended Data Fig. 4a) and for genes near our four candidate loci (ERAP1 is an exception; it was upregulated in response to live bacteria but downregulated in response to heat-killed bacteria, Extended Data Fig. 4b). To investigate whether changes in gene expression were specific to Y. pestis or shared with other infectious agents, we analysed gene expression data from macrophages infected with live Listeria monocytogenes (a Gram-positive bacterium) and Salmonella typhimurium (a Gram-negative bacterium, like Y. pestis)27, as well as monocytes activated with bacterial and viral ligands targeting the Toll-like receptor (TLR) pathways (TLR1/2, TLR4 and TLR7/8) and live influenza virus28. These data show that all genes near our candidate loci (with the exception of CTLA4) respond to other pathogenic agents but that the direction of change in expression differs depending on the stimulus. For example, ERAP2 is downregulated in response to all live bacteria or bacterial stimuli, including Y. pestis, but is upregulated in response to viral ones (Extended Data Fig. 5).
a, Normalized log2 fold-change of genes within 100 kb of candidate variants in response to incubation of primary macrophages for four hours with heat-killed Y. pestis. Dark grey dots correspond to the fold-change observed for each of the 33 individuals tested; red dots and bars represent the mean ± standard deviation. With the exception of LNPEP, all associations are significant (10% false discovery rate). b,c, Effect of rs1747384 genotype upon TICAM2 expression (b) and rs2549794 genotype upon ERAP2 expression (c), split by macrophages stimulated for four hours with heat-killed Y. pestis and unstimulated macrophages. Red dots and bars represent the mean ± standard deviation. d, Comparison of ERAP2 expression among non-infected and infected cells with live Y. pestis for five hours, profiled using scRNA-sequencing data in individuals with homozygous rs2549794 genotypes. Colour intensity reflects the level of ERAP2 expression, standardized for unstimulated or infected cells. Major PBMC cell types are labelled and can be found clearly coloured in Extended Data Fig. 7; CD4+ and CD8+ T cells were analysed separately. NK, natural killer. e, Effects of rs2549794 genotype upon ERAP2 expression, split by infected and non-infected conditions, for each cell type. f, Illustration of the two haplotype-specific ERAP2 spliced forms for Haplotype A and Haplotype B with start (green) and stop (brown) codons. Below we show the effect of rs2248374 genotype upon total mRNA expression of ERAP2 (left) and the specific expression of the isoform (Haplotype B) encoding the truncated version of ERAP2 (right). For all panels: ***P < 0.001; **P < 0.01; *P < 0.05.
Having established that genes near our candidate loci show a transcriptional response to Y. pestis in macrophages, we next asked whether genetic variation at each of the four candidate loci is associated with gene expression levels at nearby genes (Fig. 3b,c). We identified an association between rs17473484 genotype and TICAM2 expression in which the protective allele is associated with higher expression of the gene in the unstimulated condition (Fig. 3b; P = 2.5 × 10−6) but not after Y. pestis stimulation (P = 0.24). This effect is intriguing as TICAM2 encodes an adaptor protein for TLR4. In vivo, TLR4 detects Y. pestis via the recognition of lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the bacterial outer membrane29. Y. pestis attempts to circumvent this detection by deacylating surface LPS, thereby reducing the binding affinity for TLR4 (ref. 30). TICAM2 ushers LPS-bound TLR4 into endosomes and activates type I interferon responses31. It is therefore possible that increased TICAM2 expression confers protection against Y. pestis by increasing sensitivity to LPS and promoting an effective immune response.
The strongest association we identified was between rs2549794 and ERAP2 expression, in which the protective allele (C) is associated with a fivefold increase in expression of ERAP2 relative to the putatively deleterious T allele (Fig. 3c), in both unstimulated (P = 4.4 × 10−10) and Y. pestis-challenged (P = 8.7 × 10−7) cells. We observed similarly strong associations in macrophages and monocytes infected with other pathogens (Salmonella, Listeria, influenza) or stimulated with TLR-activating ligands (all P < 1 × 10−10; Extended Data Fig. 6). This pattern also generalizes to Y. pestis-infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) more broadly, suggesting that rs2549794 is associated with ERAP2 expression levels regardless of the infectious/inflammatory stimulus or cell type. In detail, we generated single-cell RNA-sequencing data from PBMCs from ten individuals (five homozygous for the selectively favoured rs2549794 C allele and five homozygous for the alternate T allele), both at baseline and after infection with live, fully virulent Y. pestis. Across all immune cell types profiled—B cells, CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, natural killer cells and monocytes (Extended Data Fig. 7)—we identified 5,570 genes for which infection with Y. pestis significantly alters gene expression levels (314 to 4,234 genes per cell type, 10% false discovery rate; Supplementary Table 6). Most genes near our candidate loci are differentially expressed in response to Y. pestis infection, but both the magnitude and direction of such effects is cell type-specific (Extended Data Fig. 8). For example, ERAP2 is upregulated upon stimulation in all PBMC cell types (Fig. 3d,e), but is downregulated in monocyte-derived macrophages. These differences could be due to differences in the transcription factors and enhancers active in each cell type, differences in our infection models (PBMCs versus monocyte-derived macrophages), or both. Notably, in all cell types and under all conditions, the selectively favoured rs2549794 C allele is associated with increased ERAP2 expression compared to the alternative T allele.
The ERAP2 locus is characterized by two haplotypes (A and B) that are common around the world21. Haplotype A encodes the canonical (full-length) ERAP2 protein consisting of 960 amino acids; Haplotype B is characterized by the presence of the G allele of rs2248374, a splice-site-altering variant that leads to the production of a splice isoform with an elongated exon 10 containing two premature stop codons. This ERAP2 isoform undergoes nonsense-mediated decay (NMD), resulting in undetectable ERAP2 protein levels21. Even when produced, the shorter protein encoded by Haplotype B has limited aminopeptidase activity32. The selectively favoured rs2549794 C allele is in strong linkage with allele A of rs2248374 (R2 > 0.8, D' = 1.0) of Haplotype A, which encodes the full-length ERAP2 protein, whereas the deleterious rs2549794 T allele is in linkage with the rs2248374 G allele of Haplotype B, which encodes the truncated version of ERAP2. Using real-time PCR specific to the mRNA encoded by Haplotype B, we found that, in macrophages, the decreased ERAP2 expression in individuals harbouring the deleterious rs2248374 G allele is coupled with a higher expression of the truncated isoform known to undergo NMD (Fig. 3f, P = 2.66 × 10−6). PCR amplification of exon 10 further confirmed that individuals homozygous for the protective rs2248374 A allele only express Haplotype A, whereas individuals homozygous for the rs2248374 G allele almost exclusively express the truncated Haplotype B (Extended Data Fig. 9).
ERAP1 and ERAP2 are aminopeptidases that work synergistically to trim peptides for presentation to CD8+ T cells by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules33. Given their central role in antigen presentation, it is not surprising that polymorphisms near these genes, including rs2549794, have been associated with susceptibility to a variety of infectious agents34,35. ERAP2 deficiency leads to a significant remodelling of the repertoire of antigens that are presented by MHC to CD8+ T cells36,37, including MHC ligands that have high homology to peptide sequences derived from Yersinia species37. Having ERAP2-mediated aminopeptidase activity plausibly helps to promote the presentation of a more diverse array of Yersinia-derived antigens to CD8+ T cells, which in turn has an important role in protection against infection38,39. Indeed, mice depleted of CD8+ T cells all die within one-week post-infection with a milder Yersinia spp., Y. pseudotuberculosis, whereas all wild-type mice survive39. Unfortunately, rodent models only possess a single ERAP aminopeptidase that is homologous to ERAP1, limiting our ability to directly test the function of ERAP2 on antigen presentation and response to Y. pestis in vivo.
In addition to its canonical role in antigen presentation and CD8+ T cell activation, ERAP2 is also involved in viral clearance and cytokine responses40. We therefore sought to test whether ERAP2 genotype is associated with variation in the cytokine response to Y. pestis infection. To do so, we infected a further set of monocyte-derived macrophages from 25 individuals (9 homozygous for the selectively favoured ERAP2 haplotype, 9 heterozygous and 7 homozygous for the deleterious haplotype) with live, virulent Y. pestis and measured the protein levels of ten cytokines involved in various aspects of the immune response, at baseline and at 24 h postinfection. No differences in cytokine levels existed at baseline (all P > 0.05; Supplementary Table 7), but four cytokines showed a significant association with ERAP2 genotype upon stimulation. Specifically, the levels of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (P = 0.0155), interleukin (IL)-1β (P = 0.00262) and IL-10 (P = 0.00248) significantly decreased with the number of protective C alleles, whereas we observed the opposite pattern for levels of the chemokine CCL3 (P = 0.0216), which is involved in the recruitment of neutrophils upon infection (Fig. 4a–d; Supplementary Table 7). Although the exact mechanism linking ERAP2 function to variation in cytokine responses in response to Y. pestis remains to be determined, we speculate that it might be due to the role played by ERAP2 in the differentiation and/or activation of myeloid cells and in the activation of the caspase1/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway40. Finally, we assayed the ability of macrophages to control internalized Y. pestis replication as a function of ERAP2 genotype. We observed an additive association between ERAP2 genotype and the ability to limit Y. pestis infection, such that individuals with more copies of the selectively favoured allele were better able to restrict intracellular replication (Spearman’s rho = 0.42, P = 0.0155; Fig. 4e). This experiment directly implicates ERAP2 in the response to Y. pestis infection, but through pathways other than ERAP2’s canonical role in antigen presentation. Together, these results support the idea that changes in ERAP2 allele frequencies during the Black Death were probably due to Y. pestis-induced natural selection.
a–d, Effect of genotype upon cytokine levels for granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) (a), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) (b), interleukin 10 (IL-10) (c) and C-C motif chemokine ligand 3 (CCL3) (d). Remaining cytokines showed no significant effects and are included in Supplementary Table 7. e, Boxplots showing the percentage of bacteria killed (y axis) by macrophages infected for 24 h as a function of ERAP2 genotype (x axis). The percentage of bacteria killed was calculated as the CFU2 h − CFU24 h/CFU2 h, where CFU is colony-forming unit. The P value results from a linear model examining the association between ERAP2 single nucleotide polymorphism genotypes (SNP) (coded as the number of protective rs2549794 alleles found in each individual: 0, 1 or 2) and the percentage of bacteria killed.
Discussion
Our results provide strong empirical evidence that the Black Death was an important selective force that shaped genetic diversity around some immune loci. Although our candidate selected loci are generally involved in the response to pathogens, and not just Y. pestis, our unique sampling design minimized the degree to which other historical events (such as tuberculosis8 or famine41,42,43) could have affected the inference of selection. To support our ancient genomic data, we confirmed that the strongest candidates for positive selection are directly involved in the immune response to Y. pestis using functional data from in vitro infection experiments.
We identified four loci that were strongly differentiated before and after the Black Death in London and replicated in our Danish cohort as the strongest candidates of selection. However, given our small sample sizes and the low sequencing depth from some samples, our replication power is limited. Thus, some of the other 245 highly differentiated loci in London were also probably impacted by natural selection, although they did not survive our conservative filtering criteria. Increased sample sizes coupled with additional functional data will help to further dissect the evolutionary role played by these variants in the immune response to Y. pestis.
ERAP2 showed the most compelling evidence for selection, both from a genetic and functional perspective, with an estimated selection coefficient of 0.4 (95% confidence interval 0.19,0.62, Extended Data Figs. 2 and 10). This estimate suggests that individuals homozygous for the protective allele were about 40% more likely to survive the Black Death than those homozygous for the deleterious variant. This allele is associated with both increased expression of ERAP2 and production of the canonical full-length ERAP2 protein21,22. We suggest that this protein increases the presentation of Yersinia-derived antigens to CD8+ T cells, stimulating a protective immune response against Y. pestis38,39. Furthermore, we show that macrophages from individuals possessing the selected ERAP2 allele engage in a unique cytokine response to Y. pestis infection and are better able to limit Y. pestis replication in vitro.
In general, individuals with more copies of the selectively advantageous haplotype displayed a weaker cytokine response to infection but a better ability to limit bacterial growth. For example, levels of IL-1β, a key proinflammatory cytokine often associated with pyroptotic cell death44, were threefold lower in individuals homozygous for the advantageous ERAP2 genotype when compared to individuals homozygous for the putatively deleterious one. Therefore, subjects with the advantageous haplotype are both more efficient at controlling internalized bacteria and at resisting Y. pestis-induced cell death than subjects with the deleterious haplotype—abilities that may help to reduce bystander tissue damage during infection. However, as our experiments were done in vitro we were unable to directly evaluate the impact of ERAP2 genotype on tissue damage, immune cell recruitment and survival.
More broadly, our results highlight the contribution of natural selection to present-day susceptibility towards chronic inflammatory and autoimmune disease. We show that ERAP2 is transcriptionally responsive to stimulation with a large array of pathogens, supporting its key role in the regulation of immune responses. Therefore, selection imposed by Y. pestis on ERAP2 probably affects the immune response to other pathogens or disease traits. Consistent with this hypothesis, the selectively advantageous ERAP2 variant is also a known risk factor for Crohn’s disease45, and ERAP2 variation has also been associated with other infectious diseases34,35. Thus, selection for pathogen defence in the presence of pathogens such as Y. pestis may be counterbalanced against the costs of immune disorders, resulting in a long-term signature of balancing selection21,22. Likewise, another of our top candidate loci (rs11571319 near CTLA4) is associated with an increased risk of rheumatoid arthritis46 and systemic lupus erythematosus47, such that retaining the putatively advantageous allele during the Black Death confers increased risk for autoimmune disease in present-day populations. To date, most of the evidence for an association between autoimmune risk alleles and adaptation to past infectious diseases remains indirect, primarily because the aetiological agents driving selection remain hidden. Our ancient genomic and functional analyses suggest that Y. pestis has been one such agent, representing empirical evidence connecting the selective force of past pandemics to present-day susceptibility to disease.
Reporting summary
Data availability
Hybridization capture data from the ancient individuals have been deposited in the NCBI Sequence Read Archive (SRA) under BioProject PRJNA798381. Expression data have been deposited into the NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) under project GSE194118 (for macrophages) and the NCBI SRA under project accession PRJNA871128 (for PBMCs). Cytokine data is available in Supplementary Table 8 and CFU data in Supplementary Table 9.
Acknowledgements
We thank all members of the Barreiro laboratory and the Poinar laboratory for their constructive comments and feedback. We thank J. Tung for her comments and edits to the manuscript. Computational resources were provided by the University of Chicago Research Computing Center. Sequencing was performed at the Farncombe Sequencing Facility McMaster University. We thank the Cytometry and Biomarkers platform at the Institut Pasteur for support in conducting this study, with a special thanks to C. Petitdemange for help running the Luminex assay. We thank X. Zhang for assistance in simulating allele frequency changes under neutral evolution. This work was supported by grant R01-GM134376 to L.B.B., H.P. and J.P.-C., a grant from the Wenner-Gren Foundation to J.F.B. (8702), and the UChicago DDRCC, Center for Interdisciplinary Study of Inflammatory Intestinal Disorders (C-IID) (NIDDK P30 DK042086). The SSHRC Insight Development Grant supported the collection of the Danish samples (430-2017-01193). H.N.P. was supported by an Insight Grant no. 20008499 from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and The Canadian Institute for Advanced Research under the Humans and the Microbiome programme. T.P.V. was supported by NIH F32GM140568. X.C. and M. Steinrücken were supported by grant R01GM146051. We also thank the University of Chicago Genomics Facility (RRID:SCR_019196), especially P. Faber, for their assistance with RNA sequencing. H.P. thanks D. Poinar for continued support and manuscript suggestions and editing.
Contributions
L.B.B. and H.N.P. directed the study. J.K. designed the enrichment assays and generated ancient genomic data. T.P.V. led all data and computational analyses, with contributions from J.-C.G. X.C. performed all analyses to estimate selection coefficients under the supervision of M. Steinrücken. J.F.B., R.S. and V.Y. performed challenge experiments with macrophages and heat-killed Y. pestis. M. Shiratori and A. Dumaine performed the infection experiments on PBMCs and generated the single-cell RNA-sequencing data, with assistance from D.E. and D.M. C.E.D. and J.P.-C. performed and designed the infection experiments with live Y. pestis on macrophages and generated both cytokine and CFU data, with assistance from J.M. and R.B. C.J.Y. and M.B. designed the probes to quantify the isoform encoding the short version of ERAP2 and M.I.P. performed the experiments. R.R., S.N.D., J.A.G. and J.L.B. provided access to samples, archaeological information, including dating, and other relevant information. A.C. and N.V. provided insights into historical context. K.E. and G.B.G. provided additional sampling and bioinformatic processing and cluster maintenance. A. Devault and J.-M.R. provided insight on targeted enrichment and modified versions of baits used for immune enrichment. G.A.R. provided genomic input on loci and contributed financially to the sequencing of targets. T.P.V., J.K., H.N.P. and L.B.B. wrote the manuscript, with input from all authors.
Extended data figures and tables
Comparison of recombination rate (A) and background selection levels (B) between neutral loci and our candidate regions. Candidate regions were stratified into those which were tested and those which were candidates for positive selection based on high differentiation in London pre- vs post-BD. (C) Forward simulations matched for the rates of recombination and background selection of the regions targeted in our study show a slight enrichment of highly differentiated sites in candidate regions, but far from the level of enrichment observed in our collected data (D), replicated from Fig. 2a for comparison. For example, whereas our data differentiation at immune loci exceeded the 99th percentile of neutral variants at 2.4x the rate expected by chance (among variants with a MAF > 10%), the same enrichment is less than 1.2x in the simulated data.
(A) Distributions of \({\hat{s}}_{{\rm{MLE}}}\) for the four SNPs when replicates are simulated with the corresponding bootstrapped allele frequency distributions as initial conditions and bootstrap-corrected estimates \({\widetilde{s}}_{{\rm{MLE}}}\). Whiskers on the violin plots label the 2.5-, 50-, and 97.5-percentiles of their respective distributions. (B) ROC and (C) Precision-Recall curves for the estimation procedure to distinguish replicates under selection from those under neutrality.
Effect size of Y. pestis stimulation compared between heat-killed Y. pestis (x-axis, n = 33 individuals) and live Y. pestis (y-axis, n = 8 individuals). (A) shows all genes, with a blue line representing the best fit line (r = 0.88). (B) compares effect sizes at genes near candidates for positive selection profiled in both expression datasets (red: heat-killed; purple: live bacteria). Error bars represent the standard error in estimating the effect size. The direction of effect is consistent except for LNPEP (which is not significant in either analysis) and ERAP1. CTLA4 and TICAM2 are not shown because they were not expressed at sufficiently high levels in the macrophages from the 8 individuals infected with live Y. pestis. Asterisks placed near the point estimate of each value represent the significance: *** p < 0.001; ** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.
Data are derived from Nedelec et al27. and Quach et al28 Nedelec et al. measured the gene expression response of monocyte-derived macrophages to infection with two live intracellular bacteria: Listeria monocytogenes (a Gram-positive bacterium) and Salmonella typhimurium (a Gram-negative bacterium). Quach et al. characterized the transcriptional response at 6 h of primary monocytes to bacterial and viral stimuli ligands activating Toll-like receptor pathways (TLR1/2, TLR4, and TLR7/8) and live influenza virus. The data for Y. pestis are the fold change responses observed in response to heat-killed bacteria. A negative estimate in plot (purple) indicates that the gene is downregulated and a positive value (red) indicates that the gene is up-regulated. The statistical support for the reported changes is given by the associated p values. Larger circle sizes represent smaller p values and empty circles refer to cases where the gene was not expressed in that dataset.
Effect of genotype at nearby loci on the expression of ERAP2 (top) and TICAM2 (bottom), across experimental conditions in this study and previously published26,27. For ERAP2, the protective “C” haplotype increases expression in all conditions (p < 0.001). For TICAM2, the protective reference haplotype decreases expression only in the unstimulated condition (p = 2.5x10−6; p > 0.05 in all other conditions).
UMAP projection of single-cell RNA sequencing data of non-infected cells and cells infected with live Y. pestis for five hours, after integrating samples. Major immune cell types cluster separately and cells are colored by the cell type to which they were assigned.
For each cell type profiled using single-cell RNA sequencing, we show the effect of Y. pestis infection upon gene expression. A negative estimate (purple) indicates that the gene is downregulated and a positive value (red) indicates that the gene is up-regulated. The statistical support for the reported changes is given by the associated p values. Larger circle sizes represent smaller p values and empty circles refer to cases where the gene was not expressed in that cell type.
Bioanalyzer traces showing the results of the PCR amplification of cDNA across the exon 10 splice junction from macrophages of 10 individuals with different genotypes for the slice variant rs2248374. The genotype of each individual is shown on top. A negative PCR control was also performed using water. The G allele at rs2248374 is predicted to produce an elongated exon 10 containing two premature stop codons (red rectangles), leading to nonsense mediated decay.
The time axis serves as an approximate reference of the relative sampling times for the empirical samples. Dashed vertical lines indicate the relative sampling time for each group of samples considered in the analysis, and the floating boxes with orange and blue dots represent pools of samples from a bi-allelic locus. Above and below the time axis are sketches that respectively correspond to the simulation scheme and the likelihood computations. The shaded red horizontal tree represents the population-continuity along approximate time (x-axis), with the Black Death pandemic occurring in the dark shaded period. The shortened branch with a skull at the end represents people who died of the disease. In each simulated replicate, ∆p and −∆p mark the respective changes of allele frequency during the pandemic in the mid-pandemic and post-pandemic sample pools. In the inference schematics, each horizontal straight line represents a sampling scheme from which a likelihood was computed. Lightning bolts labeled with s or −s represent the selection coefficients.
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Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law. | Clarifying the dynamics that have shaped the human immune system is key to understanding how historical diseases contributed to disease susceptibility today.
We sought to identify signatures of natural selection in Europeans imposed by Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for bubonic plague3. The first recorded plague pandemic began with the Plague of Justinian in ad 541 (refs. 9,10). Nearly 800 years later, the Black Death (1346–1350) marked the beginning of the second pandemic of plague, which spread throughout Europe, the Middle East and Northern Africa, reducing the population by up to 30–50%4,11. With no recent exposure to plague, Europeans living through the Black Death probably represented immunologically naive populations with little to no prior adaptation to Y. pestis. The high mortality rate suggests that genetic variants that conferred protection against Y. pestis infection might have been under strong selection during this time. Indeed, the nearly decadal plague outbreaks over the subsequent four hundred years of the second pandemic in Europe often (but not always) were associated with reduced mortality rates11,12, which could have been due to pathogen evolution or changing cultural practices, but potentially also linked to human genetic adaptation to Y. pestis.
Positive selection on immune genes
Genomic targets of selection imposed by Y. pestis during the Black Death, if present, have remained elusive13,14,15. To better identify such loci, we characterized genetic variation from ancient DNA extracts derived from individuals who died shortly before, during or soon after the Black Death in London and across Denmark. This unique sampling design differentiates, to the greatest extent possible, signatures due to Y. pestis from those associated with other infectious diseases or other selective processes (although we cannot exclude these entirely). | no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-26-2-the-black-death-a-catastrophe-in-medieval-europe.html | The “Black Death”: A Catastrophe in Medieval Europe | Millions of people in Europe perished in the plague that struck in the mid-1300s. Later called the “Black Death,” this plague upended feudal society and hastened major changes in Western Civilization.
Since the last Ice Age, a certain flea has lived off the blood of rodents, especially the black rat, in Central Asia. The black rat flea is also the primary host of the deadly plague bacteria, Yersina pestis (named after Alexandre Yersin who discovered it in 1894).
A flea infected with Y. pestis passes it on to a black rat by biting it. When the rat dies, the flea jumps to another rat. Normally, enough rats have genetic resistance to Y. pestis to prevent a mass die-off.
Sometimes, however, a change in climate or other conditions may weaken the rat population, and infected fleas kill off more rats than usual. If the fleas cannot find rats, they find different warm-blooded animals to bite, such as other rodents, cows, horses, cats, and humans.
When an infected flea bites a person, it literally vomits the Y. pestis bacteria into the wound. The bacteria migrate to the lymph glands and block the body’s attempt to destroy them by attacking the immune system.
There are several forms of the plague. The most common is the bubonic plague. Its main symptom is the swelling of lymph glands, called “buboes,” in the groin, armpits, or neck. Victims experience a high fever, and they often bleed under the skin, causing visible dark patches. This discoloring of the skin gave the name “Black Death” to the plague that struck Europe in the mid-1300s.
The bubonic plague does not pass directly from person to person. Usually, a rat flea carrying Y. pestis must bite a person to cause the infection. Bubonic plague victims during the medieval epidemic had only a 50–50 chance of surviving.
A second form of plague is pneumonic, in which the bacteria attack the lungs. The most common symptom is coughing and spitting up blood. The pneumonic form may develop in the late stages of bubonic plague as bacteria invade the lungs.
Unlike bubonic plague, the pneumonic form is highly contagious. Someone can catch this form of the plague by breathing in bacteria that a sick individual has coughed or sneezed into the air. Few survived this form of the plague during the Black Death.
The Path of the Black Death
Sometime around 1300, the climate began to get hotter and drier in Central Asia. Millions of black rats left their home territories in search of food. Many found food in the camps of Mongol nomadic herders who lived on the vast plains of the Asian interior. The Black Death began here.
Central Asia was the core of the Mongol Empire. By the late 1200s, the Mongols had taken China, overrun Russia, and conquered Muslim lands from Afghanistan to Baghdad. As Mongol armies moved about the empire with their supply wagons of grain and other food, they attracted rats and the fleas infected with the plague.
By the 1330s, merchant caravans were passing right through plague-infested Central Asia. Once the plague reached China’s ports, stowaway plague rats and fleas traveled by ship to India and Arabia.
Genoa was one of Italy’s greatest trading powers in the eastern Mediterranean. It had established a center for the Asian caravan trade at the Black Sea port of Caffa. In 1346, a dispute between the local Mongol khan and the Genoese led to a minor war. During the siege of Caffa, the plague struck the Mongol soldiers. When the Genoese sailed home, their ships carried hundreds of rats and infected fleas in their food supplies below deck.
When the ships reached Constantinople (now Istanbul), a major trading port on the doorstep of Europe, many of those aboard were sick or dead of the plague. Officials at Constantinople prohibited the sick Genoese from entering the city. But this did not stop rats and fleas from leaving the ships and infecting the harbor rats.
From Constantinople, trading vessels, carrying plague rats and fleas, spread the disease to eastern Mediterranean countries like Egypt and Syria. Within two years, the plague had spread throughout the entire Muslim empire from Arabia across North Africa to Granada in southern Spain. Perhaps one-third of the Muslim people died. The path of the Black Death through Europe was even more catastrophic.
The Black Death in Europe
The plague was not a new disease to Europe. Periodically, it broke out of its home among the rodents of Central Asia to bring death to Europeans. But it had been 800 years since the last major plague epidemic had struck Europe. Thus, the people had little natural immunity to the Y. pestis bacteria.
Most people in Europe lived in small villages close to grain fields. Their cramped houses composed of sticks, mud, and straw roofs made it easy for rats to invade and built nests. In crowded European towns, rats feasted on waste from outdoor slaughterhouses and garbage dumped into the streets.
Sicily was the first place in Europe to suffer the plague epidemic. Italian traders brought the disease in rat-infested ships from Constantinople in October 1347. Soon entire families were dying.
Ships then took the plague to Italy’s major trading ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Venice was probably Europe’s largest and richest city with a population of about 150,000. It was also the first to adopt public health laws to block the plague. Even so, Venice lost 60 percent of its people to the Black Death.
By 1348, the plague had reached the interior of Italy, including Florence, which lost half its population. The Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio witnessed and wrote about the plague in his book, The Decameron. In his introduction, Boccaccio described the sometimes-shocking way people in Florence behaved during the plague:
Tedious were it to recount, how citizen avoided citizen, how among neighbors was scarce found any that showed fellow-feeling for another, how kinsfolk held aloof, and never met . . . nay, what is more, and scarcely to be believed, fathers and mothers were found to abandon their own children, untended, unvisited, to their fate, as if they had been strangers.
From Italy, the plague spread throughout Europe. It headed west to Christian Spain and surged north into France. The plague advanced “town by town.” It reached the many ports of England, which lost half its population in 18 months.
In 1348–49, the Black Death swept into Central Europe and Scandinavia, even as far west as Greenland. But the Y. pestis bacteria possibly mutated to a weaker strain since the death rate dropped as the plague spread into Eastern Europe and Russia.
In 1352, the plague reached Moscow, only a few hundred miles from Caffa, the first city struck by the epidemic. Thus, the Black Death completed a great circle, wiping out from one-third to one-half of medieval Europe’s total population.
The Response of Religion and Medicine
In Christian Europe, the Roman Catholic Church explained the plague as God’s punishing the sins of the people. The church called for people to pray, and it organized religious marches, pleading to God to stop the “pestilence.”
Few university medical schools existed in Europe. The “physicians” of these schools had mastered the medical writings of the ancient Greeks. But these academic doctors never treated patients. Lesser-trained surgeons and other healers used various practical skills and remedies to treat the sick.
The prevailing theory of keeping healthy was for the body to maintain the proper balance of fluids, called “humors.” Breathing any foul air or vapors from dead bodies, polluted water, or even gases released by earthquakes could unbalance the humors.
At the plague’s peak in France, the medical faculty of the University of Paris wrote a report on how the disease began. The report declared that the alignment of planets “drew up evil vapors from the earth,” which were spread by “wild and southerly winds.” When breathed in, so went the report, foul air “penetrates to the heart and corrupts the substance of the spirit that is in it.”
The European physicians had lots of advice on how to avoid the plague:
European doctors recommended treatments such as drinking a potion of ground chicken bones, cutting open and burning the buboes, and even swallowing the pus of the buboes. Another popular treatment was bleeding patients to remove the “bad humor.”
As in Christian Europe, Muslims believed that God’s will caused the plague. But Muslim religious scholars taught that the plague was a “martyrdom and mercy” from God, assuring the believer’s place in paradise. For non-believers, it was a punishment.
Some Muslim doctors cautioned against trying to prevent or treat a disease sent by God. Others adopted many of the same preventive measures and treatments for the plague used by the Europeans. These Muslim doctors also depended on the writings of the ancient Greeks.
Pogroms and the Flagellants
In 1348, a rumor claimed that Jews were responsible for the plague as an attempt to kill Christians and dominate the world. The rumor spread quickly, supported by a widely distributed report of the trial of Jews who supposedly had poisoned wells in Switzerland. Swiss officials claimed the charges were true since “many Jews have been submitted to torture” and confessed.
The rumor set off a wave of pogroms (violence) against Jews. Christians attacked them in their communities, burned their homes, sent them down the Rhine River in wine barrels, and murdered them with clubs and axes. In perhaps the worst case, the people of Strasbourg locked up and burned 900 Jews alive.
In October 1349, Pope Clement VI issued a religious order to stop the violence against the Jews. He said that Jews did not cause the plague, but rather it was “the result of an angry God striking at the Christian people for their sins.” He also accused some of those leading the pogroms of hoping to escape debts that they owed to Jewish moneylenders.
As the hysteria quieted down, some Christians turned their anger at the Catholic Church that seemed helpless to stop the Black Death. In fact, many local priests either died of the plague or abandoned their parishes when it struck. The church’s failure led to thousands of people joining the Flagellant Movement.
Bands of several hundred Christian men marched and sang hymns from town to town in a ritual of repentance for their sins. They wore hooded white cloaks with a red Christian cross.
When they arrived at a town’s main church, they stripped to the waist, formed a moving circle, and chanted prayers. As they did this, they beat themselves with a whip, consisting of a stick with three leather straps, each with a piece of sharp metal knotted at the end. Periodically, the bleeding flagellants (persons who whip themselves) would fall down and lay on the ground in the shape of a cross. Crowds gathered to watch the spectacle. A master of the flagellants finally read a “Heavenly Letter,” calling for all to repent their sins and plead with God to end the terrible plague.
The Flagellant Movement was a direct challenge to the authority of the Catholic Church. Pope Clement VI condemned it as a form of heresy (against church beliefs) in 1349. By the following year, as the plague faded in Western Europe, the Flagellant Movement disappeared.
After the Black Death
Before the Black Death in Europe, the population had grown to about 75–80 million people. Farm production barely met the needs of most people to subsist (survive day to day), causing widespread poverty. When wheat and other crops failed, malnutrition and famine brought widespread suffering.
The Black Death greatly reduced the population of Europe. The total number of deaths is estimated at between 25 and 40 million people. With fewer people, the land could produce a surplus of food for the much lower population.
For a short period, food prices rose because of the shortage of farm labor. But the food supply soon exceeded the demand due to fewer consumers, causing lower prices.
With so many free tenant farmers, laborers, and craftsmen killed off, those who survived began to demand lower farmland rents, higher wages, and higher prices for their handmade goods. Serfs, also reduced in large numbers, demanded reductions of feudal duties they owed to their manor lords.
Most manor lords were forced to give in to the demands of their serfs, free tenants, and laborers. In towns, craftsmen demanded higher prices for their goods. All these changes drastically cut the income of the land-owning lords.
As the lords suffered an economic decline, the lower classes enjoyed a higher standard of living. Throughout Europe, the noble elite complained that workers were greedy, lazy, and refused to work on a long-term basis. As one nobleman put it, “Servants are now masters and masters are servants.”
The nobles attempted to pass laws to put the lower classes back in their place. The Statute of Laborers, passed by the English Parliament in 1351, made it a crime for workers to accept wages higher than what they had received before the plague.
Noblemen also complained about the high prices and the fine clothes commoners were now able to buy. More laws attempted to set prices and regulate what different social classes could wear.
Some serfs, free tenants, laborers, and craftsmen resisted the attempts by the feudal lords to undercut their better living conditions. Serfs ran away, refused to be servants, and even sued their lords. The English Peasants’ Revolt of 1381 erupted after Parliament, for the first time, imposed a tax on the lower classes. Similar revolts took place throughout Europe.
Less severe plagues revisited Europe regularly for 100 years after the Black Death. This kept the population unusually low and economic conditions unusually favorable to those who barely had enough to eat before the plague.
Long-Term Changes
The Black Death hastened long-term changes in Europe. The shortage of workers spurred new labor-saving inventions such as Gutenberg’s printing press. Higher incomes for more people stimulated the demand for foreign imports, which led to the exploration of long-distance trade routes.
Feudal society changed. Kings gained power over land-owning barons. The Catholic Church lost some of its authority, setting the stage for the Protestant Reformation. Serfdom disappeared in most of Western Europe by the mid-1400s.
Medicine in Europe became more open to scientific observation and evidence. Hospitals turned into places for treatment instead of merely places for people to die. Cities grew more aware of the importance of sanitation, garbage collection, and public health measures such as food inspection.
Plague epidemics ended in Europe by 1700. They disappeared entirely in the world by 1900 after Alexandre Yersin’s discovery of Y. pestis and the flea-rat connection. His discovery led to the extermination of rats on ships and in ports and the discovery of anti-plague drugs.
Y. pestis still exists today, but in fleas living mainly among rodents like squirrels in isolated wilderness areas. Fewer than 200 now die of the plague worldwide each year, mainly due to lack of treatment.
For Discussion
1. Why do you think the Black Death spread so fast and was so severe?
2. Why do you think Jewish pogroms and the Flagellant Movement arose during the Black Death in Europe?
3. The Black Death was a catastrophe for medieval Europe, killing almost half the population. What other effects did it have on Europe, positive and negative?
For Further Reading
Aberth, John. The Black Death, The Great Mortality of 1348-1350, A Brief History with Documents. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005.
Kelly, John. The Great Mortality: An Intimate History of the Black Death, the Most Devastating Plague of All Time. New York: Harper Perennial, 2005.
A C T I V I T Y
Ranking Catastrophes
Unfortunately, the modern world is not free from potential catastrophes. In fact, popular literature, movies, and the media often focus on possible disasters. Questions arise about these disasters: What are the odds they might happen? Can we do anything to prevent them? How much, in terms of resources and money, should we devote to guarding against them?
In this activity, students will evaluate the catastrophes listed below. Form small groups. Each group should do the following:
1. Read and discuss each possible catastrophe. Consider each in terms of its potential loss of life, potential impact on the world economy, potential impact on the environment, probability of happening, and possibility of doing anything about it.
2. Rank the catastrophes from 1 to 5. The number 1 is the potential catastrophe you believe is the most pressing and should have the most resources devoted to guarding against it. Number 5 is the least important.
3. Prepare to defend your group’s ranking with reasoned arguments.
Possible Catastrophes
a. Flu pandemic. In 1918, a flu pandemic killed 50 million people worldwide. It was highly contagious, and the virus had mutated into a much different flu virus so people did not have immunity. Two other flu pandemics occurred in the 20th century, and another, the “swine flu” is currently underway. In these pandemics, the virus was not as lethal as in 1918, but a future strain could be.
b. Tsunamis. Tsunamis are large ocean waves caused by earthquakes, volcano eruptions, or other explosions. They can devastate coastal areas. In 2004, an Indian Ocean tsunami killed more than 200,000 people.
d. Asteroid/comet impact with earth. About 65 million years ago, an impact collision created a crater 110 miles in diameter near the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. This changed the climate and probably led to the extinction of the dinosaurs.
e. Nuclear terrorism. Terrorists may have difficulty obtaining and detonating a nuclear bomb, so the main danger probably lies in terrorists obtaining radioactive material and detonating a conventional bomb to spread the material to poison a city’s population. | When an infected flea bites a person, it literally vomits the Y. pestis bacteria into the wound. The bacteria migrate to the lymph glands and block the body’s attempt to destroy them by attacking the immune system.
There are several forms of the plague. The most common is the bubonic plague. Its main symptom is the swelling of lymph glands, called “buboes,” in the groin, armpits, or neck. Victims experience a high fever, and they often bleed under the skin, causing visible dark patches. This discoloring of the skin gave the name “Black Death” to the plague that struck Europe in the mid-1300s.
The bubonic plague does not pass directly from person to person. Usually, a rat flea carrying Y. pestis must bite a person to cause the infection. Bubonic plague victims during the medieval epidemic had only a 50–50 chance of surviving.
A second form of plague is pneumonic, in which the bacteria attack the lungs. The most common symptom is coughing and spitting up blood. The pneumonic form may develop in the late stages of bubonic plague as bacteria invade the lungs.
Unlike bubonic plague, the pneumonic form is highly contagious. Someone can catch this form of the plague by breathing in bacteria that a sick individual has coughed or sneezed into the air. Few survived this form of the plague during the Black Death.
The Path of the Black Death
Sometime around 1300, the climate began to get hotter and drier in Central Asia. Millions of black rats left their home territories in search of food. Many found food in the camps of Mongol nomadic herders who lived on the vast plains of the Asian interior. The Black Death began here.
Central Asia was the core of the Mongol Empire. By the late 1200s, the Mongols had taken China, overrun Russia, and conquered Muslim lands from Afghanistan to Baghdad. | no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://news.uchicago.edu/story/ancient-dna-shows-people-certain-genes-were-more-likely-survive-black-death | Ancient DNA shows people with certain genes were more likely to ... | Ancient DNA shows people with certain genes were more likely to survive the Black Death
UChicago scientists find bubonic plague had effect on human genome
The Black Death was the single greatest mortality event in recorded history, killing up to 50% of the European population in less than five years. New research from the University of Chicago, McMaster University, and the Institut Pasteur has found evidence that one of the darkest periods in recorded human history placed a significant selective pressure on the human population, changing the frequency of certain immune-related genetic variants and affecting our susceptibility to disease today. The results were published on October 19 in Nature.
Caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, the global pandemic of the bubonic plague wiped out 30% to 60% of people in cities across North Africa, Europe, and Asia, with massive repercussions for the human race — and, apparently, our genome.
“This was a very direct way to evaluate the impact that a single pathogen had on human evolution,” said Luis Barreiro, professor of genetic medicine at UChicago and co-senior author on the study. “People have speculated for a long time that the Black Death might be a strong cause of selection, but it’s hard to demonstrate that when looking at modern populations, because humans had to face many other selective pressures between then and now. The only way to address the question is to narrow the time window we’re looking at.”
In the study, thanks to recent advances in sequencing technology, the scientists examined ancient DNA samples from the bones of over 200 individuals from London and Denmark who died before, during, and after the Black Death plague swept through the region in the late 1340s. Using targeted sequencing for a set of 300 immune-related genes, they identified four genes that, depending on the variant, either protected against or increased susceptibility to Y. pestis.
“This is, to my knowledge, the first demonstration that indeed, the Black Death was an important selective pressure to the evolution of the human immune system,” said Barreiro.
The research team zeroed in on one gene with a particularly strong association to susceptibility: ERAP2. Individuals who possessed two copies of one specific genetic variant, dubbed rs2549794, were able to produce full length copies of the ERAP2 RNA transcript, therefore producing more of the functional protein, compared to another variant that led to a truncated and non-functional version of the transcript. Functional ERAP2 plays a role in helping the immune system, and in particular macrophage cells, recognize the presence of an infection.
“When a macrophage encounters a bacterium, it chops it into pieces for them to be presented to other immune cells signaling that there’s an infection,” said Barreiro. “Having the functional version of the gene appears to create an advantage, likely by enhancing the ability of our immune system to sense the invading pathogen. By our estimate, possessing two copies of the rs2549794 variant would have make a person about 40% more likely to survive the Black Death than those who had two copies of the non-functional variant.”
The team even went so far as to test how the rs2549794 variant affected the ability of living human cells to help fight the plague, determining that macrophages expressing two copies of the variant were more efficient at neutralizing Y. pestis compared to those without it.
“Examining the effects of the ERAP2 variants in vitro allows us to functionally test how the different variants affect the behavior of immune cells from modern humans when challenged with living Yersinia pestis,” said Javier Pizarro-Cerda, PhD, head of the Yersinia Research Unit and director of the World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Plague at Institut Pasteur. “The results support the ancient DNA evidence that rs2549794 is protective against the plague.”
The team further concluded that the selection for rs2549794 is part of the balancing act evolution places upon our genome; while ERAP2 is protective against the Black Death, in modern populations, the same variant is associated with an increased susceptibility to autoimmune diseases, including acting as a known risk factor for Crohn’s disease.
“Diseases and epidemics like the Black Death leave impacts on our genomes, like archeology projects to detect,” said Hendrik Poinar, Professor of Anthropology at McMaster University and co-senior author on the study. “This is a first look at how pandemics can modify our genomes but go undetected in modern populations. These genes are under balancing selection — what provided tremendous protection during hundreds of years of plague epidemics has turned out to be autoimmune related now. A hyperactive immune system may have been great in the past but in the environment today it might not be as helpful.”
Future research will scale the project to examine the entire genome, not just a selected set of immune related genes; and the team hopes to explore genetic variants that affect susceptibility to bacteria in modern humans and compare them to these ancient DNA samples to determine if those variants were also a result of natural selection.
“There is a lot of talk about how pathogens have shaped human evolution, so being able to formally demonstrate which pathways and genes have been targeted really helps us understand what allowed humans to adapt and exist today,” said Barreiro. “This tells us about the mechanisms that allowed us to survive throughout history and why we’re still here today.”
Additional University of Chicago authors include Tauras P. Vilgalys, Xiaoheng Cheng, Mari Shiratori, Derek Elli, Maria I. Patino, Anne Dumaine, Dominique Missiakas and Matthias Steinrücken. Other authors included researchers with McMaster University; Daicel Arbor Biosciences; Institut Pasteur; Museum of London; University of South Carolina; University of Manitoba; University of Southern Denmark; Indiana University; Rutgers University; McMaster University; Université de Montréal; University of Michigan Ann Arbor; Universitaire Saint-Justine; University of California San Francisco; University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign; and McGill University. | Ancient DNA shows people with certain genes were more likely to survive the Black Death
UChicago scientists find bubonic plague had effect on human genome
The Black Death was the single greatest mortality event in recorded history, killing up to 50% of the European population in less than five years. New research from the University of Chicago, McMaster University, and the Institut Pasteur has found evidence that one of the darkest periods in recorded human history placed a significant selective pressure on the human population, changing the frequency of certain immune-related genetic variants and affecting our susceptibility to disease today. The results were published on October 19 in Nature.
Caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, the global pandemic of the bubonic plague wiped out 30% to 60% of people in cities across North Africa, Europe, and Asia, with massive repercussions for the human race — and, apparently, our genome.
“This was a very direct way to evaluate the impact that a single pathogen had on human evolution,” said Luis Barreiro, professor of genetic medicine at UChicago and co-senior author on the study. “People have speculated for a long time that the Black Death might be a strong cause of selection, but it’s hard to demonstrate that when looking at modern populations, because humans had to face many other selective pressures between then and now. The only way to address the question is to narrow the time window we’re looking at.”
In the study, thanks to recent advances in sequencing technology, the scientists examined ancient DNA samples from the bones of over 200 individuals from London and Denmark who died before, during, and after the Black Death plague swept through the region in the late 1340s. Using targeted sequencing for a set of 300 immune-related genes, they identified four genes that, depending on the variant, either protected against or increased susceptibility to Y. pestis.
“This is, to my knowledge, the first demonstration that indeed, the Black Death was an important selective pressure to the evolution of the human immune system,” said Barreiro.
| no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dm00bu.html | A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries: Bubonic plague hits ... | Photo: Rat Receiving Station set up as part of the War on Rats led by the U.S. Public Health Service. Millions of rats were killed and in 2 months no new cases of plague were reported.
Bubonic plague, or "the black death," had raged throughout Europe and Asia over the past centuries. In the twentieth century, it came to America.
In the summer of 1899, a ship sailing from Hong Kong to San Francisco had had two cases of plague on board. Because of this, although no passengers were ill when the ship reached San Franscisco, it was to be quarantined on Angel Island. When the boat was searched, 11 stowaways were found -- the next day two were missing. Their bodies were later found in the Bay, and autopsy showed they contained plague bacilli. Despite this scare, there was no immediate outbreak of disease. But rats from the ship probably had something to do with the epidemic that hit San Francisco nine months later.
On March 6, 1900, a city health officer autopsied a deceased Chinese man and found organisms in the body that looked like plague. In 1894, two research physicians had simultaneously and independently identified the bacillus that causes bubonic plague. Shibasaburo Kitasato published his findings in Japanese and English; Alexandre Yersin published in French. People in different parts of the world credited one or the other with the discovery, depending which journals they had read. (Since 1970 the bacillus has been known as Yersinia pestis.) That the plague had an identifiable "germ" was known. But other recent findings had not been disseminated -- or believed. Most people felt that the germ infected humans through food or open wounds. Disinfection campaigns were the order of the day. In some places they ran carbolic acid through sewers, actually spreading the disease faster because it flushed out rats that had lived there.
Back in San Francisco, however, political issues vied with scientific efforts. Anti-Chinese feeling ran strong in the city then, and the first step taken was to quarantine Chinatown. The Chinese objected, and so did the business community. Not because they wanted to protect the rights of the Chinese, but it was bad for business to have people thinking there was plague in their city or state. The quarantine was lifted but health officials ran house-to-house inspections of Chinatown. People resisted, hiding their dead and locking their doors. But two more plague victims turned up. The city Board of Health officially announced that plague was present in the city. The governor refused to believe it or to do anything to help in the antiplague effort. The Surgeon General got permission from President McKinley to pass antiplague regulations. Others still denied the existence of plague, although more and more states in the country were stopping trade with California.
Commissions and boards formed, fought with the governor, and were disbanded, underfunded, and reformed. Meanwhile, more plague cases were found. In April 1901, a clean-up campaign of Chinatown was undertaken, scouring almost 1,200 houses and 14,000 rooms. In 1903, a new governor took office and vowed to help the boards of health in every way. On February 29, 1904, a woman in the town of Concord, California, died of plague, its last victim -- for a while. There had been 121 cases in San Francisco and 5 outside, with 122 deaths.
Knowledge, like illness, spreads. In the next few years, information about the plague's causes and transmission would be clarified. In 1894, physician Mary Miles in Canton, China, had reported the widespread death of rats in plague epidemics. But people assumed the rats caught the disease from humans. In 1897, Japanese physician Masanori Ogata wrote "one should pay attention to insects like fleas for, as the rat becomes cold after death, they leave their host and may transmit the plague virus directly to man." Paul Louis Simmond put all the accumulated observations together, made his own observations (societal and microscopic), and experimented with the bacillus, rats, and fleas. He proved that rat fleas bit people (which went against received wisdom), and that a sick animal could not transmit the disease if it didn't have fleas. Simmond published his conclusions in 1898 and was roundly ridiculed. But in 1905, a British commission published some of the same findings and in 1908, issued a report confirming all of Simmond's conclusions (though not crediting him).
In 1906, an earthquake of record proportions devastated San Francisco. The ruin of the city's buildings made not just people, but rats, homeless. The subsequent year or two of living in refugee camps while rebuilding was highly conducive to rat and flea infestations. In 1907, cases of plague were reported. But with hindsight on the last epidemic and new knowledge from research, officials launched a new kind of campaign. They offered a bounty on rats. A similar rat-catching campaign had been used successfully to fight plague in New Orleans. It worked as well in San Francisco, and though this second epidemic was stronger than the first, it was brought to halt in 1909. | Photo: Rat Receiving Station set up as part of the War on Rats led by the U.S. Public Health Service. Millions of rats were killed and in 2 months no new cases of plague were reported.
Bubonic plague, or "the black death," had raged throughout Europe and Asia over the past centuries. In the twentieth century, it came to America.
In the summer of 1899, a ship sailing from Hong Kong to San Francisco had had two cases of plague on board. Because of this, although no passengers were ill when the ship reached San Franscisco, it was to be quarantined on Angel Island. When the boat was searched, 11 stowaways were found -- the next day two were missing. Their bodies were later found in the Bay, and autopsy showed they contained plague bacilli. Despite this scare, there was no immediate outbreak of disease. But rats from the ship probably had something to do with the epidemic that hit San Francisco nine months later.
On March 6, 1900, a city health officer autopsied a deceased Chinese man and found organisms in the body that looked like plague. In 1894, two research physicians had simultaneously and independently identified the bacillus that causes bubonic plague. Shibasaburo Kitasato published his findings in Japanese and English; Alexandre Yersin published in French. People in different parts of the world credited one or the other with the discovery, depending which journals they had read. (Since 1970 the bacillus has been known as Yersinia pestis.) That the plague had an identifiable "germ" was known. But other recent findings had not been disseminated -- or believed. Most people felt that the germ infected humans through food or open wounds. Disinfection campaigns were the order of the day. In some places they ran carbolic acid through sewers, actually spreading the disease faster because it flushed out rats that had lived there.
Back in San Francisco, however, political issues vied with scientific efforts. Anti-Chinese feeling ran strong in the city then, and the first step taken was to quarantine Chinatown. | no |
Paleopathology | Could Black Death have been a different disease, not bubonic plague? | yes_statement | "black" death could have been a "different" "disease", not "bubonic" "plague".. it is possible that "black" death was not caused by "bubonic" "plague". | https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna44489863 | Genetic clues to what really caused Black Death | Genetic clues to what really caused Black Death
The Black Death arrived in London in the fall of 1348, and although the worst passed in less than a year, the disease took a catastrophic toll. An emergency cemetery in East Smithfield received more than 200 bodies a day between the following February and April, in addition to bodies buried in other graveyards, according to a report from the time.
A depiction of the black death from a 15th century Bible.Courtesy of LiveScience
Sept. 12, 2011, 7:02 PM UTC / Source: LiveScience
By By Wynne Parry
The Black Death arrived in London in the fall of 1348, and although the worst passed in less than a year, the disease took a catastrophic toll. An emergency cemetery in East Smithfield received more than 200 bodies a day between the following February and April, in addition to bodies buried in other graveyards, according to a report from the time.
The disease that killed Londoners buried in East Smithfield and at least one of three Europeans within a few years time is commonly believed to be bubonic plague, a bacterial infection marked by painful, feverish, swollen lymph nodes, called buboes. Plague is still with us in many parts of the world, although now antibiotics can halt its course.
But did this disease really cause the Black Death? The story behind this near-apocalypse in 14th century Europe is not clear-cut, since what we know about modern plague in many ways does not match with what we know about the Black Death. And if plague isn't responsible for the Black Death, scientists wonder what could've caused the sweeping massacre and whether that killer is still lurking somewhere.
Now, a new study using bone and teeth taken from East Smithfield adds to mounting evidence exhumed from Black Death graves and tantalizes skeptics with hints at the true nature of the disease that wiped out more than a third of Europeans 650 years ago.
This team of researchers approached the topic with open minds when they began looking for genetic evidence of the killer.
"Essentially by looking at the literature on the Black Death there were several candidates for what could have been the cause," said Sharon DeWitte, one of the researchers who is now an assistant professor of anthropology at the University of South Carolina.
Their first suspect: Yersinia pestis, the bacterium that causes modern plague, including bubonic plague.
The speed of plague In 1894, Alexander Yersin and another scientist separately identified Y. pestis during an epidemic in Hong Kong. Years later the bacterium was given his name. Yersin also connected his discovery to the pestilence that swept Europe during the Black Death, an association that has stuck.
One problem, however, is that compared to the wildfire-like spread of the Black Death, the modern plague moves more leisurely. The modern plague pandemic began in the Yunnan Province of China in the mid-19th century, then spread to Hong Kong and then via ship, to India, where it exacted the heaviest toll, and to San Francisco in 1899, among many other places.
The disease that caused the Black Death is believed to have traveled much quicker, arriving in Europe from Asia in 1347, after the Golden Horde, a Mongol Army, catapulted plague-infected bodies into a Genoese settlement near the Black Sea. The disease traveled with the Italian traders and later appeared in Sicily, according to Samuel Cohn, a professor of medieval history at the University of Glasglow and author of "The Black Death Transformed: Disease and Culture in the Early Renaissance Europe" (Bloomsbury USA, 2003).
By about 1352, roughly five years after arriving in Europe, it had not only spread across the continent, the worst of the disease had already run its course.
This wave of devastation becomes particularly surprising considering the complicated and time-consuming process by which plague has been thought to spread. You can't catch bubonic plague from another person; instead, the process involves two classic villains: rats and fleas.
Once a flea bites a rat infected with plague, the pathogen Y. pestis grows in its gut. After about two weeks, the bacteria block the valve that opens into the flea's stomach. The starving flea then bites its host, by now probably a new, healthy rat or a person, more aggressively in an attempt to feed. All the while, the flea tries to clear out the bacterial obstruction and so regurgitates the pathogen onto the bite wounds, according to Ken Gage, chief of flea-borne disease activity with the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
The bulk of cases during the modern plague pandemic are believed to have been spread by rats and their fleas, according to Gage. The last rat-borne plague epidemic in the U.S. occurred in 1925; wild rodents have since become the primary source for infections. However, rat-associated outbreaks continue to occur in developing countries, according to the CDC.
Fast, furious and unfamiliar Not only has the disease slowed down, it also seems to have become more restrained. The Black Death wiped out at least 30 percent of Europe's population at the time. But the peak of the modern pandemic, in India, killed less than 2 percent of the population, DeWitte has calculated from census data.
The list of discrepancies goes on: There is evidence the Black Death spread directly between humans — no rats and their fleas involved — and to areas where rats and their fleas didn't even live. In fact, archaeological and documentary evidence indicates rats were scarce during the mid-14th century.
What's more, bubonic plague doubters point out, deaths during the Black Death appear to have followed a different seasonal cycle than plague deaths in modern times. Some also point to discrepancies in the symptoms.
Alternative theories With the plague's role called into question, other theories have been offered to fill the gap.
"There is a lot of evidence that suggests that Yersinia pestis may not have been the causative agent for the Black Death, and it was likely something else, and something else that is out there right now," said Brian Bossak, an environmental health scientist at Georgia Southern University.
He is among those who suspect a hemorrhagic virus — which causes bleeding and fever, like ebola — swept through 14th-century Europe. The high lethality, rapid transmission and periodic resurgences seen in the Black Death are characteristic of a virus, according to Bossak, who frames this as a question in urgent need of resolution.
"Who knows if it won't happen again," he said. "It seems like every so often some disease comes out of nowhere."
Two other proponents of the virus theory, Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan of the University of Liverpool in the United Kingdom, have pointed to a possible genetic legacy left by a viral Black Death: a mutation, known as CCR5-delta32, found among Europeans, particularly those in the north. This mutation confers resistance against HIV, another virus, but does not prevent plague. It's possible that by passing over those with this mutation, the Black Death selected for this change in the genetic code, making it more common among Europeans, they argue.
To at least some degree, an alternative form of plague, pneumonic plague, offers a solution. While bubonic is the most common form of plague, plague can also infect the lungs, causing high fever, cough, bloody sputum and chills. This infection can spread person-to-person, and without antibiotic treatment it is nearly 100 percent fatal. Outbreaks have occurred in modern times, and it can develop as a result of a bubonic infection. But, it is unclear how much of a role it played in the Black Death — some evidence suggests it is not as contagious as commonly thought.
Rats and fleas The Black Death just doesn't appear to have behaved the way the typical, modern rat-associated plague does, according to Gage, the flea expert. Even so, he says he is convinced that bubonic plague was responsible.
A group of French researchers found another possible insect carrier for the Black Death: lice. They were able to transmit fatal plague infections from sick rabbits to healthy ones via human body lice that fed on the rabbits. Substitute humans for bunnies, and this scenario offers a simpler, more cold-climate-friendly explanation than the conventional rat-flea model.
But fleas aren't out of the picture yet. Gage and his colleagues have found that many species of flea — including the Oriental rat flea, a widespread and important spreader of plague — can begin transmitting the infection much sooner than thought, before the bacterium blocks off its stomach. This supports the idea that a species of human-inhabiting fleas, whose guts the bacterium can't block well, could have spread the infection from person to person in areas without rats, Gage said.
Plague isn't picky about its warm-blooded victims; it can infect almost any mammal, although some, like humans, cats and rats, become severely ill when infected, according to Gage. The lack of records of massive rat die-offs during the Black Death also calls into question the role rats may have played then.
CSI: Black Death Plague kills quickly and does not leave marks on the remains that archeologists are digging up centuries later. But in recent years scientists have begun searching for the molecular clues in the remains of the dead, including DNA left by the killer bacterium.
While a number of studies have turned up positive results from graves believed to hold European plague victims, the results haven't always been clear-cut. For instance, a 2004 study of remains in five burial sites, including East Smithfield, was unable to find any evidence of the bacteria.
Looking for evidence of the genetic traces of a pathogen within 650-year-old bones is a challenging proposition, according to Hendrik Poinar, an evolutionary geneticist at McMaster University who worked with DeWitte, then at the University of Albany, on the most recent study. After so many years in the ground, the DNA is damaged and present only in tiny fragments, and, what's more, each sample contains only a miniscule amount of the pathogen — the rest belongs to the person and interlopers such as soil bacteria, fungi, insects, even animals.
"You have to come up with a way to pull out the things of interest," Poinar said. So, after screening to detect the presence of Yersinia pestis in the 109 samples from the cemetery in East Smithfield, his lab employed a sort of sensitive fishing technique, using tiny segments of DNA that matched up with segments from a ring of DNA, called a plasmid, found in the bacterium.
Once they had retrieved this DNA, they assembled the full plasmid and compared it with modern versions of the bug. They found this plasmid matched many of the modern versions. They also sequenced a short section of DNA from the bacterium's nucleus and revealed three small changes unseen in the modern strains.
The results prove that a variant of Yersinia pestis infected the victims of the Black Death, the authors write in a recent issue of the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
Same bug, different disease? This finding comes about a year after another genetic study, led by Stephanie Haensch of Johannes Gutenberg University in Germany, found evidence of two previously unknown strains of Yersinia pestis in the remains of European victims, and hints at a solution that could allow both sides to be right.
"People have always assumed the two diseases were the same," said Cohn, the medieval historian, referring to modern plague and the Black Death. "Even if it is the same pathogen, the diseases are very different."
Bossak, who has questioned the role of plague in the Black Death, agrees.
"This new (study) seems to support these earlier claims, and reinforces the notion that what we know of the epidemiology in modern Y. pestis plague may not fit the Black Death, perhaps because these ancient strains of Y. pestis are no longer present (assuming Y. pestis was indeed the causative agent)," he wrote in an email.
However, Poinar is more cautious. Although they had hoped to find changes that explained why the pathogen might have become less aggressive over the centuries, none have turned up so far. In fact, it's too early to say the changes detected represent any significant difference between the modern and ancient versions of the bacterium, according to him.
"We need the entire genome to say anything about this," Poinar wrote in an email, "and that is for future work."
You can follow writer Wynne Parry on Twitter . Follow LiveScience for the latest in science news and discoveries on Twitter and on . | Georgia Southern University.
He is among those who suspect a hemorrhagic virus — which causes bleeding and fever, like ebola — swept through 14th-century Europe. The high lethality, rapid transmission and periodic resurgences seen in the Black Death are characteristic of a virus, according to Bossak, who frames this as a question in urgent need of resolution.
"Who knows if it won't happen again," he said. "It seems like every so often some disease comes out of nowhere. "
Two other proponents of the virus theory, Susan Scott and Christopher Duncan of the University of Liverpool in the United Kingdom, have pointed to a possible genetic legacy left by a viral Black Death: a mutation, known as CCR5-delta32, found among Europeans, particularly those in the north. This mutation confers resistance against HIV, another virus, but does not prevent plague. It's possible that by passing over those with this mutation, the Black Death selected for this change in the genetic code, making it more common among Europeans, they argue.
To at least some degree, an alternative form of plague, pneumonic plague, offers a solution. While bubonic is the most common form of plague, plague can also infect the lungs, causing high fever, cough, bloody sputum and chills. This infection can spread person-to-person, and without antibiotic treatment it is nearly 100 percent fatal. Outbreaks have occurred in modern times, and it can develop as a result of a bubonic infection. But, it is unclear how much of a role it played in the Black Death — some evidence suggests it is not as contagious as commonly thought.
Rats and fleas The Black Death just doesn't appear to have behaved the way the typical, modern rat-associated plague does, according to Gage, the flea expert. Even so, he says he is convinced that bubonic plague was responsible.
A group of French researchers found another possible insect carrier for the Black Death: lice. They were able to transmit fatal plague infections from sick rabbits to healthy ones via human body lice that fed on the rabbits. | yes |
Speculative Fiction | Could Jurassic Park Happen in Real Life? | yes_statement | "jurassic" park could happen in real life. the possibility of "jurassic" park existing in real life | https://screenrant.com/could-jurassic-park-happen-in-real-life/ | Could Jurassic Park Happen In Real Life? | Could Jurassic Park Happen In Real Life?
A real-world Jurassic Park is not as impossible as it may seem, but there are some key issues that make the probability of the park happening low.
Steven Spielberg’s Jurassic Parkmakes an effort to ground its science in reality, but could the events of the movie actually happen in real life? The science behind the creation of a dinosaur park is explored in detail in Michael Crichton’s original Jurassic Park novel, and Spielberg manages to reference the key points of his ideas in the film adaptation. The character John Hammond works with the scientists of his company, InGen, to extract dinosaur DNA from mosquitos preserved in amber. From the growth of the dinosaurs to their eventual escape and destruction of the park, Jurassic Park avoids making too many illogical and unrealistic jumps to move its plot.
A number of things would need to go right — and wrong — for the events of Jurassic Park to happen in real life. Some of the necessities for a real-life Jurassic Park, including a John Hammond billionaire eccentric type with the will to build the park and the greed and inattention to detail of a large-scale operation that could lead to the deaths of innocents, are all very possible. The most glaring issue and the reason the movie couldn’t actually happen in real life, however, is that there would need to be a way to grow ancient animals in a lab, and it's debatable whether that could ever happen.
Cloning Dinosaurs Via Petrified Mosquitoes Is Not Plausible
The dinosaurs in Jurassic Park are grown via the blood found in ancient mosquitoes that John Hammond's company mines. According to the Mr. D.N.A. cartoon that leads the movie's characters through the scientific process of dinosaur creation, the genes of the prehistoric animals were trapped and preserved within the mosquitoes. Unfortunately, not only are perfectly preserved ancient mosquito specimens rare even in the Jurassic franchise, but those that contain measurable amounts of blood do not have any recognizable DNA, which is a delicate molecule that degrades rapidly, according to Forbes. Even well-preserved whole animals like mammoths are unable to be cloned by today's scientists, according to CNN.
It doesn’t seem like the science to clone a full dinosaur is possible, but Jurassic Park does in part account for the limits of modern science. To fill in the gaps of their dinosaurs, InGen scientists use toad DNA. This is in part fanciful, as animal genomes can’t be mixed and matched together like a LEGO set. There is some real-world basis to the idea, however. The modern diet is made up of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), and even some animals are modified to make them more resistant to disease. Splicing frog and dinosaur DNA together may not be feasible, but the framework of the idea is actually a reality.
One Man Can Have The Vision For The Park
John Hammond is the architect, the funder, and the creative genius behind the titular Jurassic Park.He is the key man when it comes to getting the attraction up and running. While Hammond does have an inflated ego and his cavalier attitude about the power he’s created knocks against his character, he truly wants to make a zoological park where everyone can come and appreciate something nearly impossible. His ultimate goal is to show people magic. It isn’t money or fame Hammond is looking for; he just wants to bring something amazing to people like he did when he was younger with his flea circus.
The Jurassic Park novel’s John Hammond is different from the movie version; he’s much more of a megalomaniacal businessman in the book. As a purveyor of magical attractions and impossible shows himself, it makes sense Spielberg would empathize with a different characterization of Hammond. There may not be a person with the exact temperament of either the book or film Hammond, but there are plenty of incredibly wealthy individuals who have proven they are willing to spend money on ventures people can only dream of, such as flying to space. Any of these people could decide that a zoo with the most amazing creatures would be a worthwhile opportunity.
Corporate Espionage & Irresponsibility
Jurassic Park’saction is kicked off when Dennis Nedry steals dinosaur embryos for sale to Lewis Dodgson, who reappears in Jurassic World Dominionin a much bigger role. As part of his plan, Nedry turns off the power to the island, allowing the dinosaurs to break through the de-electrified fences. With a secret as groundbreaking as the one Hammond discovered, plenty of other biotech organizations would do whatever they could to get their hands on the information. Corporate espionage is the least of what some large industries would be willing to do in order to acquire groundbreaking technology from InGen.
The breakdown in realism comes with why Nedry would be willing to sabotage InGen and Hammond and why he seems to be the only one capable of operating the park’s infrastructure. Nedry plans against InGen in Jurassic Park in part because he claims he’s underpaid, despite Hammond stating he’s spared no expense on the rest of the park. No real organization would let an employee as critical as the chief system architect become so disgruntled to the point that he is willing to commit a crime. Any other organization would either pay that employee, or the punishment for espionage would be so great the risk wouldn’t be worth the reward.
Park Visitors & Staff In Danger From The Dinosaurs
When the T-rex breaks from its cage at the end of the first act in Jurassic Park, the park shuts down, and the people left are in mortal peril. Dr. Alan Grant and the other survivors on the island may be one small step away from being devoured by a dinosaur at any moment, but the reality of the situation would be much less intense. The dinosaurs of Jurassic Park aren’t monsters; they’re animals. They may be prehistoric and their behaviors unknown, but the movie goes to great lengths to show they behave a lot like modern-day organisms, moving in herds for example.
The way the dinosaurs behave in Jurassic Park is closer to horror villains than true animals. This can be explained away fairly easily, as no one knows exactly how intelligent dinosaurs were, and it’s possible they would pursue people more persistently than other animals. If dinosaurs are anything like modern animals, however, they would probably be happy to get as far away from humans as possible. Some of the best scenes of Jurassic Parkare of characters interacting with the dinosaurs as if they are regular animals. It would not be a stretch to say even the predators probably would really act less aggressively than is depicted in the movie. | Could Jurassic Park Happen In Real Life?
A real-world Jurassic Park is not as impossible as it may seem, but there are some key issues that make the probability of the park happening low.
Steven Spielberg’s Jurassic Parkmakes an effort to ground its science in reality, but could the events of the movie actually happen in real life? The science behind the creation of a dinosaur park is explored in detail in Michael Crichton’s original Jurassic Park novel, and Spielberg manages to reference the key points of his ideas in the film adaptation. The character John Hammond works with the scientists of his company, InGen, to extract dinosaur DNA from mosquitos preserved in amber. From the growth of the dinosaurs to their eventual escape and destruction of the park, Jurassic Park avoids making too many illogical and unrealistic jumps to move its plot.
A number of things would need to go right — and wrong — for the events of Jurassic Park to happen in real life. Some of the necessities for a real-life Jurassic Park, including a John Hammond billionaire eccentric type with the will to build the park and the greed and inattention to detail of a large-scale operation that could lead to the deaths of innocents, are all very possible. The most glaring issue and the reason the movie couldn’t actually happen in real life, however, is that there would need to be a way to grow ancient animals in a lab, and it's debatable whether that could ever happen.
Cloning Dinosaurs Via Petrified Mosquitoes Is Not Plausible
The dinosaurs in Jurassic Park are grown via the blood found in ancient mosquitoes that John Hammond's company mines. According to the Mr. D.N.A. cartoon that leads the movie's characters through the scientific process of dinosaur creation, the genes of the prehistoric animals were trapped and preserved within the mosquitoes. Unfortunately, not only are perfectly preserved ancient mosquito specimens rare even in the Jurassic franchise, but those that contain measurable amounts of blood do not have any recognizable DNA, which is a delicate molecule that degrades rapidly, according to Forbes. | no |
Speculative Fiction | Could Jurassic Park Happen in Real Life? | yes_statement | "jurassic" park could happen in real life. the possibility of "jurassic" park existing in real life | https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2021/feb/22/reality-bites-could-jurassic-park-actually-happen | Reality bites: Could Jurassic Park actually happen? | Jurassic Park ... | In the Guide’s weekly Solved! column, we look into a crucial pop-culture question you’ve been burning to know the answer to – and settle it, once and for all
Don’t pretend you’ve never thought about it. Yes, yes – there’s the odd teensy downside to populating an island with once-extinct reptiles. Sure, the T rex turns out to show a disregard for road safety. And velociraptors’ approach to hide and seek is frankly unsportsmanlike. But the majestic song of the brachiosaurus! The incredible dino-flocks! The glistening magnificence of Jeff Goldblum’s chest rug! Could Jurassic Park happen in real life?
Back in 1993, it seemed like it. Newsweek ran an article attesting to the scientific plausibility of Jurassic Park, pointing to the fact that – during filming – two Berkeley scientists announced that they had cloned 40m-year-old bee DNA after finding the insect preserved in amber. “This movie depends on credibility,” Spielberg told Newsweek. “The credibility of the premise – that dinosaurs could come back to life through cloning – is what allowed the movie to be made.”
But there were problems even then. To replicate a dinosaur genome, you would need billions of DNA’s building blocks, base pairs. But none of the ancient DNA they harvested had more than 250. Which is like unboxing a 10,000-piece T rex jigsaw to find two corner pieces and a bit of tooth. And, in the last few years, the University of Manchester’s amber-based experiments have shown that the bee DNA findings were likely to be based on false results, anyway. Plus, there’s one other teeny obstacle to setting up Jurassic Park: no one has actually ever found any dinosaur DNA. Scientists know that DNA degrades over time, and the oldest DNA ever found is about a million years old. The dinosaur DNA you need would have had to survive around 65m years.
Perhaps life can find a way, though. A controversial palaeontologist – who also just happens to be a scientific consultant to the Jurassic Park franchise – thinks that we might have all the DNA we need: in chickens. Scientists have managed to tweak poultry DNA to grow alligator-like teeth and a dinosaur-like snout instead of a beak. Still, given that the project is often referred to as “chickenosaurus”, it might not be quite the awe-inspiring spectacle Spielberg had in mind.
On top of that, you can also consider the cretaceous plant species that give Jurassic Park its lush, verdant quality to be a write-off (how were they even meant to have got the plant DNA out of a mosquito? Catch it during Veganuary?). And, obviously, the creatures would not be recreations of once-dead species such as T rex, but a human-engineered version of how we believe dinosaurs to have been. They might lack the same majesty as in the film, especially given that – knowing the link between dinosaurs and birds – things might also be a tad downier than on-screen.
So, Jurassic Park’s vision of scientists genetically engineering dinosaur-like creatures could happen. Will they be installed inside an awe-inspiring theme park featuring Jeep-based tours? Less likely, but who knows? You’d hope not, given that we’re now five films deep into seeing how they end up turning humanity into a mid-morning snack. In the words of Jeff Goldblum: sometimes we get so preoccupied with whether we could, we don’t stop to think if we should. | In the Guide’s weekly Solved! column, we look into a crucial pop-culture question you’ve been burning to know the answer to – and settle it, once and for all
Don’t pretend you’ve never thought about it. Yes, yes – there’s the odd teensy downside to populating an island with once-extinct reptiles. Sure, the T rex turns out to show a disregard for road safety. And velociraptors’ approach to hide and seek is frankly unsportsmanlike. But the majestic song of the brachiosaurus! The incredible dino-flocks! The glistening magnificence of Jeff Goldblum’s chest rug! Could Jurassic Park happen in real life?
Back in 1993, it seemed like it. Newsweek ran an article attesting to the scientific plausibility of Jurassic Park, pointing to the fact that – during filming – two Berkeley scientists announced that they had cloned 40m-year-old bee DNA after finding the insect preserved in amber. “This movie depends on credibility,” Spielberg told Newsweek. “The credibility of the premise – that dinosaurs could come back to life through cloning – is what allowed the movie to be made.”
But there were problems even then. To replicate a dinosaur genome, you would need billions of DNA’s building blocks, base pairs. But none of the ancient DNA they harvested had more than 250. Which is like unboxing a 10,000-piece T rex jigsaw to find two corner pieces and a bit of tooth. And, in the last few years, the University of Manchester’s amber-based experiments have shown that the bee DNA findings were likely to be based on false results, anyway. Plus, there’s one other teeny obstacle to setting up Jurassic Park: no one has actually ever found any dinosaur DNA. Scientists know that DNA degrades over time, and the oldest DNA ever found is about a million years old. The dinosaur DNA you need would have had to survive around 65m years.
Perhaps life can find a way, though. | no |
Speculative Fiction | Could Jurassic Park Happen in Real Life? | yes_statement | "jurassic" park could happen in real life. the possibility of "jurassic" park existing in real life | https://gradschool.louisiana.edu/blog/could-jurassic-park-actually-happen | Could Jurassic Park Actually Happen? | COVID-19 Information
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Could Jurassic Park Actually Happen?
“Jurassic Park” - the quintessential dinosaur movie. Since its release in 1993, the film has spurred a renewed interest in paleontology and geology at college campuses across the country. Because of the movie, earning your master’s in paleontology or geology became increasingly popular—and dinosaurs? They are just about the coolest thing you could study.
In the film (in case you’ve been living in a cave for the past 30 years), scientific advancements aided the creation of a theme park full of living dinosaurs, which were genetically engineered from insect DNA extracted from amber.
Science today can make amazing things happen, but we’re not quite to the point of resurrecting dinosaurs (yet). However, the method of extracting DNA from rocks and minerals does exist and can lead us to other discoveries, including finding life on Mars.
Dr. Brian Schubert, professor in the School of Geosciences and graduate coordinator for the master’s in geology program, has experience in this particular area. For his PhD, he studied how long organisms can live buried in halite salt crystals and worked to extract the DNA fragments from the single-celled organisms trapped inside.
“When salt crystals grow, they get little inclusions and they can get microbes trapped inside. It’s like amber, or a diamond, because inclusions are basically imperfections,” he explains. “What we found is they get really well preserved in salt and that we could extract the DNA from the buried salt, which is tens of thousands of years old, maybe 100,000 years old—but nowhere near how old dinosaurs are.”
Dinosaurs last went extinct 65 million years ago. Dr. Schubert says amber is porous and oxygen diffuses through it, which will break down the DNA trapped inside, so it probably couldn’t survive for millions of years.
According to Dr. Schubert, there is a possibility that DNA fragments can be preserved for millions of years in salt crystals, because oxygen doesn’t diffuse through salt. His research determined that researchers might be able to extract evidence of water and life on Mars if a probe were to bring back samples.
But, unfortunately that same process can’t be applied to bringing dinosaurs back to life.
“Salt might be better for preserving DNA, but you’re not likely to get T-rex DNA in a salt crystal,” Dr. Schubert quipped.
“The problem is this DNA (in salt crystals) will be really fragmented and really small. To sequence an organism you need the whole genome, and to get something like that is highly unlikely,” he says. “As this DNA is sitting around in the environment or a crystal, it’s breaking down. You would expect to find very small fragments of DNA, so you would find a base length of DNA preserved, but not a whole genome from 65 million years ago.
“The ability to sequence something is there — they could take the DNA, figure out what it was, plot it, figure out what it was related to, but they can’t bring it back to life with current technologies.” | COVID-19 Information
You are here
Could Jurassic Park Actually Happen?
“Jurassic Park” - the quintessential dinosaur movie. Since its release in 1993, the film has spurred a renewed interest in paleontology and geology at college campuses across the country. Because of the movie, earning your master’s in paleontology or geology became increasingly popular—and dinosaurs? They are just about the coolest thing you could study.
In the film (in case you’ve been living in a cave for the past 30 years), scientific advancements aided the creation of a theme park full of living dinosaurs, which were genetically engineered from insect DNA extracted from amber.
Science today can make amazing things happen, but we’re not quite to the point of resurrecting dinosaurs (yet). However, the method of extracting DNA from rocks and minerals does exist and can lead us to other discoveries, including finding life on Mars.
Dr. Brian Schubert, professor in the School of Geosciences and graduate coordinator for the master’s in geology program, has experience in this particular area. For his PhD, he studied how long organisms can live buried in halite salt crystals and worked to extract the DNA fragments from the single-celled organisms trapped inside.
“When salt crystals grow, they get little inclusions and they can get microbes trapped inside. It’s like amber, or a diamond, because inclusions are basically imperfections,” he explains. “What we found is they get really well preserved in salt and that we could extract the DNA from the buried salt, which is tens of thousands of years old, maybe 100,000 years old—but nowhere near how old dinosaurs are.”
Dinosaurs last went extinct 65 million years ago. Dr. Schubert says amber is porous and oxygen diffuses through it, which will break down the DNA trapped inside, so it probably couldn’t survive for millions of years.
According to Dr. Schubert, there is a possibility that DNA fragments can be preserved for millions of years in salt crystals, because oxygen doesn’ | no |
Speculative Fiction | Could Jurassic Park Happen in Real Life? | yes_statement | "jurassic" park could happen in real life. the possibility of "jurassic" park existing in real life | https://movieweb.com/jurassic-park-real-life-dinosaurs/ | Real-Life Jurassic Park with Living Dinosaurs Could Happen Any ... | Real-Life Jurassic Park with Living Dinosaurs Could Happen Any Day Now
According to the scientist who inspired Jurassic Park Alan Grant, the window for the return of dinosaurs is sometime between now and 2025.
Putting it mildly, the world has gone pretty crazy so far this year. With people now looking ponderously out of their windows and wondering what apocalyptic event will befall us next, it should come as no surprise that, according to scientists, we are now officially in a window of time where technology can bring the dinosaurs back. The moment for a real-life Jurassic Park has been stated previously as being sometime between right this very second and 2025.
This wild information comes courtesy of a panel published five years ago as of this month, with the scientist who inspired Jurassic Park's Alan Grant no less revealing that the scientific community expected technology to be capable of bringing dinosaurs back into existence sometime between today and five years from right now.
The scientist's name is Dr. Jack Horner, and at the time he was discussing his attempts at creating something which he called the "chickenosaurus," because the DNA he had been studying was rooted in chickens, an ancestor to the dinosaur. Honestly, that sounds even more terrifying than anything we have seen in the Jurassic Park franchise. Horner was a consultant on the Jurassic Park movies, and at the time was studying DNA of dinosaur remains, believing them to be the key to bringing them back to life.
"I have tried many times to extract DNA from a dinosaur and we've always failed. We think it's because the DNA molecule is huge and it's not very stable. It just comes apart too easily."
Perhaps now is the time to stop being so preoccupied with whether or not they could, and stop and think about whether or not they should.
During the 5-year-old panel, Horner was less focused on bringing back accurate dinosaurs and more focused on splicing and mashing different bits of DNA together in order to recreate something like a dinosaur for the modern world. "Actually, the wings and hands are not as difficult," Horner said, adding that a "chickensoraus" is well on its way to becoming reality. "The tail is the biggest project," he said. "But on the other hand, we have been able to do some things recently that have given us hope that it won't take too long."
Splicing and mashing together different bits of DNA to create something brand new? Isn't that just the plot for Jurassic World? Get ready to start running.
Horner continued saying that "birds are living dinosaurs." Horner has in fact tried to merge birds with dinosaurs before, only this time on the silver screen, with the scientist suggesting to Steven Spielberg the addition of feathers to the velociraptors. Spielberg ruled against it and decided to go for entertainment value instead.
"Steven and I had a lot of arguments about whether the velociraptors should have colors and be colorful. He won all of those arguments. He said a technicolor feather dinosaur is not going to scare anyone. So, they're grey and featherless."
According to Horner, once the nightmare-inducing chicken-dinosaur crossbreed has been cracked, essentially meaning that a chicken with dinosaur teeth and an alligator tail now roams the earth, he expects that the next step will be something more akin to a velociraptor.
While there does not seem to have been much more development on the creation of dinosaurs (would they even tell us if there had been?) the fact that we are now within this 5-year window, and with 2020 being one of the most unpredictable years of all time, means we should all expect to see the ominous silhouette of a Tyrannosaurus Rex on the horizon sometime soon.
The Jurassic World franchise is set to continue soon with the upcoming Jurassic World: Dominion. The third movie in the Jurassic World series, and sixth movie in the Jurassic franchise overall, Jurassic World: Dominion is being helmed by Safety Not Guaranteed and the first Jurassic World director Colin Trevorrow, who wrote the screenplay with Emily Carmichael. The plot of the movie will be based on a story by Trevorrow and his writing partner, Derek Connolly. As with its predecessors, Frank Marshall and Patrick Crowley will produce the film, with Trevorrow and director and Hollywood icon Steven Spielberg acting as executive producers.
While it was rumored that Jurassic World: Dominion would be the last entry in the series, producer Frank Marshall recently cleared things up with a definitive "no" whilst promoting his new documentary Laurel Canyon recently. Marshall then offered a little more detail saying, "It's the start of a new era... The dinosaurs are now on the mainland amongst us, and they will be for quite some time, I hope."
The previous installment, Jurassic World: Fallen Kingdom, picked up three years since the theme park and luxury resort Jurassic World was destroyed by dinosaurs out of containment. With Isla Nublar now abandoned by humans, the surviving dinosaurs must fend for themselves in the jungles. When the island's dormant volcano begins roaring to life, Owen and Claire mount a campaign to rescue the remaining dinosaurs from this extinction-level event. Owen is driven to find Blue, his lead raptor who's still missing in the wild, and Claire has grown a respect for these creatures she now makes her mission. Arriving on the unstable island as lava begins raining down, their expedition uncovers a conspiracy that could return our entire planet to a perilous order not seen since prehistoric times.
Fallen Kingdom ends with a number of the creatures being smuggled off of the island for a black-market auction which, of course, ends terribly. With the dinosaurs now let loose upon the world, the likes of Dr. Alan Grant, Dr. Ian Malcolm, and Dr. Ellie Sattler are brought back into the fray to help stop the prehistoric beasts.
Filming on the movie recently started up again, with Jurassic World: Dominion currently scheduled to hit theaters on June 11, 2021. The panel in which Horner made his prediction comes from Talks at Google. | Real-Life Jurassic Park with Living Dinosaurs Could Happen Any Day Now
According to the scientist who inspired Jurassic Park Alan Grant, the window for the return of dinosaurs is sometime between now and 2025.
Putting it mildly, the world has gone pretty crazy so far this year. With people now looking ponderously out of their windows and wondering what apocalyptic event will befall us next, it should come as no surprise that, according to scientists, we are now officially in a window of time where technology can bring the dinosaurs back. The moment for a real-life Jurassic Park has been stated previously as being sometime between right this very second and 2025.
This wild information comes courtesy of a panel published five years ago as of this month, with the scientist who inspired Jurassic Park's Alan Grant no less revealing that the scientific community expected technology to be capable of bringing dinosaurs back into existence sometime between today and five years from right now.
The scientist's name is Dr. Jack Horner, and at the time he was discussing his attempts at creating something which he called the "chickenosaurus," because the DNA he had been studying was rooted in chickens, an ancestor to the dinosaur. Honestly, that sounds even more terrifying than anything we have seen in the Jurassic Park franchise. Horner was a consultant on the Jurassic Park movies, and at the time was studying DNA of dinosaur remains, believing them to be the key to bringing them back to life.
"I have tried many times to extract DNA from a dinosaur and we've always failed. We think it's because the DNA molecule is huge and it's not very stable. It just comes apart too easily. "
Perhaps now is the time to stop being so preoccupied with whether or not they could, and stop and think about whether or not they should.
During the 5-year-old panel, Horner was less focused on bringing back accurate dinosaurs and more focused on splicing and mashing different bits of DNA together in order to recreate something like a dinosaur for the modern world. "Actually, the wings and hands are not as difficult," | yes |
Speculative Fiction | Could Jurassic Park Happen in Real Life? | yes_statement | "jurassic" park could happen in real life. the possibility of "jurassic" park existing in real life | https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/150618-jurassic-world-genetic-engineering-chickenosaurus | What Could Live in a Real Jurassic World? A Chickenosaurus | What Could Live in a Real Jurassic World? A Chickenosaurus
Reviving dinosaurs from ancient DNA will never happen, but real-life genetic engineering is turning birds more dino-like.
ByRiley BlackNational Geographic
Published June 18, 2015
• 6 min read
More than two decades after dinosaurs crashed the electric fences in Jurassic Park, the fourth installment in the series—Jurassic World—has once again delivered hapless tourists to the claws and jaws of genetically engineered monsters. But even though everyone knows this is science fiction, headlines and high-profile articles about de-extinction have let fiction stalk a little closer to reality.
So will we ever see a real Jurassic World?
Not like in the movie, no, but some paleontologists are exploring another way to revive dinosaur traits, by reverse-engineering birds to look more like their dinosaur ancestors.
Let’s get the fiction out of the way first. The way Jurassic World’s geneticists created their toothy attractions was close to how Michael Crichton envisioned in his original novel.
Starting with tatters of DNA extracted from prehistoric mosquitoes and biting insects, the fictional scientists plug the gaps with genes from living animals to cobble together creatures that look like real dinosaurs. (Never mind all the complicated steps to get from genes to living organisms. That’s a problem for the dinosaur breeders at Site B.)
While this fictional scheme for bringing dinosaurs back to life was ingenious, it’s never going to happen. (That's one of the facts I had to cope with as science adviser for the new movie’sofficial website.) The genetic material just doesn’t last long enough. DNA starts to decay at death, and, given its decay rate even under ideal conditions, there’s little hope of obtaining even a shred of DNA from fossils any older than 6.8 million years.
That’s far too recent for Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops, much less even earlier dinosaurs that flourished between 235 and 66 million years ago. Fossils can preserve the structure ofcollagen fibers and blood cells, but it’s unlikely that a researcher is ever going to jump up from the lab bench and shout “Bingo! Dino DNA!”
Instead of bringing ancient DNA to life, scientists are thinking about how to work backward from modern DNA. These plans are a bit closer to some of the experimentation in the new blockbuster, in which geneticists rearrange genes to create animals that better fit the local environment and visitor expectations. They’re not “pure” dinosaurs, but custom creatures rebuilt to spec.
Creating 'chickenosaurus'
Birds are living dinosaurs. They’re not quite like a Stegosaurus or Apatosaurus, true, but they’re another line of dinosaurs that sprouted about 150 million years ago and survived while all their relatives went extinct. And since birds' genes hold clues to their prehistoric past just as their anatomy does, some scientists are looking to these living dinosaurs to reconstruct their long-lost relatives.
Like many dinosaurs, such as this chick, pterosaurs were also covered with thin, downy filaments.
Photograph by Robert Clark, National Geographic
Please be respectful of copyright. Unauthorized use is prohibited.
Paleontologist Jack Horner, consultant on the Jurassic Park films from the outset, has received a great deal of press for presenting this idea as the “chickenosaurus” project. By tweaking the genes and development of chickens, Horner and others have proposed, researchers can create a bird that looks like a Velociraptor.
Some of the necessary changes to create a chickenosaurus are already starting to come together. In 2006 biologist Matthew Harris found that chicken embryos can growrudimentary teeth. Then, just last month, a pair of independent studies were able to make birds more Velociraptor-like.
After discovering that the perching toe of modern birds starts to develop only once embryos start twitching their muscles, biologist João Francisco Botelho and colleagues paralyzed that toe in developing birds and found that it retainedthe ancestral anatomy seen in non-avian dinosaurs.
Around the same time, geneticist Bhart-Anjan S. Bhullar of Harvard and coauthors announced that they were able to create experimental chickens that lacked beaks and had jaws closer in form to those of dinosaurs like Velociraptor. With a few more changes—such as a long, balancing tail—scientists will be pretty close to making what’ll look like a Cretaceous cockerel.
Quill-like filaments adorn the back of the dinosaur Beipiaosaurus inexpectus.
Photograph by Robert Clark, National Geographic
Please be respectful of copyright. Unauthorized use is prohibited.
This method won’t let us bring back Velociraptor or Tyrannosaurus. Those dinosaurs are long gone and are never coming back. Instead, a chickenosaurus would be closer to Jurassic World’s fictional villain Indominus rex, a hybrid of various genes from dinosaurs and other creatures, or even elephants genetically modified to look like mammoths. It wouldn’t be a moment of resurrection, but reinvention.
Whether anyone ever trots out a “chickenosaurus” on live TV isn’t really the point, though. The real goal of these studies is understanding the relationship between genetic change, development, and anatomy that underscored one of the most wonderful evolutionary transitions of all time. Taken together, they could reveal what happened to both genes and anatomy as birds emerged from their dinosaurian ancestors.
Bones provide the roadmap, but the traits of living birds may yield some of the step-by-step directions to get from point to point. And that’s what the fictional paleontologist Alan Grant knew well. We can learn so much about dinosaurs because some of them are still with us. Look outside and watch the chickadees, quail, and ravens. We still live in a Jurassic World. | What Could Live in a Real Jurassic World? A Chickenosaurus
Reviving dinosaurs from ancient DNA will never happen, but real-life genetic engineering is turning birds more dino-like.
ByRiley BlackNational Geographic
Published June 18, 2015
• 6 min read
More than two decades after dinosaurs crashed the electric fences in Jurassic Park, the fourth installment in the series—Jurassic World—has once again delivered hapless tourists to the claws and jaws of genetically engineered monsters. But even though everyone knows this is science fiction, headlines and high-profile articles about de-extinction have let fiction stalk a little closer to reality.
So will we ever see a real Jurassic World?
Not like in the movie, no, but some paleontologists are exploring another way to revive dinosaur traits, by reverse-engineering birds to look more like their dinosaur ancestors.
Let’s get the fiction out of the way first. The way Jurassic World’s geneticists created their toothy attractions was close to how Michael Crichton envisioned in his original novel.
Starting with tatters of DNA extracted from prehistoric mosquitoes and biting insects, the fictional scientists plug the gaps with genes from living animals to cobble together creatures that look like real dinosaurs. (Never mind all the complicated steps to get from genes to living organisms. That’s a problem for the dinosaur breeders at Site B.)
While this fictional scheme for bringing dinosaurs back to life was ingenious, it’s never going to happen. (That's one of the facts I had to cope with as science adviser for the new movie’sofficial website.) The genetic material just doesn’t last long enough. DNA starts to decay at death, and, given its decay rate even under ideal conditions, there’s little hope of obtaining even a shred of DNA from fossils any older than 6.8 million years.
| no |
Speculative Fiction | Could Jurassic Park Happen in Real Life? | yes_statement | "jurassic" park could happen in real life. the possibility of "jurassic" park existing in real life | https://www.gadgets360.com/science/news/dinosaurs-recreate-dna-research-jurassic-park-scientists-paleontologist-william-ausich-2531469 | Recreating Dinosaurs From DNA: Here Is What Scientists Think ... | There are two kinds of people in the world. Those who have been fascinated by the world created in Michael Crichton's Jurassic Park and others who are petrified by the sheer possibility of it. But ever since director Steven Spielberg brought the novel to life with his 1993 film of the same name, there has been one question on many minds. Is it possible to recreate dinosaurs, given the advancement in science and the study of DNA? In Jurassic Park, scientists use DNA to create a variety of dinosaur species including Triceratops, Velociraptor, and the fearsome T. Rex.
In reality, it is easier imagined than performed, say experts. William Ausich, Professor Emeritus of Paleontology at Ohio State University, explained in a column in The Conversation that the task becomes extremely difficult given the fact that all that is left of dinosaurs are their fossils. DNA, on the other hand, is much easily obtained from the “soft parts” of a being. This could be organs, blood vessels, nerves, muscle, and fat, he said.
In response to a question by a five-year-old, William Ausich was quoted as saying: “Immersed for tens of millions of years in ancient mud, minerals, and water, the fossils come from the dinosaur's so-called “hard parts” – its bones, teeth, and skull.” The soft part, Ausich said, had “either decomposed or been eaten by another dinosaur.”
Explaining the complexities of DNA, he added, “DNA – which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid – is something in every cell of every organism that ever lived on Earth, including dinosaurs.” He equated it to molecules that carry the genetic code, which in turn is described as “a set of instructions that helps bodies and minds grow and thrive”.
And these molecules decay, Ausich said. “Recent studies show DNA deteriorates and ultimately disintegrates after about 7 million years,” he explained, citing a paper published in the journal Nature.
Given that the last dinosaur died 65 million years ago, chances of finding DNA were extremely slim. Ausich said even if the scientists were able to come up with fragments of a dinosaur, they would not be able to make a complete dinosaur.
“Instead, they would have to combine the fragments with the DNA of a modern-day animal to create a living organism,” he added. According to the paleontologist, this organism would not be a complete or actual dinosaur but rather a hybrid of a dinosaur and a bird or a reptile. | There are two kinds of people in the world. Those who have been fascinated by the world created in Michael Crichton's Jurassic Park and others who are petrified by the sheer possibility of it. But ever since director Steven Spielberg brought the novel to life with his 1993 film of the same name, there has been one question on many minds. Is it possible to recreate dinosaurs, given the advancement in science and the study of DNA? In Jurassic Park, scientists use DNA to create a variety of dinosaur species including Triceratops, Velociraptor, and the fearsome T. Rex.
In reality, it is easier imagined than performed, say experts. William Ausich, Professor Emeritus of Paleontology at Ohio State University, explained in a column in The Conversation that the task becomes extremely difficult given the fact that all that is left of dinosaurs are their fossils. DNA, on the other hand, is much easily obtained from the “soft parts” of a being. This could be organs, blood vessels, nerves, muscle, and fat, he said.
In response to a question by a five-year-old, William Ausich was quoted as saying: “Immersed for tens of millions of years in ancient mud, minerals, and water, the fossils come from the dinosaur's so-called “hard parts” – its bones, teeth, and skull.” The soft part, Ausich said, had “either decomposed or been eaten by another dinosaur.”
Explaining the complexities of DNA, he added, “DNA – which stands for deoxyribonucleic acid – is something in every cell of every organism that ever lived on Earth, including dinosaurs.” He equated it to molecules that carry the genetic code, which in turn is described as “a set of instructions that helps bodies and minds grow and thrive”.
And these molecules decay, Ausich said. “Recent studies show DNA deteriorates and ultimately disintegrates after about 7 million years,” he explained, citing a paper published in the journal Nature.
Given that the last dinosaur died 65 million years ago, chances of finding DNA were extremely slim. | no |
Speculative Fiction | Could Jurassic Park Happen in Real Life? | yes_statement | "jurassic" park could happen in real life. the possibility of "jurassic" park existing in real life | https://www.forbes.com/sites/alexknapp/2013/09/14/scientists-demonstrate-that-jurassic-park-couldnt-happen/ | Scientists Show That Jurassic Park-Style Dinosaur Cloning Couldn't ... | There are quite a few things about the movie Jurassic Park that aren't very scientific. (Like the fact that velociraptors were actually about the size of chickens). But one intriguing aspect of both the film and novel is its very plausible-sounding premise. In the movie, scientists managed to clone dinosaurs by finding dinosaur blood within mosquitoes that had been fossilized in amber. They then used the DNA in the blood to clone the dinosaurs for their park.
In real life, alas, even the very premise of Jurassic Park turns out to be false. That's the conclusion of a group of scientists at the University of Manchester, who've pretty much put the nail in the coffin of the idea that dinosaur DNA can be extracted from insects in amber.
In their research, which was published this week, the research team examined insects that had been preserved in copal, which is an intermediate stage from tree resin to its final form as fossilized amber. The samples they used were from copal that ranged in age from 60 years to 10,600 years. But when they examined those samples with the best DNA sequencing methods known, they were unable to find any ancient DNA at all.
This same research team has successfully retrieved ancient DNA from other types of preserved life forms, so the fault isn't the method. This also goes further to demonstrate that claims that DNA had been obtained from amber in the 1990s, which had never been independently replicated, were probably the result of contamination.
"This raises further doubts about claims of DNA extraction from fossil insects in amber, many millions of years older than copal," the researchers conclude in their paper. They go on further to state that their "inability to detect aDNA in copal specimens, despite using sensitive next generation methods, suggest that there is no protected environment in this type of material, and that DNA survival in resin inclusions is no better, and perhaps worse, than that in air-dried museum insects."
Last October, a different team of researchers showed that DNA degrades pretty rapidly, with a half-life of only about 521 years. That already raised serious questions about the ability to successfully clone ancient forms of life. This new finding pretty much confirms that possibility, unless some currently unknown type of natural DNA preservation is discovered.
"Unfortunately, the Jurassic Park scenario must remain in the realms of fiction," said lead researcher Dr. David Penney in a statement. | There are quite a few things about the movie Jurassic Park that aren't very scientific. (Like the fact that velociraptors were actually about the size of chickens). But one intriguing aspect of both the film and novel is its very plausible-sounding premise. In the movie, scientists managed to clone dinosaurs by finding dinosaur blood within mosquitoes that had been fossilized in amber. They then used the DNA in the blood to clone the dinosaurs for their park.
In real life, alas, even the very premise of Jurassic Park turns out to be false. That's the conclusion of a group of scientists at the University of Manchester, who've pretty much put the nail in the coffin of the idea that dinosaur DNA can be extracted from insects in amber.
In their research, which was published this week, the research team examined insects that had been preserved in copal, which is an intermediate stage from tree resin to its final form as fossilized amber. The samples they used were from copal that ranged in age from 60 years to 10,600 years. But when they examined those samples with the best DNA sequencing methods known, they were unable to find any ancient DNA at all.
This same research team has successfully retrieved ancient DNA from other types of preserved life forms, so the fault isn't the method. This also goes further to demonstrate that claims that DNA had been obtained from amber in the 1990s, which had never been independently replicated, were probably the result of contamination.
"This raises further doubts about claims of DNA extraction from fossil insects in amber, many millions of years older than copal," the researchers conclude in their paper. They go on further to state that their "inability to detect aDNA in copal specimens, despite using sensitive next generation methods, suggest that there is no protected environment in this type of material, and that DNA survival in resin inclusions is no better, and perhaps worse, than that in air-dried museum insects. "
Last October, a different team of researchers showed that DNA degrades pretty rapidly, with a half-life of only about 521 years. | no |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://news.mit.edu/2020/life-venus-phosphine-0914 | Astronomers may have found a signature of life on Venus | MIT News | Caption:
If the evidence, indicating the presence of the molecule phosphine, is indeed associated with life, it must be some sort of “aerial” life-form in Venus’ clouds. This artistic impression depicts phosphine in the clouds of Venus.
Caption:
“Now, astronomers will think of all the ways to justify phosphine without life, and I welcome that. Please do, because we are at the end of our possibilities to show abiotic processes that can make phosphine,” says Clara Sousa-Silva, left, with co-author Janusz Petkowski.
Credits:
Image: Melanie Gonick, MIT
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below, credit the images to "MIT."
If the evidence, indicating the presence of the molecule phosphine, is indeed associated with life, it must be some sort of “aerial” life-form in Venus’ clouds. This artistic impression depicts phosphine in the clouds of Venus.
Credits:
Image: ESO (European Space Organization)
Caption:
The researchers made the detection using the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) in Hawaii (pictured), and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) observatory in Chile.
Credits:
Image: Will Montgomery, EAO-JCMT
Caption:
“Now, astronomers will think of all the ways to justify phosphine without life, and I welcome that. Please do, because we are at the end of our possibilities to show abiotic processes that can make phosphine,” says Clara Sousa-Silva, left, with co-author Janusz Petkowski.
Credits:
Image: Melanie Gonick, MIT
The search for life beyond Earth has largely revolved around our rocky red neighbor. NASA has launched multiple rovers over the years, with a new one currently en route, to sift through Mars’ dusty surface for signs of water and other hints of habitability.
Now, in a surprising twist, scientists at MIT, Cardiff University, and elsewhere have observed what may be signs of life in the clouds of our other, even closer planetary neighbor, Venus. While they have not found direct evidence of living organisms there, if their observation is indeed associated with life, it must be some sort of “aerial” life-form in Venus’ clouds — the only habitable portion of what is otherwise a scorched and inhospitable world. Their discovery and analysis is published today in the journal Nature Astronomy.
The astronomers, led by Jane Greaves of Cardiff University, detected in Venus’ atmosphere a spectral fingerprint, or light-based signature, of phosphine. MIT scientists have previously shown that if this stinky, poisonous gas were ever detected on a rocky, terrestrial planet, it could only be produced by a living organism there. The researchers made the detection using the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) in Hawaii, and the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) observatory in Chile.
The MIT team followed up the new observation with an exhaustive analysis to see whether anything other than life could have produced phosphine in Venus’ harsh, sulfuric environment. Based on the many scenarios they considered, the team concludes that there is no explanation for the phosphine detected in Venus’ clouds, other than the presence of life.
“It’s very hard to prove a negative,” says Clara Sousa-Silva, research scientist in MIT’s Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS). “Now, astronomers will think of all the ways to justify phosphine without life, and I welcome that. Please do, because we are at the end of our possibilities to show abiotic processes that can make phosphine.”
“This means either this is life, or it’s some sort of physical or chemical process that we do not expect to happen on rocky planets,” adds co-author and EAPS Research Scientist Janusz Petkowski.
The other MIT co-authors include William Bains, Sukrit Ranjan, Zhuchang Zhan, and Sara Seager, who is the Class of 1941 Professor of Planetary Science in EAPS with joint appointments in the departments of Physics and of Aeronautics and Astronautics, along with collaborators at Cardiff University, the University of Manchester, Cambridge University, MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Kyoto Sangyo University, Imperial College, the Royal Observatory Greenwich, the Open University, and the East Asian Observatory.
Venus is often referred to as Earth’s twin, as the neighboring planets are similar in their size, mass, and rocky composition. They also have significant atmospheres, although that is where their similarities end. Where Earth is a habitable world of temperate oceans and lakes, Venus’ surface is a boiling hot landscape, with temperatures reaching 900 degrees Fahrenheit and a stifling air that is drier than the driest places on Earth.
Much of the planet’s atmosphere is also quite inhospitable, suffused with thick clouds of sulfuric acid, and cloud droplets that are billions of times more acidic than the most acidic environment on Earth. The atmosphere also lacks nutrients that exist in abundance on a planet surface.
“Venus is a very challenging environment for life of any kind,” Seager says.
There is, however, a narrow, temperate band within Venus’ atmosphere, between 48 and 60 kilometers above the surface, where temperatures range from 30 to 200 degrees Fahrenheit. Scientists have speculated, with much controversy, that if life exists on Venus, this layer of the atmosphere, or cloud deck, is likely the only place where it would survive. And it just so happens that this cloud deck is where the team observed signals of phosphine.
“This phosphine signal is perfectly positioned where others have conjectured the area could be habitable,” Petkowski says.
The detection was first made by Greaves and her team, who used the JCMT to zero in on Venus’ atmosphere for patterns of light that could indicate the presence of unexpected molecules and possible signatures of life. When she picked up a pattern that indicated the presence of phosphine, she contacted Sousa-Silva, who has spent the bulk of her career characterizing the stinky, toxic molecule.
Sousa-Silva initially assumed that astronomers could search for phosphine as a biosignature on much farther-flung planets. “I was thinking really far, many parsecs away, and really not thinking literally the nearest planet to us.”
The team followed up Greaves’ initial observation using the more sensitive ALMA observatory, with the help of Anita Richards, of the ALMA Regional Center at the University of Manchester. Those observations confirmed that what Greaves observed was indeed a pattern of light that matched what phosphine gas would emit within Venus’ clouds.
The researchers then used a model of the Venusian atmosphere, developed by Hideo Sagawa of Kyoto Sangyo University, to interpret the data. They found that phosphine on Venus is a minor gas, existing at a concentration of about 20 out of every billion molecules in the atmosphere. Although that concentration is low, the researchers point out that phosphine produced by life on Earth can be found at even lower concentrations in the atmosphere.
The MIT team, led by Bains and Petkowski, used computer models to explore all the possible chemical and physical pathways not associated with life, that could produce phosphine in Venus’ harsh environment. Bains considered various scenarios that could produce phosphine, such as sunlight, surface minerals, volcanic activity, a meteor strike, and lightning. Ranjan along with Paul Rimmer of Cambridge University then modeled how phosphine produced through these mechanisms could accumulate in the Venusian clouds. In every scenario they considered, the phosphine produced would only amount to a tiny fraction of what the new observations suggest is present on Venus’ clouds.
“We really went through all possible pathways that could produce phosphine on a rocky planet,” Petkowski says. “If this is not life, then our understanding of rocky planets is severely lacking.”
A life in the clouds
If there is indeed life in Venus’ clouds, the researchers believe it to be an aerial form, existing only in Venus’ temperate cloud deck, far above the boiling, volcanic surface.
“A long time ago, Venus is thought to have oceans, and was probably habitable like Earth,” Sousa-Silva says. “As Venus became less hospitable, life would have had to adapt, and they could now be in this narrow envelope of the atmosphere where they can still survive. This could show that even a planet at the edge of the habitable zone could have an atmosphere with a local aerial habitable envelope.”
In a separate line of research, Seager and Petkowski have explored the possibility that the lower layers of Venus’ atmosphere, just below the cloud deck, could be crucial for the survival of a hypothetical Venusian biosphere.
“You can, in principle, have a life cycle that keeps life in the clouds perpetually,” says Petkowski, who envisions any aerial Venusian life to be fundamentally different from life on Earth. “The liquid medium on Venus is not water, as it is on Earth.”
Sousa-Silva is now leading an effort with Jason Dittman at MIT to further confirm the phosphine detection with other telescopes. They are also hoping to map the presence of the molecule across Venus’ atmosphere, to see if there are daily or seasonal variations in the signal that would suggest activity associated with life.
“Technically, biomolecules have been found in Venus’ atmosphere before, but these molecules are also associated with a thousand things other than life,” Sousa-Silva says. “The reason phosphine is special is, without life it is very difficult to make phosphine on rocky planets. Earth has been the only terrestrial planet where we have found phosphine, because there is life here. Until now.”
This research was funded, in part, by the Science and Technology Facilities Council, the European Southern Observatory, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, the Heising-Simons Foundation, the Change Happens Foundation, the Simons Foundation, and the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program.
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Press Mentions
Wired
Research scientist Clara Sousa-Silva speaks with Wired reporter Abigail Beall about phosphine, a molecule that she has spent the past decade investigating. “Phosphine is a horrific molecule, it’s foul in every way,” she says. “It’s almost immoral, if a molecule can be.”
CBS This Morning
Prof. Sara Seager speaks with Holly Williams on CBS This Morning about the discovery of phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus. “Finding phosphine leaves us with two equally crazy ideas,” says Seager. “One is that there is some unknown chemistry, and the other one is that there’s some possibility there might be some kind of life producing phosphine on Venus.”
Associated Press
Astronomers have uncovered phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus, a potential sign of microbial life, reports Seth Borenstein for the AP. Prof. Sara Seager explains that she and her colleagues, “exhaustively went through every possibility and ruled all of them out: volcanoes, lightning strikes, small meteorites falling into the atmosphere. ... Not a single process we looked at could produce phosphine in high enough quantities to explain our team’s findings.”
The Washington Post
Research scientist Clara Sousa-Silva speaks with Washington Post reporters Joel Achenbach and Marisa Iati about her work trying to determine whether phosphine in the clouds of Venus could be a potential indicator of life. “We did our very best to show what else would be causing phosphine in the abundance we found on Venus,” says Sousa-Silva. “And we found nothing. We found nothing close.”
NBC News
Scientists from institutions around the world, including MIT, have found detected phosphine gas in the clouds of Venus, reports Tom Metcalfe for NBC News. “If this signal is correct, there is a process on Venus we cannot explain that produces phosphine,” says research scientist Janusz Petkowski, “and one of the hypotheses is that it’s life in the clouds of Venus.”
New York Times
An international team of astronomers has detected phosphine on Venus, potentially signaling signs of life in the planet’s atmosphere, reports Shannon Stirone, Kenneth Chang and Dennis Overbye for The New York Times. "This is an astonishing and ‘out of the blue’ finding,” says Prof. Sara Seager. “It will definitely fuel more research into the possibilities for life in Venus’s atmosphere.”
Wired
Wired reporter Sarah Scoles spotlights the work of research scientist Clara Sousa-Silva, known as Dr. Phosphine on Twitter, and her quest to learn more about phosphine. Scoles writes that Sousa-Silva is a “leading expert in this little-characterized molecule. She identified 16.8 billion features across the full spectrum, greatly expanding on the mere thousands anyone knew about before.”
The Atlantic
Atlantic reporter Marina Koren writes that astronomers have detected signs of a gas produced by microorganisms in the clouds of Venus. “As crazy as it might sound, our most plausible explanation is life,” explains research scientist Clara Sousa-Silva.
The Verge
Verge reporter Loren Grush explores how researchers from MIT and other institutions have uncovered phosphine on Venus, a potential sign of life. “That’s why this is such an extraordinary detection, because it has to come from something completely unexpected,” says research scientist Clara Sousa-Silva. “At some point, you’re left with not being able to explain it. Except we do know of a strange way of making phosphine on terrestrial planets — and that is life.”
The Boston Globe
The discovery of phosphine, a potential indicator of life, in the atmosphere of Venus, “is unbelievably important, and it is unbelievably exciting,” says research scientist Janusz Petkowski in an interview with Boston Globe reporter Martin Finucane. “Everything about this is completely unexpected.”
National Public Radio (NPR)
Research scientists Clara Sousa-Silva and Janusz Petkowski speak with NPR’s Nell Greenfieldboyce about their new study that provides evidence that phosphine, a gas associated with microbial life, is present on Venus. "This is not life that we would find pleasant," says Sousa-Silva. "Then again, they probably find us disgusting."
CNN
Writing for CNN, Prof. Sara Seager explores the significance of the paper she co-authored detailing the discovery of phosphine on Venus. “Our finding of phosphine gas now raises Venus as just one more place to take seriously in the search for life beyond Earth,” writes Seager, “maybe not so crazy after all.”
Axios
Axios reporter Miriam Kramer writes about a new study co-authored by MIT researchers that details the detection of phosphine, a possible signal of life, in the atmosphere of Venus.“We've done everything we can, which is go through all the things that it isn't,” says research scientist Clara Sousa-Silva. “We've thought of every possible mechanism, plausible or implausible, that could make phosphine and we cannot come up with any."
Radio Boston (WBUR)
Research scientists Clara Sousa-Silva and Janusz Petkowski speak with Tiziana Dearing of WBUR’s Radio Boston on the significance of finding phosphine on Venus. “We found something extraordinary on Venus,” says Sousa-Silva. “It may be just a sign of really strange chemistry that we cannot begin to consider, but there is a small possibility that it may be a sign of not just strange chemistry, but strange biochemistry, and the culprit is the molecule phosphine.”
Los Angeles Times
Los Angeles Times reporter Deborah Netburn spotlights how a team of researchers, including MIT scientists, have detected phosphine on Venus. “There are two possibilities for how it got there, and they are equally crazy,” says Prof. Sara Seager. “One scenario is it is some planetary process that we don’t know about. The other is there is some life form living in the atmosphere of Venus.”
The Wall Street Journal
Wall Street Journal reporter Daniela Hernandez writes about a new study co-authored by MIT researchers detailing signs of phosphine on Venus. Clara Sousa-Silva, a research scientist at MIT, explains that Venus is an “abominable place,” but noted that “the clouds themselves could be habitable.” | IT team, led by Bains and Petkowski, used computer models to explore all the possible chemical and physical pathways not associated with life, that could produce phosphine in Venus’ harsh environment. Bains considered various scenarios that could produce phosphine, such as sunlight, surface minerals, volcanic activity, a meteor strike, and lightning. Ranjan along with Paul Rimmer of Cambridge University then modeled how phosphine produced through these mechanisms could accumulate in the Venusian clouds. In every scenario they considered, the phosphine produced would only amount to a tiny fraction of what the new observations suggest is present on Venus’ clouds.
“We really went through all possible pathways that could produce phosphine on a rocky planet,” Petkowski says. “If this is not life, then our understanding of rocky planets is severely lacking.”
A life in the clouds
If there is indeed life in Venus’ clouds, the researchers believe it to be an aerial form, existing only in Venus’ temperate cloud deck, far above the boiling, volcanic surface.
“A long time ago, Venus is thought to have oceans, and was probably habitable like Earth,” Sousa-Silva says. “As Venus became less hospitable, life would have had to adapt, and they could now be in this narrow envelope of the atmosphere where they can still survive. This could show that even a planet at the edge of the habitable zone could have an atmosphere with a local aerial habitable envelope.”
In a separate line of research, Seager and Petkowski have explored the possibility that the lower layers of Venus’ atmosphere, just below the cloud deck, could be crucial for the survival of a hypothetical Venusian biosphere.
“You can, in principle, have a life cycle that keeps life in the clouds perpetually,” says Petkowski, who envisions any aerial Venusian life to be fundamentally different from life on Earth. “The liquid medium on Venus is not water, as it is on Earth.”
Sousa-Silva is now leading an effort with Jason Dittman at MIT to further confirm the phosphine detection with other telescopes. | yes |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://news.wisc.edu/life-could-be-thriving-in-the-clouds-of-venus/ | Life could be thriving in the clouds of Venus | Life could be thriving in the clouds of Venus
Is there life on Venus? For more than a century, scientists have pondered this question. Now, there is renewed interest in Venus as a place that could support living organisms.
“We are trying to make the case for exploring Venus and to inspire and inform future missions to collect in situ data with satellites,” says Sanjay Limaye, a University of Wisconsin–Madison Space Science and Engineering Center scientist and co-author of a recent collection of papers on Venus that he hopes will do just that.
Venus is a planet of extremes with surface temperatures in excess of 900 degrees Fahrenheit and pressures 90 times those of Earth. PLANET-C Project Team
Limaye is an expert on Venus. With more than 45 years of research behind him, he continues to investigate the planet’s dense atmosphere. “As one of our closest neighbors it is easier to reach Venus compared to other bodies like Titan, Enceladus or even Mars,” he says.
Published in 2021 in the journal Astrobiology, the series of articles targets Venus as a potential home for microbial life like bacteria and other organisms. The collection emerged from the 2019 Venera-D Venus Cloud Habitability workshop, which convened more than 50 scientists in Moscow to examine existing research and understand the planet’s potential to support life billions of years ago — and today.
Formed around the same time as Earth, about 4.5 billion years ago, Venus occupies an orbit between Mercury and Earth. The planet rotates very slowly on its axis, taking 243 Earth days to complete a single rotation. Its massive atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide makes it a planet of extremes, with scorching temperatures, intense winds and volcanic activity.
Despite the features that make the planet’s surface inhospitable, its thick global cloud cover may present gentler conditions for some microbial life forms due to the availability of sunlight, nutrients and some water — all of which can create narrow but habitable zones like those theorized to exist high in the atmosphere.
The Astrobiology series investigates these aspects and presents reasons to explore whether life may be present, perhaps hidden throughout the planet’s complex clouds. It explores Venus’ history as a potentially life-bearing planet, its habitable zones and potential signatures of organisms that use light as an energy source.
Early formation and water
Venus was not always the pressure cooker it is today. Like Earth, its environment included volcanic activity and liquid water oceans. For nearly 3 billion years these thermal vents and oceans could have harbored microorganisms. But that oasis was lost.
Sanjay Limaye
“When life began on Earth the conditions on Venus were likely similar,” says Limaye. “Some modeling suggests water could have existed for 1 billion to 3 billion years.”
In these early days, the sun was dimmer but more intense, radiating the planets with high energy particles and ultraviolet rays. Around 3.5 billion years after its formation, Venus began to heat up and over the course of millions of years, its oceans evaporated. With its atmosphere of carbon dioxide and water vapor, a runaway greenhouse effect trapped more of the sun’s energy, creating the planet’s modern dense and hot atmosphere. Venus’ surface pressures are more than 90 times those of Earth, with surface temperatures exceeding 486 degrees Celsius (906 degrees Fahrenheit) — hot enough to melt lead.
While these conditions are inhospitable to most life on Earth, small and hardy microorganisms known as extremophiles have extraordinary abilities to survive in the worst imaginable places. It is possible, researchers say, that these ancient organisms adapted to the changing conditions on Venus and eventually found a new home within its thick atmosphere.
Scientists are skeptical that fossil remains exist on the Venusian surface due to continuous and destructive volcanic activity. However, satellites orbiting the planet offer deep glimpses into its atmosphere and have presented clues of potential life drifting throughout narrow pockets aloft in the Venusian sky.
Atmospheric mysteries
Since the 1960s, dozens of space missions have examined Venus from all angles. The Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Multiprobe missions in 1978 gave scientists an in-depth look at the top of the atmosphere and through its many layers down to the surface.
An artist’s impression of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter. NASA, courtesy of Ames Research Center and Hughes Aircraft Company
In 1981 the Venera 13 and 14 missions sent back several color panoramas of the surface, information about its clouds and soil, and the first-ever recording of winds on the planet’s surface.
A few years later, VeGa 1 and VeGa 2 balloons and landers recorded more information about the atmosphere, clouds, winds and the planet’s surface composition.
Researchers have also gathered spectral data from Venus, or measurements of how much light is either reflected or absorbed by the planet. Using these data, they can identify chemical signatures such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and even trace amounts of water vapor.
Some of Venus’ spectral data reveal prominent and inexplicable dark patches in its cloud layers, showing areas of strong absorption. Limaye and colleagues have contemplated whether microorganisms could be the source of that solar energy absorption, much like the algal patches in Earth’s oceans or lakes — especially given the presence of trace water, energy and nutrients like carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, phosphorous and sulfur in the clouds.
“Venus has a potential to harbor conditions for iron- and sulfur-centered metabolism,” says Limaye. “Together, our lines of reasoning suggest that particles in Venus’ lower clouds contain sufficient mass balance to support microorganisms, water, and solutes, and potentially sufficient biomass to be detected by optical methods.”
The Pioneer Venus Orbiter with two Pioneer Venus probes in the background. Credit: NASA, courtesy of Ames Research Center and Hughes Aircraft Company
The researchers assert that, as the planet’s surface became more inhospitable, microorganisms may have migrated to calmer and less extreme conditions in Venus’ atmosphere. This could explain why microorganisms may be drifting.
Atmospheric pressures at 48 to 70 kilometers, or 30 to 43 miles, above the planet’s surface are similar to Earth’s, and Venus’ thick clouds reduce some of the sun’s damaging ultraviolet radiation, creating milder conditions. Extremophiles on Earth have been found to withstand, and even thrive, in similar conditions.
“It’s not impossible these microorganisms could have migrated to the clouds and sustained life,” says Limaye.
Planetary atmospheres serve many functions, including the filtration of dangerous radiation. On Earth, the atmosphere (and magnetic field) blocks much of the sun’s harmful rays. Plant life thrives on weaker forms of ultraviolet light that provide fuel for photosynthesis.
Limaye and colleagues believe Venus’ atmosphere is capable of producing similarly balanced zones. In one study, he and his co-authors showed that the Venusian atmosphere might be able to support phototrophy, or the ability of organisms to harness sunlight for energy.
“Solar irradiances calculated across Venus’ clouds support the potential for Earth-like phototrophy,” says Limaye, who also adds that the planet’s clouds demonstrate the ability to neutralize harmful gases such as sulfuric acid.
The planet, Limaye says, also experiences limited ultraviolet flux in the middle and lower clouds, further reinforcing its potential to harbor life. And salt present in cloud droplets may help reduce their acidity, making the droplets more hospitable.
An image of the night side of Venus shows it aglow as it radiates energy in the infrared. JAXAS/ISAS/DARTS/Damia Bouic
“Throughout this series of papers, we focus on finding similar conditions on Earth where we know life thrives, but this isn’t the only approach,” says Limaye. “The search for life is not limited to microbes as we know them on Earth, but there are many possibilities of extremophiles existing and thriving in ways we haven’t imagined.”
Future missions
Since the 1960s, scientists have launched nearly 50 missions of varying success to study our neighboring planet. The next decade will herald seven missions to explore Venus and uncover its atmospheric and surface mysteries.
Rocket Labs announced a small probe to look for phosphine, launching in 2023. The India Space Research Organization Venus orbiter is expected to carry radars and is anticipated to arrive around 2026, followed by NASA’s VERITAS radar orbiter in 2027. Launching in 2028, NASA’s DAVINCI mission will feature a dual-purpose spacecraft to collect atmospheric measurements from orbit, in tandem with an atmospheric probe that will sift through the dense atmosphere, collecting data during its descent.
The Venera-D mission by the Russian Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities, proposed for 2029, will deploy an orbiter and lander designed to withstand the harsh conditions on the planet’s surface and collect valuable atmospheric and ground measurements. It will also include a long-lived small lander contributed by NASA. The decade of exploration will end with the European Space Agency’s EnVIsion Radar orbiter, also with contributions from NASA.
Limaye is encouraged that these future missions will ultimately answer many of the observed mysteries on a planet long considered hostile to life. And with additional workshops, such as the Venera-D: Venus Cloud Habitability System Workshop convened in November 2021, researchers around the world continue the conversation about whether there is life on Venus. | Life could be thriving in the clouds of Venus
Is there life on Venus? For more than a century, scientists have pondered this question. Now, there is renewed interest in Venus as a place that could support living organisms.
“We are trying to make the case for exploring Venus and to inspire and inform future missions to collect in situ data with satellites,” says Sanjay Limaye, a University of Wisconsin–Madison Space Science and Engineering Center scientist and co-author of a recent collection of papers on Venus that he hopes will do just that.
Venus is a planet of extremes with surface temperatures in excess of 900 degrees Fahrenheit and pressures 90 times those of Earth. PLANET-C Project Team
Limaye is an expert on Venus. With more than 45 years of research behind him, he continues to investigate the planet’s dense atmosphere. “As one of our closest neighbors it is easier to reach Venus compared to other bodies like Titan, Enceladus or even Mars,” he says.
Published in 2021 in the journal Astrobiology, the series of articles targets Venus as a potential home for microbial life like bacteria and other organisms. The collection emerged from the 2019 Venera-D Venus Cloud Habitability workshop, which convened more than 50 scientists in Moscow to examine existing research and understand the planet’s potential to support life billions of years ago — and today.
Formed around the same time as Earth, about 4.5 billion years ago, Venus occupies an orbit between Mercury and Earth. The planet rotates very slowly on its axis, taking 243 Earth days to complete a single rotation. Its massive atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide makes it a planet of extremes, with scorching temperatures, intense winds and volcanic activity.
Despite the features that make the planet’s surface inhospitable, its thick global cloud cover may present gentler conditions for some microbial life forms due to the availability of sunlight, nutrients and some water — all of which can create narrow but habitable zones like those theorized to exist high in the atmosphere.
| yes |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.universetoday.com/162086/the-clouds-of-venus-could-support-life/ | The Clouds of Venus Could Support Life - Universe Today | The Clouds of Venus Could Support Life
A recent study published in Astrobiology examines the likelihood of the planet Venus being able to support life within the thick cloud layer that envelopes it. This study holds the potential to help us better understand how life could exist under the intense Venusian conditions, as discussions within the scientific community about whether life exists on the second planet from the Sun continue to burn hotter than Venus itself.
“There is a lot of interest in Venus at the moment, following Jane Greaves’ initial report of phosphine in the clouds,” Dr. William Bains, who is a Senior Research Fellow at Cardiff University and lead author of the study, tells Universe Today. “But opinions vary widely on whether there could be life there, from calling the clouds ‘habitable’ to saying definitively that there cannot be life there. So, we wanted to review what we know about Venus, and about the basic principles of life, and see whether life on Venus was a subject worth pursuing, or whether it could be ruled out from first principles.”
Video explaining the initial report on phosphine in the clouds of Venus from Dr. Jane Greaves.
For the study, the researchers discussed the various aspects of Venus’ clouds that could be responsible for potentially harboring any kind of life, even if it’s not Earth-like life. These include energy requirements for life, available chemical energy, lack of available hydrogen, lack of metals, cloud acidity, low water activity within the clouds, high radiation environment, and the mass of the Venus cloud biosphere.
“Our conclusions were that conditions in the clouds do not rule out life, although they do rule out Earth-like life,” Dr. Bains tells Universe Today. “This is an important distinction – that not all life in the Universe needs be like Earth life.”
The study also discussed future astrobiology-based space missions to Venus, specifically that they should be both small and cost-effective with the goal of answering science questions that are more focused in nature. The researchers note that while these smaller scale missions won’t answer all of the questions pertaining to Venus’ clouds, they will serve to “complement and inform larger missions” to Venus.
“Life on the surface seems *extremely* unlikely,” Dr. Bains tells Universe Today. “Life needs a liquid to function as a solvent for its chemistry (it is usually assumed this must be water, but in principle it does not have to be). There is no naturally occurring substance that is liquid under Venus’ surface conditions. We argue that life in the clouds is possible, so the clouds are the place to look.”
While the planet Venus is almost the same size as the Earth, the environment is far from similar, with surface temperatures reaching 475 degrees Celsius (900 degrees Fahrenheit) and surface pressures 90 times higher than Earth’s surface. Additionally, carbon dioxide is the dominant atmospheric gas comprising 96.5 percent of Venus’ toxic atmosphere.
Artist illustration of the surface of Venus. (Credit: NASA)
In contrast, carbon dioxide only comprises 0.035 percent of Earth’s atmosphere. The planet Venus is also entirely enshrouded in thick clouds of sulfuric acid rain, which prevent sunlight from escaping back out into space and contributing to Venus’ runaway greenhouse effect. So, could we ever find life on Venus despite its harsh environment?
“I am something of a pessimist about the abundance of life in the Universe,” Dr. Bains tells Universe Today. “But if there is life in the clouds of Venus, that would massively expand our view of what ‘habitable’ means, as well as doubling the number of examples of life that we have to study. So even a tiny chance that there is life there is worth following up.”
Image of Venus captured by NASA’s Mariner 4 spacecraft as it sped away from the planet in February 1974. (Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech)
What new discoveries will we make about Venus, its clouds, and the possibility for life on this mysterious and harsh world? Only time will tell, and this is why we science! | The Clouds of Venus Could Support Life
A recent study published in Astrobiology examines the likelihood of the planet Venus being able to support life within the thick cloud layer that envelopes it. This study holds the potential to help us better understand how life could exist under the intense Venusian conditions, as discussions within the scientific community about whether life exists on the second planet from the Sun continue to burn hotter than Venus itself.
“There is a lot of interest in Venus at the moment, following Jane Greaves’ initial report of phosphine in the clouds,” Dr. William Bains, who is a Senior Research Fellow at Cardiff University and lead author of the study, tells Universe Today. “But opinions vary widely on whether there could be life there, from calling the clouds ‘habitable’ to saying definitively that there cannot be life there. So, we wanted to review what we know about Venus, and about the basic principles of life, and see whether life on Venus was a subject worth pursuing, or whether it could be ruled out from first principles.”
Video explaining the initial report on phosphine in the clouds of Venus from Dr. Jane Greaves.
For the study, the researchers discussed the various aspects of Venus’ clouds that could be responsible for potentially harboring any kind of life, even if it’s not Earth-like life. These include energy requirements for life, available chemical energy, lack of available hydrogen, lack of metals, cloud acidity, low water activity within the clouds, high radiation environment, and the mass of the Venus cloud biosphere.
“Our conclusions were that conditions in the clouds do not rule out life, although they do rule out Earth-like life,” Dr. Bains tells Universe Today. “This is an important distinction – that not all life in the Universe needs be like Earth life.”
The study also discussed future astrobiology-based space missions to Venus, specifically that they should be both small and cost-effective with the goal of answering science questions that are more focused in nature. The researchers note that while these smaller scale missions won’t answer all of the questions pertaining to Venus’ clouds, they will serve to “complement and inform larger missions” to Venus.
“Life on the surface seems *extremely* unlikely,” | yes |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://grow.cals.wisc.edu/departments/front-list/six-reasons-why-life-might-exist-on-venus | Six Reasons Why Life Might Exist on Venus – Grow | Front List
Six Reasons Why Life Might Exist on Venus
The ingredients for life are adrift in the Venusian clouds. Life is primarily composed of six chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. These elements are found in a variety of biological molecules, including DNA and RNA. Probes, landers, and balloons have found signatures of these elements in the planet’s clouds, and they may be usable by life-forms.
Some terrestrial organisms, known as extremophiles, can survive in conditions akin to the Venusian clouds. The surface of Venus is hellish, with temperatures as high as 890 °F (unlivable for all known terrestrial organisms) and crushing pressures reaching about 93 standard atmospheres (atm), equivalent to the pressure experienced at 3,000 feet below sea level on Earth. The clouds, however, are more hospitable, with temperatures ranging from 212 to -49 °F and pressures between 1.18 and 0.0336 atm. Here on Earth, microbial cells have been found dormant (not metabolically active but still alive) at temperatures as low as -49 °F. On the other end of the spectrum, some terrestrial archaea (single-cell organisms without nuclei) have been found to survive in temperatures as high as 251.6 °F
In the ancient past, Venus may have been home to an ocean. Today, the clouds of Venus hold very little water vapor. However, climate models show that the planet’s surface likely boasted a shallow liquid water ocean for about 2 or 3 billion years after it formed and cooled. Any liquid water that may have existed is gone now, but its presence — a requirement for all known forms of life — means that life could have arisen on early Venus.
A vast number of microorganisms are still waiting to be discovered. The clouds of Venus are composed primarily of sulfuric acid, with a caustic pH level of -1.5, so putative Venusian organisms would need to be polyextremophiles (able to thrive in multiple extremes) to survive these conditions. So far, a terrestrial polyextremophile that can survive in these conditions has not been found. But according to one estimate, around 1 trillion species of microorganisms live on Earth, and more than 99% have yet to be discovered. This means that, even though we haven’t found terrestrial life that could survive in the cloud conditions, its existence can’t be ruled out.
Despite the harsh conditions, the metabolic processes necessary for life can still transpire on Venus. Iron- and sulfur-based metabolism, still used by some terrestrial microbes today, are some of the most ancient forms of chemosynthesis, the use of energy stemming from inorganic chemical reactions. The presence of sulfur and iron in the Venusian clouds reveals another potential pathway for life. Photosynthesis is also possible on Venus because enough solar energy in the photosynthetic wavelength range reaches the clouds.
Scientists have already discovered possible signs of life on Venus. For example, methane was detected in the atmosphere of Venus in the 1990s. Its source is unknown; but on Earth, most methane has a biological origin: microbes known as methanogens. Methane can also be produced by natural processes that don’t involve life (i.e., abiotic). Phosphine, on the other hand, has no known abiotic sources, and in 2020, this gas was detected remotely in the clouds of Venus. However, this finding requires further study to confirm. And just because we haven’t discovered an abiotic source for phosphine doesn’t mean it doesn’t exist. There may be an unidentified form of chemistry taking place in the clouds of Venus. The only way to answer these questions is to go back. Three missions have recently been selected to return to Venus: NASA’s DAVINCI and VERITAS and the European Space Agency’s EnVision. These missions, and others proposed by international agencies, will contribute to our understanding of the habitability of Venus’s clouds
Jaime Cordova is a Ph.D. candidate in genetics who works in the Genome Evolution Laboratory. He studies the bacterial response to varying levels of oxygen and how those responses evolve. As a Solar System Ambassador for NASA and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, he communicates to the public about the science of space exploration missions and discoveries. | Front List
Six Reasons Why Life Might Exist on Venus
The ingredients for life are adrift in the Venusian clouds. Life is primarily composed of six chemical elements: carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur. These elements are found in a variety of biological molecules, including DNA and RNA. Probes, landers, and balloons have found signatures of these elements in the planet’s clouds, and they may be usable by life-forms.
Some terrestrial organisms, known as extremophiles, can survive in conditions akin to the Venusian clouds. The surface of Venus is hellish, with temperatures as high as 890 °F (unlivable for all known terrestrial organisms) and crushing pressures reaching about 93 standard atmospheres (atm), equivalent to the pressure experienced at 3,000 feet below sea level on Earth. The clouds, however, are more hospitable, with temperatures ranging from 212 to -49 °F and pressures between 1.18 and 0.0336 atm. Here on Earth, microbial cells have been found dormant (not metabolically active but still alive) at temperatures as low as -49 °F. On the other end of the spectrum, some terrestrial archaea (single-cell organisms without nuclei) have been found to survive in temperatures as high as 251.6 °F
In the ancient past, Venus may have been home to an ocean. Today, the clouds of Venus hold very little water vapor. However, climate models show that the planet’s surface likely boasted a shallow liquid water ocean for about 2 or 3 billion years after it formed and cooled. Any liquid water that may have existed is gone now, but its presence — a requirement for all known forms of life — means that life could have arisen on early Venus.
A vast number of microorganisms are still waiting to be discovered. | yes |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.newscientist.com/article/2282212-the-clouds-of-venus-are-too-dry-to-support-life-as-we-know-it/ | The clouds of Venus are too dry to support life as we know it | New ... | The clouds of Venus are too dry to support life as we know it
There’s not enough water in Venus’s clouds to support life as we know it
Alamy Stock Photo
The clouds of Venus, which are mostly made of sulphuric acid, have far less water and far more acid than even the most extreme lifeforms on Earth would be able to survive. This is according to a new analysis of the habitability of the planet’s atmosphere. This finding puts a damper on recent signs of potential life there.
In 2020, a team led by Jane Greaves at Cardiff University in the UK found evidence of a compound called phosphine in Venus’s toxic clouds. On Earth, phosphine is a byproduct of life, and the team couldn’t come up with another way to produce it on Venus, so suggested that it could hint at life there.
However, a new study by John Hallsworth at Queen’s University Belfast, UK, and his colleagues based on a combination of laboratory experiments and observations from probes sent to Venus in the late 1970s and early 80s suggests that life might be impossible in those clouds.
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They based that conclusion on calculations of water activity in the clouds’ droplets, a measure similar to humidity. Pure liquid water would have a water activity of 1, and perfect dryness would have a score of 0. They found a water activity of less than 0.004 for Venus’s clouds, partly because acid in a droplet lowers its water activity.
This is a concentration of water 100 times below what is needed for the most resilient microorganisms on Earth, said Hallsworth in a press conference. “It’s an unbridgeable distance from what life requires to be active.”
In an area that arid, the membranes that hold cells together would fall apart, he said. “Even the most dry-tolerant microbe on Earth wouldn’t stand a chance on Venus.”
Of course, a microbe on Earth has no need to be hardy enough to survive Venus. “Literally nowhere on Earth has the extreme conditions of the clouds on Venus,” says Janusz Petkowski at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
“Those clouds are more than 100 times more dry than the Atacama desert, which is the driest place on Earth.”
It is possible that life could arise on Venus that is hardier than it is here, or there could be organisms that aren’t based on water at all, unlike all life that we know of.
“Certainly any Earth-like life – even our sturdiest extremophiles – would not have an easy time,” says Clara Sousa-Silva at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics. “But we don’t know what the universal laws of biology are.” Unfortunately, we also don’t know how to detect non-Earth-like life.
While things aren’t looking good for the potential of life floating in the Venusian clouds, there still may be a glimmer of hope. “The acidity for the Venus cloud droplets is highly uncertain,” says Greaves. “It’s also likely that conditions are not uniform – as on Earth – and so parts of the clouds could be much more favourable than others.”
Three missions are scheduled to launch to Venus in the next decade or so, which may help unravel the mystery of the clouds’ habitability. If there is life unlike Earth life, those missions won’t be able to spot it, but they will be able to clear up whether there is anywhere in the scorching atmosphere that Earth-like life could stand a chance. | The clouds of Venus are too dry to support life as we know it
There’s not enough water in Venus’s clouds to support life as we know it
Alamy Stock Photo
The clouds of Venus, which are mostly made of sulphuric acid, have far less water and far more acid than even the most extreme lifeforms on Earth would be able to survive. This is according to a new analysis of the habitability of the planet’s atmosphere. This finding puts a damper on recent signs of potential life there.
In 2020, a team led by Jane Greaves at Cardiff University in the UK found evidence of a compound called phosphine in Venus’s toxic clouds. On Earth, phosphine is a byproduct of life, and the team couldn’t come up with another way to produce it on Venus, so suggested that it could hint at life there.
However, a new study by John Hallsworth at Queen’s University Belfast, UK, and his colleagues based on a combination of laboratory experiments and observations from probes sent to Venus in the late 1970s and early 80s suggests that life might be impossible in those clouds.
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They based that conclusion on calculations of water activity in the clouds’ droplets, a measure similar to humidity. Pure liquid water would have a water activity of 1, and perfect dryness would have a score of 0. They found a water activity of less than 0.004 for Venus’s clouds, partly because acid in a droplet lowers its water activity.
This is a concentration of water 100 times below what is needed for the most resilient microorganisms on Earth, said Hallsworth in a press conference. “It’s an unbridgeable distance from what life requires to be active.”
In an area that arid, the membranes that hold cells together would fall apart, he said. “Even the most dry-tolerant microbe on Earth wouldn’t stand a chance on Venus.”
Of course, a microbe on Earth has no need to be hardy enough to survive Venus. | no |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2020/september/possible-signs-of-life-found-on-venus.html | Possible signs of life found on Venus | Natural History Museum | Accept cookies?
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Possible signs of life found on Venus
Phosphine gas has been found in the clouds of Venus that could have been created by microbes.
Scientists have detected phosphine on Venus. On Earth, this gas is created by microbes that live in oxygen-free environments. It means there is a chance that we've found signs of living organisms in the clouds of our neighbouring planet.
The temperature on the surface of Venus is exceptionally hot, and no life could survive there. But it is thought the planet was once cooler and wetter, with conditions that may have allowed life to start more easily.
Scientists found the phosphine gas in the acidic clouds floating above the planet. It is a harsh, windy environment, but the pressure there is similar to that of Earth's surface. The clouds also contain a zone where it is a comfortable temperature for life, so it has been suggested before that they could be a living habitat.
Researchers have been using telescopes to look for evidence of phosphine in Venus's clouds since 2016.
Prof Sara Seager, a planetary scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a co-author on the new study, was careful to emphasise that this is not yet conclusive proof of life.
She says, 'We are not claiming to have found life on Venus. We are claiming a confident detection of phosphine gas whose existence is a mystery.'
Volcanoes can produce phosphine, but only miniscule amounts - far less than the quantities detected by the scientists. They also ruled out things like lightening and meteorites.
Researchers are left with another possibility - that small organisms are responsible.
Sara says, 'We hope our work will motivate space mission that go to Venus and directly measure gasses in the atmosphere. People have speculated about life in Venus's atmosphere for decades.
'Perhaps life originated in the past when Venus was cooler, with liquid water oceans.
'As Venus heated up the oceans evaporated and the surface became so hot that any life would have been killed, but any life in the clouds would have survived.'
Earth has life in its clouds too, swept up from the surface. Bacteria live in the liquid water droplets, which are then rained back down on Earth.
Earth's clouds don't last long before they turn to rain, but on Venus the clouds are permanent. However, Venus's atmosphere is very harsh so it is difficult to directly compare it to Earth.
What is phosphine?
Phosphine is a toxic, colourless, smelly gas with an odour often likened to rotting fish and garlic.
On Earth, phosphine is produced by microbes, but we don't know for sure which organisms give it off. It is usually found in oxygen-free environments, where only certain types of bacteria survive.
Biologists don't yet know the exact biochemical path that produces the gas, even here on Earth.
Phosphine is considered to be a biosignature gas - a gas that is produced by life forms and accumulates in a planet's atmosphere.
It is found in the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn too, but it shouldn't exist on Venus because of the planet's chemical makeup.
Dr Louisa Preston, a UK Space Agency Aurora Research Fellow, is an astrobiologist based at the Museum. She says, 'It's exciting to think that our sister world, sitting right on the edge of the solar systems' habitable zone, could have conditions suitable for life.
'However as with all scientific discoveries in astrobiology we will need to look much more closely at the different ways phosphine can be created without life, to be able to conclusively say that this discovery is life. What this has done has really brought Venus back into everyone's minds after having taken a backseat to Mars for many years, and we canât wait to see what secrets she is hiding.'
The study
They used the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope (JCMT) in Hawaii to detect the phosphine, and were then awarded time to follow up their discovery with 45 telescopes of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) in Chile.
Both facilities observed Venus at a wavelength of about one millimetre, much longer than the human eye can see.
Prof Greaves told the Royal Astronomical Society, 'This was an experiment made out of pure curiosity, really â taking advantage of JCMTâs powerful technology, and thinking about future instruments. I thought weâd just be able to rule out extreme scenarios, like the clouds being stuffed full of organisms. When we got the first hints of phosphine in Venusâ spectrum, it was a shock.'
The team painstakingly measured levels of phosphine in the clouds, and ruled out any alternative reasons for its presence.
The team believes their discovery is significant because they can rule out many alternative ways to make phosphine, but they acknowledge that confirming the presence of life needs more study, and possibly a mission to our next-door planet.Â
Dr Anne Jungblut is a microbiologist at the Museum studying life in extreme environments.
She commented, 'The finding of a compound such as phosphine that is associated with microbial life on Earth is exciting news. It highlights the importance of studying microbes and their metabolisms in the environment as it might potentially provide information on the conditions that are required for life to produce the gas on Earth, and might help to find more clues on the origin of the gas on Venus.'
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Receive email updates about our news, science, exhibitions, events, products, services and fundraising activities. We may occasionally include third-party content from our corporate partners and other museums. We will not share your personal details with these third parties. You must be over the age of 13. Privacy notice. | Researchers have been using telescopes to look for evidence of phosphine in Venus's clouds since 2016.
Prof Sara Seager, a planetary scientist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a co-author on the new study, was careful to emphasise that this is not yet conclusive proof of life.
She says, 'We are not claiming to have found life on Venus. We are claiming a confident detection of phosphine gas whose existence is a mystery.'
Volcanoes can produce phosphine, but only miniscule amounts - far less than the quantities detected by the scientists. They also ruled out things like lightening and meteorites.
Researchers are left with another possibility - that small organisms are responsible.
Sara says, 'We hope our work will motivate space mission that go to Venus and directly measure gasses in the atmosphere. People have speculated about life in Venus's atmosphere for decades.
'Perhaps life originated in the past when Venus was cooler, with liquid water oceans.
'As Venus heated up the oceans evaporated and the surface became so hot that any life would have been killed, but any life in the clouds would have survived.'
Earth has life in its clouds too, swept up from the surface. Bacteria live in the liquid water droplets, which are then rained back down on Earth.
Earth's clouds don't last long before they turn to rain, but on Venus the clouds are permanent. However, Venus's atmosphere is very harsh so it is difficult to directly compare it to Earth.
What is phosphine?
Phosphine is a toxic, colourless, smelly gas with an odour often likened to rotting fish and garlic.
On Earth, phosphine is produced by microbes, but we don't know for sure which organisms give it off. It is usually found in oxygen-free environments, where only certain types of bacteria survive.
Biologists don't yet know the exact biochemical path that produces the gas, even here on Earth.
| yes |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.astronomy.com/science/how-floating-microbes-could-live-in-the-acid-clouds-of-venus/ | How floating microbes could live in the acid clouds of Venus | The surface of Venus is a hellscape. However, some layers of its clouds sport surprisingly hospitable temperatures and pressures. And now, researchers have proposed a hypothetical life cycle for microbes surviving within those clouds.
ESA
Venus, with its sulfuric acid clouds and hellish surface temperatures, is often ignored as a potential abode for life. But some planetary scientists have suggested that atmosphere-dwelling microbes could survive in its lower cloud layers, possibly explaining Venus’ mysterious atmospheric phenomena. The cloud layers in question — hovering roughly 30 to 37 miles (48 to 60 kilometers) above Venus’ sweltering surface — feature arguably livable temperatures, nutrients, and even a bit of water dissolved inside droplets of sulfuric acid.
Now, a team led by Sara Seager, an astrophysicist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), proposes a hypothetical life cycle for how microbes might survive in Venus’ atmosphere. The researchers claim they are the first to hypothesize a specific mechanism by which organisms could persist in the venusian haze and cloud layers, rather than being rained down and destroyed by the fiery surface conditions below. The team outlines how venusian microbes could cycle through the different layers of the atmosphere, surviving the most extreme conditions by transitioning into a dormant state.
Microbes in the clouds of Venus
Cloud-borne microbes are not unprecedented in the solar system. “On our own Earth, we also have what we call an aerial biosphere,” Seager tells Astronomy. “[Microbes] from Earth get upswept and they float around. They get inside droplets and the wind carries them across entire continents and oceans.”
Seager explains that, over time, the water droplets housing microbes in Earth’s atmosphere condense, growing larger and heavier. And eventually, they fall down to the surface. But falling from Venus’ clouds would almost certainly be lethal to any microbes, as the planet’s blistering surface temperatures reach more than 860 degrees Fahrenheit (460 Celsius).
“So, the question we posed was, ‘Well, how does it live permanently in the clouds?” says Seager.
Venus is permanently shrouded in clouds. But the middle and lower cloud layers host temperatures and pressures that are surprisingly hospitable to life. But in Venus’ lower haze layer, the conditions take a turn for the worse.
Seager et al. (2020)
Co-author Janusz Petkowski, a research fellow at MIT, explains to Astronomy that the team’s hypothesis is that venusian life could exist in a metabolically active state — growing and reproducing — in sulfuric acid cloud droplets within the lower cloud layer. Over a period of a few months, the droplets themselves would grow in mass just like water droplets on Earth. Eventually, they would be large enough to ‘rain out’ of the lower clouds. And that means they would fall into Venus’s lower haze layer.
This haze layer, which stretches from 20 to 30 miles (33 to 48 km) above the surface, is much hotter than the clouds above it, with temperatures ranging from about 170 to 368 F (77 to 187 C). Seager’s team suggests that if the sulfuric acid droplets fall toward this hyper-heated haze layer, they would evaporate.
Without a droplet protecting the hypothetical microbes, they would then go through a metabolic transformation and enter a protective dormant state to survive the extreme heat and dehydration. These dormant microbes, which the researchers refer to as ‘spores,’ could then persist, suspended in Venus’ lower haze layer.
But they don’t stay there forever.
Eventually, Venus’ atmospheric updrafts would blow the spores back up into the planet’s temperate cloud layers, where they would be rehydrated, reviving them to an active state.
The proposed life cycle for microbes surviving in the acid clouds of Venus is seen in this illustration. (1) Dehydrated microbes survive in a vegetative state in Venus’ lower haze layer. (2) The spores are lifted by updrafts into the habitable cloud layer. (3) Once encapsulated by liquid, the spores become metabolically active. (4) These microbes divide, and the droplets grow through coagulation. (5) The droplets grow large enough that they sink through the atmosphere, where they begin to evaporate due to higher temperatures, prompting microbes to transform into spores that float in the lower haze layer.
Seager et al. (2020)
Searching for microbes in the clouds of Venus
Like an aerial biosphere, the proposal that venusian microbes could enter a dormant state to survive harsh conditions has precedent on Earth. Tiny, segmented creatures called tardigrades have become famous for using this strategy to survive freezing, irradiation, and even the vacuum of space.
And while this life-in-the-clouds-of-Venus scenario remains hypothetical, “there’s a robust case to be made for thinking about [life on] the planets within our solar system…because we haven’t actually explored them as thoroughly as we’d like,”Sukrit Ranjan, co-author on the paper and postdoctoral fellow at MIT, tells Astronomy. “The possibility of life on Venus is a testable hypothesis. And, so, it’s worth thinking about whether it’s worth investing the resources to carry out that test.”
Dirk Schulze-Makuch, a professor at Technical University Berlin who was not involved in the research but studies habitability on Venus, says that one possible approach to looking for life in venusian clouds would be a fly-over mission, where a spacecraft travels through the lower cloud layers and sucks up samples. These could then be evaluated remotely to see if they contain any intriguing organic molecules.
“If we find organics on site, then … [we] say, okay, we actually have to look at this,” Schulze-Makuch tells Astronomy.
If organics were discovered, researchers would then have a case for a sample return mission, wherein venusian cloud samples would be transported back to Earth for analysis with more sophisticated instruments. Such a mission would be costly, but it could be appealing if scientists become more convinced that life could exist on Venus.
Pondering how extraterrestrial organisms might function in an unearthly environment is vital to the search for life on other planets. But in their paper, Seager’s team offers a sobering counterpoint to the hypothesis of venusian life.
While acid-loving extremophiles, such as certain archaea species, are often propped up as examples of how life could survive on Venus, the team cautions that Venus’ cloud layer is far more acidic than any environment found on Earth. Plus, DNA, RNA, sugars, and proteins that are necessary for life on Earth are all destroyed by sulfuric acid.
So, if floating microbes exist on Venus — whether active or dormant — they are almost guaranteed to be remarkably alien. | The team outlines how venusian microbes could cycle through the different layers of the atmosphere, surviving the most extreme conditions by transitioning into a dormant state.
Microbes in the clouds of Venus
Cloud-borne microbes are not unprecedented in the solar system. “On our own Earth, we also have what we call an aerial biosphere,” Seager tells Astronomy. “[Microbes] from Earth get upswept and they float around. They get inside droplets and the wind carries them across entire continents and oceans.”
Seager explains that, over time, the water droplets housing microbes in Earth’s atmosphere condense, growing larger and heavier. And eventually, they fall down to the surface. But falling from Venus’ clouds would almost certainly be lethal to any microbes, as the planet’s blistering surface temperatures reach more than 860 degrees Fahrenheit (460 Celsius).
“So, the question we posed was, ‘Well, how does it live permanently in the clouds?” says Seager.
Venus is permanently shrouded in clouds. But the middle and lower cloud layers host temperatures and pressures that are surprisingly hospitable to life. But in Venus’ lower haze layer, the conditions take a turn for the worse.
Seager et al. (2020)
Co-author Janusz Petkowski, a research fellow at MIT, explains to Astronomy that the team’s hypothesis is that venusian life could exist in a metabolically active state — growing and reproducing — in sulfuric acid cloud droplets within the lower cloud layer. Over a period of a few months, the droplets themselves would grow in mass just like water droplets on Earth. Eventually, they would be large enough to ‘rain out’ of the lower clouds. And that means they would fall into Venus’s lower haze layer.
| yes |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | yes_statement | there could be "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. it is possible for "life" to exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.cnet.com/science/features/venus-cant-sustain-life-in-the-clouds-but-jupiter-has-potential/ | Venus can't sustain life in the clouds, but Jupiter has potential - CNET | Venus can't sustain life in the clouds, but Jupiter has potential
Venus clouds have captivated Earthlings for decades. They form a dazzling mirror that obscures the planet's surface and, in the 1950s, one Israeli scholar even speculated the clouds may hide a world teeming with insect life capable of enduring the extreme heat.
When Russia's Venera spacecraft took images of the surface in 1975, there were no insects to be found. Venus is a desolate hellscape, the victim of a runaway greenhouse effect that has sent temperatures on the ground soaring to well over 850 degrees Fahrenheit -- hot enough to melt lead. But in the clouds, more temperate climes await any would-be alien lifeforms.
Up in the atmosphere, life might just find a way.
At least, that was one hypothesis. It can happen on Earth... so why not elsewhere? Last year, the idea that microbes might call the atmosphere of Venus home was bolstered by a study that claimed to have discovered elevated levels of phosphine -- an unstable gas associated with biological activity -- in the cloud deck of our sister planet. That spawned the theory that microbes in the clouds could be producing the gas.
As scientists untangled the phosphine signal, though, the possibility that it was a sign of life in Venus' clouds looked less and less likely.
On Monday, the likelihood of a drifting community of microbes in the clouds took another blow.
"The most extreme life on Earth would stand no chance whatsoever of living in the Venus clouds," John Hallsworth, a microbiologist at Queen's University Belfast and the lead author of the new paper, told me.
Venus is hot right now, with three missions expected to launch to the planet in the late 2020s.
NASA/JPL-Caltech
The problem is the availability of water. When planetary scientists go looking for life elsewhere in the cosmos, they look for water because it's essential for life to survive. The clouds of Venus might sound like a good place to start, but they're not the type of clouds we're used to on Earth. Venus' clouds are composed predominantly of liquid droplets of sulfuric acid -- the stuff we use to clean drains -- at concentrations that Hallsworth describes as "biologically hostile."
That detail already puts microbial life on the back foot, but Hallsworth and his team wanted cold, hard data to assess the possibility. They studied data collected by spacecraft that had plunged through the atmosphere of Venus to analyze the water activity within the clouds and also turned their attention to Mars and Jupiter.
The researchers were quick to point out that their find wasn't a definitive sign of life in the clouds of Venus, but scientists and the public were buzzing all the same. It inspired Jim Bridenstine, NASA's administrator at the time, to declare it was "time to prioritize Venus." The Venus fever spread through planetary science. Suddenly, the idea of searching for life on Mars felt like a distant memory.
The possibility of life on Venus was tantalizing, but scientists began double- and triple-checking their discoveries. After the phosphine announcement, other research groups began looking at the data, which was acquired from the Earth-based ALMA telescope. The secondary checks seemed to suggest the phosphine signal might be in error or may not be as strong as originally believed.
This is where Hallsworth and his collaborators jumped in. For almost three decades, Hallsworth has been investigating how water activity affects microbial life. His work has explored the lower limits of life -- or just how "dry" does it have to be before biological activity breaks down.
Knowing the clouds of Venus have high sulfuric acid content, which decreases water activity, he said that "alarm bells rang" before even reading the phosphine paper. Colleagues turned to him to ask if he knew the water activity in the clouds, hoping to paint a clearer picture of what was going on up there.
But he hadn't looked, and so the team went to work. Within two weeks, Hallsworth and the group had analyzed data collected by NASA's Pioneer and Russia's Venera probes, a flock of spacecraft that plunged through Venus' atmosphere in the 1970s. The data collected by the craft gave them insight into the temperatures, pressures and water lingering in the clouds.
Desert sky
Any potential microbe floating through the Venus clouds would find itself in an extremely hostile environment. About 30 to 44 miles above the surface, up in the clouds, it's more dry than the Earth's most expansive subtropical desert: the Sahara.
"The Venus clouds are a whole order of magnitude more dry than the Sahara," said Hallsworth, noting that the Sahara has around 0.25 water activity, while the clouds of Venus come in at just 0.004 water activity. That figure for Venus is simply far too extreme to support any life we know of.
"The most dry-tolerant microbe on Earth wouldn't stand a chance in Venus," Hallsworth said.
Venus is magnitudes more dry than the Sahara, the third-driest desert on Earth.
Florian Kaiser/Getty
Not only is the water activity extremely low, but say a microbe did find a droplet of liquid in Venus' clouds -- an oasis within the desert sky -- its fate would be no better. Those potential oases are actually poisonous droplets of sulfuric acid. Any microorganism would find the acidity far too much to bear.
"No known microbial cell can remain intact at the high sulfuric acid concentrations within the droplets of the Venus clouds," Hallsworth said.
Microbes that found themselves in such a place would face instant death, their membranes rupturing and their insides spilling out.
Hallsworth's previous work has probed the outer limits of life for microbes on Earth. When it comes to water activity, a fungus known as Aspergillus penicillioides, which is found in old books or bound up in dust within pillows and duvets, reigns supreme on our planet. In 2017, Hallsworth's lab published a paper showing the fungus can grow and divide at as low as 0.585 water activity. That's impressive for an Earth organism.
They use that figure -- 0.585 water activity -- as the limit that a microbe can tolerate, but the water activity in Venus' clouds is two orders of magnitude lower.
Mars, too, doesn't have the water activity to facilitate life in the atmosphere -- it's too cold -- but another planet in our solar system has water activity exceeding 0.585. It's a surprising candidate for an extraterrestrial home.
Jupiter ascending
The gas giant Jupiter looms over all the planets that orbit the sun. It's monstrous and, like Venus, it's famous for its clouds. When the research team analyzed water activity in Jupiter's atmosphere, they found it was at a high enough level to permit habitation by microbes.
"We absolutely hadn't expected that," said Hallsworth.
Using readings from NASA's Galileo probe, which launched in 1989 and released a probe into the gas giant's atmosphere in 1995, the team revealed somewhere beneath Jupiter's roiling, swirling face, there are conditions permissible for life.
"There is at least a layer in the clouds of Jupiter where the water requirements are met," Chris McKay, a planetary scientist at NASA's Ames Research Center and co-author on the paper, said during a press briefing.
The water activity within Jupiter's roiling clouds are permissible for life.
NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/MSSS/Image processing by Kevin M. Gill
However, the team is quick to point out this is no indication of life on the mammoth planet. The water activity merely demonstrates that microbes we know of on Earth could inhabit a distinct layer within Jupiter's atmosphere. Whether Jupiter is currently inhabited would take a "whole new study," Hallsworth said, but there are some more fundamental questions to answer first.
"We would have to demonstrate that a biologically available energy source and all the essential nutrients for life are present," he said.
The results extend even further into the solar system, too. Whether the water activity on Saturn, Neptune or Uranus is high enough for life to thrive is an open question -- there's no probe data for the team to assess. However, Hallsworth notes he "would not expect any of them to have a layer of high-water activity" and they'd be much colder than Jupiter, making it much harder for life to take hold there.
And what about even further? Beyond the solar system? Studying the water activity in exoplanet atmospheres with NASA's James Webb Space Telescope, set to launch in October, could provide another way for planetary scientists to assess the habitability of distant places in the cosmos.
They hypothesized that microbes might reside in liquid droplets for brief periods of time, before drying out and floating toward the planet surface. Eventually, they could be lifted back up into the higher layers of the Venusian atmosphere and able to rehydrate and continue their life cycle.
The paper published Monday deals a mighty blow to that hypothesis.
An illustration of the Galileo spacecraft, which beamed atmospheric data captured in Jupiter's clouds back to Earth.
NASA/JPL
If there is life on Venus, it's like nothing we've ever seen on Earth -- and it can survive without water, the life-giving stuff involved in so many aspects of terrestrial biology.
That leaves us with a lingering question: Where did the phosphine come from?
If the signal is legitimate, though, Venus would be a whole lot more mysterious.
"If it is phosphine and it's not biology, then it means something's happening in Venus that is producing this chemical at a rate much higher than it should be," said Laura McKemmish, a planetary scientist at Australia's University of New South Wales who was not affiliated with the study.
Whatever the phosphine signal turns out to be, Venus is now a premium travel destination and is set to be visited by a fleet of interplanetary probes over the next decade.
NASA plans to send two spacecraft in the late 2020s, including one known as Davinci+, which will specifically probe the atmosphere. The European Space Agency has its own plans to visit Venus, too, with a mission known as EnVision. Both are expected to provide a more holistic view of the Venusian atmosphere and acquire further data about its composition, but they aren't expected to change ideas about the existence of Earth-like microbes in the clouds.
"It's hard to imagine that the results will change as we do further exploration," said McKay.
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By signing up, you will receive newsletters and promotional content and agree to our Terms of Use and acknowledge the data practices in our Privacy Policy. You may unsubscribe at any time. | Venus can't sustain life in the clouds, but Jupiter has potential
Venus clouds have captivated Earthlings for decades. They form a dazzling mirror that obscures the planet's surface and, in the 1950s, one Israeli scholar even speculated the clouds may hide a world teeming with insect life capable of enduring the extreme heat.
When Russia's Venera spacecraft took images of the surface in 1975, there were no insects to be found. Venus is a desolate hellscape, the victim of a runaway greenhouse effect that has sent temperatures on the ground soaring to well over 850 degrees Fahrenheit -- hot enough to melt lead. But in the clouds, more temperate climes await any would-be alien lifeforms.
Up in the atmosphere, life might just find a way.
At least, that was one hypothesis. It can happen on Earth... so why not elsewhere? Last year, the idea that microbes might call the atmosphere of Venus home was bolstered by a study that claimed to have discovered elevated levels of phosphine -- an unstable gas associated with biological activity -- in the cloud deck of our sister planet. That spawned the theory that microbes in the clouds could be producing the gas.
As scientists untangled the phosphine signal, though, the possibility that it was a sign of life in Venus' clouds looked less and less likely.
On Monday, the likelihood of a drifting community of microbes in the clouds took another blow.
"The most extreme life on Earth would stand no chance whatsoever of living in the Venus clouds," John Hallsworth, a microbiologist at Queen's University Belfast and the lead author of the new paper, told me.
Venus is hot right now, with three missions expected to launch to the planet in the late 2020s.
NASA/JPL-Caltech
The problem is the availability of water. When planetary scientists go looking for life elsewhere in the cosmos, they look for water because it's essential for life to survive. | no |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | no_statement | there is no "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. "life" cannot exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/no-signs-yet-of-life-on-venus | No signs (yet) of life on Venus | University of Cambridge | No signs (yet) of life on Venus
The unusual behaviour of sulphur in Venus’ atmosphere cannot be explained by an ‘aerial’ form of extra-terrestrial life, according to a new study.
Even if ‘our’ Venus is dead, it’s possible that Venus-like planets in other systems could host life
Paul Rimmer
Researchers from the University of Cambridge used a combination of biochemistry and atmospheric chemistry to test the ‘life in the clouds’ hypothesis, which astronomers have speculated about for decades, and found that life cannot explain the composition of the Venusian atmosphere.
Any life form in sufficient abundance is expected to leave chemical fingerprints on a planet’s atmosphere as it consumes food and expels waste. However, the Cambridge researchers found no evidence of these fingerprints on Venus.
Even if Venus is devoid of life, the researchers say their results, reported in the journal Nature Communications, could be useful for studying the atmospheres of similar planets throughout the galaxy, and the eventual detection of life outside our Solar System.
“We’ve spent the past two years trying to explain the weird sulphur chemistry we see in the clouds of Venus,” said co-author Dr Paul Rimmer from Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences. “Life is pretty good at weird chemistry, so we’ve been studying whether there’s a way to make life a potential explanation for what we see.”
The researchers used a combination of atmospheric and biochemical models to study the chemical reactions that are expected to occur, given the known sources of chemical energy in Venus’s atmosphere.
“We looked at the sulphur-based ‘food’ available in the Venusian atmosphere – it’s not anything you or I would want to eat, but it is the main available energy source,” said Sean Jordan from Cambridge’s Institute of Astronomy, the paper’s first author. “If that food is being consumed by life, we should see evidence of that through specific chemicals being lost and gained in the atmosphere.”
The models looked at a particular feature of the Venusian atmosphere – the abundance of sulphur dioxide (SO2). On Earth, most SO2 in the atmosphere comes from volcanic emissions. On Venus, there are high levels of SO2 lower in the clouds, but it somehow gets ‘sucked out’ of the atmosphere at higher altitudes.
“If life is present, it must be affecting the atmospheric chemistry,” said co-author Dr Oliver Shorttle from Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences and Institute of Astronomy. “Could life be the reason that SO2 levels on Venus get reduced so much?”
The models, developed by Jordan, include a list of metabolic reactions that the life forms would carry out in order to get their ‘food’, and the waste by-products. The researchers ran the model to see if the reduction in SO2 levels could be explained by these metabolic reactions.
They found that the metabolic reactions can result in a drop in SO2 levels, but only by producing other molecules in very large amounts that aren’t seen. The results set a hard limit on how much life could exist on Venus without blowing apart our understanding of how chemical reactions work in planetary atmospheres.
“If life was responsible for the SO2 levels we see on Venus, it would also break everything we know about Venus’s atmospheric chemistry,” said Jordan. “We wanted life to be a potential explanation, but when we ran the models, it isn’t a viable solution. But if life isn’t responsible for what we see on Venus, it’s still a problem to be solved – there’s lots of strange chemistry to follow up on.”
Although there’s no evidence of sulphur-eating life hiding in the clouds of Venus, the researchers say their method of analysing atmospheric signatures will be valuable when JWST, the successor to the Hubble Telescope, begins returning images of other planetary systems later this year. Some of the sulphur molecules in the current study are easy to see with JWST, so learning more about the chemical behaviour of our next-door neighbour could help scientists figure out similar planets across the galaxy.
“To understand why some planets are alive, we need to understand why other planets are dead,” said Shorttle. “If life somehow managed to sneak into the Venusian clouds, it would totally change how we search for chemical signs of life on other planets.”
“Even if ‘our’ Venus is dead, it’s possible that Venus-like planets in other systems could host life,” said Rimmer, who is also affiliated with Cambridge’s Cavendish Laboratory. “We can take what we’ve learned here and apply it to exoplanetary systems – this is just the beginning.”
The research was funded by the Simons Foundation and the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), part of UK Research and Innovation (UKRI).
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The University of Cambridge will use your email address to send you our weekly research news email. We are committed to protecting your personal information and being transparent about what information we hold. Please read our email privacy notice for details. | No signs (yet) of life on Venus
The unusual behaviour of sulphur in Venus’ atmosphere cannot be explained by an ‘aerial’ form of extra-terrestrial life, according to a new study.
Even if ‘our’ Venus is dead, it’s possible that Venus-like planets in other systems could host life
Paul Rimmer
Researchers from the University of Cambridge used a combination of biochemistry and atmospheric chemistry to test the ‘life in the clouds’ hypothesis, which astronomers have speculated about for decades, and found that life cannot explain the composition of the Venusian atmosphere.
Any life form in sufficient abundance is expected to leave chemical fingerprints on a planet’s atmosphere as it consumes food and expels waste. However, the Cambridge researchers found no evidence of these fingerprints on Venus.
Even if Venus is devoid of life, the researchers say their results, reported in the journal Nature Communications, could be useful for studying the atmospheres of similar planets throughout the galaxy, and the eventual detection of life outside our Solar System.
“We’ve spent the past two years trying to explain the weird sulphur chemistry we see in the clouds of Venus,” said co-author Dr Paul Rimmer from Cambridge’s Department of Earth Sciences. “Life is pretty good at weird chemistry, so we’ve been studying whether there’s a way to make life a potential explanation for what we see.”
The researchers used a combination of atmospheric and biochemical models to study the chemical reactions that are expected to occur, given the known sources of chemical energy in Venus’s atmosphere.
“We looked at the sulphur-based ‘food’ available in the Venusian atmosphere – it’s not anything you or I would want to eat, but it is the main available energy source,” said Sean Jordan from Cambridge’s Institute of Astronomy, the paper’s first author. “If that food is being consumed by life, we should see evidence of that through specific chemicals being lost and gained in the atmosphere.”
The models looked at a particular feature of the Venusian atmosphere – the abundance of sulphur dioxide (SO2). | no |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | no_statement | there is no "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. "life" cannot exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2022/06/220614122646.htm | No signs (yet) of life on Venus -- ScienceDaily | The unusual behaviour of sulphur in Venus' atmosphere cannot be explained by an 'aerial' form of extra-terrestrial life, according to a new study.
Researchers from the University of Cambridge used a combination of biochemistry and atmospheric chemistry to test the 'life in the clouds' hypothesis, which astronomers have speculated about for decades, and found that life cannot explain the composition of the Venusian atmosphere.
Any life form in sufficient abundance is expected to leave chemical fingerprints on a planet's atmosphere as it consumes food and expels waste. However, the Cambridge researchers found no evidence of these fingerprints on Venus.
Even if Venus is devoid of life, the researchers say their results, reported in the journal Nature Communications, could be useful for studying the atmospheres of similar planets throughout the galaxy, and the eventual detection of life outside our Solar System.
"We've spent the past two years trying to explain the weird sulphur chemistry we see in the clouds of Venus," said co-author Dr Paul Rimmer from Cambridge's Department of Earth Sciences. "Life is pretty good at weird chemistry, so we've been studying whether there's a way to make life a potential explanation for what we see."
The researchers used a combination of atmospheric and biochemical models to study the chemical reactions that are expected to occur, given the known sources of chemical energy in Venus's atmosphere.
"We looked at the sulphur-based 'food' available in the Venusian atmosphere -- it's not anything you or I would want to eat, but it is the main available energy source," said Sean Jordan from Cambridge's Institute of Astronomy, the paper's first author. "If that food is being consumed by life, we should see evidence of that through specific chemicals being lost and gained in the atmosphere."
The models looked at a particular feature of the Venusian atmosphere -- the abundance of sulphur dioxide (SO2). On Earth, most SO2 in the atmosphere comes from volcanic emissions. On Venus, there are high levels of SO2 lower in the clouds, but it somehow gets 'sucked out' of the atmosphere at higher altitudes.
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"If life is present, it must be affecting the atmospheric chemistry," said co-author Dr Oliver Shorttle from Cambridge's Department of Earth Sciences and Institute of Astronomy. "Could life be the reason that SO2 levels on Venus get reduced so much?"
The models, developed by Jordan, include a list of metabolic reactions that the life forms would carry out in order to get their 'food', and the waste by-products. The researchers ran the model to see if the reduction in SO2 levels could be explained by these metabolic reactions.
They found that the metabolic reactions can result in a drop in SO2 levels, but only by producing other molecules in very large amounts that aren't seen. The results set a hard limit on how much life could exist on Venus without blowing apart our understanding of how chemical reactions work in planetary atmospheres.
"If life was responsible for the SO2 levels we see on Venus, it would also break everything we know about Venus's atmospheric chemistry," said Jordan. "We wanted life to be a potential explanation, but when we ran the models, it isn't a viable solution. But if life isn't responsible for what we see on Venus, it's still a problem to be solved -- there's lots of strange chemistry to follow up on."
Although there's no evidence of sulphur-eating life hiding in the clouds of Venus, the researchers say their method of analysing atmospheric signatures will be valuable when JWST, the successor to the Hubble Telescope, begins returning images of other planetary systems later this year. Some of the sulphur molecules in the current study are easy to see with JWST, so learning more about the chemical behaviour of our next-door neighbour could help scientists figure out similar planets across the galaxy.
"To understand why some planets are alive, we need to understand why other planets are dead," said Shorttle. "If life somehow managed to sneak into the Venusian clouds, it would totally change how we search for chemical signs of life on other planets."
"Even if 'our' Venus is dead, it's possible that Venus-like planets in other systems could host life," said Rimmer, who is also affiliated with Cambridge's Cavendish Laboratory. "We can take what we've learned here and apply it to exoplanetary systems -- this is just the beginning."
The research was funded by the Simons Foundation and the Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), part of UK Research and Innovation (UKRI).
June 3, 2022 NASA scientists and engineers give new details about the Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging (DAVINCI) mission, which will descend through the layered Venus ...
Jan. 27, 2021 Astronomers revisited and comprehensively reinterpreted the radio telescope observations underlying a widely reported 2019 claim that phosphine gas was present in the atmosphere of Venus. In a paper ...
Sep. 14, 2020 Astronomers have discovered a rare molecule -- phosphine -- in the clouds of Venus. On Earth, this gas is only made industrially or by microbes that thrive in oxygen-free environments. Astronomers ...
Jan. 24, 2019 Should regulations for environmental protection be valid beyond our solar system? Currently, extra-terrestrial forms of life are only deemed worth protecting if they can be scientifically ... | The unusual behaviour of sulphur in Venus' atmosphere cannot be explained by an 'aerial' form of extra-terrestrial life, according to a new study.
Researchers from the University of Cambridge used a combination of biochemistry and atmospheric chemistry to test the 'life in the clouds' hypothesis, which astronomers have speculated about for decades, and found that life cannot explain the composition of the Venusian atmosphere.
Any life form in sufficient abundance is expected to leave chemical fingerprints on a planet's atmosphere as it consumes food and expels waste. However, the Cambridge researchers found no evidence of these fingerprints on Venus.
Even if Venus is devoid of life, the researchers say their results, reported in the journal Nature Communications, could be useful for studying the atmospheres of similar planets throughout the galaxy, and the eventual detection of life outside our Solar System.
"We've spent the past two years trying to explain the weird sulphur chemistry we see in the clouds of Venus," said co-author Dr Paul Rimmer from Cambridge's Department of Earth Sciences. "Life is pretty good at weird chemistry, so we've been studying whether there's a way to make life a potential explanation for what we see. "
The researchers used a combination of atmospheric and biochemical models to study the chemical reactions that are expected to occur, given the known sources of chemical energy in Venus's atmosphere.
"We looked at the sulphur-based 'food' available in the Venusian atmosphere -- it's not anything you or I would want to eat, but it is the main available energy source," said Sean Jordan from Cambridge's Institute of Astronomy, the paper's first author. "If that food is being consumed by life, we should see evidence of that through specific chemicals being lost and gained in the atmosphere. "
The models looked at a particular feature of the Venusian atmosphere -- the abundance of sulphur dioxide (SO2). On Earth, most SO2 in the atmosphere comes from volcanic emissions. On Venus, there are high levels of SO2 lower in the clouds, but it somehow gets 'sucked out' of the atmosphere at higher altitudes.
| no |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | no_statement | there is no "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. "life" cannot exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/life-on-venus-is-impossible-because-of-lack-of-water-study-suggests/ | Life on Venus Is Impossible because of Lack of Water, Study ... | A radar image of Venus, based on data from NASA’s Magellan spacecraft. Credit: NASA and JPL
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The amount of water in the atmosphere of Venus is so low that even the most drought-tolerant of Earth’s microbes wouldn’t be able to survive there, a new study has found. The findings seem to wipe out the hope stirred by last year’s discovery of molecules potentially created by living organisms in the scorched planet’s atmosphere that were seen as an indication of the possible presence of life.
The new study looked at measurements from probes that flew through the atmosphere of Venus and acquired data about temperature, humidity and pressure in the thick sulphuric acid clouds surrounding the planet. From these values, the scientists were able to calculate the so-called water activity, the water vapor pressure inside the individual molecules in the clouds, which is one of the limiting factors for the existence of life on Earth.
“When we looked at the effective concentration of water molecules in those clouds, we found that it was a hundred times too low for even the most resilient Earth organisms to survive.” John Hallsworth, a microbiologist at Queen’s University in Belfast, U.K., and lead author of the paper, said in a news conference on Thursday (June 24). “That’s an unbridgeable distance.”
The findings are likely a disappointment for the Venus research community, which was invigorated last September by the discovery of phosphine, a compound made of atoms of phosphorus and hydrogen that on Earth can be associated with living organisms, in Venus’ atmosphere. At that time, researchers suggested the phosphines may be produced by microorganisms residing in those clouds.
On Earth, Hallsworth said, microorganisms can survive and proliferate in droplets of water in the atmosphere when temperatures allow. However, the findings of the new study, based on data from several Venus probes, leave zero chance of anything living in the clouds of Venus, he said.
“Living systems including microorganisms are composed mainly of water and without being hydrated, they can’t be active and are unable to proliferate,” Hallsworth said.
Studies on microorganisms living in extreme conditions on Earth found that life can exist at temperatures as cold as minus 40 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 40 degrees Celsius). For water activity, which is measured on the scale from 0 to 1, the lowest survivable value is 0.585. The water activity level found in the molecules in the Venusian clouds was merely 0.004.
NASA Ames astrobiologist Chris McKay, one of the co-authors of the paper, said in the news conference that the findings of the study were conclusive and the new fleet of space missions currently being prepared for Venus will not change anything about the hope for life on Earth’s closest neighbor.
“Our conclusion is based directly on measurements,” McKay said in the briefing. “It’s not a model, it’s not an assumption. The missions that NASA just selected to go to Venus will do the same measurements again— temperature, pressure—and they are going to come to very much the same conclusions because Venus is not changing on that type of time scale.”
However, the researchers looked at data from other planets too and found that the clouds of Jupiter do provide sufficient water activity to theoretically support life. Data collected by the Galileo probe at altitudes between 26 and 42 miles (42 and 68 kilometers) above the surface of the gas giant suggest the water activity value to sit at 0.585, just above the survivable threshold. Temperatures in this region are also just about survivable, at around minus 40 degrees F.
“Jupiter looks much more optimistic,” McKay said. “There is at least a layer in the clouds of Jupiter where the water requirements are met. It doesn’t mean that there is life, it just means that with respect to water, it would be OK.”
High levels of ultraviolet radiation or lack of nutrients could, however, prevent that potential life from thriving, the researchers said, and completely new measurements would be needed to find whether it actually could be there or not.
Hallsworth added that the technique used to calculate the water activity could also help determine the habitability of exoplanets.
“What excites me the most is that we can go down to the scale of water molecules for these distant planets and pinpoint their potential habitability,” Hallsworth said.
The results are described in a paper published June 28 in the journal Nature Astronomy.
Copyright 2021 Space.com, a Future company. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
Scientific American is part of Springer Nature, which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications (many of them can be found at www.springernature.com/us). Scientific American maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers. | A radar image of Venus, based on data from NASA’s Magellan spacecraft. Credit: NASA and JPL
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The amount of water in the atmosphere of Venus is so low that even the most drought-tolerant of Earth’s microbes wouldn’t be able to survive there, a new study has found. The findings seem to wipe out the hope stirred by last year’s discovery of molecules potentially created by living organisms in the scorched planet’s atmosphere that were seen as an indication of the possible presence of life.
The new study looked at measurements from probes that flew through the atmosphere of Venus and acquired data about temperature, humidity and pressure in the thick sulphuric acid clouds surrounding the planet. From these values, the scientists were able to calculate the so-called water activity, the water vapor pressure inside the individual molecules in the clouds, which is one of the limiting factors for the existence of life on Earth.
“When we looked at the effective concentration of water molecules in those clouds, we found that it was a hundred times too low for even the most resilient Earth organisms to survive.” John Hallsworth, a microbiologist at Queen’s University in Belfast, U.K., and lead author of the paper, said in a news conference on Thursday (June 24). “That’s an unbridgeable distance.”
The findings are likely a disappointment for the Venus research community, which was invigorated last September by the discovery of phosphine, a compound made of atoms of phosphorus and hydrogen that on Earth can be associated with living organisms, in Venus’ atmosphere. At that time, researchers suggested the phosphines may be produced by microorganisms residing in those clouds.
On Earth, Hallsworth said, microorganisms can survive and proliferate in droplets of water in the atmosphere when temperatures allow. However, the findings of the new study, based on data from several Venus probes, leave zero chance of anything living in the clouds of Venus, he said.
“Living systems including microorganisms are composed mainly of water and without being hydrated, they can’t be active and are unable to proliferate,” | no |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | no_statement | there is no "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. "life" cannot exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/venus-jupiter-life-clouds-1.6083076 | There's no life in the clouds of Venus, study says. Jupiter might be ... | There's no life in the clouds of Venus, study says. Jupiter might be different
A new study is throwing cold water on the possibility of life in the clouds of Venus. Scientists from Europe and the U.S. reported Monday there isn't nearly enough water vapor in the scorching planet's clouds to support life as we know it.
U.S. and European scientists conclude clouds don't hold enough water vapor to support life
Contrary to its serene appearance, the clouded globe of Venus is a world of intense heat, crushing atmospheric pressure and clouds of corrosive acid. Scientists have determined the planet's clouds couldn't support life as we know it. (JAXA/ISAS/Akatsuki Project Team)
A new study is throwing cold water on the possibility of life in the clouds of Venus.
Scientists from Europe and the U.S. reported Monday there isn't nearly enough water vapour in the scorching planet's clouds to support life as we know it.
The team looked into the matter following September's surprise announcement by others that strange, tiny organisms could be lurking in the thick, sulfuric acid-filled clouds of Venus. Through spacecraft observations, the latest research group found the water level is more than 100 times too low to support Earth-like life.
"It's almost at the bottom of the scale and an unbridgeable distance from what life requires to be active," said the lead author, John Hallsworth, a microbiologist at Queen's University Belfast in Northern Ireland.
His team looked at the most dry-tolerant and also the most acid-tolerant microbes on Earth — and they "wouldn't stand a chance in Venus."
More water on Jupiter's clouds
While the latest findings veto Venus at least for water-based organisms, they identify another planet — Jupiter — with enough water in the clouds and the right atmospheric temperatures to support life.
"Now I'm not suggesting there's life on Jupiter and I'm not even suggesting life could be there because it would need the nutrients to be there and we can't be sure of that," Hallsworth stressed to reporters. "But still it's a profound and exciting finding and totally unexpected."
Measuring 16,350 kilometres in width, Jupiter’s Great Red Spot is 1.3 times as wide as Earth, superimposed here for comparison. While clouds on Venus can't support life, according to a new study, Jupiter could be different. (NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/MSSS/Christopher Go)
Further studies will be needed to ascertain whether microbial life might exist deep in the clouds of Jupiter, according to Hallsworth and NASA astrobiologist Chris McKay, a co-author on the research paper published Monday in the journal Nature Astronomy.
As for Venus, three new spacecraft will be headed there later this decade and early next — two by NASA and one by the European Space Agency. Hallsworth and and McKay don't expect their results to change regarding uninhabitable water activity at our solar system's hottest planet.
"It's unfortunate because I'm very interested in searching for life on other worlds and I would love to think that Venus is habitable," McKay said.
The scientists behind the September study possibly hinting at life in the Venusian clouds based their findings on the presence of the toxic gas phosphine. On Earth, it's associated with life. The researchers argued that Venus' phosphine levels are too high to be geologic in origin.
"We are not trying to push Venus as a definitely habitable world. So far all conventional interpretations say Venus is inhabitable," said Massachusetts Institute of Technology astrophysicist Sara Seager, part of the September team.
Regarding the latest study, "we are tremendously enthusiastic about leaving no stone unturned, in case there is life on Venus," she added in an email.
WATCH | Possible signs of life found on Venus:
Possible signs of life found on Venus
3 years ago
Duration 2:04
Scientists are excited they have found evidence that hints at signs of life in the clouds of Venus. Astronomers have detected a small amount of a chemical compound, phosphine, that doesn't exist naturally.
There's always the possibility that any life in Venus' clouds — if it exists — could be totally unlike anything on Earth and adapted to the hothouse planet's extremely hot and harsh conditions, according to scientists.
"If there is life in the clouds of Venus, then this life has to be 'Life as we do not know it,' said astrobiologist Janusz Petkowski, a colleague of Seager's at MIT. "The question is how different that life can be?" | There's no life in the clouds of Venus, study says. Jupiter might be different
A new study is throwing cold water on the possibility of life in the clouds of Venus. Scientists from Europe and the U.S. reported Monday there isn't nearly enough water vapor in the scorching planet's clouds to support life as we know it.
U.S. and European scientists conclude clouds don't hold enough water vapor to support life
Contrary to its serene appearance, the clouded globe of Venus is a world of intense heat, crushing atmospheric pressure and clouds of corrosive acid. Scientists have determined the planet's clouds couldn't support life as we know it. (JAXA/ISAS/Akatsuki Project Team)
A new study is throwing cold water on the possibility of life in the clouds of Venus.
Scientists from Europe and the U.S. reported Monday there isn't nearly enough water vapour in the scorching planet's clouds to support life as we know it.
The team looked into the matter following September's surprise announcement by others that strange, tiny organisms could be lurking in the thick, sulfuric acid-filled clouds of Venus. Through spacecraft observations, the latest research group found the water level is more than 100 times too low to support Earth-like life.
"It's almost at the bottom of the scale and an unbridgeable distance from what life requires to be active," said the lead author, John Hallsworth, a microbiologist at Queen's University Belfast in Northern Ireland.
His team looked at the most dry-tolerant and also the most acid-tolerant microbes on Earth — and they "wouldn't stand a chance in Venus. "
More water on Jupiter's clouds
While the latest findings veto Venus at least for water-based organisms, they identify another planet — Jupiter — with enough water in the clouds and the right atmospheric temperatures to support life.
"Now I'm not suggesting there's life on Jupiter and I'm not even suggesting life could be there because it would need the nutrients to be there | no |
Xenobiology | Could there feasibly be life in the clouds of Venus? | no_statement | there is no "life" in the "clouds" of venus.. "life" cannot exist in the "clouds" of venus. | https://www.space.com/life-cant-explain-chemistry-venus-atmosphere | Missing microbial poop in Venus' clouds suggests the planet has no ... | Missing microbial poop in Venus' clouds suggests the planet has no life
"If life was responsible for the sulfur dioxide levels we see on Venus, it would also break everything we know about Venus's atmospheric chemistry."
A false-colour image of cloud features seen on Venus by the Venus Monitoring Camera (VMC) on the European Space Agency's Venus Express probe captured on 8 December 2011.(Image credit: ESA/MPS/DLR/IDA)
Venus' atmosphere bears no signs of microbes eating or pooping, suggesting that the odd chemical composition of the planet's clouds cannot be explained by extraterrestrial life.
In a new study, researchers analyzed the biochemistry of the thick, sulfur-rich Venusian clouds, which have fascinated scientists for decades. They looked for "fingerprints" that any potential cloud-dwelling organisms would leave there as a result of their feeding and excretion.
"We've spent the past two years trying to explain the weird sulfur chemistry we see in the clouds of Venus," Paul Rimmer, an atmospheric scientist at the University of Cambridge in the U.K. and a co-author of the study, said in a statement. "Life is pretty good at weird chemistry, so we've been studying whether there's a way to make life a potential explanation for what we see."
The researchers modeled chemical reactions expected in Venus' atmosphere, which is rich in sulfur dioxide. Concentrations of sulfur dioxide are high in the clouds closer to the planet's surface but diminish with altitude. Scientists thought the sulfur dioxide might be disappearing as it got eaten by cloud-dwelling critters. When the researchers ran the models, however, they found that chemically, that hypothesis didn't work.
"If life was responsible for the sulfur dioxide levels we see on Venus, it would also break everything we know about Venus's atmospheric chemistry," Sean Jordan, an astronomer at the University of Cambridge and first author of the paper, said in the statement. "We wanted life to be a potential explanation, but when we ran the models, it wasn't a viable solution."
The models simulated metabolic reactions that the atmospheric microbes would use to produce energy from food sources and generate waste. The results suggested that although such microbes could suck out some sulfur dioxide from the clouds, that process would produce large molecules that have not been detected.
"We looked at the sulfur-based 'food' available in the Venusian atmosphere — it's not anything you or I would want to eat, but it is the main available energy source," Jordan said. "If that food is being consumed by life, we should see evidence of that through specific chemicals being lost and gained in the atmosphere."
The researchers said that although the study failed to produce the results they had hoped for, it provides valuable insight into the atmospheric chemistry of alien planets, and the methodology developed for this study could be used to look for life outside the solar system.
"Even if 'our' Venus is dead, it's possible that Venus-like planets in other systems could host life," said Rimmer. "We can take what we've learned here and apply it to exoplanetary systems — this is just the beginning."
In particular, the researchers said, the results might guide the observations of the James Webb Space Telescope, which is set to reveal its first scientific images next month, as the telescope is capable of detecting such chemical fingerprints in the atmospheres of distant exoplanets.
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Tereza is a London-based science and technology journalist, aspiring fiction writer and amateur gymnast. Originally from Prague, the Czech Republic, she spent the first seven years of her career working as a reporter, script-writer and presenter for various TV programmes of the Czech Public Service Television. She later took a career break to pursue further education and added a Master's in Science from the International Space University, France, to her Bachelor's in Journalism and Master's in Cultural Anthropology from Prague's Charles University. She worked as a reporter at the Engineering and Technology magazine, freelanced for a range of publications including Live Science, Space.com, Professional Engineering, Via Satellite and Space News and served as a maternity cover science editor at the European Space Agency. | Missing microbial poop in Venus' clouds suggests the planet has no life
"If life was responsible for the sulfur dioxide levels we see on Venus, it would also break everything we know about Venus's atmospheric chemistry. "
A false-colour image of cloud features seen on Venus by the Venus Monitoring Camera (VMC) on the European Space Agency's Venus Express probe captured on 8 December 2011.(Image credit: ESA/MPS/DLR/IDA)
Venus' atmosphere bears no signs of microbes eating or pooping, suggesting that the odd chemical composition of the planet's clouds cannot be explained by extraterrestrial life.
In a new study, researchers analyzed the biochemistry of the thick, sulfur-rich Venusian clouds, which have fascinated scientists for decades. They looked for "fingerprints" that any potential cloud-dwelling organisms would leave there as a result of their feeding and excretion.
"We've spent the past two years trying to explain the weird sulfur chemistry we see in the clouds of Venus," Paul Rimmer, an atmospheric scientist at the University of Cambridge in the U.K. and a co-author of the study, said in a statement. "Life is pretty good at weird chemistry, so we've been studying whether there's a way to make life a potential explanation for what we see. "
The researchers modeled chemical reactions expected in Venus' atmosphere, which is rich in sulfur dioxide. Concentrations of sulfur dioxide are high in the clouds closer to the planet's surface but diminish with altitude. Scientists thought the sulfur dioxide might be disappearing as it got eaten by cloud-dwelling critters. When the researchers ran the models, however, they found that chemically, that hypothesis didn't work.
"If life was responsible for the sulfur dioxide levels we see on Venus, it would also break everything we know about Venus's atmospheric chemistry," Sean Jordan, an astronomer at the University of Cambridge and first author of the paper, said in the statement. | no |
Anthropology | Did Ancient Greeks practice human sacrifice? | yes_statement | "ancient" greeks "practiced" "human" "sacrifice".. "human" "sacrifice" was a "practice" of the "ancient" greeks. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_sacrifice | Human sacrifice - Wikipedia | Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, public or jurisdictional demands for justice by capital punishment, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein a monarch's servants are killed in order for them to continue to serve their master in the next life. Closely related practices found in some tribal societies are cannibalism and headhunting.[1]
Modern secular laws treat human sacrifices as tantamount to murder.[2][3] Most major religions in the modern day condemn the practice. For example, the Hebrew Bible prohibits murder and human sacrifice to Moloch.[4]
Human sacrifice (sometimes called ritual murder), has been practiced on a number of different occasions and in many different cultures. The various rationales behind human sacrifice are the same that motivate religious sacrifice in general. Human sacrifice is typically intended to bring good fortune and to pacify the gods, for example in the context of the dedication of a completed building like a temple or bridge. Fertility was another common theme in ancient religious sacrifices, such as sacrifices to the Aztec god of agriculture Xipe Totec.[5]
For the re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan in 1487, the Aztecs reported that they killed about 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days. According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the ceremony.[7]
Human sacrifice can also have the intention of winning the gods' favor in warfare. In Homeric legend, Iphigeneia was to be sacrificed by her father Agamemnon to appease Artemis so she would allow the Greeks to wage the Trojan War.
In some notions of an afterlife, the deceased will benefit from victims killed at his funeral. Mongols, Scythians, early Egyptians and various Mesoamerican chiefs could take most of their household, including servants and concubines, with them to the next world. This is sometimes called a "retainer sacrifice", as the leader's retainers would be sacrificed along with their master, so that they could continue to serve him in the afterlife.
Another purpose is divination from the body parts of the victim. According to Strabo, Celts stabbed a victim with a sword and divined the future from his death spasms.[8]
Headhunting is the practice of taking the head of a killed adversary, for ceremonial or magical purposes, or for reasons of prestige. It was found in many pre-modern tribal societies.
Human sacrifice may be a ritual practiced in a stable society, and may even be conducive to enhance societal unity (see: Sociology of religion), both by creating a bond unifying the sacrificing community, and in combining human sacrifice and capital punishment, by removing individuals that have a negative effect on societal stability (criminals, religious heretics, foreign slaves or prisoners of war). However, outside of civil religion, human sacrifice may also result in outbursts of blood frenzy and mass killings that destabilize society.
Many cultures show traces of prehistoric human sacrifice in their mythologies and religious texts, but ceased the practice before the onset of historical records. Some see the story of Abraham and Isaac (Genesis 22) as an example of an etiological myth, explaining the abolition of human sacrifice. The Vedic Purushamedha (literally "human sacrifice") is already a purely symbolic act in its earliest attestation. According to Pliny the Elder, human sacrifice in ancient Rome was abolished by a senatorial decree in 97 BCE, although by this time the practice had already become so rare that the decree was mostly a symbolic act. Human sacrifice once abolished is typically replaced by either animal sacrifice, or by the mock-sacrifice of effigies, such as the Argei in ancient Rome.
Successful agricultural cities had already emerged in the Near East by the Neolithic, some protected behind stone walls. Jericho is the best known of these cities but other similar settlements existed along the coast of Levant extending north into Asia Minor and west to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Most of the land was arid and the religious culture of the entire region centered on fertility and rain. Many of the religious rituals, including human sacrifice, had an agricultural focus. Blood was mixed with soil to improve its fertility.[9]
There may be evidence of retainer sacrifice in the early dynastic period at Abydos, when on the death of a King he would be accompanied with servants, and possibly high officials, who would continue to serve him in eternal life. The skeletons that were found had no obvious signs of trauma, leading to speculation that the giving up of life to serve the King may have been a voluntary act, possibly carried out in a drug induced state. At about 2800 BCE, any possible evidence of such practices disappeared, though echoes are perhaps to be seen in the burial of statues of servants in Old Kingdom tombs.[10][11]
Servants of both royalty and high court officials were slain to accompany their master in the next world.[12] The number of retainers buried surrounding the king's tomb was much greater than those of high court officials, however, again suggesting the greater importance of the pharaoh.[13] For example, King Djer had 318 retainer sacrifices buried in his tomb, and 269 retainer sacrifices buried in enclosures surrounding his tomb.[14]
References in the Bible point to an awareness of and disdain of human sacrifice in the history of ancient Near Eastern practice. During a battle with the Israelites, the King of Moab gives his firstborn son and heir as a whole burnt offering (olah, as used of the Temple sacrifice) (2 Kings 3:27).[15] The Bible then recounts that, following the King's sacrifice, "There was great indignation [or wrath] against Israel" and that the Israelites had to raise their siege of the Moabite capital and go away. This verse had perplexed many later Jewish and Christian commentators, who tried to explain what the impact of the Moabite King's sacrifice was, to make those under siege emboldened while disheartening the Israelites, make God angry at the Israelites or the Israelites fear his anger, make Chemosh (the Moabite god) angry, or otherwise.[16] Whatever the explanation, evidently at the time of writing, such an act of sacrificing the firstborn son and heir, while prohibited by Israelites (Deuteronomy 12:31; 18:9-12), was considered as an emergency measure in the Ancient Near East, to be performed in exceptional cases where divine favor was desperately needed.
The binding of Isaac appears in the Book of Genesis (22); the story appears in the Quran, though Islamic tradition holds that Ismael was the one to be sacrificed. In both the Quranic and Biblical stories, God tests Abraham by asking him to present his son as a sacrifice on Moriah. Abraham agrees to this command without arguing. The story ends with an angel stopping Abraham at the last minute and providing a ram, caught in some nearby bushes, to be sacrificed instead. Many Bible scholars have suggested this story's origin was a remembrance of an era when human sacrifice was abolished in favour of animal sacrifice.[17][18]
Another probable instance of human sacrifice mentioned in the Bible is Jephthah's sacrifice of his daughter in Judges 11. Jephthah vows to sacrifice to God whatever comes to greet him at the door when he returns home if he is victorious in his war against the Ammonites. The vow is stated in the Book of Judges 11:31: "Then whoever comes of the doors of my house to meet me, when I return victorious from the Ammonites, shall be the Lord's, to be offered up by me as a burnt offering (NRSV)." When he returns from battle, his virgin daughter runs out to greet him, and Jephthah laments to her that he cannot take back his vow. She begs for, and is granted, "two months, so that I may go and wander on the mountains, and bewail my virginity, my companions and I", after which "[Jephthah] did with her according to the vow he had made."[19]
Two kings of Judah, Ahaz and Manassah, sacrificed their sons. Ahaz, in 2 Kings 16:3, sacrificed his son. "... He even made his son pass through fire, according to the abominable practices of the nations whom the LORD drove out before the people of Israel (NRSV)." King Manasseh sacrificed his sons in 2 Chronicles 33:6. "He made his son pass through fire in the valley of the son of Hinnom ... He did much evil in the sight of the Lord, provoking him to anger (NRSV)." The valley symbolized hell in later religions, such as Christianity, as a result.
According to Roman and Greek sources, Phoenicians and Carthaginians sacrificed infants to their gods. The bones of numerous infants have been found in Carthaginian archaeological sites in modern times, but their cause of death remain controversial.[20] In a single child cemetery called the "Tophet" by archaeologists, an estimated 20,000 urns were deposited.[21]
Plutarch (c. 46 – c. 120 CE) mentions the practice, as do Tertullian, Orosius, Diodorus Siculus and Philo. Livy and Polybius do not. The Bible asserts that children were sacrificed at a place called the tophet ("roasting place") to the god Moloch. According to Diodorus Siculus's Bibliotheca historica, "There was in their city a bronze image of Cronus extending its hands, palms up and sloping toward the ground, so that each of the children when placed thereon rolled down and fell into a sort of gaping pit filled with fire."[22]
Plutarch, however, claims that the children were already dead at the time, having been killed by their parents, whose consent – as well as that of the children – was required. Tertullian explains the acquiescence of the children as a product of their youthful trustfulness.[22]
The accuracy of such stories is disputed by some modern historians and archaeologists.[23]
The mythological sacrifice of Polyxena by the triumphant Greeks at the end of the Trojan WarThe Sacrifice of Iphigeneia, a mythological depiction of a sacrificial procession on a mosaic from Roman Spain
The ancient ritual of expelling certain slaves, cripples, or criminals from a community to ward off disaster (known as pharmakos), would at times involve publicly executing the chosen prisoner by throwing them off of a cliff.
References to human sacrifice can be found in Greek historical accounts as well as mythology. The human sacrifice in mythology, the deus ex machina salvation in some versions of Iphigeneia (who was about to be sacrificed by her father Agamemnon) and her replacement with a deer by the goddess Artemis, may be a vestigial memory of the abandonment and discrediting of the practice of human sacrifice among the Greeks in favour of animal sacrifice.[citation needed]
In ancient Rome, human sacrifice was infrequent but documented. Roman authors often contrast their own behavior with that of people who would commit the heinous act of human sacrifice. These authors make it clear that such practices were from a much more uncivilized time in the past, far removed.[27] It is thought that many ritualistic celebrations and dedications to gods used to involve human sacrifice but have now been replaced with symbolic offerings. Dionysius of Halicarnassus[28] says that the ritual of the Argei, in which straw figures were tossed into the Tiber river, may have been a substitute for an original offering of elderly men. Cicero claimed that puppets thrown from the Pons Sublicius by the Vestal Virgins in a processional ceremony were substitutes for the past sacrifice of old men.[29]
After the Roman defeat at Cannae, two Gauls and two Greeks in male-female couples were buried under the Forum Boarium, in a stone chamber used for the purpose at least once before.[30] In Livy's description of these sacrifices, he distances the practice from Roman tradition and asserts that the past human sacrifices evident in the same location were "wholly alien to the Roman spirit."[31] The rite was apparently repeated in 113 BCE, preparatory to an invasion of Gaul.[32] They buried both the Greeks and the two Gauls alive as a plea to the gods to save Rome from destruction at the hands of Hannibal.
According to Pliny the Elder, human sacrifice was banned by law during the consulship of Publius Licinius Crassus and Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus in 97 BCE, although by this time it was so rare that the decree was largely symbolic.[33] Sulla's Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficis in 82 BC also included punishments for human sacrifice.[34] The Romans also had traditions that centered around ritual murder, but which they did not consider to be sacrifice. Such practices included burying unchaste Vestal Virgins alive and drowning visibly intersex children. These were seen as reactions to extraordinary circumstances as opposed to being part of Roman tradition. Vestal Virgins who were accused of being unchaste were put to death, and a special chamber was built to bury them alive. This aim was to please the gods and restore balance to Rome.[27][a]
Human sacrifices, in the form of burying individuals alive, were not uncommon during times of panic in ancient Rome. However, the burial of unchaste Vestal Virgins was also practiced in times of peace. Their chasteness was thought to be a safeguard of the city, and even in punishment, the state of their bodies was preserved in order to maintain the peace.[35][36]
Captured enemy leaders were only occasionally executed at the conclusion of a Roman triumph, and the Romans themselves did not consider these deaths a sacrificial offering.[citation needed]Gladiator combat was thought by the Romans to have originated as fights to the death among war captives at the funerals of Roman generals, and Christian polemicists such as Tertullian considered deaths in the arena to be little more than human sacrifice.[37] Over time, participants became criminals and slaves, and their death was considered a sacrifice to the Manes on behalf of the dead.[38]
Political rumors sometimes centered around sacrifice and in doing so, aimed to liken individuals to barbarians and show that the individual had become uncivilized. Human sacrifice also became a marker and defining characteristic of magic and bad religion.[39]
There is literary evidence for infant sacrifice being practiced in Carthage, however, current anthropological analyses have not found physical evidence to back up these claims. There is a Tophet, where infant remains have been found, but after current analytical techniques, it has been concluded this area is more representative of the naturally high infant mortality rate.[40][41][42]
There is evidence that ancient Celtic peoples practiced human sacrifice.[43] Accounts of Celtic human sacrifice come from Roman and Greek sources. Julius Caesar[44] and Strabo wrote that the Gauls burnt animal and human sacrifices in a large wickerwork figure, known as a wicker man, and said the human victims were usually criminals; while Posidonius wrote that druids who oversaw human sacrifices foretold the future by watching the death throes of the victims.[45] Caesar also wrote that slaves of Gaulish chiefs would be burnt along with the body of their master as part of his funeral rites.[46] In the 1st century AD, Roman writer Lucan mentioned human sacrifices to the Gaulish gods Esus, Toutatis and Taranis. In a 4th century commentary on Lucan, an unnamed author added that sacrifices to Esus were hanged from a tree, those to Toutatis were drowned, and those to Taranis were burned.[47] According to the 2nd-century Roman writer Cassius Dio, Boudica's forces impaled Roman captives during her rebellion against the Roman occupation, to the accompaniment of revelry and sacrifices in the sacred groves of Andate.[48] It is important to note, however, that the Romans benefited from making the Celts sound barbaric, and scholars are more skeptical about these accounts now than in the past.[49]
Ritualized beheading was a major religious and cultural practice that has found copious support in the archaeological record, including the numerous skulls found in Londinium'sRiver Walbrook and the twelve headless corpses at the Gaulish sanctuary of Gournay-sur-Aronde.[b]
Several ancient Irish bog bodies have been interpreted as kings who were ritually killed, presumably after serious crop failures or other disasters. Some were deposited in bogs on territorial boundaries (which were seen as liminal places) or near royal inauguration sites, and some were found to have eaten a ceremonial last meal.[53][54] Some academics suggest there are allusions to kings being sacrificed in Irish mythology, particularly in tales of threefold deaths.[43]
The medieval Dindsenchas (Lore of Places) says that, in pagan Ireland, first-born children were sacrificed at an idol called Crom Cruach, whose worship was ended by Saint Patrick. However, this account was written by Christian scribes centuries after the supposed events and may be based on Bibical traditions about the god Moloch.[55]
According to written sources from the 13th-14th centuries, the Lithuanians and Prussians made sacrifices to their pagan gods at their sacred places, alka hills, battlefields and near natural objects (sea, rivers, lakes, etc.).[58] In 1389 following the military victories in the land of Medininkai the Samogitians cast lots which indicated Marquard von Raschau, the commander of Klaipėda (Memel), as a suitable victim for gods and burnt him on horseback in full armour.[59] It possibly was the last human sacrifice in medievalEurope.[59]
Human sacrifice was not particularly common among the Germanic peoples, being resorted to in exceptional situations arising from environmental crises (crop failure, drought, famine) or social crises (war), often thought to derive at least in part from the failure of the king to establish or maintain prosperity and peace (árs ok friðar) in the lands entrusted to him.[60] In later Scandinavian practice, human sacrifice appears to have become more institutionalised and was repeated periodically as part of a larger sacrifice (according to Adam of Bremen, every nine years).[61]
By the 10th century, Germanic paganism had become restricted to the Norse people. One account by Ahmad ibn Fadlan in 922 claims Varangian warriors were sometimes buried with enslaved women, in the belief they would become their wives in Valhalla. He describes the funeral of a Varangian chieftain, in which a slave girl volunteered to be buried with him. After ten days of festivities, she was given an intoxicating drink, stabbed to death by a priestess, and burnt together with the dead chieftain in his boat (see ship burial). This practice is evidenced archaeologically, with many male warrior burials (such as the ship burial at Balladoole on the Isle of Man, or that at Oseberg in Norway[65]) also containing female remains with signs of trauma.
In the 11th century, Adam of Bremen wrote that human and animal sacrifices were made at the Temple at Gamla Uppsala in Sweden. He wrote that every ninth year, nine men and nine of every animal were sacrificed and their bodies hung in a sacred grove.[67]
The Historia Norwegiæ and Ynglinga saga refer to the willing sacrifice of King Dómaldi after bad harvests.[68] The same saga also relates that Dómaldi's descendant king Aun sacrificed nine of his own sons to Odin in exchange for longer life, until the Swedes stopped him from sacrificing his last son, Egil.
The history of human sacrifice in China may extend as early as 2300 BCE.[72] Excavations of the ancient fortress city of Shimao in the northern part of modern Shaanxi province revealed 80 skulls ritually buried underneath the city's eastern wall.[72] Forensic analysis indicates the victims were all teenage girls.[72]
The ancient Chinese are known to have made drowned sacrifices of men and women to the river god Hebo.[73] They also have buried slaves alive with their owners upon death as part of a funeral service. This was especially prevalent during the Shang and Zhou dynasties. During the Warring States period, Ximen Bao of Wei outlawed human sacrificial practices to the river god.[74] In Chinese lore, Ximen Bao is regarded as a folk hero who pointed out the absurdity of human sacrifice.
The sacrifice of a high-ranking male's slaves, concubines, or servants upon his death (called Xun Zang 殉葬 or Sheng Xun 生殉) was a more common form. The stated purpose was to provide companionship for the dead in the afterlife. In earlier times, the victims were either killed or buried alive, while later they were usually forced to commit suicide.
Funeral human sacrifice was widely practiced in the ancient Chinese state of Qin. According to the Records of the Grand Historian by Han dynasty historian Sima Qian, the practice was started by Duke Wu, the tenth ruler of Qin, who had 66 people buried with him in 678 BCE. The 14th ruler Duke Mu had 177 people buried with him in 621 BCE, including three senior government officials.[75][76]
Afterwards, the people of Qin wrote the famous poem Yellow Bird to condemn this barbaric practice, later compiled in the ConfucianClassic of Poetry.[77]
The tomb of the 18th ruler Duke Jing of Qin, who died in 537 BCE, has been excavated. More than 180 coffins containing the remains of 186 victims were found in the tomb.[78][79]
The practice would continue until Duke Xian of Qin (424–362 BCE) abolished it in 384 BCE. Modern historian Ma Feibai considers the significance of Duke Xian's abolition of human sacrifice in Chinese history comparable to that of Abraham Lincoln's abolition of slavery in American history.[76][80]
After the abolition by Duke Xian, funeral human sacrifice became relatively rare throughout the central parts of China. However, the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty revived it in 1395, following the Mongolian Yuan precedent, when his second son died and two of the prince's concubines were sacrificed. In 1464, the Tianshun Emperor, in his will, forbade the practice for Ming emperors and princes.
Retainer sacrifice was practised within the royal tombs of ancient Mesopotamia. Courtiers, guards, musicians, handmaidens, and grooms were presumed to have committed ritual suicide by taking poison.[81][82]
A 2009 examination of skulls from the royal cemetery at Ur, discovered in Iraq in the 1920s by a team led by C. Leonard Woolley, appears to support a more grisly interpretation of human sacrifices associated with elite burials in ancient Mesopotamia than had previously been recognized. Palace attendants, as part of royal mortuary ritual, were not dosed with poison to meet death serenely. Instead, they were put to death by having a sharp instrument, such as a pike, driven into their heads.[83][84]
Human sacrifice was practiced in Tibet prior to the arrival of Buddhism in the 7th century.[c]
Historical practices such as burying bodies under the cornerstones of houses may have been practiced during the medieval era, but few concrete instances have been recorded or verified.[86]
The prevalence of human sacrifice in medieval Buddhist Tibet is less clear. The Lamas, as professing Buddhists, could not condone blood sacrifices, and they replaced the human victims with effigies made from dough which is still to this day dyed partially red to symbolize sacrifice.[86] This replacement of human victims with effigies is attributed to Padmasambhava, a Tibetan saint of the mid-8th century, in Tibetan tradition.[87]
Nevertheless, there is some evidence that outside of orthodox Buddhism, there were practices of tantric human sacrifice which survived throughout the medieval period, and possibly into modern times.[86] The 15th century Blue Annals reports that in the 13th century so-called "18 robber-monks" slaughtered men and women in their ceremonies.[88] Grunfeld (1996) concludes that it cannot be ruled out that isolated instances of human sacrifice did survive in remote areas of Tibet until the mid-20th century, but they must have been rare.[86] Grunfeld also notes that Tibetan practices unrelated to human sacrifice, such as the use of human bone in ritual instruments, have been depicted without evidence as products of human sacrifice.[86]
Fierce goddesses like Chamunda are recorded to have been offered human sacrifice.
In India, human sacrifice is mainly known as Narabali. Here "nara" means human and "bali" means sacrifice. It takes place in some parts of India mostly to find lost treasure. In Maharashtra, the Government made it illegal to practice with the Anti-Superstition and Black Magic Act. Currently human sacrifice is very rare in modern India.[89] There have been at least three cases through 2003–2013 where men have been murdered allegedly in the name of human sacrifice.[90][91][92]
Regarding possible Vedic mention of human sacrifice, the prevailing 19th-century view, associated above all with Henry Colebrooke, was that human sacrifice did not actually take place. Those verses which referred to purushamedha were meant to be read symbolically,[93] or as a "priestly fantasy". However, Rajendralal Mitra published a defence of the thesis that human sacrifice, as had been practised in Bengal, was a continuation of traditions dating back to Vedic periods.[94]Hermann Oldenberg held to Colebrooke's view; but Jan Gonda underlined its disputed status.
Human and animal sacrifice became less common during the post-Vedic period, as ahimsa (non-violence) became part of mainstream religious thought. The Chandogya Upanishad (3.17.4) includes ahimsa in its list of virtues.[93] The impact of Sramanic religions such as Buddhism and Jainism also became known in the Indian subcontinent.
A group of Thuggees strangling a traveller on a highway in India in the early 19th century.
In the 7th century, Banabhatta, in a description of the dedication of a temple of Chandika, describes a series of human sacrifices; similarly, in the 9th century, Haribhadra describes the sacrifices to Chandika in Odisha.[95] The town of Kuknur in North Karnataka there exists an ancient Kali temple, built around the 8-9th century CE, which has a history of human sacrifices.[95]
Human sacrifice is reputed to have been performed on the altars of the Hatimura Temple, a Shakti (Great Goddess) temple located at Silghat, in the Nagaon district of Assam. It was built during the reign of king Pramatta Singha in 1667 Sakabda (1745–1746 CE). It used to be an important center of Shaktism in ancient Assam. Its presiding goddess is Durga in her aspect of Mahisamardini, slayer of the demon Mahisasura. It was also performed in the Tamresari Temple which was located in Sadiya under the Chutia kings.
Human sacrifices were carried out in connection with the worship of Shakti until approximately the early modern period, and in Bengal perhaps as late as the early 19th century.[96] Although not accepted by larger section of Hindu culture, certain Tantric cults performed human sacrifice until around the same time, both actual and symbolic; it was a highly ritualised act, and on occasion took many months to complete.[96]
In Ancient Hawaii, a luakini temple, or luakini heiau, was a Native Hawaiian sacred place where human and animal blood sacrifices were offered. Kauwa, the outcast or slave class, were often used as human sacrifices at the luakini heiau. They are believed to have been war captives, or the descendants of war captives. They were not the only sacrifices; law-breakers of all castes or defeated political opponents were also acceptable as victims.[97][98] Rituals for the Hawaiian godKūkaʻilimoku included human sacrifice, which was not part of the worship of other gods.
According to an 1817 account, in Tonga, a child was strangled to assist the recovery of a sick relation.[99]
The people of Fiji practised widow-strangling. When Fijians adopted Christianity, widow-strangling was abandoned.[100]
Some of the most famous forms of ancient human sacrifice were performed by various Pre-Columbian civilizations in the Americas[101] that included the sacrifice of prisoners as well as voluntary sacrifice. Friar Marcos de Niza (1539), writing of the Chichimecas, said that from time to time "they of this valley cast lots whose luck (honour) it shall be to be sacrificed, and they make him great cheer, on whom the lot falls, and with great joy they lund him with flowers upon a bed prepared in the said ditch all full of flowers and sweet herbs, on which they lay him along, and lay great store of dry wood on both sides of him, and set it on fire on either part, and so he dies" and "that the victim took great pleasure" in being sacrificed.[102]
The Mixtec players of the Mesoamerican ballgame were sacrificed when the game was used to resolve a dispute between cities. The rulers would play a game instead of going to battle. The losing ruler would be sacrificed. The ruler "Eight Deer", who was considered a great ball player and who won several cities this way, was eventually sacrificed, because he attempted to go beyond lineage-governing practices, and to create an empire.[103]
The Maya held the belief that cenotes or limestone sinkholes were portals to the underworld and sacrificed human beings and tossed them down the cenote to please the water god Chaac. The most notable example of this is the "Sacred Cenote" at Chichén Itzá.[104] Extensive excavations have recovered the remains of 42 individuals, half of them under twenty years old.
Only in the Post-Classic era did this practice become as frequent as in central Mexico.[105] In the Post-Classic period, the victims and the altar are represented as daubed in a hue now known as Maya blue, obtained from the añil plant and the clay mineral palygorskite.[106]
The Aztecs were particularly noted for practicing human sacrifice on a large scale; an offering to Huitzilopochtli would be made to restore the blood he lost, as the sun was engaged in a daily battle. Human sacrifices would prevent the end of the world that could happen on each cycle of 52 years. In the 1487 re-consecration of the Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan some estimate that 80,400 prisoners were sacrificed[107][108] though numbers are difficult to quantify, as all obtainable Aztec texts were destroyed by Christian missionaries during the period 1528–1548.[109] The Aztec, also known as Mexica, periodically sacrificed children as it was believed that the rain god, Tlāloc, required the tears of children.[104]
According to Ross Hassig, author of Aztec Warfare, "between 10,000 and 80,400 people" were sacrificed in the ceremony. The old reports of numbers sacrificed for special feasts have been described as "unbelievably high" by some authors[109] and that on cautious reckoning, based on reliable evidence, the numbers could not have exceeded at most several hundred per year in Tenochtitlan.[109] The real number of sacrificed victims during the 1487 consecration is unknown.
Michael Harner, in his 1997 article The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice, estimates the number of persons sacrificed in central Mexico in the 15th century as high as 250,000 per year. Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl, a Mexica descendant and the author of Codex Ixtlilxochitl, claimed that one in five children of the Mexica subjects was killed annually. Victor Davis Hanson argues that an estimate by Carlos Zumárraga of 20,000 per annum is more plausible. Other scholars believe that, since the Aztecs always tried to intimidate their enemies, it is far more likely that they inflated the official number as a propaganda tool.[110][111]
Mound 72 mass sacrifice of 53 young womenThe funeral procession of Tattooed Serpent in 1725, with retainers waiting to be sacrificed
The peoples of the Southeastern United States known as the Mississippian culture (800 to 1600 CE) have been suggested to have practiced human sacrifice, because some artifacts have been interpreted as depicting such acts.[112]Mound 72 at Cahokia (the largest Mississippian site), located near modern St. Louis, Missouri, was found to have numerous pits filled with mass burials thought to have been retainer sacrifices. One of several similar pit burials had the remains of 53 young women who had been strangled and neatly arranged in two layers. Another pit held 39 men, women, and children who showed signs of dying a violent death before being unceremoniously dumped into the pit. Several bodies showed signs of not having been fully dead when buried and of having tried to claw their way to the surface. On top of these people another group had been neatly arranged on litters made of cedar poles and cane matting. Another group of four individuals found in the mound were interred on a low platform, with their arms interlocked. They had had their heads and hands removed. The most spectacular burial at the mound is the "Birdman burial". This was the burial of a tall man in his 40s, now thought to have been an important early Cahokian ruler. He was buried on an elevated platform covered by a bed of more than 20,000 marine-shell disc beads arranged in the shape of a falcon,[113] with the bird's head appearing beneath and beside the man's head, and its wings and tail beneath his arms and legs. Below the birdman was another man, buried facing downward. Surrounding the birdman were several other retainers and groups of elaborate grave goods.[114][115]
A ritual sacrifice of retainers and commoners upon the death of an elite personage is also attested in the historical record among the last remaining fully Mississippian culture, the Natchez. Upon the death of "Tattooed Serpent" in 1725, the war chief and younger brother of the "Great Sun" or Chief of the Natchez; two of his wives, one of his sisters (nicknamed La Glorieuse by the French), his first warrior, his doctor, his head servant and the servant's wife, his nurse, and a craftsman of war clubs all chose to die and be interred with him, as well as several old women and an infant who was strangled by his parents.[116] Great honor was associated with such a sacrifice, and their kin were held in high esteem.[117] After a funeral procession with the chief's body carried on a litter made of cane matting and cedar poles ended at the temple (which was located on top of a low platform mound), the retainers, with their faces painted red and drugged with large doses of nicotine, were ritually strangled. Tattooed Serpent was then buried in a trench inside the temple floor and the retainers were buried in other locations atop the mound surrounding the temple. After a few months' time the bodies were dis-interred and their defleshed bones were stored as bundle burials in the temple.[116]
The Pawnee practiced an annual Morning Star Ceremony, which included the sacrifice of a young girl. Though the ritual continued, the sacrifice was discontinued in the 19th century.[118]
The Incas practiced human sacrifice, especially at great festivals or royal funerals where retainers died to accompany the dead into the next life.[119] The Moche sacrificed teenagers en masse, as archaeologist Steve Bourget found when he uncovered the bones of 42 male adolescents in 1995.[120]
The study of the images seen in Moche art has enabled researchers to reconstruct the culture's most important ceremonial sequence, which began with ritual combat and culminated in the sacrifice of those defeated in battle. Dressed in fine clothes and adornments, armed warriors faced each other in ritual combat. In this hand-to-hand encounter the aim was to remove the opponent's headdress rather than kill him. The object of the combat was the provision of victims for sacrifice. The vanquished were stripped and bound, after which they were led in procession to the place of sacrifice. The captives are portrayed as strong and sexually potent. In the temple, the priests and priestesses would prepare the victims for sacrifice. The sacrificial methods employed varied, but at least one of the victims would be bled to death. His blood was offered to the principal deities in order to please and placate them.[121]
The Inca of Peru also made human sacrifices. As many as 4,000 servants, court officials, favorites, and concubines were killed upon the death of the Inca Huayna Capac in 1527, for example.[122] A number of mummies of sacrificed children have been recovered in the Inca regions of South America, an ancient practice known as qhapaq hucha. The Incas performed child sacrifices during or after important events, such as the death of the Sapa Inca (emperor) or during a famine.[120]
JuJu Human sacrifice is still practiced in West Africa.[123][124][125][126][127][128][129] The Annual customs of Dahomey was the most notorious example, but sacrifices were carried out all along the West African coast and further inland. Sacrifices were particularly common after the death of a king or queen, and there are many recorded cases of hundreds or even thousands of slaves being sacrificed at such events. Sacrifices were particularly common in Dahomey, in what is now Benin, and in the small independent states in what is now southern Nigeria.[130] According to Rudolph Rummel, "Just consider the Grand Custom in Dahomey: When a ruler died, hundreds, sometimes even thousands, of prisoners would be slain. In one of these ceremonies in 1727, as many as 4,000 were reported killed. In addition, Dahomey had an Annual Custom during which 500 prisoners were sacrificed."[131]
The Leopard men were a West African secret society active into the mid-1900s that practised cannibalism. It was believed that the ritual cannibalism would strengthen both members of the society and their entire tribe.[133] In Tanganyika, the Lion men committed an estimated 200 murders in a single three-month period.[134]
It has been reported from Spanish chronicles that the Guanches (ancient inhabitants of these islands) performed both animal and human sacrifices.[135]
During the summer solstice in Tenerife children were sacrificed by being thrown from a cliff into the sea.[135] These children were brought from various parts of the island for the purpose of sacrifice. Likewise, when an aboriginal king died his subjects should also assume the sea, along with the embalmers who embalmed the Guanche mummies.
In Gran Canaria, bones of children were found mixed with those of lambs and goat kids and on Tenerife, amphorae have been found with the remains of children inside. This suggests a different kind of ritual infanticide from those who were thrown off the cliffs.[135]
Many traditions of Abrahamic religions such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam consider that God commanded Abraham to sacrifice his son to examine obedience of Abraham to His commands. To prove his obedience, Abraham intended to sacrifice his son. However at the eleventh hour God commanded Abraham to sacrifice a ram instead of his son.
Judaism explicitly forbids human sacrifice, regarding it as murder. Jews view the Akedah as central to the abolition of human sacrifice. Some Talmudic scholars assert that its replacement is the sacrificial offering of animals at the Temple – using Exodus 13:2–12ff; 22:28ff; 34:19ff; Numeri 3:1ff; 18:15; Deuteronomy 15:19 – others view that as being superseded by the symbolic pars-pro-toto sacrifice of the covenant of circumcision. Leviticus 20:2 and Deuteronomy 18:10 specifically outlaw the giving of children to Moloch, making it punishable by stoning; the Tanakh subsequently denounces human sacrifice as barbaric customs of Moloch worshippers (e.g. Psalms 106:37ff).
Judges chapter 11 features a Judge named Jephthah vowing that "whatsoever cometh forth from the doors of my house to meet me shall surely be the Lord's, and I will offer it up as a burnt-offering" in gratitude for God's help with a military battle against the Ammonites.[136] Much to Jephthah's dismay, his only daughter greeted him upon his triumphant return. Judges 11:39 states that Jephthah did as he had vowed, but "shies away from explicitly depicting her sacrifice, which leads some ancient and modern interpreters (e.g., Radak) to suggest that she was not actually killed."[137]
According to the Mishnah he was under no obligation to keep the ill-phrased, illegal vow. According to Rabbi Jochanan, in his commentary on the Mishnah, it was Jephthah's obligation to pay the vow in money.[136] According to some commentators of the rabbinic Jewish tradition during the Middle Ages, Jepthah's daughter was not sacrificed, but was forbidden to marry and remained a spinster her entire life.[138]
The 1st-century CE Jewish-Hellenistic historian Flavius Josephus, however, stated that Jephthah "sacrificed his child as a burnt-offering – a sacrifice neither sanctioned by the law nor well-pleasing to God; for he had not by reflection probed what might befall or in what aspect the deed would appear to them that heard of it".[139] Latin philosopher pseudo-Philo, late 1st century CE, wrote that Jephthah burnt his daughter because he could find no sage in Israel who would cancel his vow. In other words, in the opinion of the Latin philosopher, this story of an ill-phrased vow consolidates that human sacrifice is not an order or requirement by God, but the punishment for those who illegally vowed to sacrifice humans.[140][141]
Christianity developed the belief that the story of Isaac's binding was a foreshadowing of the sacrifice of Christ, whose death and resurrection enabled the salvation and atonement for man from its sins, including original sin. There is a tradition that the site of Isaac's binding, Moriah, later became Jerusalem, the city of Jesus's future crucifixion.[144] The beliefs of most Christian denominations hinge upon the substitutionary atonement of the sacrifice of God the Son, which was necessary for salvation in the afterlife. According to Christian doctrine, each individual person on earth must participate in, and / or receive the benefits of, this divine human sacrifice for the atonement of their sins. Early Christian sources explicitly described this event as a sacrificial offering, with Christ in the role of both priest and human sacrifice, although starting with the Enlightenment, some writers, such as John Locke, have disputed the model of Jesus' death as a propitiatory sacrifice.[145]
Although early Christians in the Roman Empire were accused of being cannibals, theophages (Greek for "god eaters")[146] practices such as human sacrifice were abhorrent to them.[147]Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christians believe that this "pure sacrifice" as Christ's self-giving in love is made present in the sacrament of the Eucharist. In this tradition, bread and wine becomes the "real presence" (the literal carnal Body and Blood of the Risen Christ). Receiving the Eucharist is a central part of the religious life of Catholic and Orthodox Christians.[148][149] Most Protestant traditions apart from Anglicanism and Lutheranism do not share the belief in the real presence but otherwise are varied, for example, they may believe that in the bread and wine, Christ is present only spiritually, not in the sense of a change in substance (Methodism)[150] or that the bread and wine of communion are a merely symbolic reminder (Baptist).[151]
In medieval Irish Catholic texts, there is mention of the early church in Ireland supposedly containing the practice of burying sacrificial victims underneath churches in order to consecrate them. This may have a relation to pagan Celtic practices of foundation sacrifice. The most notable example of this is the case of Odran of Iona a companion of St Columba who (according to legend) volunteered to die and be buried under the church of the monastery of Iona. However, there is no evidence that such things ever happened in reality and contemporary records closer to the time period have no mention of a practice like this.[152]
In the case of Buddhism, both bhikkhus (monks) and bhikkhunis (nuns) were forbidden to take life in any form as part of the monastic code, while non-violence was promoted among laity through encouragement of the Five Precepts. Across the Buddhist world both meat and alcohol are strongly discouraged as offerings to a Buddhist altar, with the former being synonymous with sacrifice, and the latter a violation of the Five Precepts.
In the city of Altamira, State of Pará, several children were raped, with their genitalia mutilated for what appear to be ritual purposes, and then stabbed to death, between 1989 and 1993.[162] It is believed that the boys' sexual organs were used in rites of black magic.[163]
In the coastal village Collileufu, native Lafkenches carried out a ritual human sacrifice in the days following the 1960 Valdivia earthquake. Collileufu, located in the Budi Lake area, south of Puerto Saavedra, was highly isolated in 1960. The Mapuche spoke primarily Mapudungun. The community had gathered in Cerro La Mesa, while the lowlands were struck by successive tsunamis. Juana Namuncura Añen,[164][165] a local machi, demanded the sacrifice of the grandson of Juan Painecur, a neighbor, in order to calm the earth and the ocean.[166][167] The victim was 5 year-old José Luis Painecur, called an "orphan" (huacho) because his mother had gone to Santiago, for employment as a domestic worker, and left her son under the care of her father.[166]
José Luis Painecur had his arms and legs removed by Juan Pañán[who?] and Juan José Painecur (the victim's grandfather), and was stuck into the sand of the beach like a stake. The waters of the Pacific Ocean then carried the body out to sea. The authorities only learned about the sacrifice after a boy in the commune of Nueva Imperial denounced to local leaders the theft of two horses; these were allegedly eaten during the sacrifice ritual.[166] The two men were charged with the crime and confessed, but later recanted. They were released after two years. A judge ruled that those involved in these events had "acted without free will, driven by an irresistible natural force of ancestral tradition."[164][165] The story was mentioned in a Time magazine article, although with meagre detail.[168]
In 1963, a small cult in Nuevo Leon, Mexico, founded by two brothers, Santos and Cayetano Hernández, committed between 8 and 12 murders during bloody rituals that included drinking human blood. The cult was initially a scam to obtain money and sexual favors, but after a prostitute named Magdalena Solís entered in the organization, she inaugurated human sacrifices inspired by ancient Aztec rituals as a method to control disciples.[169][170][171]
During the 1980s, other case of serial murders that involved human sacrifices rituals occurred in Tamaulipas, Mexico. The drug dealer and cult leader Adolfo Constanzo orchestrated several executions during rituals that included the victims' dismemberment.[172]
Between 2009 and 2010, in Sonora, Mexico, a serial killer named Silvia Meraz committed three murders in sacrifice rituals. With the help of her family, she beheaded two boys (both relatives) and one woman in front of an altar dedicated to Santa Muerte.[173]
The "New Light Of God" sect in the town of El Terrón, Ngäbe-Buglé Comarca, Panama, believed they had a mandate from God to sacrifice members of their community who failed to repent to their satisfaction. In 2020, 5 children, their pregnant mother, and a neighbor were killed and decapitated at the sect's church building, with 14 other wounded victims being rescued. Victims were hacked with machetes, beaten with Bibles and cudgels, and burned with embers. A goat was ritually sacrificed at the scene as well. The cult's beliefs were a syncretic blend of Pentecostalism with indigenous beliefs and some New Age ideas including emphasis on the third eye. A leader of the Ngäbe-Buglé region labeled the sect "satanic" and demanded its eradication.[174]
Several incidents of human sacrifice have been reported in India since independence:
In 1996, a nine-year-old boy was sacrificed by Jharkhand-native Sushil Murmu as an offering to goddess Kali. Murmu was sentenced to death by the court but later got commuted to life imprisonment by the president of India.[175][176]
In 2010, a two-year-old boy was murdered in Chhattisgarh in a Tantric human sacrifice.[183]
According to the National Crime Records Bureau, more than 100 cases of human sacrifices have been reported in India between 2014 and 2021.[184]
In 2015, during the Granite scam investigations of Tamil Nadu, there were reports of possible human sacrifices in the Madurai area to pacify goddess Shakthi for getting power to develop the illegal granite business. Bones and skulls were retrieved from the alleged sites in presence of the special judicial officer appointed by the high court of Madras.[185][186][187]
Between June and October 2022, two women were killed and reportedly cannibalised as part of a human sacrifice in Elanthoor in Pathanamthitta district of Kerala.[188] In October 2022, a six-year-old girl was killed in Delhi by two men to please a deity.[189]
In 2023, five men were arrested for the killing and decapitation of a woman with a machete in 2019, as part of a religious rite to mark the anniversary of the ringleader's brother's death, after visiting a Hindu temple in Guwahati.[190]
Human sacrifice is no longer legal in any country, and such cases are prosecuted. As of 2020 however, there is still black market demand for child abduction in countries such as Kenya for purposes which include human sacrifice.[191]
In January 2008, Milton Blahyi of Liberia confessed being part of human sacrifices which "included the killing of an innocent child and plucking out the heart, which was divided into pieces for us to eat." He fought against Charles Taylor's militia.[192]
In June 2005, a report by the BBC claimed that boys from Africa were being trafficked to the UK for human sacrifice. It noted that children were beaten and murdered after being labelled as witches by pastors in an Angolan community in London.[196]
Ritual killings perpetrated by individuals or small groups within a society that denounces them as simple murder are difficult to classify as either "human sacrifice" or mere pathological homicide because they lack the societal integration of sacrifice proper.[citation needed]
In India there is a festival (Seega Maramma) where a person is chosen as a "sacrifice", and is believed by participants to die during the ritual, although they actually remain alive and are "raised" from the dead at the end after a period of lying still. Thus, this does not have the same legal implications as a true human sacrifice although participants consider it to be one.[201]
^
Burying the convicted unchaste vestal in a sealed underground chamber was also a way to impose capital punishment on her for criminally endangering the city by her religious violation, without violating her still-sacred status: Among other prohibitions, no-one could touch her person.
^
French archaeologist Jean-Louis Brunaux has written extensively on human sacrifice and the sanctuaries of Belgic Gaul.[50][51][52]
^
"Human sacrifice seems undoubtedly to have been regularly practised in Tibet up till the dawn there of Buddhism in the seventh century."[85]
^
"After a rash of similar killings in the area – according to an unofficial tally in the English language-language Hindustan Times, there have been 25 human sacrifices in western Uttar Pradesh in the last 6 months alone – police have cracked down against tantriks, jailing four and forcing scores of others to close their businesses and pull their ads from newspapers and television stations. The killings and the stern official response have focused renewed attention on tantrism, an amalgam of mysticism practices that grew out of Hinduism.[177]
^Edwards, Catharine (2007). Death in Ancient Rome. Yale University Press. pp. 59–60;Potter, David S. (1999). "Entertainers in the Roman Empire". Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire. University of Michigan Press. p. 305;Tertullian. De Spectaculis. 12.
^Mariner, William; Martin, John (1817). An Account of the Natives of the Tonga Islands in the South Pacific Ocean, with an original grammar and vocabulary of their language. Vol. 2. London, UK. p. 220.
^Williams, Clifford (1988). "Asante: Human sacrifice or capital punishment? An assessment of the period 1807–1874". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 21 (3): 433–441. doi:10.2307/219449. JSTOR219449. — Asante is also called the Ashanti Empire.
Williams, Clifford (1988). "Asante: Human sacrifice or capital punishment? An assessment of the period 1807–1874". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 21 (3): 433–441. doi:10.2307/219449. JSTOR219449. — Asante is also called the Ashanti Empire. | References to human sacrifice can be found in Greek historical accounts as well as mythology. The human sacrifice in mythology, the deus ex machina salvation in some versions of Iphigeneia (who was about to be sacrificed by her father Agamemnon) and her replacement with a deer by the goddess Artemis, may be a vestigial memory of the abandonment and discrediting of the practice of human sacrifice among the Greeks in favour of animal sacrifice.[citation needed]
In ancient Rome, human sacrifice was infrequent but documented. Roman authors often contrast their own behavior with that of people who would commit the heinous act of human sacrifice. These authors make it clear that such practices were from a much more uncivilized time in the past, far removed.[27] It is thought that many ritualistic celebrations and dedications to gods used to involve human sacrifice but have now been replaced with symbolic offerings. Dionysius of Halicarnassus[28] says that the ritual of the Argei, in which straw figures were tossed into the Tiber river, may have been a substitute for an original offering of elderly men. Cicero claimed that puppets thrown from the Pons Sublicius by the Vestal Virgins in a processional ceremony were substitutes for the past sacrifice of old men.[29]
After the Roman defeat at Cannae, two Gauls and two Greeks in male-female couples were buried under the Forum Boarium, in a stone chamber used for the purpose at least once before.[30] In Livy's description of these sacrifices, he distances the practice from Roman tradition and asserts that the past human sacrifices evident in the same location were "wholly alien to the Roman spirit. "[31] The rite was apparently repeated in 113 BCE, preparatory to an invasion of Gaul.[32] They buried both the Greeks and the two Gauls alive as a plea to the gods to save Rome from destruction at the hands of Hannibal.
| yes |
Anthropology | Did Ancient Greeks practice human sacrifice? | yes_statement | "ancient" greeks "practiced" "human" "sacrifice".. "human" "sacrifice" was a "practice" of the "ancient" greeks. | https://www.livescience.com/59514-cultures-that-practiced-human-sacrifice/2.html | 25 cultures that practiced human sacrifice: Page 2 | Live Science | 25 cultures that practiced human sacrifice
Hawaii clubbing?
Human sacrifices were performed in Hawaii as late as the 19th century. It may have served as a way for elite members of the island to help maintain their control over the population. Europeans who visited the island recorded the practice, with one famous painting showing a person being clubbed to death while lying on a rock. It's possible, however, that these accounts were exaggerated as a way to depict Hawaiian culture as savage and justify desires by Europeans and Americans to control the island.
Archaeologists have found that, as early as A.C. 1300, temples in Hawaii were being built with altars where sacrifices, either of humans or animals, could be made.
Ancient Romans
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
Ancient Roman writers claimed that human sacrifices were made during Rome's early history. After the Romans were defeated at the Battle of Cannae in 216 B.C., a battle that allowed an army from Carthage to temporarily occupy a large part of Italy, the Romans resorted to human sacrifice. "A Gaulish man and a Gaulish woman and a Greek man and a Greek woman were buried alive under the Forum Boarium," wrote the Roman writer Titus Livius (died A.D. 17) in his book "History of Rome" (translation by Canon Roberts).
Greeks sacrificed to Zeus
Textual references and archaeological remains indicate that the ancient Greeks, at times, practiced human sacrifice. In 2016, a 3,000-year-old skeleton of a male teenager was found at an altar dedicated to Zeus at Mount Lykaion in Greece. Archaeologists believe that the teen may have been sacrificed to Zeus, an idea supported by ancient texts that tell of child sacrifices that were made on the mountain.
Moche sacrifice
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
The Moche, who flourished in Peru between roughly the first and eighth centuries A.D., frequently practiced human sacrifice. They placed the victims in tombs and temples. At a temple now called Huaca de la Luna (Shrine of the Moon), the remains of dozens of sacrificed individuals have been discovered.
Dahomey kingdom
(Image credit: Archibald Dalzel/NYPL)
Human sacrifice was practiced by the rulers of the West African kingdom of Dahomey, which flourished between roughly A.D. 1600 and 1894, when the French conquered it and incorporated it into their empire. How widely human sacrifice was practiced is a matter of debate. Nineteenth-century European and American accounts sometimes claimed that more than 1,000 people could be sacrificed at any one time. Modern-day researchers believe that the actual number was quite a bit lower.
Celtic sacrifices?
(Image credit: Thomas Pennant/National Library of Wales)
The Celts are a name for a variety of groups who thrived throughout Europe, and parts of the Middle East, during ancient and modern times. Celtic groups gradually converted to Christianity after the first century A.D. Ancient Roman writers claimed that the Celts practiced human sacrifice on a large scale before they converted to Christianity and that their human sacrifices were sometimes carried out by the Druids, a people who served a variety of roles, sometimes performing religious functions in Celtic groups.
Modern-day archaeologists doubt that human sacrifice was practiced on a large scale by the Celts, if it was performed at all. Researchers point out that the Gauls, one of the largest Celtic groups, was conquered by the Romans, giving them an incentive to portray the Gauls as savages who would benefit under Roman rule. In 2015, a large 2,500-year-old Celtic tomb, possibly of a prince, was discovered that yielded many fantastic treasures; however, no human sacrifices were found.
The Nazca
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
The Nazca culture flourished in Peru between roughly 100 B.C. and A.D. 800. They are famous for constructing the Nazca Lines, thousands of geoglyphs scratched on the desert floor that show geometric designs as well as images from the natural world and human imagination. While most famous for their geoglyphs, the Nazca also practiced human sacrifice; Archaeologists have found the remains of trophy heads, as they call them, at several Nazca sites. Archaeologists believe that many of these trophy heads come from prisoners, who were executed and then had their heads chopped off.
Vikings sacrificed slaves
(Image credit: PBS)
The Vikings occasionally sacrificed slaves after their owner had died. In Flakstad, Norway, archaeologists found the burial of 10 people, some of whom were beheaded. Analysis of their diet revealed that the beheaded individuals consumed more fish-based protein and those with their heads on consumed more protein from dairy and land-based animals. The team believes that the beheaded individuals were likely sacrificed after the death of their owners.
The remains of five human sacrifices, four of them young children, have also been discovered at the Viking fortress at Trelleborg in Denmark. The fortress dates back about 1,000 years; however archaeologists with the National Museum of Denmark believe that at least some of the victims were sacrificed sometime before the fort was constructed.
Carthage infants
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
Carthage is an ancient city in modern Tunis, in North Africa. Founded by the Phoenicians, a seafaring people who originated in the Eastern Mediterranean, the city contains a controversial burial ground known as the Tophet (the name comes from the Hebrew Bible), which has thousands of urns containing the cremated remains of infants. Some researchers believe that many of the infants were sacrificed, a claim supported by writings from ancient Greek and Roman historians. However, in 2012, a study of the skeletal remains found that few if any of the infants were sacrificed, a finding that some researchers dispute.
Mongol invaders
(Image credit: Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
At their peak around 700 years ago, the Mongols controlled a vast amount of territory that stretched from East Asia to Europe. Most of the surviving accounts of the Mongols come from people the Mongols conquered, fought against or otherwise had hostilities with. Some of these accounts claim that the Mongols practiced human sacrifice. How often the Mongols undertook human sacrifice, or if it was practiced at all, is a matter of debate among researchers.
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Owen Jarus is a regular contributor to Live Science who writes about archaeology and humans' past. He has also written for The Independent (UK), The Canadian Press (CP) and The Associated Press (AP), among others. Owen has a bachelor of arts degree from the University of Toronto and a journalism degree from Ryerson University. | "A Gaulish man and a Gaulish woman and a Greek man and a Greek woman were buried alive under the Forum Boarium," wrote the Roman writer Titus Livius (died A.D. 17) in his book "History of Rome" (translation by Canon Roberts).
Greeks sacrificed to Zeus
Textual references and archaeological remains indicate that the ancient Greeks, at times, practiced human sacrifice. In 2016, a 3,000-year-old skeleton of a male teenager was found at an altar dedicated to Zeus at Mount Lykaion in Greece. Archaeologists believe that the teen may have been sacrificed to Zeus, an idea supported by ancient texts that tell of child sacrifices that were made on the mountain.
Moche sacrifice
(Image credit: Shutterstock)
The Moche, who flourished in Peru between roughly the first and eighth centuries A.D., frequently practiced human sacrifice. They placed the victims in tombs and temples. At a temple now called Huaca de la Luna (Shrine of the Moon), the remains of dozens of sacrificed individuals have been discovered.
Dahomey kingdom
(Image credit: Archibald Dalzel/NYPL)
Human sacrifice was practiced by the rulers of the West African kingdom of Dahomey, which flourished between roughly A.D. 1600 and 1894, when the French conquered it and incorporated it into their empire. How widely human sacrifice was practiced is a matter of debate. Nineteenth-century European and American accounts sometimes claimed that more than 1,000 people could be sacrificed at any one time. Modern-day researchers believe that the actual number was quite a bit lower.
Celtic sacrifices?
(Image credit: Thomas Pennant/National Library of Wales)
The Celts are a name for a variety of groups who thrived throughout Europe, and parts of the Middle East, during ancient and modern times. Celtic groups gradually converted to Christianity after the first century A.D. | yes |
Anthropology | Did Ancient Greeks practice human sacrifice? | yes_statement | "ancient" greeks "practiced" "human" "sacrifice".. "human" "sacrifice" was a "practice" of the "ancient" greeks. | https://www.thecollector.com/human-sacrifice-throughout-history/ | Gory Offerings to the Gods: Human Sacrifice Throughout History | Throughout millennia of human and religious history, people have sought to appease their gods or authoritative figures with the ultimate expression of devotion. Oftentimes this ultimate expression has manifested itself in the performance of human sacrifice.
Closely linked to modern perceptions of what human sacrifice is meant to be identified as are the practices of cannibalism and headhunting, religious in nature and could very well exist today in remote areas of the world where tribes have had little to no contact with the outside world, such as some regions of the Amazon or New Guinean rainforests. Little is known of human sacrifice before the neolithic revolution 12,000 years ago. In Asia Minor and the Tigris-Euphrates Crescent, there is evidence of human sacrifice linked to fertility rites and the need for successful harvests.
Human Sacrifice In Ancient Egypt
Although evidence is sparse, what does exist hints at retainer sacrifice in pre-dynastic Egypt, which is to say, the mass killing of servants upon the passing of a king so that they can serve him in the afterlife. The evidence comes from the religious city of Abydos, and the remains suggest that the act of sacrifice was voluntary, with no signs of struggle. Evidence for further practice of human sacrifice disappears around 2800 BCE before the transition of Egypt from kingdoms into the dynastic phase.
The Levant & Evidence From the Bible
The Moabites are mentioned in detail regarding human sacrifice in the Bible. According to II Kings, human sacrifices were not common but were made in times of peril to their god Chernosh.
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The Kingdom of Israel was often in conflict with the Kingdom of Moab, which covered areas around the Dead Sea and extended into Jordan. During the Israelite Siege of the Moabite capital (II Kings 3:27), the king of Moab sacrificed his own son. Following the sacrifice, there was great indignation amongst the Israelites. The Israelites lifted the siege to much modern debate as to why. Perhaps they were shamed by the desperation of their enemy or fearful that they had caused something strictly forbidden by God and were fearful of His wrath.
Many other instances of individual human sacrifices are mentioned in the Bible. Aside from the abortive attempt by Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac (also mentioned in the Quran), there were instances by others where the sacrifices were indeed carried out.
Ahaz and Manassah, Kings of Judah, also sacrificed their children. The former (II Kings 16:13) sacrificed his son, burning the body as an offering, and the latter (II Chronicles 33:6) did the same, burning his two sons in the valley of Hinnom. This provoked God to anger, and in later religions, the valley is symbolic of Hell.
Human Sacrifice In Europe
The European cultures of antiquity were also no stranger to the ultimate religious expression of violence. The Greeks, Romans, Celts, and Germanic peoples all practiced ritual human sacrifice to a certain degree.
The ancient Greeks practiced “pharmakos,” whereby cripples, criminals, or slaves would be thrown off a cliff to ward off disaster. This process disappeared in later antiquity as the Greeks moved towards a more civilized society. In Roman society, human sacrifice was rare but better documented. Like the Greeks, human sacrifice was seen as a remnant of a more uncivilized age, and as Rome progressed, the victim was replaced with symbolic items such as dolls or statuettes.
In 216 BCE, after the Roman defeat to the Carthaginians at Cannae (believed to be the biggest defeat in the history of Rome), two Gauls and two Greek couples were buried under the Forum Boarium as a plea to the gods. The act was considered by many to be wholly alien to the Roman spirit. The rite was apparently practiced again during the Roman conquest of Gaul.
The Romans did have traditions of ritual murder, which they did not consider human sacrifice. Hermaphroditic children were regularly drowned. Vestal virgins accused of being unchaste were buried alive in specially built chambers. Their chastity was thought to protect Rome, so even in times of peace, the unchaste virgins became victims of religious beliefs. The Romans also did not strictly consider gladiatorial combat to be religious sacrifice, despite the fact that death in the arena was believed to appease chthonic deities.
It seems the Romans practiced ritual sacrifice on many levels but suffered from an inability to see it the same way they saw ritual sacrifice in other cultures—a classic case of double standards.
The Celts practiced human sacrifice extensively. Funerary rites involved the burning of retainers who were imprisoned in giant wicker men set on fire to join their master in the afterlife. There were many different ritual killing methods for each of the gods. Offerings to Teutatis were drowned, victims meant for Erus were hanged and flogged to death, while those meant for Taranis were burnt. Ritual decapitation was also commonplace. However, it is important to note that descriptions of all of these sources originate from the Greco-Romans, who may have exaggerated the practices to further the image of Celts being barbarous savages.
The Germanic peoples, including the Scandinavians, had similar rites. After the Battle of Teutoberg Forest, Roman commanders were sacrificed to Mars, as many Germans had adopted Roman beliefs. This included suspending the severed arms of their victims from tree branches.
The Norse also adopted forms of retainer sacrifice, killing slaves to accompany their masters to Valhalla. According to the monk Adémar de Chabannes, the founder of the principality of Normandy, Rollo, practiced human sacrifice in honor of the Norse gods despite having been baptized and converting to Christianity.
The Phoenicians & the Carthaginians
According to both Greek and Roman sources, the Phoenicians and their later incarnation as the Carthaginians practiced infant sacrifice. Although much of what is written of Carthage comes from the undoubtedly biased view of their Roman enemies, given the evidence, it is widely accepted in the academic world that infant sacrifice was a reality in the Carthaginian world, although to what extent and how it was performed are disputed. Current evidence shows that 20 000 urns were deposited in a child cemetery called a tophet.
The Greek Plutarch asserts that such sacrifices were commonplace, while the Bible describes that babies were roasted in sacrifice to the god Moloch. In Diodorus Siculus’s Bibliotheca Historica, the author describes a bronze statue of Cronus with extended hands sloping downwards. Infants would be placed on the hands whereupon they would roll off into a pit of fire. Non-archeological stories such as these are debated in scholarly circles and are oft attributed as anti-Carthaginian propaganda.
The Aztecs
Of particular note concerning human sacrifice is the culture of the Aztecs, where human sacrifice was de jure. The Aztecs believed their god Huitzilopochtli required human blood to fight the moon every night so that the sun would rise again in the morning.
The Aztecs also used human sacrifice to instill control through fear over the subjects over which they held dominion, as the Aztec empire existed as a loose federation with the city of Tenochtitlan as the center of control. Every year the “Flower Wars” were fought in which opposing combatants representing all the Aztec territories would compete on the battlefield in taking as many captives as possible. These captives would suffer the gruesome fate of being sacrificed to one of the many gods, while the captors would be rewarded for their prowess.
Captives weren’t the only ones sacrificed. Families from all walks of life would offer up one of their own to earn favor from the gods. Of particular note is the offering of infants and children to the rain god Tlaloc.
Sacrifices to Huitzilopochtli involved marching the victim to the temple at the top of a steep pyramid, the steps slippery with blood. Thrown over a blood-soaked altar, their arms and legs were held in place facing the sky. The priest would then use a sacrificial dagger made from obsidian glass and cut the hearts out of the victim’s chest. The body was then thrown down the steep steps. Finally, their heads were removed from their corpses and added to a skull rack called a tzompantli which displayed the skulls of all the victims.
Children sacrificed to Tlaloc suffered an even more painful fate. It was believed that Tlaloc required the tears of children in order to bring rain to the crops, so the victims were made to suffer the most excruciating torture before having their hearts removed from their chests. Chief among these practices was the ripping out of fingernails.
In addition to all the sacrificial slaughter, the Aztecs also practiced cannibalism and wore the flayed skin of their victims. Towards the end times of their empire, when Tenochtitlan was besieged by a coalition of their subjects who had had enough (spurred on and enjoined by the Spanish conquistadores), the Aztecs were sacrificing many thousands each day. One claim states that Aztec priests took the lives of 80,000 victims in one day. While this may be an exaggeration, it does explain why the population of the empire in the latter years was in serious decline.
West Africa
Human sacrifice was common in certain areas of West Africa, especially in Benin, and especially after a ruler or king had died. Sometimes thousands of people were slain in these events, in addition to an annual event where 500 victims were killed. In the Ashanti region of modern-day Ghana, capital punishment was usually tied to sacrificing the guilty party to the gods. These practices continued well into the 19th Century. In the northern parts of the continent, the spread of Islam put an end to tribal beliefs of ritual human sacrifice.
Human Sacrifice Today Has Mostly Disappeared… Mostly
Ritual human sacrifice is extremely rare today. A few isolated cases are reported from time to time, however. Human sacrifice is illegal the world over, but there are instances of cults that have continued the practice in obvious secret. Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Panama, India, Liberia, Uganda, Italy, and the UK have all, in recent years, had cases of human sacrifice being performed. The law has obviously curtailed the cultural norms of human sacrifice, yet the law cannot fix human psychology, and there are still many human beings who find the idea of human sacrifice a tempting diversion from modern cultural mores.
By Greg BeyerBA History and Linguistics, Diploma in JournalismGreg is an academic writer with a History focus and has written over 100 articles for TheCollector. He comes from South Africa and holds a BA from the University of Cape Town. He has spent many years as an English teacher, and he currently specializes in writing for academic purposes. In his spare time, he enjoys drawing and painting. | Many other instances of individual human sacrifices are mentioned in the Bible. Aside from the abortive attempt by Abraham to sacrifice his son Isaac (also mentioned in the Quran), there were instances by others where the sacrifices were indeed carried out.
Ahaz and Manassah, Kings of Judah, also sacrificed their children. The former (II Kings 16:13) sacrificed his son, burning the body as an offering, and the latter (II Chronicles 33:6) did the same, burning his two sons in the valley of Hinnom. This provoked God to anger, and in later religions, the valley is symbolic of Hell.
Human Sacrifice In Europe
The European cultures of antiquity were also no stranger to the ultimate religious expression of violence. The Greeks, Romans, Celts, and Germanic peoples all practiced ritual human sacrifice to a certain degree.
The ancient Greeks practiced “pharmakos,” whereby cripples, criminals, or slaves would be thrown off a cliff to ward off disaster. This process disappeared in later antiquity as the Greeks moved towards a more civilized society. In Roman society, human sacrifice was rare but better documented. Like the Greeks, human sacrifice was seen as a remnant of a more uncivilized age, and as Rome progressed, the victim was replaced with symbolic items such as dolls or statuettes.
In 216 BCE, after the Roman defeat to the Carthaginians at Cannae (believed to be the biggest defeat in the history of Rome), two Gauls and two Greek couples were buried under the Forum Boarium as a plea to the gods. The act was considered by many to be wholly alien to the Roman spirit. The rite was apparently practiced again during the Roman conquest of Gaul.
The Romans did have traditions of ritual murder, which they did not consider human sacrifice. Hermaphroditic children were regularly drowned. Vestal virgins accused of being unchaste were buried alive in specially built chambers. | yes |
Anthropology | Did Ancient Greeks practice human sacrifice? | yes_statement | "ancient" greeks "practiced" "human" "sacrifice".. "human" "sacrifice" was a "practice" of the "ancient" greeks. | https://www.popsci.com/human-sacrifice-helped-create-complex-societies/ | Human Sacrifice May Have Helped Create Complex Societies ... | Human Sacrifice May Have Helped Create Complex Societies
As portrayed in the Codex Mendoza, a history of the Aztec empire in pictograms.
Mummies–unearthed in pits, dug from mountain sides, and thawed from ice–tell a story of ritualized killing that is as old as human society. Their leathery remains are mangled, tied, cut, and twisted in all manner of deformity and mutilation. The grotesque evidence of human violence horrifies and fascinates us, and makes us wonder how we ever did such things.
Yet no matter how barbaric the practice may seem, the reasons for doing so couldn’t be more relevant. Anthropologists from New Zealand have collected evidence that suggests that ritualized human sacrifice was a driver in the formation of the large scale, stratified societies we live in today, and was used as a tool to maintain social hierarchies. Their findings are published online in the journal Nature.
Human sacrifice has occurred in early Germanic, Arab, Turkic, Inuit, American, Austronesian, African, Chinese and Japanese cultures. Put more simply, humans from all over the world were killing their brethren to placate supernatural beings for millennia. Even into the 20th century in some places.
The scale and efficiency of these killings varied greatly, as well as the methods and reasonings. Sometimes people were sacrificed when a cultural taboo or custom was breached. Other times the rituals marked an important occasion, like the funeral of a chief, the sanctifying of a new building, or holy festivities. The men who carried out these brutal practices were often social elites, like religious figures or royalty, and they were particularly liberal and creative in their methods. Across cultures these ranged from burning, drowning, strangulation, bludgeoning, being buried alive, crushed, decapitated, cut to pieces, thrown from great heights. The list goes on.
Human sacrifice in Ancient Greece
Ancient Greek portrayal of a human sacrifice after the fall of Troy. Human sacrifice occurred in all cultures around the world.
James Watts, a psychologist who studies cultural evolution at the University of Auckland, in New Zealand, looked at the history of human sacrifice across 93 traditional Austronesian societies in the Pacific. In the paper, Watts and his colleagues describe these societies as “a natural laboratory for cross-cultural research due to the diversity of environments they inhabit and cultural features they have evolved.” Their environments ranged from atolls a few square kilometers in size to continents like Australia. Their societies encompass tiny, egalitarian communities and highly complex, socially stratified states like Hawaii.
Watts and his team recorded the presence or absence of human sacrifice in each of these cultures’ past, and matched that with the level of social stratification in the present-day. Running this data through models to test whether ritualistic human killings co-evolved with social hierarchies, they found that it indeed seems to have done so. In the egalitarian societies observed in the study, only 5 of 20 had practiced human sacrifice. On the other hand, 18 of the 27 highly stratified societies had. More than starting social stratification, however, Watts found that human sacrifice really helped stabilize and maintain class systems once they had arisen.
A skull rack of sacrifices, Aztec Empire
From an Aztec Codex. Their rituals were highly documented.
He thinks that by combining the taking of human life with supernatural control, high-ranking figures were able to justify their authority. Through these displays of power they could achieve the obedience of the lower classes by instilling them with a fear of what would happen if they transgressed authority. In their paper, Watts and his colleagues explain that “sacrificial victims were typically of low social status, such as slaves, and the instigators were of high social status, such as priests and chiefs.” What’s more, Watts points out that human sacrifice further reduced the likelihood of retaliation against the top classes because by bringing religion into the mix, the killers were able to transfer responsibility of the killing to the supernatural.
In early traditional cultures, Watts describes, “there was substantial religious and political overlap, and ritualized human sacrifice may have been co-opted by elites as a divinely sanctioned means of social control.” In other words, the rich and powerful ruling elite used fear and religion to keep poorer masses down. Sound familiar?
The act of human sacrifice may be gone (depending on how you define it–public executions still occur in some states), but unfortunately the practice of controlling people through fear, religion, and privilege still exists. In strict religious states like Saudi Arabia, for example, public executions still occur. In India, some 160 million people are a part of class known as “Untouchables”—people who are considered impure by religious standards and therefore sentenced to a life of poverty in the country’s lowest caste. And even in the United States, citizens continually debate over what they see as a small population of wealthy elite influencing governmental decisions that affect everyone.
Sometimes anthropology makes us uncomfortable when we peer into the darker chapters of our history and realize that we’re not as different now as we’d like to think we are. | Human Sacrifice May Have Helped Create Complex Societies
As portrayed in the Codex Mendoza, a history of the Aztec empire in pictograms.
Mummies–unearthed in pits, dug from mountain sides, and thawed from ice–tell a story of ritualized killing that is as old as human society. Their leathery remains are mangled, tied, cut, and twisted in all manner of deformity and mutilation. The grotesque evidence of human violence horrifies and fascinates us, and makes us wonder how we ever did such things.
Yet no matter how barbaric the practice may seem, the reasons for doing so couldn’t be more relevant. Anthropologists from New Zealand have collected evidence that suggests that ritualized human sacrifice was a driver in the formation of the large scale, stratified societies we live in today, and was used as a tool to maintain social hierarchies. Their findings are published online in the journal Nature.
Human sacrifice has occurred in early Germanic, Arab, Turkic, Inuit, American, Austronesian, African, Chinese and Japanese cultures. Put more simply, humans from all over the world were killing their brethren to placate supernatural beings for millennia. Even into the 20th century in some places.
The scale and efficiency of these killings varied greatly, as well as the methods and reasonings. Sometimes people were sacrificed when a cultural taboo or custom was breached. Other times the rituals marked an important occasion, like the funeral of a chief, the sanctifying of a new building, or holy festivities. The men who carried out these brutal practices were often social elites, like religious figures or royalty, and they were particularly liberal and creative in their methods. Across cultures these ranged from burning, drowning, strangulation, bludgeoning, being buried alive, crushed, decapitated, cut to pieces, thrown from great heights. The list goes on.
Human sacrifice in Ancient Greece
Ancient Greek portrayal of a human sacrifice after the fall of Troy. Human sacrifice occurred in all cultures around the world.
| yes |
Anthropology | Did Ancient Greeks practice human sacrifice? | yes_statement | "ancient" greeks "practiced" "human" "sacrifice".. "human" "sacrifice" was a "practice" of the "ancient" greeks. | https://femminaclassica.com/the-highest-altar-human-sacrifice-in-ancient-greece/ | The Highest Altar: Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece - Femmina ... | The Highest Altar: Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece
In the Greek Peloponnese, high atop the summit on Arcadia’s Mount Lykaion (Wolf Mountain) lies an altar at one of the oldest and most revered of all primordial sanctuaries. Standing at nearly five thousand feet, with vistas of the entire Peloponnese peninsula beneath their feet, it is easy to understand the intimacy the ancients must have felt for the god of sky and thunder. Purportedly Zeus’s birthplace, experts now believe that the altar may predate Zeus by over a thousand years originally paying homage to a chthonic, more primal god. Indeed, Zeus’s birth atop Mount Lykaion may signify the very inception of Greek religion itself. A weather-god, Zeus was entreated during times of scarcity, not infrequent high above the clouds on Mount Lykaion. In a land prone to drought, famine and a thousand injustices, carnivorous gods loomed large ravenously roaming the earth in search of sacrificial victims. Zeus, one of the earliest gods of the Greek pantheon, was the most brutal and blood-thirsty amongst them.
The Fall of the Titans by Cornelis Cornelisz van Haarlem (1596–1598) ( Public Domain )
Son of Kronos—infant-eating chief of the primordial Titans—Zeus was king of the Olympian pantheon, dictatorial god of sky and thunder and sanctioned serial rapist whose fierce role in Greek mythology is cardinal. In order to appease his ever-capricious appetite, blood lust was the order of the day and sacrifice, his exacting requirement. At the hallowed ground of his circular ash altar possibly tens of thousands of creatures were sacrificed in his honor. The animals—typically sheep and goat and to a lesser extent pigs and cattle—were lined up to offer their lives to the sky god. But were there more than animals queued up on Zeus’s altar? If the ancients are to be believed, Arcadians were known to gift human boys to the sky god as well. Dismissing such reports as ancient hyperbole, human sacrifice in ancient Greece has been mostly disregarded by academia. But that may be changing. Much to the astonishment of archaeologists recently excavating the area, hidden amongst the thousands of animal remains on Zeus’s altar was the three-thousand-year-old skeleton of an adolescent boy believed to have been sacrificed in much the same way as his bestial counterparts.
The Fall of the Titans by Cornelis Cornelisz van Haarlem (1596–1598) ( Public Domain )
While excavating Mount Lykaion in 2016, University of Arizona archaeologist David Gilman Romano and his team discovered the young boy’s remains. Gilman Romano asserts: “The one thing that is clearest is that we are not digging a cemetery. This is a sacrificial altar to Zeus, where thousands of sacrifices were made in antiquity. And in the middle of it, right in the middle, we found a human skeleton.” Because the resting place of the boy was an altar where sacrifices were made, his remains beg the question, did ancient Greeks practice human sacrifice? Certainly, the notion of human sacrifice was rife throughout ancient Greece indicated by the myriad myths associated with it. From the noteworthy sacrifices of Iphigenia and Polyxena along with others in the epic tradition to the fourteen Athenian boys and girls sacrificed to Minos each year to the countless classical plays of Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides who frequently deal with the topic. Time and time again, human sacrifice is a common dramatic theme in ancient Greece. But aside from legend, even amongst ancient chroniclers—from Plato to Pliny the Elder to Pausanias—reports abound that the rural enclave of Arcadia was notable in its penchant for human sacrifice. Could these remains be evidence that the Arcadians practiced human sacrifice much as the ancient chroniclers had long reported? Further, the young boy’s body was found without a head leading some to surmise that he may have been at least partially cannibalized. If so, were the Arcadians cannibals, as their folklore suggests?
Before these questions are answered, some background on the area is useful. Arcadia is at the heart of the Peloponnesian peninsula which was dominated by the Mycenaean civilization during the Bronze age (3000-1100 BCE) with its culture especially flourishing from the fifteenth-thirteenth century BCE. Carbon dating from the recent excavation on Mount Lykaion dates the sanctuary of Zeus to the sixteenth century BCE, surprising some that the cult of Zeus may have its roots in the Bronze age. The collapse of the Mycenean period at the end of the second millennium BCE ushered in the era known as the Greek Dark Ages from twelve hundred to eight-hundred BCE. Because written artifacts do not appear in ancient Greece until the eighth-seventh century BCE, the Greek Dark Ages was striking for its absence of written records. Dated to around one thousand BCE, the boy’s remains place him squarely into the Dark Age void. Yet as a group, the Arcadians are believed to go much further back than this, tracing their ancestry to the prehistory of the indigenous proto-Greek “Pelasgians.” As such they were considered the oldest of all Greek tribes. In Greek folklore, they preceded even the moon itself. In fact, Arcadians had a reputation for being wild and were considered primitive by their neighbors. Spatially distant from urban centers, Arcadia was rustic, mountainous but most of all remote. As a result, influences from the outside were at a minimum leading the Arcadians to hold fast to their primordial traditions. Thus, bringing their rites into sharper focus could give us a glimpse into the religious practice of prehistoric Greeks.
The most important of these rites was the primeval festival of Zeus Lykaios (Wolf Zeus) which was likely held every four years. Some speculate that the festival may have preceded
even Zeus himself originally paying tribute to a more primal god. The festival—known to be rapturous—commemorated rites of initiation for young males on the cusp of adulthood. These initiation rites were accompanied by athletic contests which were called the Lycaon Games, believed to be a precursor to the Olympic games begun in 776 BCE on Mount Olympus a mere twenty-two miles away. While Greek worship involved pageantry: processions, absolutions, dancing and imbibing in every way, the main event consisted of making offerings to the gods or goddesses at whose altar they were honoring. In particular, the altar of Zeus was a forbidden precinct with only the purified allowed entrance. Amongst other things, purification rites involved bathing in the spring waters below the peak at the summit of the mountain. Especially because initiation rites or rites of passage compelled the god to influence a human in some way the rites were made sacred by the gift of animal sacrifice.
The offering wherein an animal was sacrificed was called thysia. At the Sanctuary of Zeus on Mount Lykaion, thysia was a major element of the festival. There was a solemn procession where the animals would be paraded to the altar. Always the young, the healthy and the most beautiful—insulting a god with an old, infirm or flawed creature could spur his wrath. Further, the gender of the sacrificed animals was dependent on the deity being honored. In general, goddesses preferred female animals, while the male gods preferred male animals. For Zeus, only uncastrated young males would do. Before being paraded, the animals were bathed then outfitted in ribbons, flowers and ornate garlands. It was an honor for the animal to be selected for sacrifice; in some ways the ancients considered sacrifice an act of love. Although festivals were celebratory, sacrifices were solemn and grave affairs. A sacrosanct act, sacrifice was considered a marriage between the sacred and the profane. Once the animal reached the altar, he would be slaughtered by an axe with a single blow. His spilled blood collected on the holy altar. While some portions of the animal were set aside for human consumption, the hallowed portion for the gods were bones wrapped in fat then burned. The belief was that the considerable smoke that resulted from the burned fat high atop the peak of Mount Lykaion was aromatic enough to reach the god of sky and thunder. Over the millennia, perhaps tens thousands of animals were sacrificed on Zeus’s altar in this way.
But animals were not the only ones sacrificed on Zeus’s altar. The discovery of the Lykaion boy’s remains is compelling precisely because the Zeus Lykaios festival was notorious for its sacrifice of young boys. For that matter—in the greater Greek cult—some believe that long before animals supplanted them, humans were routinely laid out on the sacred altar. Although more a phenomenon of rural communities than of urban centers, human sacrifice and its sometimes companion cannibalism have been around since time immemorial. During times of crisis, whether on account of famine, drought or natural disasters, pleas were made to placate the enraged and carnivorous gods. Experts speculate that human sacrifice represents a breakdown in an economic system; a collapse in community with its observance functioning as a means of stitching together a sense of social cohesion. In a form of self-abnegation, the ancients offered their gods the ultimate gift—a human life. The belief was that at the expense of a human life, they were preserving the lives of many. The word sacrifice itself denotes making something sacred; handing over from the human to the divine. While animal sacrifice was known to be a solemn affair in the ancient Greek ritual, human sacrifice must have been even more so. In particular, to put the sacrificial practices of ancient Arcadians into proper perspective, it is important to know what was occurring in the region during the Bronze Age. Less than three-hundred-fifty miles across the Aegean stood Minoan Crete (3000-1450 BCE).
The darling of the Bronze Age—long considered a prototype for the seat of Western civilization—even the Minoan civilization is known to have practiced not only human sacrifice, but cannibalism as well. To date, three separate excavations have reported both human sacrifice and cannibalism there during the twilight of the Bronze Age. But the excavation causing the most stir comes from a house in Knossos believed to have been a temple dated to Late Minoan 1B (ca 1450 BCE). Found there were the remains of at least four children thought to have been sacrificed. In charge of the dig, Professor Peter Warren of Bristol University asserts: “We uncovered 203 bones in a heap. They all belonged to children, probably less than 10 and certainly under 15 years old.” Their skeletal remains bear no evidence of disorder or disease. For all intents and purposes, the children appear to have been healthy upon their death. Warren goes on to add: “About 20 bones showed fine knife marks, like butcher’s cuts,” claiming that cannibalism likely occurred there. Most experts now agree with Warren’s assessment about the sacrifice and subsequent cannibalism of the children. One possible explanation for these dire actions is that a destructive earthquake may have compelled residents into taking drastic measures. In fact, many now believe that a string of violent earthquakes brought the Minoan civilization to its knees ultimately ushering in the Myceneans.
Forasmuch as the Minoans consumed their human sacrifices, is it possible that the Arcadians consumed their human sacrifices as well? Indubitably, cannibalism is at the very heart of the myth of King Lycaon of Arcadia for whom the mountain was named. Lycaon’s legend was considered one of the earliest foundational stories in Greek mythology. Thus even in antiquity it was considered ancient. He was the son of Pelasgus—one of the first mortals to walk the earth—and the founder of the cult of Zeus Lykaios and of the Lykaion games. Make no mistake, Lycaon was no paragon of virtue. Impudently, he tried playing a trick on the almighty Zeus. Setting out to test Zeus’s omniscience Lycaon offered the formidable god the roasted flesh of his own son—Nyctimus—in place of that of an animal. In virtue of being truly all-knowing, Zeus was having none of it. Enraged, the storm god struck Lycaon with a lightning bolt transforming him from a human into a werewolf. Thus, began a long tradition of cannibals becoming werewolves. The belief was that if a person acted like a beast, he would turn into one in a process known as lycanthropy. In antiquity when humans had a closer connection to animals, lycanthropy was not the fantastic notion it is today. After all, not only were wolves and humans about the same size and weight but wolves were abundant on Wolf Mountain hence had a role in the lives of most Arcadians. Part of the Lykaion initiation ritual involved mixing the flesh of humans with that of animals. In a game of chance, young males drew lots to determine who would eat the portion mixed with human entrails. According to the legend, once a person ate the flesh of a human, he would become a werewolf for a period of nine years after which time—if he abstained from eating human flesh—he would become human again. Alas, the initiate eating from the portion containing human flesh would be transformed into werewolf—posthaste.
In the earliest and only account of the myth written by a Greek, Plato discusses the process of lycanthropy. In Republic (388 BCE), Socrates is in dialogue with one of his pupils about the evolution of a ruler from protector to tyrant. Socrates asks:
“’What then is the beginning of the transformation from protector to tyrant? Is it not clearly when the protector begins to do the same as the man in the story which is told concerning the sanctuary of Zeus Lykaios in Arcadia?’ What story? he said. ‘How the man who has tasted the piece of human entrails is inevitably transformed into a wolf.”
The sage and circumspect Plato may have doubted the process of lycanthropy, but many believe that he did not doubt that cannibals lived amongst the Arcadian Greeks.
In another first, Plato was the earliest to write about the practice of human sacrifice on Mount Lykaion. In Minos (ca 350 BCE), Plato discusses how the Carthaginians practiced human sacrifice then relates that even in Greece, some areas were known to do the same:
“Whereas the Carthaginians perform it as a thing they account holy and legal…and not merely is it foreign peoples who use different laws from ours, but our neighbors in Lycaea (Lykaion)…offer such sacrifices even though they are Greeks.”
Although comprised of a band of city-states, by Plato’s time, Greeks had proudly defined themselves as one ethnicity who disdainfully viewed their “barbarian” neighbors as “other” where customs –such as human sacrifice—were supposedly routine. Of particular interest here, by the middle of the fourth century BCE, not only were most Greeks contemptuous toward those who engaged in human sacrifice, but they were warily suspicious that its practice was occurring amongst them.
Although human sacrifice in Arcadia was written about by several ancient historians, the following are reports from two of the more notable sources. Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) in his Natural History recounts a previous author’s testimony of a sacrifice which occurred during Plato’s lifetime. But the item of interest is that not only was human sacrifice still practiced into the fourth century BCE (as Plato had reported), but evidently cannibalism was as well. Like a hand in glove, time and again ancient historians write about the practice of both human sacrifice and cannibalization in rustic Arcadia. Salient to this discussion, because his remains were without its head some scholars contend that the Lykaion boy was at least partially cannibalized. As with animals, heads were often removed from human sacrificial victims, cut up and possibly consumed. While most believe that the Lykaion boy was sacrificed, whether or not he was cannibalized is still up for debate.
Strikingly, fully twelve-hundred years after the Lykaion boy’s tragic demise human sacrifice in Arcadia was still a topic which was not only fascinating for the ancients but may still have been in practice in the second century CE. Written a five centuries after Plato is a passage by Pausanias (110-180 CE) which recounts how the Arcadians practiced human sacrifice during his visit there:
“Upon the altar they sacrifice to Zeus Lykaios (Wolf Zeus) in secret; and I was glad to not inquire too closely into those things for the sacrifice, but let it be as it is and as it was from the beginning.”
Because they sacrificed a human in secret, Pausanias would have had no direct-hand knowledge of the event, yet he was cautious about making too many inquiries about it lest he end up on the hallowed altar himself. At this point it should be noted that in 371 BCE, the city of Megalopolis was founded—the first urban development in rural Arcadia. Henceforth, it has been presumed that from that time forward the cult was celebrated in Megalopolis instead of on Mount Lykaion. However, Pausanias’s account of the rites in 180 CE on Mount Lykaion challenges this notion. A historian of some renown, Pausanias is resolute that the practice of human sacrifice was on-going on Mount Lykaion: “as it was from the beginning.”
But when did human sacrifice actually begin in Arcadia? Although Gilman Romano’s team dates the sanctuary of Zeus to the sixteenth century BCE, in unearthing its ash altar they were astounded to discover pottery dating back to the three-thousand to twenty-one-hundred BCE timeframe, suggesting that the altar may have been used as a place of worship by proto-Greeks during the dawn of the Bronze Age. Much as their successors would one day pray to Zeus, these indigenous people paid their respects to Zeus’s predecessor—a chthonic god of sky and thunder. Most importantly, likely they made human sacrifices to him and—if mythology is any indication—engaged in cannibalism as well. Experts now believe that human sacrifice was practiced throughout the region during the Bronze Age into the Greek Dark Ages and possibly well beyond that. In his seminal book Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece, Dennis Hughes ponders:
“But was there not fire where there is so much smoke? How is it possible that so many of the Greeks believed that their own ancestors (or in some cases contemporaries) practiced human sacrifice, if they did not? And how could the very idea of human sacrifice have arisen, without any basis in actual practice? Is it credible that human sacrifice was a purely imaginative creation, existing from the beginning solely on the level of myth?”
Since the beginning of time, storytelling has been what separates us from our simian forebears. Part and parcel of who we are, stories or myths have been interwoven into our history making it increasingly difficult to tell one apart from the other. Mythology informed lives saliently in ancient Greece, thus the parallels between mythology and history are often striking there. As a consequence, myths are an expression of cultural memory with a basis in reality. But the cultural memory of human sacrifice in ancient Greece is one that most modern classical Greek historians would just as soon see buried. Since up until now the definition of an advanced civilization is one which forbids the practice of human sacrifice, many academics have been uncomfortable that ancient Greece—the seat of Western civilization—engaged in its horrific practice. But the fact is that all ancient civilizations—both great and small—practiced human sacrifice to one degree or another. Previously a taboo subject, human sacrifice in ancient Greece is increasingly coming under scrutiny in academia. This renewed interest is due in part to the discovery of the Lykaion boy’s remains on Zeus’s sacrificial altar in Arcadia—at long last validating the stories told by the ancients for hundreds of years.
On that fateful morning, the amber sun cast its golden glow over Wolf Mountain—a favorable portent from the sky god. But petulant Zeus was hungering—as were his disciples. So the ritual began. Was the boy decked out in garlands or wrapped in a tunic? Was he blindfolded or allowed to see? Were his locks freshly washed or roughly sheared? We can only guess. The absence of written records makes speculators of us all. But some things are certain. Fine in form, the boy was healthy, vital and handsome. Zeus could do with no less. Like his bestial counterparts, he was bathed before his sacrifice. Likely, he was placed on a litter and paraded through the sanctuary. After all, he was the main event. It was a slow march to the circular altar—the boy’s final resting place. The cacophony of the chanting in unison with the wailing was deafening as his litter finally reached the altar. Suspended somewhere between life and death—between the here and the hereafter, his young body fervently clinging to the last vestiges of the only life he would ever know. The roar, the thunder, the awful howl—until the ax came down.
This article was published by Ancient Origins in March of 2020
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About The Author
With an emphasis in Women’s Studies, Mary Naples has an M.A. in Humanities from Dominican University of California. Having traveled throughout the Mediterranean, she has a deep love of the classical world. Since 2013, Mary has been a contributing writer for Classical Wisdom classicalwisdom.com and in 2018 began writing for Ancient Origins, ancientorigins.net. Mary gave a webinar for Classical Wisdom in March of 2019 about feminism in an ancient Greek feminine fertility festival. And in July of 2019, she gave a webinar for Ancient Origins on the long forgotten Hebrew goddess, Asherah.
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Unauthorized use and/or duplication of this material without express and written permission from this site’s author and/or owner is strictly prohibited. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Mary E. Naples, M.A. and femminaclassica.com with appropriate and specific direction to the original content. | -thousand to twenty-one-hundred BCE timeframe, suggesting that the altar may have been used as a place of worship by proto-Greeks during the dawn of the Bronze Age. Much as their successors would one day pray to Zeus, these indigenous people paid their respects to Zeus’s predecessor—a chthonic god of sky and thunder. Most importantly, likely they made human sacrifices to him and—if mythology is any indication—engaged in cannibalism as well. Experts now believe that human sacrifice was practiced throughout the region during the Bronze Age into the Greek Dark Ages and possibly well beyond that. In his seminal book Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greece, Dennis Hughes ponders:
“But was there not fire where there is so much smoke? How is it possible that so many of the Greeks believed that their own ancestors (or in some cases contemporaries) practiced human sacrifice, if they did not? And how could the very idea of human sacrifice have arisen, without any basis in actual practice? Is it credible that human sacrifice was a purely imaginative creation, existing from the beginning solely on the level of myth?”
Since the beginning of time, storytelling has been what separates us from our simian forebears. Part and parcel of who we are, stories or myths have been interwoven into our history making it increasingly difficult to tell one apart from the other. Mythology informed lives saliently in ancient Greece, thus the parallels between mythology and history are often striking there. As a consequence, myths are an expression of cultural memory with a basis in reality. But the cultural memory of human sacrifice in ancient Greece is one that most modern classical Greek historians would just as soon see buried. Since up until now the definition of an advanced civilization is one which forbids the practice of human sacrifice, many academics have been uncomfortable that ancient Greece—the seat of Western civilization—engaged in its horrific practice. But the fact is that all ancient civilizations—both great and small—practiced human sacrifice to one degree or another. Previously a taboo subject, human sacrifice in ancient Greece is increasingly coming under scrutiny in academia. | yes |
Anthropology | Did Ancient Greeks practice human sacrifice? | yes_statement | "ancient" greeks "practiced" "human" "sacrifice".. "human" "sacrifice" was a "practice" of the "ancient" greeks. | https://tomtomrant.wordpress.com/2014/11/04/human-sacrifice-in-ancient-greek-tragedy-a-mythic-hermeneutic/ | Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greek Tragedy: A Mythic Hermeneutic ... | Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greek Tragedy: A Mythic Hermeneutic
The last of my Arts Degree essays. This is not so much about Greek tragedy as about all of ancient Greek culture reflected in what it is not. It is a fitting conclusion to my myth theoretic work over the last few years.
What can the history of world mythology tell us about the meaning of death for the ancient Greeks as represented in tragedies featuring human sacrifice?
While the ancient Greeks are not believed to have practiced human sacrifice,[1] it features in a number of their tragedies from the late sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. This raises the question as to the meaning of human sacrifice for the ancient Greeks, its function in dramatic performance, and what it demonstrates about the ancient Greek view of death. While death is always considered a grave and serious issue, a distinct feature of the representation of human sacrifice in ancient Greek tragedy is its overall ambiguity: sacrifice is never wholeheartedly advocated nor fully condemned, is neither entirely good nor bad. I argue that this is like much else in Greek myth and tragedy, but that this level of ambiguity is relatively unique for a post-Neolithic civilisation at this time, which may reveal something about the ancient Greek ethos, particularly regarding religious experience.
There are a number of elements common to most of the extant tragedies by Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles featuring human sacrifice. The call for human sacrifice usually comes from the gods, whether through an oracle, sage, prophecy or request from the dead.[2] The victim is always a young unmarried[3] person, usually a female virgin. The prospect of human sacrifice always evokes horror, pity, sadness and aggressive protest from the victim, his or her family, and/or the observing chorus. A more elderly relative often pleads to be substituted (Euripides, Hecuba 386-90; Euripides, Children of Heracles 453-67; Euripides, Phoenician Women 967-71),[4] to no avail. In most cases,[5] after much pathos, the victim courageously comes to accept his or her sacrifice[6] for the sake of the greater social good – to ensure a victory in war and/or to uphold the family name.[7] An easy way to escape is offered (Euripides, Iphigenia in Aulis 1426-30; Euripides, Children of Heracles 540-3; Euripides, Phoenician Women 970-4), which the victim always refuses, with an explicit (Euripides, Children of Heracles 588-9) or implied[8] exoneration of responsibility for the executioners. As is usual for ancient Greek tragedy,[9] the victim is killed offstage, usually with a messenger figure reporting the event.
It is undeniable that these are common elements in the plays. However, their meaning and interpretation among scholars has varied considerably, so much so that there is virtually no consensus as to what sacrificial death means for the ancient Greeks, as represented by the plays. Consider, for example, the most common interpretations and contrary opinions: Scodel argues that human sacrifice is presented as morally evil, cruel, and impious[10] – characters always protest against it; it is never presented comically – while Rabinowitz claims that the ancient playwrights romanticise victimisation and eroticise sacrifice[11] – victims are referred to as youthful beauties, executed in a public way, often for apparently noble causes. Sacrifice is chosen as subject apparently to reinforce the status quo,[12] to advocate the self-sacrifice of the hoplite soldier fighting in the Peloponnesian War,[13] and/or as an outlet for internalised violence.[14] These differing viewpoints are all effected by (a) the interpreter’s exclusive focus upon positive or negative aspects of sacrifice as presented in the plays (more on this later), and (b) the degree to which textual evidence is seen as reflecting (even promulgating) social, cultural, religious, broader historical, or human psychological norms (i.e. the degree to which the text is ‘read into’). Since my interest is in how the presentation of human sacrifice reflects the ancient Greek cultural perspective of death, we must first pause here to consider how the ancient Greeks might have reacted to and interpreted tragedy themselves.
The plays are not obviously primarily political speeches (like those of Lycurgus), nor are they histories (like the work of Herodotus). The fact that the Greeks did not, as far as we know, perform human sacrifice alerts us to the fictional (or at least mythological) nature of tragedy – not only human sacrifice but long-dead, legendary/mythological persons, supernatural events, and gods were portrayed in the theatre by actors wearing stylised masks during a religious festival.[15] Hence we must consider the plays, particularly regarding human sacrifice, as myth. In this regard, as per Rudolf Otto, Joseph Campbell and others,[16] we can expect mythology to primarily promulgate a numinous emotionality, and as per Clifford Geertz,[17] reflect and support a cultural ethos related to and vitiated by the worldview presented in myth.
But while religion reflects the highest, most primary source of meaning, particularly in ancient societies, the peculiar language and dialectic of myth has its own hermeneutic difficulties. The interpretation of a non-mythological source, such as a legal document, is relatively straightforward; provided there are no concerns about sincerity or authenticity, words can be taken at face value, and compared with and/or generalised into contemporary cultural norms, customs and beliefs. Mythological material cannot be reliably extrapolated and generalised into historical data in the same way. Herein lies the value of Joseph Campbell’s ‘hero’s journey’.[18] The revelation in relation to Campbell’s exposition of the more-or-less universal ‘stages of myth’ – such as ‘the call to adventure’, ‘the road of trials’, ‘apotheosis with the father’, etc. – lies not in the fundamental sameness and therefore hermeneutic equivalence of all mythologies worldwide, but in their differences: the divergences, omissions, transformations, and unique realisations of the mythological stages in each particular cultural nexus.[19] In other words, Campbell’s ‘hero’s journey’ can be used as the yardstick, with the cultural ethos revealed in the manner in which a particular culture arranges and realises the stages, or how a particular element loses or gains value by its position within the schema.
Sadly, the history of human sacrifice as a motif in myth is sketchy but, according to Campbell and others, it seems to make its appearance in early sedentary agricultural village cultures, generally on a ‘complex hunter-gatherer’[20] or Neolithic level of human society, apparently extending into early prehistoric ‘Bronze Age’ societies.[21] The apparent religious attitude accompanying human sacrifice, as attested by our scant sources,[22] is not primarily aggressive, but ecstatic or ascetic; sacrifice appears as a voluntary act of the mythic hero, committed as a means of identification (‘becoming one’) with a god or transcendent principle.[23] Campbell has postulated that cultures to the east of modern-day Iran exhibit more features of this Neolithic sacrificial mythic worldview than those to the west.[24] The ideas of ascetic self-denial or ecstatic absorption in a ritual-religious role are fundamental religious principles of eastern myth.[25] For example, the Jain, Hindu, and Buddhist schools of India all encourage the individual to realise a state of ‘no-self’ or ‘annihilation’,[26] and the Confusion, Daoist, and Shinto religions of China and Japan advocate an absorption in a social-natural order.[27] As a result, myths of the east frequently present human sacrifice as an ascetic or ecstatic calling – death is fundamentally an escape from a sorrowful or deceitful world or a mere playful illusion (cf. reincarnation).[28]
In opposition to this, in mythologies to the west of Iran, the self is not denied; instead, “[it] is … treated as though it were a definable knowable entity with particular characteristics.”[29] One does not ‘deny ego’; one develops it.[30] Campbell has observed that this emphasis on individuality has separated god from man in western myth; connection to the deity is one of relationship, rather than identity, hence human sacrifice is frowned upon, and other forms of relationship to the deity are established.[31] Add to this a further division: in the Near East, god is generally more righteous than man; he is a mighty warrior god with moralistic concerns.[32] Relationship is established via a warrior code, a covenant, sacrament, or koran; Job submits to God with the words: “I despise myself and repent in dust and ashes” (Job 46:6).[33] Whereas in ancient Greece, god and man are separate but more equally matched. Humans may coerce other humans, even other gods, to oppose the will of Zeus; “I care less than nothing for Zeus,” cries Prometheus. “Let him do what he likes” (Aeschylus, Prometheus Bound 937).[34] These differing relationships with god may also reflect the respective political systems: autocratic rule, mandated by god (Yahweh, Allah, Marduk) in the Near East, and a huge variety of political systems, democracy among them, in ancient Greece.
Thus we return to Greek tragedy, itself a form of mythmaking that is essentially unique to Europe in its quality of acknowledging “the human sufferer.”[35] Suffering in eastern myth is either dismissed as an illusion (e.g. Hinduism) or presented as a weakness to be overcome in transcendence (e.g. Buddhism); in the Near East, it is essentially punishment for sin (cf. the Fall in the Garden). In Greek tragedy, suffering is apparently presented for its own sake, as an acknowledgement of the way the world is, but also as something to be surmounted – but in worldly, not other-worldly, action, such as war, vengeance, or even (unavoidable) human sacrifice, committed for one of these worldly ends. The unpredictability and diversity of Greek tragedy is a result of multifarious conflicts – between god and man, man and man, god and god, god and man and Fate. The ‘message’ of the myth is difficult to pin down because it is not, as per Near Eastern myth, moral/political ideology in disguise, nor is it transcendental psychology or ‘sympathetic magic’, as it is in the east, and in earlier hunter-gatherer and Neolithic myth.[36] In fact, a Greek tragedy may closely approximate what we mean today by a work of art, a creative work presented primarily for the story itself and the emotional effect it generates. It is as if the numinous emotional quality has managed to separate itself from the metaphysics, psychology, morality, or ideological strands of myth and religion proper – producing, on one hand, art (the theatre, etc.), and on the other, early science and democracy (philosophy, rhetoric, etc.).[37] Yet the fact that Greek tragedies were presented within a religious festival suggests that the break between religion and art had not fully occurred.
This almost ‘artistic’ expressive-ambiguity pervades tragedies involving human sacrifice particularly. As per above, ambiguity is acknowledged by many commentators.[38] It is difficult to conclude exactly why a virgin such a Iphigenia in Iphigenia in Auris must die. Why tell such a story? It makes no logical sense; there is no clear ‘moral’. However, it certainly is emotionally powerful. As per Wilkins, “The principle rhetorical force of the [sacrifice situation] … is the great desire of the victim to die, against the wishes of the … relatives and friends.”[39] The perverse emotional force of this scenario is actually not ambiguous – ‘ambiguous’ is too flat and unemotional a term. This comes back to tragedy’s proper status as myth. Again, Greek tragedies are not discourse treatises, presentations of arguments as might occur in a law court or philosophical treatise. We cannot arrive at Euripides’ opinion on human sacrifice by merely ‘adding up’ the number of ‘for’ or ‘against’ arguments presented in his plays, as many commentators have done to much confusion.[40] Rhetoric in tragedy is primarily emotional, as is appropriate for a mythological (or artistic) presentation of an argument concerning an obviously fictional event. Tragedy is not ambiguous; it is numinous, beyond the bounds of logic and reason.
The marvel of Greek tragedy is that it manages to be numinous, or, at least, emotionally powerful, without recourse to an explicit and corroborating political ideology, psychological literature, metaphysical revelation, or divine mandate. It is this desire to create a powerful, logically ambiguous, emotionally transcendent experience – an experience which these ancient people might designate ‘an experience of the gods’ – which explains many of the perverse events in tragedy. We see this messy emotional power in the contradictory arguments offered, the strange, seemingly unmotivated prophecies and omens, the ironic fusing of opposites[41] – death with marriage,[42] sacrifice as objectification,[43] as patriotic duty and familial obligation,[44] as horrendous waste.[45] The most courageous motivation for sacrifice is thoroughly complicated by the powerful protests against it.[46] Significantly, the acknowledgement of human uniqueness occurs simultaneously with that of human frailty. The result is a particularly capricious worldview full of powerful conflicts:[47]
… differing fortunes
Follow close upon one another.
Fate brings low those that were high;
The unhonoured Fate makes prosperous.
(Euripides, Children of Heracles 639-42).
To summarise, human sacrifice in Greek tragedy is, I argue, primarily not just ambiguous but perversely powerful and numinous, especially in the mythological context of a kaleidoscopically varied and complex order of gods, humans and fateful powers which forms the ancient Greek mythic worldview. Just as the issue of human sacrifice is grim and complex in Greek tragedy, so too is the ancient Greek view of death. It is clear that death is not spiritually welcomed like in many of the Neolithic and Asian mythic systems. The ancient Greeks’ greater emphasis on worldly, social, and individualistic values meant that death was viewed with more reality and finality. Its necessity for a greater social good was recognised, but not unambiguously advocated. When characters die willingly in Greek tragedy, their sacrifice is linked to worldly ends – dying for the particular institutions of family and city-state. In fact, it is probably the inability of Greek myth to allow the individual to spiritually stand completely separately from these institutions[48] that makes Greek tragedy still appear somewhat alien to modern readers, who, inheriting more recent ideas from the European Renaissance, have a greater, or at least different, sense of the value of human life, of the individual, and his or her relation to society.[49]
[22] E.g. the myths of Polynesian head-hunters, the stories of the astonished Christian friars in pre-colonial Mexico, and particularly the accounts of more recent human sacrifices in 19th century C.E. India (the ritual of sati, for instance).
2 Responses
It is more than ‘quite possible’ than the references to, and actualities of, human and animal sacrifice, relate more to a hidden school of mysteries that are pointing to a way of finding the missing spiritual element in human awakening. Such are the inner mysteries that our references will necessarily appear bizarre, like the son-sacrifice of Isaac of biblical appearance. What God would ask such a thing? Unless it was a pointing to a psychological event that is unknown to Quotidien awareness. | Human Sacrifice in Ancient Greek Tragedy: A Mythic Hermeneutic
The last of my Arts Degree essays. This is not so much about Greek tragedy as about all of ancient Greek culture reflected in what it is not. It is a fitting conclusion to my myth theoretic work over the last few years.
What can the history of world mythology tell us about the meaning of death for the ancient Greeks as represented in tragedies featuring human sacrifice?
While the ancient Greeks are not believed to have practiced human sacrifice,[1] it features in a number of their tragedies from the late sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. This raises the question as to the meaning of human sacrifice for the ancient Greeks, its function in dramatic performance, and what it demonstrates about the ancient Greek view of death. While death is always considered a grave and serious issue, a distinct feature of the representation of human sacrifice in ancient Greek tragedy is its overall ambiguity: sacrifice is never wholeheartedly advocated nor fully condemned, is neither entirely good nor bad. I argue that this is like much else in Greek myth and tragedy, but that this level of ambiguity is relatively unique for a post-Neolithic civilisation at this time, which may reveal something about the ancient Greek ethos, particularly regarding religious experience.
There are a number of elements common to most of the extant tragedies by Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles featuring human sacrifice. The call for human sacrifice usually comes from the gods, whether through an oracle, sage, prophecy or request from the dead.[2] The victim is always a young unmarried[3] person, usually a female virgin. The prospect of human sacrifice always evokes horror, pity, sadness and aggressive protest from the victim, his or her family, and/or the observing chorus. A more elderly relative often pleads to be substituted (Euripides, Hecuba 386-90; Euripides, Children of Heracles 453-67; Euripides, Phoenician Women 967-71),[4] to no avail. In most cases,[5] after much pathos, the victim courageously comes to accept his or her sacrifice[6] | no |
Theater | Did Anton Chekhov consider his plays as comedies? | yes_statement | "anton" chekhov "considered" his "plays" as "comedies".. chekhov regarded his "plays" as "comedies". | https://www.timeout.com/newyork/theater/best-plays-of-all-time | 50 Best Plays of All Time: Comedies, Tragedies and Dramas Ranked | The best plays of all time
New York is practically synonymous with theater, and fromBroadwaytoOff BroadwaytoOff-Off Broadway, there are countless opportunities to see top-notch dramatic works. Of the countless shows that have been produced since the dawn of performance, it’s nearly impossible to choose the best plays. But we’ve done just that with our list of the best plays of all time.
What does it mean to say which plays are the best? Quality, popularity, universality, influence and historical importance all factored into the decision-making process. From Greek tragedies andShakespearean comediestoTony Award winners and modern experimental theater, this opinionated list by the late theater journalist and critic and Andy Propst covers some truly excellent works (though we're leaving Broadway musicals for another day). Read on and let the debates begin!
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Best plays of all time
1. Hamlet by William Shakespeare
What doesn't this tragedy have? There's sublime poetry, rich psychology for characters of both sexes, a hefty dose of comedy to leaven the mood, and, depending on a director's interpretation, a crackling good mystery lying underneath the tale of "The Melancholy Dane." Shakespeare took a standard-issue—for the period—genre and used it to create a monument in Western literature, dramatic or non. This play can be debated and dissected ad infinitum.
2. Long Day's Journey Into Night by Eugene O'Neill
This autobiographical play about O'Neill's young adulthood scorches from start to finish. You can feel the rawness as soon as it starts, as a man—along with his two adult sons—strives to ensure that his wife remains serene after a stint in rehab for morphine addiction. It goes downhill from there as she starts using again and all three guys hit the bottle. Written from a place of utter rawness, this drama stands at a pinnacle of the American family drama.
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3. Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? by Edward Albee
The language of theater—not in the stagecraft sense, but in the actual dialogue sense—became something new with this lacerating 1962 drama. Two couples at a tiny New England liberal arts college drunkenly go at each other from the wee hours of the morning until almost dawn. Their weapons are their words, and what words they are. Erudition and profanity blend to lyrical heights as secrets, resentments, and even genuine affection are revealed.
4. Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller
"Attention must be paid." Indeed. Not just to Willy Loman and the sad realities of his life as a mediocre traveling salesman and the delusions that barely keep him afloat, but also to Miller's exquisite modern tragedy about an average Joe. Both grittily naturalistic and ethereally dream-like, this one punches the audience in the gut time and again simply because it allows us to witness his heartbreaking final downfall while also allowing us to go inside his mind to seemingly feel his deep-seated pain.
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5. Oedipus Rex by Sophocles
Used as the exemplar of dramatic writing in Aristotle's Poetics, this Greek tragedy remains a pillar of playwriting. Before walking into a production or picking up a copy of the script, we all know that King Oedipus has killed his father, married his mother, etc. And yet Sophocles' slow reveal of the truths of the monarch’s life and the pride that sets him and his family spiraling toward a tragic downfall never ceases to be genuinely compelling. This one stands the test of time simply because it's good stage storytelling.
6. Angels in America by Tony Kushner
Its two parts, Millennium Approaches and Perestroika, give theatergoers a whirlwind trip through stories ranging from a man's battle with AIDS to über-Republican Roy Cohn's homophobia and his own realization that he also has the disease, and from the Rosenbergs' legacy to a Mormon couple's struggle with his gayness and her drug addiction. Digressions include fever dreams and trips to the heavens. It's all exactly what Kushner promises in the piece's subtitle: "A Gay Fantasia on National Themes," and the boldness Kushner's storytelling and unbridled imagination means that this one thrills.
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7. The Glass Menagerie by Tennessee Williams
As with so many others on this list, Williams is a playwright whose works could take up several entries. Choosing Menagerie over, say, A Streetcar Named Desire or Cat on a Hot Tin Roof comes down to this: Menagerie is his breakthrough work that introduced his unique brand of theatrical lyricism to the world. And while some of his other plays go farther in terms of stretching stage conventions or tackling weightier issues, this one takes a gentle sliver of a story and turns it into something magical.
8. A Raisin in the Sun by Lorraine Hansberry
Hansberry broke a barrier with this drama about an African-American family attempting to better itself by moving to a new neighborhood; she became the first Black woman to have a play produced on Broadway. It's not just this factor that puts Raisin on this list. As we saw with not one but two fine revivals in a period of 10 years, Raisin speaks to audiences of all races and generations because its plot elements and themes cut across ethnic and chronological divides.
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9. Woyzeck by Georg Büchner
Although this uncompleted script about a soldier's descent into madness was written in the early 19th century, it feels much more like an experimental drama from 100 years later. Part of the reason for this is the fact that it is indeed unfinished and hence sketchy. But Büchner also pioneers objectifying characters by using only their titles to identify them and commandingly sets a standard for dramatizing fever dreams and his central character's fragile grasp on reality.
10. Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett
A new era in playwriting dawned with the debut of this play in 1948. Beckett eschewed standard plot in this piece about two tramps on a mostly barren plain waiting for someone named, obviously, Godot. When he doesn't show in the first act, they do it again with variations in the second. Are they waiting for some sort of perverse God? Is Beckett simply depicting the mundane realities of daily existence in the play? Both? Regardless, Godot brought abstraction center stage and did and still does it beautifully.
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11. The Bald Soprano by Eugene Ionesco
The life of the complacent bourgeois—and by extension the worlds of many theatergoers—got put through an absurdist prism in this French classic that simultaneously blew the roof off the houses where drawing-room comedies had traditionally taken place. Language, narrative, and character all get zanily and incisively fractured in this play about two couples and the two evenings they spend visiting one another. When the piece debuted in 1950, no one had never seen anything quite like it.
12. Look Back in Anger by John Osborne
Wouldn't it be great to write a play that inspired a label for work from an entire generation of writers? This 1956 drama did just that as it took middle age (mostly) out of playwriting and instead offered up a picture of life among a group of discontent British twentysomethings, pulling English drama out of parlors, dining rooms, and genteel patios, and into cramped inner-city apartment squalor. Long live the "angry young man play."
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13. Hedda Gabler by Henrik Ibsen
What's a woman in a terrible marriage supposed to do? Norwegian playwright Ibsen gave us a number of answers in his career. With Hedda, the only escape turns out to be suicide. Hedda doesn't strike quite the same feminist blow as another of Ibsen's plays (A Doll's House, where the Nora just leaves), but that's why Hedda is here. This play demonstrates incontrovertibly Ibsen's determination to make his audiences consider feminist issues in the 19th century by presenting them with such a grim outcome.
14. The Homecoming by Harold Pinter
A guy brings home his girlfriend to meet the family. It's a simple premise that Pinter turns into a debatable conundrum as he makes action and dialogue concurrently realistic and opaque, both ordinary and menacing. Much of this has to do with the fabled "Pinter Pause," which simply mirrors the way we often respond to each other in conversation, tossing in remainders of thoughts on one subject well after having moved on to another.
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15. Machinal by Sophie Treadwell
Expressionism and feminism collide in this 1928 play that explores how many women were just disposable objects as the last century dawned. For the heroine of this sometimes-harrowing play, life moves from an office job to marriage to the electric chair with cruel intensity. It's become a mainstay of both the stage and the classroom for good reason.
16. Fences by August Wilson
Theoretically any of Wilson's 10 plays chronicling the African-American experience in Pittsburgh during the last century would easily fit onto this list, but this one stands apart from the others because of its tremendous heart and its commanding central figure who reaches almost tragic dimensions. It's little wonder that the play, set in the 1950s and centering on a former Negro league baseball pitcher struggling to provide for his family and battling against his bitterness, has attracted actors such as James Earl Jones and Denzel Washington.
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17. Uncle Vanya by Anton Chekhov
Why Vanya and not The Seagull or Cherry Orchard or Three Sisters, you may ask? Ultimately, for me, this one comes down to scope. All of Chekhov's meticulously observed plays find both the comedy and tragedy in ordinary lives. What sets this one apart from the others is its relative quietness as it looks at small crises in an extended family's everyday existence, becoming something of a benchmark for brooding family drama.
18. Tartuffe by Moliere
Simultaneously riotous and scathing, this comedy explores and exposes the hypocrisy that can often lie underneath religious fervor and the lengths to which a zealot's followers will go to protect him or her and their beliefs. The play might have been originally written as an indictment of members of Louis XIV's court, but this satire has the ability to speak to almost any age.
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19. What the Butler Saw by Joe Orton
With this play Orton takes the British sex farce (and to a lesser extent the British procedural) to the dark side as the insanities of a mental health clinic rise to both bizarre and hilarious heights. Orton tackles everything from sexual and gender politics to governmental ineptitude in this iconoclastic play from the late 1960s that seems particularly apt for revival right now.
20. Uncommon Women and Others by Wendy Wasserstein
Wasserstein won the Pulitzer for The Heidi Chronicles, but well before that look at life in post-feminist America she wrote this touchingly funny play about a group of Mount Holyoke alums traversing feminism's second wave. As the piece works backward through time from 1978 to 1972, what emerges is a cunning portrait of women during a period when possibilities seemed both infinite and curiously limited.
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21. This Is Our Youth by Kenneth Lonergan
Lonergan's play about a trio of young people hanging out, squabbling over a coke deal, and looking for some sense of direction in the early years of the Reagan era follows in the footsteps of the British "angry young man" plays. The fact that it premiered about 10 years after the period in which it's set gave (and gives) this funny/sad piece a haunting resonance for Gen Xers.
22. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead by Tom Stoppard
What happened when Hamlet wasn't at the forefront of events in Elsinore? It's not a question that many would have considered, but leave it to Stoppard's fertile brain to latch onto the question and answer it with a rip-roaring riff on a classic. His ability to mirror the events of his source material and echo its existentialist themes only makes R&G more impressive. It's another debut work whose promise was fulfilled repeatedly over the years, in plays ranging from Arcadia to Jumpers and the elephantine Coast of Utopia trilogy.
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23. The Normal Heart by Larry Kramer
The energy and anger of a community—and the playwright himself—make this play about the earliest days of the AIDS crisis vibrate with passion and intensity even 30 years after its premiere. Kramer's achievement in this snapshot of events from the early 1980s is twofold: It works as a standalone drama for the ages and retains its edge as a damning piece of political theater from the shameful period in the country's history.
24. Topdog/Underdog by Suzan-Lori Parks
Critics and audiences alike had come to savor Parks' ability to challenge our ideas about race, history, and relationships with poetic and often opaque plays before this 2001 piece debuted. Her unique gifts coalesced and found a wider audience with this play about two brothers (named Booth and Lincoln) whose existences are irrevocably and tragically intertwined. It's a drama that works both as a family drama and as profound investigation about the legacy of slavery. Small wonder it’s a Pulitzer winner.
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25. Candida by George Bernard Shaw
What to do about Shaw? So many of his plays zing as comedies and also still work as social commentary. Looking over his canon (pun sort of intended), it struck me that this one of the "Plays Pleasant" series might be most important. It's a simple play, about a young poet who thinks he needs to "rescue" a woman away from her clergyman husband, that bristles with Shavian wit and pointed political and social debate, ultimately shimmering as a shrewd consideration of love and marriage in Victorian England—or really any period.
26. Playboy of the Western World by J.M. Synge
The Aristotelian notion that a tragic hero needs to be noble gets thrown out the window in this play about a man who's heralded as a hero for having killed his father in self-defense only to be reviled by those who had cheered him when it turns out the old man was only wounded. The play sparked riots when it premiered in 1907, and while it no longer has the ability to inspire that level of passion, the play is a touchstone for the sort of dark Irish dramas we now expect from the likes of Conor McPherson and Martin McDonagh.
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27. The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde
This quintessential comedy of manners has retained its ability to tickle audiences for over 100 years. It's also been an inspiration for numerous writers who have adapted it to suit changing times. Wilde's unparalleled ability to spin cutting epigrams is only one of the reasons that this piece has endured. There's also his genteel mockery of classism and chauvinism. Like the watercress sandwiches that are consumed in the play, it's always a refreshing treat.
28. Awake and Sing! by Clifford Odets
Tensions run high in this play about three generations of a Bronx Jewish family and each one's pursuit of the American Dream. Can one achieve it while also remaining true to one's heritage? It's a question that immigrants have had to ponder in any decade, and as evidenced by the NAATCO revival in 2015 this kitchen-sink drama poignantly transcends race and religion.
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29. The School for Scandal by Richard Brinsley Sheridan
This 18th-century confection skewers the mores and mouths of London's elite as they backstab one another with gossip. It's best served up in an era in which society is itself preying on dirt and innuendo, and for better or worse we're never quite far away from that. Thus, it's a piece that has remained timely and delightful through the centuries.
30. Stuff Happens by David Hare
Hare borrowed a phrase from Donald Rumsfeld and adopted a Shakespearean flair for both fact and fiction for this play about the events that led up to the Iraq War. Parts of the play are taken verbatim speeches, press conferences and meeting transcripts. Other portions are imagined versions of meetings that took place between elected and other government officials. The result was one of the most impressive political dramas to emerge in recent memory.
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31. Life With Father by Howard Lindsay and Russell Crouse
Of all the plays on this list, this might be the "sturdiest" and probably the most old-fashioned. Yet this lithesome comedy about a woman's fears that her husband was never baptized has a unique place in theater annals. Until Fiddler on the Roof came along, Life was the longest-running show in Broadway history, and as late as 1987 it was among the top five long runs. Until a theater is willing to revive it, take a look at the delightful 1947 movie version.
32. Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare
The Bard of Avon is the only writer to get two slots on this list. Twelfth Night has made it because it represents, to me, all of the best elements of Shakespeare's romances: mistaken identities, low comedy among the servants, and some of his most gorgeous poetry. The cross-dressing of one character also gives the play, for modern audiences, a homoerotic vibe, and this aspect, combined with a certain darkness in the end, makes the play feel unquestionably contemporary.
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33. Cloud 9 by Caryl Churchill
The lives of the British elite in Victorian-era India and among a group of modern-day Londoners have striking similarities in this gender-bending play. Churchill brings both humor and compassion to her characters and their worlds, and in the process creates a play that can concurrently move theatergoers emotionally and provoke thought. Originally seen in 1979, the play established a new benchmark for theatrical conversations about race and gender politics.
34. Volpone by Ben Jonson
An already wealthy man sets out to increase his fortune by duping his friends into thinking he's at death's door. Avaricious as he is, they all shower him with presents with the expectation that they'll receive his money when he dies. Garrulously sexual and wildly satiric (the characters' Italianate names are references to animals ranging from fox to crow to vulture), this comedy has lasted simply because we have yet to live in an era in which greed has gone out of style.
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35. Ruined by Lynn Nottage
Inspired by another play on the list (Brecht's Mother Courage), this play expands on the idea of a woman earning her wages off the war and places it squarely in the 20th century and in particular the middle of the civil war–torn Congolese republic. Nottage's prize-winning play depicts with warmth and reality the desperate plight that women faced during the war, and rather than condemning the central character's actions, the play boldly allows audiences to see that in desperate times unbearable and unthinkable choices must be made.
36. Our Town by Thornton Wilder
So homespun. So traditional. It's taught to teenagers around the country. Yet this 1938 work was a game-changer. Wilder did away with sets, brought a "stage manager" in front of the audience to help move them through the New England town of Grover's Corners, and in the process created a transcendent play about human existence, from cradle to, quite literally, grave. It's a work that has inspired generations of writers and moved theatergoers around the world.
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37. The Vortex by Noël Coward
Yes, everyone thinks about the frothy farces Private Lives and Blithe Spirit when Sir Noël Coward's name comes up, but here's the one that made his reputation. It's a potboiler of sorts that exposes the extravagance of British youth during the height of the Jazz Age and the privileged Edwardian culture that gave rise to them and their behavior. Drug abuse and a hefty dose of Oedipal love spice up the drama, and all the while Coward's dry wit sparkles.
38. She Stoops to Conquer by Oliver Goldsmith
This 18th-century comedy makes the list because of its enduring popularity (we don't see many plays from the era over and over) and because it is a clever amalgam of a host of theatrical comedic genres, encompassing romance, satire, and farce. It's these different aspects that have allowed the piece to endure through the centuries, each speaking with a clear voice to new generations.
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39. Mother Courage and Her Children by Bertolt Brecht
This saga about a woman who makes her living from the soldiers fighting on both sides of the Thirty Years War has proven remarkably versatile since its premiere in 1939. Brecht's depiction of how Courage's business tears her three adult children from her has been reset in periods and on continents far away from its original location of Europe, thanks to the story's universal themes about war profiteers and the human cost of warfare.
40. John by Annie Baker
A couple takes refuge in a small bed and breakfast after spending holidays with the woman's family. Tensions run high between them, and while the charming tchotchke-filled inn might seem to be the place where frayed nerves could be soothed, it proves to be anything but. Baker's simultaneously warmhearted and spooky play proves to be a heartbreaker, investigating the infinitesimal moments that combine to propel all of our lives and relationships.
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41. Clybourne Park by Bruce Norris
In this 2010 dramedy Norris takes audiences into the Chicago house that is the focus of the Younger family's dreams and aspirations in Lorraine Hansberry's A Raisin in the Sun, both in the days preceding that family's potential move there and then, five decades later. In the process he provides shrewd insights into the delicate threads that tie a community together and the stronger forces of bigotry and self-interest that can brutally snap them. This Pulitzer Prize winner remarkably expands upon a landmark drama with crackling humor and insight.
42. Master Harold…and the boys by Athol Fugard
The Signature Theatre Company's recent revival of this 1982 play set in 1950s South Africa demonstrated that it still has the power to move audiences. Originally banned in Fugard's homeland, the play—about a white teenager and the two African men who work for his parents as servants—systematically depicts and denounces the psychological and governmental prejudices and divides that Apartheid visited upon generations.
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43. The Women by Claire Booth Luce
The lives and loves of Upper East Side society doyennes get put under the microscope in this 1936 play. Luce's willingness to depict the women's bitchiness and the characters' dependence on the men in their lives has made some think of it as being antithetical to the feminist movement. Ultimately, though, the piece, which has an all-female cast, does reveal the women's individual and collective strengths, striking, if not a feminist blow, a pro-female stance.
44. The Humans by Stephen Karam
In this acclaimed drama a family's seemingly innocuous Thanksgiving gathering on the Lower East Side beats in tune with the tense pulse of the country as fears about financial security, aging, relationships, and more bubble to the service. A quiet rumination in the style of Chekhov or Thornton Wilder, the play quickly moved from its berth Off Broadway to one on Broadway, where it served as an eerie reflection of a nation.
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45. M Butterfly by David Henry Hwang
Sometimes truth is indeed stranger than fiction, as was demonstrated by the real-life story of a French diplomat who maintained a sexual relationship with a male Peking opera singer for years, all the while remaining oblivious to the performer's gender. Hwang astutely saw the story's theatrical possibilities and created a piece that thrillingly explores racial and sexual stereotypes. It was a groundbreaker in 1988 and, among other honors, was a finalist for the Pulitzer.
46. Fefu and Her Friends by María Irene Fornés
Fornés impact on playwriting cannot be underestimated, not one but two generations of Latino and Latina playwrights studied with the dramatist. Although her 14th play, Fefu and Her Friends was Fornés breakthrough work, simultaneously naturalistic and presentational as it depicts a gathering of women in various locations over the course of a day. Because of its demands on theatermakers, we don't see it often, but when Fefu is produced it’s a reminder that interactive and environmental theater started well before Sleep No More.
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47. Short Eyes by Miguel Pinero
From one of the co-founders of the Nuyorican Poets Café, Short Eyes plunges its audiences into gritty realities of life behind bars. Pinero's own incarceration at Sing Sing inspired many pieces of the drama that eventually hit Broadway in 1974 (courtesy of Joseph Papp and the New York Shakespeare Festival), where it picked up a bevy of award nominations, becoming the first play by a Latino writer to be nominated for a Tony Award as best play.
48. Everyman by Unknown
Although this medieval morality play rarely takes to the stage anymore, its position of importance in theatrical history cannot be underestimated. At a time when plays were pageants that reenacted stories from the bible, this one incorporated a fictional narrative to serve up roughly the same lessons (or morals). Is it Marlowe or Shakespeare? No. But it did pave the way for these poet-dramatists and many others.
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49. Dutchman by LeRoi Jones
In 1964 this play about a white woman and an African-American man's encounter on the New York City subway unflinchingly explored race relations not just in Manhattan but also across the country. Both naturalistic and allegorical, the play continues to pulse with urgency, as was evidenced in a 2007 revival at the Cherry Lane Theatre that starred Dulé Hill.
50. The Persians by Aeschylus
This tragedy about a Persian king's disastrous war against the Greeks is the oldest play that we know in Western drama. Theatrical day one, so to speak. Beyond the play being the starting point for drama as we know it, the piece can also have exceptional timeliness in today's world. Aeschylus' depiction of a son attempting to wage a war against an enemy who defeated his father certainly had resonance during the second Bush presidency. | It's become a mainstay of both the stage and the classroom for good reason.
16. Fences by August Wilson
Theoretically any of Wilson's 10 plays chronicling the African-American experience in Pittsburgh during the last century would easily fit onto this list, but this one stands apart from the others because of its tremendous heart and its commanding central figure who reaches almost tragic dimensions. It's little wonder that the play, set in the 1950s and centering on a former Negro league baseball pitcher struggling to provide for his family and battling against his bitterness, has attracted actors such as James Earl Jones and Denzel Washington.
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17. Uncle Vanya by Anton Chekhov
Why Vanya and not The Seagull or Cherry Orchard or Three Sisters, you may ask? Ultimately, for me, this one comes down to scope. All of Chekhov's meticulously observed plays find both the comedy and tragedy in ordinary lives. What sets this one apart from the others is its relative quietness as it looks at small crises in an extended family's everyday existence, becoming something of a benchmark for brooding family drama.
18. Tartuffe by Moliere
Simultaneously riotous and scathing, this comedy explores and exposes the hypocrisy that can often lie underneath religious fervor and the lengths to which a zealot's followers will go to protect him or her and their beliefs. The play might have been originally written as an indictment of members of Louis XIV's court, but this satire has the ability to speak to almost any age.
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19. What the Butler Saw by Joe Orton
With this play Orton takes the British sex farce (and to a lesser extent the British procedural) to the dark side as the insanities of a mental health clinic rise to both bizarre and hilarious heights. Orton tackles everything from sexual and gender politics to governmental ineptitude in this iconoclastic play from the late 1960s that seems particularly apt for revival right now.
20. | yes |
Theater | Did Anton Chekhov consider his plays as comedies? | yes_statement | "anton" chekhov "considered" his "plays" as "comedies".. chekhov regarded his "plays" as "comedies". | https://www.wbur.org/news/2014/03/21/seagull-huntington | The Huntington's 'Seagull' — A Chekhov Production That Would ... | Support
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The Huntington's 'Seagull' — A Chekhov Production That Would Make Anton Smile
Kate Burton and Marc Vietor in "The Seagull" at the Huntington Theatre Company. (T. Charles Erickson)
BOSTON – Is there a cosmic reason for so many Chekhov plays around here recently? Or are we just glad to see him under any circumstances?
I tend to think the latter, particularly when the adaptation of “The Seagull” is just what the doctor ordered — Anton was a physician as well as one of the fathers of modern theater. The late Paul Schmidt’s translations are the best in a very big business, and the Huntington Theatre Company knows exactly what to do with his superb “Seagull” (through April 6).
Too many Chekhov productions are overly respectful of the literariness of Chekov, the older women a little too diva-ish, the men a little tortured and far too stiff, the interplay overly formal. A little bit like Woody Allen’s “A Midsummer Night’s Sex Comedy” without the comedy (never mind the sex).
Auden Thornton and Morgan Ritchie (and a very dead title character) in "The Seagull" at the Huntington Theatre Company. (T. Charles Erickson)
Schmidt’s translations are loaded with comedy, and there’s a noticeable lack of stiffness. Maria Aitken’s direction captures the basic tenor of the translation and adds some sparkle of her own. Having such a talented cast doesn’t hurt. (“The Seagull” was supposed to be directed by former Huntington honcho Nicholas Martin, who fell ill, but he’ll be back next season with Christopher Durang’s Chekhov takeoff, “Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike,” which he directed in New York. Here’s the Huntington season.)
So what makes this Chekhov different from others? Almost everyone in the play is in love with someone other than the person who loves them, a fact that weighs each of them down. But how weighed down should the audience be? Not as much as they usually are since Chekhov often called his plays comedies.
Here are the cast and crew talking about "the human comedy."
That doesn’t mean his plays are early 20th century versions of “Girls”; they’re often tragic and always elegiac. When Nancy Carroll’s Paulina Andreyevna rips up her flowers because she’s stuck with her dopey husband instead of the sophisticated doctor, it’s funny because it’s so human. Ditto Kate Burton’s Arkadina with her never-ending attempts to be the prettiest cougar in Russia.
For all their manipulations, there’s the Chekhovian sense that it’s all for naught. Not only are we here for just a speck of eternity, but all our pleasures are fleeting and our lives absurd. Trigorin, Arkadina’s lover, knows he will desert her for younger blood and then destroy Nina, but Ted Koch’s Keitel-like performance makes him as pitiable as the two women he’ll inevitably leave.
No one, though, is more tragic than Morgan Ritchie, Burton’s son in real life, as Konstantin, the artist whose vision exceeds his grasp and whose love is the most genuine emotion on stage. I was at first put off by the lack of charisma in his performance. Actors often go to town on the misunderstood artist. Yet it’s a performance that has stayed with me; his understatement reflects his sadness in a way that's impossible to dismiss.
Ted Koch and Auden Thornton in "The Seagull." (T. Charles Erickson)
It’s really a terrific ensemble, all around. Carroll, Thomas Derrah and Nael Nacer do Boston’s acting community proud. They all luxuriate in Ralph Funicello’s lakeside set, which seems equally comforting and doom-laden.
This certainly doesn’t mean that the Huntington’s way — the Schmidt-Aitken-Martin way — is the only means to get at Chekhov. Just recently we’ve seen the wildly creative Baryshnikov Productions “Man In A Case” at ArtsEmerson and “The Cherry Orchard” by Actors’ Shakespeare Project at the Dane Estate at Pine Manor College (I didn’t join in the lovefest for the latter.) And the Harbor Stage Company brought its more visceral, stripped-down “Seagull” to the Modern Theatre this season as well. Add translations of Chekhov by David Mamet, Tom Stoppard and Annie Baker to the canon and it’s obvious there’s more than one way to skin Chekhov.
Still, Schmidt offers such a soulful, modern way into the Russian master, and the Huntington walks that path seamlessly.
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So what makes this Chekhov different from others? Almost everyone in the play is in love with someone other than the person who loves them, a fact that weighs each of them down. But how weighed down should the audience be? Not as much as they usually are since Chekhov often called his plays comedies.
Here are the cast and crew talking about "the human comedy. "
That doesn’t mean his plays are early 20th century versions of “Girls”; they’re often tragic and always elegiac. When Nancy Carroll’s Paulina Andreyevna rips up her flowers because she’s stuck with her dopey husband instead of the sophisticated doctor, it’s funny because it’s so human. Ditto Kate Burton’s Arkadina with her never-ending attempts to be the prettiest cougar in Russia.
For all their manipulations, there’s the Chekhovian sense that it’s all for naught. Not only are we here for just a speck of eternity, but all our pleasures are fleeting and our lives absurd. Trigorin, Arkadina’s lover, knows he will desert her for younger blood and then destroy Nina, but Ted Koch’s Keitel-like performance makes him as pitiable as the two women he’ll inevitably leave.
No one, though, is more tragic than Morgan Ritchie, Burton’s son in real life, as Konstantin, the artist whose vision exceeds his grasp and whose love is the most genuine emotion on stage. I was at first put off by the lack of charisma in his performance. Actors often go to town on the misunderstood artist. Yet it’s a performance that has stayed with me; his understatement reflects his sadness in a way that's impossible to dismiss.
Ted Koch and Auden Thornton in "The Seagull." (T. Charles Erickson)
It’s really a terrific ensemble, all around. Carroll, Thomas Derrah and Nael Nacer do Boston’s acting community proud. They all luxuriate in Ralph Funicello’s lakeside set, which seems equally comforting and doom-laden.
This certainly doesn’ | yes |
Theater | Did Anton Chekhov consider his plays as comedies? | yes_statement | "anton" chekhov "considered" his "plays" as "comedies".. chekhov regarded his "plays" as "comedies". | https://www.broadstreetreview.com/articles/hedgerow-theatre-company-presents-anton-chekhovs-three-sisters | Hedgerow Theatre Company presents Anton Chekhov's 'Three ... | What did Chekhov know?
Hedgerow Theatre Company presents Anton Chekhov’s ‘Three Sisters’
A family party without a secret? Sophia Barret and Marcus Barainyak in Hedgerow’s ‘Three Sisters.’ (Photo by Wide Eyed Studios.)
Onstage at Hedgerow Theatre, the eponymous three sisters, along with their brother Andréi (Adam Altman), are stranded in the Russian countryside after the death of their father and cope over four acts and four years with an almost shockingly millennial set of problems.
They're overeducated and underemployed, crushed by debt, and in bad relationships with the wrong people; their jobs suck; and for all the talk of a brighter future on the horizon, nothing seems to be getting much better.
No terrible secrets?
Chekhov's great innovation in the theater was his notion that the boring parts of life could also be interesting, and under Harriet Power's meticulous direction, a set of excellent performances unlocks the real depth behind the seemingly mundane details of lives that don't normally make it onto the stage — a boisterous birthday dinner during which no terrible family secrets are revealed; a pointless argument over a misheard pun; late-night drunken philosophizing that, if it goes anywhere, doesn't go very far. Sarah Ruhl's translation, which dispenses with many of the archaisms that haunt earlier versions, reveals a serio-comic masterpiece, a languid, bittersweet foray into lives held in a kind of perpetual suspension.
Chekhov famously considered most of his plays comedies, or at least comic, where everyone else saw tragedy. Between his piercing eye for character and the spate of sharp, sly performances, you could be forgiven for imagining that Three Sisters is a satire, an incisive look into how absurd it is for a family of bourgeois layabouts to think their lives the stuff of great tragedies. But there is a specter haunting the play: James F. Pyne's set, taking full advantage of Hedgerow's old bones as a 180-year-old mill, shows the house of the Prózorovs as decaying and dilapidated, the family colonizing a ruin.
Of all the characters, it's Jared Reed's Colonel Vershínin who seems most out of place. His quavering, soft-spoken sincerity seems brought in from another interpretation of the play, one that is quite serious, and raises a question about Chekhov’s omnipresent sense of doom.
It's impossible for us, having lived through the bloody birth of a century that Chekhov had never seen and could scarcely imagine, to forget what's coming for the Prózorovs in 1900. Vershínin and fellow officer Baron Túzenbach (Owen Corey) wax poetic about what the future might hold, whether it's Vershínin's misty-eyed vision of human progress or Túzenbach's hard-headed proto-Bolshevism that sees everything mostly the same, except for a "hurricane" that will sweep idleness away and leave everyone to spend their lives doing meaningful work.
What never occurs to them, or to Ray Saraceni's nihilistic doctor Chebutýkin, is the possibility that things could actually get much worse. Characters wonder if they'll recognize each other in 10 or 15 or 20 years, but what's on the horizon 20 years from 1900? A Great War that will kill more than a million Russians and a revolution that will utterly reshape society. A second war and millions more deaths. Famines. Purges. Pogroms.
The anticipation of the past
Chekhov couldn't have known any of this, but did he have an intimation of it? Did he realize that the brutal, bloody empire atop which the Tsar sat, which his lovingly rendered soldiers were building corpse by corpse by corpse, must necessarily lead to global catastrophe? Is Chekhov in on the joke, letting us lament the gentle decline of minor provincial aristocrats like it’s something from Euripides, knowing that a real doom — something far more terrible — was on its way? Or was he blind to it, the same way the postwar America that idolized him was blind to the bloody-handed violence that had built its security?
My feeling is that it's the second one, which is why I'm always ambivalent about Chekhov. This is a good production of a classic play, but it doesn't satisfy in the way that the classics often do, by reminding us of the great contiguity between past and present. Instead, what Chekhov and his characters' conspicuous blindness leads us inevitably toward is a future, both unknowable in its specific character and quite knowable in its potential for blood and cruelty. There's no catharsis here or even a final gag that renders the whole thing absurd, just a kind of sickening anticipation, a sense of dread that can never quite be banished. | What did Chekhov know?
Hedgerow Theatre Company presents Anton Chekhov’s ‘Three Sisters’
A family party without a secret? Sophia Barret and Marcus Barainyak in Hedgerow’s ‘Three Sisters.’ (Photo by Wide Eyed Studios.)
Onstage at Hedgerow Theatre, the eponymous three sisters, along with their brother Andréi (Adam Altman), are stranded in the Russian countryside after the death of their father and cope over four acts and four years with an almost shockingly millennial set of problems.
They're overeducated and underemployed, crushed by debt, and in bad relationships with the wrong people; their jobs suck; and for all the talk of a brighter future on the horizon, nothing seems to be getting much better.
No terrible secrets?
Chekhov's great innovation in the theater was his notion that the boring parts of life could also be interesting, and under Harriet Power's meticulous direction, a set of excellent performances unlocks the real depth behind the seemingly mundane details of lives that don't normally make it onto the stage — a boisterous birthday dinner during which no terrible family secrets are revealed; a pointless argument over a misheard pun; late-night drunken philosophizing that, if it goes anywhere, doesn't go very far. Sarah Ruhl's translation, which dispenses with many of the archaisms that haunt earlier versions, reveals a serio-comic masterpiece, a languid, bittersweet foray into lives held in a kind of perpetual suspension.
Chekhov famously considered most of his plays comedies, or at least comic, where everyone else saw tragedy. Between his piercing eye for character and the spate of sharp, sly performances, you could be forgiven for imagining that Three Sisters is a satire, an incisive look into how absurd it is for a family of bourgeois layabouts to think their lives the stuff of great tragedies. | yes |
Theater | Did Anton Chekhov consider his plays as comedies? | yes_statement | "anton" chekhov "considered" his "plays" as "comedies".. chekhov regarded his "plays" as "comedies". | https://tvtropes.org/pmwiki/pmwiki.php/Creator/AntonChekhov | Anton Chekhov (Creator) - TV Tropes | Creator /
Anton Chekhov
Edit Locked
"If in the first act you have hung a rifle on the wall, then in the following one it should be fired. Otherwise don't put it there."
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (Russian: Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов; 29 January 1860 15 July 1904) was a Russian short-story writer, playwright and physician in the turn of The 20th Century. He's best known for his dramatic works, and especially his four major plays: The Seagull, Three Sisters, Uncle Vanya and The Cherry Orchard. His plays seem to be nearly-plotless character studies. Although they're often about how depressed people are with the lives they lead, Chekhov referred to his plays as Comedies (aside from Three Sisters). His main objective with his work was to get people to see the pain in their lives and make a change. He worked as a doctor most of his life, and there are many doctors as characters in his work. His plays were not well-received initially, and he almost gave up writing after the first production of The Seagull was a bomb... and then it was revived four years later by the Moscow Art Theater and was a huge smash hit.
He had some of the greatest last words ever: "It has been a long time since I tasted champagne," right after his last sip.
He is strongly associated with Stanislavski (the grandfather of Method acting), who considered himself the expert on Chekhov's plays. Chekhov disagreed, as Stanislavski insisted on playing Chekhov's comedies completely straight.
At the age of 20, he wrote a short story called "What's Most Commonly Found In Novels, Novellas etc.". That's right, the guy created a short prototype for TV Tropes!
Other works by Anton Chekov contain examples of:
In the short story "The Bet", after a discussion at a party about whether execution or imprisonment is more humane, a young lawyer makes a bet with a Morally Bankrupt Banker that he can remain in solitary confinement for 15 years. If he wins, he gets 2 million rubles, but if he loses, the banker believes that he will have wasted 15 years of his life.
Subverted when the banker finds himself substantially poorer, and even contemplates going into the cell and killing the lawyer, only to enter the cell and read the letter the lawyer has written, stating that through the books he has read and the music he enjoyed in confinement, his imagination has allowed him to vicariously enjoy greater pleasures and achieve marvelous feats (in his imagination). The lawyer, fifteen years older and wiser, leaves the cell five minutes before the contract is set to expire, willfully renouncing the banker's wager of two million rubles and rejecting the foolish vanities of wealth, which brings relief to the banker who would have gone broke if the lawyer decided to stay the whole time and take the money.
Delusions of Eloquence: Informed example — the narrator of the short story "Peasants" characterizes the "hetman" of the village, saying that he is unable to read but had acquired "bookish expressions." The reader never hears much of his speech but is left to imagine that it would be much like this.
Go Mad from the Isolation: In "The Bet", the banker wagers 2 million rubles that the lawyer wouldn't last 5 years in an isolated cell; the lawyer raises the term of confinement to 15 years. During the first year, the lawyer endures loneliness and boredom, according to his notes. Later, in the fifth year, he doesn't eat or drink, lies on his bed, and is seen yawning and muttering angrily to himself and crying, according to people who see and hear him from the window. Near the end of the final year of confinement, the lawyer has become little more than skin and bones, has long gray hair, a shaggy beard, and pale, yellowed skin. The banker considers smothering him to death to put him out of misery, until he finds a letter the lawyer has written in which he despises freedom, life, health, and what the books call the blessings of the world. In his imagination, the lawyer has seen incredible sights of nature, worked miracles, murdered, burned cities, preached new religions, and conquered kingdoms and empires. He ultimately despises the blessings of this world and its wisdom, and he plans to leave before the appointed time, forfeiting his wealth.
Gone Horribly Right: In the short story "Put too Much Salt", a traveler riding a mailcoach is scared of the large and rough driver and tries to scare him. The traveller sort-of-casually mentions how badass he is, how many weapons he carries, how he loves to fight and that several armed friends will be joining him midway to the next station. The driver thinks he's a bandit and runs away. Leaving the coach in the winter forest in the middle of nowhere with sunset approaching. Fortunately, the driver only hid within earshot and the traveler managed to persuade him it all was a joke.
Good Adultery, Bad Adultery: A common trope in some of Chekov's stories is that people in unhappy marriages end up finding love in affairs, although notable exceptions exist
In The Butterfly, while Olga seemed to genuinely love her husband, she entered into an affair with another man. Said affair was miserable for both parties, yet neither Olga nor her partner would cut it off. Olgas husband Dymov would find out about it, yet he believed it was his own fault, and as you might expect their marriage severely suffered. Dymov was a doctor and was working with a patient one day when he contracted his illness. Olga upon learning of this, realizes she wasted their marriage with someone who made her miserable while neglecting someone she actually did love. She's determined to turn things around, but alas it is too late and the illness takes Dymovs life.
Happiness in Slavery: "Peasants" follows a trend of late nineteenth century Russian literature to depict the serfs as having been better off before emancipation.
Nothing but Skin and Bones: Near the end of "The Bet", the banker goes in to check on the lawyer, and discovers that the lawyer's haggard appearance: his beard and hair are grey, a yellowish face, sunken cheeks, a long and narrow back, and bony hands. In addition, the lawyer is now about 40 years old.
Self-Restraint: In "The Bet", a young lawyer bets that he could survive fifteen years in a prison, and an older banker offers him a large sum of money if he can spend the whole time in his garden house — a prison with no locks or bars, with only a guard to report that the lawyer has escaped and thus forfeited the bet.
Was It Really Worth It?: In "The Bet", the young lawyer makes the wager that he can endure 15 years of imprisonment to prove whether imprisonment is more humane than execution. Near the end of the wager, the lawyer has accumulated wisdom from reading the books throughout the years, but when the banker goes to check on him, he has become an old, haggard skeleton-like human with his overgrown grey hair and beard, yellowish skin, sunken cheeks, a long and narrow back, and bony hands. During this time of imprisonment, the lawyer has spent 15 years of his life in voluntary confinement, is about 40 years old, and in addition to his accumulated knowledge, his body has turned into Nothing but Skin and Bones, and might possibly acquire dementia.
Why Won't You Die?: In "The Bet", as the banker's wager is about to reach its conclusion, the banker finds his fortunes have greatly declined from risky investments on the Exchange and bad investments. Lampshaded by the banker, who is at risk of nearly going bankrupt and losing two million rubles to the lawyer:
"That cursed bet... Why didn't the man die? He's only forty years old. He will take away my last farthing, marry, enjoy life, gamble on the Exchange, and I will look on like an envious beggar and hear the same words from him every day: 'I'm obliged to you for the happiness of my life. Let me help you.' No, it's too much! The only escape from bankruptcy and disgraceis that the man should die." | Creator /
Anton Chekhov
Edit Locked
"If in the first act you have hung a rifle on the wall, then in the following one it should be fired. Otherwise don't put it there. "
Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (Russian: Анто́н Па́влович Че́хов; 29 January 1860 15 July 1904) was a Russian short-story writer, playwright and physician in the turn of The 20th Century. He's best known for his dramatic works, and especially his four major plays: The Seagull, Three Sisters, Uncle Vanya and The Cherry Orchard. His plays seem to be nearly-plotless character studies. Although they're often about how depressed people are with the lives they lead, Chekhov referred to his plays as Comedies (aside from Three Sisters). His main objective with his work was to get people to see the pain in their lives and make a change. He worked as a doctor most of his life, and there are many doctors as characters in his work. His plays were not well-received initially, and he almost gave up writing after the first production of The Seagull was a bomb... and then it was revived four years later by the Moscow Art Theater and was a huge smash hit.
He had some of the greatest last words ever: "It has been a long time since I tasted champagne," right after his last sip.
He is strongly associated with Stanislavski (the grandfather of Method acting), who considered himself the expert on Chekhov's plays. Chekhov disagreed, as Stanislavski insisted on playing Chekhov's comedies completely straight.
At the age of 20, he wrote a short story called "What's Most Commonly Found In Novels, Novellas etc.". That's right, the guy created a short prototype for TV Tropes!
Other works by Anton Chekov contain examples of:
In the short story "The Bet", after a discussion at a party about whether execution or imprisonment is more humane, a young lawyer makes a bet with a Morally Bankrupt Banker that he can remain in solitary confinement for 15 years. | yes |
Theater | Did Anton Chekhov consider his plays as comedies? | yes_statement | "anton" chekhov "considered" his "plays" as "comedies".. chekhov regarded his "plays" as "comedies". | https://artsfuse.org/103181/fuse-theater-review-a-languid-seagull-at-the-huntington-theatre-company/ | Theater Review: A Languid "Seagull" at the Huntington Theatre ... | Theater Review: A Languid “Seagull” at the Huntington Theatre Company
I do not remember disliking the characters in Anton Chekhov’s “The Seagull” as much as I did in this production.
The Seagull by Anton Chekhov. Translated from the Russian by Paul Schmidt. Directed by Maria Aitken. Staged by the Huntington Theatre Company at the BU Theatre, Boston, MA, through April 6.
Auden Thornton as Nina and Morgan Ritchie as Konstantin in the Huntington Theatre Company production of “The Seagull.” Photo: T. Charles Erickson.
By Iris Fanger
This endless winter, coupled with an elusive spring, has come with major stagings of two plays by Anton Chekhov in the Boston area: Actors’ Shakespeare Theater production of The Cherry Orchard, and the Huntington Theatre Company’s The Seagull, currently on the boards. Given the grayness of our skies, and the drag on our psyches of the omnipresent cold and snow, the distinctive Chekhovian atmosphere — with its impatience for a change that never comes — is irritatingly relevant.
Chekhov’s dramas (or comedies as he considered them) take place in the country where the days, months and years drag on, each like the other, at least in the minds of the people who are mired there. He lived on a small estate outside of Moscow, and, at the end of his life, in Yalta, but he loved to travel, a desire mirrored by many of his characters. The people he created are stuck in the rural parts of Russia where the winters are harsh and dark; the summers are a time of pervasive light and social encounters, embellished as the characters age by outsized memories of the sunshine and its possibilities. The stifled hopes of their lives only heightens their nostalgia for a carefree life that never was. Unlike Chekhov, who worked continually up to his death from tuberculosis in 1904, many of the people in his plays do nothing at all.
Although The Cherry Orchard has a central narrative through-line, The Seagull covers varied subjects: the plight of of talent versus the general acclamation of mediocrity by the marketplace, the ruination of an innocent young woman, the inability of unhappy people to take actions leading to change, and the gulf between the haves and have-nots, in terms of personal fulfillment. The milieu of the countryside, the lake and the trees surrounding the manor house, in contrast to the latter’s stuffy, faded rooms, looms over all, as if the ongoing cycle of life in Mother Russia remained both the central obsession for her people and their determining fate.
Director Maria Aitken has mounted a detailed but generally languid staging of The Seagull, studded by moments when the servants are seen through a scrim at the beginning of each act. At first, the peasants are building the outdoor stage for young Konstantin’s experimental play, at the edge of the lake on his mother and uncle’s property. The other three acts, set inside the house, begin with the unnamed servants bustling around as they re-arrange the furniture for the comfort of the land owners and carry in the samovar for tea. The emphasis on the setting, designed by Ralph Funicello and lighted in varying degrees of shadow by James F. Ingalls, is exactly right because it reminds us of the elemental connection between Chekhov’s plays and the specific time and place in which he lived. We’re not likely to see his works staged in modern dress and set in another country, in contrast to the now routine updating of Shakespeare’s plays.
However, despite the emphasis on the servants and the setting, I do not remember disliking The Seagull‘s major characters as much as as I did in this production. Other than Nina, the glowing young woman, who is a special case, and Dorn, the doctor, who hovers removed from the ineffectual actions of the others, the inhabitants of the estate and its visitors are mostly an unpleasant lot, totally self-absorbed in their own unhappiness. It’s as if they need to be soundly shaken and made to look at the people around them, to recognize other needs than their own narcissistic desires.
Kate Burton as Arkadina in the Huntington Theatre Company production of “The Seagull.” Photo: T. Charles Erickson.
Kate Burton as Arkadina, illuminated by an inner life force that keeps her going, despite her fears of competition and growing old, is as selfish a woman as exists, the character’s egotism emphasized as much by the actress’ gestures and knowing looks as by Chekhov’s dialogue. For all of Arkadina’s beauty and charisma, notably an energy that’s lacking in the other figures, she’s a mean cheapskate, unable to expend her resources or her affections for anyone else’s benefit. No one believes her professed love for her son, whom she keeps as far away from her as possible: he is exiled to the country in order to preserve her fraying self-image of youthfulness. In the HTC production there is too little dramatic connection between her and Konstantin, portrayed by Burton’s son, Morgan Ritchie, a handsome young man who needs some loosening up in the role. Nancy E. Carroll makes the long-suffering Paulina into a memorable cameo.
Ted Koch as Trigorin, the writer taking notes on everything that happens, is Arkadina’s younger lover. He is also the man who ruins Nina’s life and then leaves her. Koch, too, is somewhat bland, except in the brief scene where he draws genuine inspiration from the young woman’s youth and beauty. The only other likable character is Arkadina’s brother, Sorin, played by Tom Derrah as a man who is determined to maintain a vital presence even though he is well past his prime. Despite his protestations of a wasted life, he has emotions to spare for his sister and nephew and is less self-absorbed, although he is circumscribed by his fraility.
The find of the ensemble is Auden Thornton as Nina, blond and delicate, passionate if somewhat vacuous in her pursuit of celebrity by way of an acting career, partly fancying Trigorin for his fame. Chekhov has stacked the deck against her: she’s an orphan left out of her wealthy mother’s will, a questionable talent, and a dreamer whose goals are somewhat specious. However, she is the last one left standing despite her deprivations as the play ends, disheveled but determined to create a career, even if it means working in a third-rate theater in the provinces.
The symbolism of the seagull has always been obvious: carelessly shot by Konstantin in the second act, stuffed, mounted, and then forgotten by Trigorin later on, finally serving as a surrogate image for Nina at the end. Thanks to Tufts University Professor Laurence Senelick, an expert on Russian drama, the mystery of a seagull’s appearance on a land-locked lake in the middle of Russia has been solved. Senelick explains in his excellent Anton Chekhov, The Complete Plays that the word in Russian means “gull,” and that the term “seagull” was the result of translations. One problem in this multi-leveled drama solved, but even for the notoriously nuanced Chekhov the script remains filled with ambiguous meanings and unresolved relationships.
Iris Fanger is a theater and dance critic based in Boston. She has written reviews and feature articles for the Boston Herald, Boston Phoenix, Christian Science Monitor, New York Times, and Patriot Ledger as well as for Dance Magazine and Dancing Times (London).
Former director of the Harvard Summer Dance Center, 1977-1995, she has taught at Lesley Graduate School and Tufts University, as well as Harvard and M.I.T. She received the 2005 Dance Champion Award from the Boston Dance Alliance and in 2008, the Outstanding Career Achievement Award from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Tufts. She lectures widely on dance and theater history. | Chekhov’s dramas (or comedies as he considered them) take place in the country where the days, months and years drag on, each like the other, at least in the minds of the people who are mired there. He lived on a small estate outside of Moscow, and, at the end of his life, in Yalta, but he loved to travel, a desire mirrored by many of his characters. The people he created are stuck in the rural parts of Russia where the winters are harsh and dark; the summers are a time of pervasive light and social encounters, embellished as the characters age by outsized memories of the sunshine and its possibilities. The stifled hopes of their lives only heightens their nostalgia for a carefree life that never was. Unlike Chekhov, who worked continually up to his death from tuberculosis in 1904, many of the people in his plays do nothing at all.
Although The Cherry Orchard has a central narrative through-line, The Seagull covers varied subjects: the plight of of talent versus the general acclamation of mediocrity by the marketplace, the ruination of an innocent young woman, the inability of unhappy people to take actions leading to change, and the gulf between the haves and have-nots, in terms of personal fulfillment. The milieu of the countryside, the lake and the trees surrounding the manor house, in contrast to the latter’s stuffy, faded rooms, looms over all, as if the ongoing cycle of life in Mother Russia remained both the central obsession for her people and their determining fate.
Director Maria Aitken has mounted a detailed but generally languid staging of The Seagull, studded by moments when the servants are seen through a scrim at the beginning of each act. At first, the peasants are building the outdoor stage for young Konstantin’s experimental play, at the edge of the lake on his mother and uncle’s property. | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1987/09/24/sweet-charity-simplicity-wins/cec0094f-3379-4b4d-a8bd-23cb4e4f894d/ | 'SWEET CHARITY' SIMPLICITY WINS - The Washington Post | 'SWEET CHARITY' SIMPLICITY WINS
Bob Fosse, one of the most distinctive and productive forces in the Broadway musical theater, died last night at George Washington University Hospital just before the opening performance of "Sweet Charity," which he had choreographed and directed. He was 60. News of his death was learned after the curtain fell. Details, Page A1.
Considering the state of the art today, you can be forgiven for thinking that the following items are required to make a musical: interlocking turntables, self-propelled towers, electronic drawbridges, laser beams, smoke machines, 30 sets of glowing cats' eyes in a junk heap, a barricade for French revolutionaries to die upon, a spaceship and the paraphernalia from four or more discothe`ques.
Then a show like "Sweet Charity" surges out of the past (it surged last night right into the National Theatre for a four-week run) and you find yourself wondering at what point did we get bogged down in so much clutter.
Whenever a big moment is about to occur in "Sweet Charity," you see, the sets are cleared, the upstage wall is wiped clean of any distracting decoration and the bare stage is reclaimed. It's a kind of housekeeping you don't find in musicals these days, which tend to keep piling up the knickknacks as the evening goes on.
In 1966, however, which is when "Sweet Charity" put in its first appearance on Broadway, musicals were still concerned with making room for the performers. The highlight of a show was not the walls of Jericho tumbling down, but a singer stepping front and center into the empty space. Or a dancer, suddenly freed from all prior restraints, seeing to it that every square inch of unvarnished planking got explored.
By today's technological standards, I suppose, "Sweet Charity" is bound to look quaint to some. It hews to the old patterns, hanging its songs and dances, rather like wash, on a simple story line. The book by Neil Simon -- about a gallant dance hall hostess and her quest for a man who'll do more than wipe his feet on her -- is in the nature of a cartoon strip. Charity Hope Valentine -- since that is her name -- is not one of life's more fascinating creatures. Endearing, yes. Fascinating, no. Unlike "Cabaret," another 1966 musical that coincidentally is playing across town at the Kennedy Center, "Sweet Charity" has no big statements on its mind.
But it knows the value of an open stage.
Watch what happens when Charity -- in the person of Donna McKechnie -- realizes that the phobia-ridden accountant she's been dating actually loves her, wants to marry her even. (No matter that Charity is the essence of wishful thinking, quick to interpret a kick as a caress.) The black panels that frame the show glide open like a camera eye, the backdrop turns sunflower yellow, and McKechnie, feeling like a brass band, is allowed to parade her new-found exhilaration as if on her very own football field.
Before too long, director-choreographer Bob Fosse has added a contingent of male dancers in red and gold uniforms -- strutting proudly, clashing invisible cymbals and slurring imaginary trombones. The chest-swelling excitement produced in the process is so infectious that you may overlook the fact that it is being generated by a handful of performers and the jazzy sounds emanating from the orchestra pit. We are back to musical comedy basics here, and they don't let us down.
Time and changing fashions haven't succeeded in tarnishing the surer assets in "Sweet Charity's" strongbox. The score by Cy Coleman remains the very model of Broadway pizazz, beginning with an overture (remember overtures?) that gets the adrenalin pumping with the first arresting thunderclaps of "Big Spender." "If My Friends Could See Me Now," "Baby Dream Your Dream" and "There's Gotta Be Something Better Than This" are quintessential show tunes and the lyrics by the late Dorothy Fields continue to be sharp and witty, even if some of the slang has quietly passed over the divide.
It was Fosse, however, who gave the show its distinctive stamp. The master of the collective twitch, the extended elbow and the disjointed knee, he brought a new look to Broadway choreography. Recreating his dances (with an unbilled assist from Gwen Verdon, the original Charity), he once again combined the raffishness of the midway barker with the rigor of the geometrician.
Rare, you'll notice, are the dancers who remain perpendicular for long. Fosse couldn't resist pitching them at various obtuse and oblique angles and sending them skittering across the stage -- so many theorems in human form. When we first meet Charity's sister taxi dancers ("social consultant" is how she prefers to describe the profession), they are strung out along a railing, parallel to the footlights, casting their defiantly low-lidded looks at the audience. The limb of one is entwined impossibly around the leg of another, which appears joined to the hip of a third, who has managed to wrap her arm around her own back and is drumming her fingers on her stomach. Contortionists can do as much, I suppose, but they're usually not so aggressively hilarious.
Sooner or later, however, "Sweet Charity" comes down to the dear girl herself, or the actress who's playing her. She is the perpetually broken heart of the show, and her travails in the boudoir of an Italian movie star, a stalled elevator or a Coney Island parachute jump arrested in mid-descent are of interest only to the extent they reveal her dogged vulnerability. McKechnie's kewpie doll looks are certainly tailored for the part. She has a stunningly expressive body. She is even a convincing actress -- not that the role of Charity is Medea.
But she lacks that indefinable star charisma, a presence greater than the sum of her gifts. Verdon not only inhabited the show, she also transcended it. You can't fault McKechnie for what she's doing. But she does appear vaguely imprisoned in the sketches that pass for scenes. Unable to carry the show on her shapely shoulders, she scores instead with her legs. More than 10 years after "A Chorus Line" made them famous, they can still do great things.
Stephanie Pope and Lenora Nemetz are solid brass, as two of the tougher tootsies in the Fan-Dango Ballroom, and James Stovall lends a shine to "Rhythm of Life," a bit of revivalist fervor that serves no other purpose than to open Act 2 with a production number. But Mark Jacoby, as the sleek Italian movie star, dwells stolidly within the confines of the predictable, and Ken Land, as the accountant who offers Charity a passport out of tawdriness, registers as unnecessarily wimpish.
What saves "Sweet Charity" and gives it its enduring lift is its conviction that a stage is for performers, not giant erector sets, and that a clutch of dancers, moving in asymmetrical precision across the floorboards, can be as thrilling as a descent into the Paris sewers.
Imagine, a musical that believes a song is for singing -- not a pretext to start up a million-dollar light show. What will they think of next?
Sweet Charity, book by Neil Simon, music by Cy Coleman, lyrics by Dorothy Fields. Directed and choreographed by Bob Fosse. Sets and lighting, Robert Randolph; costumes, Patricia Zipprodt. With Donna McKechnie, Ken Land, Lenora Nemetz, Stephanie Pope, Mark Jacoby, Celia Tackaberry, James Stovall. At the National Theatre through Oct. 17. | 'SWEET CHARITY' SIMPLICITY WINS
Bob Fosse, one of the most distinctive and productive forces in the Broadway musical theater, died last night at George Washington University Hospital just before the opening performance of "Sweet Charity," which he had choreographed and directed. He was 60. News of his death was learned after the curtain fell. Details, Page A1.
Considering the state of the art today, you can be forgiven for thinking that the following items are required to make a musical: interlocking turntables, self-propelled towers, electronic drawbridges, laser beams, smoke machines, 30 sets of glowing cats' eyes in a junk heap, a barricade for French revolutionaries to die upon, a spaceship and the paraphernalia from four or more discothe`ques.
Then a show like "Sweet Charity" surges out of the past (it surged last night right into the National Theatre for a four-week run) and you find yourself wondering at what point did we get bogged down in so much clutter.
Whenever a big moment is about to occur in "Sweet Charity," you see, the sets are cleared, the upstage wall is wiped clean of any distracting decoration and the bare stage is reclaimed. It's a kind of housekeeping you don't find in musicals these days, which tend to keep piling up the knickknacks as the evening goes on.
In 1966, however, which is when "Sweet Charity" put in its first appearance on Broadway, musicals were still concerned with making room for the performers. The highlight of a show was not the walls of Jericho tumbling down, but a singer stepping front and center into the empty space. Or a dancer, suddenly freed from all prior restraints, seeing to it that every square inch of unvarnished planking got explored.
By today's technological standards, I suppose, "Sweet Charity" is bound to look quaint to some. It hews to the old patterns, hanging its songs and dances, rather like wash, on a simple story line. | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-09-24-mn-10106-story.html | Choreographer and Director Bob Fosse Dies - Los Angeles Times | Choreographer and Director Bob Fosse Dies
Bob Fosse, the sometime comedy song-and-dance man who won Oscar, Tony and Emmy awards as director and choreographer of such stage and film blockbusters as “Cabaret,” “Pajama Game” and “Damn Yankees,” collapsed and died Wednesday in Washington, D.C.
Friends said Fosse, 60, apparently suffered a massive heart attack in his room at the Willard Hotel, where he was preparing for the opening of a revival of one of his biggest hits, the musical “Sweet Charity,” at the National Theater.
“He had been rehearsing the company all day,” Fosse’s press agent, Jeffrey Richards, said in New York. “He had gone back to his hotel room. He and his former wife, Gwen Verdon, who had been working with him, left the theater to go back to the hotel at 6:30 p.m.
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“He had a massive heart attack there, and they rushed him to George Washington University Hospital, where they tried to revive him. But they couldn’t.
“The show went on. The cast wasn’t informed until afterward. . . .”
Hospital spokeswoman Yvonne Hiott said Fosse was brought into the emergency room by ambulance at 6:48 p.m. and was pronounced dead of cardiac arrest at 7:23 p.m.
Alma Viator, a spokeswoman for the theater, said the cast was informed of the director’s death after the show and decided to go ahead with the traditional opening night party.
“But it was somber,” she said, “and they toasted him to sustained applause.”
It was, she noted, a fitting end for a man whose life had been lived amid the storm and stress of the theater.
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One of the most successful choreographer-directors of all time, Fosse was one of the few individuals to win all three of the major awards of show business: the Academy Award for his direction of “Cabaret,” seven Tonys for directing or choreography in the stage shows “Pajama Game,” “Redhead,” “Damn Yankees,” “Sweet Charity,” “Pippin,” “Dancin”’ and “Little Me,” and three Emmy awards for directing the television special “Liza With a Z.”
“But the awards weren’t the most important thing,” Viator said. “The important thing was the man, himself--the genius and the dedication to excellence that he brought to everything he did. The way he could make you want to do it his way.”
Son of a vaudeville singer-turned-salesman, Robert Louis Fosse was born June 23, 1927, in Chicago and by all accounts was stagestruck at an early age.
His dance studies began in a small neighborhood dance school and moved on to the Frederick Weaver Ballet School, where he was the only boy in the class.
“I got a lot of jokes and I got whistled at a lot,” he recalled. “But I beat up a couple of the bigger whistlers and the rest sort of tapered off after a while. . . .”
Fosse was just 13 when he teamed up with another young dancer, Charles Grass, to perform as the Riff Brothers in vaudeville and burlesque and at movie house amateur nights, where they were planted by the management to make the whole show more endurable. Within a year or two, the team was earning $100 or more a week--excellent pay for the time.
But Fosse was ambitious, and at 15 he was working as master of ceremonies at a series of small nightspots--one of which gave him his first choreographing assignment. It was a number in which four girls maneuvered ostrich feather fans to a Cole Porter melody.
Graduating from Chicago’s Amundsen High School in 1945, Fosse enlisted in the Navy and was assigned to entertainment units in the Pacific, where he later said he perfected his technique as a performer, choreographer--and director.
“I never knew I could handle anything like that until I tried it on Okinawa,” he said. “From then on, I knew what I wanted and where I wanted to go.”
The course of getting there led, after discharge in 1947, to the American Wing Theater in New York, where he studied acting for a year while appearing as a chorus dancer in “Call Me Madam” and “Make Mine Manhattan.”
He made his Broadway performing debut in 1950 in a revue called “Dance Me a Song” and in 1952 understudied Harold Lang in the title role of a revival of “Pal Joey,” later taking over the lead on tour.
He also danced in such television productions as “Show of Shows,” “Toni Review,” “The Fifty-Fourth Street Review” and “Your Hit Parade,” also appearing at the Waldorf-Astoria Roof and Roxy Theater.
Signed to an MGM contract, Fosse came to Hollywood in 1953, where he danced and sang in three musicals, including “Kiss Me Kate,” in which he performed a specialty number with Carol Haney and “Give a Girl a Break,” in which he provided a spectacular closing, executing a backward somersault.
When movie musicals went into a period of decline, he returned to Broadway, where he was hired to choreograph “The Pajama Game,” at the insistence of the show’s director, Jerome Robbins.
The show became a major success, winning him a Donaldson Award and his first Antoinette Perry (Tony) Award, and he picked up his second Tony the following year as choreographer for “Damn Yankees.” That marked the beginning of his successful collaboration with the show’s star, Gwen Verdon, who later became his third wife and the mother of their daughter, Nicole Providence. (He was also married to Mary-Ann Niles and Joan McCracken.)
For the next few years, Fosse shuttled back and forth between Hollywood and Broadway, singing and dancing as well as choreographing Columbia’s film version of “My Sister Eileen” and returning to New York to choreograph “Bells Are Ringing,” in which he collaborated with Robbins on both choreography and staging.
Early in 1957, he adapted his stage choreography for the Warner Bros. version of “The Pajama Game,” while choreographing “New Girl in Town” for stage.
He made the film version of “Damn Yankees” with Verdon, dancing a number with her and re-creating his stage choreography. The pair went east again the following year for “Redhead,” which gave him his first Broadway directing assignment, a major vehicle for Verdon and major triumph for Fosse.
He later directed such stage hits as “How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying,” “Chicago” and others, and won an Academy Award for directing “Cabaret,” changing pace to a straight dramatic directing assignment the following year with Lenny Bruce’s somber biography, “Lenny,” starring Dustin Hoffman.
Subsequently, he was co-choreographer and appeared in the films “The Little Prince” and “Thieves.” And he was credited with appropriating major portions of his own life for the show-business movie musical, “All That Jazz,” the story of a brilliant director and choreographer, equally obsessed with work and women, whose smoking, drinking and insanely frenetic life style finally delivered him to open-heart surgery.
After his divorce from Verdon, Fosse was seen with various girlfriends, including Ann Reinking and Jessica Lange, both of whom appeared in “All That Jazz,” but in that area of his life, Fosse claimed he had slowed down.
“I certainly don’t pursue ladies as much as I used to,” he said. “I’m afraid I’ll catch them, and then I’ll have to do something. But I still find I’m a little more charming and funnier when ladies are around. I seem to strut more. Some inferiority complex when I was a little boy, I suppose. Some need to prove myself. | Choreographer and Director Bob Fosse Dies
Bob Fosse, the sometime comedy song-and-dance man who won Oscar, Tony and Emmy awards as director and choreographer of such stage and film blockbusters as “Cabaret,” “Pajama Game” and “Damn Yankees,” collapsed and died Wednesday in Washington, D.C.
Friends said Fosse, 60, apparently suffered a massive heart attack in his room at the Willard Hotel, where he was preparing for the opening of a revival of one of his biggest hits, the musical “Sweet Charity,” at the National Theater.
“He had been rehearsing the company all day,” Fosse’s press agent, Jeffrey Richards, said in New York. “He had gone back to his hotel room. He and his former wife, Gwen Verdon, who had been working with him, left the theater to go back to the hotel at 6:30 p.m.
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“He had a massive heart attack there, and they rushed him to George Washington University Hospital, where they tried to revive him. But they couldn’t.
“The show went on. The cast wasn’t informed until afterward. . . .”
Hospital spokeswoman Yvonne Hiott said Fosse was brought into the emergency room by ambulance at 6:48 p.m. and was pronounced dead of cardiac arrest at 7:23 p.m.
Alma Viator, a spokeswoman for the theater, said the cast was informed of the director’s death after the show and decided to go ahead with the traditional opening night party.
“But it was somber,” she said, “and they toasted him to sustained applause.”
It was, she noted, a fitting end for a man whose life had been lived amid the storm and stress of the theater.
Advertisement
One of the most successful choreographer-directors of all time, Fosse was one of the few individuals to win all three of the major awards of show business: the Academy Award for his direction of “Cabaret,” seven Tonys for directing or choreography in the stage shows “ | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.npr.org/2013/11/07/243726400/biography-of-director-bob-fosse-razzles-dazzles-and-delights | Biography Of Director Bob Fosse Razzles, Dazzles And Delights | Book Review: 'Fosse,' By Sam WassonA new biography from Sam Wasson examines the life and legacy of the Broadway, TV and film director Bob Fosse, who is known for such game-changing entertainments as Cabaret, Liza With A Z and Chicago. NPR's Bob Mondello says the book has both substantial research and vivid descriptions.
On Sept. 23, 1987, opening night of a Sweet Charity revival in Washington, D.C., Bob Fosse and his ex-wife and collaborator Gwen Verdon gave the cast a final pep talk, then left the National Theater to get a bite to eat. They turned right, and about a block away, unknown to the gathering audience, or the cast, Fosse collapsed on the sidewalk. Newspapers the next morning said he died at 7:23 p.m.
I was inside that theater. I later calculated what was happening at 7:23. It was a quintessential Fosse moment: a stagewide bar rising from the floor, a line of dance hall hostesses draping themselves over it, bait for big spenders. Here you can listen to him stage the movie version a few years later.
YouTube
I had seen a lot of Fosse shows by that time — Damn Yankees, Pippin, Dancin', Chicago — and I had read enough about him to know what was autobiographical in his movie All That Jazz.
So I cracked open Sam Wasson's 700-page biography figuring I knew the score. Hell, knew the score and the steps: those artfully slumped shoulders, knocked knees and pigeon-toes. The bowler hats and black vests worn without shirts, like the one Liza Minnelli sported in the number that introduced her in Cabaret on-screen, leading a chorus that knelt and stomped and sprawled, and used hard-backed chairs for everything but sitting.
YouTube
But I didn't know the details Wasson gets at about how Fosse taught choreography that often made dancers seem all elbows and knees. First to Verdon, who was his muse before she was his wife, and then, with her help, to the dancers in all his shows.
In one dance the chorus girls all had to extend a foot while leaning back and shooting their arms down at their sides. Fosse gave them an image to help them see exactly how he wanted it: "Ladies," he said, "it's like a man is holding out a fur coat for you and you have to drop your arms in."
"Other directors," writes Wasson, "might give their dancers images for every scene. Bob ... had one for just about every step. These were the lines the dancers' bodies had to speak."
That, I submit, is lovely writing, as is his description of Cabaret as a film "about the bejeweling of horror [that] coruscated with Fosse's private sequins." You can lift samples just like those from virtually every page of this book.
You'll also learn how the director's dark stage imagery mirrored his own life — the wife and girlfriends he cheated on, the down-and-dirty burlesque houses he grew up in, the amphetamines that kept him going, and the barbiturates that calmed him when he lost confidence in his own "razzle-dazzle."
Wasson pictures him as harder on himself than he was on his dancers. In one year, he won a directing triple crown for which no one else had ever even been nominated — An Emmy for Liza With A Z, an Oscar for Cabaret and a Tony for Pippin. And his reaction was utter depression. But out of that depression came Chicago ... a musical vaudeville that looked great at the Tony Awards in 1976.
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Fosse is filled with the kind of inside detail that comes of substantial research, and vivid descriptions that turn the research into a sort of movie in your head. All the way from little Bobby Fosse's elementary school disappointment when the spotlight faded on him, right through to the moment when Gwen Verdon, the love of his life, cradled Fosse's head on her lap on a D.C. sidewalk, just blocks from an audience he was at that very moment razzle-dazzling to beat the band. | Book Review: 'Fosse,' By Sam WassonA new biography from Sam Wasson examines the life and legacy of the Broadway, TV and film director Bob Fosse, who is known for such game-changing entertainments as Cabaret, Liza With A Z and Chicago. NPR's Bob Mondello says the book has both substantial research and vivid descriptions.
On Sept. 23, 1987, opening night of a Sweet Charity revival in Washington, D.C., Bob Fosse and his ex-wife and collaborator Gwen Verdon gave the cast a final pep talk, then left the National Theater to get a bite to eat. They turned right, and about a block away, unknown to the gathering audience, or the cast, Fosse collapsed on the sidewalk. Newspapers the next morning said he died at 7:23 p.m.
I was inside that theater. I later calculated what was happening at 7:23. It was a quintessential Fosse moment: a stagewide bar rising from the floor, a line of dance hall hostesses draping themselves over it, bait for big spenders. Here you can listen to him stage the movie version a few years later.
YouTube
I had seen a lot of Fosse shows by that time — Damn Yankees, Pippin, Dancin', Chicago — and I had read enough about him to know what was autobiographical in his movie All That Jazz.
So I cracked open Sam Wasson's 700-page biography figuring I knew the score. Hell, knew the score and the steps: those artfully slumped shoulders, knocked knees and pigeon-toes. The bowler hats and black vests worn without shirts, like the one Liza Minnelli sported in the number that introduced her in Cabaret on-screen, leading a chorus that knelt and stomped and sprawled, and used hard-backed chairs for everything but sitting.
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But I didn't know the details Wasson gets at about how Fosse taught choreography that often made dancers seem all elbows and knees. | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.dispatch.com/story/entertainment/television/2019/04/05/choreographer-dancer-their-relationship-easily/5526774007/ | Choreographer, dancer and their relationship easily fill 8 hours | Choreographer, dancer and their relationship easily fill 8 hours
He was the famous choreographer and she was his interpreter, but the relationship between Bob Fosse and Gwen Verdon was much more than that.
Married and the parents of a daughter, the pair set records with musicals like “Sweet Charity,” “Chicago” and “Damn Yankees.” And although they separated, they never divorced. Their love story is the subject of FX’s new eight-part series, “Fosse/Verdon,” premiering Tuesday.
The producers enjoyed a triple advantage in creating the show: They had Sam Wasson’s book, “Fosse”; the couple’s daughter, Nicole Fosse, now 56; and Fosse’s autobiographical movie, “All That Jazz,” to work from.
But Nicole Fosse says the film depicts only a partial truth.
“‘All That Jazz’ was his version,” she said. “I mean, he never claimed it to be autobiographical. It’s sort of a bit of a whitewashed, sort of romanticized version of his life. I think this really goes much more deeply into what was really going on in his relationships with Gwen and all of the people in his life. And you get eight hours of this, that story. ‘All That Jazz,’ was told in an hour and 45 minutes."
The series stars Sam Rockwell as Fosse and Michelle Williams as Verdon. Rockwell said Fosse was a tricky role to play.
“He’s a very complex guy, Bob. I think that there’s maybe a little bit of narcissism, but it’s also ... I think a very kind man; a very charming man. But I think there was an addictive thing with him. And Gwen was obviously his muse. And Ben Vereen was one of his muses, and Ann Reinking.”
Reinking, also a dancer, was one of the women who supplanted Verdon in Fosse’s affections. While Fosse was quixotic and a philanderer, Verdon never gave up on him, explained executive producer Steven Levenson (“Masters of Sex”).
“This really becomes the story of this marriage, which never actually ended,” he said. “Bob Fosse actually died in Gwen Verdon’s arms on the way to the opening night of ‘Sweet Charity,’ the revival in Washington, D.C.”
Executive producer Thomas Kail, who directed “Hamilton” on Broadway, said the series was a chance "to address the narrative of the lone genius and to try to look beyond that and see what’s happening — where your eye is not supposed to go."
“And it felt like this was a couple, it was certainly maybe the most crystallized example of that kind of collaboration of a woman who, in her prime, was the greatest dancer of her generation, of a young man who wanted to be Fred Astaire, and then was not allowed to be Fred Astaire," he said. "And he found her. They found each other. And watching that partnership evolve as he started to accelerate, as she had to find a different way to grapple with something that I think is very human, what the dancer does often grapple with, which is, who are you when you can’t do the thing that defined you?
“So the dancer dies twice. They die when they stop dancing, and they die when they die. And that was something that felt really rich for us to explore.” | I think this really goes much more deeply into what was really going on in his relationships with Gwen and all of the people in his life. And you get eight hours of this, that story. ‘All That Jazz,’ was told in an hour and 45 minutes. "
The series stars Sam Rockwell as Fosse and Michelle Williams as Verdon. Rockwell said Fosse was a tricky role to play.
“He’s a very complex guy, Bob. I think that there’s maybe a little bit of narcissism, but it’s also ... I think a very kind man; a very charming man. But I think there was an addictive thing with him. And Gwen was obviously his muse. And Ben Vereen was one of his muses, and Ann Reinking.”
Reinking, also a dancer, was one of the women who supplanted Verdon in Fosse’s affections. While Fosse was quixotic and a philanderer, Verdon never gave up on him, explained executive producer Steven Levenson (“Masters of Sex”).
“This really becomes the story of this marriage, which never actually ended,” he said. “Bob Fosse actually died in Gwen Verdon’s arms on the way to the opening night of ‘Sweet Charity,’ the revival in Washington, D.C.”
Executive producer Thomas Kail, who directed “Hamilton” on Broadway, said the series was a chance "to address the narrative of the lone genius and to try to look beyond that and see what’s happening — where your eye is not supposed to go."
“And it felt like this was a couple, it was certainly maybe the most crystallized example of that kind of collaboration of a woman who, in her prime, was the greatest dancer of her generation, of a young man who wanted to be Fred Astaire, and then was not allowed to be Fred Astaire," he said. "And he found her. They found each other. | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/64333%7C22625/Robert-Fosse | Bob Fosse - Turner Classic Movies | About
Biography
Arguably one of the most influential and visionary choreographers of the 20th century, Bob Fosse brought style and sexuality to the Broadway stage through his dances for such memorable musicals as "The Pajama Game" (1954), "Damn Yankees" (1958), "Sweet Charity" (1969), "Pippin" (1972) and "Chicago" (1975), as well as his direction on such films as "Cabaret" (1972), "Lenny" (1974) and "Al...
Family & Companions
Dancer. First wife; married in 1949; divorced in 1951; died in 1987, one week after Fosse's death.
Joan McCracken
Wife
Dancer, actor. Second wife; married in 1953; divorced in 1954; died in 1961; met while both appeared in "Dance Me a Song" on Broadway (1949).
Gwen Verdon
Wife
Dancer, actor, assistant choreographer. Married in 1960; separated but never divorced, remaining friends and collaborators; he collapsed in her arms in 1987, stricken with his third, and fatal heart attack; starred as Lola in film version of "Damn Yankees", choreographed by Fosse.
Ann Reinking
Companion
Dancer, actor, choreographer. Together on and off from 1973 to 1979.
Bibliography
Read More
"Bob Fosse's Broadway"
Margery Beddow and Roy Scheider, Heinemann (1996)
"All His Jazz: The Life and Death of Bob Fosse"
Martin Gottfried (1990)
"Razzle Dazzle: The Life and Work of Bob Fosse"
Kevin Boyd Grubb (1989)
Notes
Read More
"There were a couple of men who were crazy about me when they saw '[King] Kong'. Fosse was one. He got in touch with me. We became friends and lovers. We had a wonderful relationship. We laughed like crazy. I loved Fosse because he was a renegade and there was such a dark side to him. He loved that whole seedy side of New York--Forty-Second Street, the strip joints, the live sex shows. We'd hang out there, go to the arcades, these weird shows. Fosse knew it like the back of his hand. We were in and out of places you wouldn't even know existed.
"There was something very seductive about someone so caught up in self-destruction. It was very much like what you saw in 'All That Jazz', with his drinking and smoking. But he was unbelievably sweet, tender, and generous. He was so kind at a time when a lot of people had dismissed me ... There was, about Fosse, something sad. Profoundly lonely. That's what I connected with more than anything." --Jessica Lange quoted in Vanity Fair, October 1991.
Biography
Arguably one of the most influential and visionary choreographers of the 20th century, Bob Fosse brought style and sexuality to the Broadway stage through his dances for such memorable musicals as "The Pajama Game" (1954), "Damn Yankees" (1958), "Sweet Charity" (1969), "Pippin" (1972) and "Chicago" (1975), as well as his direction on such films as "Cabaret" (1972), "Lenny" (1974) and "All That Jazz" (1979). Fosse began his career as a dancer with aspirations of Hollywood stardom, but his slight stature and baldness put a halt to that dream. He headed for Broadway, where his steamy, jazz-influenced choreography and direction wowed audiences and earned numerous Tonys. In 1969, he made the leap to film directing, and won the Oscar for "Cabaret" before enjoying critical success with the Lenny Bruce biopic, "Lenny," and the autobiographical fantasy, "All That Jazz" (1979). A larger-than-life figure whose passion for his art was matched by his appetite for hard, fast-paced living, Fosse's drive and technique made him a legend in the theater world, which fell in love with him again through celebrations and revivals after his untimely death in 1987.
Born Robert Louis Fosse in Chicago, IL on June 23, 1927, he was the second youngest of six children born to a Norwegian father who performed in vaudeville and an Irish mother. Small in stature and suffering from both asthma and epilepsy, he found an outlet in dance, and began taking lessons at the age of nine. By high school, he was a veteran of the Chicago burlesque scene, and after teaming with another young performer, Charles Grass, they toured the country as The Riff Brothers. Fosse's talents caught the attention of producers who hired him for a show called "Tough Situation." The production toured military bases throughout the Pacific during World War II, and provided Fosse with an invaluable canvas on which he could perfect his future skills as a choreographer and director. In 1947, Fosse moved to New York City in the hopes of finding work as a Broadway dancer. He was quickly signed to the show "Call Me Mister," where he was teamed with Mary Ann Niles, who became his first wife in 1949. After the show closed, the duo became a popular attraction on television shows like "Your Hit Parade" (NBC/CBS, 1950-59) and "The Colgate Comedy Hour" (NBC, 1950-55). After Fosse and Niles divorced in 1951, he teamed with and married dancer Joan McCracken, and began studying acting at the American Theater Wing in the hopes of becoming an actor-dancer like Fred Astaire. He soon graduated to leads in summer-stock productions, which in turn, led to a screen test for MGM.
Fosse soon found himself in demand as a dancer in Hollywood musicals, most notably in "Give a Girl a Break" (1953) and "Kiss Me Kate" (1953), which allowed him to choreograph a brief but remarkably complicated sequence with Carol Haney. Unfortunately, Fosse lacked the physical qualities of a traditional leading man: though lithe and graceful, he was also pigeon-toed, round-shouldered and most significantly, prematurely bald, which he attempted to disguise with a variety of hats, including his future signature touch, the bowler. Faced with the fact that he would never progress to the stature of an Astaire or Gene Kelly, he reluctantly returned to New York to work in theatre. His brief film career would provide him with the launching pad he needed: he was hired to choreograph the 1954 musical "The Pajama Game" based on his 48 seconds of work in "Kiss Me Kate." The show gave the theater world their first taste of Fosse's unique style - a seamless blend of jazz, popular dances like mambo and the eroticism of his burlesque days, with an emphasis on small but exact, almost mechanical gestures, like thrusting hips, spread-wide fingers and snapped wrists. Fosse also incorporated his own physicality into his work, with frequent rolled shoulders and knocked knees, as well as a penchant for his dancers to wear bowler hats and/or gloves; the latter being a reference to his own dislike of his hands. Broadway audiences and critics responded to his work with overwhelming praise, and "Pajama Game" earned Fosse his first of numerous Tony Awards.
The following year, Fosse struck gold again with "Damn Yankees," which starred an exuberant red-haired dancer named Gwen Verdon. She would become his third wife and longest-running collaborator, and he would provide her with signature dances like a steamy striptease number to "Whatever Lola Wants" in "Yankees." Both Fosse and Verdon won Tonys for their work in the show, and would continue to collaborate on numerous stage musicals, including 1957's "New Girl in Town" and "Redhead" (1959), which marked his debut as both director and choreographer. Again, the Fosse-Verdon team claimed Tonys for actress and choreography, as well as Best Musical of 1959. Hollywood began to take notice of Fosse's work, and lured him back to the studios to direct the dancing for "My Sister Eileen" (1955). He proved to be a natural at adapting his stage style for cinematic purposes, and made exceptional use of location work in the screen versions of "The Pajama Game" (1957) and "Damn Yankees" (1958). The latter also marked his sole onscreen performance with Verdon in a mambo for "Who's Got the Pain." His second stint in the movies proved equally short-lived, and by 1960, he was back on Broadway, directing and choreographing such hits as "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying" (1961), "Little Me" (1962) and "Sweet Charity" (1966), of which the latter two earned him Tonys. "Charity" also provided him with another trademark number, the staccato, highly stylized "Hey Big Spender," which allowed him to further push the boundaries of sexuality in dance.
Fosse would later repeat his choreography for the film versions of "Business" (1967) and "Charity" (1969), but in the case of the latter, it came with a condition: that he be allowed to direct the film itself as well. Unfortunately, the results were mixed. Though he made excellent use of the CinemaScope process for numbers like "Spender," the film, which replaced Verdon in the lead with former "Pajama Game" understudy Shirley Maclaine, was a dismal failure and nearly brought Universal Pictures to its knees. Broadway welcomed Fosse back with "Pippin" (1972), a surreal fantasy that became one of his biggest successes, running for over 1,900 performances and introducing the public to the unique talents of actor-singer Ben Vereen. The show's runaway popularity was the spearhead of a long and prolific period for Fosse, and one that brought him his greatest triumphs. In 1972, he directed "Liza with a Z" (NBC), a concert film of actress-singer Liza Minnelli in performance at the Lyceum Theatre in New York. The show helped to mint Minnelli as a star in the making, and earned Fosse three Emmys, including Outstanding Directorial Achievement, as well as a Directors Guild of America Award. Fosse had also won the Tony for "Pippin" that same year, and would pull off an astonishing hat trick with the release of "Cabaret" in early February.
Fosse was an unlikely choice to direct the film version of John Kander and Fred Ebbs' 1966 musical. His struggle with the dramatic moments in "Sweet Charity" concerned the film's producers, who saw that equal time and attention would need to be devoted to these scenes in addition to the musical numbers. However, Fosse was hired at the insistence of veteran Broadway producer, Cy Feuer, who had mounted some of Fosse's biggest hits and was producing "Cabaret." The result largely dispensed with Kander and Ebb's original text; focusing instead on the life of Minnelli's American singer, Sally Bowles, as she descended into the decadence of Nazi Germany via its nightclub scene. Buoyed by an authentically decadent atmosphere and the venomous performance of Joel Grey as the Master of Ceremonies, "Cabaret" was a massive hit, earning eight Oscars, including Best Director for Fosse, whose competition included Francis Ford Coppola for "The Godfather." In doing so, he had earned three of the biggest awards in show business in a single year.
For his next screen effort, Fosse eschewed the musical altogether to focus on the short but celebrated life of controversial comedian, Lenny Bruce. Dustin Hoffman portrayed Bruce in "Lenny" (1974), a decidedly dark and meditative piece about Bruce's extraordinary incendiary talents and his ultimate downfall after becoming a target for censors. Fosse, who had faced similar challenges with his eroticized choreography, shot the film in black and white and with a riveting verite style, which earned him an Oscar nod for Best Director. However, the achievements were overshadowed by a heart attack he suffered while editing the picture. At the time, Fosse was also preparing his next Broadway show, "Chicago," based on the scandalous real-life case of two murderesses in the 1920s, and the stresses of both productions took their toll. Those close to Fosse, however, knew that additional strains had been placed on Fosse's health: he consumed drugs, alcohol, women and cigarettes at an alarming rate, which, when combined with his established health issues and relentless work ethic, contributed to his collapse. In 1974, Fosse underwent open-heart surgery.
Despite his setbacks, Fosse was able to continue as both writer and director-choreographer of "Chicago." Drawing from his own background as a Windy City native and a veteran of its seamy entertainment underbelly, Fosse again found common ground in its heroes, Jazz-era libertines Roxie Hart and Velma Kelly, who flew in the face of societal norms by embracing the vices of the period and making a scene from the murders of their respective lovers. Gwen Verdon, who had divorced Fosse in 1971 after numerous infidelities, played Roxie Hart, and would look past their troubled history to remain a faithful companion and collaborator to Fosse until the end of his life. However, the production received mixed reviews during its run, and was routed in nearly every Tony race by "A Chorus Line." It would eventually assume its place among the great musicals of the 20th century in a 1996 revival choreographed in Fosse's style by dancer Ann Reinking, who replaced Verdon during the original Broadway run, and one of Fosse's romantic companions following his divorce. This version eventually became the longest-running musical revival in history, and the sixth longest-running Broadway show ever.
In 1979, Fosse returned to filmmaking with "All That Jazz," an autobiographical fantasy about a driven, pill-popping theater director (Roy Scheider) who realized that the only way to save his current project, a gargantuan musical gone far over budget, was to die. The film, which drew directly from Fosse's own life - from his collapse while working on "Lenny" to his relationships with figures based on Verdon, Reinking (who played a version of herself) and his daughter, Nicole - took a surreal approach to the telling, with an Angel of Death (Jessica Lange) serving as Scheider's confessor/lover and a major song-and-dance number to signal Scheider's death. Critics were largely wowed by the film, which received the Palme d'Or at Cannes and four Oscars, including original score, as well as nominations for Fosse as Best Director. It would be his last major work for the screen.
Fosse's final years were marked by misfires. "Star 80" (1983) was a grim biopic about Playmate Dorothy Stratten, who was murdered by her abusive husband (Eric Roberts), the subject matter turned off most audiences, resulting in a financial flop. His final original musical, "Big Deal" (1986), was based on Mario Monicelli's celebrated Italian caper comedy "Big Deal on Madonna Street" (1958), but failed to win over audiences, despite five Tony nominations, including two for Fosse as director and choreographer. On Sept. 23, 1987, the 60-year-old Fosse suffered a heart attack on the opening night of a revival of "Sweet Charity." He was taken to George Washington University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead. Verdon, who served as assistant director for the revival, was with him at the time of the fatal attack. In the years following his death, both Verdon and Reinking worked to keep Fosse's legacy alive. The former served as artistic consultant for 1999's "Fosse," a three-act celebration of his greatest dances that won the Tony for Best Musical. Reinking's revival of "Chicago" led to a celebrated 2002 film adaptation by director Rob Marshall, which in turn, sparked an interest in Fosse's life and work. In 2007, Fosse was inducted posthumously into the National Museum of Dance and Hall of Fame, and a section of Paulina Street in Chicago was named "Bob Fosse Way."
1959
1962
Directed "Little Me"; first collaboration with Neil Simon as book writer
1964
Returned to stage as a performer in City Center revival of "Pal Joey"
1965
Only Fosse show to close before reaching Broadway, "Pleasures and Palaces", bombed at Detroit's Fisher Theatre
1966
Had success on Broadway with the musical "Sweet Charity", with book by Neil Simon and starring Verdon
1969
Film directing debut, "Sweet Charity", starring Shirley MacLaine
1973
Won what showbiz folks refer to as the triple crown: the Oscar for directing "Cabaret" (1972), the Tony for directing "Pippin" (and another for choregraphing it), and the Emmy for directing (and two others, for choreographing and producing) the NBC variety special "Liza With a Z"
1974
1974
Co-choreographed and appeared as the Snake in the film musical "The Little Prince"
1975
"Chicago", conceived and directed by Fosse (with book by Fosse and lyricist Fred Ebb and music by John Kander), opened on Broadway, starring Verdon and Chita Rivera; the song "All That Jazz" would become the title of his autobiographical fantasy film; an even more successful revival of "Chicago" would open in 1996
1978
His dance spectacular "Dancin'" opened on Broadway, pointing the way to shows that could play easily to foreign business travelers, without the language barrier
1979
Directed "All That Jazz", starring Roy Scheider, Jessica Lange and Ann Reinking; also wrote screenplay and choreographed; earned Oscar nominations as Best Director and for Best Original Screenplay
1983
Wrote and directed "Star 80", the story of Dorothy Statton's life and tragic murder; Fosse's last movie, he re-edited it for TV
1985
1986
1987
Collapsed on the street in Washington DC, dying within sight of the National Theatre where his dancers were dressing for a touring revival of "Sweet Charity"
1998
"Fosse: A Celebration in Song and Dance", an ambitious retrospective co-conceived by Richard Maltby, Ann Reinking and Chet Walker (with Gwen Verdon as artistic advisor), show's title shortened to "Fosse" for its Broadway run
Photo Collections
3 Photos
Cabaret - Movie Posters
Here are three different one-sheet movie poster designs for Cabaret (1972), starring Liza Minnelli and Joel Grey, and directed by Bob Fosse. One-sheets measured 27x41 inches, and were the poster style most commonly used in theaters.
Family
Actor, dancer. Born 1963; mother Gwen Verdon; performed in father's "Dancin'" (1978); consulted on the 1998 retrospective "Fosse: A Celebration in Song and Dance"; has three children.
Companions
Mary Ann Niles
Wife
Dancer. First wife; married in 1949; divorced in 1951; died in 1987, one week after Fosse's death.
Joan McCracken
Wife
Dancer, actor. Second wife; married in 1953; divorced in 1954; died in 1961; met while both appeared in "Dance Me a Song" on Broadway (1949).
Gwen Verdon
Wife
Dancer, actor, assistant choreographer. Married in 1960; separated but never divorced, remaining friends and collaborators; he collapsed in her arms in 1987, stricken with his third, and fatal heart attack; starred as Lola in film version of "Damn Yankees", choreographed by Fosse.
Ann Reinking
Companion
Dancer, actor, choreographer. Together on and off from 1973 to 1979.
Jessica Lange
Companion
Actor, model. Had on-again, off-again relationship that began in 1975.
Julie Hagerty
Companion
Actor. Had on-again, off-again relationship between 1977 and 1979.
Bibliography
"Bob Fosse's Broadway"
Margery Beddow and Roy Scheider, Heinemann (1996)
"All His Jazz: The Life and Death of Bob Fosse"
Martin Gottfried (1990)
"Razzle Dazzle: The Life and Work of Bob Fosse"
Kevin Boyd Grubb (1989)
Notes
"There were a couple of men who were crazy about me when they saw '[King] Kong'. Fosse was one. He got in touch with me. We became friends and lovers. We had a wonderful relationship. We laughed like crazy. I loved Fosse because he was a renegade and there was such a dark side to him. He loved that whole seedy side of New York--Forty-Second Street, the strip joints, the live sex shows. We'd hang out there, go to the arcades, these weird shows. Fosse knew it like the back of his hand. We were in and out of places you wouldn't even know existed.
"There was something very seductive about someone so caught up in self-destruction. It was very much like what you saw in 'All That Jazz', with his drinking and smoking. But he was unbelievably sweet, tender, and generous. He was so kind at a time when a lot of people had dismissed me ... There was, about Fosse, something sad. Profoundly lonely. That's what I connected with more than anything." --Jessica Lange quoted in Vanity Fair, October 1991.
Fosse once claimed his distinctive look stemmed from an attempt to hide his deficiencies: "I was getting pretty bald for a hoofer and felt a hat would hide it. Canes became important to me when my hands started trembling and seemed like a good way to distract the audience." --from The Boston Globe, September 6, 1998.
As Fosse acknowledged, his turned-in, angular, low-to-the-ground style developed from what [Gwen] Hillier [former Fosse dancer and director of a 1998 revival of 'Pippin' in the Los Angeles area] calls "the quirkiness of his own body--he wasn't tall, didn't have a huge build or as much ballet training as he probably would have liked." So he began by capitalizing on his unique personality as a dancer and later demanded the same individuality from others."The original [national company of] 'Pippin' was one of the first shows that I danced where I wasn't just a happy villager. He explained that he wanted each of us to find out exactly who we were in the show, to make our own personal statement there." --From Los Angeles Times, May 7, 1998.
"My life is an open pamphlet." --Bob Fosse
"He was like a master chef who put his finger in the kettle and said, 'It's right.' He was hardly an intellectual. He had this long sleaze streak, and that got him into trouble. But I don't know that you could classify him as a rebel." --biographer Morton Gottfried quoted in USA Today, June 23, 1998. | 1979, Fosse returned to filmmaking with "All That Jazz," an autobiographical fantasy about a driven, pill-popping theater director (Roy Scheider) who realized that the only way to save his current project, a gargantuan musical gone far over budget, was to die. The film, which drew directly from Fosse's own life - from his collapse while working on "Lenny" to his relationships with figures based on Verdon, Reinking (who played a version of herself) and his daughter, Nicole - took a surreal approach to the telling, with an Angel of Death (Jessica Lange) serving as Scheider's confessor/lover and a major song-and-dance number to signal Scheider's death. Critics were largely wowed by the film, which received the Palme d'Or at Cannes and four Oscars, including original score, as well as nominations for Fosse as Best Director. It would be his last major work for the screen.
Fosse's final years were marked by misfires. "Star 80" (1983) was a grim biopic about Playmate Dorothy Stratten, who was murdered by her abusive husband (Eric Roberts), the subject matter turned off most audiences, resulting in a financial flop. His final original musical, "Big Deal" (1986), was based on Mario Monicelli's celebrated Italian caper comedy "Big Deal on Madonna Street" (1958), but failed to win over audiences, despite five Tony nominations, including two for Fosse as director and choreographer. On Sept. 23, 1987, the 60-year-old Fosse suffered a heart attack on the opening night of a revival of "Sweet Charity." He was taken to George Washington University Hospital, where he was pronounced dead. Verdon, who served as assistant director for the revival, was with him at the time of the fatal attack. In the years following his death, both Verdon and Reinking worked to keep Fosse's legacy alive. | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.harpersbazaar.com/culture/film-tv/a26147412/fosse-verdon-release-date-spoilers-casting-rumors/ | Fosse/Verdon Spoilers, Casting Rumors, Release Date and Details | Fosse/Verdon: Everything We Know
Two years on from the premiere of Feud: Bette and Joan, FX is bringing us another ravishing Old Hollywood saga about a complex, decades-long relationship. But unlike Feud, Fosse/Verdon is a love story, chronicling the creative and romantic partnership between director and choreographer Bob Fosse (Sam Rockwell), and his muse, dancer Gwen Verdon (Michelle Williams).
Though the show (based on the book Fosse by Sam Wasson) is still in production in Los Angeles, Williams and Rockwell made an appearance at the Television Critics Association press tour Monday alongside the show’s writers and producers, and offered some hints about what to expect. At the center of the show is “a collaboration between a woman who, in her prime, was the greatest dancer of her generation, and a man who wanted to be Fred Astaire and was not allowed to be Fred Astaire,” executive producer Thomas Kail said.
Below, everything you need to about Fosse/Verdon ahead of its April 9 premiere.
More From Harper's BAZAAR
1) The show will dismantle the narrative of “the lone male genius”.
And not a moment too soon! “This felt like an opportunity to examine how things are actually made,” Kail said, “and a chance to address the narrative of the lone male genius, and try to look beyond that to see what’s happening where your eye is not supposed to go.”
While Fosse is the more recognizable name of the two, Fosse/Verdon will emphasize Verdon’s importance, bringing to mind the idiom that behind every great man is a great woman. “There’s an incredible photo of Bob on the set of Sweet Charity, directing the dancers,” executive producer Steven Levenson recalled, “and if you crop it in such a way, it looks like it’s just Bob, this lone white male genius, creating the film out of whole cloth. But if you zoom out, you see that Gwen Verdon was standing right next to him directing another group of dancers.”
2) You may want to re-watch All That Jazz before the series premiere.
Bob Fosse’s 1979 movie All That Jazz was a semi-autobiographical drama about the staging of a Broadway musical, and as such loomed large for the writers of Fosse/Verdon. “We’re tasked with telling the story of these two people, one of whom already told the story of his life as he wanted it told,” Levenson acknowledged. “That puts a certain responsibility on us, but also gives us a certain freedom. We know enough to know what he left out, the things he embellished, the things he might have glided over, now we have the task of telling it in our voice from our perspective.”
The biggest difference between the two is that All That Jazz is entirely Bob’s story, and “the character who is closest to Gwen is not as central a figure as she is in this show. We’re amending the story that he told there and reinserting Gwen, who we think is of primary importance.”
3) Fosse and Verdon’s daughter was a consultant on the series.
Nicole Fosse, the daughter of Bob Fosse and Gwen Verdon, was also on hand at the panel to discuss her parents’ legacy, and how All That Jazz (in which she appeared at the age of sixteen) sits alongside Fosse/Verdon. “All That Jazz is a bit of a whitewashed, romanticized version of his life,” she said, “and I think this really goes much more deeply into what was really going on in his relationships with Gwen and all of the people in his life… All That Jazz was a nod to Fellini, and this is not a nod to Fellini.”
Gwen Verdon and Bob Fosse at home in New York in 1966.
Getty Images
Fosse was a vital resource to the writers in terms of authenticity, Levenson added. “Nicole has been a constant from the very beginning of working on this show, and has given us a tremendous wealth of information and archival materials,” he said, adding that Fosse also introduced the creators to many dancers who worked with her parents. “We have the Vernon Fosse Legacy where we've collected dancers that worked with Bob Fosse and Gwen Verdon the way a ballet company or a repertory company would be run,” Fosse explained. “We reconstruct the dances and pass on the choreography to the next generation, and so we had some of the Legacy dancers come and work with Michelle and Sam.”
4) The writers exercised extreme caution when it came to depicting real people.
FX could be forgiven for having some concerns on this front, given that Olivia de Havilland sued the creators of Feud (unsuccessfully) over her depiction in the series. “I will say we are incredibly careful when we talk about living people, and it's certainly not our desire to impugn anyone at all,” said Levenson. Executive producer Joel Fields added, “We are also careful when we are depicting non-living people. We are looking to do something that is authentic. And having Nicole is an incredible asset because she's able to share not only the facts as she remembers them, but the emotional experience.”
5) Both protagonists are depicted as deeply complicated.
“From the people that I’ve spoken to, the thing I kept hearing over and over again was that she was like the sunshine in the room,” Michelle Williams said of discovering who Verdon was. “I’ve come to think of her as someone who is always trying their hardest, and will occasionally be backed up against a wall where she's cornered and things aren't in her control anymore. But as much as she could … she was constantly trying to rise above and be her best self at all times.” Williams added that Marilyn Monroe once said, based on her experience with Verdon: “If Verdon can’t teach you how to dance, you are rhythm bankrupt with two left feet.”
Sam Rockwell and Michelle Williams during the TCA panel for Fosse/Verdon on Monday, February 4, 2019.
Frederick M. Brown//Getty Images
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Of Fosse, Rockwell said, “He’s a very complex guy, Bob, and there’s maybe a little bit of narcissism, but he was also a very kind man.” In reference to Fosse’s muses—including Gwen and other women—Rockwell added, “I think there was an addictive thing with him."
6) Rockwell and Williams went through intensive training to convincingly depict Fosse and Verdon’s dance moves.
“Michelle and I can hoof,” Rockwell quipped during the panel. “I think we’re pretty good movers, but this is a whole other realm. As Michelle said one day, they look like normal people, and then they get up and dance and they’re superheroes.” Williams, who has appeared on Broadway a number of times herself, said that dancing is a passion that’s come to her only recently. “I danced a little bit as a kid, but not anything to write home about, and all of a sudden in the last decade, it just keeps coming up for me. It’s a place that I have found an unexpected amount of joy, and so I keep wanting to return to it.”
7) The show will not sugarcoat the darker side of its central relationship.
Fosse and Verdon may have only been married for eleven years, but they remained deeply connected throughout both of their lives, and the show will explore both the touching and troubling aspects of that fact. “This becomes the story of this marriage which never actually ended,” Levenson said. “Bob Fosse actually died in Gwen Verdon’s arms on the way to the opening night of Sweet Charity, the revival, in Washington DC.” (So… finale spoiler!)
“You think that you know what this is, but their relationship does unexpected things, and that dynamic is constantly shifting," Levenson continued. "There was a rivalry between them. There was a love between them. There was a friendship between them. And throughout it all, they together and separately create this astonishing work.”
One of the central questions of the show becomes what exactly is keeping these two people bound together, Levenson added. “They were together in one another's lives for the rest of Bob's life, and it doesn't feel like that's what's going to happen. It certainly didn't to me. And so what keeps two people together? It’s not necessarily in a healthy relationship, but these two people never were able to separate.”
Williams poetically called the pair “twin souls, yin and yang, always chasing each other and shaping each other,” while Rockwell added that they’re “Siamese twins in a way, emotionally."
Eamon Dolan Mariner Books Fosse by Sam Wasson
Eamon Dolan Mariner Books Fosse by Sam Wasson
8) The Time’s Up era had a major influence on the show.
Early on in the project, Levenson admitted that he and his fellow writers wondered “Is this a story that needs to be told?” and were convinced to do so after revelations about male abuse in Hollywood began to emerge. “There are so many troubling aspects of this story. And it was right around then that this incredible explosion of the truth, in this industry in particular, came to light. It suddenly felt like, oh, no, we have to tell this story.”
Fosse added that the show aims to cast light on Hollywood’s present abuses by depicting its past. “It's a conversation that never ends,” she said, “and we need to see how far everything has come, and how different things used to be. We're looking at what was marginally acceptable in the '60s, '70s, and '80s, and how vastly different that is now.” The show focuses on “the effort made to find the gray areas, and not go into black and white thinking, because people can do terrible things and still be good people.” | Fosse and Verdon may have only been married for eleven years, but they remained deeply connected throughout both of their lives, and the show will explore both the touching and troubling aspects of that fact. “This becomes the story of this marriage which never actually ended,” Levenson said. “Bob Fosse actually died in Gwen Verdon’s arms on the way to the opening night of Sweet Charity, the revival, in Washington DC.” (So… finale spoiler!)
“You think that you know what this is, but their relationship does unexpected things, and that dynamic is constantly shifting," Levenson continued. "There was a rivalry between them. There was a love between them. There was a friendship between them. And throughout it all, they together and separately create this astonishing work.”
One of the central questions of the show becomes what exactly is keeping these two people bound together, Levenson added. “They were together in one another's lives for the rest of Bob's life, and it doesn't feel like that's what's going to happen. It certainly didn't to me. And so what keeps two people together? It’s not necessarily in a healthy relationship, but these two people never were able to separate.”
Williams poetically called the pair “twin souls, yin and yang, always chasing each other and shaping each other,” while Rockwell added that they’re “Siamese twins in a way, emotionally."
Eamon Dolan Mariner Books Fosse by Sam Wasson
Eamon Dolan Mariner Books Fosse by Sam Wasson
8) The Time’s Up era had a major influence on the show.
Early on in the project, Levenson admitted that he and his fellow writers wondered “Is this a story that needs to be told?” and were convinced to do so after revelations about male abuse in Hollywood began to emerge. “There are so many troubling aspects of this story. And it was right around then that this incredible explosion of the truth, in this industry in particular, came to light. It suddenly felt like, oh, no, we have to tell this story.”
Fosse added that the show aims to cast light on Hollywood’s present abuses by depicting its past. | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.emmys.com/news/features/partners-life | Partners for Life | Television Academy | When they met — bang! — it was fireworks. And for years, the collaboration of choreographer Bob Fosse and dancer Gwen Verdon created sparks on stage and screen. While their marriage didn’t last, their friendship did.
Ann Farmer
On the afternoon of September 23, 1987, Broadway legend Bob Fosse rehearsed his dancers hard for that evening's opening-night revival of Sweet Charity in Washington, D.C.
He told them, "Dance like you're in church on your way to heaven," according to Fosse biographer Sam Wasson. Hours later, on his return to the theater, the pioneering stage and screen director, choreographer and dancer collapsed on the sidewalk and was soon on his way to the hereafter.
Fosse's death was noted at exactly 7:23 p.m. And in FX's new limited series Fosse/Verdon, that event hovers over the action. Throughout its eight episodes the story jumps back and forth in time, using Fosse's years, hours and minutes left on earth as both a countdown and a device to track the period shifts.
It's also a reminder that Fosse, a hard-living character and audacious talent who lived only to age 60, seemed to intuit his early demise.
"I think he was scared," says Sam Rockwell, who stars as Fosse opposite Michelle Williams as Gwen Verdon. "He was a speed addict. He drank too much. He smoked too much. He had sex too much. He rehearsed too much. His appetite for these things was insatiable."
On the other hand, Fosse was revered, winning one Oscar (for directing Cabaret), three Emmys (for the NBC special Liza with a "Z") and eight Tony Awards (for choreography of shows like The Pajama Game, Damn Yankees and Pippin). "He was a god in the dance world," Rockwell declares.
As talented and driven as Fosse was, it's impossible to separate his legacy from Gwen Verdon's — hence the series title. At various times his dance partner, muse, wife and assistant, Verdon, who died in 2000, is considered one of Broadway's greats. She garnered four Tonys for her musical-comedy performances in the 1950s and '60s.
An effervescent redhead, she charmed audiences in shows like Damn Yankees and Sweet Charity with her unstoppable energy and seemingly effortless ability to sing, act and dance full-on simultaneously. Yet her legacy has faded in comparison to his.
Fosse/Verdon, which premiered April 9 (viewers can catch up on FX+), will likely change that. It weaves the story of how these two exceptionally talented individuals found each other, teamed up, fell in love and established a lifelong collaboration — despite Fosse's infidelities and other complications posed by his compulsive behavior.
Even after they separated as spouses, "they never stopped working together and they never stopped being a part of one another's lives," says Steven Levenson, who wrote the bulk of the show and serves as an executive producer with Thomas Kail, Lin-Manuel Miranda, Joel Fields, George Stelzner, Williams and Rockwell.
"From the moment they met until Bob's death, the best work that they created was together," says Levenson, describing them as "incredible perfectionists" and "ridiculously hardworking." He adds: "They pushed one another to heights that alone they couldn't reach."
For both Fosse and Verdon, a passion for dance developed early, though in very different ways. As Wasson details in his book, which formed a basis for the series, Fosse got his start as an underage performer in sleazy Chicago vaudeville and burlesque joints, gigs that influenced the flashy movements and sexually suggestive material he would be drawn to throughout his career.
In Los Angeles, Verdon was placed in dance classes at age three to straighten her legs, made crooked from rickets. Performing by age six, she mastered ballet, tap, jazz, flamenco, ballroom and even Balinese. By the time she appeared in Fosse's work, she was in fearless command of her body.
"What this woman overcame…" says Williams — who portrays Verdon both on the stage and off — trailing off in awe.
To her benefit, Williams is no newcomer to roles requiring rigorous singing and dancing. She triumphed as Sally Bowles in a 2014 Broadway revival of Cabaret. And her starring role in the 2011 indie My Week with Marilyn — in which she recreated Marilyn Monroe's sultry performance of "Body Heat" — led to one of her four Oscar nominations (the others came for Manchester by the Sea, Blue Valentine and Brokeback Mountain).
"That's when I embarked on a more physical relationship to my work," says Williams, who studied dance for hours on end for Fosse/Verdon. She was delighted to discover that her muscles retained memories of tap dancing as a child.
"I've been saying, 'This part has been 38 years in the making,'" Williams continues. "It's calling on every aspect of my physical capability. My emotional capability. My imaginative capability. We play these people from their early 30s to early 60s, which is something I've never done before."
Rockwell — Oscar-nominated this year for Vice and a winner last year for Three Billboards Outside Ebbing, Missouri — is similarly enthused about portraying Fosse. "I was in right away," he says. "I just knew this was a good part for me. I knew there was something about Fosse that I identified with," says the actor, suggesting that he shares with Fosse a laid-back appearance that belies any turmoil roiling beneath the surface.
And while modest about his dancing — "I'm a hoofer, but not like Bob Fosse" — he brought experience to the set. "I've done a little bad breakdancing and hoofing," says Rockwell, who started serious training months ahead to absorb Fosse's dance vocabulary and some of the pieces he's famous for, like "Snake in the Grass," which he performed in the 1974 movie The Little Prince. "We hit a lot of stuff."
Rockwell also shadowed Andy Blankenbuehler, a Fosse/Verdon coproducer and choreographer (with Susan Misner) intimately familiar with the Fosse repertoire, having performed in the Broadway revue Fosse. That's where Blankenbuehler met Verdon, who took his hand during his audition and showed him some steps.
A septuagenarian at that point, she was still imbued with the joy of dance. Now it's his honor, he says, to pass some of those gifts along.
"Sam spent a lot of time watching me," Blankenbuehler recalls. "He attended auditions that I was giving and rehearsals that I was running. He would start to imitate the way I would look at dancers or the way I would call out counts. I think it was cool for Sam to watch a choreographer who carries the legacy in the same way."
The executive producers also brought in actress-dancer-producer Nicole Fosse; the only child of Fosse and Verdon, she serves as a coexecutive producer.
Kail, who directed Miranda's Broadway hits Hamilton and In the Heights — winning a Tony for Hamilton — and won Emmys as an executive producer and director of the Fox special Grease: Live!, directed five of the eight episodes of Fosse/Verdon.
Before beginning work on the series, he traveled with Levenson to Nicole's home in Vermont to obtain her blessings. "It was important for me to go talk to Nicole," he explains, "and make sure she understood what kind of story we were trying to tell."
During the series' five months of production in New York, Nicole Fosse was often on set, providing insights into her parents and steering the team away from any possible false note. "She is an incredible ally and partner in this," Kail says. "She has these nuggets that no one else knows about that add color."
One anecdote Nicole shared concerned her father's smoking habits. A chain smoker, he usually put out his cigarettes in empty coffee cans. But Fosse struggled with choreography more than one would imagine, and while trying to come up with new material, he went through cigarettes compulsively.
When an idea came to him, Nicole told the production team, he would drop his cigarette right where he was standing. "He'd just start choreographing," Blankenbuehler says. "That told you a lot about the man."
In his work, Fosse was drawn to props like hats and chairs. He's also known for the many signature moves that gave his dances their cool, jazzy feel — the turned-in knees, sideways shuffle, splayed hands and hunched shoulders. He'd give them names like "scoop the ice cream," Nicole said. "Right away you get what it is," Blankenbuehler marvels.
Another move, dubbed "show of rings," looks exactly like what a woman would do if she were showing off her new engagement ring. "Then you really feel like you are in the room with them," says Blankenbuehler, who used Fosse's movement terminology when reconstructing pieces from his oeuvre with the scores of dancers who appear in Fosse/Verdon.
Before Verdon and Fosse became a successful show- biz couple, they were rising stars on their own. Verdon had already won a Tony for her role in Cole Porter's Can-Can. A total dance fiend, she would practice pliés even while stirring a pot of spaghetti on her stove.
Fosse, meanwhile, had performed for MGM in various movies and choreographed his first musical, The Pajama Game. Next hired to choreograph Damn Yankees, he auditioned Verdon for the role of the vampish lead, Lola. "They met and it was — bang! — fireworks, artistically and otherwise," Rockwell says.
"She was so, so, so in love," says Williams, adding that Verdon once said, "I'd set my hair on fire if he asked me to." The fondness they felt for each other apparently never faded. Williams recalled listening to a recording of Fosse from much later in life, in which he said, "Oh, Gwen? She's my best friend."
But Fosse/Verdon goes beyond that very personal story to depict how the pair helped revolutionize the American musical.
When the couple first connected, musicals tended to be cheery, wholesome family fare, explains Levenson, who won a Tony Award in 2017 for writing the book for Dear Evan Hansen. "That corny image is what Fosse was fighting against," the producer says. With shows like Sweet Charity, "he brought a darkness and an edginess and an electricity that hadn't been there before."
Despite his enormous success, Fosse acted out in self-destructive ways. He was a womanizer (even cheating on his mistresses), which prompted his and Verdon's separation though they never officially divorced. He took drugs to spur his creativity.
Rockwell believes he was riddled with insecurity and self-loathing. "But he was very self-aware. He knew how fucked up he was," says the actor. "He was also this amazingly charming and kind-hearted guy who did some bad shit. It's complex."
For Rockwell, each shooting day started in hair and makeup, where he was fitted with a bald cap and a comb-over to match Fosse's attempts to hide his receding hairline. "It's a lot of makeup and glue on my head every day," says Rockwell, who also worked with a voice coach to simulate what he describes as Fosse's "silky, higher-pitched" tones.
Equally important, he mastered how to talk and dance with a cigarette protruding from his mouth. Fosse would keep his lips dry enough to grip the cigarette solidly in place, no matter how rambunctiously the rest of him moved. "The smoke gets in your eyes sometimes," Rockwell says. "It makes you squint."
Rockwell also learned that Fosse might stare at the studio mirror for hours when trying to come up with new movements. A scene like that, in fact, was recreated in Fosse/Verdon, in which the dancers stare at him, awaiting his direction. "And he's overwhelmed," says Rockwell, who ad-libbed in that moment, barking something like, "What are you looking at?"
"Sam is such an instinctual actor," Levenson says. "He can't do it if it doesn't feel authentic." The producer recalls going over a script with Rockwell early on. "He said, 'I think I'd only say half of this.' That struck me as exactly right. Since then, it's been about paring away."
In many ways, Verdon was Fosse's opposite. "She was incredibly extroverted, charming, well-spoken and loved by everyone," Levenson says. Which is the impression Williams gives as Verdon on a snowy afternoon on set in late January, snug inside Silvercup Studios North in the Bronx.
Williams, usually a blonde, sports red curls and bangs that frame her face. Draped in a loose '60s style leisurewear pantsuit, she appears slightly aged by makeup artists. "I really don't mind that aspect at all," she offers. "It's more, 'Is this how Gwen aged?' She aged up and out. She didn't age down and in."
In this scene, Williams plays opposite Margaret Qualley as Ann Reinking, the Broadway performer who, for a time, was Fosse's muse and romantic partner. But no tension is apparent between the women. On each take, Williams enters the dining room and helps set the table.
She nails her lines while alternating her movements, picking up various goblets or plates and setting them down differently each time. "I never find success when I try and repeat myself," Williams says later. "It just feels dead. It feels old."
When she wasn't shooting scenes, Williams pushed herself hard in the dance studio. At day's end: a hot bath and her script, to start memorizing the next day's lines.
Fosse/Verdon comes at a good moment to shore up the memory of these two consequential American artists — especially Verdon, who's been more overlooked. And as the first episode indicates, she will get her due (no plot spoilers!).
It begins with the two, still young, rehearsing. He's manipulating her body in various ways to come up with something that'll razzle-dazzle the audience. "Or this?" she suggests, offering an idea of her own. "Show me the reverse," Fosse asks. He looks and shrugs, "Eh, your way was better."
And that's just the start. Subsequent scenes show her instructing Fosse's chorus dancers on how to roll their shoulders with the right attitude. She chooses the plunging black top that Liza Minnelli made famous as Sally Bowles in Fosse's Cabaret. She plays intercept with a producer disgruntled over Fosse's "too dark" lighting.
And she even flies from Munich to New York and back to procure an ape costume that can't be found in Germany.
"I'd always looked up to the incredible work that Bob Fosse had done as a filmmaker, theater director and choreographer," says executive producer Joel Fields. "One of the things that I hope will surprise the audience is the extent to which Gwen Verdon was part of the artistic contribution. People just don't know about her, even though she was at one time one of the greatest stars in the world."
Rockwell concurs: "Fosse met his match with Gwen Verdon. She really understood him and could elaborate on what he was trying to do. For him, Gwen was the perfect partner." | When they met — bang! — it was fireworks. And for years, the collaboration of choreographer Bob Fosse and dancer Gwen Verdon created sparks on stage and screen. While their marriage didn’t last, their friendship did.
Ann Farmer
On the afternoon of September 23, 1987, Broadway legend Bob Fosse rehearsed his dancers hard for that evening's opening-night revival of Sweet Charity in Washington, D.C.
He told them, "Dance like you're in church on your way to heaven," according to Fosse biographer Sam Wasson. Hours later, on his return to the theater, the pioneering stage and screen director, choreographer and dancer collapsed on the sidewalk and was soon on his way to the hereafter.
Fosse's death was noted at exactly 7:23 p.m. And in FX's new limited series Fosse/Verdon, that event hovers over the action. Throughout its eight episodes the story jumps back and forth in time, using Fosse's years, hours and minutes left on earth as both a countdown and a device to track the period shifts.
It's also a reminder that Fosse, a hard-living character and audacious talent who lived only to age 60, seemed to intuit his early demise.
"I think he was scared," says Sam Rockwell, who stars as Fosse opposite Michelle Williams as Gwen Verdon. "He was a speed addict. He drank too much. He smoked too much. He had sex too much. He rehearsed too much. His appetite for these things was insatiable. "
On the other hand, Fosse was revered, winning one Oscar (for directing Cabaret), three Emmys (for the NBC special Liza with a "Z") and eight Tony Awards (for choreography of shows like The Pajama Game, Damn Yankees and Pippin). "He was a god in the dance world," Rockwell declares.
| yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | yes_statement | "bob" fosse "died" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”, "bob" fosse "died". | https://www.virginislandsdailynews.com/fosse-verdon-dances-through-broadway-legends-entanglements/article_22276b03-8d8f-543b-b775-50ba6223e664.html | 'Fosse/Verdon' dances through Broadway legends' entanglements ... | PASADENA, Calif. — He was the infamous choreographer and she was his interpreter, but the relationship between Bob Fosse and Gwen Verdon was much more than that.
Married and the parents of a daughter, the pair set records with musicals like “Sweet Charity,” “Chicago” and “Damn Yankees.” And although they separated, they never divorced. Their love story is the subject of FX’s new eight-part series, “Fosse/Verdon,” premiering April 9.
The producers enjoyed a triple advantage in creating the show: They had Sam Wasson’s book, “Fosse,” the couple’s daughter, Nicole Fosse, now 56, as well as Fosse’s autobiographical movie, “All That Jazz,” to work from.
But Nicole Fosse says the film depicts only a partial truth. “‘All That Jazz’ was his version,” she says. “I mean, he never claimed it to be autobiographical. It’s sort of a bit of a whitewashed, sort of romanticized version of his life.
“I think this really goes much more deeply into what was really going on in his relationships with Gwen and all of the people in his life. And you get eight hours of this, that story. ‘All That Jazz,’ was told in an hour and 45 minutes,” she says.
The series stars Sam Rockwell as Fosse and Michelle Williams as Verdon. Rockwell says Fosse was a tricky role to play. “He’s a very complex guy, Bob. I think that there’s maybe a little bit of narcissism, but it’s also ... I think a very kind man; a very charming man. But I think there was an addictive thing with him. And Gwen was obviously his muse. And Ben Vereen was one of his muses, and Ann Reinking.”
Reinking, also a dancer, was one of the women who supplanted Verdon in Fosse’s affections. “She does become a very major figure. I mean, after Gwen, she was, I think, probably the second most important woman in his life, and lasted the longest of any other of his relationships. So, she’s a major character,” says executive producer Steven Levenson.
In an earlier interview, Reinking described her relationship with Fosse.
“He believed in me,” she said. “And he’s the person I worked with the most. And I had a natural affinity for his work. It was just there. And I adored going to work every day.
“I remember telling my dad, ‘I’m working 14- to 16-hour days, and I don’t care. I can’t wait to get back to work.’ I met him at the audition for ‘Pippin.’ The audition was great. I didn’t know what to expect. He had such a way of relaxing the whole group. There were hundreds and he made people feel very, very at ease,” Reinking recalled.
“He had organized the actual combination that he wanted, and he was very specific. He had a lot of use of isolations, also had pantomime and improv.”
Isolations, she explained, are where the dancer moves only one or two body parts. “Coming from the ballet world, isolations can be very difficult because the ballet dancer moves more as one entity than they do with isolations,” she said.
“I was really concentrating, and the whole room was. It went on forever — a couple of days. I remember saying, ‘Even if I don’t get this, this is the best day I’ve ever had.’”
One of the producers, Joel Fields (“The Americans”), says they were striving for authenticity in this version of the story.
“And having Nicole is an incredible asset because she’s able to share not only the facts as she remembers them, but the emotional experience ... Our goal is to explore a relationship between these two characters and to do it in an authentic way, and we are never looking to whip something up ... It’s been easy to follow what the truth was as we see it and to try to let the drama flow out of that,” he says.
While Fosse was quixotic and a philanderer, Verdon never gave up on him, says Levenson (“Masters of Sex”). “This really becomes the story of this marriage, which never actually ended,” he says.
“Bob Fosse actually died in Gwen Verdon’s arms on the way to the opening night of ‘Sweet Charity,’ the revival in Washington, D.C.”
“It was a chance ... to address the narrative of the lone genius and to try to look beyond that and see what’s happening — where your eye is not supposed to go,” says executive producer Thomas Kail, who directed “Hamilton” on Broadway.
“And it felt like this was a couple, it was certainly maybe the most crystallized example of that kind of collaboration of a woman who, in her prime, was the greatest dancer of her generation, of a young man who wanted to be Fred Astaire, and then was not allowed to be Fred Astaire. And he found her. They found each other. And watching that partnership evolve as he started to accelerate, as she had to find a different way to grapple with something that I think is very human, what the dancer does often grapple with, which is, who are you when you can’t do the thing that defined you?
“So the dancer dies twice. They die when they stop dancing, and they die when they die. And that was something that felt really rich for us to explore.”
Williams didn’t start out to be a dancer, though she performed “Sweet Charity” on the stage. “I danced a little bit as a kid, but not really anything to write home about,” she says.
“And then all of a sudden, the last decade, it just keeps coming up for me ... And it is a place that I have found an unexpected amount of joy, and so I keep wanting to return to it.”
A touch of humor invades British mystery
A lighthearted British mystery amongst the angst-ridden is just what the doctor ordered, says Julian Unthank, who created “Queens of Mystery,” premiering on Acorn.TV next Monday.
“I was speaking to some actresses, and they were talking about the problems of there are few parts to offer women over the age of 40 into a mainstream drama, rather than just being cast as sort of a serial mom, or that sort of thing,” he says.
“So I wanted to write a drama that has three actresses over the age of 40, and not be about being a woman over the age of 40. And that’s how it kind of started,” he says.
The series follows a young detective (Olivia Vinall) burdened with three mystery-writer aunts who insist on helping to solve the crimes she’s working on. They are played by Julie Graham, Siobhan Redmond and Sarah Woodward.
I really wanted to do something bright, more colorful, and something which is sort of a four-quadrant show, that you could watch as a family,” said Unthank. “So a 10-year-old and a 70-year-old can watch the show, can get something out of it. So that was the idea to make something sort of fun.” | “I was really concentrating, and the whole room was. It went on forever — a couple of days. I remember saying, ‘Even if I don’t get this, this is the best day I’ve ever had.’ ”
One of the producers, Joel Fields (“The Americans”), says they were striving for authenticity in this version of the story.
“And having Nicole is an incredible asset because she’s able to share not only the facts as she remembers them, but the emotional experience ... Our goal is to explore a relationship between these two characters and to do it in an authentic way, and we are never looking to whip something up ... It’s been easy to follow what the truth was as we see it and to try to let the drama flow out of that,” he says.
While Fosse was quixotic and a philanderer, Verdon never gave up on him, says Levenson (“Masters of Sex”). “This really becomes the story of this marriage, which never actually ended,” he says.
“Bob Fosse actually died in Gwen Verdon’s arms on the way to the opening night of ‘Sweet Charity,’ the revival in Washington, D.C.”
“It was a chance ... to address the narrative of the lone genius and to try to look beyond that and see what’s happening — where your eye is not supposed to go,” says executive producer Thomas Kail, who directed “Hamilton” on Broadway.
“And it felt like this was a couple, it was certainly maybe the most crystallized example of that kind of collaboration of a woman who, in her prime, was the greatest dancer of her generation, of a young man who wanted to be Fred Astaire, and then was not allowed to be Fred Astaire. And he found her. They found each other. And watching that partnership evolve as he started to accelerate, as she had to find a different way to grapple with something that I think is very human, what the dancer does often grapple with, which is, who are you when you can’t do the thing that defined you?
“So the dancer dies twice. | yes |
Theater | Did Bob Fosse die on the opening night of “Sweet Charity”? | no_statement | "bob" fosse did not "die" on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”.. the death of "bob" fosse did not occur on the "opening" "night" of “sweet charity”. | https://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/24/theater/theater-a-long-and-twisting-road-back-to-broadway.html | THEATER;A Long and Twisting Road Back to Broadway - The New ... | THEATER;A Long and Twisting Road Back to Broadway
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THIS IS WHAT I CARRY with me." Donna McKechnie stands in a Manhattan sublet apartment surrounded by someone else's possessions, cradling a picture frame. In it is a photograph, taken 20 years ago, of her between Michael Bennett and Fred Astaire.
"He had come to see 'A Chorus Line' in L.A. and he took us to dinner at Trader Vic's," she recalled. "I couldn't speak I was so in awe. Then we went back to his house, and when I used the powder room, the initial P was on the hand towels, for Phyllis, his dead wife. This was before he got married again. And I thought: 'He's living in a time warp. He's lonely.' I remember him saying, 'I don't go out much anymore because of all the husbands tapping me on the shoulder asking, 'Will you dance with my wife?'
And when we were leaving, I thought: 'This is terrible. He's going to think I'm just a stupid dancer who can't speak.' We got in the car, and I looked back to wave. There was a porch with a light over it and a circular drive. And when I waved, you know what he did? He went like this." She strikes the classic Fred Astaire pose, a lunge with arms extended. "It was his signature to me saying it's O.K.," she said. "He knew."
It's odd, suddenly, to see her imitate his pose. Here she has been on this rainy afternoon, dressed in an argyle sweater set and slacks, making homey chatter, setting out ice cubes in a bowl. And to see that pose transform this woman who looks like a mom in a cookie commercial into one of the most commanding musical-comedy dancers of our time is jarring. But Donna McKechnie has always been a study in opposites, especially when she dances, her stark physical power contrasting with her little-girl ebullience. The pure line of an artist suffused by the pure ecstasy of Snoopy anticipating his supper.
There is also the enduring offstage dichotomy -- the Cassie Thing. Star, not a star. Famous, but only to other dancers. Acting out her own life onstage, except for the fact that the Cassie character in "A Chorus Line," for which she won a Tony Award in 1976, was never based on her life. The character of Maggie was, but who remembers Maggie? So, even though she never was Cassie, everyone thinks she is.
Maybe it's a way to keep Michael Bennett alive. He was her friend, director, choreographer and, briefly, husband, who died of AIDS in 1987. From the moment they met on the television show "Hullabaloo," she was his premier interpreter. She was not just a Michael Bennett dancer, she was the Michael Bennett dancer. Which helps to answer the whatever-happened-to? question that has plagued her ever since. But more of that later.
This month she has returned to Broadway for the first time since 1987, her final stint in "A Chorus Line." She is co-starring with John Davidson, Kathryn Crosby and Andrea McArdle in Rodgers and Hammerstein's "State Fair," directed by James Hammerstein and Randy Skinner, opening on Wednesday at the Music Box Theater.
Ms. McKechnie plays Emily Arden, a big-band singer and dancer hellbent on getting to New York and becoming a star. While the role is not quite Cassie, there is that same wish behind it, that same yearning for a name in lights. The musical, which was written in 1945 as a film, began touring last summer in Des Moines to coincide with the Iowa State Fair, for which it is named. And in this year of the surprise hit movie "Babe," no one should underestimate the pull of a story that revolves around a farmer's blue-ribbon hopes for his prize pig. "I call it the human-scale show," Ms. McKechnie said. "It lets people feel you're like them or they're like you and they're not alone."
The tour of "State Fair" ended only a month ago, which partly explains why Ms. McKechnie is living in a friend's apartment on the Upper West Side. Her life has truly been that of a gypsy since her marriage to Bennett ended in 1977. Though she continued to live in New York, it was impossible, she recalled, to find work.
"I had a very tough time after the relationship," she said. "I couldn't get an audition for a year. I heard the rumor about Michael blackballing me, but I never thought that was true. It was never personal. None of Michael Bennett's business partners wanted to make him uncomfortable by casting me."
She moved to Los Angeles in 1980, she said, to establish her TVQ, or television quotient, "which meant that if you became a TV star, you could come back to New York and get a Broadway show." While she stayed for 10 years, appearing on sitcoms such as "Family Ties," even coaching the Los Angeles Raiders cheerleaders ("I had a manager who wanted tickets to the games," she said, laughing. "Don't ask"), she ended up touring in musical theater most of that time. "I never stopped working above the title," she said. "I just was not visible in New York. I was better known in London, Paris, Tokyo. I didn't feel I dropped out of sight. But the perception here was that no one could ever find me."
IN 1992 SHE MOVED BACK TO New York, appearing in "Cut the Ribbons," a fast flop. Cast in a leading role in the 1993 Off Broadway "Annie Warbucks," the disappointing sequel to "Annie," her dream of a long run was dashed again. With "State Fair," she hopes to be luckier. She'd like an apartment and a country house. "I miss a yard," she said simply.
It certainly is time for a real home. Ms. McKechnie is 53 years old, dancing in the tradition of Chita Rivera and her all-time idol, Gwen Verdon. In a telephone interview, Ms. Verdon said: "One reason Donna dances so well at her age is that she's an actress-dancer. Margot Fonteyn once said, 'By the time you're old enough to really know how to do it, you're almost too old to do it.' I'm 71, and I can still dance. I can't do a whole number, but I'm terrific for 16 bars. Donna will be the same way. She knows it's not just steps. There's an emotional quality to every dance."
Bob Avian, who was Bennett's co-choreographer on "A Chorus Line," added: "I started with Donna when I started with Michael. After 'Chorus Line,' I worried about all the cast and what would happen to them. But Donna isn't dragged down by the neuroses of being a star. She has no qualms about doing summer stock, tours or nightclubs. She's a survivor.
"When you are a dancer, you are told what to do and you do it. It's part of the discipline. Neil Simon once told Michael that Donna was his secret weapon because she could just do anything. She still can. After all these years, she gets out there and does it."
Ms. McKechnie is not a fan of the spate of "A Chorus Line" books published in the last few years, including those by cast members. "So much agenda goes on with those things it turns me off," she said, sipping her mineral water. "The sibling rivalry in that show was horrendous."
Maybe, but she had the advantage with Bennett. She nodded. "I never had anyone take care of me before Michael," she said slowly. "There's a place to get confused when you work, where real intimacies happen. That's where we felt comfortable, putting personal stuff on the shelf. I was the instrument, the interpreter of his design. I was very spoiled by it. So, I won't do my own book about it. I'm going to do a musical of my life instead."
THAT LIFE BEGAN IN Pontiac, Mich., one of three children of a self-employed tool-and-die machinist. The family moved often. At 16, Ms. McKechnie ran away to New York to become a dancer, never graduating from high school. "I don't regret it," she said calmly. "I did a very healthy thing by running away and taking charge of my life. There was no physical abuse or anything like that in my family. But there was a lot of psychological coldness. And I was this little dancing doll, the black sheep, going to classes, having recitals. There was a lot of envy in the air."
After making her Broadway debut in 1961 in "How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying," she worked constantly. Bennett cast her in "Promises, Promises" in 1968, and in 1970 she co-starred in "Company," also choreographed by Bennett. Following the mammoth success of "A Chorus Line," they married in 1976. (She had been married once before, briefly, to a compulsive gambler.) A year later, the marriage collapsed, her father died -- her troubled relationship with him still unresolved -- and Ms. McKechnie found herself literally paralyzed by rheumatoid arthritis. She was told by doctors that she might never walk again, let alone dance.
It took her more than a year, but she cured herself through diet, exercise and psychotherapy. "My doctor called it the war of the worlds," she said. "I was raised with one foot in the Midwest and the 'should be's,' this Calvinistic background that hasn't left me yet. And another foot on Broadway, living a life that's against everything I was raised to be."
"I was stricken like this," she said, holding her body board-stiff. "Even though I had run away, I took my family with me. It's a tug of war that stops you from growing up. I'm sorry it had to happen. I wish I had parents who nurtured me. I wish I went to one high school and stayed friends with those same people all my life. My girlfriends now from Michigan have grandchildren. I see the other road. I felt guilty about it for too many years. I used to feel I wasn't complete if I didn't try to do the other thing. But if I wanted that other life I would have had it. I am not without will or ambition. "I really respect families and marriage, but I finally accepted that there's room for a lot of different people in this world and people who bring different things, and if I'm one of them, why aren't I celebrating that?"
"You know," she went on, "when Larry Kert, who was in 'Company' with me, was dying -- our mutual friend told me this story -- Larry said to him, 'It's noble what we do.' " Unexpectedly, she starts to cry. "It rang so true to me, because the question is there sometimes. Is it enough in this world? Putting on makeup, singing and dancing? While other people are dying all around me? And he answered that question for me. I know he's right."
RAIN FALLS LOUDLY ON the skylight. It is one of the only moments when Ms. McKechnie allows a silence, determined as she is to fill every second with sound. She does not want to be a dancer who can't talk.
She does want to start teaching again now that she's back in New York, at the HB Studio. "I'd rather mother students than men," she said. "I think I'm meant to do that in a way. And I'm passing on Michael Bennett's choreography, and Bob Fosse's, and Chris Chadman's. I have to do my part to pass it on. We've lost too much too soon."
Indeed, many have pointed to her as one of the first AIDS widows. She nodded. "I know that and it's totally incongruous to me. Not to push it away, but that whole experience of Michael's life was unknown to me." Years of estrangement followed the couple's divorce, as he simultaneously pursued a homosexual life and set up house with Sabine Cassel, the wife of his friend Jean-Pierre Cassel, both witnesses at his wedding to Ms. McKechnie. With the exception of the record-breaking performance of "A Chorus Line" as the longest running show in Broadway history in 1983, Bennett and Ms. McKechnie rarely saw each other.
"When we talk about regrets I wish I had put two and two together," she says now. "He didn't tell me the truth about his illness. He gave me that rap about the heart bypass. He was in that place at a time when people didn't know what to make of what was going on. When you die of this, too many people are alone. That stigma is always present, and he had a lot of pride.
"Something incredible happened when I was in Washington touring with 'Sweet Charity' in 1987," she continued. "Bob Fosse died on opening night. Michael had died three months before. I got a call from a young woman who had been Michael's nurse. She came to see me. I wanted to know if he ever got settled or was at peace emotionally with it. She told me it was very hard for him. He didn't want people to come and visit. He tried to beat it alone.
"She saw him cry once. Sorry," she said, stopping for a tissue. "He reached his 44th birthday, and he said to her, 'I made it.' That was the only time she saw him cry. She said, 'He loved you.' I wouldn't have asked her, but that felt really wonderful. And she told me some funny things. He could never say, 'Don't leave, don't go.' It was hard for him to be dependent. She said she would be tired and ask, 'Can I get you anything else?' He'd say no and she'd start to leave and he'd say, 'Can you just turn the TV?' It made me smile. He didn't want her to leave but he couldn't ask her to stay. It said a lot to me."
She stands up to turn on the heat and gets an extra sweater from the bedroom. "After the memorial service for Michael at the Shubert Theater, we all went out, trying to make it cheerful and happy. It was hard. I left and literally bumped into Gwen Verdon on the street. I looked at her, she embraced me and I just sobbed. And the only thing she said was, 'You keep them alive inside.' I was thinking of that because I guess I don't miss him. I keep him alive. I think to myself always, 'How would Michael approach this?' He was never afraid to make mistakes. I knew him well enough to know what he would try. I keep him alive not just with my work. I pass it on."
It's dark out now. "You know," she said, "there's this little girl in our show who stands in the wings every night when I do my big number. Her mother always says: 'Oh, she adores you. She just loves to dance.' " She smiles and blushes a little. "And I see her there looking at that number every single night. And I think, if she sees me working this hard out there, never missing a night -- well, at least, that's something."
A version of this article appears in print on , Section 2, Page 10 of the National edition with the headline: THEATER;A Long and Twisting Road Back to Broadway. Order Reprints | Today’s Paper | Subscribe | With the exception of the record-breaking performance of "A Chorus Line" as the longest running show in Broadway history in 1983, Bennett and Ms. McKechnie rarely saw each other.
"When we talk about regrets I wish I had put two and two together," she says now. "He didn't tell me the truth about his illness. He gave me that rap about the heart bypass. He was in that place at a time when people didn't know what to make of what was going on. When you die of this, too many people are alone. That stigma is always present, and he had a lot of pride.
"Something incredible happened when I was in Washington touring with 'Sweet Charity' in 1987," she continued. "Bob Fosse died on opening night. Michael had died three months before. I got a call from a young woman who had been Michael's nurse. She came to see me. I wanted to know if he ever got settled or was at peace emotionally with it. She told me it was very hard for him. He didn't want people to come and visit. He tried to beat it alone.
"She saw him cry once. Sorry," she said, stopping for a tissue. "He reached his 44th birthday, and he said to her, 'I made it.' That was the only time she saw him cry. She said, 'He loved you.' I wouldn't have asked her, but that felt really wonderful. And she told me some funny things. He could never say, 'Don't leave, don't go.' It was hard for him to be dependent. She said she would be tired and ask, 'Can I get you anything else?' He'd say no and she'd start to leave and he'd say, 'Can you just turn the TV?' It made me smile. He didn't want her to leave but he couldn't ask her to stay. It said a lot to me. | yes |
Paleobotany | Did Cycads dominate the Mesozoic era plant kingdom? | yes_statement | "cycads" "dominated" the mesozoic "era" "plant" "kingdom".. the "dominant" "plants" in the mesozoic "era" were "cycads". | https://www.slideshare.net/pramodgpramod/mesozoic-plants | Mesozoic plants | PPT | INTRODUCTION
The Mesozoic era was a time of great changes, not only
in animals but also in the terrestrial vegetation. The
Mesozoic flora was the vegetation eaten by the dinosaurs,
other Reptiles and mammal Herbivores during this era.
New genus and new plants Eg: Gymnosperms first
appeared in their recognizable forms. Ferns had already
appeared in Paleozoic but their diversity and spread
increased in the Mesozoic. Conifers, Cycades and the
living fossil Ginkgo dominated and made up the forest.
Angiosperms and flowers are appeared in Mesozoic and
began to diversify and take over from the other plants.
3MESOZOIC PLANTS
TIME SPAN
According to the above geological scale. Haiden,
Archean and Precambrian these three together
occupies major portion of the geological
timescale i.e, 4030 million years.
Paleozoic Era - 320 million years.
Mesozoic - 174 million years.
Cenozoic - 66 million years proceeding till now.
6MESOZOIC PLANTS
MESOZOIC ERA
The Mesozoic Era, which
began some 250 million years
ago, is usually called the “Age
of Reptiles” or the “Age of
Cycadophytes”. The Mesozoic
is divided into three time
periods: the Triassic (245-208
million years ago), the
Jurassic (208-146 million
years ago), the Cretaceous
(146-65 million years ago).
The Mesozoic era occurs
between the Paleozoic and
the Cenozoic.
7MESOZOIC PLANTS
PLANTS THROUGH TRIASSIC
Triassic period, in geologic time, the first period
of the Mesozoic era, it began 252 million years ago, at
the close of Permian period, and ended 201 million
years ago, when it was succeeded by the Jurassic
period. Seed ferns like Glossopteris, ferns and early
species of gymnosperms (seed plants, such as the
evergreens, in which the seeds are not enclosed)
dominate the Triassic terrain. Cycads, with tufts of
tough, palm-like leaves and a woody trunk, appeared
in the late Carboniferous and were abundant in the
Triassic.
8MESOZOIC PLANTS
PLANTS THROUGH JURASSIC
The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that
extends from 201 million years ago to 145 Ma; from the
end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous.
The Jurassic constitutes the middle period of the
Mesozoic era
Conifers were the dominant land plants of the
Jurassic
Gymnosperms were relatively diverse during the
Jurassic period. The Conifers in particular dominated
the flora, as during the Triassic; they were the most
diverse group and constituted the majority of large
trees. Cycades and ginkgos also common in this
period 9MESOZOIC PLANTS
CYCADES
Cycads are seeded plants that are physically recognized by
the presence of a thick and wooded trunk and a crown of
stiff evergreen leaves. Of these plants individuals of the
species are all male or all female and both are known to
have exceptionally long life spans. Cycad plants are found
throughout the world even today but prefer to thrive in
areas that have tropical or subtropical climates. These
plants first made an appearance in the early Permian era
and are still thriving today! A significant number of
herbivorous dinosaurs fed on cycads because of their
hardy nature, their bountiful presence and the fact that
they grow both close to the ground and high from the
ground
10MESOZOIC PLANTS
CYCADEOID
Cycadeoids are a group of plants otherwise known as
Bennettitales. This order of plants became apparent in the
Triassic era and is believed to have become extinct in the
Cretaceous period. The Cycadeoids were seed plants that
generally look much like Cycads in terms of physical
appearance. The Cycadeoids are separated in to two groups,
Cycadeoidaceae and Williamsoniaceae. Each of these groups
contains a number of individual plant species. The
Cycadeoidaceae include: Cycadeoidea, Cycadekka and
Monanthesia. These plants are all characterized by thick trunks
and the presence of cones. The Williamsoniaceae include:
Williamsonia, Wielandella, Williamsoniella and Ischnophyton.
These species of plant had much more slender trunks that
branch and cones that are used for reproduction.
12MESOZOIC PLANTS
CONIFERS
Conifers are known by any number of names including:
Pinophyta, Coniderophyta or Coniferae made their first
appearance in the late Carboniferous period and remain a
thriving plant family today. Like cycads and cycadeoids
conifers are cone bearing. Only a few of the conifers
known today are recognized as plants, most of this species
are woody trees such as Douglas-firs, cypresses, junipers
and firs. There are currently 68 genera and 630 living
species of conifer; however, this variety of plant was
certainly not as bountiful back in the Jurassic period. One
thing that makes this plant variety particularly interesting
is the fact that it seemed to thrive as a result of the
Permian-Triassic extinction event that had such a
devastating effect on many other living things.
13MESOZOIC PLANTS
GINKGO
Ginkgophytes or simply ginkgo is known as a genus of plant
that does not flower and is currently known only by a single
living species: ginkgo biloba. Ginkgo biloba is seen by many as a
living fossil and is taken in the modern day as a supplement. Is
it believed that the ginkgo plant dates back as far as 199.6
million years ago to the beginning of the Jurassic era and it
currently still thrives. The Jurassic period was a particularly
beneficial era for the ginkgo plant not only because it saw its
beginning but also because it was able to diversify. Throughout
the middle of the Jurassic period the ginkgo plant diversified
and came to spread throughout Laurasia and this diversification
carried on through the beginning of the Cretaceous period. By
the middle of the Cretaceous period however, this plant began
to decline in diversity. Today there is only one single specimen
of this plant life left living, this species of ginkgo was able to
thrive in China where all other gingko plants died out in the
rest of the world.
15MESOZOIC PLANTS
PLANTS THROUGH CRETACEOUS
The first appearance of the flowering plants, also called the
angiosperms or Anthophyta. First appearing in the Lower Cretaceous
around 125 million years ago, the flowering plants first radiated in the
middle Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago. Early angiosperms did
not develop shrub- or tree-like morphologies, but by the close of the
Cretaceous, a number of forms had evolved that any modern botanist
would recognize. The angiosperms thrived in a variety of
environments such as areas with damper climates, habitats favored by
cycads and cycadeoids, and riparian zones. High southern latitudes
were not invaded by angiosperms until the end of the Cretaceous.
Ferns dominated open, dry and/or low-nutrient lands. Typical Jurassic
vegetation, including conifers, cycads, and other gymnosperms,
continued on into the Lower Cretaceous without significant changes.
Swamps were dominated by conifers and angiosperm dicots.
17MESOZOIC PLANTS
Some of the common plant genera
of the Mesozoic era
EQUISETITES;
These small horsetails had
ribbed stems, with spores
present in terminal cones.
Individual leaves were
jointed, linear, or grass like,
with up to 30 per whorl.
Scale leaves clothed the base
of the leaf. The plant spread
by underground stems and
tubers. Equisetites lived in
wetland conditions. Its
tubers are often found in
fossil soils. Typical height 20
ft.
18MESOZOIC PLANTS
OSMUNDA
This is a fern with a short
stem, large ordinary
fronds, and specialized
spore-bearing fronds. It is
probable that fossil plants
of this genus were to be
found near water, often in
warm, temperate wetland
areas. Typical height 6-1/2
ft. All ferns require a
moderately damp habitat
for reproduction.
19MESOZOIC PLANTS
WILLIAM SONIA
This plant resembled a
small tree with
diamond-patterned bark
and palm like leaves. Its
most interesting aspect
was its star-shaped
flowers. Williamsonia
grew in tropical tree-
fern forests. Typical
height 10 ft.
20MESOZOIC PLANTS
PACHYPTERIS
A common constituent of
many Jurassic floras,
Pachypteris had small
fronds with a lobed
appearance. It was one of
the last of the
Pteridosperms (seed ferns)
and became extinct during
the Cretaceous period.
Pachypteris grew in salt
marshes. Typical height 6-
1/2 ft.
21MESOZOIC PLANTS
SEQUOIA
This genus includes very
large trees. Small, very
globular cones are a
feature of these plants.
The cones do not often
disintegrate, even as
fossils, but open to let the
seeds fall out. Redwoods
once formed extensive
forests in sub-tropical
regions of the world.
Typical height 230 ft.
22MESOZOIC PLANTS
ARAUCARIA
The leaves are small and
toothlike. The cones are
large and very spiny.
Seeds are present at the
base of the bracts. This
genus grew in
subtropical mountain
forests. Typical height
100 ft.
23MESOZOIC PLANTS
CONCLUSION
In conclusion Plant fossils are very rare and poor in
preservation. Fossilization of plants occur with certain
conditions.
Plant fossils records are incomplete.
Plants are FIXIST. Not in migration, adjust to climates
Helps in establishing the paleoclimates.
Plant fossils study through ages helps to understand the
evolution during Geological age.
Dominant plants in Mesozoic Gymnosperms like cycas
and other family are seen in fossil record.
During terminal part of Mesozoic the origin of flowering
plants like Angiosperms occurs. Which have become
dominant during Cenozoic.
PLANT FOSSILS HELPS TO RECONSTRUCT PALEOCLIMATE OF PAST.
25MESOZOIC PLANTS | Mesozoic - 174 million years.
Cenozoic - 66 million years proceeding till now.
6MESOZOIC PLANTS
MESOZOIC ERA
The Mesozoic Era, which
began some 250 million years
ago, is usually called the “Age
of Reptiles” or the “Age of
Cycadophytes”. The Mesozoic
is divided into three time
periods: the Triassic (245-208
million years ago), the
Jurassic (208-146 million
years ago), the Cretaceous
(146-65 million years ago).
The Mesozoic era occurs
between the Paleozoic and
the Cenozoic.
7MESOZOIC PLANTS
PLANTS THROUGH TRIASSIC
Triassic period, in geologic time, the first period
of the Mesozoic era, it began 252 million years ago, at
the close of Permian period, and ended 201 million
years ago, when it was succeeded by the Jurassic
period. Seed ferns like Glossopteris, ferns and early
species of gymnosperms (seed plants, such as the
evergreens, in which the seeds are not enclosed)
dominate the Triassic terrain. Cycads, with tufts of
tough, palm-like leaves and a woody trunk, appeared
in the late Carboniferous and were abundant in the
Triassic.
8MESOZOIC PLANTS
PLANTS THROUGH JURASSIC
The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that
extends from 201 million years ago to 145 Ma; from the
end of the Triassic to the beginning of the Cretaceous.
| yes |
Paleobotany | Did Cycads dominate the Mesozoic era plant kingdom? | yes_statement | "cycads" "dominated" the mesozoic "era" "plant" "kingdom".. the "dominant" "plants" in the mesozoic "era" were "cycads". | https://www.bomengids.nl/uk/tree-evolution.html | Evolution of trees: their evolutionary history Dutch treeguide at www ... | Click here for a beautifully illustrated timeline with concepts like the "silurian" and so on.
My summary of the evolution of trees.
Trees are of course non-marine plants: they live on land and not in the sea.
The first plants to invade the land did so about 430 million years ago in the silurian, before vertebrates invaded the land. Only after vascular tissue and after that roots evolved could trees evolve.
After the invasion of land by plants a big adaptive radiation followed, in Devonian times. The first trees (big plants [30 meters] with woody stems) evolved about 360 million years ago and had roots and leafs (begin carboniferous). Amongst these first trees were lycopods, now species from this group are only known as small mosses (Selaginella or spike moss).
Lycopod trees could only live in moist-environments because they reproduced by spores, which need moisture to enable sperms to move to the egg.
In the devone a second innovation came about: the seed. The seed enabled plants to colonize non-wet land, beginning a total change of much of the lands since plants play an important part in the formation of soil because they slow down erosion. The first seedplants evolved trees with seeds which thus colonized the lands and formed the first vast forests. One of the first kinds of large trees was Archaeopteris (if you google that name you can find more information easily).
In the carboniferous important swamp trees were lycopods. There were also calamites the size of a small tree (horse-tail related). Cordaites was the first of the group gymnosperms (naked-seeds) that colonized the land for quite a while.
At the end of the permian time (280 million years ago, when the first reptiles appeared, but no dinosaurs yet), lycopod trees had declined and cordaites had dissappeared. Gymnosperms, including confers, took over land environments.
from http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPaleo4.html :
Plant life of the Permian (248 million years ago) took on an increasingly modern "look" with the rise of a number of gymnosperm (naked seeded) plants during the late Carboniferous and their diversification during the Permian. Indeed, the late Carboniferous "extinction" is almost inapplicable to terrestrial plants. The arborescent lycopds of the carboniferous coal swamps disappeared before the end of that period. The Permian saw the spread of conifers and cycads, two groups that would dominate the floras of the world until the Cretaceous period with the rise of the flowering plants. The first conifers had small leaves similar to those seen in the modern plant Auracaria, the Norfolk Island pine.
The Cupressaceae are found in the fossil record since the Jurassic.
Pinaceae are known in the fossil record since the Cretaceous.
At the end of the perminan the biggest mass extinctnio took place. See:
http://www.uni-muenster.de/GeoPalaeontologie/Palaeo/Palbot/ewald3.htm
The mesozoic era was the time of the dinosaurs. Pangea broke into many fragments and the mammals appeared, but did not flourish yet. The ferns that dominated as plants were accompanied by angiosperm trees from groups like the Cycads, Conifers and Ginkos. Cycads are rare now, see http://www.cycad.org/Photos/photos.htm, and there is only one species of ginko left (wich originated 60 million years ago). With exception of the pine family, all modern conifer families were already present before 245 million tears ago. The cycads dominated the jurassic period though, along with ferns and dinosaurs.
During the end of the mesozoicum, the cretaseous era, conifers take over as dominant trees from the cycads for a hunfred million years or so. Then about 100 million years ago the flowering plants, angiosperms, appear. They quickly radiate and today there are 200.000 species.
The success of flowering plants over conifers is believed to be due to several factors: they give their seed more nutrition and by "double fertilization" they can do this quite quickly. Where conifers have reproductive cycles of 18 months, flowering plants can grow and produce seeds more than once a year: therefore they can colonize barren land much quicker. A second factor is the spreading of pollen by means of insects. This has greatly accelerated species-formation in both insects as flowering plants. Such accelerated species formation is believed to accelerate adaptation rates. The flowering plants indeed radiated into 200.000 species where conifers are limited to hundreds of species. Since the evolution of a tree-sized species in different plant-families is a form of parallel evolution, this has resulted in many tree-species that can excell in specific environments (niches) and therefore outcompete conifers and the like.
A third factor (private communication with Dr C.V Looy) is the more efficient vascular tissue flowering plants evolved over conifers.
At the end of the mesozoic era, 66 million years ago, gymnosperma trees have largely take over from the conifers. Amongst the genera that had evolved were platanus, the oak family, hollies (like American holly or hulst), the walnut family, palm trees and the family that now includes birches and alnus. 50 of the 500 families of flowering plants had already evolved. At that time mammals were about to take over the animal kingdom.
Other families of species originate much later. The first plant fo the rose-order came about some 37 million years ago. At that time only half the number of species known today had evolved. Amongst those were also the grasses that took their ecological niche in this ear from 66 to 58 million years ago. 20 to 25 millios years ago ther number of herb species, or small non-woody plants, exploded because a drier climate shrunk forest and opened up new ecological niches. Today more then 10.000 species of grasses alone exist. At that time the compositae appeared, now with 13000 species of weeds like daisies/asters/sunflowers and lettuces.
Source: Earth and Life through time by Steven Stanley, 1986, Freeman. Isbn 0-716720353 | Palbot/ewald3.htm
The mesozoic era was the time of the dinosaurs. Pangea broke into many fragments and the mammals appeared, but did not flourish yet. The ferns that dominated as plants were accompanied by angiosperm trees from groups like the Cycads, Conifers and Ginkos. Cycads are rare now, see http://www.cycad.org/Photos/photos.htm, and there is only one species of ginko left (wich originated 60 million years ago). With exception of the pine family, all modern conifer families were already present before 245 million tears ago. The cycads dominated the jurassic period though, along with ferns and dinosaurs.
During the end of the mesozoicum, the cretaseous era, conifers take over as dominant trees from the cycads for a hunfred million years or so. Then about 100 million years ago the flowering plants, angiosperms, appear. They quickly radiate and today there are 200.000 species.
The success of flowering plants over conifers is believed to be due to several factors: they give their seed more nutrition and by "double fertilization" they can do this quite quickly. Where conifers have reproductive cycles of 18 months, flowering plants can grow and produce seeds more than once a year: therefore they can colonize barren land much quicker. A second factor is the spreading of pollen by means of insects. This has greatly accelerated species-formation in both insects as flowering plants. Such accelerated species formation is believed to accelerate adaptation rates. The flowering plants indeed radiated into 200.000 species where conifers are limited to hundreds of species. Since the evolution of a tree-sized species in different plant-families is a form of parallel evolution, this has resulted in many tree-species that can excell in specific environments (niches) and therefore outcompete conifers and the like.
A third factor (private communication with Dr C.V Looy) is the more efficient vascular tissue flowering plants evolved over conifers.
| yes |
Paleobotany | Did Cycads dominate the Mesozoic era plant kingdom? | yes_statement | "cycads" "dominated" the mesozoic "era" "plant" "kingdom".. the "dominant" "plants" in the mesozoic "era" were "cycads". | https://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/biology/chapter/evolution-of-seed-plants/ | Evolution of Seed Plants – Biology | Evolution of Seed Plants
Learning Objectives
Explain when seed plants first appeared and when gymnosperms became the dominant plant group
Describe the two major innovations that allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of water
Discuss the purpose of pollen grains and seeds
Describe the significance of angiosperms bearing both flowers and fruit
The first plants to colonize land were most likely closely related to modern day mosses (bryophytes) and are thought to have appeared about 500 million years ago. They were followed by liverworts (also bryophytes) and primitive vascular plants—the pterophytes—from which modern ferns are derived. The lifecycle of bryophytes and pterophytes is characterized by the alternation of generations, like gymnosperms and angiosperms; what sets bryophytes and pterophytes apart from gymnosperms and angiosperms is their reproductive requirement for water. The completion of the bryophyte and pterophyte life cycle requires water because the male gametophyte releases sperm, which must swim—propelled by their flagella—to reach and fertilize the female gamete or egg. After fertilization, the zygote matures and grows into a sporophyte, which in turn will form sporangia or “spore vessels.” In the sporangia, mother cells undergo meiosis and produce the haploid spores. Release of spores in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation of gametophytes.
In seed plants, the evolutionary trend led to a dominant sporophyte generation, and at the same time, a systematic reduction in the size of the gametophyte: from a conspicuous structure to a microscopic cluster of cells enclosed in the tissues of the sporophyte. Whereas lower vascular plants, such as club mosses and ferns, are mostly homosporous (produce only one type of spore), all seed plants, or spermatophytes, are heterosporous. They form two types of spores: megaspores (female) and microspores (male). Megaspores develop into female gametophytes that produce eggs, and microspores mature into male gametophytes that generate sperm. Because the gametophytes mature within the spores, they are not free-living, as are the gametophytes of other seedless vascular plants. Heterosporous seedless plants are seen as the evolutionary forerunners of seed plants.
Seeds and pollen—two critical adaptations to drought, and to reproduction that doesn’t require water—distinguish seed plants from other (seedless) vascular plants. Both adaptations were required for the colonization of land begun by the bryophytes and their ancestors. Fossils place the earliest distinct seed plants at about 350 million years ago. The first reliable record of gymnosperms dates their appearance to the Pennsylvanian period, about 319 million years ago ([link]). Gymnosperms were preceded by progymnosperms, the first naked seed plants, which arose about 380 million years ago. Progymnosperms were a transitional group of plants that superficially resembled conifers (cone bearers) because they produced wood from the secondary growth of the vascular tissues; however, they still reproduced like ferns, releasing spores into the environment. Gymnosperms dominated the landscape in the early (Triassic) and middle (Jurassic) Mesozoic era. Angiosperms surpassed gymnosperms by the middle of the Cretaceous (about 100 million years ago) in the late Mesozoic era, and today are the most abundant plant group in most terrestrial biomes.
Various plant species evolved in different eras. (credit: United States Geological Survey)
Pollen and seed were innovative structures that allowed seed plants to break their dependence on water for reproduction and development of the embryo, and to conquer dry land. The pollen grains are the male gametophytes, which contain the sperm (gametes) of the plant. The small haploid (1n) cells are encased in a protective coat that prevents desiccation (drying out) and mechanical damage. Pollen grains can travel far from their original sporophyte, spreading the plant’s genes. The seed offers the embryo protection, nourishment, and a mechanism to maintain dormancy for tens or even thousands of years, ensuring germination can occur when growth conditions are optimal. Seeds therefore allow plants to disperse the next generation through both space and time. With such evolutionary advantages, seed plants have become the most successful and familiar group of plants, in part because of their size and striking appearance.
Evolution of Gymnosperms
The fossil plant Elkinsia polymorpha, a “seed fern” from the Devonian period—about 400 million years ago—is considered the earliest seed plant known to date. Seed ferns ([link]) produced their seeds along their branches without specialized structures. What makes them the first true seed plants is that they developed structures called cupules to enclose and protect the ovule—the female gametophyte and associated tissues—which develops into a seed upon fertilization. Seed plants resembling modern tree ferns became more numerous and diverse in the coal swamps of the Carboniferous period.
This fossilized leaf is from Glossopteris, a seed fern that thrived during the Permian age (290–240 million years ago). (credit: D.L. Schmidt, USGS)
Fossil records indicate the first gymnosperms (progymnosperms) most likely originated in the Paleozoic era, during the middle Devonian period: about 390 million years ago. Following the wet Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods, which were dominated by giant fern trees, the Permian period was dry. This gave a reproductive edge to seed plants, which are better adapted to survive dry spells. The Ginkgoales, a group of gymnosperms with only one surviving species—the Gingko biloba—were the first gymnosperms to appear during the lower Jurassic. Gymnosperms expanded in the Mesozoic era (about 240 million years ago), supplanting ferns in the landscape, and reaching their greatest diversity during this time. The Jurassic period was as much the age of the cycads (palm-tree-like gymnosperms) as the age of the dinosaurs. Gingkoales and the more familiar conifers also dotted the landscape. Although angiosperms (flowering plants) are the major form of plant life in most biomes, gymnosperms still dominate some ecosystems, such as the taiga (boreal forests) and the alpine forests at higher mountain elevations ([link]) because of their adaptation to cold and dry growth conditions.
Seeds and Pollen as an Evolutionary Adaptation to Dry Land
Unlike bryophyte and fern spores (which are haploid cells dependent on moisture for rapid development of gametophytes), seeds contain a diploid embryo that will germinate into a sporophyte. Storage tissue to sustain growth and a protective coat give seeds their superior evolutionary advantage. Several layers of hardened tissue prevent desiccation, and free reproduction from the need for a constant supply of water. Furthermore, seeds remain in a state of dormancy—induced by desiccation and the hormone abscisic acid—until conditions for growth become favorable. Whether blown by the wind, floating on water, or carried away by animals, seeds are scattered in an expanding geographic range, thus avoiding competition with the parent plant.
Pollen grains ([link]) are male gametophytes and are carried by wind, water, or a pollinator. The whole structure is protected from desiccation and can reach the female organs without dependence on water. Male gametes reach female gametophyte and the egg cell gamete though a pollen tube: an extension of a cell within the pollen grain. The sperm of modern gymnosperms lack flagella, but in cycads and the Gingko, the sperm still possess flagella that allow them to swim down the pollen tube to the female gamete; however, they are enclosed in a pollen grain.
This fossilized pollen is from a Buckbean fen core found in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. The pollen is magnified 1,054 times. (credit: R.G. Baker, USGS; scale-bar data from Matt Russell)
Evolution of Angiosperms
Undisputed fossil records place the massive appearance and diversification of angiosperms in the middle to late Mesozoic era. Angiosperms (“seed in a vessel”) produce a flower containing male and/or female reproductive structures. Fossil evidence ([link]) indicates that flowering plants first appeared in the Lower Cretaceous, about 125 million years ago, and were rapidly diversifying by the Middle Cretaceous, about 100 million years ago. Earlier traces of angiosperms are scarce. Fossilized pollen recovered from Jurassic geological material has been attributed to angiosperms. A few early Cretaceous rocks show clear imprints of leaves resembling angiosperm leaves. By the mid-Cretaceous, a staggering number of diverse flowering plants crowd the fossil record. The same geological period is also marked by the appearance of many modern groups of insects, including pollinating insects that played a key role in ecology and the evolution of flowering plants.
Although several hypotheses have been offered to explain this sudden profusion and variety of flowering plants, none have garnered the consensus of paleobotanists (scientists who study ancient plants). New data in comparative genomics and paleobotany have, however, shed some light on the evolution of angiosperms. Rather than being derived from gymnosperms, angiosperms form a sister clade (a species and its descendents) that developed in parallel with the gymnosperms. The two innovative structures of flowers and fruit represent an improved reproductive strategy that served to protect the embryo, while increasing genetic variability and range. Paleobotanists debate whether angiosperms evolved from small woody bushes, or were basal angiosperms related to tropical grasses. Both views draw support from cladistics studies, and the so-called woody magnoliid hypothesis—which proposes that the early ancestors of angiosperms were shrubs—also offers molecular biological evidence.
The most primitive living angiosperm is considered to be Amborella trichopoda, a small plant native to the rainforest of New Caledonia, an island in the South Pacific. Analysis of the genome of A. trichopoda has shown that it is related to all existing flowering plants and belongs to the oldest confirmed branch of the angiosperm family tree. A few other angiosperm groups called basal angiosperms, are viewed as primitive because they branched off early from the phylogenetic tree. Most modern angiosperms are classified as either monocots or eudicots, based on the structure of their leaves and embryos. Basal angiosperms, such as water lilies, are considered more primitive because they share morphological traits with both monocots and eudicots.
This leaf imprint shows a Ficus speciosissima, an angiosperm that flourished during the Cretaceous period. (credit: W. T. Lee, USGS)
Flowers and Fruits as an Evolutionary Adaptation
Angiosperms produce their gametes in separate organs, which are usually housed in a flower. Both fertilization and embryo development take place inside an anatomical structure that provides a stable system of sexual reproduction largely sheltered from environmental fluctuations. Flowering plants are the most diverse phylum on Earth after insects; flowers come in a bewildering array of sizes, shapes, colors, smells, and arrangements. Most flowers have a mutualistic pollinator, with the distinctive features of flowers reflecting the nature of the pollination agent. The relationship between pollinator and flower characteristics is one of the great examples of coevolution.
Following fertilization of the egg, the ovule grows into a seed. The surrounding tissues of the ovary thicken, developing into a fruit that will protect the seed and often ensure its dispersal over a wide geographic range. Not all fruits develop from an ovary; such structures are “false fruits.” Like flowers, fruit can vary tremendously in appearance, size, smell, and taste. Tomatoes, walnut shells and avocados are all examples of fruit. As with pollen and seeds, fruits also act as agents of dispersal. Some may be carried away by the wind. Many attract animals that will eat the fruit and pass the seeds through their digestive systems, then deposit the seeds in another location. Cockleburs are covered with stiff, hooked spines that can hook into fur (or clothing) and hitch a ride on an animal for long distances. The cockleburs that clung to the velvet trousers of an enterprising Swiss hiker, George de Mestral, inspired his invention of the loop and hook fastener he named Velcro.
Evolution Connection
Building Phylogenetic Trees with Analysis of DNA Sequence AlignmentsAll living organisms display patterns of relationships derived from their evolutionary history. Phylogeny is the science that describes the relative connections between organisms, in terms of ancestral and descendant species. Phylogenetic trees, such as the plant evolutionary history shown in [link], are tree-like branching diagrams that depict these relationships. Species are found at the tips of the branches. Each branching point, called a node, is the point at which a single taxonomic group (taxon), such as a species, separates into two or more species.
This phylogenetic tree shows the evolutionary relationships of plants.
Phylogenetic trees have been built to describe the relationships between species since Darwin’s time. Traditional methods involve comparison of homologous anatomical structures and embryonic development, assuming that closely related organisms share anatomical features during embryo development. Some traits that disappear in the adult are present in the embryo; for example, a human fetus, at one point, has a tail. The study of fossil records shows the intermediate stages that link an ancestral form to its descendants. Most of these approaches are imprecise and lend themselves to multiple interpretations. As the tools of molecular biology and computational analysis have been developed and perfected in recent years, a new generation of tree-building methods has taken shape. The key assumption is that genes for essential proteins or RNA structures, such as the ribosomal RNA, are inherently conserved because mutations (changes in the DNA sequence) could compromise the survival of the organism. DNA from minute amounts of living organisms or fossils can be amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequenced, targeting the regions of the genome that are most likely to be conserved between species. The genes encoding the ribosomal RNA from the small 18S subunit and plastid genes are frequently chosen for DNA alignment analysis.
Once the sequences of interest are obtained, they are compared with existing sequences in databases such as GenBank, which is maintained by The National Center for Biotechnology Information. A number of computational tools are available to align and analyze sequences. Sophisticated computer analysis programs determine the percentage of sequence identity or homology. Sequence homology can be used to estimate the evolutionary distance between two DNA sequences and reflect the time elapsed since the genes separated from a common ancestor. Molecular analysis has revolutionized phylogenetic trees. In some cases, prior results from morphological studies have been confirmed: for example, confirming Amborella trichopoda as the most primitive angiosperm known. However, some groups and relationships have been rearranged as a result of DNA analysis.
Section Summary
Seed plants appeared about one million years ago, during the Carboniferous period. Two major innovations—seed and pollen—allowed seed plants to reproduce in the absence of water. The gametophytes of seed plants shrank, while the sporophytes became prominent structures and the diploid stage became the longest phase of the lifecycle. Gymnosperms became the dominant group during the Triassic. In these, pollen grains and seeds protect against desiccation. The seed, unlike a spore, is a diploid embryo surrounded by storage tissue and protective layers. It is equipped to delay germination until growth conditions are optimal. Angiosperms bear both flowers and fruit. The structures protect the gametes and the embryo during its development. Angiosperms appeared during the Mesozoic era and have become the dominant plant life in terrestrial habitats.
Review Questions
Seed plants are ________.
all homosporous.
mostly homosporous with some heterosporous.
mostly heterosporous with some homosporous.
all heterosporous.
D
Besides the seed, what other major structure diminishes a plant’s reliance on water for reproduction?
flower
fruit
pollen
spore
A
In which of the following geological periods would gymnosperms dominate the landscape?
Carboniferous
Permian
Triassic
Eocene (present)
C
Which of the following structures widens the geographic range of a species and is an agent of dispersal?
seed
flower
leaf
root
A
Free Response
The Triassic Period was marked by the increase in number and variety of angiosperms. Insects also diversified enormously during the same period. Can you propose the reason or reasons that could foster coevolution?
Both pollination and herbivory contributed to diversity, with plants needing to attract some insects and repel others.
What role did the adaptations of seed and pollen play in the development and expansion of seed plants?
Seeds and pollen allowed plants to reproduce in absence of water. This allowed them to expand their range onto dry land and to survive drought conditions.
Glossary
flower
branches specialized for reproduction found in some seed-bearing plants, containing either specialized male or female organs or both male and female organs
fruit
thickened tissue derived from ovary wall that protects the embryo after fertilization and facilitates seed dispersal
ovule
female gametophyte
pollen grain
structure containing the male gametophyte of the plant
pollen tube
extension from the pollen grain that delivers sperm to the egg cell
progymnosperm
transitional group of plants that resembled conifers because they produced wood, yet still reproduced like ferns | This fossilized leaf is from Glossopteris, a seed fern that thrived during the Permian age (290–240 million years ago). (credit: D.L. Schmidt, USGS)
Fossil records indicate the first gymnosperms (progymnosperms) most likely originated in the Paleozoic era, during the middle Devonian period: about 390 million years ago. Following the wet Mississippian and Pennsylvanian periods, which were dominated by giant fern trees, the Permian period was dry. This gave a reproductive edge to seed plants, which are better adapted to survive dry spells. The Ginkgoales, a group of gymnosperms with only one surviving species—the Gingko biloba—were the first gymnosperms to appear during the lower Jurassic. Gymnosperms expanded in the Mesozoic era (about 240 million years ago), supplanting ferns in the landscape, and reaching their greatest diversity during this time. The Jurassic period was as much the age of the cycads (palm-tree-like gymnosperms) as the age of the dinosaurs. Gingkoales and the more familiar conifers also dotted the landscape. Although angiosperms (flowering plants) are the major form of plant life in most biomes, gymnosperms still dominate some ecosystems, such as the taiga (boreal forests) and the alpine forests at higher mountain elevations ([link]) because of their adaptation to cold and dry growth conditions.
Seeds and Pollen as an Evolutionary Adaptation to Dry Land
Unlike bryophyte and fern spores (which are haploid cells dependent on moisture for rapid development of gametophytes), seeds contain a diploid embryo that will germinate into a sporophyte. Storage tissue to sustain growth and a protective coat give seeds their superior evolutionary advantage. Several layers of hardened tissue prevent desiccation, and free reproduction from the need for a constant supply of water. | yes |
Paleobotany | Did Cycads dominate the Mesozoic era plant kingdom? | yes_statement | "cycads" "dominated" the mesozoic "era" "plant" "kingdom".. the "dominant" "plants" in the mesozoic "era" were "cycads". | https://openstax.org/books/concepts-biology/pages/14-3-seed-plants-gymnosperms | 14.3 Seed Plants: Gymnosperms - Concepts of Biology | OpenStax | Learning Objectives
Discuss the type of seeds produced by gymnosperms, as well as other characteristics of gymnosperms
List the four groups of modern-day gymnosperms and provide examples of each
The first plants to colonize land were most likely closely related to modern-day mosses (bryophytes) and are thought to have appeared about 500 million years ago. They were followed by liverworts (also bryophytes) and primitive vascular plants, the pterophytes, from which modern ferns are derived. The life cycle of bryophytes and pterophytes is characterized by the alternation of generations. The completion of the life cycle requires water, as the male gametes must swim to the female gametes. The male gametophyte releases sperm, which must swimâpropelled by their flagellaâto reach and fertilize the female gamete or egg. After fertilization, the zygote matures and grows into a sporophyte, which in turn will form sporangia, or "spore vessels,â in which mother cells undergo meiosis and produce haploid spores. The release of spores in a suitable environment will lead to germination and a new generation of gametophytes.
The Evolution of Seed Plants
In seed plants, the evolutionary trend led to a dominant sporophyte generation, in which the larger and more ecologically significant generation for a species is the diploid plant. At the same time, the trend led to a reduction in the size of the gametophyte, from a conspicuous structure to a microscopic cluster of cells enclosed in the tissues of the sporophyte. Lower vascular plants, such as club mosses and ferns, are mostly homosporous (produce only one type of spore). In contrast, all seed plants, or spermatophytes, are heterosporous, forming two types of spores: megaspores (female) and microspores (male). Megaspores develop into female gametophytes that produce eggs, and microspores mature into male gametophytes that generate sperm. Because gametophyte maturation depends on water and nutrient supply from the dominant sporophyte tissue, they are not free-living, as are the gametophytes of seedless vascular plants. Heterosporous seedless plants are seen as the evolutionary forerunners of seed plants.
Seeds and pollenâtwo adaptations to droughtâdistinguish seed plants from other (seedless) vascular plants. Both adaptations were critical to the colonization of land. Fossils place the earliest distinct seed plants at about 350 million years ago. The earliest reliable record of gymnosperms dates their appearance to the Carboniferous period (359â299 million years ago). Gymnosperms were preceded by the progymnosperms (âfirst naked seed plantsâ). This was a transitional group of plants that superficially resembled conifers (âcone bearersâ) because they produced wood from the secondary growth of the vascular tissues; however, they still reproduced like ferns, releasing spores to the environment. In the Mesozoic era (251â65.5 million years ago), gymnosperms dominated the landscape. Angiosperms took over by the middle of the Cretaceous period (145.5â65.5 million years ago) in the late Mesozoic era, and have since become the most abundant plant group in most terrestrial biomes.
The two innovative structures of pollen and seed allowed seed plants to break their dependence on water for reproduction and development of the embryo, and to conquer dry land. The pollen grains carry the male gametes of the plant. The small haploid (1n) cells are encased in a protective coat that prevents desiccation (drying out) and mechanical damage. Pollen can travel far from the sporophyte that bore it, spreading the plantâs genes and avoiding competition with other plants. The seed offers the embryo protection, nourishment and a mechanism to maintain dormancy for tens or even thousands of years, allowing it to survive in a harsh environment and ensuring germination when growth conditions are optimal. Seeds allow plants to disperse the next generation through both space and time. With such evolutionary advantages, seed plants have become the most successful and familiar group of plants.
Gymnosperms
Gymnosperms (ânaked seedâ) are a diverse group of seed plants and are paraphyletic. Paraphyletic groups do not include descendants of a single common ancestor. Gymnosperm characteristics include naked seeds, separate female and male gametes, pollination by wind, and tracheids, which transport water and solutes in the vascular system.
Life Cycle of a Conifer
Pine trees are conifers and carry both male and female sporophylls on the same plant. Like all gymnosperms, pines are heterosporous and produce male microspores and female megaspores. In the male cones, or staminate cones, the microsporocytes give rise to microspores by meiosis. The microspores then develop into pollen grains. Each pollen grain contains two cells: one generative cell that will divide into two sperm, and a second cell that will become the pollen tube cell. In the spring, pine trees release large amounts of yellow pollen, which is carried by the wind. Some gametophytes will land on a female cone. The pollen tube grows from the pollen grain slowly, and the generative cell in the pollen grain divides into two sperm cells by mitosis. One of the sperm cells will finally unite its haploid nucleus with the haploid nucleus of an egg cell in the process of fertilization.
Female cones, or ovulate cones, contain two ovules per scale. One megasporocyte undergoes meiosis in each ovule. Only a single surviving haploid cell will develop into a female multicellular gametophyte that encloses an egg. On fertilization, the zygote will give rise to the embryo, which is enclosed in a seed coat of tissue from the parent plant. Fertilization and seed development is a long process in pine treesâit may take up to two years after pollination. The seed that is formed contains three generations of tissues: the seed coat that originates from the parent plant tissue, the female gametophyte that will provide nutrients, and the embryo itself. Figure 14.19 illustrates the life cycle of a conifer.
Visual Connection
Figure 14.19This image shows the lifecycle of a conifer.
At what stage does the diploid zygote form?
when the female cone begins to bud from the tree
when the sperm nucleus and the egg nucleus fuse
when the seeds drop from the tree
when the pollen tube begins to grow
Link to Learning
Watch this video to see the process of seed production in gymnosperms.
Diversity of Gymnosperms
Modern gymnosperms are classified into four major divisions and comprise about 1,000 described species. Coniferophyta, Cycadophyta, and Ginkgophyta are similar in their production of secondary cambium (cells that generate the vascular system of the trunk or stem) and their pattern of seed development, but are not closely related phylogenetically to each other. Gnetophyta are considered the closest group to angiosperms because they produce true xylem tissue that contains both tracheids and vessel elements.
Conifers
Conifers are the dominant phylum of gymnosperms, with the most variety of species. Most are tall trees that usually bear scale-like or needle-like leaves. The thin shape of the needles and their waxy cuticle limits water loss through transpiration. Snow slides easily off needle-shaped leaves, keeping the load light and decreasing breaking of branches. These adaptations to cold and dry weather explain the predominance of conifers at high altitudes and in cold climates. Conifers include familiar evergreen trees, such as pines, spruces, firs, cedars, sequoias, and yews (Figure 14.20). A few species are deciduous and lose their leaves all at once in fall. The European larch and the tamarack are examples of deciduous conifers. Many coniferous trees are harvested for paper pulp and timber. The wood of conifers is more primitive than the wood of angiosperms; it contains tracheids, but no vessel elements, and is referred to as âsoft wood.â
Figure 14.20Conifers are the dominant form of vegetation in cold or arid environments and at high altitudes. Shown here are the (a) evergreen spruce, (b) sequoia, (c) juniper, and (d) a deciduous gymnosperm: the tamarack Larix laricina. Notice the yellow leaves of the tamarack. (credit b: modification of work by Alan Levine; credit c: modification of work by Wendy McCormac; credit d: modification of work by Micky Zlimen)
Cycads
Cycads thrive in mild climates and are often mistaken for palms because of the shape of their large, compound leaves. They bear large cones, and unusually for gymnosperms, may be pollinated by beetles, rather than wind. They dominated the landscape during the age of dinosaurs in the Mesozoic era (251â65.5 million years ago). Only a hundred or so cycad species persisted to modern times. They face possible extinction, and several species are protected through international conventions. Because of their attractive shape, they are often used as ornamental plants in gardens (Figure 14.21).
Gingkophytes
The single surviving species of ginkgophyte is the Ginkgo biloba (Figure 14.22). Its fan-shaped leaves, unique among seed plants because they feature a dichotomous venation pattern, turn yellow in autumn and fall from the plant. For centuries, Buddhist monks cultivated Ginkgo biloba, ensuring its preservation. It is planted in public spaces because it is unusually resistant to pollution. Male and female organs are found on separate plants. Usually, only male trees are planted by gardeners because the seeds produced by the female plant have an off-putting smell of rancid butter.
Gnetophytes
Gnetophytes are the closest relatives to modern angiosperms, and include three dissimilar genera of plants. Like angiosperms, they have broad leaves. Gnetum species are mostly vines in tropical and subtropical zones. The single species of Welwitschia is an unusual, low-growing plant found in the deserts of Namibia and Angola. It may live for up to 2000 years. The genus Ephedra is represented in North America in dry areas of the southwestern United States and Mexico (Figure 14.23). Ephedraâs small, scale-like leaves are the source of the compound ephedrine, which is used in medicine as a potent decongestant. Because ephedrine is similar to amphetamines, both in chemical structure and neurological effects, its use is restricted to prescription drugs. Like angiosperms, but unlike other gymnosperms, all gnetophytes possess vessel elements in their xylem.
Figure 14.23Ephedra viridis, known by the common name Mormon tea, grows in the western United States. (credit: US National Park Service, USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database)
Link to Learning
Watch this BBC video describing the amazing strangeness of Welwitschia. | Many coniferous trees are harvested for paper pulp and timber. The wood of conifers is more primitive than the wood of angiosperms; it contains tracheids, but no vessel elements, and is referred to as âsoft wood.â
Figure 14.20Conifers are the dominant form of vegetation in cold or arid environments and at high altitudes. Shown here are the (a) evergreen spruce, (b) sequoia, (c) juniper, and (d) a deciduous gymnosperm: the tamarack Larix laricina. Notice the yellow leaves of the tamarack. (credit b: modification of work by Alan Levine; credit c: modification of work by Wendy McCormac; credit d: modification of work by Micky Zlimen)
Cycads
Cycads thrive in mild climates and are often mistaken for palms because of the shape of their large, compound leaves. They bear large cones, and unusually for gymnosperms, may be pollinated by beetles, rather than wind. They dominated the landscape during the age of dinosaurs in the Mesozoic era (251â65.5 million years ago). Only a hundred or so cycad species persisted to modern times. They face possible extinction, and several species are protected through international conventions. Because of their attractive shape, they are often used as ornamental plants in gardens (Figure 14.21).
Gingkophytes
The single surviving species of ginkgophyte is the Ginkgo biloba (Figure 14.22). Its fan-shaped leaves, unique among seed plants because they feature a dichotomous venation pattern, turn yellow in autumn and fall from the plant. For centuries, Buddhist monks cultivated Ginkgo biloba, ensuring its preservation. It is planted in public spaces because it is unusually resistant to pollution. Male and female organs are found on separate plants. Usually, only male trees are planted by gardeners because the seeds produced by the female plant have an off-putting smell of rancid butter.
| yes |
Paleobotany | Did Cycads dominate the Mesozoic era plant kingdom? | yes_statement | "cycads" "dominated" the mesozoic "era" "plant" "kingdom".. the "dominant" "plants" in the mesozoic "era" were "cycads". | https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-015-0347-8 | Origin and diversification of living cycads: a cautionary tale on the ... | Abstract
Background
Bayesian relaxed-clock dating has significantly influenced our understanding of the timeline of biotic evolution. This approach requires the use of priors on the branching process, yet little is known about their impact on divergence time estimates. We investigated the effect of branching priors using the iconic cycads. We conducted phylogenetic estimations for 237 cycad species using three genes and two calibration strategies incorporating up to six fossil constraints to (i) test the impact of two different branching process priors on age estimates, (ii) assess which branching prior better fits the data, (iii) investigate branching prior impacts on diversification analyses, and (iv) provide insights into the diversification history of cycads.
Results
Using Bayes factors, we compared divergence time estimates and the inferred dynamics of diversification when using Yule versus birth-death priors. Bayes factors were calculated with marginal likelihood estimated with stepping-stone sampling. We found striking differences in age estimates and diversification dynamics depending on prior choice. Dating with the Yule prior suggested that extant cycad genera diversified in the Paleogene and with two diversification rate shifts. In contrast, dating with the birth-death prior yielded Neogene diversifications, and four rate shifts, one for each of the four richest genera. Nonetheless, dating with the two priors provided similar age estimates for the divergence of cycads from Ginkgo (Carboniferous) and their crown age (Permian). Of these, Bayes factors clearly supported the birth-death prior.
Conclusions
These results suggest the choice of the branching process prior can have a drastic influence on our understanding of evolutionary radiations. Therefore, all dating analyses must involve a model selection process using Bayes factors to select between a Yule or birth-death prior, in particular on ancient clades with a potential pattern of high extinction. We also provide new insights into the history of cycad diversification because we found (i) periods of extinction along the long branches of the genera consistent with fossil data, and (ii) high diversification rates within the Miocene genus radiations.
“Cycads are to the vegetable kingdom what Dinosaurs are to the animal, each representing the culmination in Mesozoic times of the ruling Dynasties in the life of their age.”
Lester Ward, 1900
Background
Our understanding of biotic evolution relies heavily on phylogenetic and dating reconstructions that provide insight into the periods of major diversification [1]. In the last decade, the advent of molecular dating approaches has fostered an explosion of studies constructing time-calibrated trees for diverse plant clades like bryophytes [2], ferns [3,4], gymnosperms [5-8] and angiosperms [9-11]. These dated trees have permitted the study of character evolution via the reconstruction of ancestral traits [11], inference of biogeographical history [7], as well as estimates of diversification rates [2,8,10]. Dated trees are thus pivotal to our understanding of the evolution of plants, and of the groups that interact with them, such as herbivores and pollinators [12].
Despite the importance of reliable estimates of divergence times, our understanding of the temporal patterns of diversification remain in flux for many groups, in part because the methods for estimating evolutionary timescales from DNA sequences are being refined [1,13,14]. Since the introduction of relaxed-clock methods, which allow substitution rates to vary across the tree, a range of molecular dating methods has been developed. Bayesian inference has received the most attention because of the flexibility with which different parameters and prior assumptions can be incorporated, and the fact that priors are updated as part of the analysis [15,16]. The use of explicit prior distributions is central to the Bayesian perspective; however, the critical role of prior selection in Bayesian analysis is not always fully appreciated [17].
In Bayesian relaxed-clock (BRC) approaches, there are various types of priors, including priors on calibration points, branch-lengths, clock models, and branching processes. Priors on calibration points have been well studied [18] and, not surprisingly, the choice of these priors can affect estimates of node ages [19]. The effects of branch-length priors on posterior probabilities have been studied; priors assuming long internal branches cause high posterior probabilities [20]. In comparison, the impact of different branching process priors has been relatively under-explored [15,21].
The branching process prior (BPP), also called the ‘tree shape’ or ‘speciation tree’ prior, is a prior model on how trees are generated. Phylogenetic trees are the result of speciation and extinction events, and their relative roles can be varied and represented as different models of diversification [22]. These models effectively place a prior on how phylogenetic trees grow. Probability distributions over models of diversification were employed in some of the earliest attempts to use likelihood techniques to reconstruct genealogies [23]. The two most commonly used BPPs are the Yule (also called ‘pure-birth’) process, which models tree formation with a constant rate of speciation and no extinction, and the birth-death process, which includes speciation as well as a constant rate of lineage extinction. Birth-death priors have been used in Bayesian phylogenetics [24]; however, most published analyses use the Yule prior, perhaps because it was initially the only prior for the diversification process implemented in the widely used Bayesian software package BEAST [16]. Although the birth-death prior has recently been integrated into this software [25,26], many phylogenetic analyses still use the Yule prior (probably because the BEAST manual recommend the use of the Yule prior, see p. 10 of the BEAST manual, version 1.4). Few studies have used both priors in Bayesian dating, and even fewer have compared the impact of prior choice, even though recent studies have started to do so (e.g. [27]). One of the first to use both priors is the study of Couvreur et al. [28], who estimated the evolutionary history of the Brassicaceae using a BRC approach with both priors. Their age estimates did not differ under the Yule or birth–death diversification models, and both models fit the data equally well. While these results could be interpreted to mean that the BPP has little influence on BRC reconstruction in general, the Brassicaceae are a relative young group that originated in the Eocene (credibility interval 24.2-49.4 million years ago, Ma) and likely did not experience major extinction events. However, choice of diversification prior might make a substantial difference for groups that have undergone significant extinction, and for which using a pure-birth Yule prior could give in spurious results.
The cycads (Cycadopsida: Cycadales) are a plant group particularly well suited for testing the influence of BPPs on molecular dating. Today’s species (331 species in the tropics and subtropics, [29]) are thought to represent the last remnants of their formidable past, and their evolutionary history extends back to the mid-Permian (~270 Ma) [30-33]. Cycads have witnessed many drastic environmental changes [34-37] and likely suffered major periods of extinction [6,38]. Due to their richness and diversity in Mesozoic fossil records, their current diversity has long been assumed to be of relictual origin dating back to the Late Cretaceous [30,39-42]. This idea has been challenged by molecular time-calibrated phylogenies showing that long branches subtend late Cenozoic (in the Miocene ~15 Ma) and near-simultaneous initiations of diversification of the living genera [6,43].
Despite these recent studies, there remain dating uncertainties in the evolutionary history of cycads. At the generic level, some fossils suggest that the various radiations might be much older than the late Miocene (i.e. Eocene). Indeed, numerous pre-Miocene cycad fossils have been documented (e.g. [44-49]) that are likely early representatives of living genera. For example, recently described fossils from the early Cenozoic of China have been assigned to the crown-group of Cycas [50], but that assignment is doubtful given the extensive homoplasy in the characters used to link the fossils to the extant taxon [51]. Even if there is a possibility that fossils instead should be assigned to stem, they cast doubts on the dating. At the level of the whole group, different studies using similar fossil calibrations (but different taxon and molecular sampling) have produced different age estimates, notably for the origin of the cycad crown: ≈200 Ma for Nagalingum et al. [6], and ≈ 230 Ma for Salas-Leiva et al. [43]. Therefore further dating analyses are needed to estimate the cycad age and validate the recent generic radiations.
In reconstructing the phylogeny of cycads, Nagalingum et al. [6] sampled about two-thirds of all known species and used a molecular dataset composed of two chloroplast genes and one nuclear gene (although most of the taxa had the nuclear gene only). In addition to Penalized Likelihood and a strict molecular clock, they inferred the age and divergence times using the BRC approach implemented in BEAST, calibrated with four fossil constraints and a birth-death process as the BPP. The birth-death process used in the Bayesian analyses yielded a high ratio of extinction to speciation (relative death rate, 0.97) [6], suggesting a dominant role of extinction in shaping the phylogeny of cycads. Given our prior knowledge of cycad evolution gleaned from the fossil record, using a prior that includes extinction is realistic. However, Nagalingum et al. [6] did not assess the support of the birth-death prior versus other priors.
This study has four objectives: (i) investigating the impact of the BPP on the dating of ancient clades using the cycads as an example, (ii) assessing whether the birth-death prior is statistically supported, (iii) studying the difference between the Yule and birth-death prior on our understanding of cycad diversification, and (iv) providing a cycad timetree reconciling fossil and phylogenetic data. We also discuss potential explanations for the differences obtained when using different priors and the consequences of prior choice for Bayesian molecular dating.
Methods
Taxon sampling and molecular dataset
We extended the molecular dataset of Nagalingum et al. [6] that initially contained 199 cycad species. We added molecular data for 38 additional species and the same genes retrieved from Genbank [52-57]. Our dataset comprises three genes covering two plastid genes: the maturase K (matK, 2,387 nucleotides, 82 taxa) and the ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase large subunit (rbcL, 1,398 nucleotides, 80 taxa), and one nuclear gene: region 1 of phytochrome (PHYP, 1,802 nucleotides for 201 taxa). This resulted in a total of 237 species out of 331 described species (71%), representing all extant genera with the following number of species per genus: 2 of the 2 Bowenia (B. serrulata and B. spectabilis), 65 of the 107 Cycas, 24 out of 27 Ceratozamia, 8 of the 14 Dioon, all of the 65 Encephalartos, 2 of the 2 Lepidozamia (L. hopei and L. peroffskyana), 26 of the 41 Macrozamia, the monotypic Microcyas calocoma, the single Stangeria eriopus, and 43 out of 71 Zamia (including the junior synonym genus Chigua) (Figure 1). Following Nagalingum et al. [6], the dataset also included six species as outgroups: Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgoales), which is recognised as the sister lineage of cycads [58]; plus five conifer species (Abies firma, Araucaria heterophylla, Cryptomeria japonica, Pinus strobus and Pseudotsuga menziezii). The phylogenetic analyses were thus performed on a dataset containing a total of 243 species (of which 237 are cycads) and 5587 nucleotides. The information on each sampled species is presented on Additional file 1: Table S1.
Figure 1
The node calibration procedure used for dating the cycads. (a) Phylogenetic tree of cycads showing the relationships among the 10 genera. Genera are represented by triangles proportional to their species richness. Numbers in parenthesis are the number of species sampled, and the total number of species, within each genus. Pictures illustrate Cycas, Dioon, Zamia, Macrozamia, and Encephalartos species. Black dots indicate the four ‘traditional’ fossil calibrations used for dating, and red dots indicate the two new fossil calibrations evaluated in this study. (b) Information related to the four fossil calibrations (FC, see the text for more details). Ma, million years ago.
Fossil calibrations
To calibrate the cycad tree, we used two fossil datasets. First, we followed Nagalingum et al. [6] and used four cycad fossil constraints (FC1-4), which were retrieved from a careful examination of the cycad fossil record ([32]; Figure 1). These four fossils have also been used by Salas-Leiva et al. [43]. Hereafter this fossil dataset is referred to as the ‘traditional fossil dataset’ (FC1-4). Second we used these four fossils and added two fossils based on the phylogenetic analyses of Hermsen et al. [32] and Martínez et al. [59]. The fossil record was re-examined after new fossils from the Cretaceous were discovered, which did not affect overall fossil assignments, but allowed the use of new fossils to calibrate the cycad tree [59], two of which are tentatively used here. Hereafter this fossil dataset is referred to as ‘new fossil dataset’ (FC1-6).
Based on the presence of synapomorphies linking the fossils to the extant clades, all fossils were used as minimum age constraints for specific nodes ([32,59], Figure 1). However, since synapomorphies can evolve anywhere along the stem branch and the fossil may attach anywhere along this branch [60], we used a commonly employed approach whereby the fossils constrain the stem rather than crown node [61,62]. The absolute fossil ages we used (detailed below) are slightly different from those used in Nagalingum et al. [6], mainly due to an updated geological timescale [63]. Dating fossils older than ~50,000 years is difficult, which means that those fossils are typically assigned to a stratigraphic interval, for example, the late Miocene. The ages assigned below are the ages of the youngest of the boundaries of stratigraphic interval within which the fossil was found (the fossil will actually be older than this age designation).
Cycad stem (FC1, Younger = 265.1 Ma and Older = 364.7 Ma)
The oldest possible records of the group Cycadophyta are microstrobili (e.g. [64]) and megasporophylls (e.g. [65,66]), of which †Crossozamia (eight known species) is the least equivocal in terms of phylogenetic affinity [32,59,66]. Crossozamia consists of megasporophylls with similar morphology to the extant Cycas [65,66]. Although Hermsen et al. [32] identified Crossozamia as being sister to Cycas, the two characters supporting this relationship do not provide strong evidence for Crossozamia belonging to crown group cycads [59]. In addition, the loosely aggregated cone is most probably an ancestral state within cycads. Therefore the divergence between cycads and Ginkgo biloba was constrained using Crossozamia. The age for the host rock formation (Shihhotse) that preserves the Crossozamia fossils was initially described as lower Permian, but the age of the Shihhotse Formation has been revised to the Roadian-Wordian (265.1-272.3; [63]) in the middle Permian [67]. We used the minimum age of this time interval (265.1 Ma) as a minimum age for the stem of cycads. This age was also used as a conservative maximum possible age for the nodes with internal fossil calibrations (FC2-FC4).
Dioon stem (FC2, Younger = 56 Ma and Older = 265.1 Ma)
The origin of the stem group of Dioon was constrained by fossil leaves of †D. inopinus and †D. praespinulosum [44], which have synapomorphies consistent with the leaflet venation anastomoses and leaflet insertion on the rachis of extant Dioon [32]. While originally described as Eocene by Hollick [44], a more recent interpretation of the composition of the Hamilton Bay flora (Kootznahoo Formation), Kupreanof Island, Alaska, from which fossils of both Dioon were originally described, suggest they are of Paleocene age [6,32]. Therefore the Dioon stem was assigned a minimum age of 56 Ma [63].
Bowenia stem (FC3, Younger = 33.9 Ma and Older = 265.1 Ma)
Bowenia leaf fossils of †B. eocenica and †B. papillosa [68], both found in Australia, were used to constrain the divergence of Bowenia from other genera. These fossils were identified as members of the extant genus based on cuticular characters (i.e. number of subsidiary cells) and leaflet morphology (i.e. venation and serrated margin). Both fossil species were found in Australian Eocene deposits (at Anglesea, Victoria for †B. eocenica, and at Nerriga, New South Wales for †B. papillosa), which confers a minimum age constraint at 33.9 Ma for the Bowenia stem [63].
Lepidozamia stem (FC4, Younger = 33.9 Ma and Older = 265.1 Ma)
Fossil Lepidozamia leaves of †L. hopeites and †L. foveolata are also from Australia [45]. Fossils of this genus can be identified by cuticular characters (orientation of the epidermal cells relative to axis of the pinna) that are unique to Lepidozamia and support affinity to the extant genus [32,45]. Found in the Australian Eocene (at Nerriga, New South Wales for †L. foveolata), this set a minimum age of 33.9 Ma for the Lepidozamia stem [63].
Cycad crown (FC5, Younger = 235 Ma and Older = 364.7 Ma)
The age of modern cycads can be calibrated with †Antarcticycas schopfii [69]. The fossil Antarcticycas has been extensively studied [32,70]. A reconstruction of the plant habit has even been proposed [70]. This makes Antarcticycas the most completely known of the extinct Triassic cycad taxa, if not of all fossil cycads, due to the presence of anatomically preserved organs [70]. Interestingly, phylogenetic studies have also tentatively assigned Antarcticycas within modern cycads, and close to the crown of cycads [32,59]. None of the extant genera are phylogenetically sister to Antarcticycas, which makes it a valuable fossil calibration for the crown of cycads. Antarcticycas was found in the Fremouw Formation of the early Middle Triassic of Antarctica. We used a conservative age of the Middle Triassic, i.e. 235 Ma [63], although there remains uncertainty on the true age of the Fremouw Formation with some authors suggesting an Anisian age (242-247.2 Ma).
Encephalarteae stem (FC6, Younger = 72.1 Ma and Older = 265.1 Ma)
Many fossils have been attributed to the tribe Encephalarteae based on morphological and phylogenetic evidence [32,59]. Among them the recently discovered †Wintucycas stevensonii [59] is one of the best-known fossils. Wintucycas has features that clearly allow us to assign it to Encephalarteae due to their manoxylic wood, centripetal polyxyly, parenchymatous pith, centrifugal polyxyly and medullary vascular bundles. Wintucycas was found in the Allen Formation (middle Campanian to early Maastrichtian) of the Late Cretaceous of Argentina (Patagonia), providing a minimum age for the stem of Encephalarteae at 72.1 Ma [63].
Tree root height
The tree root height is the divergence between Cycadales and Ginkgoales. Following Clarke et al. [62], a maximum age can be established with the first records of seeds in the form of preovules that satisfy the criteria of the seed habit. These criteria are the possession of a single functional megaspore that is enveloped in a nucellus (considered equivalent to the megasporangium), which is surrounded (to some extent) by an integument or pre-integument and has mechanisms enabling the capture of pollen before seed dispersal [62,71]. All the criteria are first met with †Elkinsia polymorpha found in the VCo spore Biozone, Evieux Formation [71] in the Fammenian (Late Devonian). The VCo spore Biozone spans 364.7-360.7 Ma [63]. A maximum age for gymnosperms is thus 364.7 Ma. We also used this age to set maximum ages for the cycad stem (FC1) and crown (FC5).
Phylogenetic reconstructions
To obtain a starting tree for the dating analyses, Bayesian inferences were performed with MrBayes 3.2.3 [72]. To determine the best-fit partitioning scheme of molecular evolution for our dataset, we used PartitionFinder 1.1.1 [73]. For the PartitionFinder analyses, branch lengths were unlinked to allow them to be independently estimated for each partition. The searched for best model, among those available in MrBayes, was performed under the greedy algorithm based on the Bayesian Information Criterion model metric. We used the partitioning scheme and among-site rate variation suggested by PartitionFinder, but instead of selecting one substitution model a priori, we used reversible-jump Markov Chain Monte Carlo (rj-MCMC) to allow sampling across the entire substitution rate model space [74].
MrBayes analyses consisted of four rj-MCMC running for 100 million generations with sampling every 10,000 generations and the first 25% discarded as burn-in. We specified (i) a uniform prior probability of phylogenies (i.e. all possible trees are considered a priori equally probable), and (ii) a uniform prior probability distribution on branch lengths. The convergence of the runs was assessed by checking the potential scale reduction factor (PSRF) values of each parameter in MrBayes and the Effective Sample Size (ESS) values of each parameter in Tracer 1.6 [75]. Values of PSRF close to 1.00 and ESS above 200 were considered as good indicator of convergence. Nodes recovered with posterior probabilities (PP) ≥ 0.95 are considered to be strongly supported.
Bayesian relaxed-clock analyses
For all dating analyses, we used the BRC approach as implemented in BEAST 1.8 [26]. BEAUti 1.8 was used to create the BEAST input file. We implemented partitioned relaxed-clock models with an uncorrelated lognormal clock model that assumes an underlying lognormal distribution (UCLD) of the evolutionary rates [16], which is more likely to yield accurate estimates than the uncorrelated relaxed clock model that assumes an exponential distribution of the evolutionary rates [76]. We used the same nucleotide substitution model as for the MrBayes analyses. Given that one of the main goals of the study was to investigate the impact of the BPP on molecular dating, we set the tree prior in BEAST to either the Yule or the birth-death process [23]. Following the rigorous approach of Vanneste et al. [77], we utilized the following priors: a uniform prior between 0 and 10 with a starting value at 0.1 for the Yule birth rate and birth-death mean growth rate, and a uniform prior between 0 and 1 with a starting value at 0.5 for the birth-death relative death rate. We used an exponential prior with mean one-third on the standard deviation of the UCLD model, and a uniform prior between 0 and 1 on the mean of the UCLD model. Fossil calibrations were conservatively set with a uniform distribution bounded by the minimum and maximum ages as explained above. A starting tree with branch lengths satisfying all of the fossil prior constraints was inserted, as derived from the MrBayes analyses (described above) [77]. The ‘tree operators’ of the BEAST tree model were disabled to keep the topology fixed so that only the branch lengths were optimized. This procedure ensures better convergence of the tree topology (S. Ho, pers. comm.). Other parameters were kept to their default prior distribution or were indirectly specified through other parameters.
We designed four distinct BEAST analyses by mixing the fossil dataset and the BPP as follows (i) use of the ‘traditional fossil dataset’ and the Yule model as BPP; (ii) use of the ‘traditional fossil dataset’ and the birth-death process as BPP; (iii) use of the ‘new fossil dataset’ and the Yule model as BPP; and (iv) use of the ‘new fossil dataset’ and the birth-death process as BPP. For each fossil dataset, we included all fossils for dating the tree, and did not perform cross-validation analyses because Warnock et al. [78] questioned the cross-validation approach to measure consistency among calibrations based on minimum constraints [61,79]. The most effective means of establishing the quality of fossil-based calibrations is through a priori evaluation of the intrinsic palaeontological, stratigraphic, geochronological and phylogenetic data [78], which we describe above.
The MCMC analyses were run for 100 million generations and sampled every 10,000 generations, resulting in 10,000 trees in the posterior distribution; we discarded the first 2,500 trees as burn-in. We used BEAGLE [80], a library for high-performance statistical phylogenetic inference, with default parameters. This allowed a faster and more accurate computation of likelihood models within our BEAST analyses. All BEAST analyses were performed on the computer cluster CIPRES Science Gateway 3.3 ([81]; http://www.phylo.org/). Tracer was used to assess graphically the convergence of runs, and to check the ESS for all parameters (indicated by ESS above 200). For each analysis, we conducted two independent runs to ensure convergence of the MCMC. Post burn-in trees from the two distinct runs (7,500 trees for each run) were further combined to build the maximum clade credibility tree.
In Bayesian analyses, models have traditionally been compared using the harmonic mean estimate (HME). Other approaches have been developed to calculate accurately the marginal likelihood estimate (MLE) of the specified model, such as path sampling (PS) [82] and stepping-stone sampling (SS) [83]. PS and SS substantially outperform the HME estimator, which overestimates the marginal likelihood and fails to select reliably the best model [76]. We performed MLE using SS with 150 path steps, each with a chain length of one million iterations (G. Baele, pers. comm.), and other parameters were set by default. We directly calculated the log-Bayes factors (hereafter BF) [76,84] from MLEs, and used BF to compare the support of the Yule and the birth-death processes for a given calibration strategy. We considered BF values above 5 to indicate that one model was significantly favoured over another [84].
Macroevolutionary rates through time
We used the Bayesian Analysis of Macroevolutionary Mixture (BAMM, www.bamm-project.org) to estimate speciation and extinction rates through time and among/within clades [85-87]. BAMM is an analytical tool for studying complex evolutionary processes on phylogenetic trees, potentially shaped by a heterogeneous mixture of distinct evolutionary dynamics of speciation and extinction across clades. The method uses rj-MCMC to detect automatically rate shifts and sample distinct evolutionary dynamics that best explain the whole diversification dynamics of the clade. Within a given regime, evolutionary dynamics can involve time-variable diversification rates; in BAMM, the speciation rate is allowed to vary exponentially through time while extinction is maintained constant [86]. Subclades in the tree may diversify faster (or slower) than others, and BAMM detects these diversification rate shifts without a priori hypotheses on how many and where these shifts might occur. BAMM provides estimates of marginal probability of speciation and extinction rates at any point in time along any branch of the tree. Marginal probabilities of the number of evolutionary regimes can also be computed, allowing comparisons of models with a given number of shifts with BF.
Estimating extinction rates from reconstructed phylogenies is notoriously difficult [88-90], although not impossible (see Box 3 of Morlon [22] for a discussion of the subject, and ref. [91-94] for recent papers contradicting the widespread idea that extinction rates cannot be estimated from molecular phylogenies). The developer of the approach cautions that BAMM estimates of extinction should be taken with care [87], because they are sensitive to the choice of the prior and have large confidence intervals. Still, these estimates are well correlated with the underlying rates (Figure five B in Rabosky [87]). Biases in extinction rate estimates often come from fitting models based on underlying hypotheses that are violated in nature, such as fitting models with homogeneous rates across clades when major rate shifts occurred (see ref. [90,93], but see [94]). The BAMM approach should in principle help with these issues, because it explicitly accounts for rate heterogeneity across clades while allowing rates to vary over time [85-87]. We share Beaulieu and O’Meara’s view [94] that we should use prudent caution, but not abandon all hope, of estimating extinction from molecular phylogenies. Hence, we think that it is crucially important to assess the effect of BPP prior choice on these estimates, and to discuss them in the light of what is known from the cycads fossil record.
BAMM is implemented in a C++ command line program and the BAMMtools R-package [87]. We ran BAMM analyses on the timetree calibrated with the ‘new-fossils dataset’, and reconstructed with either the Yule or the birth-death prior. We set four rj-MCMC running for 50 million generations and sampled every 50,000 generations. A compound Poisson process is implemented in BAMM for the prior probability of a rate shift along any branch. We used a prior value of 1.0 implying a null hypothesis of no rate shift across the phylogeny, as recommended by Rabosky [87]. We accounted for incomplete taxon sampling using the implemented analytical correction, with a sampling fraction set to 0.716 (i.e. 237 species out of the 331 described species). We performed four independent runs (with a burn-in of 10%) using different seeds, and we used ESS to assess the convergence of the runs, considering values above 200 as indicating convergence. The posterior distribution was used to estimate the configuration of the diversification rate shifts; alternative diversification models were compared using BF. To complement these analyses, we computed pairwise probabilities that any two lineages or clades share a common set of macroevolutionary rate parameters, using the macroevolutionary cohort analysis implemented in BAMM [87].
Results
Phylogeny of cycads
Tracer plots indicated that MrBayes runs reached convergence before 10 million generations (results not shown). Convergence of the analyses was also supported by the average standard deviation of split frequencies (<0.01), all PSRF values close to 1.0 (range between 0.999 and 1.019), and ESS values above 200 (with many >1000) for the post burn-in trees. The resulting Bayesian trees were well resolved: all nodes of the backbone tree and genus crown nodes were recovered with maximal posterior probabilities (PP = 1, Figure 1 and Additional file 2: Figure S1). Only nodes within genus radiations were recovered with lower PP, which was expected because the genetic divergence among cycad species within genera is low (Cycas: [95,96]; Ceratozamia: [52]; Dioon: [56]; Encephalartos: [97]; Macrozamia: [98]; Zamia: [99]). Our MrBayes analyses are congruent with the results of Nagalingum et al. [6], but differ from other studies [43,54,55,100]. Notably the genus Bowenia is found as sister to the clade ((Ceratozamia, Stangeria), (Microcycas, Zamia)) as in Nagalingum et al. [6], but an alternative position is that Bowenia is sister to all genera, except Cycas and Dioon [43].
Divergence time estimates and model selection for the branching process prior
Convergence of the dating analyses was ensured by ESS values above 200 for all parameters (with many >1000) for the post burn-in trees (Table 1) and Tracer plots indicated that BEAST runs reached convergence before the burn-in threshold. The choice of branching process prior had a striking effect on age estimates (Figures 2 and 3; Table 1). Analyses with the Yule prior inferred much older ages for cycad genera (Figure 4). Genus-level crown ages were on average three times older with a Yule than with a birth-death prior (3.2-fold difference with the ‘traditional fossil dataset’ and 2.9-fold with the ‘new fossil dataset’). This difference was quite striking, with non-overlapping credibility intervals (95% highest posterior density) for the genus crown ages (Figure 4). Generic stem ages and some ages of deeper nodes were also inferred to be older with the Yule than with the birth-death prior, although the difference was not as marked as in the case of the genus crown ages (Figure 5). However, the birth-death and Yule priors usually inferred similar ages for the cycad stem and crown ages (Figure 5). Analyses with the birth-death process inferred a very high estimate of the relative extinction rate (ratio of extinction to speciation, or turnover) with a median = 0.966 for the dating with four FC (95% HPD 0.9255-0.9972), and a median = 0.962 for the dating with six FC (95% HPD 0.9153-0.9947).
Table 1
Age estimates for the six nodes subtending a fossil calibration (FC)
Time-calibrated phylogeny of Cycadales obtained with the four fossil calibrations. Timetree obtained with the Yule (a) or the birth-death (b) model as branching process prior. Each tree is the maximum clade credibility tree with median ages from the Bayesian analyses. The coloured dots highlight nodes on which fossil age constraints were applied. Values are median age estimates for the main nodes, in million years. C, Carboniferous; P, Permian; T, Triassic; J, Jurassic; K, Cretaceous; Pg, Paleogene; N, Neogene. The last geological period, the Quaternary, is missing.
Time-calibrated phylogeny of Cycadales obtained with the six fossil calibrations. Timetree obtained with Yule (a) or the birth-death (b) model as branching process prior. Each tree is the maximum clade credibility tree with median ages from the Bayesian analyses. The coloured dots highlight nodes on which fossil age constraints were applied. Values are median age estimates for the main nodes, in million years. C, Carboniferous; P, Permian; T, Triassic; J, Jurassic; K, Cretaceous; Pg, Paleogene; N, Neogene. The last geological period, the Quaternary, is missing.
Credibility intervals (95% highest posterior density) for the crown ages of the six most species-rich genera. The blue bars depict the age estimates when using the Yule prior, and the green ones show the age estimates obtained with the birth-death prior, shown for the five dating analyses using most fossil calibration points. Analyses with the Yule prior indicate a Paleogene origin, while analyses with the birth-death prior indicate a Neogene origin. Absolute ages are in million years. Q, Quaternary.
Credibility intervals (95% highest posterior density) for the ages of the six deepest nodes. The blue bars depict the age estimates when using the Yule prior, and the green ones show the age estimates obtained with the birth-death prior, shown for the five dating analyses using most fossil calibration points. The numbers associated to each clade correspond to the numbers on the phylogeny. Analyses with the Yule prior consistently indicate older ages. Absolute ages are in million years. The last geological period, the Quaternary, is missing.
Bayes factor values, calculated with the marginal likelihood estimates of the stepping-stone analyses, support the birth-death process as the best tree prior (Table 1). Of the two pairs of BEAST analyses (four FC and six FC), BF values are above the standard threshold: BF4FC = 26.66 between the Yule and birth-death prior, and BF6FC = 36.3 between the Yule and birth-death prior. On the contrary, the HME found the opposite, that is the Yule model is the best prior for both datasets for all analyses (Table 1). The results for the cycads thus support previous results showing that the HME estimator is not reliable [76].
Macroevolutionary rates through time
The BAMM analyses converged for both trees (ESSYule = 719.6, Additional file 3: Figure S2; ESSbirth-death = 750.6, Additional file 4: Figure S3). The choice of the BPP had a major influence on the number of different evolutionary regimes detected in the history of the cycads, as well as on the estimation of speciation and extinction rates across the tree (Figure 6). Analyses with the Yule prior supported a model with three evolutionary regimes (i.e. two rate shifts, Additional file 5: Figure S4) located at the crown of the genera Cycas and Encephalartos (according to BF values > 10, and BF = 154.5 over the null model). On the other hand, analyses with the birth-death prior supported a model with five evolutionary regimes (i.e. four rate shifts, Additional file 6: Figure S5) located at (or near) the crown of the four most species-rich genera (according to BF values > 10, and BF = 29.3 over the null model). Moreover, both speciation and extinction rates estimated with the birth-death prior are twice as high as those estimated with the Yule prior (see scales on Figure 6). The credible set of shift configurations with the highest posterior probabilities is provided in Additional file 7: Figure S6 for each tree. The best configuration shift is provided in Additional file 8: Figure S7 for each tree. The macroevolutionary cohort analyses showed distinct evolutionary trajectories for the four richest cycad genera with the birth-death prior (Additional file 9: Figure S8), but not with the Yule prior (Additional file 10: Figure S9).
Figure 6
Diversification pattern of Cycadales. Estimates of speciation (a,c) and extinction (b,d) rates along the cycad phylogeny obtained from BAMM analyses, when considering the chronogram reconstructed with the Yule (a,b) or the birth-death (c,d) prior. Colours at each point in time along branches denote instantaneous rates of speciation or extinction inferred as the mean scenario, with colours indicating mean rates across all the shift configurations sampled in the Bayesian posterior. The diversification scenarios obtained with one versus the other prior are strikingly different. Note the differences for the estimated speciation and extinction rates with each tree prior (rates are twice higher with the tree constrained with a birth-death process). P, Permian; T, Triassic; J, Jurassic; K, Cretaceous; Pg, Paleogene; N, Neogene. The last geological period, the Quaternary, is missing.
Discussion
Our Bayesian dating analyses highlight an important effect of the branching process prior on the divergence times of cycads. Dating with the Yule prior consistently inferred ages for genus crown groups that were about three times older than those obtained with the birth-death prior. The cycad tree dated with the birth-death process suggested the initiation of crown radiations of the species-rich genera in the Neogene, whereas the Yule model indicated that the radiations began in the Paleogene. These differences in crown ages are noteworthy because the 95% credibility intervals for these nodes did not overlap. It is important to note that the effect of BPP is reduced towards the origin of cycads since, for both priors, genus radiations are subtended by long stem branches originating in the Triassic or Permian. This pattern is recovered for both calibration strategies. Therefore, the BPP is an important influence on the Bayesian dating analyses.
Potential causes of age differences between branching process priors
It is unclear why differing tree priors have a major impact on divergence time estimates. The priors differ principally in the inclusion of an extinction rate. In the Yule prior, there is no extinction, but in the birth-death prior there is a parameter for the extinction rate. The effect of extinction in the birth-death prior is that there are relatively greater nodes toward the present compared to the past, because extinction has not yet had an effect on the more recent nodes, this phenomenon is known as the “pull of the present” [25]. This pattern could explain the contrasting results found when dating the cycad phylogeny with a birth-death versus a Yule prior. Support for the birth-death prior includes fossil evidence indicating that extinctions occurred and were important in shaping cycad evolution. More generally, extinction is a dominant feature of life given that 99.9% of all species that ever existed are now extinct [101]. But the role and effect of extinction could also potentially explain why the effect of BPPs appears to be taxon specific (i.e. little effect in Brassicaceae [28]). Indeed, it is possible that older clades might be more sensitive to the BPP choice because extinction is likely to be a more important component of their evolutionary histories. Earlier simulations and empirical studies have indicated that our understanding of the statistical properties of the diversification prior combined with prior distribution of calibrations is incomplete, particularly when the tree topology is considered [78,102,103]. It is an open question as to how important BPP choice will be for other groups, but further analyses of additional taxa as well as simulation studies will be valuable in understanding the detailed effects that tree priors have on age estimates.
Other potential biases in the branching process priors
While accounting for extinction in BPP priors is an important first step, a birth-death model with homogeneous rates across time and across the various clades within large groups is still an oversimplified model of their evolution. In particular, the hypothesis of rate homogeneity is thought to strongly bias extinction rate estimates [90,93]. We suggest that more complex priors should be developed for implementation in dating software; indeed evidence for age- or time-dependent diversification in numerous clades have resulted in development of methods to take into account rate-heterogeneity through time and clades [93,104].
Another potential bias in BPP priors is the use of models assuming complete or uniform sampling. Phylogenies are often sparsely sampled, particularly in long-branched outgroups. Sparsely sampled outgroups violate the basic assumption of most (if not all) the tree priors implemented in Bayesian dating, namely that the taxon sampling is random and consistent across all clades in the tree (see p. 98 of Drummond and Bouckaert [105]). In this case, it is difficult to find appropriate priors describing the tree: neither the single-parameter Yule model nor the two-parameter birth-death model fit a situation in which some parts of the tree are densely sampled, while others consist of a single long-branched species (i.e. Ginkgo versus the cycads).
Implications for Bayesian dating analyses
The vast majority of molecular dating studies using BEAST have relied on the Yule model, although some recent studies have used both the Yule and birth-death process [27,28,106]. However these studies did not find any differences in age estimates between the two models, nor they did not perform MLE and Bayes factors analyses. Here we tested competing evolutionary hypotheses using a Bayesian relaxed-clock under two different branching priors, and we found stronger support for the birth-death than the Yule process as a prior to reconstruct the cycad tree.
Model selection is a necessary step, because as in the case of cycads, prior choice can have important implications if one simply reconstructs the tree using a Yule model as commonly performed. Conclusions on the age, diversification and/or biogeographic patterns might be different regarding the BPP (see below). Supposedly ancient plant clades might be affected by prior choice as for cycads; specifically, clades with an old and well-documented fossil record that probably experienced periods of extinction such as conifers [7,8], ferns [3,4], gnetophytes [5], and early diverging angiosperm lineages [107,108]. One solution might be to replace the commonly used Yule model by the birth-death process, which is more realistic since all clades are likely to have experienced extinction, even young clades currently diversifying.
As a cautionary tale, we suggest that users routinely test between priors to select the prior that best fit their data. Estimators of the marginal likelihood [82,83] are included in BEAST; therefore, model selection can be relatively straightforward. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that these marginal likelihood estimators accurately compute BF for BRC studies [76], indicating that the results of our empirical study showing the impact of the BPP are reliable.
A late Permian origin for cycads
According to the dating scenario supported by BF (i.e. timetree reconstructed with six fossil calibrations and a birth-death process), cycads and Ginkgo diverged in the late Carboniferous – early Permian, and the most recent common ancestor of the living cycads is from the late Permian (274.5 Ma). Compared to other dating studies, our timetree fits well with recent works on the genus ages and radiations, but our tree pushes back the origin of cycads more than 50 million years earlier (≈200 Ma for Nagalingum et al. [6]; ≈230 Ma for Salas-Leiva et al. [43]). For the latter, our results are in agreement with other dating studies that used age constraints on the cycad crown (≈280 Ma for Won & Renner [5]; ≈270 Ma for Burleigh et al. [109]). Our cycad timeframe is also congruent with the cycad insect pollinator of the order Thysanoptera originating and diversifying in the late Permian (286 Ma, [110,111]). Finally our results are in agreement with paleobotanical evidence indicating that cycads first appeared in the late Permian and became more abundant and diverse in the Triassic [33,39,40].
Cycads proliferated during the Mesozoic, an era characterized by an increased occurrence and diversity of fossil cycads, broadly distributed throughout the relatively uniform climate of the supercontinent Pangaea [42]. Notably, the Triassic record of Cycadales is among the most well-known of cycad history, not only because of the marked increase in the number of definitive cycad taxa, but also because some of the most well-preserved and informative taxa are from this period [70]. It is generally accepted that cycads first became significant components of terrestrial floras during the Late Triassic as part of a global floral turnover with primitive seed-plant floras being replaced by conifers and cycads after the Permian-Triassic mass extinction (252.2 Ma) [40,112,113]. Cycads are generally believed to have reached a diversity peak during the Jurassic, and remained relatively stable in terms of diversity during the Cretaceous [34,112]. Our results further show that major lineages of extant cycads were established during the Early Cretaceous through to the Late Cretaceous, particularly in the Zamiaceae. The current diversity of Zamiaceae stems from surviving lineages of the Cretaceous, a period of rich fossil diversity for the clade [30,33,114-116].
Global diversification pattern of cycads
The cycad timetree is remarkable for its long branches subtending the genus radiations. The most remarkable example is the branch leading to the genus Cycas that is more than 200 million years long. Our results indicate that extant diversification of cycad species occurred in the Neogene, in agreement with other studies [6,38,43]. No crown node of any modern species-rich genus of cycad has an age >19 Ma (credibility intervals extend back to 33 and 29 Ma for Ceratozamia and Cycas). Therefore, the ancient stem divergences of genera are decoupled from their recent crown group radiations. This decoupling can be explained by three hypotheses: (i) the long branches represent periods of low diversity, (ii) the long branches may be the result of periods of extinction [6,38,107,117], but it is unknown whether these were few and sudden or highly protracted, or (iii) the presence of ghost lineages, which are lineages that have temporal and/or geographic gaps in their fossil record (e.g. the Cenozoic fossil record of coelacanths). Our results are consistent with the second hypothesis because we show (i) quasi-synchronous and independent shifts in diversification at the crown (or near) of genus radiations that may be interpreted as the recovery period after an extinction event [107,117], and (ii) high rates of extinction along the long branches of the genus stems that may have extirpated entire lineages [32,33,59]. Our results, as well as fossil evidence [30-33,39,40,42,114-116], support the role of a mass extinction in shaping the cycad timetree, perhaps in the Late Cretaceous when BAMM extinction rates are elevated.
We found periods of extinction along the long branches of the tree. It is important to mention that these inferred periods of extinction are congruent with fossil data also indicating significant extinctions for the clade. From the Jurassic through the Paleogene, the rate of extinction was high for all lineages. The monotypic genera (Microcycas and Stangeria) and species-poor genera (Bowenia, Dioon, and Lepidozamia) were particularly impacted by extinction (Figure 6). Fossil data and cladistic analyses suggest that, for instance, the lineage today represented by Stangeria might have been more diverse in the past [32,59,118]. The surviving cycads re-diversified from the mid- to late Miocene when five lineages, isolated on different continents, underwent successful independent increases in diversification rate. Therefore our results favour the hypothesis of few and sudden extinction events. As potential explanations, this diversification pattern may be attributed to (i) competition with angiosperms (e.g. [34,35,112,113,119]), (ii) changes in, and final extinction of, non-avian dinosaur faunas that may have acted as seed dispersers (for Mesozoic extinction) [41], and/or (iii) global climate change that led to latitudinal shifts of the main vegetation belts and the elimination of cycads from higher latitudes of Eurasia, North America, and Patagonia [6,110,120], perhaps around the Eocene-Oligocene boundary that marked a significant shift from greenhouse to icehouse climate [38,121].
Discussions on cycad diversity through time are partly hampered due to the difficulty of distinguishing cycad foliage and pollen from that of the extinct (and phylogenetically distinct) clade Bennettitales [39,42]; most previous published diversity curves for Mesozoic plants do not separate Cycadales and Bennettitales, with two clades being grouped together as ‘cycadophytes’ (e.g. [34,39,112]). Also, the Cretaceous and Cenozoic cycad fossil record is probably too limited to enable understanding of the role of extinction, notably around the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Although their apparent post mid-Cretaceous decline is recognized, we do not have quantitative evidence of the diversity decline nor do we know whether Cenozoic cycad diversity remained low until the Neogene radiations, or whether substantial early to mid-Cenozoic diversity existed but was affected by major extinctions. Besides illustrating the potential effect of BPP choice in Bayesian molecular dating, our study re-examines the dating of the cycads, proving a robust phylogenetic framework for future studies aimed at estimating how the diversity of cycads varied through geological time.
Conclusions
Our study highlights that the branching process prior (or tree prior) in Bayesian molecular dating has an important effect on age estimates for cycads. The birth-death process had a better fit than the traditionally used Yule process as determined by marginal likelihood estimates and Bayes factors. It is likely that cycads are not an isolated case and we advocate for a closer investigation of the branching process prior, BPP, in all future molecular phylogenetic dating studies. At minimum we suggest conducting a similar model selection as we did for cycads to select the best-fitting prior and thus the best timetree. However, the birth-death process will not necessarily always better fit the data just because it seems more biologically realistic than a simpler Yule model, especially for shallower divergence times (i.e. recent clades). For instance, two recent studies on Australian diving beetles [106] and St. John’s wort [122] did not show any age differences using different BPPs, and none of the BPP was supported with Bayes factors; both clades originated in the Oligocene (ca. 34-28 Ma). On the contrary for deeper divergence times, age differences might be revealed when comparing a birth-death and a Yule process as exemplified in a dating study of darkling beetles that originated in the Jurassic (≈180 Ma) [27], but those differences were not as marked as in cycads. Based on these studies and our results, we expect that age differences deriving from different BPPs increase when clade age is very old (e.g. Triassic and backward).
As we gain greater understanding of the priors and parameters associated with molecular dating, there have been accordingly advances in our methodology. We note that other avenues for molecular dating are being developed because the standard dating procedure results in overlaying two prior distributions for a calibration node: one from the tree prior and one from the calibration prior [19,21,102]. In the last years, there are new methods that allow the inclusion of fossils in divergence time estimation as non-contemporaneous terminal tips rather than as node calibration points, also known as tip dating [123]. Recently, Heath et al. [103] introduced the fossilized birth–death process, a model for calibrating divergence time estimates in a Bayesian framework, explicitly acknowledging that extant species and fossils are part of the same macroevolutionary process. They argued that a single model that acts as a prior on the speciation times for both calibrated and uncalibrated nodes is a better representation of the lineage diversification process. The approach seems promising and will increasingly be used in future studies, like the application on the royal ferns (family Osmundaceae) [124]. The fossilized birth–death process best fitted the Osmundaceae fossil record and also provided speciation and extinction rates associated with the dated phylogeny.
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Acknowledgements
We thank the Associate Editor Rafael Zardoya, and the two referees Susanne Renner and Diego San Mauro who provided insightful comments on the study. We also thank Frédéric Delsuc and Gael Kergoat for discussions, and Simon Ho and Guy Baele for technical comments on the Bayesian analyses. We also thank Daniel Rabosky for the workshop on the BAMM approach, and Mario Coiro for discussions and feedbacks on the fossil record of cycads. Funding was provided by grant ANR CHEX ECOEVOBIO awarded to HM.
Corresponding author
Additional information
Competing interests
Authors’ contributions
FLC and HM designed the research. FLC retrieved material or data from GenBank, formerly published by NSN and CRM. FLC performed the analyses. FLC wrote the manuscript, with revisions by HM, NSN and CRM. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Authors’ information
Fabien Condamine is a post-doc student who is interested in numerous biodiversity patterns such as the latitudinal diversity gradient, regional difference in diversity and island biogeography. He aims to decipher the main evolutionary and ecological processes that have shaped the present pattern of biodiversity. Nathalie Nagalingum is a research scientist who is interested in cycad diversity, its origin, evolution and conservation using genomic and paleontological tools. Charles Marshall is a professor who is interested in how paleontology can inform our understanding of the history of life, and the processes that control it. Hélène Morlon combines mathematics, bioinformatics and fieldwork to study questions ranging from macroevolution and macroecology to community assembly, biogeography, and conservation.
Additional files
Taxa sampled and GenBank accession numbers of sequences used in the analyses. All PHYP sequences were generated by Nagalingum et al. [6], and sequences from matK and rbcL were downloaded from GenBank. “—” denotes sequence not available or voucher not indicated.
Phylogeny of Cycadales reconstructed (for 237 cycad species and three genes) using MrBayes and reversible jump MCMC. Posterior probabilities are shown at nodes. Only the nodes in the backbone are considered well-supported here. Nodes within generic radiations are generally below the standard threshold of robustness. The low node support within genera is likely due to low genetic divergence between species.
Convergence of the BAMM analysis with the chronogram reconstructed with a Yule prior. (A) The stationary of the MCMC before applying a burn-in. (B) The posterior distribution of number of shifts estimated before applying a burn-in. (C) The stationary of the MCMC after removing the burn-in phase. (D) The posterior distribution of number of shifts estimated after removing the burn-in phase.
Convergence of the BAMM analysis with the chronogram reconstructed with a birth-death prior. (A) The stationary of the MCMC before applying a burn-in. (B) The posterior distribution of number of shifts estimated before applying a burn-in. (C) The stationary of the MCMC after removing the burn-in phase. (D) The posterior distribution of number of shifts estimated after removing the burn-in phase.
Frequency distribution of distinct macroevolutionary rate regimes estimated using BAMM and the tree reconstructed with the Yule prior. (A) Prior distribution of the number of distinct processes. (B) Posterior distribution of the number of distinct processes (including the root process) on the cycad phylogeny reconstructed with a Yule model. A one-process model outperforms a two-process model.
Frequency distribution of distinct macroevolutionary rate regimes estimated using BAMM and the tree reconstructed with the birth-death prior. (A) Prior distribution of the number of distinct processes. (B) Posterior distribution of the number of distinct processes (including the root process) on the cycad phylogeny reconstructed with a birth-death model. A one-process model outperforms a two-process model.
Credible set of configuration shifts of cycads inferred with BAMM using the (A) tree with the Yule prior, and the (B) tree dated with the birth-death prior. Phylogenies show the distinct shift configurations with the highest posterior probability. For each shift configuration, the locations of rate shifts are shown as red (rate increases) and blue (rate decreases) circles, with circle size proportional to the marginal probability of the shift. Text labels (e.g. f =0.33) denote the posterior probability of each shift configuration.
The best shift configuration inferred with BAMM using the (A) tree with the Yule prior, and the (B) tree dated with the birth-death prior. Analysis with the Yule prior indicated a single rate shift (indicated by red circle) near the crowns of Cycas and Encephalartos, whereas the analysis with the birth-death prior indicated four major shifts at the richest genera: Cycas, Zamia, Encephalartos, and Macrozamia.
Macroevolutionary cohort matrix for speciation of cycads using the birth-death prior. Each cell in the matrix is coded by a color denoting the pairwise probability that two species share a common macroevolutionary rate regime. The cycad phylogeny reconstructed with a birth-death process is shown for reference on the left and upper margins of each cohort matrix. At least five major cohorts can be identified that are the four most species-rich genera: Cycas, Zamia, Encephalartos, and Macrozamia.
Macroevolutionary cohort matrix for speciation of cycads using the Yule prior. Same legend as Additional file 9: Figure S8.
Rights and permissions
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly credited. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. | (≈280 Ma for Won & Renner [5]; ≈270 Ma for Burleigh et al. [109]). Our cycad timeframe is also congruent with the cycad insect pollinator of the order Thysanoptera originating and diversifying in the late Permian (286 Ma, [110,111]). Finally our results are in agreement with paleobotanical evidence indicating that cycads first appeared in the late Permian and became more abundant and diverse in the Triassic [33,39,40].
Cycads proliferated during the Mesozoic, an era characterized by an increased occurrence and diversity of fossil cycads, broadly distributed throughout the relatively uniform climate of the supercontinent Pangaea [42]. Notably, the Triassic record of Cycadales is among the most well-known of cycad history, not only because of the marked increase in the number of definitive cycad taxa, but also because some of the most well-preserved and informative taxa are from this period [70]. It is generally accepted that cycads first became significant components of terrestrial floras during the Late Triassic as part of a global floral turnover with primitive seed-plant floras being replaced by conifers and cycads after the Permian-Triassic mass extinction (252.2 Ma) [40,112,113]. Cycads are generally believed to have reached a diversity peak during the Jurassic, and remained relatively stable in terms of diversity during the Cretaceous [34,112]. Our results further show that major lineages of extant cycads were established during the Early Cretaceous through to the Late Cretaceous, particularly in the Zamiaceae. The current diversity of Zamiaceae stems from surviving lineages of the Cretaceous, a period of rich fossil diversity for the clade [30,33,114-116].
Global diversification pattern of cycads
The cycad timetree is remarkable for its long branches subtending the genus radiations. | yes |
Paleobotany | Did Cycads dominate the Mesozoic era plant kingdom? | no_statement | "cycads" did not "dominate" the mesozoic "era" "plant" "kingdom".. the "dominant" "plants" in the mesozoic "era" were not "cycads". | https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-022-01129-7 | The Cycas genome and the early evolution of seed plants | Nature ... | Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain
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Abstract
Cycads represent one of the most ancient lineages of living seed plants. Identifying genomic features uniquely shared by cycads and other extant seed plants, but not non-seed-producing plants, may shed light on the origin of key innovations, as well as the early diversification of seed plants. Here, we report the 10.5-Gb reference genome of Cycas panzhihuaensis, complemented by the transcriptomes of 339 cycad species. Nuclear and plastid phylogenomic analyses strongly suggest that cycads and Ginkgo form a clade sister to all other living gymnosperms, in contrast to mitochondrial data, which place cycads alone in this position. We found evidence for an ancient whole-genome duplication in the common ancestor of extant gymnosperms. The Cycas genome contains four homologues of the fitD gene family that were likely acquired via horizontal gene transfer from fungi, and these genes confer herbivore resistance in cycads. The male-specific region of the Y chromosome of C. panzhihuaensis contains a MADS-box transcription factor expressed exclusively in male cones that is similar to a system reported in Ginkgo, suggesting that a sex determination mechanism controlled by MADS-box genes may have originated in the common ancestor of cycads and Ginkgo. The C. panzhihuaensis genome provides an important new resource of broad utility for biologists.
Main
Cycads are often referred to as ‘living fossils’; they originated in the mid-Permian and dominated terrestrial ecosystems during the Mesozoic, a period called the ‘age of cycads and dinosaurs’1. Although the major cycad lineages are ancient, modern cycad species emerged from several relatively recent diversifications2,3. Cycads are long-lived woody plants that, unlike other extant gymnosperms, bear frond-like leaves clustered at the tip of the stem4. Extant cycads comprise 10 genera and approximately 360 species, two-thirds of which are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List of threatened species5. All living cycad species are dioecious, with individual plants developing either male or female cones (except in Cycas, which produces a loose cluster of megasporophylls rather than a true female cone; Fig. 1a)6. Unlike other extant seed plants, cycads and Ginkgo retain flagellated sperm, an ancestral trait shared with bryophytes, lycophytes and ferns7. Cycads exhibit other special features, such as the accumulation of toxins that deter herbivores8 in seeds and vegetative tissues. They also produce coralloid roots that host symbiotic cyanobacteria, making them the only gymnosperm associated with nitrogen-fixing symbionts9. The origin of the seed marked one of the most important events of plant evolution10. As one of the four extant gymnosperm groups (cycads, Ginkgo, conifers and gnetophytes), cycads hold an important evolutionary position for understanding the origin and early evolution of seed plants. We therefore generated a high-quality genome assembly for a species of Cycas to explore fundamental questions in seed plant evolution, including the phylogenetic position of cycads, the occurrence of ancient whole-genome duplications (WGDs), innovation in gene function and the evolution of sex determination.
Fig. 1: Phylogenomic analyses of cycads and seed plants.
a, Illustration of Cycas panzhihuaensis. b, Chronogram of seed plants on the basis of the SSCG-NT12 dataset inferred using MCMCTree. All branches are maximally supported by bootstrap values (ML) and posterior probabilities (ASTRAL). I, II, III, VI, V and VI indicate internal branches for which the pie charts depicting gene tree incongruence are complemented by histograms (lower panel) showing quartet support for the main topology (q1), the first alternative topology (q2) and the second alternative topology (q3). O, Ordovician; S, Silurian; D, Devonian; C, Carboniferous; P, Permian; T, Triassic; J, Jurassic; K, Cretaceous; Pg, Palaeogene; N, Neogene; Q, Quaternary; Ma, million years ago. c, DiscoVista species tree analysis: rows correspond to the nine hypothetical groups tested (see Supplementary Note 5 for details) and columns correspond to the results derived from the use of different datasets and methods. SSCG, single-copy genes; LCG, low-copy genes; MT, mitochondrial genes; PT, plastid genes; AA, amino acid sequences; NT, nucleotide sequences; NT12, codon 1st + 2nd positions; ASTRAL, coalescent tree inference method using ASTRAL; CONCAT, maximum likelihood tree inferred with IQ-TREE based on concatenated datasets; STAG, species tree inference using software STAG with low-copy genes (one to four copies); Original, original organellar nucleotide sequences; RNA Editing, organellar genes with RNA editing site modified. Strong support, the clade is reconstructed with a support value >95%. Weak support, the clade is reconstructed with support value <95%. Weak rejection, the clade is not recovered, but the alternative topology is not conflict if poorly supported branches (<85%) are collapsed. Strong rejection, the clade is not recovered, and the alternative topology is conflict even when poorly supported branches (<85%) are collapsed. d, Diversification of Cycadales. The chronogram of 339 cycad species was inferred with MCMCTree based on 100 nuclear single-copy genes with concordant evolutionary histories. All illustrations are specifically created for this study (a high-resolution version is available at https://db.cngb.org/codeplot/datasets/public_dataset?id=PwRftGHfPs5qG3gE).
A chromosome-scale genome assembly
Here, we report a high-quality, chromosome-level genome assembly of Cycas panzhihuaensis based on sequencing of the haploid megagametophyte using a combination of MGI-SEQ short-read, Oxford Nanopore long-read and Hi-C sequencing methods (Supplementary Note 2). The genome comprises 10.5 Gb assembled in 5,123 contigs (N50 = 12 Mb), with 95.3% of these contigs anchored to the largest 11 pseudomolecules, corresponding to the 11 chromosomes (n = 11) of the C. panzhihuaensis karyotype11 (Supplementary Note 3 and Extended Data Fig. 1). The annotated genome describes 32,353 protein-coding genes and is mostly composed of repetitive elements adding up to 7.8 Gb (Supplementary Note 4). Based on BUSCO12 estimation, the gene space completeness of the C. panzhihuaensis genome assembly is 91.6% (Supplementary Note 4).
Compared with other gymnosperms, the size of the Cycas genome is similar to that of Ginkgo (10.6 Gb)13,14 and intermediate between the relatively compact genome of Gnetum (4.1 Gb)15 and the very large genomes of conifers (for example, ~20-Gb genomes of Picea and Pinus)16,17,18. As in other gymnosperm genomes, a large portion (76.14%) of the C. panzhihuaensis genome consists of ancient repetitive elements (Supplementary Note 4). In addition, the genome contains almost equal proportions of copia and gypsy long terminal repeat (LTR) elements, in contrast to other gymnosperm genomes, in which gypsy repeats are more frequent14,15 (Supplementary Note 6). Among all sequenced plant genomes, C. panzhihuaensis has the longest average introns (~30.8 kb) and genes (~121.3 kb) (Extended Data Fig. 2a), surpassing those of Ginkgo14. In comparison with Ginkgo, in which LTRs dominate intron content, the introns of C. panzhihuaensis contain a large portion of unknown sequences (Extended Data Fig. 2b). The longest gene, CYCAS_013063, encoding a kinesin-like protein KIF3A, covers 2.1 Mb in the C. panzhihuaensis genome; the longest intron is approximately 1.5 Mb and was detected in CYCAS_030563, a gene that encodes a photosystem II CP43 reaction centre protein. Both genes are expressed, as evidenced by our long-read transcriptome data.
Phylogeny of cycads and seed plants
The C. panzhihuaensis genome provides an opportunity to revisit the long-standing debate on the evolutionary relationships among living seed plants. On the basis of molecular phylogenetic analyses, extant gymnosperms are resolved as a monophyletic group, but the branching order among their major lineages has remained controversial19,20,21,22,23. Our phylogenetic analyses of separate nuclear (Fig. 1b, Extended Data Fig. 3 and Supplementary Note 5) and plastid datasets strongly support cycads plus Ginkgo as sister to the remaining extant gymnosperms, in agreement with several other analyses23,24, whereas mitochondrial data resolve cycads alone in that position (Fig. 1c). This conflict arising from the mitochondrial data cannot be explained by the presence of extensive RNA editing sites in the mitochondrial data (Fig. 1c), which in some cases has been reported to bias phylogenetic inferences25,26, and instead may be best explained by incomplete lineage sorting, which is supported by our PhyloNet27 and coalescent analyses of nuclear genes (Supplementary Note 5).
The extant diversity of cycads was previously considered to have arisen synchronously within the past 9–50 million years (Myr)2,3. Our inferences, based on 1,170 low-copy nuclear genes sampled for 339 cycad species and 6 fossil calibrations3 corroborate recent broad analyses of gymnosperms indicating that extant species-rich cycad genera emerged from rapid radiations ranging from 11 to 20 Myr ago, which may have been a consequence of dramatic Miocene global temperature changes24,28. Notably, major temperate and tropical radiations in several major clades of flowering plants have been shown to be associated with Miocene cooling in the past 15 Myr (refs. 29,30,31).
Cycas is an ancient polyploid
WGD is a major driving force in the evolution of land plants and has dramatically promoted the diversification of flowering plants23,32. Synonymous substitutions per synonymous site (KS) analysis of duplicate genes33 revealed a clear peak at similar KS values (~0.85, range 0.5–1.2) for both Cycas and Ginkgo, suggestive of an ancient WGD possibly shared by these two lineages (Supplementary Note 7)34. However, the precise evolutionary position of this WGD event remains ambiguous. Our phylogenomic analyses based on 15 genomes and 1 transcriptome revealed 2,469 gymnosperm-wide duplications in 9,545 gene families and indicate that this WGD event dates to the most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of extant gymnosperms (Fig. 2a), supporting recent findings based on transcriptome data24. We also identified 69 ancient syntenic genomic segments that further support a gymnosperm-wide WGD (Extended Data Fig. 3, Supplementary Fig. 23 and Supplementary Tables 24 and 25). Furthermore, a mixed dataset with increased sampling—29 genomes and 61 transcriptomes—also yielded the same result (Fig. 2a and Extended Data Fig. 4). This gymnosperm-wide WGD, here named omega (ω), is independent of the WGD preceding the split between gymnosperms and angiosperms35 and may have contributed to the subsequent evolution of gymnosperm-specific genes involved in plant hormone signal transduction, biosynthesis of secondary metabolites, plant–pathogen interaction and terpenoid biosynthesis (Supplementary Note 7).
a, Inference of the number of gene families with duplicated genes surviving after WGD events mapped on a phylogenetic tree depicting the relationships among 16 vascular plants included in this study. The number of gene families with retained gene duplicates reconciled on a particular branch of the species tree are shown above the branch across the phylogeny (Methods). Numbers in square brackets denote the number of gene families with duplicated genes also supported by synteny evidence. b, Evolutionary analyses and phylogenetic profiles depicting the gains (light green), losses (light red), expansions (light yellow) and contractions (light blue) of orthogroups, according to the reconstruction of the ancestral gene content at key nodes and the dynamic changes of the lineage-specific gene characteristics.
Ancestral gene innovation in the origin of the seed
The origin of seed plants is marked by the emergence of key traits including the seed, pollen and secondary growth of xylem and phloem36. Reconstruction of the evolution of gene families across the seed plant tree of life revealed that 663 orthogroups were gained and 368 expanded in the MRCA of extant seed plants compared with non-seed plants (Fig. 2b, node 1). Among these, 106 of the new orthogroups and 55 of the expanded orthogroups are associated with seed development in Arabidopsis37, including the regulation of development during early embryogenesis, seed dormancy and germination, and seed coat formation, as well as in immunity and stress response of the seed (Supplementary Note 6).
Genes of the LAFL family are well-known as core regulatory genes of seed development, including LEAFY COTYLEDON1 (LEC1), ABSCISIC ACID INSENSITIVE3 (ABI3), LEAFY COTYLEDON2 (LEC2) and FUSCA3 (FUS3), which encode master transcriptional regulators, interacting to form complexes that control embryo development and maturation38. LEC1 genes are found only in vascular plants, but ABI3 is widely distributed in embryophytes (Supplementary Note 10.6). Cycas and Ginkgo each contain a small number of LEC1 (two and three in each, respectively) and ABI3 (one in each) genes, whereas C. panzhihuaensis encodes a burst of FUS3 (ten) and LEC2 (seven) genes in the form of tandem repeats. FUS3 and LEC2 are shared by all living seed plants; the Cycas and other gymnosperm genomes contain genes composing a new clade of B3 domain proteins, that is, the FUS3/LEC2-like clade, which is sister to the clade of FUS3 and LEC2 (Extended Data Fig. 5). The FUS3/LEC2-like families are unique to gymnosperms, show significant expression after pollination in C. panzhihuaensis (Extended Data Fig. 5c) and may play specific roles in initiating embryogenesis in gymnosperms.
Regulation of seed development in Cycas
To better understand the dynamic changes in gene regulation and regulatory programmes during ovule pollination and fertilization, we performed a weighted correlation network analysis (WGCNA) and identified 11 co-expression modules at different developmental stages of the C. panzhihuaensis ovule and seed (Fig. 3a). The modules are enriched in seed nutrition metabolic processes (M2, M6 and M8), membrane biosynthesis (M9, which may relate to the development of the integument) and genes synthesizing callose, a major component of the pollen tube (M4) (Supplementary Note 10). A survey of phytohormones showed that salicylic acid and jasmonic acid, which are both involved in pathogen resistance, were produced at higher levels in unpollinated ovules versus post-pollinated ovules (Fig. 3b), and genes involved in the biosynthesis of these two phytohormones were also more highly expressed in unpollinated ovules, indicating the higher demand for these hormones as agents of pathogen resistance in the unpollinated ovule. Gibberellin, which is reported to regulate integument development in the ovules of flowering plants39, accumulated in the late stage of the pollinated ovule in Cycas. We also found gene families related to integument development (for example, those involved in cutin, suberine and wax biosynthesis), with increased expression levels at the late stage of the pollinated ovule. Fertilized ovules accumulated a high level of abscisic acid and expressed the genes related to cell wall organization and biogenesis, indicating their activity in embryo development, seed coat formation, and seed maturation and dormancy40 (Supplementary Note 10.1–10.5).
Fig. 3: Gene expression and phytohormone synthesis at different developmental stages of the seed of Cycas and the evolution of seed storage proteins.
a, Heatmap showing relative expression of genes in 11 co-expression modules by WGCNA across 4 developmental stages of the seed: S1, unpollinated ovule; S2, early stage of pollinated ovule; S3, late stage of pollinated ovule; and S4, fertilized ovule. b, Quantification of eight plant phytohormone amounts in the same four developmental stages of the Cycas seed as above. The grey histogram represents the amount of hormone (n = 2 biologically independent experiments) and the error bar represents the standard error. c, Phylogeny of SSPs in some representative species in land plants. The SSPs analysed include germin-like protein (GLP), legumin-like SSP (l-SSP), vicilin-like SSP (v-SSP) and v-AMP. A maximum likelihood tree with 500 bootstrap replicates was constructed using RAxML. Bootstrap values (≥50%) for each major clade (highlighted in colour) and the relationships among them are provided. The Cycas sequences are highlighted in red. d, Expression levels of SSP in different tissues of C. panzhihuaensis.
Among genes related to seed development, the most notable is the cupin protein family, expanded in C. panzhihuaensis compared with all other green plants. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the cupin family can be subdivided into two groups: the germin-like and seed storage protein (SSP)-encoding genes. Surprisingly, we identified a new type of gene encoding vicilin-like storage proteins in C. panzhihuaensis; this type appears to be homologous to the vicilin-like antimicrobial peptides (v-AMP) and is organized as a tandem gene array in the C. panzhihuaensis genome (Fig. 3c). These v-AMP homologues are mostly expressed in C. panzhihuaensis at the late stage of pollinated ovules and fertilized ovules, with expression gradually decreasing during embryogenesis, suggesting the potentially important role of v-AMP genes in seed development (Fig. 3d and Supplementary Note 10.6).
Secondary growth and cell wall synthesis
Secondary growth is also a major innovation of seed plants36, and it has been recognized from fossils of now-extinct progymnosperms, which predated the origin of seed plants36,41. Secondary phloem and xylem are produced by the activity of a bifacial vascular cambium (secondary meristem). We found that several genes that are known in angiosperms to regulate secondary growth in the positioning of the xylem, or in xylem/phloem patterning, underwent obvious expansions in the MRCA of extant seed plants compared with non-seed plants, including the MYB family member ALTERED PHLOEM DEVELOPMENT (APL), WOL and BRASSINOSTEROID-INSENSITIVE LIKE 1 (BRL1) and BRL3. The APL gene is expressed in the phloem and cambium in vascular plants, and its encoded protein promotes phloem differentiation42. The expression of APL is regulated by WOL in the procambium43. The BRL1 and BRL3 genes encode brassinosteroid receptors that play major roles in xylem differentiation and phloem/xylem patterning in angiosperms44. Many copies of these genes were found to be highly expressed in cambium or apical meristem of C. panzhihuaensis (Supplementary Note 6).
Many gymnosperms are tall, woody plants with cell walls containing large quantities of cellulose, xyloglucan, glucomannan, homogalacturonans and rhamnogalacturonans45. In the cellulose synthase (CESA/CSL) superfamily46, we discovered the existence of putative ancestral cellulose synthase-like B/H (CSLB/H) and CSLE/G that are specifically shared by gymnosperms, and both gene groups originated before the divergence of CSLB and CSLH in angiosperms (Extended Data Fig. 6). Cycads have manoxylic wood, with a large pith, large amounts of parenchyma and relatively few tracheids, in contrast to most other gymnosperms, which have pycnoxylic wood, with small amounts of pith, cortex and parenchyma, and a greater density of tracheids4. The glutamyltransferase 77 (GT77) family, involved in the synthesis of rhamnogalacturonan II, which is essential for cell wall synthesis in rapidly growing tissues47, is expanded in C. panzhihuaensis compared with other gymnosperms (Supplementary Note 11). In addition, gene families related to cell wall extension and loosening are uniquely expanded in C. panzhihuaensis, including those encoding hydroxyproline-rich glycoproteins, which are seven times more abundant in Cycas than in Ginkgo, and the fasciclin-like arabinogalactan proteins, which are twice as numerous in Cycas as in Ginkgo, Sequoiadendron giganteum and Pseudotsuga menziesii. How all these gene families related to wood features are regulated in cycads relative to other gymnosperms will be important for understanding the differences in wood density.
The evolution of pollen, pollen tube and sperm
Another major innovation during seed plant evolution is the production of pollen and the pollen tube36. We found that many genes regulating pollen and pollen tube development (pollen maturation, pollen tube growth, pollen tube perception and prevention of multiple-pollen tube attraction) were gained (or the respective gene family expanded) in the MRCA of extant seed plants (Fig. 2b), as might be predicted for these features. For instance, those genes encoding egg cell-secreted proteins that prevent attraction of multiple pollen tubes48 originated in the MRCA of living seed plants. The Ole e 1-like gene families, which encode proteins that accumulate in the pollen tube cell wall and play a role in pollen germination and pollen tube growth49, are remarkably expanded in the MRCA of extant seed plants compared with non-seed plants (Supplementary Note 6). Such expansion also includes polcalcin, which is involved in calcium signalling to guide pollen tube growth50 (Supplementary Note 11). Both the COBRA and COBRA-like protein gene families are expanded in Cycas and other seed plants compared with non-seed plants, and the COBRA-like protein localizes at the tip of the pollen tube membrane and plays an important role in pollen tube growth and guidance51 (Supplementary Note 11).
All seed plants produce pollen and deliver their sperm through the growth of a pollen tube, whereas all non-seed land plants (that is, bryophytes, lycophytes and ferns) rely on free-swimming motile sperm for sexual reproduction, as do the ancestors of land plants1,4 (Extended Data Fig. 7a,b). The exceptions among seed plants are cycads and Ginkgo, both of which have pollen grains that release motile spermatozoids that, following pollination, swim the remaining minute distance within the ovule to fertilize the egg52 (Supplementary Video 1). Sperm motility is conferred by a flagellar apparatus, and most genes related to its assembly occur in the C. panzhihuaensis genome. Ginkgo also retains flagellar genes, although fewer, and most notably lacks those encoding radial spoke proteins (RSP) (that is, RSP2, RSP3, RSP9 and RSP11; Extended Data Fig. 7c). By contrast, Gnetum, conifers and angiosperms, which develop non-flagellated spermatozoa, lost many flagellar structural genes (Supplementary Note 12). Outer dense fibres are unique accessory structures that maintain the structural integrity of flagella and are vital for flagellar function53. Outer dense fibres exist in C. panzhihuaensis and Gingko biloba, as well as all non-seed land plants, but are absent in Gnetum, conifers and angiosperms, all of which have non-motile sperm (Extended Data Fig. 7c). The shift from swimming to non-motile sperm is a major innovation in land plant evolution, and C. panzhihuaensis and G. biloba exhibit an ancestral gene content that is part of the shift from producing flagellate to non-flagellate sperm cells.
Sex chromosomes and sex determination in Cycas
Heteromorphic chromosomes have been reported to be associated with sex determination in Cycas54. To reveal the underlying genetic mechanism of sex determination, we carried out genome-wide association studies (GWAS) analysis of sex as a binary phenotype for C. panzhihuaensis and identified the most significant association signals on chromosome 8, spanning the first 124 Mb on the reference female genome (Fig. 4a). This sex-associated region is also the most differentiated between male and female Cycas genomes, with the largest fixation index (FST; Supplementary Fig. 37) and the most differentiated nucleotide diversity (π) and heterozygosity ratios characterizing the window between 18 and 50 Mb on chromosome 8 (Fig. 4b and Supplementary Note 13). These results confirm that Cycas possesses an XY sex determination system positioned on chromosome 8.
Fig. 4: Identification of male-specific chromosomal region in Cycas.
a, Manhattan plot of GWAS analysis of sex differentiation in 31 male and 31 female Cycas samples. The red horizontal dashed line represents the Bonferroni-corrected threshold for genome-wide significance (α = 0.05). P values were calculated from a mixed linear model association of SNPs. Association analyses were performed once with a population of 31 male and 31 female individuals. b, Ratio of π, FST and difference of pooled heterozygosity (ΔHp) within a 100-kb sliding window between the female and male sequences. Colour represents values from low (blue) to high (red). c, Genome alignment of the MSY scaffolds with the corresponding female-specific region on chromosome 8. Scaffolds are separated by grey dashed lines. Red lines represent alignments >5 kb on the forward strand, and blue lines represent those on the reverse strand. Pink boxes in a–c represent the most differentiated regions between the sex chromosomes. d, Photographs of microsporophyll and megasporophyll of C. panzhihuaensis. Bar, 1 cm. e, Sex-specific expression of MADS-Y (CYCAS_034085) and CYCAS_010388 in male and female reproductive organs. Microsporophyll tissues were collected before meiosis (BFm), during prophase (Prophase), after meiosis (AFm) and before pollination (BFp); female tissues were collected at 0, 7, 11 and 21 days post-pollination. f, Phylogeny of MADS-Y homologues across land plants. Genes from MSY and autosomes are marked on the right, and those from Selaginella and Physcomitrium are used as outgroups. Numbers above branches represent bootstrap scores from IQ-TREE. g, Molecular genotyping of male and female cycad samples from Cycas debaoensis, Macrozamia lucida and Zamia furfuracea using primers specific to homologues of MADS-Y and CYCAS_010388.
Assembling the male-specific region of the Y chromosome (MSY) based on Nanopore long-read and Hi-C data resulted in 45.5 Mb of sequence distributed over 43 scaffolds, most of which aligned to the sex-differentiation region on chromosome 8 (Fig. 4c and Supplementary Fig. 38). The assembled MSY had an almost 80-Mb difference in length from the corresponding region on the X chromosome, which agrees with the heteromorphy of the Cycas sex chromosomes. We annotated 624 putative protein-coding genes within the MSY, 11 of which were highly expressed (transcripts per million (TPM) > 1) in the microsporophylls. The most highly expressed gene in the MSY and also the most differentially regulated gene between the two sexes is CYCAS_034085 (Fig. 4d,e and Extended Data Fig. 8), which encodes a GGM13-like MADS-box transcription factor (TF), belonging to a lineage sister to the angiosperm AP3/PI clade that plays crucial roles in floral development. Its closest homologue, CYCAS_010388, was identified on autosomal chromosome 2. In contrast to CYCAS_034085, CYCAS_010388 was much more highly expressed in the ovule than in the microsporophyll (Fig. 4e). A male-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) product of CYCAS_034085 was amplified from all tested male cycad samples, but was not detected in female samples, whereas a CYCAS_010388-specific PCR product was amplified in both males and females (Fig. 4g and Supplementary Fig. 39b). Because of the presence in MSY and its exclusive expression pattern in males, we named CYCAS_034085 as MADS-Y, a potential sex determination gene.
The reduced size of MSY compared with the X chromosome indicates that the Y chromosome of Cycas, unlike that reported for some angiosperms55, underwent severe degeneration and gene loss. The most divergent 32-Mb region (between the 18 and 50 Mb locations) between the X and Y chromosomes probably represents an ancient evolutionary segment in the Cycas sex chromosomes. The broad association of the MADS-Y homologue with sex in cycads indicates a conserved sex determination system within this ancient lineage (Fig. 4f and Supplementary Fig. 39). Moreover, the presence of GbMADS4, a homologue of the Cycas MADS-Y, in Ginkgo male-specific contigs56 suggests that the same mechanism for sex determination might have originated before the split of cycads and Ginkgo, thus representing an ancient system of sex determination in seed plants.
Evolution of disease and herbivore resistance genes
All three types of immune receptors—CC-NBS-LRR (CNL), TIR-NBS-LRR (TNL) and RPW8-NBS-LRR (RNL)—show patterns of expansion in C. panzhihuaensis and other gymnosperms, compared with non-seed plants (Supplementary Note 14). CNLs are expanded widely in both gymnosperms and angiosperms, whereas the TNL family tends to have been more expanded in gymnosperms than in most angiosperms, indicating different evolutionary patterns of plant resistance (R) genes in these two lineages. Our data suggest that RNL genes occur widely in gymnosperms. The RNL family plays a critical role in downstream resistance signal transduction in angiosperms, and the broad occurrence of the RNL family in gymnosperms suggests that this signalling pathway may have been established no later than the origin of seed plants. Gene families encoding resistance-related proteins are greatly expanded in C. panzhihuaensis and other gymnosperm genomes compared with non-seed plants (Supplementary Note 14). For example, genes encoding endochitinases and chitinases as defences against chitin-containing fungal pathogens are expanded as tandem repeats in the C. panzhihuaensis and most gymnosperm genomes compared with other land plants.
Cycads comprise many more living species57 than Ginkgo, which was once diverse in the Mesozoic but includes only one extant species58. One possible explanation is that cycads may have acquired enhanced resistance to pathogens and herbivores through encoding diversified resistance-related genes and the biosynthesis of diversified secondary compounds4,8. Indeed, comparisons of the Cycas and Ginkgo genomes reveal many Cycas-specific orthogroups enriched in pathogen interaction pathways (Supplementary Note 14), and C. panzhihuaensis also shows remarkable expansions in plant immunity and stress response gene families compared with Ginkgo, including genes that encode programmed cell death, abiotic stress response, serine protease inhibitors against pests and ginkbilobin with antibacterial and antifungal activities (Supplementary Note 14).
Terpenoids are a diverse group of secondary metabolites encoded by terpene synthase (TPS) genes59. Several TPS subfamilies (TPS-a to TPS-h) are known in plants60, among which the TPS-d family is unique to gymnosperms, and three of the four types of TPS-d were found in C. panzhihuaensis, with remarkable expansions of TPS-d2 compared with Ginkgo and most other gymnosperms (Supplementary Note 15). In addition, we identified a novel TPS subfamily in Cycas, with three copies in C. panzhihuaensis and eight copies in Cycas debaoensis (Extended Data Fig. 9a). The gene expression levels of all TPS genes across different C. panzhihuaensis tissues (Extended Data Fig. 9b) reveal that many TPS genes are mainly expressed in the root (especially primary root and coralloid root), microsporophyll and pollen sac, late stage of the pollinated ovule and fertilized ovule. The three Cycas-specific TPS genes were mainly expressed in the root and male cone, but one of them (CYCAS_009486) is particularly highly expressed in the megagametophyte and in the post-pollination and fertilized ovule.
Cycas obtained a cytotoxin defence gene via horizontal gene transfer
Genes of fungal or bacterial origin are rare in seed plants61. However, we identified a gene family in the C. panzhihuaensis genome that appears to have been acquired from a microbial organism and that codes for a Pseudomonas fluorescens insecticidal toxin (fitD). The acquired genes are flanked by vertically inherited plant sequences. We further confirmed that the relevant assembled regions were free of bacterial contamination. Transcriptomes and PCR amplification from genomic DNA indicated that these genes occur in many Cycas species (Supplementary Note 16). The fitD gene family comprises four gene copies in the C. panzhihuaensis genome and three copies in the C. debaoensis genome (Supplementary Table 51); each copy encodes a protein that is similar to the fit toxin and the ‘makes caterpillars floppy’ (mcf) toxin of the bacterium Photorhabdus luminescens, a lethal pathogen of insects. Both fit and mcf toxins are known for their insecticidal properties, and fit- or mcf-producing bacteria are often used in pest biocontrol62,63,64. Phylogenetic analyses suggest that the fitD genes might have been acquired from fungi and then expanded before the divergence of C. panzhihuaensis and C. debaoensis (Fig. 5a). The fitD family genes are mainly expressed in roots, reproductive tissues such as male cones, unpollinated or early stages of pollinated ovules and embryos (Fig. 5b). Injection of the synthesized C. panzhihuaensis fitD protein resulted in significantly higher mortality in larvae of both the diamondback moth (Plutella xylostella) and cotton bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) (Fig. 5c,d). The acquisition of the fitD gene family may have provided an important defence for Cycas against insect pests.
Fig. 5: Origin of a Cycas insecticidal protein.
a, Phylogenetic analysis of the TcdA/TcdB pore-forming domain containing proteins shows that the genes encoding four cytotoxin proteins of Cycas were likely acquired from fungi through an ancient horizontal gene transfer event. The maximum likelihood tree was generated by RAxML with the PROTCATGTR model and 1,000 bootstrap replicates. The numbers above the branches are bootstrap support values. b, The expression level of four cytotoxin proteins in different tissues of C. panzhihuaensis. The digital expression values were normalized using the TPM method. c,d, Mortalities of Plutella xylostella (c) and Helicoverpa armigera (d) after treatment with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and cytotoxin. The asterisk indicates a significant difference (two-sided Student’s t-test, P < 0.05, n = 3 biologically independent experiments), whereas the error bar represents the standard error. e,f, Morphologies of Plutella xylostella (e) and Helicoverpa armigera (f) after receiving PBS and cytotoxin treatments.
Conclusions
The high-quality genome sequence for Cycas, the last major lineage of seed plants for which a high-quality genome assembly was lacking, closes an important gap in our understanding of genome structure and evolution in seed plants. This genome enables comparative genomics and phylogenomic analyses to unravel the genetic control of important traits in cycads and other gymnosperms, including a WGD shared by gymnosperms, a sex determination mechanism that appears to be shared by cycads and Ginkgo, and critical gene innovations including those that enable seed and pollen tube formation, as well as chemical defence.
Methods
Plant materials
Fresh megagametophytes of Cycas panzhihuaensis, cultivated in the garden of the Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, were collected for genome sequencing. The plant was originally transplanted from the Pudu River, Luquan county, Yunnan, China (25° 57′ 35.2584″ N, 102° 43′ 41.5848″ E) and the voucher specimen (collection number: PZHF03) has been deposited in the Herbarium of the Kunming Institute of Botany (KUN). For transcriptome sequencing, we sampled 12 different types of organs and tissues from C. panzhihuaensis, including megagametophyte, pollen sac, microsporophylls, apical meristem of stem, cortex of stem, pith of stem, cambium of stem, mature leaf, young leaf, primary root, precoralloid roots and coralloid roots (Supplementary Table 2). Ovule material was collected from two artificially pollinated individuals, and we divided the development stages into four: unpollinated ovule (before the artificial pollination), early stage of pollinated ovule (21 d after the artificial pollination), late stage of pollinated ovule (88 d after the artificial pollination) and fertilized ovule or seed (119 d after the artificial pollination) (Supplementary Tables 2 and 19). In addition, stem and root tissues of C. panzhihuaensis were used to generate full-length transcriptomes (Supplementary Table 2). For phylogenomic analyses, we newly generated transcriptomes of 47 gymnosperms (Supplementary Tables 2 and 13). We also sequenced transcriptomes of 339 cycad species (Supplementary Tables 2 and 14). For population resequencing, fresh leaf samples were collected for 31 male and 31 female plants that were randomly sampled in the Cycas panzhihuaensis National Natural Reserve in Sichuan, China, where there is a population of approximately 38,000 C. panzhihuaensis individuals (Supplementary Table 4).
DNA and RNA sequencing
For genome sequencing, the genomic DNA was extracted by the QIAGEN Genomic kit followed the manufacturer’s instructions65. Nanodrop and Qubit (Invitrogen) were used to quantify the DNA. Nanopore libraries were prepared by SQK-LSK108 and sequenced using a Nanopore PromethION sequencer. The rest of the DNA was used to generate short-read sequences using an MGI-SEQ platform, with 150-bp read length and 300–500 DNA-fragment insert size. Hi-C libraries were created from fresh megagametophyte, following a previously published method66. Briefly, the tissue was fixed in formaldehyde, lysed and the cross-linked DNA was digested overnight with HindIII. Sticky ends were biotinylated and proximity-ligated to generate chimeric junctions, which were subsequently physically sheared to 500–700 bp in size. The initial cross-linked long-distance physical interactions were then represented by chimeric fragments, which were processed into paired-end sequencing libraries. Paired-end reads were produced on both the MGI-SEQ and Illumina HiSeq X platforms. See Supplementary Note 3 for details on transcriptome, organelle genome and small RNA sequencing.
Repeat annotation
We identified tandem repeats and transposable elements throughout the genome. Tandem repeats were predicted using Tandem Repeat Finder (v.4.07)68 with the following parameters: ‘Match = 2, Mismatch = 7, Delta = 7, PM = 80, PI = 10, Minscore = 50 and MaxPeriod = 2,000’. To maximize the opportunity of identifying transposable elements, a combination of de novo and homology-based approaches was performed following the Repeat Library Construction-Advanced pipeline (http://weatherby.genetics.utah.edu/MAKER/wiki/index.php/Repeat_Library_Construction-Advanced). RepeatMasker69 and RepeatProteinMask69 were used to search for known repeat sequences; MITE-hunter70, LTR_retriever71, LTR_FINDER (v.1.0.6)72 and RepeatModeler73 were then used to search the repeats de novo. The MITE, LTR and consensus repetitive libraries generated by RepeatModeler were combined and further used as the input data for RepeatMasker.
LTR identification and estimation of LTR insertion times
All the candidate LTR elements were first identified using LTR_FINDER and LTR_retriever. LTR_STRUC74 was then used to extract the complete 5′- and 3′-ends of the LTR elements. RepeatClassifier was then used to classify the candidate LTR. Distmat from the EMBOSS (v.6.5.7.0) package was then used to calculate the K value of the retrotransposons’ 5′- and 3′-LTR sequences. Finally, the insertion time (T) of LTRs was calculated using the formula T = K/2r, where r is the average substitution rate of 2.2 × 10−9 substitutions per year per synonymous site.
Gene annotation and functional annotation
Three types of evidence were used to predict protein-coding genes in the C. panzhihuaensis genome. For protein evidence, Genewise75 was used to predict gene models based on Cycas proteins downloaded from the UniProt protein database and other proteins collected from representative plant species. Next, Hisat76 was used to map the transcriptome to the genome, and then StringTie77 was used to predict transcriptome-based gene models. Next, a custom training hint parameter was used to predict ab initio-based gene models in AUGUSTUS78. All the evidence was finally combined and integrated by EVidenceModeler79. To maximize the opportunity of identifying high-confidence genes, we further filtered the genes that were not expressed in the full-length transcriptome or did not match to functional annotation results. For functional annotation, the gene models were blasted against the UniProt, TrEMBL, KEGG, KOG and NR databases. The domain and gene ontology of the gene models was identified by InterProScan80 (using data from Pfam, PRINTS, SMART, ProDom and PROSITE).
Identification of key candidate functional genes
Based on the following criteria, all candidate genes were screened: first, candidate gene sequences were detected by BLAST searches with an e value cut-off of 1 × 10−5to the collected query gene sequences gathered from previous studies or public databases; and second, features of candidate genes should be similar to the online functional annotation or UniProt functional annotation as the query genes. With regard to the identification of flagellar genes, 58 flagellar-related genes were collected from previous studies81. The Reciprocal Best Blast hit method was employed to identify flagella-related genes. For seed-related genes, we searched the genes against both the known seed database (seedgenes.org/) and previous studies. We firstly used an e value (<1 × 10−20) as a cut-off to filter candidates and then filtered the candidates with functional annotation. Regarding the identification of TFs, we used the HMMER search method. HMMER domain structure models were downloaded from the Pfam website (https://pfam.xfam.org/), for each TF as present in the TAPscan v.2 database for TFs (https://plantcode.online.uni-marburg.de/tapscan/). Preliminary TF candidate genes were collected for each species (<1 × 10−5) by searching the Hidden Markov Model profile. Parts of genes were then filtered if they were not the homologues according to their functional annotation of SwissProt (<1 × 10−5). In the end, we filtered genes containing a wrong domain under the TAPscan v.2 transcription factor database domain rules. Phylogenetic tree analysis was used to verify the majority of TFs and transcriptional regulators. Details about phylogenetic tree reconstruction for each TF can be found in the figure captions.
Phylogenetic reconstruction and divergence-time estimation
Nuclear phylogenetic reconstruction
The downloaded genome sequences and the newly generated genome sequences of C. panzhihuaensis were used to construct the orthogroups using OrthoFinder82 with default settings. The software KinFin83 was used to select single-copy gene families for phylogenetic reconstruction with default parameters. TranslatorX84 was used to build gene alignments for codon (nt), codon 1st + 2nd (nt12) and amino acid (aa) sequences (command: perl translatorx_vLocal.pl -i gene.fa -o gene.out -p F -t F -w 1 -c 1 -g "-b1="$b1" -b2="$b1" -b3=8 -b4=5 -b5=h -b6=y"). IQ-TREE 2 (ref. 85) was used to infer the maximum likelihood trees with an initial partition scheme of codon positions combing ModelFinder, tree search, and ultrafast bootstrap. ASTRAL86 was used to summarize the coalescent species tree and the quartet supports with default settings (-t 8). ASTRAL uses the quartet trees of the maximum likelihood phylogenies of each gene to produce the topology of the species tree while quartet supports (bar charts) show the percentage of quartets that agree with a specific branch in the species tree. STAG (https://github.com/davidemms/STAG) was also used to construct the species tree with default settings using low-copy genes (one to four copies). The software PHYPARTS87 was used to infer and visualize the gene tree conflicts on the species tree topology with default settings. The software DISCOVISTA88 was used to summarize the conflicts among different analytical methods and datasets, regarding several focal phylogenetic relationships.
Molecular dating and diversification analysis
The transcriptome sequencing reads from 339 cycad species were generated in the current study. Clean reads were assembled with TRINITY89, and the longest transcripts were selected and translated with TRANSDECODER (https://github.com/TransDecoder). OrthoFinder82 was then used to construct orthogroups for all the cycad species using Ginkgo as the outgroup. The software KinFin83 was used to select the mostly single-copy genes for phylogenetic reconstruction with default settings. TranslatorX84, IQ-TREE 2 (ref. 85) and ASTRAL86 were used to align the sequences and to infer the species tree for cycads as aforementioned. The software SORTADATE90 was used to select genes with mostly concordant evolutionary histories for dating analyses using MCMCTREE within the software PAML 4 (ref. 91). Rate priors and time priors were set following the method of Morris et al.92. A total of 27 fossils were used to calibrate the chronogram of seed plants, and six fossils for the chronogram of cycads. The diversification pattern for cycads were analysed with Bayesian analysis of macroevolutionary mixture (www.bamm-project.org) following Condamine et al.93
See Supplementary Note 5 for details on organellar phylogenetic reconstruction, evaluation of the impact of RNA editing and investigation of cyto-nuclear incongruences.
Identification of whole-genome duplication
An integrated phylogenomic approach and a method to analyse synteny as described previously35,94,95 were used to identify the WGD events in seed plant evolution. The protein-coding sequences of 15 completely sequenced genomes and 1 transcriptome, representing seven gymnosperms (C. panzhihuaensis, Encephalatos longifolius, G. biloba, Gnetum montanum, Picea abies, Pinus taeda and Sequoiadendron giganteum), six angiosperms (Arabidopsis thaliana, Amborella trichopoda, Cinnamomum micranthum, Liriodendron chinense, Nymphaea colorata and Oryza sativa) and three other vascular plant outgroups (Azolla filiculoides, Salvinia cucullate and Selaginella moellendorffii), were classified into putative gene families/subfamilies by OrthoFinder82, and then scored for gene duplications across global gene families. For the phylogenetic analysis of gene families, amino acid sequences of each gene family were first aligned with MAFFT96, the program PAL2NAL97 was then used to construct their corresponding nucleotide sequence alignments. We used trimAl98 to remove poorly aligned portions of alignments using the ‘automated1’ option, which implements a heuristic algorithm to optimize the process for trimming the alignment. Finally, maximum likelihood trees were calculated using RAxML99 with the GTRGAMMA model and bootstrap support was estimated based on 100 replicates. Following Wu et al.95, we applied two basic requirements for the determination of a reliable duplication event: (1) at least one common species’ genes are present in two child branches; and (2) the bootstrap values of the parental node and one of the child nodes are both ≥50%. After scoring gene duplications in a large-scale analysis on gene families, we were able to confidently identify the nodes with concentrated gene duplications across the phylogeny, which possibly support the WGD events. Furthermore, because syntenic information is the most solid evidence for WGD, and the legacy of syntenic blocks may be found if the concentrated gene duplications are indeed derived from WGD events, we also looked into whether such syntenic blocks exist. The intra- and intergenomic syntenic analyses were conducted using MCscanX100, with the default settings.
In addition, the Nei–Gojobori method101 as implemented in the PAML package’s yn00 program91 was used to estimate synonymous substitutions per synonymous site (KS) for pairwise comparisons of paralogous genes located on syntenic blocks. To search for genome-wide duplications, we used DupGen_finder (https://github.com/qiao-xin/DupGen_finder) to identify duplicated genes that were classified into five different categories: WGD duplicates, tandem duplicates, proximal duplicates, transposed duplicates and dispersed duplicates.
Identification of the sex-differentiation region
To identify the sex-differentiation region in the Cycas genome, a GWAS approach was adopted on sequence variations from 31 male and 31 female individuals with sex treated as a binary phenotype. Briefly, raw reads were filtered by Trimmomatic (v.0.38) (ILLUMINACLIP:adapter.fa:2:30:10 HEADCROP:10 LEADING:3 TRAILING:3 SLIDINGWINDOW:5:15 MINLEN:140), and read alignment and single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) calling were performed using the Sentieon pipeline102. SNPs were filtered using the following criteria: (1) SNPs were filtered by GATK VariantFiltrations with ‘QD < 2.0 || FS > 60.0 || MQ < 40.0 || SOR > 3.0 || MQRankSum < −12.5 || ReadPosRankSum < −8.0’, and indels with ‘QD < 2.0 || FS > 200.0 || SOR > 10.0 || MQRankSum < −12.5 || ReadPosRankSum < −8.0’; (2) total depth <80 or >1,300; (3) variants with more than two alleles; (4) variants with a missing rate >10% or minor allele frequencies <0.1 were removed; and (5) a linkage disequilibrium pruning with PLINK (v.1.9) using a window size of 10 kb with a step size of one SNP and r2 threshold of 0.5, resulting a 4.65-million pruned SNP set for association analysis of sex differentiation. GWAS analysis of sex differentiation was performed on the linkage disequilibrium-pruned SNP set using the EMMAX program103 (beta-07Mar2010 version). The BN kinship matrix and the first five components calculated from the principal component analysis104 (v.1.91.4beta3) were included as random effects. Genetic differentiation (FST) and nucleotide diversity (π) were calculated within a non-overlapping 100-kb window using VCFtools105 (v.0.1.13). See Supplementary Note 13 for details on assembly of Cycas male-specific regions, phylogenetic analysis of MADS-Y and CYCAS_010388 homologues, and genotyping of cycad male and female samples.
Analysis of the differentially expressed genes
Transcriptome sequencing reads were trimmed using Trimmomatic106 program (ILLUMINACLIP:adapter.fa:2:30:10 HEADCROP:10 LEADING:3 TRAILING:3 SLIDINGWINDOW:5:15 MINLEN:140) and mapped against C. panzhihuaensis annotated gene models using bowtie2 (with sensitive mode and default alignment parameters) by retaining the best alignments. TPM were calculated using the eXpress program, which was incorporated in the Trinity89 package. Furthermore, differentially expressed genes with a differential expression level of false discovery rate ≤ 0.01 and at least a twofold expression change were identified using DESeq2 (ref. 107). To identify the co-expressed genes during the seed development, we used the R package WGCNA108 on the basis of the TPM data of the genes whose expression showed a coefficient of variation >0.5 across the four stages. To better visualize the expression levels, we normalized the expression results. For each gene, the TPM value normalized by the maximum TPM value of all stages is shown. Fisher’s exact test was used to examine whether the functional categories were over-represented. The resulting P values were adjusted to Q values by the false discovery rate correction.
Identification of the horizontally transferred cytotoxin genes in C. panzhihuaensis
The cytotoxin protein sequences of Cycas were used as query to perform BLASTP searches against the NCBI nr protein sequence database using the cut-off e value = 1 × 10−5 and max_target_seqs = 20,000. We also performed additional BLAST searches against the OneKP database and many other available genomes. See Supplementary Note 16 for details on verification and phylogenetic analysis of the cytotoxin gene.
Assessing the effectiveness of cytotoxin
To improve the expression efficiency of cytotoxin in the prokaryotic system, the full-length coding sequence of the C. panzhihuaensis cytotoxin protein was optimized for its codons. C. panzhihuaensis, the optimized sequence was synthesized and ligated to the pET-28a vector. The pET-28a-CR toxin plasmid was transformed into Escherichia coli BL 21 (DE3) pLysS cells, the resulting strain was used for expression and purification of recombinant proteins under the control of isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactoside-inducible T7 promoter. Overnight-grown cultures were diluted 100-fold with 200 ml of fresh LB medium and further grown at 37 °C and 220 r.p.m. rotation until the optical density at 600nm reached 0.5. The culture was induced by adding a 0.01 mM final concentration of isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactoside and incubated at 28 °C for 6 h. Cells were then harvested and suspended with 20 ml 50of mM Tris–HCl buffer with pH 8 at 4 °C, containing 200 mM NaCl, then disrupted by sonication at 4 °C. In an RC5 plus centrifuge, the cell lysate was spun at 13,800g for 40 min at 4 °C. The preceding step’s supernatant was put onto a Ni-NTA agarose column that had been pre-equilibrated with Tris–NaCl buffer at 4 °C. Tris–NaCl buffer containing 20 mM imidazole was used to thoroughly wash the column, and the 6× His-tagged protein was eluted with Tris–NaCl buffer containing 250 mM imidazole. The elution product containing pure protein were washed three times with Tris–NaCl buffer and concentrated using centricon (Millipore PM10). Using an horseradish peroxidase-conjugated monoclonal antibody and a western blot assay, the purified His-tagged protein was identified (HRP-66005). See Supplementary Note 16 for further details on experimental verification of the function of Cycas cytotoxin.
Detection of metabolites and phytohormones
The plant tissues were collected and stored in liquid nitrogen, then transferred to freezer at −80 °C. For detection of metabolites, tissue samples were preliminarily disposed using 2-chlorophenylalanine (4 ppm) methanol. Samples and glass beads were then put into a tissue grinder for 90 s at 55 Hz, followed by centrifugation at 13,780g at 4 °C for 10 min, taking the supernatant and filtering through a 0.22-μm membrane, and transferring the filtrate into the detection bottle before liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis. The sample extracts were the analysed using the ultra high-performance liquid chromatography system Vanquish (ThermoFisher Scientific) and Q Exactive HF-X (ThermoFisher Scientific). For the quantitative detection of phytohormones (auxin, cytokinins, ethylene, abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, gibberellin, salicylic acid and brassinolide), tissue samples of primary root, precoralloid roots and coralloid roots, unpollinated ovule, early stage of pollinated ovule, late stage of pollinated ovule, fertilized ovule and mature embryo were collected. Vanquish (ThermoFisher Scientific) and the Q Exactive HF-X (ThermoFisher Scientific) were used for the detection of various phytohormones. The qualitative study was carried out using a self-constructed database that was built using the reference standards. To accomplish quantitative analysis, different concentrations of standard were utilized.
Chen, F., Tholl, D., Bohlmann, J. & Pichersky, E. The family of terpene synthases in plants: a mid-size family of genes for specialized metabolism that is highly diversified throughout the kingdom. Plant J.66, 212–229 (2011).
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by the Scientific Foundation of Urban Management Bureau of Shenzhen (No. 201916 to Yang Liu, No. 202019 to Shouzhou Zhang and No. 202105 to Y.G.), the National Key R&D Program of China (No. 2019YFC1711000 to Huan Liu), the Biodiversity Survey and Assessment Project of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment, China (No. 2019HJ2096001006 to Shouzhou Zhang and Yongbo Liu), the Major Science and Technology Projects of Yunnan Province (Digitalization, development and application of biotic resource, No. 860 202002AA100007 to Huan Liu) and Shenzhen Municipal Government of China (No. JCYJ20151015162041454 to Huan Liu). Y.V.d.P. acknowledges funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (No. 833522) and from Ghent University (Methusalem funding, BOF.MET.2021.0005.01). Plant illustrations were drawn by S. Li, Z. Li, D. Cui and X. Zeng. We are grateful to the Orchid Conservation and Research Centre of Shenzhen for allowing us to access their computing resources. We also acknowledge T. Wan (Fairy Lake Botanical Garden) and D. Stevenson (New York Botanical Garden), who kindly commented on an earlier draft of the manuscript, and T. Takaso (University of the Ryukyus), who provided the video for swimming sperm of Cycas. The study was supported by the National Cycad Conservation Center at Fairy Lake Botanical Garden. This work is part of the 10KP project (https://db.cngb.org/10kp/) and was also supported by China National GeneBank (CNGB; https://www.cngb.org/).
Extended Data Fig. 2. Comparative analysis of C. panzhihuaensis. (a) Comparison of the longest 10% of introns and gene in the representative land plants. The minimum, first quartile (Q1), median, third quartile (Q3), and maximum value was indicated in the box-plot by order after excluding the outliers. (b) Comparison of components of intron across the selected plants.
25 fossil calibrations and 2 secondary calibrations were used. Individual gene trees (1,569 NT tree) were mapped on the nuclear coalescent tree with Phyparts. The pie charts at each node show the proportion of genes in concordance (blue), conflict (green = a single dominant alternative; red = all other conflicting trees), and without enough information (gray). Quartet support for six internal branches I, II, III, IV, V, VI were indicated on the left panel as barcharts. Image courtesy of Zanqian Li and Xiaolian Zeng.
Example showing both the phylogenomic and syntenic evidence supporting an ancestral polyploidy event in extant gymnosperms. Four pairs of paralogous genes in OG0000093, OG0000255, OG00000276 and OG0000316 were duplicated before the divergence of gymnosperms and after the split of angiosperms and gymnosperms based on phylogenetic trees. These pairs of duplicated genes are located on the same syntenic block identified in the C. panzhihuaensis genome. The abbreviated name given before the protein ID represents species name: CYCAS: Cycas panzhihuaensis, Gb: Ginkgo biloba, ELO: Encephalartos longifolius, SEGI: Sequoiadendron giganteum, GMON: Gnetum montanum, PICABI: Picea abies, PITA: Pinus taeda.
(a) Phylogenetic tree of the TPS gene family. The tree was constructed using RAxML (the maximum-likelihood method) with PROTCATGTR amino acid substitution model and 500 bootstrap replicates. The bootstrap values ≥ 50% are shown in the central branches. The red colors in the tree represent the cycas genes. (b) Heatmap of TPS gene family in different tissues of C. panzhihuaensis. The * denotes the C. panzhihuaensis specific TPS genes.
(a) Heatmap of 1,971 genes differentially expressed in males and females’ organs. Arrows indicate CYCAS_034085 on the MSY and CYCAS_010388 on chromosome 2. (b) Expression of CYCAS_034085 on MSY and CYCAS_010388 on chromosome 2 in male microsporophyll and in the ovule.
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Abstract
Cycads represent one of the most ancient lineages of living seed plants. Identifying genomic features uniquely shared by cycads and other extant seed plants, but not non-seed-producing plants, may shed light on the origin of key innovations, as well as the early diversification of seed plants. Here, we report the 10.5-Gb reference genome of Cycas panzhihuaensis, complemented by the transcriptomes of 339 cycad species. Nuclear and plastid phylogenomic analyses strongly suggest that cycads and Ginkgo form a clade sister to all other living gymnosperms, in contrast to mitochondrial data, which place cycads alone in this position. We found evidence for an ancient whole-genome duplication in the common ancestor of extant gymnosperms. The Cycas genome contains four homologues of the fitD gene family that were likely acquired via horizontal gene transfer from fungi, and these genes confer herbivore resistance in cycads. The male-specific region of the Y chromosome of C. panzhihuaensis contains a MADS-box transcription factor expressed exclusively in male cones that is similar to a system reported in Ginkgo, suggesting that a sex determination mechanism controlled by MADS-box genes may have originated in the common ancestor of cycads and Ginkgo. The C. panzhihuaensis genome provides an important new resource of broad utility for biologists.
Main
Cycads are often referred to as ‘living fossils’; they originated in the mid-Permian and dominated terrestrial ecosystems during the Mesozoic, a period called the ‘age of cycads and dinosaurs’1. Although the major cycad lineages are ancient, modern cycad species emerged from several relatively recent diversifications2, | yes |
World Religions | Did Jesus actually exist? | yes_statement | "jesus" did "exist".. there is historical evidence of "jesus"' "existence". | https://www.history.com/news/was-jesus-real-historical-evidence | The Bible Says Jesus Was Real. What Other Proof Exists? | HISTORY | While billions of people believe Jesus of Nazareth was one of the most important figures in world history, many others reject the idea that he even existed at all. A 2015 survey conducted by the Church of England, for instance, found that 22 percent of adults in England did not believe Jesus was a real person.
Among scholars of the New Testament of the Christian Bible, though, there is little disagreement that he actually lived. Lawrence Mykytiuk, an associate professor of library science at Purdue University and author of a 2015 Biblical Archaeology Review article on the extra-biblical evidence of Jesus, notes that there was no debate about the issue in ancient times either. “Jewish rabbis who did not like Jesus or his followers accused him of being a magician and leading people astray,” he says, “but they never said he didn’t exist.”
Archaeological evidence of Jesus does not exist.
There is no definitive physical or archaeological evidence of the existence of Jesus. “There’s nothing conclusive, nor would I expect there to be,” Mykytiuk says. “Peasants don’t normally leave an archaeological trail.”
“The reality is that we don’t have archaeological records for virtually anyone who lived in Jesus’s time and place,” says University of North Carolina religious studies professor Bart D. Ehrman, author of Did Jesus Exist? The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. “The lack of evidence does not mean a person at the time didn’t exist. It means that she or he, like 99.99% of the rest of the world at the time, made no impact on the archaeological record.”
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The holy crown of thorns at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.
Questions of authenticity continue to surround direct relics associated with Jesus, such as the crown of thorns he reputedly wore during his crucifixion (one possible example is housed inside the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris), and the Shroud of Turin, a linen burial cloth purportedly emblazoned with the image of his face.
Archaeologists, though, have been able to corroborate elements of the New Testament story of Jesus. While some disputed the existence of ancient Nazareth, his biblical childhood home town, archaeologists have unearthed a rock-hewn courtyard house along with tombs and a cistern. They have also found physical evidence of Roman crucifixions such as that of Jesus described in the New Testament.
Documentary evidence outside of the New Testament is limited.
The most detailed record of the life and death of Jesus comes from the four Gospels and other New Testament writings. “These are all Christian and are obviously and understandably biased in what they report, and have to be evaluated very critically indeed to establish any historically reliable information,” Ehrman says. “But their central claims about Jesus as a historical figure—a Jew, with followers, executed on orders of the Roman governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, during the reign of the Emperor Tiberius—are borne out by later sources with a completely different set of biases.”
Within a few decades of his lifetime, Jesus was mentioned by Jewish and Roman historians in passages that corroborate portions of the New Testament that describe the life and death of Jesus.
Culture Club/Getty Images
Flavius Josephus
Historian Flavius Josephus wrote one of the earliest non-biblical accounts of Jesus.
The first-century Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, who according to Ehrman “is far and away our best source of information about first-century Palestine,” twice mentions Jesus in Jewish Antiquities, his massive 20-volume history of the Jewish people that was written around 93 A.D.
Thought to have been born a few years after the crucifixion of Jesus around 37 A.D., Josephus was a well-connected aristocrat and military leader in Palestine who served as a commander in Galilee during the first Jewish Revolt against Rome between 66 and 70 A.D. Although Josephus was not a follower of Jesus, “he was around when the early church was getting started, so he knew people who had seen and heard Jesus,” Mykytiuk says.
In one passage of Jewish Antiquities that recounts an unlawful execution, Josephus identifies the victim, James, as the “brother of Jesus-who-is-called-Messiah.” While few scholars doubt the short account’s authenticity, says Mykytiuk, more debate surrounds Josephus’s lengthier passage about Jesus, known as the “Testimonium Flavianum,” which describes a man “who did surprising deeds” and was condemned to be crucified by Pilate. Mykytiuk agrees with most scholars that Christian scribes modified portions of the passage but did not insert it wholesale into the text.
Tacitus connects Jesus to his execution by Pontius Pilate.
Another account of Jesus appears in Annals of Imperial Rome, a first-century history of the Roman Empire written around 116 A.D. by the Roman senator and historian Tacitus. In chronicling the burning of Rome in 64 A.D., Tacitus mentions that Emperor Nero falsely blamed “the persons commonly called Christians, who were hated for their enormities. Christus, the founder of the name, was put to death by Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judea in the reign of Tiberius.”
As a Roman historian, Tacitus did not have any Christian biases in his discussion of the persecution of Christians by Nero, says Ehrman. “Just about everything he says coincides—from a completely different point of view, by a Roman author disdainful of Christians and their superstition—with what the New Testament itself says: Jesus was executed by the governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, for crimes against the state, and a religious movement of his followers sprang up in his wake.”
“When Tacitus wrote history, if he considered the information not entirely reliable, he normally wrote some indication of that for his readers,” Mykytiuk says in vouching for the historical value of the passage. “There is no such indication of potential error in the passage that mentions Christus.”
HISTORY Vault: Jesus: His Life
Additional Roman texts reference Jesus.
Shortly before Tacitus penned his account of Jesus, Roman governor Pliny the Younger wrote to Emperor Trajan that early Christians would “sing hymns to Christ as to a god.” Some scholars also believe Roman historian Suetonius references Jesus in noting that Emperor Claudius had expelled Jews from Rome who “were making constant disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus.”
Ehrman says this collection of snippets from non-Christian sources may not impart much information about the life of Jesus, “but it is useful for realizing that Jesus was known by historians who had reason to look into the matter. No one thought he was made up.”
Christopher Klein is the author of four books, including When the Irish Invaded Canada: The Incredible True Story of the Civil War Veterans Who Fought for Ireland’s Freedom and Strong Boy: The Life and Times of John L. Sullivan. His work has appeared in numerous publications, including The Boston Globe, The New York Times, and National Geographic Traveler. Follow Chris at @historyauthor.
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Get HISTORY’s most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week. | While billions of people believe Jesus of Nazareth was one of the most important figures in world history, many others reject the idea that he even existed at all. A 2015 survey conducted by the Church of England, for instance, found that 22 percent of adults in England did not believe Jesus was a real person.
Among scholars of the New Testament of the Christian Bible, though, there is little disagreement that he actually lived. Lawrence Mykytiuk, an associate professor of library science at Purdue University and author of a 2015 Biblical Archaeology Review article on the extra-biblical evidence of Jesus, notes that there was no debate about the issue in ancient times either. “Jewish rabbis who did not like Jesus or his followers accused him of being a magician and leading people astray,” he says, “but they never said he didn’t exist.”
Archaeological evidence of Jesus does not exist.
There is no definitive physical or archaeological evidence of the existence of Jesus. “There’s nothing conclusive, nor would I expect there to be,” Mykytiuk says. “Peasants don’t normally leave an archaeological trail.”
“The reality is that we don’t have archaeological records for virtually anyone who lived in Jesus’s time and place,” says University of North Carolina religious studies professor Bart D. Ehrman, author of Did Jesus Exist? The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. “The lack of evidence does not mean a person at the time didn’t exist. It means that she or he, like 99.99% of the rest of the world at the time, made no impact on the archaeological record.”
Godong/UIG via Getty Images
The holy crown of thorns at the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris.
Questions of authenticity continue to surround direct relics associated with Jesus, such as the crown of thorns he reputedly wore during his crucifixion (one possible example is housed inside the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris), and the Shroud of Turin, a linen burial cloth purportedly emblazoned with the image of his face.
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World Religions | Did Jesus actually exist? | yes_statement | "jesus" did "exist".. there is historical evidence of "jesus"' "existence". | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus | Historicity of Jesus - Wikipedia | Virtually all scholars of antiquity agree that a historical human Jesus existed.[1][7][8] Historian Michael Grant asserts that if conventional standards of historical textual criticism are applied to the New Testament, "we can no more reject Jesus' existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of pagan personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned."[9]
The Christ myth theory, which developed within the scholarly research on the historical Jesus, is, in Geoffrey W. Bromiley's words, the view that "the story of Jesus is a piece of mythology" possessing no "substantial claims to historical fact".[10] Alternatively, Bart Ehrman (who himself rejects the Christ myth theory) summarises Earl Doherty's view as being "that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition".[11]
Historiographical approaches associated with the study of the poor in the past, such as microhistory, can help assess what type of sources can be reasonably expected in the historical record for individuals like Jesus. For instance, Justin Meggitt argues that since most people in antiquity left no sign of their existence, especially the poor, it is unreasonable to expect non-Christian sources to corroborate the specific existence of someone with Jesus's socio-economic status.[33] Ehrman argues that the historical record for the first century was so lacking that no contemporary eyewitness reports for prominent individuals such as Pontius Pilate or Josephus survive.[34] Historian Michael Grant argues that when the New Testament is analyzed with the same criteria used by historians on ancient writings that contain historical material, Jesus' existence cannot be denied anymore than secular figures whose existence is never questioned.[35]
The seven Pauline epistles considered by scholarly consensus to be genuine are dated to between AD 50 and 60 (i.e., approximately 20 to 30 years after the generally accepted time period of Jesus's death) and are the earliest surviving Christian texts that may include information about Jesus.[44][failed verification] Although Paul the Apostle provides relatively little biographical information about Jesus[45] and states that he never knew Jesus personally, he does make it clear that he considers Jesus to have been a real person[note 5] and a Jew.[46][47][48][49][note 6] Moreover, he interacted with eyewitnesses of Jesus since he wrote about meeting and knowing James, the brother of Jesus[50][note 7][52] and Jesus's apostles Peter[52] and John.[53]
Non-Christian sources used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include the c. first century Jewish historian Josephus and Roman historian Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources, such as the Pauline letters and synoptic gospels, and are usually independent of each other; that is, the Jewish sources do not draw upon the Roman sources. Similarities and differences between these sources are used in the authentication process.[54][55][56][57]
Tacitus, in his Annals (written c. AD 115), book 15, chapter 44,[64] describes Nero's scapegoating of the Christians following the Fire of Rome. He writes that the founder of the sect was named Christus (the Christian title for Jesus); that he was executed under Pontius Pilate; and that the movement, initially checked, broke out again in Judea and even in Rome itself.[65] The scholarly consensus is that Tacitus' reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate is both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.[66][67][68]
The Mishnah (c. 200) may refer to Jesus as it reflects the early Jewish traditions of portraying Jesus as a sorcerer or magician.[69][70][71][72] Other references to Jesus and his execution exist in the Talmud, but they aim to discredit his actions, not deny his existence.[69][73]
According to New Testament scholar James Dunn, nearly all modern scholars consider the baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion to be historically certain.[76] He states that these "two facts in the life of Jesus command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical 'facts' they are obvious starting points for an attempt to clarify the what and why of Jesus' mission."[76]
John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that based on the criterion of embarrassment Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.[80]
The criterion of embarrassment is also used to argue in favor of the historicity of the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist as it is a story which the early Christian Church would have never wanted to invent.[81][82][83] Based on this criterion, given that John baptised for the remission of sins, and Jesus was viewed as without sin, the invention of this story would have served no purpose, and would have been an embarrassment given that it positioned John above Jesus.[81][83][84]
Amy-Jill Levine has summarized the situation by stating that "there is a consensus of sorts on the basic outline of Jesus' life" in that most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist, and over a period of one to three years debated Jewish authorities on the subject of God, gathered followers, and was crucified by Roman prefect Pontius Pilate who officiated 26–36 AD.[85]
Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during that phase.[97][98] Currently modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus focuses on what is historically probable, or plausible about Jesus.[99][100]
The portraits of Jesus constructed in the quests have often differed from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.[101][1][102] There are overlapping attributes among the portraits, and while pairs of scholars may agree on some attributes, those same scholars may differ on others, and there is no single portrait of the historical Jesus that satisfies most scholars.[103][104][105]
The mainstream profiles in the third quest may be grouped together based on their primary themes of apocalyptic prophet, charismatic healer, Cynic philosopher, Jewish Messiah, and prophet of social change[103][106]—but there is little scholarly agreement on a single portrait or the methods needed to construct it, especially in the 21st century.[101][102][107][108]
Ehrman elucidates these differences by pointing out that there are essentially two different portraits of Jesus, one for the preacher who he says really existed, and the other for the Jesus most Christians believe in today.[109] There are, however, overlapping attributes among the portraits, and scholars who differ on some attributes may agree on others.[103][106][104]
^Multiple sources: Stanton (2002, p. 145): Today nearly all historians, whether Christians or not, accept that Jesus existed and that the gospels contain plenty of valuable evidence which has to be weighed and assessed critically. There is general agreement that, with the possible exception of Paul, we know far more about Jesus of Nazareth than about any first or second century Jewish or pagan religious teacher. Wells (2007, p. 446):"Today, most secular scholars accept Jesus as a historical, although unimpressive, figure." Ehrman (2012, pp. 4–5): "Serious historians of the early Christian movement—all of them—have spent many years preparing to be experts in their field. Just to read the ancient sources requires expertise in a range of ancient languages: Greek, Hebrew, Latin, and often Aramaic, Syriac, and Coptic, not to mention the modern languages of scholarship (for example, German and French). And that is just for starters. Expertise requires years of patiently examining ancient texts and a thorough grounding in the history and culture of Greek and Roman antiquity, the religions of the ancient Mediterranean world, both pagan and Jewish, knowledge of the history of the Christian church and the development of its social life and theology, and, well, lots of other things. It is striking that virtually everyone who has spent all the years needed to attain these qualifications is convinced that Jesus of Nazareth was a real historical figure."
Robert E. Van Voorst, referring to G. A. Wells: "The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted."[20]
While discussing the "striking" fact that "we don't have any Roman records, of any kind, that attest to the existence of Jesus", Ehrman dismisses claims that this means Jesus never existed, saying, "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees, based on clear and certain evidence."[21]
Robert M. Price, a former fundamentalist apologist who is now a Christian atheist, says the existence of Jesus cannot be ruled out, but is less probable than non-existence. He agrees that his perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars.[22]
Michael Grant, a classicist, states: "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non-historicity of Jesus', or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary."[23]
"There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more."[24]
Maurice Casey, an irreligious Emeritus Professor of New Testament Languages and Literature at the University of Nottingham, concludes in his book Jesus: Evidence and Argument or Mythicist Myths? that "the whole idea that Jesus of Nazareth did not exist as a historical figure is verifiably false. Moreover, it has not been produced by anyone or anything with any reasonable relationship to critical scholarship. It belongs to the fantasy lives of people who used to be fundamentalist Christians. They did not believe in critical scholarship then, and they do not do so now. I cannot find any evidence that any of them have adequate professional qualifications."[25]
Bockmuel: "[F]arfetched theories that Jesus' existence was a Christian invention are highly implausible."[26]
^* "Introduction". The Historical Jesus : Five Views, edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy. Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic. 2009. pp. 38–39. ISBN9780830838684. Contrary to previous times, virtually everyone in the field today acknowledges that Jesus was considered by his contemporaries to be an exorcist and a worker of miracles. However, when it comes to historical assessment of the miracles tradition itself, the consensus quickly shatters. Some, following in the footsteps of Bultmann, embrace an explicit methodological naturalism such that the very idea of a miracle is ruled out a priori. Others defend the logical possibility of miracle at the theoretical level, but, in practice, retain a functional methodological naturalism, maintaining that we could never be in possession of the type and/or amount of evidence that would justify a historical judgment in favor of the occurrence of a miracle. Still others, suspicious that an uncompromising methodological naturalism most likely reflects an unwarranted metaphysical naturalism, find such a priori skepticism unwarranted and either remain open to, or even explicitly defend, the historicity of miracles within the Jesus tradition. * Ehrman (2012, pp. 13): In agreement with the view of Albert Schweitzer: "The Jesus proclaimed by preachers and theologians today had no existence. That particular Jesus is (or those particular Jesuses are) a myth. But there was a historical Jesus, who was very much a man of his time"
^The Gospel of Luke states that "many have undertaken to compile a narrative of the things which have been accomplished among us."[30]
^In Galatians 4:4, (although in the same sentence, that he was sent by "God", which kind of negates the assertion of an impartial "reality") Paul states that Jesus was "born of a woman."
^Blomberg, Craig (2011). "New Testament Studies in North America". In Köstenberger, Andreas J.; Yarbrough, Robert W. (eds.). Understanding The Times: New Testament Studies in the 21st Century. Crossway. p. 282. ISBN978-1-4335-0719-9. The fruit of a decade of work by the IBR Historical Jesus Study Group, Key Events in the Life of the Historical Jesus: A Collaborative Exploration of Context and Coherence [Ed. Darrell L. Bock and Robert L. Webb (Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, forthcoming).] takes a dozen core themes or events from Jesus' life and ministry and details the case for their authenticity via all the standard historical criteria, as well as assessing their significance. The results show significant correlation between what historians can demonstrate and what evangelical theology has classically asserted about the life of Christ.
^Robert M. Price (a Christian atheist) who denies the existence of Jesus agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars: Robert M. Price "Jesus at the Vanishing Point" in The Historical Jesus: Five Views edited by James K. Beilby & Paul Rhodes Eddy, 2009 InterVarsity, ISBN0830838686 p. 61
^ abJesus Now and Then by Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (1 April 2004) ISBN0802809774 p. 34 "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more. There's a lot of evidence for his existence."
^James D. G. Dunn (1974) Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus in Reconciliation and Hope. New Testament Essays on Atonement and Eschatology Presented to L.L. Morris on his 60th Birthday. Robert Banks, ed., Carlisle: The Paternoster Press, pp. 125–141, Citing G. A. Wells (The Jesus of the Early Christians (1971)): "Perhaps we should also mention that at the other end of the spectrum Paul's apparent lack of knowledge of the historical Jesus has been made the major plank in an attempt to revive the nevertheless thoroughly dead thesis that the Jesus of the Gospels was a mythical figure." An almost identical quotation is included in Dunn, James DG (1998) The Christ and the Spirit: Collected Essays of James D.G. Dunn, Volume 1, Wm. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., p. 191, and Sykes, S. (1991) Sacrifice and redemption: Durham essays in theology. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–36.
^Van Voorst 2000, p. 16 "The nonhistoricity thesis has always been controversial, and it has consistently failed to convince scholars of many disciplines and religious creeds. ... Biblical scholars and classical historians now regard it as effectively refuted.".
^Casey 2014b, p. 243 "The most important result of this book is that the whole idea that Jesus of Nazareth did not exist as a historical figure is verifiably false".
^Grant 1992, p. 200 "To sum up, modern critical methods fail to support the Christ-myth theory. It has 'again and again been answered and annihilated by first-rank scholars'".
^ abSchoeps, Hans-Joachim (1968) [1961]. The Religions of Mankind. Translated by Winston, Richard; Winston, Clara. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books. pp. 261–262. ISBN978-0-385-04080-8. The Gospels cannot be equated with ... biographies. ... [Their] primary purpose was not to present a detailed historical picture of the life of Jesus. And the non-Christian materials ... provide us with no essential new knowledge beyond the accounts of the Gospels. ... [Thus] the situation in regard to sources is highly unsatisfactory; legendary and historical accounts are hopelessly intertwined. The historian must recognize that the materials available to us do not enable us to reconstruct Jesus as he really was. [They have] only the Jesus the early disciples saw, the Christ who has survived in the beliefs of the Christian community.
^Casey 2010, p. 63-64 "It also provides evidence that Mark is an unrevised literal translation of an Aramaic source, and this at a point where there is every reason to believe that the story is literally true. This means that our oldest source is sometimes perfectly accurate, because parts of it were originally written by people who were in close touch with the events of the historic ministry. This is only one short step away from eyewitness testimony"..
^Meggitt, Justin J. (October 2019). "'More Ingenious than Learned'? Examining the Quest for the Non-Historical Jesus". New Testament Studies. 65 (4): 458-459. doi:10.1017/S0028688519000213. S2CID203247861. For example, given that most human beings in antiquity left no sign of their existence, and the poor as individuals are virtually invisible, all we can hope to do is try to establish, in a general sense, the lives that they lived. Why would we expect any non-Christian evidence for the specific existence of someone of the socio-economic status of a figure such as Jesus at all? To deny his existence based on the absence of such evidence, even if that were the case, has problematic implications; you may as well deny the existence of pretty much everyone in the ancient world.
^Ehrman 2012, p. 49–50: "Think again of our earlier point of comparison, Pontius Pilate. Here is a figure who was immensely significant in every way to the life and history of Palestine during the adult life of Jesus (assuming Jesus lived), politically, economically, culturally, socially. As I have indicated, there was arguably no one more important. And how many eyewitness reports of Pilate do we have from his day? None. Not a single one. The same is true of Josephus. And these are figures who were of the highest prominence in their own day."
^Grant 1992, p. 199-200 "But above all, if we apply to the New Testament, as we should, the same sort of criteria as we should apply to other ancient writings containing historical material, we can no more reject Jesus' existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of pagan personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned".
^"Jesus Christ". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 27 November 2010. The Synoptic Gospels, then, are the primary sources for knowledge of the historical Jesus
^Ehrman 2012, pp. 83–85: "All of these written sources I have mentioned are earlier than the surviving Gospels; they all corroborate many of the key things said of Jesus in the Gospels; and most important they are all independent of one another. Let me stress the latter point. We cannot think of the early Christian Gospels as going back to a solitary source that “invented” the idea that there was a man Jesus. The view that Jesus existed is found in multiple independent sources that must have been circulating throughout various regions of the Roman Empire in the decades before the Gospels that survive were produced. Where would the solitary source that “invented” Jesus be? Within a couple of decades of the traditional date of his death, we have numerous accounts of his life found in a broad geographical span. In addition to Mark, we have Q, M (which is possibly made of multiple sources), L (also possibly multiple sources), two or more passion narratives, a signs source, two discourse sources, the kernel (or original) Gospel behind the Gospel of Thomas, and possibly others. And these are just the ones we know about, that we can reasonably infer from the scant literary remains that survive from the early years of the Christian church. No one knows how many there actually were. Luke says there were “many” of them, and he may well have been right. And once again, this is not the end of the story." (page 83) and "The reality appears to be that there were stories being told about Jesus for a very long time not just before our surviving Gospels but even before their sources had been produced. If scholars are right that Q and the core of the Gospel of Thomas, to pick just two examples, do date from the 50s, and that they were based on oral traditions that had already been in circulation for a long time, how far back do these traditions go? Anyone who thinks that Jesus existed has no problem answering the question: they ultimately go back to things Jesus said and did while he was engaged in his public ministry, say, around the year 29 or 30. But even anyone who just wonders if Jesus existed has to assume that there were stories being told about him in the 30s and 40s. For one thing, as we will see in the next chapter, how else would someone like Paul have known to persecute the Christians, if Christians didn’t exist? And how could they exist if they didn’t know anything about Jesus?" (page 85)"
^ abEhrman 2012, pp. 145–146: "In about the year 36, Paul went to Jerusalem to confer with Peter (Galatians 1:18–20). Paul spent fifteen days there. He may not have gone only or even principally to get a rundown on what Jesus said and did during his public ministry. It is plausible, in fact, that Paul wanted to strategize with Peter, as the leader (or one of the leaders) among the Jerusalem Christians, about Paul’s own missionary activities, not among the Jews (Peter’s concern) but among the Gentiles (Paul’s). This was the reason stated for Paul’s second visit to see Peter and the others fourteen years later, according to Galatians 2:1–10. But it defies belief that Paul would have spent over two weeks with Jesus’s closest companion and not learned something about him—for example, that he lived. Even more telling is the much-noted fact that Paul claims that he met with, and therefore personally knew, Jesus’s own brother James. It is true that Paul calls him the “brother of the Lord,” not “the brother of Jesus.” But that means very little since Paul typically calls Jesus the Lord and rarely uses the name Jesus (without adding “Christ” or other titles). And so in the letter to the Galatians Paul states as clearly as possible that he knew Jesus’s brother. Can we get any closer to an eyewitness report than this? The fact that Paul knew Jesus’s closest disciple and his own brother throws a real monkey wrench into the mythicist view that Jesus never lived."
^John P. Meier "Criteria: How do we decide what comes from Jesus?" in The Historical Jesus in Recent Research by James D. G. Dunn and Scot McKnight (15 Jul 2006) ISBN1575061007 p. 124 "Since in the quest for the historical Jesus almost anything is possible, the function of the criteria is to pass from the merely possible to the really probable, to inspect various probabilities, and to decide which candidate is most probable. Ordinarily the criteria can not hope to do more."
^ abThe Quest for the Plausible Jesus: The Question of Criteria by Gerd Theissen and Dagmar Winter (30 August 2002) ISBN0664225373 p. 5
^ abJesus Research: An International Perspective (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus) by James H. Charlesworth and Petr Pokorny (15 September 2009) ISBN0802863531 pp. 1–2
^ abcThe Cradle, the Cross, and the Crown: An Introduction to the New Testament by Andreas J. Köstenberger, L. Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN978-0-8054-4365-3 pp. 124–125
^ abFamiliar Stranger: An Introduction to Jesus of Nazareth by Michael James McClymond (22 March 2004) ISBN0802826806 pp. 16–22
^Amy-Jill Levine in The Historical Jesus in Context edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. 2006 Princeton University Press ISBN978-0-691-00992-6 p. 1: "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars" | Let me stress the latter point. We cannot think of the early Christian Gospels as going back to a solitary source that “invented” the idea that there was a man Jesus. The view that Jesus existed is found in multiple independent sources that must have been circulating throughout various regions of the Roman Empire in the decades before the Gospels that survive were produced. Where would the solitary source that “invented” Jesus be? Within a couple of decades of the traditional date of his death, we have numerous accounts of his life found in a broad geographical span. In addition to Mark, we have Q, M (which is possibly made of multiple sources), L (also possibly multiple sources), two or more passion narratives, a signs source, two discourse sources, the kernel (or original) Gospel behind the Gospel of Thomas, and possibly others. And these are just the ones we know about, that we can reasonably infer from the scant literary remains that survive from the early years of the Christian church. No one knows how many there actually were. Luke says there were “many” of them, and he may well have been right. And once again, this is not the end of the story." (page 83) and "The reality appears to be that there were stories being told about Jesus for a very long time not just before our surviving Gospels but even before their sources had been produced. If scholars are right that Q and the core of the Gospel of Thomas, to pick just two examples, do date from the 50s, and that they were based on oral traditions that had already been in circulation for a long time, how far back do these traditions go? Anyone who thinks that Jesus existed has no problem answering the question: they ultimately go back to things Jesus said and did while he was engaged in his public ministry, say, around the year 29 or 30. But even anyone who just wonders if Jesus existed has to assume that there were stories being told about him in the 30s and 40s. | yes |
World Religions | Did Jesus actually exist? | yes_statement | "jesus" did "exist".. there is historical evidence of "jesus"' "existence". | https://www.npr.org/2012/04/01/149462376/did-jesus-exist-a-historian-makes-his-case | 'Did Jesus Exist?' A Historian Makes His Case : NPR | 'Did Jesus Exist?' A Historian Makes His CaseSome claim that Jesus is a myth, created for nefarious or altruistic purposes. Some truly believed that Jesus lived and breathed. But did he really? Is there any historical evidence? Historian and religious studies professor Bart Ehrman answers these questions in his new book, Did Jesus Exist?.
Bart Ehrman, Professor of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
DAN SEARS UNC-Chapel Hill/Dan Sears UNC-Chapel Hill
So, did Jesus really exist? With his new book, Did Jesus Exist? The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth, Bart Ehrman, historian and professor of religious studies at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, wanted to provide solid historical evidence for the existence of Jesus.
"I wanted to approach this question as an historian to see whether that's right or not," Ehrman tells weekends on All Things Considered host Guy Raz.
The answer is straightforward and widely accepted among scholars of all faiths, but Ehrman says there is a large contingent of people claiming that Jesus never did exist. These people are also known as mythicists.
"It was a surprise to me to see how influential these mythicists are," Ehrman says. "Historically, they've been significant and in the Soviet Union, in fact, the mythicist view was the dominant view, and even today, in some parts of the West – in parts of Scandinavia — it is a dominant view that Jesus never existed," he says.
Mythicists' arguments are fairly plausible, Ehrman says. According to them, Jesus was never mentioned in any Roman sources and there is no archeological evidence that Jesus ever existed. Even Christian sources are problematic – the Gospels come long after Jesus' death, written by people who never saw the man.
"Most importantly," he explains, "these mythicists point out that there are Pagan gods who were said to die and rise again and so the idea is that Jesus was made up as a Jewish god who died and rose again."
In his book, Ehrman marshals all of the evidence proving the existence of Jesus, including the writings of the apostle Paul.
"Paul knew Jesus' brother, James, and he knew his closest disciple, Peter, and he tells us that he did," Ehrman says. "If Jesus didn't exist, you would think his brother would know about it, so I think Paul is probably pretty good evidence that Jesus at least existed," he says.
In Did Jesus Exist?, Ehrman builds a technical argument and shows that one of the reasons for knowing that Jesus existed is that if someone invented Jesus, they would not have created a messiah who was so easily overcome.
"The Messiah was supposed to overthrow the enemies – and so if you're going to make up a messiah, you'd make up a powerful messiah," he says. "You wouldn't make up somebody who was humiliated, tortured and the killed by the enemies."
So Jesus did exist, but who was he? Ehrman says when historians focus on the life of Jesus, they discover a Jesus who is completely different from the one portrayed by popular culture or by religious texts.
"The mythicists have some right things to say," Ehrman says. "The Gospels do portray Jesus in ways that are non-historical."
When Raz asks Ehrman about his relationship to Jesus, Ehrman says that most of it is very historical but that Jesus teaches us valuable lessons.
"Jesus' teachings of love, and mercy and forgiveness, I think, really should dominate our lives," he says. "On the personal level, I agree with many of the ethical teachings of Jesus and I try to model my life on them, even though I don't agree with the apocalyptic framework in which they were put." | 'Did Jesus Exist?' A Historian Makes His CaseSome claim that Jesus is a myth, created for nefarious or altruistic purposes. Some truly believed that Jesus lived and breathed. But did he really? Is there any historical evidence? Historian and religious studies professor Bart Ehrman answers these questions in his new book, Did Jesus Exist?.
Bart Ehrman, Professor of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
DAN SEARS UNC-Chapel Hill/Dan Sears UNC-Chapel Hill
So, did Jesus really exist? With his new book, Did Jesus Exist? The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth, Bart Ehrman, historian and professor of religious studies at the University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, wanted to provide solid historical evidence for the existence of Jesus.
"I wanted to approach this question as an historian to see whether that's right or not," Ehrman tells weekends on All Things Considered host Guy Raz.
The answer is straightforward and widely accepted among scholars of all faiths, but Ehrman says there is a large contingent of people claiming that Jesus never did exist. These people are also known as mythicists.
"It was a surprise to me to see how influential these mythicists are," Ehrman says. "Historically, they've been significant and in the Soviet Union, in fact, the mythicist view was the dominant view, and even today, in some parts of the West – in parts of Scandinavia — it is a dominant view that Jesus never existed," he says.
Mythicists' arguments are fairly plausible, Ehrman says. According to them, Jesus was never mentioned in any Roman sources and there is no archeological evidence that Jesus ever existed. Even Christian sources are problematic – the Gospels come long after Jesus' death, written by people who never saw the man.
"Most importantly," he explains, "these mythicists point out that there are Pagan gods who were said to die and rise again and so the idea is that Jesus was made up as a Jewish god who died and rose again. "
In his book, Ehrman marshals all of the evidence proving the existence of Jesus, including the writings of the apostle Paul.
"Paul knew Jesus' | yes |
World Religions | Did Jesus actually exist? | yes_statement | "jesus" did "exist".. there is historical evidence of "jesus"' "existence". | https://www.bbvaopenmind.com/en/science/scientific-insights/did-jesus-of-nazareth-actually-exist-the-evidence-says-yes/ | Did Jesus of Nazareth actually exist? The evidence says yes ... | Did Jesus of Nazareth actually exist? The evidence says yes
For more than two billion people itâs a matter of faith. Almost a third of humanity doesnât need proof that two thousand years ago a man named Yeshua, Jesus in other languages, known by his followers as Christ, the Messiah, walked on Earth. However, beyond the private preserve of belief, what extends outward is a vast territory for research, which must unearth the historical and scientific evidence to try to answer a reasonable question: did Jesus of Nazareth actually exist? Or is his story a tradition built on a legend, like those of Robin Hood or King Arthur?
The oldest written references mentioning Jesus date from after his death. He appears for the first time in the letters of Saint Paul, written between 20 and 30 years after the crucifixion. Saint Paul never knew Jesus, although according to what Simon Gathercole, the New Testament studies specialist from the University of Cambridge (United Kingdom) explains to OpenMind, he knew “not only Jesusâ disciples but also his brothers,” (in reference particularly to James the Just, whose kinship with Jesus is one of the points of disagreement between different Christian sects).
A couple of decades later, the New Testament Gospels were written, which do appear to contain first-hand testimonies. Yet despite this, according to the experts very few of them can be considered rigorously historical. In particular, the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist and his crucifixion are the only two episodes generally accepted, but not by all. “The crucifixion is safe, but the baptism is hard to support or locate,” the archaeologist and biblical researcher Eric Meyers, professor emeritus of Jewish studies at Duke University (USA) tells OpenMind.
The crucifixion of Jesus is one of the episodes generally accepted by historians. Author: Peter Gertner
However, for Byron McCane, archaeologist and historian of religions and Judaism at the Atlantic University of Florida (USA), both the baptism and the crucifixion are stories that the first Christians are unlikely to have invented, since neither of them “supports their interests in any way,” he asserts to OpenMind. “The baptism shows Jesus to be a disciple of (and therefore inferior to) John the Baptist, and the crucifixion was a humiliating punishment reserved for criminals.”
A broad consensus among scholars
But the ancient references to Jesus are not just found in works by Christian authors, an argument that supports the historical authenticity of the character. “Jesus is also mentioned in ancient Jewish and Roman texts,” says McCane. For example, around the year 93, the Pharisee historian Flavius ââJosephus left in his work Jewish Antiquities at least one indisputable reference to the “brother of Jesus, who was called Christ.” Two decades later, the Romans Pliny and Tacitus also wrote about Jesus; the latter explained that the founder of the sect of Christians was executed during the mandate of Emperor Tiberius, when Pontius Pilate was governing in Judea.
Reliquary of the Holy Nail in the Trier Cathedral, Germany. Credit: Rabax63
In short, the abundance of historical texts converts the real existence of Jesus into what McCane defines as a “broad and deep consensus among scholars,” regardless of their religious beliefs. “I do not know, nor have I heard of, any trained historian or archaeologist who has doubts about his existence,” he adds. With the weight of all this evidence, for Meyers “those who deny the existence of Jesus are like the deniers of climate change.”
And all this despite the fact that physical remains are virtually non-existent. “There is no archaeological evidence directly for Jesus. Non-textual evidence begins around the year AD 200,” says Gathercole. Leaving aside the archaeology referring to episodes in the life of Jesus, the veracity of which is questioned, there are various physical artefacts associated with the crucifixion. The alleged fragments of the cross scattered around the churches of Europe are so numerous that, according to what the Protestant theologian John Calvin wrote in 1543, there are enough of them to fill a ship. A similar phenomenon has happened with the nails, which number up to thirty.
The Shroud analysis
As for the Shroud of Turin, the burial shroud that the body of Jesus was said to have been wrapped in, it has been revealed to be a medieval counterfeit. According to McCane, it does not correspond to a first-century fabricâthat type of cloth was invented centuries laterânor to a man from the first centuryâhis stature and physiognomy donât match the average Galilee of that timeânor to a burial from the first centuryâthe Jews of the time did not wrap their dead with a single piece of cloth.
The Shroud has also been the subject of an examination from one of the latest techniques incorporated into the historical research of Jesus: DNA analysis. In 2015, a study found that the canvas contains genetic material from multiple people of different ethnic backgrounds, from Western Europe to the Near East, Arabia and India.
Naturally, there are no skeletal remains for a DNA analysis that can be directly attributed to Jesus, which would be incompatible with the Christian belief in his resurrection. According to tradition, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem houses the place of burial, discovered and preserved by the Emperor Constantine in the fourth century. Although it is impossible to determine if that was the true tomb of Jesus, a study published last June has dated the construction to the fourth century, corroborating the historical data.
Some researchers have investigated the possibility of trying to compare DNA from the ossuary of James, the “brother” of Jesus. Credit: Paradiso
However, as reported by the geneticist from the University of Oxford (United Kingdom), George Busby, and the biblical expert Joe Basile in his documentary The Jesus Strand: A Search for DNA (2017), some researchers have investigated the possibility of trying to compare DNA from two different sources: on the one hand, the presumed ossuary of James, the “brother” of Jesus; on the other, the bone fragments found under the ruins of a church on a Bulgarian island in the Black Sea, which could correspond to John the Baptist. If John and Jesus were relatives, the comparative analysis of both remains could bring us closer to the very genes of Christ.
Perhaps this goal is unattainable: for the moment, the DNA extracted from the remains attributed to John the Baptist actually showed modern contamination. But according to what Busby explained to OpenMind, a DNA analysis would, at the very least, allow researchers to “compare contemporary populations and then to compare those populations (not individuals) to populations around today.” While this would help to nail down the geographical origins, it may not do much to support the already established historicity of Jesus. According to Meyers, “Jesus in ancient Palestine was noble and changed the world for good.” And that, he adds, is “hard, if not impossible, to deny.” | Did Jesus of Nazareth actually exist? The evidence says yes
For more than two billion people itâs a matter of faith. Almost a third of humanity doesnât need proof that two thousand years ago a man named Yeshua, Jesus in other languages, known by his followers as Christ, the Messiah, walked on Earth. However, beyond the private preserve of belief, what extends outward is a vast territory for research, which must unearth the historical and scientific evidence to try to answer a reasonable question: did Jesus of Nazareth actually exist? Or is his story a tradition built on a legend, like those of Robin Hood or King Arthur?
The oldest written references mentioning Jesus date from after his death. He appears for the first time in the letters of Saint Paul, written between 20 and 30 years after the crucifixion. Saint Paul never knew Jesus, although according to what Simon Gathercole, the New Testament studies specialist from the University of Cambridge (United Kingdom) explains to OpenMind, he knew “not only Jesusâ disciples but also his brothers,” (in reference particularly to James the Just, whose kinship with Jesus is one of the points of disagreement between different Christian sects).
A couple of decades later, the New Testament Gospels were written, which do appear to contain first-hand testimonies. Yet despite this, according to the experts very few of them can be considered rigorously historical. In particular, the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist and his crucifixion are the only two episodes generally accepted, but not by all. “The crucifixion is safe, but the baptism is hard to support or locate,” the archaeologist and biblical researcher Eric Meyers, professor emeritus of Jewish studies at Duke University (USA) tells OpenMind.
The crucifixion of Jesus is one of the episodes generally accepted by historians. | yes |
World Religions | Did Jesus actually exist? | yes_statement | "jesus" did "exist".. there is historical evidence of "jesus"' "existence". | https://www.gotquestions.org/did-Jesus-exist.html | Did Jesus really exist? Is there any historical evidence of Jesus ... | Find Out
Did Jesus really exist?
Typically, when this question is asked, the person asking qualifies the question with âoutside of the Bible.â We do not grant this idea that the Bible cannot be considered a source of evidence for the existence of Jesus. The New Testament contains hundreds of references to Jesus Christ. There are those who date the writing of the Gospels to the second century A.D., more than 100 years after Jesusâ death. Even if this were the case (which we strongly dispute), in terms of ancient evidences, writings less than 200 years after events took place are considered very reliable evidences. Further, the vast majority of scholars (Christian and non-Christian) will grant that the Epistles of Paul (at least some of them) were in fact written by Paul in the middle of the first century A.D., less than 40 years after Jesusâ death. In terms of ancient manuscript evidence, this is extraordinarily strong proof of the existence of a man named Jesus in Israel in the early first century A.D.
It is also important to recognize that in A.D. 70, the Romans invaded and destroyed Jerusalem and most of Israel, slaughtering its inhabitants. Entire cities were literally burned to the ground. We should not be surprised, then, if much evidence of Jesusâ existence was destroyed. Many of the eyewitnesses of Jesus would have been killed. These facts likely limited the amount of surviving eyewitness testimony of Jesus.
Considering that Jesusâ ministry was largely confined to a relatively unimportant area in a small corner of the Roman Empire, a surprising amount of information about Jesus can be drawn from secular historical sources. Some of the more important historical evidences of Jesus include the following:
The first-century Roman Tacitus, who is considered one of the more accurate historians of the ancient world, mentioned superstitious âChristiansâ (from Christus, which is Latin for Christ), who suffered under Pontius Pilate during the reign of Tiberius. Suetonius, chief secretary to Emperor Hadrian, wrote that there was a man named Chrestus (or Christ) who lived during the first century (Annals 15.44).
Flavius Josephus is the most famous Jewish historian. In his Antiquities he refers to James, âthe brother of Jesus, who was called Christ.â There is a controversial verse (18:3) that says, âNow there was about this time Jesus, a wise man, if it be lawful to call him a man. For he was one who wrought surprising feats....He was [the] Christ...he appeared to them alive again the third day, as the divine prophets had foretold these and ten thousand other wonderful things concerning him.â One version reads, âAt this time there was a wise man named Jesus. His conduct was good and [he] was known to be virtuous. And many people from among the Jews and the other nations became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified and to die. But those who became his disciples did not abandon his discipleship. They reported that he had appeared to them three days after his crucifixion, and that he was alive; accordingly he was perhaps the Messiah, concerning whom the prophets have recounted wonders.â
Julius Africanus quotes the historian Thallus in a discussion of the darkness that followed the crucifixion of Christ (Extant Writings, 18).
Pliny the Younger, in Letters 10:96, recorded early Christian worship practices including the fact that Christians worshiped Jesus as God and were very ethical, and he includes a reference to the love feast and Lordâs Supper.
The Babylonian Talmud (Sanhedrin 43a) confirms Jesusâ crucifixion on the eve of Passover and the accusations against Christ of practicing sorcery and encouraging Jewish apostasy.
Lucian of Samosata was a second-century Greek writer who admits that Jesus was worshiped by Christians, introduced new teachings, and was crucified for them. He said that Jesusâ teachings included the brotherhood of believers, the importance of conversion, and the importance of denying other gods. Christians lived according to Jesusâ laws, believed themselves to be immortal, and were characterized by contempt for death, and renunciation of material goods.
Mara Bar-Serapion confirms that Jesus was thought to be a wise and virtuous man, was considered by many to be the king of Israel, was put to death by the Jews, and lived on in the teachings of His followers.
In fact, we can almost reconstruct the gospel just from early non-Christian sources: Jesus was called the Christ (Josephus), did âmagic,â led Israel into new teachings, and was hanged on Passover for them (Babylonian Talmud) in Judea (Tacitus), but claimed to be God and would return (Eliezar), which his followers believed, worshiping Him as God (Pliny the Younger).
There is overwhelming evidence for the existence of Jesus Christ, both in secular and biblical history. Perhaps the greatest evidence that Jesus did exist is the fact that literally thousands of Christians in the first century AD, including the twelve apostles, were willing to give their lives as martyrs for Jesus Christ. People will die for what they believe to be true, but no one will die for what they know to be a lie. | Find Out
Did Jesus really exist?
Typically, when this question is asked, the person asking qualifies the question with âoutside of the Bible.â We do not grant this idea that the Bible cannot be considered a source of evidence for the existence of Jesus. The New Testament contains hundreds of references to Jesus Christ. There are those who date the writing of the Gospels to the second century A.D., more than 100 years after Jesusâ death. Even if this were the case (which we strongly dispute), in terms of ancient evidences, writings less than 200 years after events took place are considered very reliable evidences. Further, the vast majority of scholars (Christian and non-Christian) will grant that the Epistles of Paul (at least some of them) were in fact written by Paul in the middle of the first century A.D., less than 40 years after Jesusâ death. In terms of ancient manuscript evidence, this is extraordinarily strong proof of the existence of a man named Jesus in Israel in the early first century A.D.
It is also important to recognize that in A.D. 70, the Romans invaded and destroyed Jerusalem and most of Israel, slaughtering its inhabitants. Entire cities were literally burned to the ground. We should not be surprised, then, if much evidence of Jesusâ existence was destroyed. Many of the eyewitnesses of Jesus would have been killed. These facts likely limited the amount of surviving eyewitness testimony of Jesus.
Considering that Jesusâ ministry was largely confined to a relatively unimportant area in a small corner of the Roman Empire, a surprising amount of information about Jesus can be drawn from secular historical sources. Some of the more important historical evidences of Jesus include the following:
The first-century Roman Tacitus, who is considered one of the more accurate historians of the ancient world, mentioned superstitious âChristiansâ (from Christus, which is Latin for Christ), who suffered under Pontius Pilate during the reign of Tiberius. | yes |
Pop Culture | Did Michael Jackson compose songs for Sonic the Hedgehog 3? | yes_statement | "michael" jackson "composed" "songs" for sonic the hedgehog "3".. the "songs" in sonic the hedgehog "3" were "composed" by "michael" jackson. | https://en.as.com/meristation/2022/06/23/news/1656019784_008822.html | The legend is confirmed, Michael Jackson did Sonic the Hedgehog ... | Sonic's creator confirms that Michael Jackson collaborated in Sonic the Hedgehog 3’s soundtrack, although he doesn't appear in credits due to an argument.
Yuji Naka has put an end to more than 25 years of mystery. The creator of Sonic has been scandalized on his social media before the latest compilation game of the character, the remarkable Sonic Origins, because it changes the soundtrack of Sonic the Hedgehog 3. And why has this detail bothered him so much? Because, as Naka himself admits, the original soundtrack was composed by Michael Jackson!
Michael Jackson in video games
Since the game was released back in 1994, rumors about the link between Michael Jackson and Sonic the Hedgehog 3 have been continuous. The singer was always an avowed fan of video games, appearing for the first time in three different versions of Michael Jackson's Moonwalker released for DOS, arcades and Master System. In these three games, based on the movie of the same name, Moonwalker, the King of Pop signed on as designer and composer. The title was a nice beat'em up with horizontal scroll in which we tried to rescue, through music and dance, several kids kidnapped by the clutches of the fearsome Mr. Big.
But they were not Michael's only cameo in the industry. If in Moonwalker we moved to the rhythm of Beat It and Smooth Criminal, in other games like Space Channel 5 and Ready 2 Rumble Boxing: Round 2 we also did the same thanks to Jackson's different cameos. But not content with his crossovers in his own works and collaborations, the artist also wanted to collaborate with the most popular character of the time: Sonic.
The romance between Sonic and Michael Jackson
An absolute fan of the blue hedgehog, there are many photos of Michael Jackson visiting the Sega offices in Japan. Images in which he appears accompanied by illustrious figures such as Mark Cerny, or playing the great classics of the time, such as Power Drift and Galaxy Force 2.
Considering their interest and that Sonic the Hedgehog 3 featured vintage composers like Bobby Brooks, Brad Buxer, Cirocco Jones, Darryl Ross, Doug Grigsby or Geoff Grace, how on earth did Sega want us to think that Michael Jackson wasn't also approached about the opportunity? The company denied it over and over again, he wasn't even in the credits, but more than a few users found reasonable resemblances between songs like Jam and game tunes like Carnival Night, or Stranger in Moscow and the game's credits.
Michael Jackson didn't like the result of Sonic the Hedgehog 3
Brad Buxer himself confirmed in a controversial interview that yes, indeed, if we noticed the imprint of the King of Pop it was because he had participated in it. "We did compose the music. Michael called me at the time for give him a helping hand on this project, and that's what I did. I've never played and I do not know what the developers have kept the tracks on which Michael and I have worked, but we did compose the music."
Many fans were reluctant to believe him because, then, what was the reason for excluding him from the credits? Why were the game producers denying his collaboration? According to the wonderful article Michael Jackson: The Video Game Conspiracy, it seems that the singer ended up dissatisfied with his work and removed his name from the credits of the game. Jackson didn't like the fact that they had to compress the music to make room for the graphics, as the mix didn't sound the way he wanted it to and he had to cut several tracks where the singer even beatboxed. The report claims that Sega got mad at him for that and started stating from then on that they had scrapped the whole thing.
Full screen
Yuji Naka's statements close the story. They confirm what the report and Buxter's words told. Both hints seemed solid, but Sega stuck to its guns when they came out and never officially acknowledged the collaboration. The company claimed that both were not proof of anything, but how could they discredit the head of Sonic Team himself? So much for the unknown: the most famous musician in history and the most famous video game mascot of the 90s were best friends. | Sonic's creator confirms that Michael Jackson collaborated in Sonic the Hedgehog 3’s soundtrack, although he doesn't appear in credits due to an argument.
Yuji Naka has put an end to more than 25 years of mystery. The creator of Sonic has been scandalized on his social media before the latest compilation game of the character, the remarkable Sonic Origins, because it changes the soundtrack of Sonic the Hedgehog 3. And why has this detail bothered him so much? Because, as Naka himself admits, the original soundtrack was composed by Michael Jackson!
Michael Jackson in video games
Since the game was released back in 1994, rumors about the link between Michael Jackson and Sonic the Hedgehog 3 have been continuous. The singer was always an avowed fan of video games, appearing for the first time in three different versions of Michael Jackson's Moonwalker released for DOS, arcades and Master System. In these three games, based on the movie of the same name, Moonwalker, the King of Pop signed on as designer and composer. The title was a nice beat'em up with horizontal scroll in which we tried to rescue, through music and dance, several kids kidnapped by the clutches of the fearsome Mr. Big.
But they were not Michael's only cameo in the industry. If in Moonwalker we moved to the rhythm of Beat It and Smooth Criminal, in other games like Space Channel 5 and Ready 2 Rumble Boxing: Round 2 we also did the same thanks to Jackson's different cameos. But not content with his crossovers in his own works and collaborations, the artist also wanted to collaborate with the most popular character of the time: Sonic.
The romance between Sonic and Michael Jackson
An absolute fan of the blue hedgehog, there are many photos of Michael Jackson visiting the Sega offices in Japan. Images in which he appears accompanied by illustrious figures such as Mark Cerny, or playing the great classics of the time, such as Power Drift and Galaxy Force 2.
Considering their interest and that Sonic the Hedgehog 3 featured vintage composers like Bobby Brooks, | yes |
Pop Culture | Did Michael Jackson compose songs for Sonic the Hedgehog 3? | yes_statement | "michael" jackson "composed" "songs" for sonic the hedgehog "3".. the "songs" in sonic the hedgehog "3" were "composed" by "michael" jackson. | https://michael-jackson.fandom.com/wiki/Sonic_the_Hedgehog_3 | Sonic the Hedgehog 3 | Michael Jackson Wiki | Fandom | Artist(s)
Composer(s)
Series
Platform(s)
Released
Genre(s)
Mode(s)
Sonic the Hedgehog 3 is a video game that was first released on the Sega Genesis (also known as the Mega Drive in Europe, Australia and Japan) in 1994 by Sega.[1] Michael Jackson and Brad Buxer worked on this game's soundtrack.
Michael Jackson's Involvement with Sonic 3[]
Development[]
During the development of this game, Michael Jackson was hired to compose the game’s soundtrack, alongside fellow musician Brad Buxer. However, he was not credited either due to the scandals of child sexual abuse or that he wasn't happy with how the sound came out of the Genesis. Michael Jackson and Brad Buxer had composed the credits music, which was later used as the base for Michael Jackson's single and track, Stranger In Moscow on the 1996 album HIStory.[2]
Discovery[]
The involvement of Michael composing music initially started off as a rumor, with people on the internet noticing many similarities between some of the tracks on the video game and some of the backing music behind some of Michael's biggest songs such as Smooth Criminal, Stranger in Moscow and Jam.
Roger Hector Interview[]
There was an interview with Roger Hector, the executive coordinator for this game and the general manager of the SEGA Technical Institute for a number of years that was conducted by HXC in September of 2005.
"Sonic 3 (also called Sonic 3 & Knuckles) was a lot of fun, but it was also very difficult. Michael Jackson was originally brought in to compose all the music for the game, but at the very end, his work was dropped after his scandals became public. This caused a lot of problems and required a lot of reworking. But the game turned out great in the end."
This interview explains that Michael Jackson was indeed brought to compose all of the music for Sonic 3, but according to Roger Hector, Michael Jackson's music was dropped before the final version of the game. Michael Jackson's music actually being in the game remained a mystery.
Brad Buxer Interview[]
The rumor of Michael composing for Sonic 3 later became one of the biggest mysteries in video game history, but in December 2009 the mystery finally ended with Brad Buxer (who worked with Michael through the Dangerous and HIStory eras).
On December 2, 2009 a member from a website called VGMdb (A website that focuses on video game music) called dma had an interview with a credited music composer called Brad Buxer in a excerpt from the Black & White magazine (a French Michael Jackson fanzine).
B&W: Can you clarify the rumor that Michael had in 1993 composed the music for Sonic 3 video game, for which you have been credited?
Buxer: I've never played the game, so I do not know what tracks on which Michael and I have worked the developers have kept, but we did compose music for the game. Michael called me at the time for help on this project, and that's what I did. And if he is not credited for composing the music, it's because he was not happy with the result sound coming out of the console. At the time, game consoles did not allow an optimal sound reproduction, and Michael found it frustrating. He did not want to be associated with a product that devalued his music...
B&W: One of the surprising things in this soundtrack is that you can hear the chords from Stranger in Moscow, which is supposed to have been composed later...
Buxer: Yes, Michael and I had composed those chords for the game, and it has been used as base for Stranger in Moscow. [...]"
Game Trailers Pop Fiction[]
On Friday 4th October 2013, almost four years after the confirmation from Brad Buxer, Game Trailers did their own investigation through their online series, Pop Fiction. In this episode they managed to get Roger Hector who was the director of STI (Sega Technical Institute) when Sonic 3 was in development to talk, and stuck with what he had said in a previous interview, in which they did in deed get Michael to compose the music for the game but dropped him due to scandals of child molestation. They also contacted Buxer, who said to the Black & White fanzine that him and Michael did work on the Sonic 3 credits, in which served as the basis for Stranger in Moscow. They managed to talk to Buxer, who through his manager said he doesn't remember doing the interview or saying that. In the end Game Trailers who were coming close to a dead end, got contact and full confirmation on the music of Sonic 3. The source said they wanted to stay anonymous, but said that they did in deed get Michael to compose music for Sonic 3, and in the end wanted his name to be dropped due to the fact of the sound chip the Mega Drive (Genesis) had. | Artist(s)
Composer(s)
Series
Platform(s)
Released
Genre(s)
Mode(s)
Sonic the Hedgehog 3 is a video game that was first released on the Sega Genesis (also known as the Mega Drive in Europe, Australia and Japan) in 1994 by Sega.[1] Michael Jackson and Brad Buxer worked on this game's soundtrack.
Michael Jackson's Involvement with Sonic 3[]
Development[]
During the development of this game, Michael Jackson was hired to compose the game’s soundtrack, alongside fellow musician Brad Buxer. However, he was not credited either due to the scandals of child sexual abuse or that he wasn't happy with how the sound came out of the Genesis. Michael Jackson and Brad Buxer had composed the credits music, which was later used as the base for Michael Jackson's single and track, Stranger In Moscow on the 1996 album HIStory.[2]
Discovery []
The involvement of Michael composing music initially started off as a rumor, with people on the internet noticing many similarities between some of the tracks on the video game and some of the backing music behind some of Michael's biggest songs such as Smooth Criminal, Stranger in Moscow and Jam.
Roger Hector Interview[]
There was an interview with Roger Hector, the executive coordinator for this game and the general manager of the SEGA Technical Institute for a number of years that was conducted by HXC in September of 2005.
"Sonic 3 (also called Sonic 3 & Knuckles) was a lot of fun, but it was also very difficult. Michael Jackson was originally brought in to compose all the music for the game, but at the very end, his work was dropped after his scandals became public. This caused a lot of problems and required a lot of reworking. But the game turned out great in the end. "
This interview explains that Michael Jackson was indeed brought to compose all of the music for Sonic 3, but according to Roger Hector, Michael Jackson's music was dropped before the final version of the game. Michael Jackson's music actually being in the game remained a mystery. | yes |
Pop Culture | Did Michael Jackson compose songs for Sonic the Hedgehog 3? | yes_statement | "michael" jackson "composed" "songs" for sonic the hedgehog "3".. the "songs" in sonic the hedgehog "3" were "composed" by "michael" jackson. | https://www.polygon.com/23179908/sonic-origins-michael-jackson-music-tracks-sonic-3-knuckles-yuji-naka | Sonic the Hedgehog 3 music from Michael Jackson cut from Sonic ... | Michael McWhertor
is a journalist with more than 17 years of experience covering video games, technology, movies, TV, and entertainment.
Sonic Origins, a compilation of four classic Sonic the Hedgehog games, is out today, giving Sega fans a chance to revisit the mascot’s 16-bit era. It’s an authentic experience, with one exception: Some of the music that many Sonic the Hedgehog 3 and Sonic 3 & Knuckles players experienced on the Sega Genesis back in the ’90s isn’t included in the new collection. Instead, Sega swapped in different tracks that are a combination of old and new work.
That’s because some songs from Sonic the Hedgehog 3, as it was originally released, were composed by the late singer Michael Jackson and keyboardist Brad Buxer. According to Buxer, Jackson was not happy with Sega’s implementation of his songs, and later releases of Sonic the Hedgehog 3 included a different set of music tracks. Sega itself has never officially confirmed details about Jackson’s involvement in the Genesis game (he’s not officially credited in any version of the game), leading to speculation that Sonic 3’s music rights are fraught.
But on Thursday, former Sonic Team lead Yuji Naka — who was lead programmer on Sonic the Hedgehog 3 — outright confirmed on Twitter that Jackson contributed music to the game. It’s been a longstanding rumor and hinted at in the past by other former Sega developers, but Naka would be in a position to know.
Oh my god, the music for Sonic 3 has changed, even though SEGA Official uses Michael Jackson's music.
Re-releases of Sonic the Hedgehog 3 on other platforms and in other compilations have swapped in music tracks from a prototype version of the game. But for Sonic Origins, Sega went a step further, recruiting longtime Sonic the Hedgehog composer Jun Senoue to modify Sonic 3’s original prototype music for the collection, according to Sonic social media manager Katie Chrzanowski.
“While unfortunately we can’t use all of the original sounds from the Sega Genesis version of the game, Jun Senoue’s been working really hard to adapt the original music that was composed in 1993 for Sonic Origins,” Chrzanowski said in a video Q&A. “He’s been going so far as reproducing it with the same sound chip from the Sega Genesis and using his own digital audio tape collection to make this as faithful to the originals as possible.”
As seen and heard in the excellent video below from GameXplain, the Jackson-Buxer tracks have been removed, and replaced with Senoue’s recreated tracks.
It’s certainly a creative solution to an issue that has vexed Sega and Sonic fans for decades, and likely the most authentic way to address what has been something of an urban legend. But that doesn’t mean that Sonic the Hedgehog fans are happy with it; response to the updated prototype music has been widely negative.
Sonic Origins is out now on Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows PC, Xbox One, and Xbox Series X. The collection includes the original Sonic the Hedgehog, as well as sequels Sonic 2, Sonic 3 & Knuckles, and Sonic CD. | Michael McWhertor
is a journalist with more than 17 years of experience covering video games, technology, movies, TV, and entertainment.
Sonic Origins, a compilation of four classic Sonic the Hedgehog games, is out today, giving Sega fans a chance to revisit the mascot’s 16-bit era. It’s an authentic experience, with one exception: Some of the music that many Sonic the Hedgehog 3 and Sonic 3 & Knuckles players experienced on the Sega Genesis back in the ’90s isn’t included in the new collection. Instead, Sega swapped in different tracks that are a combination of old and new work.
That’s because some songs from Sonic the Hedgehog 3, as it was originally released, were composed by the late singer Michael Jackson and keyboardist Brad Buxer. According to Buxer, Jackson was not happy with Sega’s implementation of his songs, and later releases of Sonic the Hedgehog 3 included a different set of music tracks. Sega itself has never officially confirmed details about Jackson’s involvement in the Genesis game (he’s not officially credited in any version of the game), leading to speculation that Sonic 3’s music rights are fraught.
But on Thursday, former Sonic Team lead Yuji Naka — who was lead programmer on Sonic the Hedgehog 3 — outright confirmed on Twitter that Jackson contributed music to the game. It’s been a longstanding rumor and hinted at in the past by other former Sega developers, but Naka would be in a position to know.
Oh my god, the music for Sonic 3 has changed, even though SEGA Official uses Michael Jackson's music.
Re-releases of Sonic the Hedgehog 3 on other platforms and in other compilations have swapped in music tracks from a prototype version of the game. But for Sonic Origins, Sega went a step further, recruiting longtime Sonic the Hedgehog composer Jun Senoue to modify Sonic 3’s original prototype music for the collection, according to Sonic social media manager Katie Chrzanowski.
| yes |
Pop Culture | Did Michael Jackson compose songs for Sonic the Hedgehog 3? | yes_statement | "michael" jackson "composed" "songs" for sonic the hedgehog "3".. the "songs" in sonic the hedgehog "3" were "composed" by "michael" jackson. | https://kotaku.com/sonic-origins-yuji-naka-michael-jackson-carnival-night-1849099570 | Yuji Naka Confirms: Michael Jackson Composed Music For Sonic 3 | The myth that the King of Pop worked on the OG game's music turns out to be true, according to creator Yuji Naka
What a way to break some news, huh? On Twitter, Sonic the Hedgehog creator Yuji Naka said the quiet part out loud: Michael Jackson definitely, totally composed some music for the 1994 Sega Genesis game, Sonic the Hedgehog 3. Unfortunately, Naka followed up the confirmation that this long-running myth is a bonafide fact with a bittersweet revelation: The tracks that the King of Pop worked on have been replaced in the just-released Sonic Originsremasterof Sonic 3. Yeah, it’s a bummer.
It has always been “allegedly” and “supposedly” that the problematic late pop musician was involved with Sonic 3. Jackson had a close relationship with Sega, after all, lending his talents to games like the Michael Jackson’s Moonwalker beat ‘em ups and the rhythm action game Space Channel 5. Apparently, Jackson was hired during Sonic 3’s development to compose music, but left the project seemingly in the wake of the 1993 child abuse allegations and went uncredited ever since. Sure, Jackson’s composer and musical director Brad Buxer spilled the tea in 2009, saying a possible reason for Jackson being uncredited was because, “He was not happy with the resulting sound coming out of the console.” But now we’ve got another line under the statement from the Sonic creator himself. You can’t get more clear cut than this.
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“Does Sonic Origins Sonic 3 have a different song,” Naka questioned in a June 23 tweet. He then answered this question, saying, “Oh my god, the music for Sonic 3 has changed, even though Sega Official uses Michael Jackson’s music.”
So, which tracks have been replaced in Sonic Origins, Sega’s remastered bundle featuring the first four Sonic platformers, and what have they been replaced with? GameXplain posted a great video on June 21 breaking it all down, but the TLDR is the music for three of the game’s Zones—Carnival Night, Ice Cap, and Launch Base—is completely different in Sonic Origins’ Sonic 3. Instead of the funky, rhythmic, obviously Jackson cuts found in the original, what we get in this remaster are remixed versions of songs used in the game’s prototype. The same prototype that ended up becoming the 1997 PC port for Sonic 3 & Knuckles. It’s not that they’re bad. They just mostly sound like elevator music.
When reached for comment via Twitter DMs, Naka sent Kotaku the below tweet, saying “it is unfortunate that the music for Sonic 3 was changed.”
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Kotaku has reached out to Sega for comment.
There you have it. Michael Jackson composed music for Sonic 3. It’s a shame, because the tracks Jackson wrote aren’t just the danceable tunes he’s known for, but their thumping energy also matched the game’s frenetic speed. But it’s understandable too that Sega might not want to have the game associated with such a sussy musician, especially in light of 2019's Leaving Neverland documentary. | The myth that the King of Pop worked on the OG game's music turns out to be true, according to creator Yuji Naka
What a way to break some news, huh? On Twitter, Sonic the Hedgehog creator Yuji Naka said the quiet part out loud: Michael Jackson definitely, totally composed some music for the 1994 Sega Genesis game, Sonic the Hedgehog 3. Unfortunately, Naka followed up the confirmation that this long-running myth is a bonafide fact with a bittersweet revelation: The tracks that the King of Pop worked on have been replaced in the just-released Sonic Originsremasterof Sonic 3. Yeah, it’s a bummer.
It has always been “allegedly” and “supposedly” that the problematic late pop musician was involved with Sonic 3. Jackson had a close relationship with Sega, after all, lending his talents to games like the Michael Jackson’s Moonwalker beat ‘em ups and the rhythm action game Space Channel 5. Apparently, Jackson was hired during Sonic 3’s development to compose music, but left the project seemingly in the wake of the 1993 child abuse allegations and went uncredited ever since. Sure, Jackson’s composer and musical director Brad Buxer spilled the tea in 2009, saying a possible reason for Jackson being uncredited was because, “He was not happy with the resulting sound coming out of the console.” But now we’ve got another line under the statement from the Sonic creator himself. You can’t get more clear cut than this.
Advertisement
Advertisement
“Does Sonic Origins Sonic 3 have a different song,” Naka questioned in a June 23 tweet. He then answered this question, saying, “Oh my god, the music for Sonic 3 has changed, even though Sega Official uses Michael Jackson’s music.”
So, which tracks have been replaced in Sonic Origins, Sega’s remastered bundle featuring the first four Sonic platformers, and what have they been replaced with? | yes |
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