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= I Wanna Go =
" I Wanna Go " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her seventh studio album , Femme Fatale ( 2011 ) . It was written and produced by Max Martin and Shellback , with additional writing by Savan Kotecha . Spears first posted on her Twitter account a link to a clip of the song in February 2011 , a month prior to the album 's release . Following a poll on her official website , " I Wanna Go " was chosen as the third single of the album , and Jive Records released it on June 13 , 2011 .
" I Wanna Go " is a dance @-@ pop and Hi @-@ NRG song that features a heavy bassline and drum fills reminiscent of English rock band New Order . The pre @-@ chorus has a whistled hook that received comparisons to the music of Bob Sinclar and Frankie Knuckles . The lyrics of " I Wanna Go " feature Spears singing about losing inhibitions . The song received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Some praised it for being effective and highlighted its hook , while others dismissed the processed vocals . The song was treated with different remixes , including a Bollywood mix with guest vocals by Sonu Nigam and another one by DJ Frank E and Alex Dreamz .
After the release of Femme Fatale , " I Wanna Go " charted due to digital sales in the upper end of the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 , and also topped the South Korean International chart . Following its release as a single , the song reached the top ten in several music markets , including Canada , France , Finland and the United States . However , it became one of her lowest peaking singles in countries such as Australia and New Zealand , and was the first single of her career that failed to chart inside the top 100 in the United Kingdom . In the United States , " I Wanna Go " made Femme Fatale the first album by Spears to have three top ten singles .
An accompanying music video for the song , directed by Chris Marrs Piliero , premiered on June 22 , 2011 . It depicts Spears daydreaming at a press conference about a series of events , including being chased by paparazzi cyborgs and being rescued by actor Guillermo Díaz . Piliero described the video as " a ridiculous , exaggerated rumor about her life and career " . The video references the films Half Baked , Crossroads , Terminator 2 : Judgment Day and Michael Jackson 's Thriller . It received positive reviews from critics , who praised its fun spirit . Spears has performed " I Wanna Go " on her Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) and during her Las Vegas residency show Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 ) .
= = Background and artwork = =
" I Wanna Go " was written and produced by Max Martin and Shellback , with additional writing by Savan Kotecha . The song was written in 2009 and registered on Broadcast Music Incorporated under the legal title " I I I Wanna Go O O " . On February 22 , 2011 , Spears posted on her Twitter account a link to a 29 @-@ second clip of the song , while calling Martin " amazing " . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Spears stated that the song 's signature whistle gets her " every time [ she ] hears it " , adding that Martin 's melodies are " Incredible ... Who would have thought of that ? There is nobody I feel more comfortable collaborating with in the studio . " Kotecha told Digital Spy in May 2011 that the song was likely a contender for third single due to positive reaction . On May 11 , 2011 , a poll was launched on Britney.com in which fans could choose the third single of the album . Two days later , " I Wanna Go " was officially announced as the third single from Femme Fatale by Jive Records through a press release after winning the poll . The cover art was revealed on June 6 , 2011 , and featured Spears on set of the music video , wearing colored hair extensions and a top with a skeletal Mickey Mouse .
= = Composition = =
" I Wanna Go " is a dance @-@ pop and hi @-@ NRG song , which features a heavy bassline and drum fills ; the latter are reminiscent of English band New Order 's song " Blue Monday " ( 1983 ) . Spears squeals and chuckles throughout the song , and her vocals are processed . In the pre @-@ chorus , she draws out the " e " ' s in lines such as " Shame on me / To need release / Uncontrollably . " The section also has a whistled hook , which was compared by Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice to the music of French recording artist Bob Sinclar and American recording artist Frankie Knuckles . In the chorus , Spears stutters " I @-@ I @-@ I wanna go @-@ o @-@ o / All the wa @-@ a @-@ ay / Taking out my freak tonight " . Ryan Brockington of the New York Post compared " I Wanna Go " to the music of her fifth studio album Blackout ( 2007 ) . In the lyrics , Spears sings about losing inhibitions , as evident in lines such as " I @-@ I @-@ I wanna sho @-@ o @-@ ow / All the dir @-@ ir @-@ irt / I got ( sic ) running through my mind . " , while playfully apologizing for her need for sexual release . Jon Caramanica of The New York Times stated that she sings about " the scrum that surrounds her " in " Lately people got me all tied up / There 's a countdown waiting for me to erupt " . According to the sheet music published by EMI Music Publishing , " I Wanna Go " is written in the key of D minor , with an electropop beat infused metronome of 138 beats per minute . Spears ' vocals range from the low note of D3 to the high note of D5 .
= = Critical reception = =
" I Wanna Go " received generally positive reviews from music critics . A reviewer for Samesame.com.au called " I Wanna Go " Spears ' best song since " Toxic " , and added that " I ’ d go so far as to say that it is probably the best song that she has ever recorded . [ ... ] How the decision was made that ' Hold It Against Me ' would be a better first single over this is baffling . " Parker Bruce of the Washington Square News stated that the song functions as " a sort of formal declaration and mission statement " for Femme Fatale , saying that " It is not an innovative song , but it is fantastically effective and endlessly enticing with its liberating , toss @-@ your @-@ cares @-@ away , dance @-@ like @-@ a @-@ complete – and @-@ utter @-@ fool cathartic chorus , repeated words and typically saucy Britney lyrics . " The Daily Collegian writer Hannah Rishel said " I Wanna Go " would have been " another good lead single " , while The Washington Times 's Andrew Leahey said that along with " Till the World Ends " , they are " bass @-@ heavy tributes to club culture . "
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy called it " anthemic " and noted the song would become a future single . Rich Juzwiak of The Village Voice called " I Wanna Go " the highlight of the album , and said " get ready for [ it ] to score your summer . " However , Juzwiak went on to note that Spears ' vocals are heavily manipulated to maximize the chorus 's potential , even though " the joy she sings about is palpable . " The Chicago Sun @-@ Times journalist Thomas Conner also noted that the singer 's vocals were processed to the point " these songs could be sung by anyone " , exemplifying " ' I Wanna Go ' tweaks her up so high she could be Jackie Evancho . " Andy Gill of The Independent also criticized the singer 's vocals on Femme Fatale , stating that they sounded more programmed than natural , with " even the little whistling hook in ' I Wanna Go ' has a synthetic character about it . "
Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine noted that " If not for its infectious pre @-@ chorus whistle , ' I Wanna Go ' would be just another song off the Max Martin assembly line " . The Guardian contributor Alexis Petridis gave the song a negative review , and said that although most of tracks of the album are " genuinely exciting [ ... ] there 's certainly some unremarkable stuff on offer , notably ' Seal It With a Kiss ' and ' I Wanna Go . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters also noted that " I Wanna Go " is the point of the album in which " things stop being fun and start becoming intensely repetitious " , criticizing specifically " [ the ] utterly stupid set of syllables repeated ad nauseam for no reason whatsoever ? [ .. ] the ' ably ' part of ' uncontrollably ' gets recycled far beyond the point where it just sounds stupid . " In September 2011 , " I Wanna Go " topped Rolling Stone 's reader 's poll of The Best Songs of the Summer .
= = Chart performance = =
On the chart issue of April 3 , 2011 , " I Wanna Go " debuted at number 73 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and at number 52 on the Hot Digital Songs component chart due to strong digital sales . The song debuted at number 60 on the Canadian Hot 100 on the chart issue of April 16 , 2011 . It also debuted at number one on South Korea 's GAON International Chart , and remained on the same position for three consecutive weeks . After its release as a single , the song debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart on the chart issue of July 2 , 2011 . It also re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 89 . The following week , it surged up to number 29 on the Hot 100 due to the premiere of the music video , with sales of 67 @,@ 000 copies ( up 282 % from the previous week ) . " I Wanna Go " became Spears 's 21 top @-@ forty single , the third @-@ highest female total since her first week on the chart on November 21 , 1998 , and only behind Taylor Swift with 27 and Rihanna with 22 .
On the chart issue of August 4 , 2011 , the song climbed from number 11 to number nine on the Billboard Hot 100 , making Femme Fatale the first album by Spears to achieve three top ten singles . It became her fifth top ten single in a row , and her twelfth top ten hit overall , the third @-@ highest female total since her first week on the chart , behind Rihanna with eighteen and Beyoncé Knowles with fifteen . " I Wanna Go " peaked at number seven on the Hot 100 on the chart issue of August 24 , 2011 . The song peaked atop the Pop Songs chart on September 24 , 2011 , becoming Spears ' sixth single to top the chart , and setting a record for the longest span of number @-@ one singles by an artist ( 12 years , seven months and four days ) . Spears scored her first number one single on the chart with " ... Baby One More Time " on the chart issue of February 20 , 1999 . She also tied Mariah Carey and Knowles for the third @-@ highest female total of number @-@ one singles . As of March 2015 , " I Wanna Go " has sold 1 @,@ 770 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States . It is her eighth best @-@ selling digital single in the country .
In Australia , " I Wanna Go " debuted at number 33 on the ARIA Singles Chart on the chart issue of July 10 , 2011 . It peaked at number 31 three weeks later , on July 31 , 2011 . The song became the third lowest peaking single of Spears ' career in the country , after " Radar " ( 2009 ) at 46 and " From the Bottom of My Broken Heart " ( 1999 ) at 37 . It spent nine weeks on the chart . It has since been certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 35 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number 25 on the New Zealand Singles Chart , and peaked at number 22 the following week . It became her lowest peaking single since " Radar " , and her sixth single to not enter the top twenty . The song spent 10 weeks on the chart . On July 7 , 2011 , " I Wanna Go " debuted at 41 on the Irish Singles Chart . It became her first single to not chart in the inside the top 100 in the United Kingdom , peaking at number 138 on the chart issue of June 9 , 2011 . Across Europe , the song has peaked at number five on Belgium ( Flanders ) and France ; number 10 in Finland ; the top twenty in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Norway and Denmark ; and the top forty in Czech Republic and Sweden .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " I Wanna Go " was directed by Chris Marrs Piliero and filmed in Los Angeles , California . Spears first contacted Piliero and asked him to put together a concept for the video . The main idea for Marrs Piliero came from the lyric " be a little inappropriate " , which stood out for him , but he did not want to make a video about sexual inappropriateness . Piliero wrote the opening press conference scene as a tribute to the film Half Baked ( 1998 ) , which he is a fan of . He explained , " That scene resonates with everyone as the epitome of the greatest way to quit your job , and just blow people off . [ ... ] I felt like that would just be such a perfect way for her to tell the reporters to eff off . " Marrs Piliero first asked actor Kellan Lutz to co @-@ star the clip with Spears ; however , Lutz turned down the role , saying that " there were a couple of weird things about the part that didn 't make sense " , including the scene where he was going to pour milk on himself . Piliero then thought of asking one of the stars of Half Baked , Guillermo Díaz , to be part of the video , explaining that it " would make it come full circle . " Piliero watched all of Spears ' videos and wanted to pull what he loved from them , but also give it something fresh . Piliero felt that all of her references to the paparazzi in her previous videos had been more of a statement than an action , and for " I Wanna Go " , he wanted her to have the opportunity to fight back .
Piliero had the concept nearly finished by the time he met with Spears . Both wanted to explore fun ways for Spears to be inappropriate in the video , who had several ideas , such as a cop frisking her . Having seen Spears on How I Met Your Mother and Saturday Night Live , Piliero felt that none of her videos had really taken advantage of her comedic timing , saying , " She never had a music video where she could show her acting chops and have fun with comedy while being super badass . That was my goal from day one : I wanted her to be funny , badass and super cool . " . During the first day of the shoot , he requested Spears to " have as much fun as possible over these next two days " . Pilliero also stated that the Crossroads ( 2002 ) reference " [ i ] s a fun Easter egg for fans . Plus , Die Hard 2 : Die Harder is the most ridiculously awesome way to title a sequel . It just felt like the right thing to do . When Britney saw it , she loved it . "
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins at a press conference where Spears , wearing a cropped Mickey Mouse top ( paying homage to her days in The New Mickey Mouse Club ) , is being asked inappropriate questions by news reporters , such as " Is it true you banned junk food , smiles , candy , sunshine and laughter from your Femme Fatale tour ? " Angered by the questions , Spears replies ( albeit censored ) : " Fuck you , fuck you , fuck you , you 're cool , fuck you – I 'm out " , referencing a scene from the film Half Baked . After leaving the press conference , Spears walks out of the building and out into the street , wearing a white leather jacket and a black skirt with matching with studded combat boots . She signs a fan 's copy of Femme Fatale and then blows a kiss to a baby as he whistles the melody of the chorus . As Spears walks along the street , she flashes several men , including a policeman ( played by Adrien Galo ) . As a criminal offence , the policeman searches Spears , feeling up and down her legs , as she is bent over a car . Spears later walks away from the policeman , swinging handcuffs around her finger while he buttons his shirt .
She continues walking down the street , where she smashes the camera of a paparazzi photographer who takes pictures of her . More paparazzi appear as she runs away and jumps on top of a taxi . Spears then stands atop of it , wielding the microphone as a weapon against the paparazzi who are hassling her . Across the street , a marquee of the cinema besides her reads Crossroads 2 : Cross Harder , referencing her film debut Crossroads . After all the paparazzi , revealed to be cyborgs , have been knocked to the floor , they start crawling back with their eyes glowing red and their faces bursting with wires , reminiscent to a scene in Terminator 2 : Judgment Day ( 1991 ) . A car suddenly pulls up near to Spears , and the driver Guillermo Díaz tells her to get inside . In the next scene , Spears dances in the passenger seat in a pink bikini top , as Guillermo drives . He attempts to drink some milk while driving but pours the carton of milk over his face . His chest starts to spark , and Spears pulls open his jacket to reveal that he too is a cyborg . The video then cuts back to the press conference , indicating that Spears was daydreaming , due to being asked monotonous and inappropriate questions . Guillermo steps in and leads Spears out of the room . Then , he turns to the camera with his eyes glowing red , and his laugh is heard , referencing Michael Jackson 's Thriller ( 1983 ) .
= = = Release and reception = = =
On June 17 , 2011 , Jive Records announced through a press release that an exclusive 30 @-@ second teaser would premiere on June 19 , 2011 , on Bravo 's Watch What Happens : Live and on VEVO simultaneously . The full length video was revealed to premiere on MTV and VEVO on June 22 , 2011 . Following the premiere , the video was played hourly on MTV , during video hours , and on VH1 's Best Morning Buzz Live . Jen McDonnell of Dose said , " damn if [ the video ] doesn 't rock . [ ... ] It all sounds very weird – and it is . But it 's also buckets of fun . " Megan Gibson of Time stated that the video is " random , weird and intended to be funny " and that despite the lack of dancing " Britney seems pleasantly energetic and spunky in ' I Wanna Go ' which is a comforting change from her usual blank @-@ eyed look . " Sarah Anne Hughes of The Washington Post commented that the video " shows a much livelier Britney than the world has seen since the ' Toxic ' years . "
Jason Lipshutz of Billboard said that the video continues the visual representation of Spears ' relationship with the paparazzi and her public image , as previously seen in the videos for " Everytime " ( 2004 ) and " Piece of Me " ( 2008 ) , but " the new clip is arguably her most playful yet . " Amos Barshad of New York stated the video " is awe @-@ inspiring in almost exactly the way it intended to be " and that " the spirit of the song , as reflected in the video , is that of free will and dream fulfillment in the face of a repressive society . " Jocelyn Vena of MTV commented that " Britney displays the sass and charm fans fell in love with a decade ago during performance shots , where she flirts with the camera , her eyes as big and wide as her smile . " An editor for VH1 called the video " fan @-@ freakin ' -tastic " and compared it favorably to the music video for Katy Perry 's " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " ( 2011 ) , saying that " they share a silly temperament , a flirty star , and funny cameos . Upon closer examination , though , Britney 's video blows Katy Perry 's out of the water . "
Devin Brown of CBS News called it her best video from Femme Fatale , and added that unlike " Piece of Me " , " ' I Wanna Go ' offers a bevy of pop culture references meant to ridicule the rumors about the star – and finally no ' dancing . ' " An editor from Rolling Stone said " The weirdness seems very calculated , but that doesn 't make the video any less delightful . " Another critic from Rolling Stone noted that the press conference " is hysterical because she 's one of the least media @-@ accessible singers in the world . It 's easier to get a sit @-@ down with Bob Dylan than it is with Britney . " Becky Bain of Idolator called the video " delightful " and " flat out funny " , explaining that Spears " focuses her energy on being too darn cute ( and deliciously naughty ) instead of having to worry about dancing , [ she ] is in on the joke and loving it all . " The video was Spears ' first to be VEVO Certified , which means that it was the first of her videos to have received over 100 million views on VEVO .
= = Live performances = =
Though the song has never been performed live as part of a televised performance , " I Wanna Go " was featured on the set list of the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) . Spears and her dancers bring fans onstage and dance with them throughout the performance . Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter stated that " [ the ] mid @-@ tempo numbers [ ... ] seemed to stall out quickly , where faster offerings like ' Womanizer , ' ' I Wanna Go ' and ' Toxic ' had the sold out crowd jumping in place and pumping their number twos in the air . " Shaunna Murphy of Entertainment Weekly said , " Of the newer songs , ' How I Roll ' and ' I Wanna Go ' were standouts , the former for its bubblegum fun and the latter for the uproarious fan participation on stage . "
Spears also included the song on her current residency show in Las Vegas , Britney : Piece of Me . After a rendition of " Circus " , a performance of " I Wanna Go " followed , where Spears dances with six mirror images of herself . The mirrors , that are moved around by her dancers , are screens showing pre @-@ recorded images of the singer . Keith Caulfield from Billboard considered the performance " cool " .
= = Remixes and other versions = =
" I Wanna Go " was remixed with guest vocals by Indian singer Sonu Nigam and released on the DesiHits website in June 2011 . In the remix , Sonu mirrors Spears ' vocals in Hindi over Indian instruments . Spears said about the song , " I 'm so excited about having Sonu on I Wanna Go . His vocals add such a different feel , which I love ! Watch out Bollywood – it 's Britney and Sonu ! " . A remix done by DJ Frank E and Alex Dreamz removes the whistled hook and adds an extra beat to the song . The accompanying video for the remix contains footage of the music video for the song with a glowing yellow tint .
= = Covers versions = =
" I Wanna Go "
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Femme Fatale booklet liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Radio date and release history = =
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= Kritosaurus =
Kritosaurus is an incompletely known genus of hadrosaurid ( duck @-@ billed ) dinosaur . It lived about 74 @.@ 5 @-@ 66 million years ago , in the Late Cretaceous of North America . The name means " separated lizard " ( referring to the arrangement of the cheek bones in an incomplete type skull ) , but is often mistranslated as " noble lizard " in reference to the presumed " Roman nose " ( in the original specimen , the nasal region was fragmented and disarticulated , and was originally restored flat ) . Despite the dearth of material , this herbivore appeared frequently in dinosaur books until the 1990s , although what was usually represented was the much more completely known Gryposaurus , then thought to be a synonym .
= = Description = =
The type specimen of Kritosaurus navajovius is only represented by a partial skull and lower jaws , and associated postcranial remains . The greater portion of the muzzle and upper beak are missing . The length of the skull is estimated at 87 centimeters ( 34 in ) from the tip of the upper beak to the base of the quadrate that articulates with the lower jaw at the back of the skull . Potential diagnostic characteristics of Kritosaurus include a predentary ( lower beak ) without tooth @-@ like crenulations , a sharp downward bend to the lower jaws near the beak , and a heavy , somewhat rectangular maxilla ( upper tooth @-@ bearing bone ) .
Based on the skull originally referred to Anasazisaurus , the form of the complete crest is that of a tab or flange of bone , from the nasals , that rises between and above the eyes and folds back under itself . This unique crest allows it to be distinguished from similar hadrosaurs , like Gryposaurus . The top of the crest is roughened , and the maximum preserved length of the skull is ~ 90 centimeters ( ~ 35 in ) .
= = Classification = =
Kritosaurus was a hadrosaurine hadrosaurid , a flat @-@ headed or solid @-@ crested duckbill . Though many species and specimens have been referred to the genus in the past , most of them do not show the shared distinguishing characteristics to allow them to be considered part of the genus , or have been synonymized with other genera of hadrosaurs . The closest relative of Kritosaurus navajovius is Anasazisaurus horneri ( or Kritosaurus horneri ) , which , together with close relatives such as Gryposaurus and Secernosaurus , form a clade called the Kritosaurini within the larger clade Saurolophinae . Location and time separate Kritosaurus and the slightly older , primarily Canadian Gryposaurus , along with some cranial details .
The following is a cladogram based on the phylogenetic analysis conducted by Prieto @-@ Márquez and Wagner in 2012 , showing the relationships of Kritosaurus among the other Kritosaurini :
= = = Distinguishing anatomical features = = =
A diagnosis is a statement of the anatomical features of an organism ( or group ) that collectively distinguish it from all other organisms . Some , but not all , of the features in a diagnosis are also autapomorphies . An autapomorphy is a distinctive anatomical feature that is unique to a given organism .
According to Prieto @-@ Márquez who re @-@ diagnosed this genus in 2013 , Kritosaurus can be distinguished based on the following characteristics :
the length of the dorsolateral margin of the maxilla is extensive
the jugal features an orbital constriction that is deeper than the infratemporal one
the infratemporal fenestra is greater than the orbit and has a dorsal margin that is greatly elevated above the dorsal orbital margin in adults
the frontal bone is participating in the orbital margin
the presence of paired caudal parasagittal processes of the nasals resting over the frontal bones
= = Discovery and history = =
In 1904 , Barnum Brown discovered the type specimen ( AMNH 5799 ) of Kritosaurus near the Ojo Alamo Formation , San Juan County , New Mexico , United States , while following up on a previous expedition . He initially could not definitely correlate the stratigraphy , but by 1916 was able to establish it as from what is now known as the late Campanian @-@ age De @-@ na @-@ zin Member of the Kirtland Formation . When discovered , much of the front of the skull had either eroded or fragmented , and Brown reconstructed this portion after what is now called Edmontosaurus , leaving out many fragments . However , he had noticed that something was different about the fragments , but ascribed the differences to crushing . He initially wanted to name it Nectosaurus , but found out that this name was already in use ; Jan Versluys , who had visited Brown before the change , inadvertently leaked the previous choice . He kept the species name , though , leading to the combination K. navajovius .
The 1914 publication of the arch @-@ snouted Canadian genus Gryposaurus changed Brown 's mind about the anatomy of his dinosaur 's snout . Going back through the fragments , he revised the previous reconstruction and gave it a Gryposaurus @-@ like arched nasal crest . He also synonymized Gryposaurus with Kritosaurus , a move supported by Charles Gilmore . This synonymy was used through the 1920s ( William Parks 's designation of a Canadian species as Kritosaurus incurvimanus , now considered a synonym of Gryposaurus notabilis ) and became standard after the publication of Richard Swann Lull and Nelda Wright 's 1942 monograph on North American hadrosaurids . From this time until 1990 , Kritosaurus would be composed of at least the type species K. navajovius , K. incurvimanus , and K. notabilis , the former type species of Gryposaurus . The poorly known species Hadrosaurus breviceps ( Marsh , 1889 ) , known from a dentary from the Campanian @-@ age Judith River Formation of Montana , was also assigned to Kritosaurus by Lull and Wright , but this is no longer accepted .
By the late 1970s and early 1980s , Hadrosaurus had entered the discussion as a possible synonym of either Kritosaurus , Gryposaurus , or both , particularly in semi @-@ technical " dinosaur dictionaries " . David B. Norman 's The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs , uses Kritosaurus for the Canadian material ( Gryposaurus ) , but identifies the mounted skeleton of K. incurvimanus as Hadrosaurus . One more species was added to Kritosaurus in these years . In 1984 , Argentine paleontologist José Bonaparte and colleagues named Kritosaurus australis for hadrosaur bones from the late Campanian @-@ early Maastrichtian Los Alamitos Formation of Rio Negro , Patagonia , Argentina . This species is now thought to be a synonym of Secernosaurus koerneri .
= = = Splitting genera = = =
The history of Kritosaurus took another turn in 1990 , when Jack Horner and David B. Weishampel once again separated Gryposaurus , citing the uncertainty associated with the latter 's partial skull . Horner in 1992 described two more skulls from New Mexico that he claimed belonged to Kritosaurus and showed that it was quite different from Gryposaurus , but the following year Adrian Hunt and Spencer G. Lucas put each skull in its own genus , creating Anasazisaurus and Naashoibitosaurus .
Adrian Hunt and Spencer G. Lucas , American paleontologists , named Anasazisaurus horneri in 1993 . The name was derived from the Anasazi , an ancient Native American people , and the Greek word sauros ( " lizard " ) . The Anasazi were famous for their cliff @-@ dwellings , such as those in Chaco Canyon , near the location of fossil Anasazisaurus remains . The term " Anasazi " itself is actually a Navajo language word , anaasází ( " enemy ancestors " ) . The species was named in honor of Jack Horner , the American paleontologist who first described the skull in 1992 . The holotype skull ( and only known specimen ) was collected in the late 1970s by a Brigham Young University field party working in San Juan County , and is housed at BYU as BYU 12950 .
Horner originally assigned the Anasazisaurus skull to Kritosaurus navajovius , but Hunt and Lucas could not find any diagnostic features in the limited material of Kritosaurus and judged the genus to be a nomen dubium . Since the Anasazisaurus skull did have diagnostic features of its own , and did not appear to them to share any unique features with Kritosaurus , it was given the new name Anasazisaurus horneri , an opinion which was supported by some later authors . Not all authors have agreed with this , Thomas E. Williamson in particular defending Horner 's original interpretation , and several subsequent studies recognized both distinct genera .
A comprehensive study of known Kritosaurus material published by Albert Prieto @-@ Márquez in 2013 upheld the status of Naashoibitosaurus as a distinct genus , but found that the type specimens of Kritosaurus and Anasazisaurus were indistinguishable when comparing overlapping elements ( i.e. only those bones preserved in both specimens ) . Prieto @-@ Márquez therefore regarded Anasazisaurus as a synonym of Kritosaurus , but retained it as the distinct species K. horneri .
The synonymization of Kritosaurus and Gryposaurus that lasted from the 1910s to 1990 led to a distorted picture of what the original Kritosaurus material represented . Because the Canadian material was much more complete , most representations and discussions of Kritosaurus from the 1920s to 1990 are actually more applicable to Gryposaurus . This includes , for example , James Hopson 's discussion of hadrosaur cranial ornamentation , and the adaptation of this for the public in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs .
= = Paleoecology = =
Kritosaurus was discovered in the De @-@ na @-@ zin Member of the Kirtland Formation . This formation dates from the late Campanian stages of the Late Cretaceous Period ( 74 to 70 million years ago ) , and is also the source of several other dinosaurs , like Alamosaurus , a species of Parasaurolophus , Pentaceratops , Nodocephalosaurus , Saurornitholestes , and Bistahieversor . The Kirtland Formation is interpreted as river floodplains appearing after a retreat of the Western Interior Seaway . Conifers were the dominant plants , and chasmosaurine horned dinosaurs appear to have been more common than hadrosaurids . The presence of Parasaurolophus and Kritosaurus in northern latitude fossil sites may represent faunal exchange between otherwise distinct northern and southern biomes in Late Cretaceous North America . Both taxa are uncommon outside of the southern biome , where , along with Pentaceratops , they are predominate members of the fauna .
The geographic range of Kritosaurus remains in North America was expanded by the discovery of bones from the late Campanian @-@ age Aguja Formation of Texas , including a skull . Additionally , a partial skull from Coahuila , Mexico has been referred to K. navajovius . A partial skeleton from the Sabinas Basin in Mexico was described as Kritosaurus sp. by Jim Kirkland and colleagues , but considered an indeterminate saurolophine by Prieto @-@ Márquez ( 2013 ) . This skeleton is about 20 % larger than other known specimens , around 11 meters [ 36 ft ] long , and with a distinctively curved ischium , and represents the largest known well @-@ documented North American saurolophine . Unfortunately , the nasal bones are also incomplete in the skull remains from this material .
Since the 1930s , Barnum Brown described that an unsubscribed species of Kritosaurus had inhabited the late Maastrichtian Ojo Alamo Formation , the Javelina Formation in Texas and the El Picacho Formation , which was a flood plain type environment at the time of the Cretaceous . However , it should be noted that these fossils might be of an unknown species of hadrosaur or an undescribed specimen of Kritosaurus . This genus lived alongside numerous species of dinosaurs including the sauropod Alamosaurus , the ceratopsians Bravoceratops , Ojoceratops , Torosaurus and a possible species of Eotriceratops , hadrosaurs which included a possible species of Edmontosaurus annectens , Saurolophus and Gryposaurus and the armored nodosaur Glyptodontopelta . Theropods from this environment which included Tyrannosaurus , smaller theropods like a species of Troodon and Richardoestesia , the oviraptorid Ojoraptorsaurus , indeterminate ornithomimids and dromaeosaurs . Non @-@ dinosaur species that had shared the same environment with Kritosaurus included the giant pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus , various species of fishes and rays , amphibians , lizards , turtles like Adocus , and multiple species of mammals like Alphadon and Mesodma .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
As a hadrosaurid , Kritosaurus would have been a large bipedal / quadrupedal herbivore , eating plants with a sophisticated skull that permitted a grinding motion analogous to chewing . Its teeth were continually replacing and packed into dental batteries that contained hundreds of teeth , only a relative handful of which were in use at any time . Plant material would have been cropped by its broad beak , and held in the jaws by a cheek @-@ like organ . Feeding would have been from the ground up to ~ 4 meters ( 13 ft ) above . If it was a separate genus , how it would have partitioned resources with the similar and contemporaneous Naashoibitosaurus is unknown .
= = = Nasal crest = = =
The nasal crest of Kritosaurus , whatever its true form , may have been used for a variety of social functions , such as identification of sexes or species and social ranking . There may have been inflatable air sacs flanking it for both visual and auditory signaling .
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= Ballad ( Glee ) =
" Ballad " is the tenth episode of the American television series Glee . The episode premiered on the Fox network on November 18 , 2009 , and was written and directed by series creator Brad Falchuk . " Ballad " sees the glee club split into pairs to sing ballads to one another . Rachel ( Lea Michele ) is paired with club director Will ( Matthew Morrison ) and develops a crush on him . Quinn 's ( Dianna Agron ) parents learn that Quinn is pregnant , and she moves in with Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and his mother when her own parents evict her . Gregg Henry and Charlotte Ross guest @-@ star as Quinn 's parents Russell and Judy Fabray , and Sarah Drew appears as Suzy Pepper , a student with a former crush on Will . Romy Rosemont returns as Finn 's mother , Carole Hudson .
The episode features covers of seven songs , including a mash @-@ up of " Don 't Stand So Close to Me " by The Police and " Young Girl " by Gary Puckett and The Union Gap . Studio recordings of all songs performed in the episode were released as singles , available for digital download . " Ballad " was watched by 7 @.@ 29 million US viewers and received mixed reviews from critics . Elizabeth Holmes of The Wall Street Journal and Liz Pardue of Zap2it were disappointed that Jane Lynch did not appear as Sue Sylvester , though Mike Hale of the New York Times did not miss her presence . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle deemed " Ballad " one of the best episodes of Glee to date . Dan Snierson of Entertainment Weekly did not enjoy it as much as the preceding episode " Wheels " but reviewed the episode positively overall , while Eric Zorn of the Chicago Tribune deemed it " deliriously , deliciously bad " .
" Ballad " was the episode submission of Dianna Agron for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series , but her nomination failed to make the final cut .
= = Plot = =
Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) has the club split up into pairs to sing ballads to one another . As Matt Rutherford ( Dijon Talton ) is absent , Will is forced to take his place and sing with Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , who develops a crush on him . Will is dismayed , remembering Suzy Pepper ( Sarah Drew ) , the last student who had such strong feelings for him . When her feelings were not reciprocated , she was so distraught she ate an extremely hot pepper from Mexico , was hospitalized , and had to have an esophagus transplant . Rachel visits Will 's apartment , where his wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) puts her to work cooking and cleaning . After an encounter with Suzy Pepper , during which Suzy explains that the two of them are similar and that chasing after Will won 't repair Rachel 's self @-@ esteem , Rachel realizes her feelings for Will reflect her concerns about her own self @-@ worth , and apologizes for her behavior . Afterward , Will assures her that she will find the man of her dreams who loves her for who she is .
Finn is paired with Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) , who advises him to sing his ballad to his unborn daughter . When Finn 's mother Carole ( Romy Rosemont ) finds him singing to a sonogram video , she deduces that his girlfriend Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) is pregnant . Finn has dinner with Quinn and her parents Russell and Judy ( Gregg Henry and Charlotte Ross ) , and reveals Quinn 's pregnancy to them in song . Russell says he is extremely disappointed in his daughter and evicts Quinn from the family home ; she moves in with Finn and his mother . Kurt feels responsible for encouraging Finn to reveal the truth and apologizes ; when Finn asks him what ballad Kurt was planning to sing to him , Kurt says it is " I Honestly Love You " . Puck ( Mark Salling ) tells his ballad partner Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) that he is the father of Quinn 's baby , and Mercedes advises him to leave Quinn alone . The glee club then comes together to sing " Lean on Me " in support of Finn and Quinn .
= = Production = =
" Ballad " was written and directed by series creator Brad Falchuk . Recurring characters who appear in the episode are glee club members Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) and Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) . Romy Rosemont plays Finn 's mother Carole Hudson , her first appearance since the series ' second episode , and Gregg Henry and Charlotte Ross guest @-@ star as Quinn 's parents , Russell and Judy Fabray . Sarah Drew is Suzy Pepper , a student with " an insane , absurd , psychotic crush on Mr. Schuester " . Drew described Suzy as " kind of stalkerish and creepy " , but ultimately redeemable .
The episode features cover versions of " Endless Love " by Diana Ross and Lionel Richie , " I 'll Stand by You " by The Pretenders , " Crush " by Jennifer Paige , " ( You 're ) Having My Baby " by Paul Anka and Odia Coates , " Lean on Me " by Bill Withers , and a mash @-@ up of " Don 't Stand So Close to Me " by The Police and " Young Girl " by Gary Puckett and The Union Gap . Studio recordings of all songs performed in the episode were released as singles , available for digital download , and are also included on the album Glee : The Music , Volume 2 . " Endless Love " charted at number 87 in Canada , and 78 in America . " I 'll Stand by You " reached number 65 in Canada and 73 in America , while " Don 't Stand So Close to Me / Young Girl " charted at number 67 in Canada and 64 in America .
Monteith and Agron were not allowed to attend rehearsals for the episode 's final musical performance , " Lean on Me " , as Falchuk wanted their reactions to seem real . Both were brought to tears by the performance , with co @-@ star Jenna Ushkowitz commenting : " It 's special to have those kinds of touching moments where you can get real , raw emotions on screen . "
= = Reception = =
" Ballad " was watched by 7 @.@ 29 million US viewers and attained a 3 @.@ 2 / 8 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . It was the highest @-@ rated program on the night of broadcast with adults 18 – 34 and teens . In Canada , it was the twentieth most watched show in the week of broadcast , attaining 1 @.@ 74 million viewers . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 149 million viewers ( 1 @.@ 752 million on E4 , and 397 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 ) , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 and E4 + 1 for the week , and one of the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week , as well as the most @-@ watched episode of the series at the time .
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Elizabeth Holmes for The Wall Street Journal was disappointed that cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester did not appear in the episode , though was pleased that the pregnancy plot appeared to be coming to an end . Bobby Hankinson for the Houston Chronicle was also pleased the pregnancy plot moved towards a conclusion , and called " Ballad " one of the best episodes of Glee to date , commenting : " it 's increasingly clear that the episodes without the messy adult drama are the strongest . " Eric Goldman for IGN observed that " Ballad " proved Glee is capable of delivering a " pretty solid " episode without Jane Lynch 's presence , rating the episode 8 / 10 . Zap2it 's Liz Pardue felt the absence of Lynch , but praised Chris Colfer 's performance as Kurt .
Mike Hale of the New York Times did not miss Sue 's presence in the episode , and wrote that " Ballad " contained some scenes which were " as honestly emotional as any since this series began , most of them involving Kurt and Finn " . Gerrick D. Kennedy for the Los Angeles Times appreciated the episode for subverting expectations , by having Finn 's mother react supportively to the news of Quinn 's pregnancy , rather than the more affluent and financially capable Fabrays . Dan Snierson for Entertainment Weekly opined that " Ballad " was not as good as the preceding episode , " Wheels " , but that overall : " it did offer up a few choice cuts and fun moments while advancing one big story line " . James Poniewozik of Time agreed that " Ballad " was not as good as " Wheels " , commenting : " it 's amazing how Glee can career from excruciating to transcendent within a single episode . " The Chicago Tribune 's Eric Zorn , watching Glee for the first time , deemed the episode " deliriously , deliciously bad " , deriding the casting of young adult actors as teenagers , the " one @-@ dimensional stock characters " and the " kitschy plots " . Zorn questioned : " So do people actually like this show , or just revel in its over @-@ the @-@ top , spectacular and , I admit , compelling badness ? "
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= National Gallery =
The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster , in Central London . Founded in 1824 , it houses a collection of over 2 @,@ 300 paintings dating from the mid @-@ 13th century to 1900 . The Gallery is an exempt charity , and a non @-@ departmental public body of the Department for Culture , Media and Sport . Its collection belongs to the public of the United Kingdom and entry to the main collection is free of charge . It is among the most visited art museums in the world , after the Musée du Louvre , the British Museum , and the Metropolitan Museum of Art .
Unlike comparable museums in continental Europe , the National Gallery was not formed by nationalising an existing royal or princely art collection . It came into being when the British government bought 38 paintings from the heirs of John Julius Angerstein , an insurance broker and patron of the arts , in 1824 . After that initial purchase the Gallery was shaped mainly by its early directors , notably Sir Charles Lock Eastlake , and by private donations , which comprise two @-@ thirds of the collection . The resulting collection is small in size , compared with many European national galleries , but encyclopaedic in scope ; most major developments in Western painting " from Giotto to Cézanne " are represented with important works . It used to be claimed that this was one of the few national galleries that had all its works on permanent exhibition , but this is no longer the case .
The present building , the third to house the National Gallery , was designed by William Wilkins from 1832 to 1838 . Only the façade onto Trafalgar Square remains essentially unchanged from this time , as the building has been expanded piecemeal throughout its history . Wilkins 's building was often criticised for the perceived weaknesses of its design and for its lack of space ; the latter problem led to the establishment of the Tate Gallery for British art in 1897 . The Sainsbury Wing , an extension to the west by Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown , is a notable example of Postmodernist architecture in Britain . The current Director of the National Gallery is Gabriele Finaldi .
= = History = =
= = = The call for a National Gallery = = =
The late 18th century saw the nationalisation of royal or princely art collections across mainland Europe . The Bavarian royal collection ( now in the Alte Pinakothek , Munich ) opened to the public in 1779 , that of the Medici in Florence around 1789 ( as the Uffizi Gallery ) , and the Museum Français at the Louvre was formed out of the former French royal collection in 1793 . Great Britain , however , did not emulate the continental model , and the British Royal Collection remains in the sovereign 's possession today . In 1777 the British government had the opportunity to buy an art collection of international stature , when the descendants of Sir Robert Walpole put his collection up for sale . The MP John Wilkes argued for the government to buy this " invaluable treasure " and suggested that it be housed in " a noble gallery ... to be built in the spacious garden of the British Museum " Nothing came of Wilkes 's appeal and 20 years later the collection was bought in its entirety by Catherine the Great ; it is now to be found in the State Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg .
A plan to acquire 150 paintings from the Orléans collection , which had been brought to London for sale in 1798 , also failed , despite the interest of both the King and the Prime Minister , Pitt the Younger . The twenty @-@ five paintings from that collection now in the Gallery , including " NG1 " , have arrived by a variety of routes . In 1799 the dealer Noel Desenfans offered a ready @-@ made national collection to the British government ; he and his partner Sir Francis Bourgeois had assembled it for the king of Poland , before the Third Partition in 1795 abolished Polish independence . This offer was declined and Bourgeois bequeathed the collection to his old school , Dulwich College , on his death . The collection opened in Britain 's first purpose @-@ built public gallery , the Dulwich Picture Gallery , in 1814 . The Scottish dealer William Buchanan and another collector , Joseph Count Truchsess , both formed art collections expressly as the basis for a future national collection , but their respective offers ( made in the same year , 1803 ) were also declined .
Following the Walpole sale many artists , including James Barry and John Flaxman , had made renewed calls for the establishment of a National Gallery , arguing that a British school of painting could only flourish if it had access to the canon of European painting . The British Institution , founded in 1805 by a group of aristocratic connoisseurs , attempted to address this situation . The members lent works to exhibitions that changed annually , while an art school was held in the summer months . However , as the paintings that were lent were often mediocre , some artists resented the Institution and saw it as a racket for the gentry to increase the sale prices of their Old Master paintings . One of the Institution 's founding members , Sir George Beaumont , Bt , would eventually play a major role in the National Gallery 's foundation by offering a gift of 16 paintings .
In 1823 another major art collection came on the market , which had been assembled by the recently deceased John Julius Angerstein . Angerstein was a Russian @-@ born émigré banker based in London ; his collection numbered 38 paintings , including works by Raphael and Hogarth 's Marriage à @-@ la @-@ mode series . On 1 July 1823 George Agar Ellis , a Whig politician , proposed to the House of Commons that it purchase the collection . The appeal was given added impetus by Beaumont 's offer , which came with two conditions : that the government buy Angerstein 's collection , and that a suitable building was to be found . The unexpected repayment of a war debt by Austria finally moved the government to buy Angerstein 's collection , for £ 57 @,@ 000 .
= = = Foundation and early history = = =
The National Gallery opened to the public on 10 May 1824 , housed in Angerstein 's former townhouse at No. 100 Pall Mall . Angerstein 's paintings were joined in 1826 by those from Beaumont 's collection , and in 1831 by the Reverend William Holwell Carr 's bequest of 35 paintings . Initially the Keeper of Paintings , William Seguier , bore the burden of managing the Gallery , but in July 1824 some of this responsibility fell to the newly formed board of trustees .
The National Gallery at Pall Mall was frequently overcrowded and hot and its diminutive size in comparison with the Louvre in Paris was the cause of national embarrassment . But Agar Ellis , now a trustee of the Gallery , appraised the site for being " in the very gangway of London " ; this was seen as necessary for the Gallery to fulfil its social purpose . Subsidence in No. 100 caused the Gallery to move briefly to No. 105 Pall Mall , which the novelist Anthony Trollope described as a " dingy , dull , narrow house , ill @-@ adapted for the exhibition of the treasures it held " . This in turn had to be demolished for the opening of a road to Carlton House Terrace .
In 1832 construction began on a new building by William Wilkins on the site of the King 's Mews in Charing Cross , in an area that had been transformed over the 1820s into Trafalgar Square . The location was a significant one , between the wealthy West End and poorer areas to the east . The argument that the collection could be accessed by people of all social classes outstripped other concerns , such as the pollution of central London or the failings of Wilkins 's building , when the prospect of a move to South Kensington was mooted in the 1850s . According to the Parliamentary Commission of 1857 , " The existence of the pictures is not the end purpose of the collection , but the means only to give the people an ennobling enjoyment " .
From 1837 until 1868 the Royal Academy was housed in the east wing of the building .
= = = Growth under Eastlake and his successors = = =
15th- and 16th @-@ century Italian paintings were at the core of the National Gallery and for the first 30 years of its existence the Trustees ' independent acquisitions were mainly limited to works by High Renaissance masters . Their conservative tastes resulted in several missed opportunities and the management of the Gallery later fell into complete disarray , with no acquisitions being made between 1847 and 1850 . A critical House of Commons Report in 1851 called for the appointment of a director , whose authority would surpass that of the trustees . Many thought the position would go to the German art historian Gustav Friedrich Waagen , whom the Gallery had consulted on previous occasions about the lighting and display of the collections . However , the man preferred for the job by Queen Victoria , Prince Albert and the Prime Minister , Lord Russell , was the Keeper of Paintings at the Gallery , Sir Charles Lock Eastlake , who was President of the Royal Academy , played an essential role in the foundation of the Arundel Society , and knew most of London 's leading art experts .
The new director ’ s taste was for the Northern and Early Italian Renaissance masters or " primitives " , who had been neglected by the Gallery ’ s acquisitions policy but were slowly gaining recognition from connoisseurs . Eastlake made annual tours to the continent and to Italy in particular , seeking out appropriate paintings to buy for the Gallery . In all , he bought 148 pictures abroad and 46 in Britain , among the former such seminal works as Paolo Uccello ’ s Battle of San Romano . Eastlake also amassed a private art collection during this period , consisting of paintings that he knew did not interest the trustees . His ultimate aim , however , was for them to enter the National Gallery ; this was duly arranged upon his death by his friend and successor as director , William Boxall , and his widow Lady Eastlake .
The Gallery ’ s lack of space remained acute in this period . In 1845 a large bequest of British paintings was made by Robert Vernon ; there was insufficient room in the Wilkins building so these were displayed first in Vernon ’ s town house at No. 50 Pall Mall and then at Marlborough House . The Gallery was even less well equipped for its next major bequest , as J. M. W. Turner was to bequeath the entire contents of his studio , excepting unfinished works , to the nation upon his death in 1851 . The first 20 of these were displayed off @-@ site in Marlborough House in 1856 . The stipulation in Turner 's will that two of his paintings be displayed alongside works by Claude is still honoured in Room 15 of the Gallery , but his bequest has never been adequately displayed in its entirety ; today the works are divided between Trafalgar Square and the Clore Gallery , a small purpose @-@ built extension to the Tate completed in 1985 .
The third director , Sir Frederick William Burton , laid the foundations of the collection of 18th @-@ century art and made several outstanding purchases from English private collections . The acquisition in 1885 of two paintings from Blenheim Palace , Raphael 's Ansidei Madonna and Van Dyck 's Equestrian Portrait of Charles I , with a record @-@ setting grant of £ 87 @,@ 500 from the Treasury , brought the Gallery 's " golden age of collecting " to an end , as its annual purchase grant was suspended for several years thereafter . When the Gallery purchased Holbein 's Ambassadors from the Earl of Radnor in 1890 , it did so with the aid of private individuals for the first time in its history . In 1897 the formation of the National Gallery of British Art , known unofficially from early in its history as the Tate Gallery , allowed some British works to be moved off @-@ site , following the precedent set by the Vernon collection and the Turner Bequest . Works by artists born after 1790 were moved to the new gallery on Millbank , which allowed Hogarth , Turner and Constable to remain in Trafalgar Square .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
The agricultural crisis at the turn of the 20th century caused many aristocratic families to sell their paintings , but the British national collections were priced out of the market by American plutocrats . This prompted the foundation of the National Art Collections Fund , a society of subscribers dedicated to stemming the flow of artworks to the United States . Their first acquisition for the National Gallery was Velázquez 's Rokeby Venus in 1906 , followed by Holbein 's Portrait of Christina of Denmark in 1909 . However , despite the crisis in aristocratic fortunes , the following decade was one of several great bequests from private collectors . In 1909 the industrialist Dr Ludwig Mond gave 42 Italian renaissance paintings , including the Mond Crucifixion by Raphael , to the Gallery . Other bequests of note were those of George Salting in 1910 , Austen Henry Layard in 1916 and Sir Hugh Lane in 1917 ; the last of these was one of the Gallery 's more controversial bequests .
In a rare example of the political protest for which Trafalgar Square is famous occurring in the National Gallery , the Rokeby Venus was damaged on 10 March 1914 by Mary Richardson , a campaigner for women 's suffrage , in protest against the arrest of Emmeline Pankhurst the previous day . Later that month another suffragette attacked five Bellinis , causing the Gallery to close until the start of the First World War , when the Women 's Social and Political Union called for an end to violent acts drawing attention to their plight .
The reception of Impressionist art at the Gallery got off to an exceptionally stormy start . In 1906 , Sir Hugh Lane promised 39 paintings , including Renoir 's Umbrellas , to the National Gallery on his death , unless a suitable building could be built in Dublin . Although eagerly accepted by the director Charles Holroyd , they were received with extreme hostility by the Trustees ; Lord Redesdale wrote that " I would as soon expect to hear of a Mormon service being conducted in St. Paul 's Cathedral as to see the exhibition of the works of the modern French Art @-@ rebels in the sacred precincts of Trafalgar Square " . Perhaps as a result of such attitudes , Lane amended his will with a codicil that the works should only go to Ireland , but crucially this was never witnessed . Lane died on board the RMS Lusitania in 1915 , and a dispute began which was not resolved until 1959 . Part of the collection is now on permanent loan to Dublin City Gallery ( " The Hugh Lane " ) and other works rotate between London and Dublin every few years .
A fund for the purchase of modern paintings established by Samuel Courtauld in 1923 bought Seurat 's Bathers at Asnières and other notable modern works for the nation ; in 1934 these transferred to the National Gallery from the Tate .
= = = World War II = = =
Shortly before the outbreak of World War II the paintings were evacuated to various locations in Wales , including Penrhyn Castle and the university colleges of Bangor and Aberystwyth . In 1940 , as the Battle of France raged , a more secure home was sought , and there were discussions about moving the paintings to Canada . This idea was firmly rejected by Winston Churchill , who wrote in a telegram to the director Kenneth Clark , “ bury them in caves or in cellars , but not a picture shall leave these islands ” . Instead a slate quarry at Manod , near Blaenau Ffestiniog in North Wales , was requisitioned for the Gallery 's use . In the seclusion afforded by the paintings ' new location , the Keeper ( and future director ) Martin Davies began to compile scholarly catalogues on the collection , helped by the fact that the Gallery 's library was also stored in the quarry . The move to Manod confirmed the importance of storing paintings at a constant temperature and humidity , something the Gallery 's conservators had long suspected but had hitherto been unable to prove . This eventually resulted in the first air @-@ conditioned gallery opening in 1949 .
For the course of the war Myra Hess , and other musicians , such as Moura Lympany , gave daily lunch @-@ time recitals in the empty building , to raise public morale at a time when every concert hall in London was closed . A number of art exhibitions were held at the Gallery as a complement to the recitals . The first of these was British Painting since Whistler in 1940 , organised by Lillian Browse , who also mounted the major joint retrospective Exhibition of Paintings by Sir William Nicholson and Jack B. Yeats held from 1 January – 15 March 1942 , which was seen by 10 @,@ 518 visitors . Exhibitions of work by war artists , including Paul Nash , Henry Moore and Stanley Spencer , were also held ; the War Artists ' Advisory Committee had been set up by Clark in order " to keep artists at work on any pretext " . In 1941 a request from an artist to see Rembrandt 's Portrait of Margaretha de Geer ( a new acquisition ) resulted in the " Picture of the Month " scheme , in which a single painting was removed from Manod and exhibited to the general public in the National Gallery each month . The art critic Herbert Read , writing that year , called the National Gallery " a defiant outpost of culture right in the middle of a bombed and shattered metropolis " . The paintings returned to Trafalgar Square in 1945 .
= = = Post @-@ war developments = = =
In the post @-@ war years , acquisitions have become increasingly difficult for the National Gallery as the prices for Old Masters – and even more so for the Impressionists and Post @-@ impressionists – have risen beyond its means . Some of the Gallery 's most significant purchases in this period would have been impossible without the major public appeals backing them , including The Virgin and Child with St. Anne and St. John the Baptist by Leonardo da Vinci ( bought in 1962 ) and Titian ’ s Death of Actaeon ( 1972 ) . The Gallery 's purchase grant from the government was frozen in 1985 , but later that year it received an endowment of £ 50 million from Sir Paul Getty , enabling many major purchases to be made . In April 1985 Lord Sainsbury of Preston Candover and his brothers , the Hon. Simon Sainsbury and Sir Timothy Sainsbury , had made a donation that would enable the construction of the Sainsbury Wing .
The directorship of Neil MacGregor saw a major rehang at the Gallery , dispensing with the classification of paintings by national school that had been introduced by Eastlake . The new chronological hang sought to emphasise the interaction between cultures rather than fixed national characteristics , reflecting the change in art historical values since the 19th century . In other respects , however , Victorian tastes were rehabilitated : the building 's interiors were no longer considered an embarrassment and were restored , and in 1999 the Gallery accepted a bequest of 26 Italian Baroque paintings from Sir Denis Mahon . Earlier in the 20th century many considered the Baroque to be beyond the pale : in 1945 the Gallery 's trustees declined to buy a Guercino from Mahon 's collection for £ 200 . The same painting was valued at £ 4 million in 2003 . Mahon 's bequest was made on the condition that the Gallery would never deaccession any of its paintings or charge for admission .
Since 1989 , the gallery has run a scheme that gives a studio to contemporary artists to create work based on the permanent collection . They usually hold the position of associate artist for two years and are given an exhibition in the National Gallery at the end of their tenure .
The respective remits of the National and Tate Galleries , which had long been contested by the two institutions , were more clearly defined in 1996 . 1900 was established as the cut @-@ off point for paintings in the National Gallery , and in 1997 more than 60 post @-@ 1900 paintings from the collection were given to the Tate on a long @-@ term loan , in return for works by Gauguin and others . However , future expansion of the National Gallery may yet see the return of 20th @-@ century paintings to its walls .
In the 21st century there have been three large fundraising campaigns at the Gallery : in 2004 , to buy Raphael ’ s Madonna of the Pinks , in 2008 , for Titian 's Diana and Actaeon , and in 2012 , Titian 's Diana and Callisto . Both Titians were bought in tandem with the National Gallery of Scotland for £ 95 m . Both of these major works were sold from the famous collection of the Duke of Sutherland . The National Gallery is now largely priced out of the market for Old Master paintings and can only make such acquisitions with the backing of major public appeals ; the departing director Charles Saumarez Smith expressed his frustration at this situation in 2007 .
In 2014 , the National Gallery was the subject of a documentary film by Frederick Wiseman . The film shows the gallery administration and staff at work , the conservation laboratory , docent tours , and the mounting of Leonardo Da Vinci , J. M. W. Turner , and Titian exhibitions in 2011 – 2012 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = William Wilkins ' building = = =
The first suggestion for a National Gallery on Trafalgar Square came from John Nash , who envisaged it on the site of the King 's Mews , while a Parthenon @-@ like building for the Royal Academy would occupy the centre of the square . Economic recession prevented this scheme from being built , but a competition for the Mews site was eventually held in 1831 , for which Nash submitted a design with C. R. Cockerell as his co @-@ architect . Nash 's popularity was waning by this time , however , and the commission was awarded to William Wilkins , who was involved in the selection of the site and submitted some drawings at the last moment . Wilkins had hoped to build a " Temple of the Arts , nurturing contemporary art through historical example " , but the commission was blighted by parsimony and compromise , and the resulting building was deemed a failure on almost all counts .
The site only allowed for the building to be one room deep , as a workhouse and a barracks lay immediately behind . To exacerbate matters , there was a public right of way through the site to these buildings , which accounts for the access porticoes on the eastern and western sides of the façade . These had to incorporate columns from the demolished Carlton House and their relative shortness result in an elevation that was deemed excessively low , and a far cry from the commanding focal point that was desired for the northern end of the Square . Also recycled are the sculptures on the façade , originally intended for Nash 's Marble Arch but abandoned due to his financial problems . The eastern half of the building housed the Royal Academy until 1868 , which further diminished the space afforded to the Gallery .
The building was the object of public ridicule before it had even been completed , as a version of the design had been leaked to the Literary Gazette in 1833 . Two years before completion , its infamous " pepperpot " elevation appeared on the frontispiece of Contrasts ( 1836 ) , an influential tract by the Gothicist A. W. N. Pugin , as an example of the degeneracy of the classical style . Even William IV ( in his last recorded utterance ) thought the building a " nasty little pokey hole " , while William Makepeace Thackeray called it " a little gin shop of a building " . The twentieth @-@ century architectural historian Sir John Summerson echoed these early criticisms when he compared the arrangement of a dome and two diminutive turrets on the roofline to " the clock and vases on a mantelpiece , only less useful " . Sir Charles Barry 's landscaping of Trafalgar Square , from 1840 , included a north terrace so that the building would appear to be raised , thus addressing one of the points of complaint . Opinion on the building had mellowed considerably by 1984 , when the Prince of Wales called the Wilkins façade a " much @-@ loved and elegant friend " , in contrast to a proposed extension . ( See below )
= = = Alteration and expansion ( Pennethorne , Barry and Taylor ) = = =
The first significant alteration made to the building was the single , long gallery added by Sir James Pennethorne in 1860 – 1 . Ornately decorated in comparison with the rooms by Wilkins , it nonetheless worsened the cramped conditions inside the building as it was built over the original entrance hall . Unsurprisingly , several attempts were made either to completely remodel the National Gallery ( as suggested by Sir Charles Barry in 1853 ) , or to move it to more capacious premises in Kensington , where the air was also cleaner . In 1867 Barry 's son Edward Middleton Barry proposed to replace the Wilkins building with a massive classical building with four domes . The scheme was a failure and contemporary critics denounced the exterior as " a strong plagiarism upon St Paul 's Cathedral " .
With the demolition of the workhouse , however , Barry was able to build the Gallery 's first sequence of grand architectural spaces , from 1872 to 1876 . Built to a polychrome Neo @-@ Renaissance design , the Barry Rooms were arranged on a Greek cross @-@ plan around a huge central octagon . Though it compensated for the underwhelming architecture of the Wilkins building , Barry 's new wing was disliked by Gallery staff , who considered its monumental aspect to be in conflict with its function as exhibition space . Also , the decorative programme of the rooms did not take their intended contents into account ; the ceiling of the 15th- and 16th @-@ century Italian gallery , for instance , was inscribed with the names of British artists of the 19th century . But despite these failures , the Barry Rooms provided the Gallery with a strong axial groundplan . This was to be followed by all subsequent additions to the Gallery for a century , resulting in a building of clear symmetry .
Pennethorne 's gallery was demolished for the next phase of building , a scheme by Sir John Taylor extending northwards of the main entrance . Its glass @-@ domed entrance vestibule had painted ceiling decorations by the Crace family firm , who had also worked on the Barry Rooms . A fresco intended for the south wall was never realised , and that space is now taken up by Frederic , Lord Leighton ’ s painting of Cimabue 's Celebrated Madonna carried in Procession through the Streets of Florence ( 1853 – 55 ) , lent by the Royal Collection in the 1990s .
= = = 20th century : modernisation versus restoration = = =
Later additions to the west came more steadily but maintained the coherence of the building by mirroring Barry 's cross @-@ axis plan to the east . The use of dark marble for doorcases was also continued , giving the extensions a degree of internal consistency with the older rooms . The classical style was still in use at the National Gallery in 1929 , when a Beaux @-@ Arts style gallery was built , funded by the art dealer and Trustee Lord Duveen . However , it was not long before the 20th @-@ century reaction against Victorian attitudes became manifest at the Gallery . From 1928 to 1952 the landing floors of Taylor 's entrance hall were relaid with a new series of mosaics by Boris Anrep , who was friendly with the Bloomsbury Group . These mosaics can be read as a satire on 19th @-@ century conventions for the decoration of public buildings , as typified by the Albert Memorial 's Frieze of Parnassus . The central mosaic depicting The Awakening of the Muses includes portraits of Virginia Woolf and Greta Garbo , subverting the high moral tone of its Victorian forebears . In place of Christianity 's seven virtues , Anrep offered his own set of Modern Virtues , including " Humour " and " Open Mind " ; the allegorical figures are again portraits of his contemporaries , including Winston Churchill , Bertrand Russell and T. S. Eliot .
In the 20th century the Gallery 's late Victorian interiors fell out of fashion . The Crace ceiling decorations in the entrance hall were not to the taste of the director Charles Holmes , and were obliterated by white paint . The North Galleries , which opened to the public in 1975 , marked the arrival of modernist architecture at the National Gallery . In the older rooms , the original classical details were effaced by partitions , daises and suspended roofs , the aim being to create neutral settings which did not distract from contemplation of the paintings . But the Gallery 's commitment to modernism was short @-@ lived : by the 1980s Victorian style was no longer considered anathema , and a restoration programme began to restore the 19th- and early @-@ 20th @-@ century interiors to their purported original appearance . This began with the refurbishment of the Barry Rooms in 1985 – 6 . From 1996 to 1999 even the North Galleries , by then considered to " lack a positive architectural character " were remodelled in a classical style , albeit a simplified one .
= = = Sainsbury Wing and later additions = = =
The most important addition to the building in recent years has been the Sainsbury Wing , designed by the postmodernist architects Robert Venturi and Denise Scott Brown to house the collection of Renaissance paintings , and built in 1991 . The building occupies the " Hampton 's site " to the west of the main building , where a department store of the same name had stood until its destruction in the Blitz . The Gallery had long sought expansion into this space and in 1982 a competition was held to find a suitable architect ; the shortlist included a radical high @-@ tech proposal by Richard Rogers , among others . The design that won the most votes was by the firm Ahrends , Burton and Koralek , who then modified their proposal to include a tower , similar to that of the Rogers scheme . The proposal was dropped after the Prince of Wales compared the design to a " monstrous carbuncle on the face of a much @-@ loved and elegant friend " , The term " monstrous carbuncle " , for a modern building that clashes with its surroundings , has since become commonplace .
One of the conditions of the 1982 competition was that the new wing had to include commercial offices as well as public gallery space . However , in 1985 it became possible to devote the extension entirely to the Gallery 's uses , due to a donation of almost £ 50 million from Lord Sainsbury and his brothers Simon and Sir Tim Sainsbury . A closed competition was held , and the schemes produced were noticeably more restrained than in the earlier competition .
In contrast with the rich ornamentation of the main building , the galleries in the Sainsbury Wing are pared @-@ down and intimate , to suit the smaller scale of many of the paintings . The main inspirations for these rooms are Sir John Soane 's toplit galleries for the Dulwich Picture Gallery and the church interiors of Filippo Brunelleschi ( the stone dressing is in pietra serena , the grey stone local to Florence ) . The northernmost galleries align with Barry 's central axis , so that there is a single vista down the whole length of the Gallery . This axis is exaggerated by the use of false perspective , as the columns flanking each opening gradually diminish in size until the visitor reaches the focal point ( as of 2009 ) , an altarpiece by Cima of The Incredulity of St Thomas . Venturi 's postmodernist approach to architecture is in full evidence at the Sainsbury Wing , with its stylistic quotations from buildings as disparate as the clubhouses on Pall Mall , the Scala Regia in the Vatican , Victorian warehouses and Ancient Egyptian temples .
Following the pedestrianisation of Trafalgar Square , the Gallery is currently engaged in a masterplan to convert the vacated office space on the ground floor into public space . The plan will also fill in disused courtyards and make use of land acquired from the adjoining National Portrait Gallery in St Martin 's Place , which it gave to the National Gallery in exchange for land for its 2000 extension . The first phase , the East Wing Project designed by Jeremy Dixon and Edward Jones , opened to the public in 2004 . This provided a new ground level entrance from Trafalgar Square , named in honour of Sir Paul Getty . The main entrance was also refurbished , and reopened in September 2005 . Possible future projects include a " West Wing Project " roughly symmetrical with the East Wing Project , which would provide a future ground level entrance , and the public opening of some small rooms at the far eastern end of the building acquired as part of the swap with the National Portrait Gallery . This might include a new public staircase in the bow on the eastern façade . No timetable has been announced for these additional projects .
= = Controversies = =
One of the most persistent criticisms of the National Gallery , apart from those who criticise inadequacies of the building , has been of its conservation policy . The Gallery 's detractors accused it of having had an over @-@ zealous approach to restoration . The first cleaning operation at the National Gallery began in 1844 after Eastlake 's appointment as Keeper , and was the subject of attacks in the press after the first three paintings to receive the treatment – a Rubens , a Cuyp and a Velázquez – were unveiled to the public in 1846 . The Gallery 's most virulent critic was J. Morris Moore , who wrote a series of letters to The Times under the pseudonym " Verax " savaging the institution 's cleanings . While an 1853 Parliamentary Select Committee set up to investigate the matter cleared the Gallery of any wrongdoing , criticism of its methods has been erupting sporadically ever since from some in the art establishment .
The last major outcry against the use of radical conservation techniques at the National Gallery was sixty @-@ six years ago in the immediate post @-@ war years , following a restoration campaign by Chief Restorer Helmut Ruhemann while the paintings were in Manod Quarry . When the cleaned pictures were exhibited to the public in 1946 there followed a furore with parallels to that of a century earlier . The principal criticism was that the extensive removal of varnish , which was used in the 19th century to protect the surface of paintings but which darkened and discoloured them with time , may have resulted in the loss of " harmonising " glazes added to the paintings by the artists themselves . The opposition to Ruhemann 's techniques was led by Ernst Gombrich , a professor at the Warburg Institute who in later correspondence with a restorer described being treated with " offensive superciliousness " by the National Gallery . A 1947 commission concluded that no damage had been done in the recent cleanings .
The National Gallery has also been criticised for misattributing paintings . Kenneth Clark 's decision in 1939 to relabel a group of paintings by anonymous artists of the Venetian school as works by Giorgione ( a crowd @-@ pulling artist due to the rarity of his paintings ) made him unpopular with his staff . More recently , the attribution of a 17th @-@ century painting of Samson and Delilah ( bought in 1980 ) to Rubens has been contested by a group of art historians , who believe that the National Gallery has not admitted the mistake to avoid embarrassing those who were involved in the purchase , many of whom still work for the Gallery .
In February 2014 , Men of the Docks , by U.S. artist George Bellows , was bought by the National Gallery for $ 25 @.@ 5 million ( £ 15 @.@ 6 million ) . It was the first major American painting to be purchased by the Gallery . Director Nicholas Penny termed the painting a new direction for the Gallery – a non @-@ European painting in a European style . Its sale was controversial in the U.S.
= = List of Directors of the National Gallery = =
= = Collection highlights = =
= = Transport connections = =
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= Interstate 194 ( Michigan ) =
Interstate 194 ( I @-@ 194 ) is a 3 @.@ 4 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) , north – south freeway between downtown Battle Creek and I @-@ 94 in the southern portion of the city . The highway has been designated the Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway by the state after the abolitionist Sojourner Truth , who was active in the Battle Creek area . Locals refer to the freeway by its semi @-@ official nickname , " The Penetrator " . I @-@ 194 is the only three @-@ digit spur or loop route off I @-@ 94 in the state of Michigan and runs concurrently throughout its length with M @-@ 66 , which continues both north and south from the termini of I @-@ 194 . The freeway was initially opened in 1961 and completed in its current form in 1966 . The highway was named in 1976 for Truth in honor of her local connections to the area .
= = Route description = =
Part of the much longer highway , I @-@ 194 starts when M @-@ 66 widens out to a full freeway just south of I @-@ 94 near Beckley Road . The start of I @-@ 194 is marked by the full cloverleaf interchange . It is numbered as exit 98 along I @-@ 94 and exit 1 using I @-@ 194 's mileage along the I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 freeway . The roadway crosses Minges Creek north of the I @-@ 94 interchange . To the west of the freeway are residential subdivisions ; the eastern side is marked by gently @-@ rolling , wooded terrain . This section of I @-@ 194 carries 26 @,@ 300 vehicles on an average day according to annual average daily traffic surveys done by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 2007 . Of these vehicles , 1 @,@ 200 trucks were included in the totals .
After crossing Golden Avenue , I @-@ 194 curves to the northwest to meet the M @-@ 96 ( Columbia Avenue ) interchange . The freeway runs underneath the Columbia Avenue overpass before running parallel to the west bank of the Kalamazoo River . The freeway crosses the river at the southern end of Lower Mill Pond . Curving back around to the northeast , I @-@ 194 meets Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 , Dickman Road ) . Here the AADT counts average 24 @,@ 400 vehicles a day . The freeway ends at an at @-@ grade intersection with Hamblin Avenue , and continuing north of the intersection , the highway becomes just M @-@ 66 . BL I @-@ 94 runs east of the freeway end on Hamblin Avenue to connect to Michigan Avenue . All of I @-@ 194 is listed on the National Highway System , a system of strategically important highways , and it is concurrent with M @-@ 66 for the length of the freeway .
= = History = =
From its initial opening in 1961 until 1964 , I @-@ 194 also carried the BL I @-@ 94 and M @-@ 78 designations . BL I @-@ 94 was rerouted in Battle Creek to Martin Luther King Drive and M @-@ 78 in 1964 , and M @-@ 78 was replaced by M @-@ 66 in 1965 . The last change to the I @-@ 194 routing was the extension of the northern end of the freeway from Columbia Avenue to Michigan Avenue in 1966 . At the time , MDOT 's predecessor , the Michigan State Highway Department , called all auxiliary Interstate Highways " Penetrator " when planning the freeway network in the state ; a name which stuck to I @-@ 194 .
Born Isabella Baumfree in 1797 , Sojourner Truth settled in the Battle Creek area in the 1840s . She travelled through the Midwest and New England speaking against slavery and for women 's rights . She lived in the area until her death in 1883 . Her connection to the state of Michigan was honored by the state American Revolution Bicentennial Commission in 1976 which urged the Michigan Legislature to name a highway in her honor . Public Act 93 of 1976 named all of M @-@ 66 in Calhoun County as the Sojourner Truth Memorial Highway . The highway was dedicated to her on May 21 , 1976 .
The Cereal City Development Corporation ( CCDC ) asked the Legislature to amend the memorial designation in 1993 . They felt the highway was better known to locals as The Penetrator , and they wished to restore emphasis to Truth , they asked for the " Sojourner Truth Downtown Parkway " name to be applied to " M @-@ 66 between Interstate 94 and Hamblin " . The Legislature passed Public Act 208 of 1993 to affect the change , restoring " the link between Sojourner Truth and the City of Battle Creek , which was once the center of abolitionist sentiment in the state . "
= = Exit list = =
The entire highway is in Battle Creek , Calhoun County .
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= Luminosity — Ignite the Night ! =
Luminosity — Ignite the Night ! , often shortened to Luminosity or previously called Luminosity , Powered by Pepsi , is a nighttime show performed nightly at Cedar Point amusement park in Sandusky , Ohio . It replaced American Portrait . The show opened for previews on June 1 , 2012 and held its grand @-@ opening one week later . It ran nightly at 9 : 15 until August 19 . In 2013 , the show will run every night except Tuesdays from May 31 – August 18 .
The show is free with admission to the park . During the day , the stage is used for the Peanuts ' Celebration at the Point show . It is also used during HalloWeekends for a show called Skeleton Crew .
= = History = =
Thoughts of a new way to improve the nighttime environment began in summer 2011 when the new Cedar Fair CEO , Matt Ouimet was in the park one night and thought they should add more lights and excitement . The goal was to create a new show that would energize the main midway with bright lights and music . Matt Ouimet first mentioned the show at a conference in January 2012 . Details of Luminosity were first announced at the PointBuzz winter tour of Cedar Point on February 25 , 2012 . The 3 @,@ 600 square foot screen used for American Portrait and Hot Summer Lights was taken down on February 28 because it was not needed for the new show . On April 13 , Cedar Point officially announced Luminosity . The show debuted on June 1 for previews and its grand opening was held on June 8 .
Cedar Point worked mainly with the Emmy Award @-@ Winning RWS and Associates and Chauvet Professional to build the production . They wanted RWS to bring in " the biggest , grandest and most expensive night show in Cedar Point 's history " . Award @-@ winning choreographer EJ Ferencak and Alicia Pociask were responsible for the choreography of the show . Installation took four months and rehearsal occupied three weeks . The park also worked with Chauvet to set up and program the lights , as well as the lights used on Millennium Force and Power Tower . In 2013 , Cedar Point will build the show " in @-@ house " , meaning RWS will not coordinate the show . In addition , the show will be performed every night except Tuesday .
= = Overview = =
As part of Luminosity , several enhancements to the midway and rides were made . A new LED lighting package , similar to the park 's WindSeeker , was installed on Millennium Force , Power Tower and the Giant Wheel . Towers with LED graphics and a new sound and light system were installed along the main midway from the front gate to Corkscrew . Gobo patterns are projected from the towers onto the midway and buildings . More than one million lights , including the lights on the stage , rides and buildings were added . Chauvet Professional supplied 700 lights for Luminosity . They also added 36 wash lights to the base of Millennium Force and 16 lights to the base and top of Power Tower .
The three @-@ story stage runs parallel to the midway . The back of the stage is 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) high and the length is 75 feet ( 23 m ) long . Several screens are located on behind the main stage with two showing close @-@ ups of the performers on the sides of the stage . The stage has video walls made of one @-@ hundred twelve MVP 18 and thirty @-@ seven MVP 37 @.@ 5 modular video panels . Two screens are next to the control booths and bleachers .
= = = Celebration Plaza = = =
The new show transformed Iron Dragon midway into a new area called Celebration Plaza . The area features curved edges . A new entrance and queueing area was built for Iron Dragon because the new stage occupies the old queue and entrance area . The control booths used for American Portrait were relocated to the side of the midway . On May 2 , 2012 it was announced that WildCat would be removed before opening day to expand Celebration Plaza and bleachers were added in its spot . A new concession area with patio seating was built on the left side of the control booth . During the show , a portion of the patio is blocked off as a V.I.P. seating area known as the Pepsi Fan Zone . In addition , a beer garden was added behind the control booth , to the left of the bleachers .
During the day , Luminosity performers do flash mobs , giving visitors a glimpse of the show . The stage for Luminosity is also used for a Peanuts show called Peanuts ' Celebration at the Point . Carly Rae Jepsen held a concert on the Luminosity stage on July 7 , 2012 . It was free with admission and was the first concert on the stage . The stage is also used during HalloWeekends for a show called Skeleton Crew .
= = The show = =
Luminosity starts at 9 : 00 pm every night and will run for about 25 minutes in 2013 , cut from 40 minutes previously . It features 25 dancers , 2 male and 2 female singers , 3 drummers , 2 cirque dancers and 2 D.J 's . In the middle of the midway , dancers are raised above the crowd . Iron Dragon is closed during the show . The show is included free with admission .
= = = Music = = =
Several types of new and old music are used in the show . Older songs are given a modern remix with a pop / rock arrangement . Guests are able to send text messages after the show requesting songs from the DJ 's playlist . About 20 songs are used in the show , including On the Floor by Jennifer Lopez , Moves like Jagger by Maroon 5 , The Edge of Glory by Lady Gaga , Sexy and I Know It by LMFAO , and Livin ' on a Prayer by Bon Jovi . The music relates to each segment . For example , Shut Up and Drive by Rihanna , Sweet Dreams by Beyonce Knowles , and Empire State of Mind by Jay @-@ Z are played during " Land Travel " . Come Sail Away by Styx is played during " Sea Travel " and E.T. by Katy Perry is played during " Space Travel " . Top Thrill Dragster 's theme song , Ready to Go by Republica , is also played during " Space Travel " .
= = = Opening = = =
Just prior to the start of the show , a clock counts down from 1 minute to the kick @-@ off . Music , similar to that in the show , is piped in . The stage is covered in fog . An announcement is followed by dancers moving to On the Floor by Jennifer Lopez .
= = = Segments = = =
The show is divided into three segments , each with lasers , flames and fireworks . Different props are used in each segment . The video content was designed by Bob Bonniol from Chauvet .
Land Travel
The first segment focuses on land and cityscapes . Motorcycles and cars appear on the screens on the stage . Video of Cedar Point 's roller coasters , including Millennium Force are played . The performers use umbrellas during a song in this segment .
Sea Travel
The second segment focuses on the Seas . Sounds of crashing waves can be heard . Waves and different fish and animals in the ocean can be seen on the screens . Cirque performers dressed as Sea Sirens are on the sides of the stage . Performers use sails at the beginning of this segment .
Space Travel
The third segment focuses on outer space . The segment starts with a countdown to a Space Shuttle launching . The point of view of astronauts landing on the moon is shown with the sound of mission control being heard . Aliens dancing are also shown on the screens .
= = = Finale = = =
Before the show ends , the DJ starts to rise from the front @-@ middle of the stage . Before quietly exiting , the performers use water drums . The show concludes with fireworks and pyrotechnics over the stage while " Firework " by Katy Perry , " Raise Your Glass " by P ! nk and " Party Rock Anthem " by LMFAO are played . The DJ then starts playing dance music and people can text shout @-@ outs that appear on the screens . Another DJ works from the balcony of the Ballroom in the Coliseum along the main midway .
= = Reception = =
Luminosity — Ignite the Night ! has mostly received positive reviews from the general public and enthusiasts . James Koehl from Theme Park Insider described it as " The kind of show that you can watch over and over from different vantage points and see a different show every time . " Jeff Putz , co @-@ creater of PointBuzz and creator of CoasterBuzz said " Luminosity succeeds in keeping the energy of the park 's guests very high until the moment they leave . " Putz along with others criticized the show as too long and having inconsistent singers .
Amusement Today award RWS the Golden Ticket Award for Supplier of the Year for its role in Luminosity . They were awarded the award for their " high @-@ octane energy and drive that made the vision of Luminosity at Cedar Point a huge show success " . Other parks such as Six Flags Great America and Darien Lake are adding a similar show in 2013 as a result of the popularity of Cedar Point 's Luminosity . Cedar Fair 's CEO , Matt Ouimet , has said that if the show is successful , the chain will look into expanding it to more of their parks . In an interview with Putz in January 2013 , Ouimet labeled the show as an " A " but would give it an " A + " with a few changes in the 2013 season .
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= Hope Solo =
Hope Amelia Solo ( born July 30 , 1981 ) is an American soccer goalkeeper , a two @-@ time Olympic gold medalist and a World Cup gold medalist . She has been goalkeeping for the United States women 's national soccer team since 2000 . After playing at the collegiate level for the University of Washington , she played professionally for the Philadelphia Charge in the Women 's United Soccer Association ( WUSA ) . When the WUSA folded after her first season , she traveled to Europe to play for the top division leagues in Sweden and France . From 2009 to 2011 , she played in the Women 's Professional Soccer ( WPS ) for Saint Louis Athletica , Atlanta Beat and magicJack . After the WPS ceased operations in early 2012 , she played for the Seattle Sounders in the W @-@ League . She currently plays for Seattle Reign FC in the National Women 's Soccer League , the top division of women 's soccer in the United States .
Solo is regarded as one of the top female goalkeepers in the world and currently holds the U.S. record for most career clean sheets . She was the starting goalkeeper for the majority of the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup and helped lead the U.S. national team to the semifinals having given up only two goals in four games , including three consecutive shutouts . After a controversial move made by head coach Greg Ryan to bench Solo in favor of veteran goalkeeper Briana Scurry for the semifinal , in which the United States was defeated 4 – 0 by Brazil , Solo made headlines with post @-@ game remarks that resulted in many teammates shunning her . She later rebounded to help the United States win gold medals at the 2008 and 2012 Summer Olympics . During the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup , her exceptional skill was highlighted especially during a quarter @-@ final match against Brazil , in which the U.S. defeated Brazil in penalty kicks . Although the team lost to Japan in an intensely close match that ended in penalties , Solo received the Golden Glove award for best goalkeeper as well as the Bronze Ball award for her overall performance at the tournament .
Following her performance at the 2011 World Cup , Solo participated in the television show Dancing with the Stars and posed for various magazines , most notably the " Body Issue " of ESPN The Magazine . After the 2012 London Olympics , where she received her second Olympic gold medal , she published her best @-@ selling autobiography Solo : A Memoir of Hope .
As the starting goalkeeper at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Solo helped the U.S. win the national team 's third World Cup championship since 1991 . The final was the most @-@ watched televised soccer game ever in the United States .
As of July 22 , 2016 , Solo holds several U.S. goalkeeper records including appearances ( 198 ) , starts ( 187 ) , wins ( 151 ) , shutouts ( 100 ) , wins in a season ( 26 ) , consecutive minutes played ( 1 @,@ 256 ) , and longest undefeated streak ( 55 games ) .
= = Early life = =
Solo was born in Richland , Washington on July 30 , 1981 to Judy Lynn ( née Shaw ) and Jeffrey Solo . Her father , an Italian @-@ American Vietnam War veteran , who was in and out of her life as a child and teenager , taught her how to play soccer at a young age . When Solo was seven , her father picked her and her brother Marcus up to go to a baseball game in the nearby city of Yakima , but ended up driving over three hours west to Seattle , where they stayed for several days at a hotel . Solo described how it seemed like a vacation at first , but soon realized it was not . Police later found them at a downtown bank and arrested Jeffrey for alleged kidnapping . Although her parents had divorced when she was six and she lived with her mother , Solo maintained a close relationship with her father after re @-@ connecting with him during her college years at the University of Washington . He continued to be a major influence in her life until his death of a heart attack in June 2007 .
As a forward at Richland High School , Solo scored 109 goals , leading her team to three consecutive league titles from 1996 to 1998 and a state championship during her senior year . She was twice named a Parade All American . Solo also played club soccer for the Three Rivers Soccer Club in the Tri @-@ Cities .
= = = Washington Huskies , 1999 – 2002 = = =
After being heavily recruited by several colleges around the country , Solo attended the University of Washington from 1999 to 2002 where she majored in speech communications . With the Huskies , she switched permanently to goalkeeper under the lead of head coach Lesle Gallimore and goalkeeper coach and former national team player , Amy Griffin . Solo described the transition in her memoir , " In high school , I had been the forward who won games . It was a huge mental adjustment to learn that my job was to save games . To anticipate what was needed . Before , I would stand in goal , the ball would come toward me , and I 'd use my athletic ability to make the save . But thanks to Amy 's tutelage and my time with the national team , I was becoming a much better tactical goalkeeper . I learned how to read my opponents ' runs toward goal , how to position my defenders , how to see the angles ... The intellectual side also made goalkeeping so much more interesting . It wasn 't just ninety minutes of waiting for my defense to make a mistake . It was ninety minutes of tactics and strategy . The personality traits that had been shaped by my childhood — resilience and toughness — were assets at the position . "
Solo became the top goalkeeper in Pac @-@ 10 history and finished her collegiate career as Washington ’ s all @-@ time leader in shutouts ( 18 ) , saves ( 325 ) and goals against average ( GAA ) ( 1 @.@ 02 ) . She was a four @-@ time All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 selection and was named an NSCAA All @-@ American as a sophomore , junior and senior . During her sophomore year , Solo was named Pac @-@ 10 Player of the Year becoming the first Washingtonian and first goalkeeper ever to receive the award . As a senior , she was the only goalkeeper nominated for the Hermann Trophy .
= = Club career = =
= = = WUSA and European professional leagues , 2003 – 05 = = =
Following her college career , Solo was selected in the first round ( fourth overall ) of the 2003 WUSA Draft by the Philadelphia Charge . She spent most of her first professional season on the bench playing in eight games . Solo started the last three games of the season and earned her first professional shutout against the Atlanta Beat . She also shut out eventual league champions , the Washington Freedom led by top scorers , Mia Hamm and Abby Wambach . After the WUSA folded following the 2003 season just six days before the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Solo moved to Göteborg , Sweden in February 2004 to play for Kopparbergs / Göteborg FC in the Swedish Premier Division , the top division of women 's soccer in Sweden . For ten months , she played in two games a week , making 19 appearances in goal for Göteborg in 2004 . In 2005 , she played for Olympique Lyonnais in the French First Division . She made seven appearances for the French club . Solo said of her experience in Europe , " I played in Europe and it was a great experience , not just because of my teammates and the coaches we had , but from the fans and the city itself – I played in Gothenburg and I played in Lyon and soccer was everywhere . At that time in my life , it really jump @-@ started my career and really helped me find myself as a person and player . "
= = = The WPS years , 2009 – 11 = = =
= = = = Saint Louis Athletica = = = =
On September 16 , 2008 , Solo was one of three national team players allocated to the Saint Louis Athletica in the WPS as part of the 2008 WPS Player Allocation , with the new league slated to begin play in April 2009 . Solo let in six goals in the first four games as Athletica got off to a very slow 0 – 2 – 2 start in their first season . She conceded eight goals in her next 13 games and finished the season with eight shutouts , helping lead the Athletica from the bottom of the standings to finish second place and secure a playoff spot .
After the 2009 season , Solo was named the WPS Goalkeeper of the Year . She also became the first goalkeeper to be named U.S. Soccer Female Athlete of the Year , the highest honor awarded to a soccer player in the United States .
= = = = Atlanta Beat = = = =
In May 2010 , the Saint Louis Athletica folded and Solo signed with WPS expansion team , Atlanta Beat , along with her St. Louis teammates , Tina Ellertson and Eniola Aluko . As her previous jersey number was taken ( 1 ) , she wore 78 for the Beat . Solo 's comments on social networking website Twitter led to two separate controversies after she accused Boston Breakers supporters of offensive chanting and racist remarks toward a teammate , then questioned the integrity of match officials and the league itself following the Beat 's 1 – 0 defeat to Washington Freedom . The second outburst resulted in a $ 2 @,@ 500 fine and one @-@ game suspension .
Solo played in 22 WPS matches in 2010 for both the Athletica and the Beat and was the league @-@ leader in saves with 104 . The two @-@ time WPS All @-@ Star also ranked among the top three in shutouts ( 6 ) , wins ( 6 ) , and goals against average ( 1 @.@ 64 ) . After the end of the 2010 season , Solo underwent surgery on her right shoulder on September 22 . " These next two years are huge for the national team with the World Cup and Olympics on the horizon and I wanted to make sure that I would be giving my team and my country my best on the field , " Solo said of the surgery . " I 've been having some painful issues with the shoulder for a while and for a goalkeeper it 's been difficult physically and mentally to play with this kind of an injury , so it was time to get it taken care of . "
= = = = magicJack = = = =
Ahead of the 2011 Women 's Professional Soccer season , Solo signed for magicJack , formerly the Washington Freedom under new ownership . Between her shoulder surgery recovery , national team commitments and preparation for the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Solo missed a significant part of the season . She made four appearances for the club , tallying a total of 360 minutes . After the season ended , the club lost its franchise on October 25 , 2011 . The league later suspended operations in early 2012 because of legal and financial difficulties .
= = = Seattle Sounders Women , 2012 = = =
On February 14 , 2012 , it was announced that Solo had signed with the Seattle Sounders Women . Joining the club the same year were national teammates Alex Morgan , Megan Rapinoe , and Sydney Leroux . Sounders Women general manager , Amy Carnell , said of the signing , " Hope is undoubtedly the best women 's keeper in the game today . Her signing represents the caliber player Sounders Women 's fans can expect in 2012 . As the landscape of women 's soccer continues to evolve , we realize the unique opportunity before us . " Because of national team commitments and preparation for the 2012 Summer Olympics , Solo made three appearances for the club , tallying a total of 261 minutes . Her goals against average was 0 @.@ 344 , she made five saves and had one shutout . With the addition of Solo and her national team teammates , the Sounders sold out nine of their ten home matches at Starfire Stadium ( capacity : 4 @,@ 500 ) . The average attendance during league matches was four times higher than the second most attended team in the league .
= = = NWSL : a new era , 2013 – present = = =
= = = = Seattle Reign FC = = = =
On January 19 , 2013 it was announced that Solo was one of three members from the United States national team , along with Megan Rapinoe and Amy Rodriguez , allocated to the Seattle Reign FC for the inaugural season of the National Women 's Soccer League , as part of the NWSL Player Allocation . Two months later , it was reported that she was undergoing wrist surgery and would miss about half the season because of recovery . Joining news that Amy Rodriguez would be out for the season because of pregnancy and Megan Rapinoe would be returning mid @-@ season after a six @-@ month stint for Olympique Lyonnais , the Reign faced a tough first half of the season and went 0 – 9 – 1 in their first ten games . With the return of Solo , Rapinoe , and some additional lineup changes made during the early summer , the Reign turned their regular season record around and finished the season in seventh place with a 5 – 14 – 3 record . Solo started in all 14 matches in which she played with a 1 @.@ 357 goals against average . She made 81 saves and tallied 1 @,@ 260 minutes in goal .
In October 2013 Solo was linked with a transfer to English club Manchester City . Despite the relatively high salary reportedly offered by Manchester , Reign FC coach Laura Harvey expected Solo to return to the NWSL for 2014 , to safeguard her place in the national team .
Solo returned to the Reign for the 2014 season . The team set a league record unbeaten streak of 16 games during the first part of the season . During the 16 game stretch , the Reign compiled a 13 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 record . The Reign finished first in the regular season clinching the NWSL Shield for the first time . After defeating the Washington Spirit 2 @-@ 1 in the playoff semi @-@ finals , the Reign were defeated 2 @-@ 1 by FC Kansas City during the championship final . Following the regular season , Solo and Reign defenders Lauren Barnes and Stephanie Cox were named to the Second XI team . Solo finished the 2014 season with 65 saves in 20 games played and a .900 goals against average .
= = International career = =
Solo played for U.S. junior national soccer teams before joining the senior U.S. national team in 2000 . Her senior debut came in an 8 – 0 win over Iceland at Davidson , North Carolina in April 2000 . In 2004 , Solo joined the national team at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens as an alternate behind primary goalkeeper Brianna Scurry and backup Kristin Luckenbill . Solo has been the team 's first choice goalkeeper since 2005 . She holds the national team record for longest undefeated streak as a goalkeeper with 55 games from March 7 , 2002 to July 16 , 2008 .
= = = 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = =
Solo was the starting goalkeeper for the United States in the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup , giving up two goals in four games including consecutive shutouts of Sweden , Nigeria and England . Heading into the semifinal match against Brazil , U.S. coach Greg Ryan benched Solo in favor of 36 @-@ year @-@ old veteran U.S. keeper Briana Scurry , who had a strong history of performance against the Brazilians but had not played a complete game in three months . The U.S. lost to Brazil 4 – 0 , ending a 51 – game ( regulation time ) undefeated streak , while playing much of the match with only 10 players after midfielder Shannon Boxx was sent off after receiving two yellow cards in the first half .
= = = = Post @-@ 2007 World Cup fallout = = = =
In an impromptu interview following the match , a clearly upset Solo criticized Ryan 's decision . " It was the wrong decision , and I think anybody that knows anything about the game knows that . There 's no doubt in my mind I would have made those saves . And the fact of the matter is it 's not 2004 anymore . It 's not 2004 . And it 's 2007 , and I think you have to live in the present . And you can 't live by big names . You can 't live in the past . It doesn 't matter what somebody did in an Olympic gold medal game in the Olympics three years ago . Now is what matters , and that 's what I think . " Many viewed her comments as being critical of Scurry 's performance , although Solo released an apologetic statement the following day saying that was not her intent . On September 29 , 2007 , coach Greg Ryan announced that Solo would not be with the team and would not play in the third @-@ place match against Norway the following day . Team captain Kristine Lilly stated that the decision on Solo was made by the team as a group . The U.S. went on to win against Norway 4 – 1 .
Solo was named to the U.S. women 's national soccer team roster for the post @-@ World Cup tour , but did not attend the first workout ahead of the first game against Mexico . Even though the players ' contract with the federation stipulated that anyone on the World Cup roster had the right to play in the tour , she did not play in any of the three games against Mexico , being replaced by Briana Scurry for the first and third matches , and Nicole Barnhart for the second . The third match against Mexico , on October 20 , 2007 , marked the end of the U.S. women 's national team 's 2007 season . The team regrouped in January 2008 to begin preparations for the 2008 Summer Olympics . Ryan left the team after his contract was not renewed in December 2007 .
= = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
On June 23 , 2008 , it was announced Solo would be the starting goalkeeper for the U.S. team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . In a reversal of roles from the 2004 Olympics , Briana Scurry did not make the team , though she was an alternate . On August 21 , the U.S. women 's team won the gold medal by defeating Brazil 1 – 0 in extra time , in no small measure due to Solo 's performance as she stopped an energetic Brazilian attack , making save after save . After the team won gold , Solo appeared on NBC Today Show , and she stated in a 2012 article appearing in ESPN The Magazine that she was drunk while on air . " When we were done partying , we got out of our dresses , got back into our stadium coats and , at 7 a.m. with no sleep , went on the Today show drunk . "
= = = 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = =
Despite missing much of the qualifying campaign with a shoulder injury , Solo was named to the U.S. roster for the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Germany . After keeping clean sheets in group C wins over North Korea and Colombia , Solo conceded two goals in the 2 – 1 loss to Sweden which consigned the Americans to second place in the group and a quarterfinal meeting with Brazil .
The quarterfinal match between the U.S. and Brazil was sent into a penalty shoot @-@ out after U.S. forward Abby Wambach tied the game at 2 – 2 in stoppage time at the end of extra @-@ time . Solo saved the third Brazil penalty kick by Daiane , helping the U.S. secure a semifinal spot against France . After the quarterfinal victory , Solo commented on the performance and spirit of the U.S. players during the match , " Even when we were a player down and a goal behind in extra time , you sensed that something was going to happen " , and added that " [ the ] team kept fighting . You can 't teach that . It 's a feeling – and we play with that feeling . "
Solo became the twenty @-@ seventh American woman and second goalkeeper to reach 100 caps with her start in the 3 – 1 semifinal win over France . Talking to the media after the match , Solo reflected upon the tournament so far , " It was a hard @-@ fought road [ ... ] It hasn 't been easy , but this is where we expected to be . We came this far , we better go all the way . "
In the final , the U.S. team lost 3 – 1 in a penalty shootout to Japan , after twice taking the lead in an eventual 2 – 2 draw . Solo expressed admiration for the Japanese team and offered her congratulations . Solo won the " Golden Glove " award for best goalkeeper , and the " Bronze Ball " award for her overall performance . She was also featured in the " All @-@ star " team of the tournament .
= = = 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
Leading up to the Summer Olympics , Solo received a public warning from the U.S. Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) after a June 15 urine test concluded the banned substance Canrenone had been detected . Solo said in a statement she had been prescribed a pre @-@ menstrual medication and was not aware it contained any banned substances . She cooperated with the USADA and provided them with the necessary information to prove that it was a mistake . Her story checked out and she was cleared with a public warning . The positive test did not require Solo to withdraw from any pre @-@ Olympic matches .
In a 4 – 2 defeat of France in the opening match , France took an early 2 – 0 lead in 15 minutes . After Abby Wambach reduced the lead to 2 – 1 with a 19th @-@ minute header off a Megan Rapinoe corner kick , Solo assisted Alex Morgan at the 32nd minute to score and level the match at 2 – 2 ; she took a free @-@ kick sending the ball to Morgan who kicked the ball after a bounce , over goalkeeper Sarah Bouhaddi into the goal .
On August 9 , Solo won her second Olympic gold medal with the United States women 's national soccer team . In a 2 – 1 defeat of Japan in the final match , Solo made many saves , including an 82nd minute save of a powerful shot from Mana Iwabuchi , which could have tied the match .
Solo kept three clean sheets , two in group @-@ stage against Colombia with 3 – 0 and Korea DPR with 1 – 0 , and a 2 – 0 win against New Zealand in the quarter @-@ final . She conceded 6 goals , 3 in the aforementioned matches against France and Japan . Three goals were conceded to Christine Sinclair in the semi @-@ final , a thrilling and controversial 4 – 3 extra @-@ time last @-@ minute win against Canada . Along with defenders Christie Rampone and Kelley O 'Hara , Solo was one of three players on the United States team who played all 570 minutes during the team 's six matches .
= = = 2013 – 2014 = = =
In March 2013 , Solo underwent surgery to repair a long @-@ standing injury in her left wrist and did not play for approximately three months . She returned to the national team in June . The team finished 2013 undefeated with a 13 @-@ 0 @-@ 3 record .
On June 14 , 2014 , Solo tied the U.S. record for career shutouts with 71 after the team defeated France 1 – 0 during a friendly match in Tampa , Florida . The record was previously set by retired goalkeeper , Brianna Scurry . A few months later on September 13 , she set a new record with her 72nd shutout in a friendly match against Mexico that resulted in a 8 – 0 win for the United States . On January 21 , 2015 , Solo was suspended by the national team for thirty days .
= = = 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = =
In April 2015 , Solo was named to the U.S. roster for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Canada by head coach Jill Ellis . Solo started and played all possible minutes ( 630 ) in all seven of the U.S. ' matches , and the U.S. won the tournament , with record @-@ breaking television viewership that topped 750 million in @-@ home TV viewers . After giving up a goal in the 27th minute of the team 's first group stage match against Australia , Solo made three crucial saves in the same match that kept her team " in the game " . Her performance earned praise from her teammates and coach . She had a 540 – minute shutout streak , the second longest in tournament history , and allowed three goals throughout the tournament .
During the semi @-@ final match against top @-@ ranked Germany , she used a stalling tactic that resulted in the tournament 's high scorer , Célia Šašić , to miss a penalty kick , and keep the game scoreless . This marked the first time a German team , men 's or women 's , missed a penalty in a World Cup . She ended the tournament with 177 international caps and received the Golden Glove trophy as the best goalkeeper .
= = = 2016 : 100th shutout and Brazil Olympics = = =
On July 9 2016 , Hope Solo earned her 100th international shutout , 150th career win , and 197th cap in a friendly game against South Africa at Soldier Field , Chicago , Illinois . This makes Solo the first ever goalkeeper in history , man or woman , to achieve 100 shutouts in international competition .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = High school = = =
Parade Magazine All @-@ American : 1997 , 1998
Washington State Championship : 1998
= = = College = = =
NSCAA All @-@ American : 2000 , 2001 , 2002
Pac @-@ 10 Selection : 1999 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002
= = = Club = = =
WPS Goalkeeper of the Year : 2009
= = = International = = =
United States
Olympic Gold Medal : 2008 , 2012
FIFA Women 's World Cup Champion : 2015
Runner @-@ up : 2011
Algarve Cup : 2005 , 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , 2011 , 2013 , 2015
Four Nations Tournament : 2006 , 2007 , 2008
CONCACAF Women 's Gold Cup : 2006 , 2014
Individual
U.S. Soccer Female Athlete of the Year : 2009
FIFA Women 's World Cup Golden Glove : 2011 , 2015
FIFA Women 's World Cup Bronze ball : 2011
FIFA Women 's World Cup All @-@ Star Team : 2011 , 2015
CONCACAF Women 's Gold Cup Golden Glove : 2014
CONCACAF Women 's Goalkeeper of the Year : 2015
SheBelieves Cup Golden Glove : 2016
= = = Other = = =
Do Something Award – Athlete : 2012
Phoenix Mercury Woman of Inspiration : 2012
Hall of Game She 's Got Game Award : 2012
Sports Spectacular Female Athlete of the Year : 2013
= = Personal life = =
Solo is married to former American football player Jerramy Stevens . They have been together since mid @-@ August 2012 when Solo returned from the Olympics . On November 12 , 2012 , Stevens was arrested on investigation of assault following an altercation that left Solo injured . The following day , Stevens was released after a judge determined there was not enough evidence to hold him . The pair were wed the next day , November 13 , 2012 .
= = = Arrest = = =
On June 21 , 2014 , Solo was arrested and charged with two misdemeanor counts of assault in the fourth degree ; one against her half @-@ sister and the other against her nephew . She was booked under her married name of Hope Amelia Stevens . After pleading not guilty , she was released the following day . In August , her trial was scheduled for November 4 , 2014 , but this was later delayed until January 20 , 2015 . On December 30 , 2014 , the judge ordered more depositions from the defendants and delayed a decision on whether charges against Solo would be dropped until January 6 , 2015 .
Following her arrest , Solo sat out one game for the Reign and the NWSL allowed her to continue playing soccer through the end of the 2014 season . There was some debate in the media about whether this exemplified a double standard in professional American sports after pro football players Ray Rice and Adrian Peterson were recently suspended by the National Football League after Rice was shown in a previously undisclosed video assaulting his wife in a hotel elevator and Peterson was indicted by a grand jury on a felony charge of child abuse . Senator Richard Blumenthal ( D – Conn . ) sent out a sternly worded letter to U.S. Soccer president Sunil Gulati admonishing the organization for allowing Solo to remain on the World Cup roster following her arrest and accused them of inadequately addressing the charges of domestic violence .
On January 13 , 2015 , the judge dismissed the charges against Solo based on a lack of cooperation from both alleged victims . Solo claimed she was defending herself from an attack by her nephew , who is 6 ' 9 " tall . However , prosecutors have filed an appeal with the Superior Court of Washington . Prosecutors are scheduled to file their argument by July 13 , 2015 , with the defense due to respond by August 10 , 2015 . Oral arguments were then scheduled for September 11 , 2015 .
The charges were reinstated October 2015 . On June 8 , 2016 , KING5 Seattle reported that the state appeals court denied a discretionary review to dismiss the reinstated domestic violence charges . Solo can appeal the ruling to the Washington state Supreme Court .
= = = Endorsements = = =
Solo has signed endorsement deals with Seiko , Simple Skincare , Nike , BlackBerry , Ubisoft , Electronic Arts , and Gatorade . In July 2011 , she signed a one @-@ year endorsement deal with Bank of America . In September 2011 , she starred in an EA Sports television commercial along with professional basketball player Steve Nash , promoting FIFA 12 . In the same month , she co @-@ starred with national teammate Alex Morgan in a television commercial promoting ESPN 's SportsCenter . In 2014 , she was featured in a promotional piece for Western Union . Solo signed with LX Ventures , Inc. and Mobio as a " social media influencer " in March 2014 .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Solo is a representative of the Women 's Sports Foundation , an organization founded by Billie Jean King that is dedicated to " advancing the lives of girls and women through sports and physical activity . " She has donated her time and money to the Boys and Girls Club and made appearances at numerous charity events . In August 2011 , she joined teammates Alex Morgan and Abby Wambach in a Bank of America charitable campaign at the Chicago Marathon . $ 5 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 was donated to Seattle Humane Society on her behalf . In 2012 , Solo was one of 15 professional athletes including Shaun Phillips , Tim Lincecum , Ray Rice , and others who participated in Popchips ' Game Changers program . She made appearances at several charity events and money was donated to a local charity that she selected .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Television and film = = =
In 2011 , Solo was a contestant on the 13th season of the Dancing with the Stars television series . Her partner was Maksim Chmerkovskiy and they were eliminated in the semifinal round .
She has made appearances on The Late Show with David Letterman , Piers Morgan Tonight , Late Night with Jimmy Fallon , The Ellen DeGeneres Show , Chelsea Lately , and Whitney . Solo was the focus of an ESPN E : 60 episode in 2012 . During her interview by Jeremy Schaap , she told of her experience at the 2007 World Cup as well as her childhood . In 2013 , she was featured in the PBS documentary , Makers : Women Who Make America and ESPN documentary series , Nine for IX . The Nine for IX documentary , Branded , in which Solo appeared focused on the marketing of female professional athletes and the double standard that they often face with more value placed on beauty rather than their athletic excellence . Branded received the highest viewership of all of the documentaries in the series .
= = = Magazines = = =
Solo has been featured on the covers of Fitness , Sports Illustrated , Newsweek , TV Guide , Seattle Metropolitan Magazine , and Vogue . In 2011 , she appeared nude in The Body Issue of ESPN The Magazine . Of the experience , she said , " I 'm an athlete — that 's all I am . If a sex symbol is now a top female athlete , I think that 's pretty amazing and it shows how far our country has come from the stick @-@ thin models , from what you see in most magazines . "
= = = Autobiography = = =
On August 14 , 2012 , after the London Olympics , Solo released her autobiography Solo : A Memoir of Hope co @-@ authored with sports columnist and commentator Ann Killion and published by Harper Collins . In her book she provided her accounts of incidents with former U.S. national coach Greg Ryan , and her Dancing with the Stars ' partner Maksim Chmerkovskiy . She recounted her integration into the U.S. team with established players like Mia Hamm , Brandi Chastain , and Julie Foudy . Solo also revealed details of her early life . The autobiography debuted at number three on The New York Times Best Seller list in the hardcover non @-@ fiction category — the highest ever for a book about soccer .
= = = Video games = = =
Solo is featured along with her national teammates in the EA Sports ' FIFA video game series starting in FIFA 16 , the first time women players were included in the game . In September 2015 , she was ranked by EA Sports as the # 8 women 's player in the game .
= = = Ticker tape parade and White House honor = = =
Following the United States ' win at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , Solo and her teammates became the first women 's sports team to be honored with a Ticker Tape Parade in New York City . Each player received a key to the city from Mayor Bill de Blasio . In October of the same year , the team was honored by President Barack Obama at the White House .
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= Los Ángeles Negros =
Los Ángeles Negros ( English : The Black Angels ) are a Chilean pop ballad band formed in San Carlos de Chile in 1968 . The band 's best @-@ known line @-@ up consisted of singer Germaín de la Fuente , guitarist Mario Gutiérrez , keyboardist Jorge González , bassist Miguel Ángel " Nano " Concha , and drummer Luis Ortiz . Their music is a blend of boleros , psychedelic funk and rock music , known as Balada rockmántica .
The original members of the band included three teenagers and a worker from a local school . After winning a local competition in June 1968 , they recorded and released their first single , " Porque Te Quiero " , which attracted the attention of Chile 's Odeon Records representatives , urging two of the four members of the band to record an album with three other studio musicians . As a result , they recorded Porque Te Quiero in 1969 , and several chart @-@ topping singles across Latin America in the following years .
Following De la Fuente 's departure from the group , most of the classic band members also left and established bands with similar names , including Germaín y sus Ángeles Negros and Los Ángeles de Chile . Guitarist Mario Gutiérrez continued to work with other musicians under the name of Los Ángeles Negros . Songs by Los Ángeles Negros have been covered by singers including Celia Cruz , Raphael , and José Luis Rodríguez , while others have been sampled by hip @-@ hop and rap musicians such as Funkdoobiest , Damian Marley , the Beastie Boys , and Jay @-@ Z.
= = History = =
= = = Formation , radio competition , and the first LP ( 1968 – 1969 ) = = =
Cristián Blasser and Mario Gutiérrez , students from the Escuela Consolidada de San Carlos ( now Liceo Politécnico de San Carlos ) , and Sergio Rojas , who worked at the school , formed a band in 1968 . Upon hearing an announcement of a bands tournament organized by La Discusión radio station from Chillán , they recruited Germaín de la Fuente , who was well known in the local scene for his vocal abilities . Blasser and Gutiérrez played the guitar , Rojas the bass , and De la Fuente became the keyboardist and lead vocalist . Most of the band members were musically inspired by acts such as The Beatles except De la Fuente , who did not like them at all and wanted to do bolero music . As a result , they created a mixed style known as the Balada rockmántica or Bolero @-@ beat .
Sergio Rojas suggested the band to be named Los Ángeles Negros ( The Black Angels ) , in reference to another Chilean band called Pat Henry y Los Diablos Azules ( Pat Henry and the Blue Devils ) . Although the band was initially reluctant to use a name in Spanish , they adopted Los Ángeles Negros after De la Fuente 's mother said she liked it .
In June 1968 Los Ángeles Negros won La Discusión radio station 's competition , in which they competed against a band named Los Cangrejo , and received the opportunity to record a single in Sello Indis , an independent label owned by pianist Raúl Lara . They recorded " Porque Te Quiero " / " Día Sin Sol " , which was released by Indis as a single .
After recording the songs in Santiago , the band returned to San Carlos and became a quintet when drummer Federico Blasser joined them . In the meantime , their single received high airplay in some Chilean provinces , and because of De la Fuente 's voice , attracted the attention of Jorge Oñate , the director of Chile 's Odeon Records , who asked the band to go to Santiago to record an LP for his record company . However , only De la Fuente and guitarist Mario Gutiérrez eventually went . Oñate quickly contacted three studio musicians — drummer Luis Ortiz , keyboardist Jorge González , and bassist Miguel Ángel " Nano " Concha — with which De la Fuente and Gutiérrez recorded Los Ángeles Negros ' debut LP , Porque Te Quiero , released in 1969 .
= = = Latin American success , and departure of Ortíz and De la Fuente ( 1969 – 1974 ) = = =
Following the release of Porque Te Quiero , Gutiérrez and De la Fuente suggested the studio musicians to stay permanently in the group , a proposal which they accepted . The new band members used to be part of another Chilean group called Los Minimás , whose music was influenced by the psychedelic funk , which they incorporated in their next recordings with Los Ángeles Negros . Later , in October 1969 , they recorded and released their second album , Y Volveré . The record contained songs which helped the band become popular throughout Chile and Latin America , including " Y Volveré " ( cover version of " Emporte @-@ moi " by Alain Barrière with new lyrics by De la Fuente ) , " Como Quisiera Decirte " , and " Murió la Flor " .
Los Ángeles Negros then began a tour in Latin America , visiting countries including Ecuador , Peru , Venezuela , and Argentina . According to Jorge Leiva from the Chilean National Council of Culture and the Arts ' website Música Popular , they performed at " stadiums which were full of people , with an unusual media coverage " . In 1971 , they moved to Mexico , where their LP Y Volveré sold 700 @,@ 000 copies . The band released seven new LPs between 1970 and 1974 : Te Dejo la Ciudad Sin Mí ( 1970 ) , Esta Noche La Paso Contigo ( 1971 ) , La Cita ( 1971 ) , El Tren Hacia El Olvido ( 1972 ) , Déjenme Si Estoy Llorando ( 1973 ) , Quédate en Mis Sueños ( 1973 ) , and Aplaude Mi Final ( 1973 ) .
Their popularity in Chile decreased , however . Besides the fact that the country was taken control by a Government Junta after the 1973 coup d 'état , the musical scene of the time was mostly " folkloric " , with Víctor Jara and Violeta Parra as some prominent figures . The band was also despectively qualified as " cebolleros " ( drama queens ) . The internal relationship of the band was deteriorated , which concluded with the departure of Ortiz from Los Ángeles Negros , following an argument with De la Fuente in early 1973 . De la Fuente lost interest in the band , and subsequently quit the group in March 1974 .
= = = Mi Vida Como Un Carrusel , continuing success , and return to Chile ( 1974 – 1993 ) = = =
After Ortíz and De la Fuente left the band , the remaining members continued to play under the direction of Miguel Ángel " Nano " Concha as Los Ángeles Negros . Ismael Montes replaced De la Fuente as the singer , and Luis Astudillo replaced Ortiz as the drummer . Concha 's Ángeles Negros recorded and released the album Mi Vida Como Un Carrusel in 1974 . Meanwhile , De la Fuente along with other Mexican musicians formed the band Germaín y sus Ángeles Negros , and settled in Mexico City .
Concha 's Ángeles Negros played during the following years with Mexican singers Oscar Seín and Enrique Castillo , and Micky Alarcón and Guillermo Lynch from Chile , releasing the albums Despacito , Bolerísimo , an instrumental one ( all three from 1976 ) , Serenata Sin Luna ( 1977 ) , Pasión y Vida ( 1978 ) , Será Varón , Será Mujer ( 1979 ) , and Tu Enamorado ( 1980 ) . Drummer Luis Ortíz returned to the band in 1981 , following Astudillo 's departure in 1980 . They achieved success with songs such as " El Enviado del Amor " , " Volverás " , José Alfredo Jiménez 's " Despacito " , and Los Red Juniors ' " Al Pasar Esa Edad " . After the successful period in the early 1980s when the band performed live at least 150 times in Mexico in a year , they decided to move to this country in 1983 .
However , in 1982 , keyboardist Jorge Gutiérrez left for De la Fuente 's band , although he would occasionally play for Los Ángeles Negros as a " hired musician " . Singer Eddie Martínez joined Los Ángeles Negros , while drummer Luis Astudillo returned to the band for the second time in 1986 , after Ortiz moved to Canadá the previous year . From Ortíz comeback in 1981 until his new departure , the band released Volverás ( 1981 ) , Siempre Románticos ( 1982 ) , Maldito Piano / Locamente Mía ( 1983 ) , Con Alas Nuevas ( 1984 ) , and Prohibido ( 1985 ) . The band did not release new albums until the 1990 comeback album El Esperado Regreso . The next year they released De Aquí En Adelante , an album " inspired by tropical music , which showed the band 's difficulties finding a new musical path " , according to Jorge Leiva .
" Nano " Concha decided to return to Chile in 1992 , and established an oldies music store in Santiago . Former members González and De la Fuente also returned to Chile , in 1993 .
= = = Gutiérrez 's leadership and the reunion ( 1993 – present ) = = =
Guitarist Gutiérrez continued to be part of Los Ángeles Negros as the only original member , and later became its leader . Gutiérrez 's Ángeles Negros recruited another singer in addition to Martínez , the Chilean Antonio Saavedra . The band plays yearly at least 50 times in Mexico , keeping the Ángeles Negros ' most well @-@ known songs in their live repertoire , and they have released two albums since 1993 : Toda Una Vida ( 1996 ) , and Metamorfosis ( 2003 ) .
Gutiérrez has been involved in several legal battles against the former members of the band and other unrelated individuals who perform as " Los Ángeles Negros " or similar names , who are for him " músicos piratas " ( illegal musicians ) . Those individuals include singer Germaín de la Fuente , who performs since 1974 as Germaín y sus Ángeles Negros , keyboardist Jorge González with singer Micky Alarcón , who created a band called El Sonido de los Ángeles in the late 1990s , and drummer Luis Ortíz and singer Guillermo Lynch , who created the band Los Ángeles de Chile .
De la Fuente , González , Concha , and Ortíz announced their reunion in February 2009 to commemorate the fortieth anniversary of Y Volveré , originally released in 1969 . Their label EMI qualified the event as " unprecedented " . Gutiérrez did not want to participate in the Ángeles Negros reunion , fearing eventual criticism . They played together for the first time since 1974 at the Teatro Caupolicán on 14 February 2010 . The group 's reunion , however , lasted until March of that year , because of " economic issues " just before a performance at Sala SCD , a concert hall in Santiago .
= = Legacy and recognition = =
The style of Los Ángeles Negros , Balada rockmántica or Bolero @-@ beat , was immediately imitated by Chilean bands such as Los Golpes , Capablanca , Los Galos , and the Peruvian band Los Pasteles Verdes . They also influenced bands such as Los Bukis from Mexico , and Los Bunkers from Chile . Los Ángeles Negros are regarded as a " classic example of romantic Latin music . "
Several songs by Los Ángeles Negros have been covered by bands and artists such as Los Tr3s , Los Bunkers , Sexual Democracia , José José , Raphael , and Celia Cruz , while others have been sampled by hip hop and rap acts such as the Beastie Boys , Jay @-@ Z , Damian Marley , and Funkdoobiest .
A documentary titled Ángeles Negros directed by Chilean filmmakers Pachi Bustos and Jorge Leiva was premiered at the Hoyts and Arte Alameda cinemas in Santiago on 18 October 2007 . The documentary , which was recorded in Chile , Mexico , and the United States , is a " tribute " to the band , and " reviews their history " . The band was awarded " El Micrófono de Oro " ( The Golden Microphone ) by the Asociación Nacional de Locutores de México in 2012 . The band 's 1969 song " El Rey y Yo " was featured in 2013 videogame Grand Theft Auto V , specifically in the game 's radio East Los FM . " [ ' El Rey y Yo ' ] is the gamers ' preferred song " , states a La Cuarta article describing the song 's inclusion in the videogame .
= = Members = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
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= South West Pacific Area ( command ) =
South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) was the name given to the Allied supreme military command in the South West Pacific Theatre of World War II . It was one of four major Allied commands in the Pacific War . SWPA included the Philippines , Borneo , the Dutch East Indies ( excluding Sumatra ) , East Timor , Australia , the Territories of Papua and New Guinea , and the western part of the Solomon Islands . It primarily consisted of United States and Australian forces , although Dutch , Filipino , British and other Allied forces also served in the SWPA .
General Douglas MacArthur was appointed as the Supreme Commander , Southwest Pacific Area , on its creation on 18 April 1942 . He created five subordinate commands : Allied Land Forces , Allied Air Forces , Allied Naval Forces , United States Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) , and the United States Army Forces in the Philippines . The last command disappeared when Corregidor surrendered on 6 May 1942 , while USAFIA became the United States Army Services of Supply , Southwest Pacific Area ( USASOS SWPA ) . In 1943 , United States Army Forces in the Far East was reformed and assumed responsibility for administration , leaving USASOS as a purely logistical agency . Both were swept away in a reorganisation in 1945 . The other three commands , Allied Land Forces , Allied Air Forces and Allied Naval Forces , remained until SWPA was abolished on 2 September 1945 .
= = Origins = =
The forerunner of the South West Pacific Area was the short @-@ lived American @-@ British @-@ Dutch @-@ Australian Command ( ABDA ) . In December 1941 and January 1942 , ABDA was referred to as the South West Pacific Area . The rapid Japanese advance through the Dutch East Indies effectively divided the ABDA area in two , and in late February 1942 , ABDA was dissolved at the recommendation of its commander , Field Marshal Sir Archibald Wavell , who — as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in India — retained responsibility for Allied operations in Burma and Sumatra .
Another command , established under emergency conditions when a convoy intended for supply of the Philippines , known as the Pensacola Convoy , was rerouted to Brisbane due to the attack on Pearl Harbor . Brigadier General Julian F. Barnes was ordered to assume command of all troops in the convoy on 12 December 1941 concurrent with their designation as Task Force — South Pacific , and place himself under the command of MacArthur . The next day , by radiogram , the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General George C. Marshall , ordered Barnes to assume command as Commander , US Troops in Australia and take charge of all troops and supplies . On 22 December 1941 , with the convoy 's arrival in Brisbane , the command was designated as United States Forces in Australia ( USFIA ) . It was renamed U.S. Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) on 5 January 1942 . Its mission was to create a base in Australia for the support of the forces still in the Philippines .
The staff , known as the " Remember Pearl Harbor " ( RPH ) group , selected by the War Department for USAFIA arrived Melbourne 1 February 1942 aboard SS President Coolidge and SS Mariposa in the first large convoy bearing personnel , supplies and munitions intended for transhipment to Java and Philippines as well as Australia . For a brief time , due to the increased isolation of the Philippines and before the fall of Java , UASFIA was withdrawn from MacArthur 's command and placed under the ABDA with continued direction to support both Java and the Philippines .
What would replace ADBA was the subject of discussions between the Australian and New Zealand chiefs of staff that were held in Melbourne between 26 February and 1 March 1942 . They proposed creating a new theatre of war encompassing Australia and New Zealand , under the command of Wavell 's former deputy , Lieutenant General George Brett , who had assumed command of the US Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) on 25 February .
The President of the United States , Franklin Roosevelt , and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Winston Churchill , discussed the matter of command arrangements in the Pacific in Washington , D.C. , on 9 March . Roosevelt proposed that the world would be divided into British and American areas of responsibility , with the United States having responsibility for the Pacific , where there would be an American supreme commander responsible to the Joint Chiefs of Staff . Churchill responded favourably to the proposal , and the governments of Australia and New Zealand were then consulted . They endorsed the idea of an American supreme commander , but wanted to have some input into matters of strategy .
This resulted in the creation of the Pacific War Council , which met for the first time in London on 10 February 1942 . Churchill , Clement Attlee ( Deputy Prime Minister ) and Anthony Eden ( Foreign Secretary ) represented the United Kingdom , and Earle Page represented Australia , along with representatives from the Netherlands , New Zealand , India and China . Page was replaced as the Australian representative by Stanley Bruce in June 1942 . A parallel Pacific War Council was created in Washington , D.C. , that first met on 1 April 1942 . It was chaired by Roosevelt , with Richard Casey and later Owen Dixon representing Australia , and Prime Minister Mackenzie King representing Canada . The Pacific War Council never became an effective body , and had no influence on strategy , but did allow the Dominions to put their concerns before the President .
= = Formation = =
The obvious choice for a supreme commander in the Pacific was General Douglas MacArthur . He had been ordered to leave the Philippines for Australia to take command of a reconstituted ABDA area on 22 February 1942 , and had therefore been promised the command even before there were discussions on what it should be . MacArthur had solid support from the President , the Army and the American people , but not the Navy . The Commander in Chief , United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest King , saw the Pacific lines of communication primarily as a naval responsibility and would not yield command to an Army officer and proposed a division placing all of the Solomons within the Australian area , but excluding the New Hebrides , New Caledonia , and New Zealand . While the Army planners , led by Brigadier General Dwight Eisenhower , were willing to compromise on a divided command , they objected to placing Australia and New Zealand in separate theatres . The Joint Chiefs of Staff discussed the matter between 9 and 16 March , the result of which was a decision to adopt the Navy 's plan , with only minor amendments .
While this was still going on General Marshall , had contacted Brett and asked him to get the Australian government to nominate MacArthur , whose arrival in Australia was now imminent , as its choice for supreme commander . This was done on 17 March when MacArthur arrived at Batchelor , Northern Territory . On 24 March 1942 , the Combined Chiefs of Staff issued a directive formally designating the Pacific theatre an area of American strategic responsibility . On 30 March , the Joint Chiefs of Staff divided the Pacific theatre into three areas : the Pacific Ocean Areas ( POA ) , under Admiral Chester Nimitz ; the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , under MacArthur ; and the Southeast Pacific Area , which never became an active theatre . The former Anzac Area was divided between SWPA and the POA .
An annex defined SWPA 's boundaries :
From Cape Kami in the Luichow Peninsula around the coast of the Tonkin Gulf , Indo @-@ China , Thailand , and Malaya to Singapore : from Singapore south to the north coast of Sumatra , thence round the east coast of Sumatra ( leaving the Sunda Strait to the eastward of the line ) to a point on the coast of Sumatra at Longitude 104 ° East , thence south to Latitude 08 ° South , thence southeasterly towards Onslow , Australia , and on reaching Longitude 110 ° East , due south along that meridian . ... The north and east boundaries ... : From Cape Kami ... south to Latitude 20 ° North ; thence east to Longitude 130 ° East ; thence south to the Equator ; thence east to Longitude 165 ° East ; south to Latitude 10 ° South ; southwesterly to Latitude 17 ° South , Longitude 160 ° East ; thence south .
On 17 April 1942 the Prime Minister of Australia , John Curtin , directed all Australian defence forces personnel to treat orders from MacArthur " as emanating from the Commonwealth Government " . The Army 's workshops and fixed fortifications , and the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) ' s logistical and training infrastructure , were not placed under SWPA . Having placed its troops at MacArthur 's disposal , the Australian government was adamant that it should be consulted on any alteration to the boundaries or command arrangements in SWPA . The government was particularly concerned that the Supreme Commander should not move troops outside Australia or Australian territory without its consent , as there were legal restrictions on where the Australian Militia could serve . The matter of changes in command first came up when Brett was replaced as Commander of Allied Air Forces by the Joint Chiefs of Staff . MacArthur and Curtin agreed that there would be no change to Blamey 's status , and that the government would be consulted about any other proposed changes . When Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary was replaced a few months later , Curtin was consulted , and concurred with the change .
= = General Headquarters = =
MacArthur became the Supreme Commander Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) on 18 April 1942 , although he preferred to use the more conventional title of Commander in Chief . MacArthur 's first General Order created five subordinate commands : Allied Land Forces , Allied Air Forces , Allied Naval Forces , United States Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) , and the United States Army Forces in the Philippines . The last command had a short life . Lieutenant General Jonathan Wainwright 's United States Army Forces in the Philippines disintegrated over the following three weeks , and disappeared entirely when Wainwright surrendered on Corregidor on 6 May .
MacArthur announced the composition of his staff , known as General Headquarters ( GHQ ) on 19 April . Major General Richard K. Sutherland became Chief of Staff ; Brigadier General Richard J. Marshall , Deputy Chief of Staff ; Colonel Charles P. Stivers , Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 1 ; Colonel Charles A. Willoughby , Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 2 ; Brigadier General Stephen J. Chamberlin , Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 ; Colonel Lester J. Whitlock , Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 ; Brigadier General Spencer B. Akin , Signal Officer ; Brigadier General Hugh J. Casey , Engineer Officer ; Brigadier General William F. Marquat , Antiaircraft Officer ; Colonel Burdette M. Fitch , Adjutant General ; and Colonel LeGrande A. Diller , Public Relations Officer .
Although Marshall had recommended that MacArthur appoint as many Australian and Dutch officers to senior positions as possible , most of his staff was made up of US Army officers who had served under him in the Philippines . The rest , including Whitlock , Fitch and Chamberlain , had been on the staff of USAFIA . MacArthur reported to Marshall that there were no qualified Dutch officers in Australia , and that the Australian Army had a critical shortage of staff officers , which he did not wish to exacerbate . Nevertheless , several Dutch and Australian army officers , as well as some American naval officers , served in junior positions on the staff .
In July , MacArthur moved his GHQ north , from Melbourne to Brisbane , where it was located in the AMP Building . The original intention had been to move to Townsville , but this was found to be impractical , as Townsville lacked the communications facilities that GHQ required . The Allied Air Forces and Allied Naval Forces headquarters were co @-@ located with GHQ in the AMP building . The Advanced Headquarters of Allied Land Forces opened at St Lucia , about 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) away . The Advanced GHQ subsequently moved to Hollandia in September 1944 , Leyte in October 1944 , and Manila in May 1945 .
There was a major reorganisation in April 1945 for the planned invasion of Japan . All Army forces in the Pacific were placed under MacArthur 's command , including those in Nimitz 's Pacific Ocean Areas . A new command was formed , Army Forces Pacific ( AFPAC ) , with GHQ operating as the headquarters of both AFPAC and SWPA . Units in POA remained under Nimitz 's operational control , and the first major formation , the Tenth United States Army , did not pass to AFPAC control until 31 July 1945 . SWPA , together with the Allied Air Forces , Allied Naval Forces and Allied Land Forces , was abolished on 2 September 1945 , but GHQ remained as GHQ AFPAC .
= = Allied Land Forces = =
The Australian Army 's Commander in Chief , General Sir Thomas Blamey , was appointed Commander , Allied Land Forces , SWPA . His headquarters was the existing General Headquarters ( Australia ) , and became known as LHQ . An Australian commander was chosen as most of the land forces were Australian . In April 1942 , there were 38 @,@ 000 American ground troops in SWPA and 369 @,@ 000 Australian . LHQ controlled five major commands : Lieutenant General Sir John Lavarack 's First Army , based in Queensland ; Lieutenant General Sir Iven Mackay 's Second Army in Victoria ; Lieutenant General Gordon Bennett 's III Corps in Western Australia ; the Northern Territory Force under Major General Edmund Herring ; and New Guinea Force under Major General Basil Morris . Between them they controlled ten Australian and two American divisions . In August 1944 , the Australian Army had a strength of 463 @,@ 000 men and women , and there were 173 @,@ 000 US Army ground personnel in SWPA . By late 1944 , there were eighteen American divisions in SWPA , while the Australian Army had just seven .
When GHQ moved up to Brisbane , LHQ remained behind in Melbourne , but Blamey formed an Advanced LHQ under his Deputy Chief of the General Staff ( DCGS ) , Major General George Alan Vasey , which moved to nearby St Lucia . Major General Frank Berryman replaced Vasey as DCGS in September 1942 , and remained in the post until January 1944 . He resumed the post in July 1944 and remained until December 1945 . When the main body of GHQ moved to Hollandia , Advanced LHQ followed , opening there on 15 December , but when the main GHQ moved to Leyte in February 1945 , Advanced LHQ remained behind . A Forward Echelon LHQ was formed under Berryman that remained co @-@ located with the main body of GHQ , while the main body of LHQ remained at Hollandia until it moved to Morotai for the operations in Borneo in April 1945 .
In practice , MacArthur controlled land operations through " task forces " . These reported directly to GHQ , and their commanders could control all Allied land , air , naval and service forces in their area if a Japanese land attack was imminent . The most important of these was New Guinea Force , which was formed in 1942 and was commanded personally by Blamey in September 1942 , and again in September 1943 . In February 1943 , Lieutenant General Walter Krueger 's Sixth Army arrived in SWPA , and its headquarters became that of Alamo Force . Alamo Force reported directly to MacArthur , and as a result Blamey did not command of the majority of American land forces in the theatre after that time , although his post was not abolished .
In March 1944 , MacArthur met with Curtin and detailed his plans for the Western New Guinea campaign , explaining that he would assume direct command of land forces when he reached the Philippines , and suggesting that Blamey could either go with him as an army commander , or remain in Australia as Commander in Chief . The new organisation went into effect in September 1944 , with Lieutenant General Walter Krueger 's Sixth US Army , Lieutenant General Robert Eichelberger 's Eighth United States Army , Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee 's First Australian Army , Lieutenant General Leslie Morshead 's I Australian Corps and Major General Oscar Griswold 's XIV Corps reporting directly to GHQ . Allied Land Forces remained as an important administrative and logistical command , until it was abolished , along with SWPA , on 2 September 1945 .
= = Allied Air Forces = =
The April 1942 reorganisation that created the Allied Land Forces and Allied Naval Forces also created the Allied Air Forces under Brett . Unlike MacArthur , Brett created a completely integrated headquarters , with a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) officer , Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , as his chief of staff . Each United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) staff officer was paired with a RAAF officer , with the senior staff posts divided evenly between them . A majority of command positions were held by Australians . To make up shortages of USAAF aircrew , RAAF aircrew were assigned to USAAF air groups , serving in every role except aircraft commander .
In May 1942 , the Australian government appointed Air Vice Marshal George Jones as Chief of the Air Staff . He became responsible for matters other than operations , such as administration and training . It soon became clear that Jones and Bostock could not get along together , but Kenney preferred to have Bostock in operational command , and although he regarded the antipathy between Jones and Bostock as a nuisance , was happy to leave arrangements the way they were .
One of MacArthur 's first orders to Brett was for a bombing mission to the Philippines , an order delivered personally by Sutherland . When Brett protested , Sutherland informed him that MacArthur wanted the mission carried out . The mission was flown by Brigadier General Ralph Royce , but MacArthur personally wrote a reprimand to Brett . Henceforth , communications with Sutherland were handled by Bostock . Further disagreements between MacArthur and Brett followed . Meanwhile , in Washington , General George Marshall and the Chief of Army Air Forces , Lieutenant General Henry Arnold , had become alarmed at Brett 's integration of the USAAF and RAAF , and disturbed by his inability to work with MacArthur . On 6 July 1942 Marshall radioed MacArthur to offer him Major General George Kenney or Brigadier General Jimmy Doolittle as a replacement for Brett ; MacArthur selected Kenney .
Kenney sent home Major General Royce , Brigadier Generals Edwin S. Perrin , Albert Sneed and Martin Scanlon , and about forty colonels . In Australia he found two talented , recently arrived brigadier generals , Ennis Whitehead and Kenneth Walker . Kenney reorganised his command in August , appointing Whitehead as commander of the V Fighter Command and Walker as commander of the V Bomber Command . Allied Air Forces was composed of both USAAF and RAAF personnel , and Kenney moved to separate them . Brigadier General Donald Wilson arrived in September and replaced Air Vice Marshal Bostock as Kenney 's chief of staff , while Bostock took over the newly created RAAF Command . Walker was shot down over Rabaul in January 1943 . His successor , Brigadier General Howard Ramey , disappeared in March 1943 .
Kenney deviated from the normal structure of an air force by creating the Advanced Echelon ( ADVON ) under Whitehead . The new headquarters had the authority to alter the assignments of aircraft in the forward area , where fast @-@ changing weather and enemy action could invalidate orders drawn up in Australia . He created the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Air Task Forces to control air operations in a forward area for a specific mission , another departure from doctrine . While Kenney was enthusiastic about this innovation , Washington did not like it and , over Kenney 's objections , converted the three air task forces into the 308th , 309th and 310th Bombardment Wings . In June 1944 , Major General St. Clair Streett 's Thirteenth Air Force was added to the Allied Air Forces . Kenney created the Far East Air Forces ( FEAF ) from his Fifth Air Force headquarters , while ADVON became the Fifth Air Force under Whitehead . The RAAF formed the Australian First Tactical Air Force under Air Commodore Harry Cobby in October 1944 , and when MacArthur became commander of all Army forces in the Pacific , the Seventh Air Force was added as well . Major General Paul Wurtsmith replaced Streett in March 1945 , and Air Commodore Frederick Scherger replaced Cobby in May . Allied Air Forces was abolished on 2 September 1945 .
= = Allied Naval Forces = =
Vice Admiral Leary was appointed Commander , Allied Naval Forces , in April 1942 . On 7 February 1942 , he had become commander of the Anzac Area to the east of Australia extending to include Fiji with headquarters in Melbourne . That command included a naval element , some air forces but without responsibility for land defense . He was answerable directly to Admiral King . The most important force under his command was Rear Admiral John Gregory Crace 's Anzac Squadron . When SWPA and the Allied Naval Forces were formed in April 1942 , Leary also became Commander , Southwest Pacific Force ( COMSOUWESPAC ) , while Crace 's Anzac Squadron became Task Force 44 . In June , Crace was succeeded by another Royal Navy officer , Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley . The former Anzac Area was divided so that the Australian coastal waters were with SWPA and the sea and air lines of communication from Hawaii and North America fell in the Pacific Ocean Areas ( POA ) with a special provision for the South Pacific Area having a designated sub commander under Admiral Chester Nimitz .
With the agreement of the Australian government , Leary was succeeded as Commander , Southwest Pacific Force , and Commander , Allied Naval Forces , by Vice Admiral Arthur S. Carpender on 11 September 1942 . Like his predecessor , he reported to King in the former role , and MacArthur in the latter . Also like Leary , Carpender was not the most senior naval officer in the theatre , as the Royal Australian Navy Chief of the Naval Staff ( CNS ) , Admiral Sir Guy Royle , and the Royal Netherlands Navy ′ s Vice Admiral Conrad Helfrich were both senior to him . However , Royle agreed to serve under Carpenter as Commander , South West Pacific Sea Frontier , which was formed on 16 March 1943 .
The Southwest Pacific Force was renamed the Seventh Fleet on 15 March 1943 , and its task forces were renumbered to match , so Task Force 44 became Task Force 74 . Another important component was Task Force 76 , the Amphibious Force , Southwest Pacific , which had been formed under Rear Admiral Daniel Barbey on 8 January 1943 . It became the VII Amphibious Force later in the year . A training centre , HMAS Assault was established at Port Stephens , New South Wales , and another at Toorbul Point , Queensland . The VII Amphibious Forces initially consisted of the Australian Landing Ships , Infantry HMAS Manoora , Westralia and Kanimbla and the American attack transport USS Henry T. Allen , but gradually grew in size as more landing craft and landing ships arrived .
MacArthur was annoyed at the way that Royle , a Royal Navy officer , communicated directly with the Admiralty ; he was also aware that Royle had been critical of SWPA 's command arrangements , and of some of his decisions . MacArthur proposed that an Australian officer , Captain John Collins , replace Royle as CNS , an appointment that Carpender also supported . Over the Admiralty 's objections , Curtin appointed Collins to replace Crutchley as Commander , Task Force 44 , in June 1944 , at the rank of commodore , with the intention that Collins would replace Royle when his term expired . This did not occur , because Collins was seriously wounded in Leyte Gulf on 21 October 1944 .
MacArthur did not get along with Carpender , and twice asked for him to be replaced , only to be embarrassed in November 1943 when King replaced Carpender with Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid without informing MacArthur or seeking the approval of the Australian government . However , a face @-@ saving formula was agreed upon . For the invasion of Leyte , the Seventh Fleet was massively reinforced by ships from the Pacific Fleet . Cover was provided by Admiral William F. Halsey 's Third Fleet , which remained under Nimitz . At the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the divided command brought the Allies to the brink of disaster when misunderstandings arose between Kinkaid and Halsey . Allied Naval Forces was abolished , along with SWPA , on 2 September 1945 .
= = U.S. Army Services of Supply = =
Under U.S. Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) a series of bases had gradually been built in Australia , initially to support the US forces in the Philippines . Seven base sections were established in Australia to operate under USAFIA : Base Section 1 at Birdum , Northern Territory ; Base Section 2 in Townsville ; Base Section 3 in Brisbane ; Base Section 4 in Melbourne ; Base Section 5 in Adelaide ; Base Section 6 in Perth ; and Base Section 7 in Sydney . On 20 July USAFIA became the United States Army Services of Supply , Southwest Pacific Area ( USASOS SWPA ) , under the command of Brigadier General Richard J. Marshall , and Barnes returned to the United States .
When Lieutenant General Krueger 's Sixth United States Army headquarters arrived in Australia in February 1943 , the administrative functions were taken from USASOS and given to a new headquarters , United States Army Forces in the Far East ( USAFFE ) , under MacArthur 's command . This had the same name as MacArthur 's old headquarters in the Philippines , but its function was different . This left USASOS with logistical responsibilities only . The new arrangement was awkward , and required considerable adjustment before it functioned properly . In September 1943 , Marshall was replaced by Brigadier General James L. Frink .
The New Guinea Advanced Base was formed in Port Moresby in August 1942 , and sub bases were created at Milne Bay and Oro Bay . These became Advanced Sub Base A and Advanced Sub Base B respectively in April 1943 . Advanced Sub Base C was created on Goodenough Island in April 1943 , but was discontinued when the island was handed over to Sixth Army control in July . Meanwhile , Advanced Sub Base D was formed at Port Moresby in May . The sub bases became bases in August 1943 . Advanced Base E was formed at Lae and Advanced Base F at Finschhafen in November 1943 , followed by Bases G and H at Hollandia and Biak respectively .
With a worldwide shipping crisis and SWPA being at the end of a very long supply line , as well as being a region without well developed transportation nets , regional logistics were almost entirely dependent on water transport . No one fleet composed the assets available to the Commander in Chief , SWPA as the U. S. Navy , Royal Navy , Royal Australian Navy , Australian Army , Netherlands East Indies Navy were under his operational command while being maintained under their respective organizations . Those assets were inadequate resulting in the creation of a large Army fleet unique to SWPA , the Permanent Local Fleet , under first USFIA , later USASOS and finally Army Forces , Western Pacific ( AFWESPAC ) , starting with the retention of the USAT Meigs , Admiral Halstead and Coast Farmer from the convoy diverted to Brisbane in December 1941 .
That core was augmented by vessels fleeing the Japanese advance , particularly twenty @-@ one Dutch vessels later known as the " KPM vessels " after the Dutch shipping line 's name , Koninklijke Paketvaart @-@ Maatschappij . As of 28 April 1942 the Army fleet had grown to twenty @-@ eight ships and by 24 January 1945 that fleet of large ships exceeded ninety with a peak of ninety @-@ eight by 1 August 1945 . That number did not count a much larger fleet of small vessels , ranging from landing craft , barges and other floating equipment to seagoing vessels under 1 @,@ 000 tons , including the Small Ships Section of requisitioned and locally constructed ( 2 @,@ 712 craft ) vessels manned largely by Australian civilian employees , 1 @,@ 719 as of June 1945 , of the U.S. Army , and many such vessels and floating equipment delivered from the United States . The permanent fleet of SWPA almost had as many vessels as the Army ’ s general fleet during some periods , though those vessels were often small , obsolete , in poor condition and under unorthodox management in comparison .
As the Allied forces advanced , new bases were formed , and the old ones in Australia were closed . Base Sections 5 and 6 were closed in January 1943 , and Base Section 4 in June 1944 . The remaining four became bases , and a Base Section was formed in Brisbane to control them . Bases 1 and 3 were closed in December 1944 , leaving only Bases 2 and 7 . These were deactivated in June 1945 and their functions absorbed by the Australia Base Section , as the Base Section had been renamed in February 1945 . In New Guinea , Base D was closed in July 1945 , and Bases A , B and E in September , leaving Bases F , G and H. Meanwhile , a series of bases were opened in the Philippines : Base K on Leyte , Base M on Luzon , Base R at Batangas , Base S on Cebu and base X at Manila . These came under the Luzon Base Section , which was redesignated the Philippine on 1 April 1945 . On 7 June 1945 , USASOS became AFWESPAC , under the command of Lieutenant General Wilhelm D. Styer , and it absorbed USAFFE .
= = Intelligence = =
In April 1942 , Brigadier General Spencer Akin and his Australian counterpart at LHQ , Major General Colin Simpson , agreed to pool their resources and establish a combined intelligence organisation , known as the Central Bureau . The Australian , British , and US Armies , as well as the RAAF and the RAN all supplied personnel for this formation , which worked on codebreaking and decrypting Japanese message traffic . This Magic and Ultra intelligence was vitally important to operations in SWPA .
To handle other forms of intelligence , Blamey and MacArthur created the Allied Intelligence Bureau ( AIB ) . This included the Services Reconnaissance Department with its Z Special Unit that carried out special operations like Operation Jaywick ; Secret Intelligence Australia ; the Coastwatchers , who watched for Japanese aircraft and ships from observation posts behind Japanese lines ; and the propaganda specialists of the Far Eastern Liaison Office ( FELO ) . Two other important combined organisations , not part of AIB , were the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section ( ATIS ) , which translated Japanese documents , and the Allied Geographical Section , which prepared maps and charts , and drafted appreciations of the terrain .
Since quality tended to be more important than quantity in intelligence , this proved to be a fruitful field in which the minor Allies , Australia and the Netherlands , could play a key part . Good intelligence enabled the Allied forces to minimise the risk of failures and maximise the chances of success . Moreover , the organisation built up in Australia proved to be useful after the war as well . David Horner later wrote that " it may prove that present day intelligence cooperation has proved to be the most lasting and important legacy of Australia 's experience of coalition warfare in the Second World War . "
= = Legacy = =
The Allied command structure in the South West Pacific Area faced the challenges of coalition warfare in several ways , with varying degrees of success . The benefits of the wartime alliances proved to be substantial , but required constant effort to maintain . For Australia and New Zealand , coalition warfare became the norm , and the experience in SWPA proved to be a formative and informative one , with many political and military lessons . Over the following decades , Australian , New Zealand and American forces would fight together again , in the Korean War , Vietnam War and the War on Terror .
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= German destroyer Z13 Erich Koellner =
Z13 Erich Koellner was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was still working up . In early 1940 she made two successful minelaying sorties off the English coast that claimed six merchant ships . During the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign , Erich Koellner fought in both naval Battles of Narvik in mid @-@ April 1940 and was severely damaged by British ships during the Second Battle of Narvik . The ship was scuttled by her crew shortly afterwards .
= = Design and description = =
Erich Koellner had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 137 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 190 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 140 long tons ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Erich Koellner carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors .
Erich Koellner carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines .
= = Career = =
The ship was ordered on 10 November 1934 and laid down at Germania , Kiel on 12 October 1935 as yard number G539 . She was launched on 18 March 1937 and completed on 28 August 1939 . Erich Koellner was still on sea trials when World War II began and did not become operational until early January 1940 when she was assigned to the 8th Destroyer Division ( 8 . Zerstörerdivision ) . Led by Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey , Erich Koellner and her sisters Bruno Heinemann , and Wolfgang Zenker laid a minefield off Cromer during the night of 11 / 12 January that sank three ships totalling 11 @,@ 153 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) . The same three ships laid 157 mines near the Haisborough Sands off Cromer on the night of 9 / 10 February . This minefield sank three ships of 11 @,@ 885 GRT . During Operation Wikinger , an attempt to capture British fishing trawlers operating off the Dogger Bank on 22 February , two German destroyers hit newly laid British mines in the supposedly mine @-@ free channel and sank . Koellner lost one man overboard while attempting to rescue sailors from the two sunken ships and succeeded in rescuing 24 men .
Under the command of Alfred Schulze @-@ Hinrichs , the ship was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and sailed the next day . Erich Koellner suffered storm damage en route and lost two men swept overboard . When the destroyers arrived at the Ofotfjord , west of Narvik , on the early morning of 9 April , the three ships of the 4th Flotilla , under the command of Commander Erich Bey , were ordered to land their troops in the Herjangsfjord ( a northern branch of the Ofotfjord ) in order to capture a Norwegian Army armory at Elvegårdsmoen . The troops encountered little resistance , but off @-@ loading them was slow because there was only a single wooden pier available . Later in the day , Koellner moved to Narvik harbor , but was not able to refuel before she was ordered to return to the Herjangsfjord well before dawn together with her sisters Wolfgang Zenker and Erich Giese .
Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the German ships in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the German 4th Flotilla which had been alerted when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik . Giese and Koellner were very low on fuel and all three were running low on ammunition , so Commander Bey decided not to continue the pursuit of the British ships since they were being engaged by the last two destroyers of Group 1 .
Commander Bey was ordered during the afternoon of 10 April to return to Germany with all seaworthy ships that evening , but Koellner needed more time to refuel and make repairs . They were completed the following day and the ship was ordered to patrol the mouth of the Ofotfjord that evening for picket duty . She ran aground shortly before midnight and started to take on water through damaged hull plating . She returned to Narvik on the morning of 12 April . Koellner could not be repaired with the resources available to the Germans so she was ordered to Tårstad , inside the Ramnes Narrows at the mouth of the Ofotfjord , to act as a floating battery in case of British attack . The water at Tårstad was too shallow to use torpedoes , so they were off @-@ loaded and transferred to her sisters Bernd von Arnim and Theodor Riedel . Much of her fuel was also transferred to them and 90 men not needed were put ashore .
That night he received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . The battleship HMS Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans by surprise . Koellner had not been able to reach Tårstad and Lieutenant Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Alfred Schulze @-@ Hinrichs , the ship 's captain , had decided to anchor near Djupvik on the south side of the fjord instead . As the British ships approached , Koellner was spotted by the Supermarine Walrus amphibian from Warspite and the leading British destroyers were fully prepared when they came around the headland behind which Koellner was hiding . The range was so close , 2 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 500 meters ( 8 @,@ 200 – 8 @,@ 200 ft ) , that the three British ships were able to use their light automatic weapons to silence the German ship 's guns and they set her on fire as well as blowing off her bow with a torpedo . The 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) semi @-@ armor @-@ piercing shells from Warspite went through the ship without detonating , but visibly tilted her over each time . Thirty @-@ one crewmen were killed , and 34 wounded , but none of the British ships were even damaged . Erich Koellner was scuttled shortly afterwards by detonating a depth charge in her auxiliary machinery spaces . In the aftermath of the battle , 155 of the ship 's crew , including Schulze @-@ Hinrichs , were taken prisoner by Norwegian forces . The captured crewmen were first incarcerated in Vardøhus Fortress in Finnmark and later transferred to Skorpa prisoner of war camp in Troms until released after the end of the Norwegian Campaign . The wreck was raised and scrapped in 1963 .
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= Operation Tractable =
Operation Tractable was the final offensive conducted by Canadian and Polish troops , supported by one brigade of British tanks , as part of the Battle of Normandy during World War II . The goal of this operation was to capture the strategically important French town of Falaise and then the smaller towns of Trun and Chambois . This operation was undertaken by the 1st Polish Armoured Division and the First Canadian Army against Army Group B of the Wehrmacht as part of the largest encirclement on the Western Front during the Second World War . Despite a slow start and limited gains north of Falaise , novel tactics by the 1st Polish Armoured Division — under the command of Generał brygady Stanisław Maczek during the drive for Chambois — enabled the Falaise Gap to be partially closed by 19 August 1944 , trapping about 150 @,@ 000 German soldiers in the Falaise Pocket .
Although the Falaise Gap was narrowed to a distance of several hundred yards , attacks and counter @-@ attacks by two battle groups of the 1st Polish Armoured Division and the II SS Panzer Corps on Hill 262 ( Mont Ormel ) prevented the quick closing of the gap and thousands of German troops escaped . During two days of nearly continuous fighting , Polish forces using artillery barrages and close @-@ quarter fighting , managed to hold off counter @-@ attacks by seven German divisions . On 21 August , elements of the First Canadian Army relieved the Polish survivors and sealed the Falaise Pocket by linking up with the Third US Army . This led to the surrender and capture of the remaining units of the German 7th Army in the pocket .
= = Background = =
Following break @-@ out by the US 1st and 3rd Armies from the beachhead during the Battle of Normandy after Operation Cobra on 25 July 1944 , Adolf Hitler ordered an immediate counterattack against Allied forces in the form of Operation Lüttich . Lieutenant General Omar Bradley — the commanding general of the US 12th Army Group — was notified of the counterattack in advance through signals intercepted via Ultra radio intercepts and deciphering and thus prepared his troops and their commanders to defeat this counteroffensive and to encircle as much of the Wehrmacht force as possible . By the afternoon of 7 August , Operation Lüttich had been defeated by concerted , large @-@ scale fighter @-@ bomber air strikes against the German Panzers and trucks . In the process , forces of the German 7th Army became further enveloped by the Allied advance out of Normandy .
Following these failed German offensives , the town of Falaise became a major objective of Commonwealth forces , since its capture would cut off virtually all of Generalfeldmarschall Günther von Kluge 's Army Group B. To achieve this , General Harry Crerar , commanding the newly formed Canadian 1st Army and Lieutenant @-@ General Guy Simonds — commanding the Canadian II Corps , planned an Anglo @-@ Canadian offensive with the code name of Operation Totalize . This offensive was designed to break through the defences in the Anglo @-@ Canadian sector of the Normandy front . Operation Totalize would rely on an unusual night attack using heavy bombers and the new Kangaroo armoured personnel carriers to achieve a breakthrough of German defences . Despite initial gains on Verrières Ridge and near Cintheaux , the Canadian Army 's offensive stalled on 9 August , with strong Wehrmacht counterattacks resulting in heavy casualties for the Canadian and Polish armoured and infantry divisions . By 10 August , Canadian troops had reached Hill 195 , north of Falaise . They were unable to advance farther immediately and they had been unable to capture Falaise .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Offensive strategy = = =
Operation Tractable incorporated lessons learned from Operation Totalize , notably the effectiveness of mechanized infantry units and tactical bombing raids by heavy bombers . Unlike the previous operation , Tractable was launched in daylight . An initial bombing raid was to weaken German defences and was to be followed by an advance by the Canadian 4th Armoured Division on the western flank of Hill 195 , while the Canadian 3rd Infantry Division attacked on the eastern flank with the Canadian 2nd Armoured Brigade in support . Their advance would be protected by a large smokescreen laid down by Canadian artillery . Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery hoped that Canadian forces would achieve control of Falaise by midnight on August 14 . From there , all three formations would advance towards Trun , 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) east of Falaise , with the additional assistance of the Polish 1st Armoured Division , numbering approximately 10 @,@ 000 men . Once in Trun , a linkup with the American 3rd Army at Chambois could be quickly accomplished .
The main opposition to Simonds 's force was the 12th SS Panzer Division , which included the remnants of two infantry divisions . German forces within the Falaise Pocket approached 350 @,@ 000 men . Had surprise been achieved , the Canadians would likely have succeeded in a rapid break @-@ through . However , on the night of 13 / 14 August , a Canadian officer lost his way while moving between divisional headquarters . He drove into German lines and was promptly killed . The Germans discovered a copy of Simonds ' orders on his body . As a result , the 12th SS Panzer Division placed the bulk of its remaining strength — 500 grenadiers and 15 tanks , along with twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm PaK 43 anti @-@ tank guns — along the Allies ' expected line of approach .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial drive for Falaise = = =
Operation Tractable began at 12 : 00 on 14 August , when 800 Avro Lancaster and Handley Page Halifax heavy bombers of RAF Bomber Command struck German positions along the front . As with Totalize , many of the bombers mistakenly dropped their bombs short of their targets , causing 400 Polish and Canadian casualties . Covered by a smoke screen laid down by their artillery , two Canadian divisions moved forwards . Although their line of sight was reduced , German units still managed to inflict severe casualties on the Canadian 4th Armoured Division , which included its Armoured Brigade commander Brigadier Leslie Booth , as the division moved south toward Falaise . Throughout the day , continual attacks by the Canadian 4th and Polish 1st Armoured Divisions managed to force a crossing of the Laison River . Limited access to the crossing points over the Dives River allowed counterattacks by the German 102nd SS Heavy Panzer Battalion . The town of Potigny fell to Polish forces in the late afternoon . By the end of the first day , elements of the Canadian 3rd and 4th Divisions had reached Point 159 , directly north of Falaise , although they had been unable to break into the town . To bolster his offensive , Simonds ordered the Canadian 2nd Infantry Division to move toward the front , with the hope that this reinforcement would be sufficient to enable his divisions to capture the town .
Although the first day 's progress was slower than expected , Operation Tractable resumed on 15 August ; both armoured divisions pushed southeast toward Falaise . The Canadian 2nd and 3rd Infantry Divisions — with the support of the Canadian 2nd Armoured Brigade — continued their drive south towards the town . After harsh fighting , the 4th Armoured Division captured Soulangy but the gains made were minimal as strong German resistance prevented a breakthrough to Trun . On 16 August , the Canadian 2nd Infantry Division broke into Falaise , encountering minor opposition from Waffen @-@ SS units and scattered pockets of German infantry . Although it would take two more days to clear all resistance in the town , the first major objective of Operation Tractable had been achieved . Simonds began to reorganize the bulk of his armoured forces for a renewed push towards Trun to close the Falaise Pocket .
= = = 16 – 19 August = = =
= = = = Drives for Trun and Chambois = = = =
The drive for Trun by Polish and Canadian Armoured Divisions began on 16 August , with preliminary attacks in preparation for an assault against Trun and Chambois . On 17 August , both armoured divisions of the Canadian 1st Army advanced . By early afternoon , the Polish 1st Armoured Division had outflanked the 12th SS Panzer Division , enabling several Polish formations to both reach the 4th Armoured Division 's objectives and significantly expand the bridgehead northwest of Trun . Stanisław Maczek — the Polish divisional commander — split his forces into three battlegroups each of an armoured regiment and an infantry battalion . One of these struck southwest , cutting off Trun and establishing itself on the high ground dominating the town and the Dives river valley , allowing for a powerful assault by the Canadian 4th Armoured Division on Trun . The town was liberated on the morning of 18 August .
As Canadian and Polish forces liberated Trun , Maczek 's second armoured battlegroup manoeuvred southeast , capturing Champeaux and anchoring future attacks against Chambois across a 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) front . At its closest , the front was 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from forces of the US V Corps in the town . By the evening of 18 August , all of Maczek 's battlegroups had established themselves directly north of Chambois ( one outside of the town , one near Vimoutiers and one at the foot of Hill 262 ) . With reinforcements quickly arriving from the 4th Canadian 4th Armoured Division , Maczek was in an ideal position to close the gap the following day . The presence of the Polish Armoured Division also alerted Generalfeldmarshall Walther Model of the need to keep the pocket open .
= = = = Closing the Gap = = = =
Early on 19 August , LGen Simonds met with his divisional commanders to finalize plans for closing the gap . The 4th Armoured Division would attack toward Chambois , on the western flank of two battlegroups of the Polish 1st Armoured Division . Two additional Polish battlegroups would strike eastward , securing Hill 262 to cover the eastern flanks of the assault . The 2nd and 3rd Infantry Divisions would continue their grinding offensives against the northern extremities of the Falaise Pocket , inflicting heavy casualties on the exhausted remains of the 12th SS Panzer Division . The assault began almost immediately after the meeting , with one battlegroup of the Polish 1st advancing toward Chambois and " Currie Task Force " of the 4th Armoured Division covering their advance . Simultaneously , two Polish battlegroups moved for Hill 262 . Despite heavy German resistance , Battlegroup Zgorzelski was able to secure Point 137 , directly west of Hill 262 . By early afternoon , Battlegroup Stefanowicz had captured the hill , annihilating a German infantry company in the process . As a result of the fighting , Polish casualties accounted for nearly 50 % of those sustained by the Canadian 1st Army .
By late afternoon of 19 August , Canadian and Polish forces had linked with the US 80th Division and 90th Division already stationed in the town . The Falaise Gap had been closed , trapping Model ′ s forces . As the linkup occurred , Model ′ s II SS Panzer Corps had begun its counterattack against Polish forces on Hill 262 , hoping to reopen the pocket . With American and Canadian forces facing German counterattacks in their sectors , the Polish forces would have to defend against two veteran Panzer divisions to keep the gap closed .
= = = 20 August = = =
= = = = St. Lambert @-@ sur @-@ Dives and Hill 117 = = = =
On the morning of 20 August , two German formations — the 2nd and 9th SS Panzer Divisions , attacked Polish positions on Hill 262 . At the same time , the 16th Infantry and 12th SS Panzer Divisions attacked American and Canadian forces from within the pocket , opening small channels through Allied positions . By mid @-@ morning , 2 @,@ 000 survivors of the German 2nd Parachute Division had managed to breach Canadian positions along the Dives River , as well as at Point 117 . At approximately noon , several units of the 10th SS , 12th SS and 116th Panzer Divisions managed to break through these weakened positions .
By mid afternoon , reinforcements from an armoured battlegroup under Major David Vivian Currie managed to reach St. Lambert @-@ sur @-@ Dives , denying two German armies evacuation of the pocket . Over the next 36 hours , the battlegroup repulsed almost continual attacks by German forces , destroying seven German tanks , twelve 88 mm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank guns and 40 vehicles . In the brutal fighting around Lambert @-@ sur @-@ Dives , Currie 's battlegroup was able to inflict nearly 2 @,@ 000 casualties on attacking German forces , including 300 killed and 1 @,@ 100 captured . By the evening of 20 August , the Germans had exhausted their attack against St. Lambert @-@ sur @-@ Dives ; the surviving members of the 84th Corps — commanded by General Elfeld — surrendered to Canadian and American forces near Chambois . For his actions at St. Lambert @-@ sur @-@ Dives , Currie was awarded the Victoria Cross , the only Canadian so honoured for service in the Normandy Campaign .
= = = = Hill 262 ( Mont Ormel ) = = = =
While Currie 's force stalled German forces outside of St. Lambert , two battlegroups of Maczek 's Polish 1st Armoured Division were engaged in a protracted battle with two well @-@ trained SS Panzer divisions . Throughout the night of the 19th , Polish forces had entrenched themselves along the south , southwest and northeastern lines of approach to Hill 262 . Directly southwest of Mont Ormel , German units moved along what would later become known as " The Corridor of Death " , as the Polish inflicted heavy casualties on German forces moving towards Mont Ormel with a well @-@ coordinated artillery barrage . The Polish infantry and armour were supported by the guns of the 4th Medium Regiment , 58th Battery , 2nd Canadian Army Group and assisted by the Artillery observer , Pierre Sévigny . [ 1 ] Captain Pierre Sévigny 's assistance was crucial in defending Hill 262 and he later received the Virtuti Militari ( Poland 's highest military decoration ) for his exertions during the battle . [ 2 ]
From the northeast , the 2nd SS Panzer Division planned an assault in force against the four infantry battalions and two armoured regiments of the Polish 1st Armoured Division dug in on Hill 262 . The 9th SS Panzer Division would attack from the north , while simultaneously preventing Canadian units from reinforcing the Polish armoured division . Having managed to break out of the Falaise Pocket , the 10th SS , 12th SS and 116th Panzer Divisions would then attack Hill 262 from the southwest . If this major obstacle could be cleared , German units could initiate a full withdrawal from the Falaise Pocket .
The first attack against Polish positions was by the " Der Führer " Regiment of the 2nd SS Panzer Division . Although the Podhale Rifles battalion was able to repel the attack , it expended a substantial amount of its ammunition in doing so . The second attack was devastating to the dwindling armoured forces of the Polish battlegroups . A single German tank , positioned on Point 239 ( northeast of Mont Ormel ) , was able to destroy five Sherman medium tanks within two minutes . At this time , the 3rd Parachute Division — along with an armoured regiment of the 1st SS Panzer Division — attacked Mont Ormel from inside the Falaise Pocket . This attack was repulsed by the artillery , which " massacred " German infantry and armour closing in on their positions .
As the assault from the southwest ran out of steam , the 2nd SS Panzer Division resumed its attack on the northeast of the ridge . Since Polish units were now concentrated on the southern edges of the position , the 2nd SS was able to force a path through to the 3rd Parachute Division by noon , opening a corridor out of the pocket . By mid @-@ afternoon , close to 10 @,@ 000 German troops had escaped through the corridor . Despite being overwhelmed by strong counterattacks , Polish forces continued to hold the high ground on Mont Ormel , which they referred to as " The Mace " ( Maczuga ) , exacting a deadly toll on passing German forces through the use of well @-@ coordinated artillery fire . Irritated by the presence of these units , which were exacting a heavy toll on his men , Generaloberst Paul Hausser — commanding the 7th Army — ordered the positions to be " eliminated " . Although substantial forces , including the 352nd Infantry Division and several battlegroups from the 2nd SS Panzer Division inflicted heavy casualties on the 8th and 9th Battalions of the Polish 1st Armoured Division , the counterattack was ultimately fought off . The battle had cost the Poles almost all of their ammunition , leaving them in a precarious position .
At 19 : 00 on 20 August , a 20 @-@ minute ceasefire was arranged to allow German forces to evacuate a large convoy of medical vehicles . Immediately following the passage of these vehicles , the fighting resumed and intensified . Although the Germans were incapable of dislodging the Polish forces , the hill 's defenders had reached the point of exhaustion . With ammunition supplies extremely low , the Poles were forced to watch as the remnants of the XLVII Panzer Corps escaped from the pocket . Despite this , Polish artillery continued to bombard every German unit that entered the evacuation corridor . Stefanowicz — commander of the Polish battlegroups on Hill 262 — was sceptical of his force 's chance of survival :
Gentlemen . Everything is lost . I do not believe [ the ] Canadians will manage to help us . We have only 110 men left , with 50 rounds per gun and 5 rounds per tank ... Fight to the end ! To surrender to the SS is senseless , you know it well . Gentlemen ! Good luck – tonight , we will die for Poland and civilization . We will fight to the last platoon , to the last tank , then to the last man .
= = = 21 August = = =
After the brutality of the combat that had occurred during the day , night was welcomed by both German and Polish forces surrounding Mont Ormel . Fighting was sporadic , as both sides avoided contact with one another . Frequent Polish artillery barrages interrupted German attempts to retreat from the sector . By morning , German attacks on the position had resumed . Although not as coordinated as on the day before , the attack still managed to reach the last of the Polish defenders on Mont Ormel . As the remaining Polish forces repelled the assault , their tanks were forced to use the last of their ammunition . At approximately 12 : 00 , the last SS remnants launched a final assault on the positions of the 9th Battalion . Polish forces defeated them at point @-@ blank range . There would be no further attacks ; the two battlegroups of the Polish 1st Armoured Division had survived the onslaught , despite being surrounded by German forces for three days . Both Reynolds and McGilvray place the Polish losses on the Maczuga at 351 killed and wounded and 11 tanks lost , although Jarymowycz gives higher figures of 325 killed , 1 @,@ 002 wounded , and 114 missing — approximately 20 % of the division 's combat strength . Within an hour , The Canadian Grenadier Guards managed to link up with what remained of Stefanowicz 's men . By late afternoon , the remainder of the 2nd and 9th SS Panzer Divisions had begun their retreat to the Seine River . The Falaise Gap had been permanently closed , with a large number of German forces still trapped in the pocket .
= = Aftermath = =
By the evening of 21 August 1944 , the vast majority of the German forces remaining in the Falaise Pocket had surrendered . Nearly all of the strong German formations that had caused significant damage to the Canadian 1st Army throughout the Normandy campaign had been destroyed . Two panzer divisions — the Panzer Lehr and 9th SS — now existed in name only . The formidable 12th SS Panzer Division had lost 94 % of its armour , nearly all of its field @-@ guns and 70 % of its vehicles . Several German units , notably the 2nd and the 12th SS Panzer Divisions had managed to escape east toward the Seine River , albeit without most of their motorized equipment . Conservative estimates for the number of German soldiers captured in the Falaise Pocket approach 50 @,@ 000 , although some estimates put total German losses ( killed and captured ) in the Pocket as high as 200 @,@ 000 .
By 23 August , the remainder of the Wehrmacht 's Seventh Army had entrenched itself along the Seine River , in preparation for the defence of Paris . Simultaneously , elements of Army Group G — including the German 15th Army and the 5th Panzer Army — moved to engage American forces in the south . In the following week , elements of the Canadian 1st Army repeatedly attacked these German units on the Seine in attempts to break through to the Channel Ports . On the evening of 23 August , French and American Army units entered Paris .
= = = Casualties = = =
Due to the successive offensives of early August , exact Canadian casualties for Operation Tractable are not known but losses during Totalize and Tractable are put at 5 @,@ 500 men . German casualties during Operation Tractable are also uncertain ; approximate figures can be found for casualties within the Falaise Pocket but not for the Canadian operations during Tractable . After the Falaise Pocket , the German 7th Army was severely depleted , having lost from 50 @,@ 000 – 200 @,@ 000 men , over 200 tanks , 1 @,@ 000 guns and 5 @,@ 000 other vehicles . In the fighting around Hill 262 , the Germans lost 2 @,@ 000 men killed , 5 @,@ 000 taken prisoner , 55 tanks , 44 guns and 152 armoured vehicles . Polish casualties for Operation Tractable ( until 22 August ) are 1 @,@ 441 men , of whom 325 were killed ( including 21 officers ) , 1 @,@ 002 were wounded ( 35 officers ) and 114 missing , which includes 263 men lost before the Chambois and Ormel actions from 14 – 18 August .
= = = Battle honours = = =
In the British and Commonwealth system of battle honours , participation in Operation Tractable ( included as part of the honour Falaise for service from 7 – 22 August ) was recognized in 1957 , 1958 , and 1959 by the award of the battle honours Laison ( or " The Laison " for Canadian units ) , for service on 14 – 17 August , Chambois from 18 – 22 August and St Lambert @-@ sur @-@ Dives from 19 – 22 August .
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= First Australian Imperial Force =
The First Australian Imperial Force ( 1st AIF ) was the main expeditionary force of the Australian Army during World War I. It was formed on 15 August 1914 , following Britain 's declaration of war on Germany , initially with a strength of one infantry division and one light horse brigade . The infantry division subsequently fought at Gallipoli between April and December 1915 , being reinforced by a second division which was later raised , as well as three light horse brigades . After being evacuated to Egypt the AIF was expanded to five infantry divisions , which were committed to the fighting in France and Belgium along the Western Front in March 1916 . A sixth infantry division was partially raised in 1917 in the United Kingdom , but was broken up and used as reinforcements following heavy casualties on the Western Front . Meanwhile , two mounted divisions remained in the Middle East to fight against Turkish forces in the Sinai and Palestine .
An all volunteer force , by the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as being a well @-@ trained and highly effective military force , playing a significant role in the final Allied victory . However , this reputation came at a heavy cost with a casualty rate among the highest of any belligerent for the war . The AIF included the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) , which consisted of four combat and four training squadrons that were deployed to the United Kingdom , the Western Front and the Middle East throughout the war . After the war , the AFC evolved into the Royal Australian Air Force ; the remainder of the 1st AIF was disbanded between 1919 and 1921 . After the war the achievements of the AIF and its soldiers , known colloquially as " Diggers " , became central to the national mythology of the " Anzac legend " . Generally known at the time as the AIF , it is today referred to as the 1st AIF to it distinguish from the Second Australian Imperial Force raised during World War II .
= = Formation = =
At the start of the war , Australia 's military forces were focused upon the part @-@ time Militia . The small number of regular personnel were mostly artillerymen or engineers , and were generally assigned to the task of coastal defence . Due to the provisions of the Defence Act 1903 , which precluded sending conscripts overseas , upon the outbreak of war it was realised that a totally separate , all volunteer force would need to be raised . The Australian government pledged to supply 20 @,@ 000 men organised as one infantry division and one light horse brigade plus supporting units , for service " wherever the British desired " . The Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) subsequently began forming shortly after the outbreak of war and was the brain child of Brigadier General William Throsby Bridges ( later Major General ) and his chief of staff , Major Brudenell White . Officially coming into being on 15 August 1914 , the word ' imperial ' was chosen to reflect the duty of Australians to both nation and empire . The AIF was initially intended for service in Europe . Meanwhile , a separate 2 @,@ 000 @-@ man force — known as the Australian Naval and Military Expeditionary Force ( AN & MEF ) — was formed for the task of capturing German New Guinea . In addition , small military forces were maintained in Australia to defend the country from attack .
Upon formation , the AIF consisted of only one infantry division , the 1st Division , and the 1st Light Horse Brigade . The 1st Division was made up of the 1st Infantry Brigade under Colonel Henry MacLaurin , an Australian @-@ born officer with previous part @-@ time military service ; the 2nd , under Colonel James Whiteside McCay , an Irish @-@ born Australian politician and former Minister for Defence ; and the 3rd , under Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , a British regular officer seconded to the Australian Army before the war . The 1st Light Horse Brigade was commanded by Colonel Harry Chauvel , an Australian regular , while the divisional artillery was commanded by Colonel Talbot Hobbs . The initial response for recruits was so good that in September 1914 the decision was made to raise the 4th Infantry Brigade and 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades . The 4th Infantry Brigade was commanded by Colonel John Monash , a prominent Melbourne civil engineer and businessman . The AIF continued to grow through the war , eventually numbering five infantry divisions , two mounted divisions and a mixture of other units . As the AIF operated within the British war effort , its units were generally organised along the same lines as comparable British Army formations . However , there were often small differences between the structures of British and Australian units , especially in regards to the AIF infantry divisions ' support units .
Hastily deployed , the first contingent of AIF was essentially untrained and suffered from widespread equipment shortages . In early 1915 the AIF was largely an inexperienced force , with only a small percentage of its members having previous combat experience . However , many officers and non @-@ commissioned personnel ( NCOs ) had previously served in the pre @-@ war permanent or part @-@ time forces , and a significant proportion of the enlisted personnel had received some basic military instruction as part of Australia 's compulsory training scheme . Predominantly a fighting force based on infantry battalions and light horse regiments — the high proportion of close combat troops to support personnel ( e.g. medical , administrative , logistic , etc . ) was exceeded only by the New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) — this fact at least partially accounted for the high percentage of casualties it later sustained . Nevertheless , the AIF eventually included a large number of logistics and administrative units which were capable of meeting most of the force 's needs , and in some circumstances provided support to nearby allied units . However , the AIF mainly relied on the British Army for medium and heavy artillery support and other weapons systems necessary for combined arms warfare that were developed later in the war , including aircraft and tanks .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Command = = =
When originally formed in 1914 the AIF was commanded by Bridges , who also commanded the 1st Division . After Bridges ' death at Gallipoli in May 1915 , the Australian government appointed Major General James Gordon Legge , a Boer War veteran , to replace Bridges in command of both . However , British Lieutenant General Sir John Maxwell , the commander of British Troops in Egypt , objected to Legge bypassing him and communicating directly with Australia . The Australian government failed to support Legge , who thereafter deferred to Lieutenant General William Birdwood , the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps . When Legge was sent to Egypt to command the 2nd Division , Birdwood made representations to the Australian government that Legge could not act as commander of the AIF , and that the Australian government should transfer Bridges ' authority to him . This was done on a temporary basis on 18 September 1915 . Promoted to major general , Chauvel took over command of the 1st Division in November when Major General Harold Walker was wounded , becoming the first Australian @-@ born officer to command a division . When Birdwood became commander of the Dardanelles Army , command of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps and the AIF passed to another British officer , Lieutenant General Alexander Godley , the commander of the NZEF , but Birdwood resumed command of the AIF when he assumed command of II ANZAC Corps upon its formation in Egypt in early 1916 . I ANZAC Corps and II ANZAC Corps swapped designations on 28 March 1916 .
Birdwood was officially confirmed as commander of the AIF on 14 September 1916 , backdated to 18 September 1915 , while also commanding I ANZAC Corps on the Western Front . He retained overall responsibility for the AIF units in the Middle East , but in practice this fell to Godley , and after II ANZAC Corps left Egypt as well , to Chauvel who also commanded the ANZAC Mounted Division . Later promoted to lieutenant general , he subsequently commanded the Desert Mounted Corps of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ; the first Australian to command a corps . Birdwood was later given command of the Australian Corps on its formation in November 1917 . Another Australian , Monash , by then a lieutenant general , took over command of the corps on 31 May 1918 . Despite being promoted to command the British Fifth Army , Birdwood retained command of the AIF . By this time four of the five divisional commanders were Australian officers . The exception was Major General Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , the commander of the 4th Division , who was a British Army officer seconded to the Australian Army before the war , and who had joined the AIF in Australia in August 1914 . The vast majority of brigade commands were also held by Australian officers . A number of British staff officers were attached to the headquarters of the Australian Corps , and its predecessors , due to a shortage of suitably trained Australian officers .
= = = Structure = = =
= = = = Infantry divisions = = = =
The organisation of the AIF closely followed the British Army divisional structure , and remained relatively unchanged throughout the war . During the war , the following infantry divisions were raised as part of the AIF :
1st Division
2nd Division
3rd Division
4th Division
5th Division
6th Division ( broken up in 1917 before seeing combat )
New Zealand and Australian Division ( 1915 )
Each division comprised three infantry brigades , and each brigade contained four battalions ( later reduced to three in 1918 ) . Australian battalions initially included eight rifle companies ; however , this was reduced to four expanded companies in January 1915 to conform with the organisation of British infantry battalions . A battalion contained about 1 @,@ 000 men . Although the divisional structure evolved over the course of the war , each formation also included a range of combat support and service units , including artillery , machine @-@ gun , mortar , engineer , pioneer , signals , logistic , medical , veterinary and administrative units . By 1918 each brigade also included a light trench mortar battery , while each division included a pioneer battalion , a machine @-@ gun battalion , two field artillery brigades , a divisional trench mortar brigade , four companies of engineers , a divisional signals company , a divisional train consisting of four service corps companies , a salvage company , three field ambulances , a sanitary section and a mobile veterinary section . These changes were reflective of wider organisational adaption , tactical innovation , and the adoption of new weapons and technology that occurred throughout the British Expeditionary Force ( BEF ) .
At the start of the Gallipoli Campaign , the AIF had four infantry brigades with the first three making up the 1st Division . The 4th Brigade was joined with the sole New Zealand infantry brigade to form the New Zealand and Australian Division . The 2nd Division had been formed in Egypt in 1915 and was sent to Gallipoli in August to reinforce the 1st Division , doing so without its artillery and having only partially completed its training . After Gallipoli , the infantry underwent a major expansion . The 3rd Division was formed in Australia and sent to France . The New Zealand and Australian Division was broken up with the New Zealand elements forming the New Zealand Division , while the original Australian infantry brigades ( 1st to 4th ) were split in half to create 16 new battalions to form another four brigades . These new brigades ( 12th to 15th ) were used to form the 4th and 5th Divisions . This ensured the battalions of the two new divisions had a core of experienced soldiers . The 6th Division commenced forming in England in February 1917 , but was never deployed to France and was broken up in September of that year to provide reinforcements to the other five divisions .
The Australian infantry did not have regiments in the British sense , only battalions identified by ordinal number ( 1st to 60th ) . Each battalion originated from a geographical region , with men recruited from that area . New South Wales and Victoria , the most populous states , filled their own battalions ( and even whole brigades ) while the " Outer States " — Queensland , South Australia , Western Australia and Tasmania — often combined to assemble a battalion . These regional associations remained throughout the war and each battalion developed its own strong regimental identity . The pioneer battalions ( 1st to 5th , formed from March 1916 ) were also mostly recruited regionally ; however , the machine @-@ gun battalions ( 1st to 5th , formed from March 1918 from the brigade and divisional machine @-@ gun companies ) were made up of personnel from all states .
During the manpower crisis following the Third Battle of Ypres , in which the five divisions sustained 38 @,@ 000 casualties , there were plans to follow the British reorganisation and reduce all brigades from four battalions to three . In the British regimental system this was traumatic enough ; however , the regimental identity survived the disbanding of a single battalion . In the Australian system , disbanding a battalion meant the extinction of the unit . In September 1918 , the decision to disband seven battalions — the 19th , 21st , 25th , 37th , 42nd , 54th and 60th — led to a series of " mutinies over disbandment " where the ranks refused to report to their new battalions . In the AIF , mutiny was one of two charges that carried the death penalty , the other being desertion to the enemy . Instead of being charged with mutiny , the instigators were charged as being absent without leave ( AWOL ) and the doomed battalions were eventually permitted to remain together for the forthcoming battle , following which the survivors voluntarily disbanded . These mutinies were motivated mainly by the soldiers ' loyalty to their battalions .
The artillery underwent a significant expansion during the war . When the 1st Division embarked in November 1914 it did so with its 18 @-@ pounder field guns , but Australia had not been able to provide the division with the howitzer batteries or the heavy guns that would otherwise have been included on its establishment , due to a lack of equipment . These shortages were unable to be rectified prior to the landing at Gallipoli where the howitzers would have provided the plunging and high @-@ angled fire that was required due to the rough terrain at Anzac Cove . When the 2nd Division was formed in July 1915 it did so without its complement of artillery . Meanwhile , in December 1915 when the government offered to form another division it did so on the basis that its artillery would be provided by Britain . In time though these shortfalls were overcome , with the Australian field artillery expanding from just three field brigades in 1914 to twenty at the end of 1917 . The majority of the heavy artillery units supporting the Australian divisions were British , although two Australian heavy batteries were raised from the regular Australian Garrison Artillery . These were the 54th Siege Battery , which was equipped with 8 @-@ inch howtizers , and the 55th with 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzers .
= = = = Mounted divisions = = = =
The following mounted divisions were raised as part of the AIF :
ANZAC Mounted Division
Australian Mounted Division
During the Gallipoli Campaign four light horse brigades had been dismounted and fought alongside the infantry divisions . However , in March 1916 the ANZAC Mounted Division was formed in Egypt ( so named because it contained one mounted brigade from New Zealand – the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade ) . Likewise , the Australian Mounted Division — formed in February 1917 — was originally named the Imperial Mounted Division because it contained the British 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades . Each division consisted of three mounted light horse brigades . A light horse brigade consisted of three regiments . Each regiment included three squadrons of four troops and a machine @-@ gun section . The initial strength of a regiment was around 500 men , although its establishment changed throughout the war . In 1916 , the machine @-@ gun sections of each regiment were concentrated as squadrons at brigade @-@ level . Like the infantry , the light horse regiments were raised on a territorial basis by state and were identified numerically ( 1st to 15th ) .
= = = = Corps = = = =
The following corps @-@ level formations were raised :
Australian and New Zealand Army Corps
I ANZAC Corps
II ANZAC Corps
Australian Corps
Desert Mounted Corps ( formerly the Desert Column )
The Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) was formed from the AIF and NZEF in preparation for the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 and was commanded by Birdwood . Initially the corps consisted of the 1st Australian Division , the New Zealand and Australian Division , and two mounted brigades — the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade — although when first deployed to Gallipoli in April , it did so without its mounted formations , as the terrain was considered unsuitable . However , in May , both brigades were dismounted and deployed along with the 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades as reinforcements . Later , as the campaign continued the corps was reinforced further by the 2nd Australian Division , which began arriving from August 1915 . In February 1916 , it was reorganised into I and II ANZAC Corps in Egypt following the evacuation from Gallipoli and the subsequent expansion of the AIF .
I ANZAC Corps included the Australian 1st and 2nd Divisions and the New Zealand Division . The New Zealand Division was later transferred to the II ANZAC Corps in July 1916 and was replaced by the Australian 3rd Division in I ANZAC . Initially employed in Egypt as part of the defence of the Suez Canal , it was transferred to the Western Front in March 1916 . II ANZAC Corps included the Australian 4th and 5th Divisions , forming in Egypt it transferred to France in July 1916 . In November 1917 the five Australian divisions of I and II ANZAC Corps merged to become the Australian Corps , while the British and New Zealand elements in each corps became the British XXII Corps . The Australian Corps was the largest corps fielded by the British Empire in France , providing just over 10 percent of the manning of the BEF . At its peak it numbered 109 @,@ 881 men . Corps troops raised included the 13th Light Horse Regiment and three army artillery brigades . Each corps also included a cyclist battalion .
Meanwhile , the majority of the Australian Light Horse had remained in the Middle East and subsequently served in Egypt , Sinai , Palestine and Syria with the Desert Column of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force . In August 1917 the column was expanded to become the Desert Mounted Corps , which consisted of the ANZAC Mounted Division , Australian Mounted Division and the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade ( which included a number of Australian , British and New Zealand camel companies ) . In contrast to the static trench warfare that developed in Europe , the troops in the Middle East mostly experienced a more fluid form of warfare involving manoeuvre and combined arms tactics .
= = = = Australian Flying Corps = = = =
The 1st AIF included the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) . Soon after the outbreak of war in 1914 , two aircraft were sent to assist in capturing German colonies in what is now north @-@ east New Guinea . However , these colonies surrendered quickly , before the planes were even unpacked . The first operational flights did not occur until 27 May 1915 , when the Mesopotamian Half Flight was called upon to assist the Indian Army in protecting British oil interests in what is now Iraq . The corps later saw action in Egypt , Palestine and on the Western Front throughout the remainder of World War I. By the end of the war , four squadrons — Nos. 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 — had seen operational service , while another four training squadrons — Nos. 5 , 6 , 7 and 8 — had also been established . A total of 460 officers and 2 @,@ 234 other ranks served in the AFC . The AFC remained part of the Australian Army until 1919 , when it was disbanded ; later forming the basis of the Royal Australian Air Force .
= = = = Specialist units = = = =
In addition , a number of specialist units were also raised , including three Australian tunnelling companies . Arriving on the Western Front in May 1916 they undertook mining and counter @-@ mining operations alongside British , Canadian and New Zealand companies , initially operating around Armentieres and at Fromelles . The following year they operated in the Ypres section . In November 1916 , the 1st Australian Tunnelling Company took over from the Canadians around Hill 60 , subsequently playing a key role in the Battle of Messines in June 1917 . During the German offensive in March 1918 the three companies served as infantry , and later supported the Allied advance being used to defuse booby traps and mines . The Australian Electrical Mining and Mechanical Boring Company supplied electric power to units in the British Second Army area .
Motor transport units were also formed . Not required at Gallipoli , they were sent on to the Western Front , becoming the first units of the AIF to serve there . The motor transport rejoined I ANZAC Corps when it reached the Western Front in 1916 . Australia also formed six railway operating companies , which served on the Western Front . Specialist ordnance units included ammunition and mobile workshops units formed late in the war , while service units included supply columns , ammunition sub @-@ parks , field bakeries and butcheries , and depot units . Hospitals and other specialist medical and dental units were also formed in Australia and overseas , as were a number of convalescent depots . One small armoured unit was raised , the 1st Armoured Car Section . Formed in Australia , it fought in the Western Desert , and then , re @-@ equipped with T Model Fords , served in Palestine as the 1st Light Car Patrol . Camel companies were raised in Egypt to patrol the Western Desert . They formed part of the Imperial Camel Corps and fought in the Sinai and Palestine . In 1918 they were converted to light horse as the 14th and 15th Light Horse Regiments .
= = = Administration = = =
Although operationally placed at the disposal of the British , the AIF was administered as a separate national force , with the Australian government reserving the responsibility for the promotion , pay , clothing , equipment and feeding of its personnel . The AIF was administered separately from the home @-@ based army in Australia , and a parallel system was set up to deal with non @-@ operational matters including record @-@ keeping , finance , ordnance , personnel , quartermaster and other issues . The AIF also had separate conditions of service , rules regarding promotion and seniority , and graduation list for officers . This responsibility initially fell to Bridges , in addition to his duties as its commander ; however , an Administrative Headquarters was later set up in Cairo in Egypt . Following the redeployment of the Australian infantry divisions to the Western Front it was relocated to London . Additional responsibilities included liaison with the British War Office as well as the Australian Department of Defence in Melbourne , whilst also being tasked with the command of all Australian troops in Britain . A training headquarters was also established at Salisbury . The AIF Headquarters and its subordinate units were almost entirely independent from the British Army , which allowed the force to be self @-@ sustaining in many fields . The AIF generally followed British administrative policy and procedures , including for the awarding of imperial honours and awards .
= = Weaponry and equipment = =
The weaponry and equipment of the Australian Army had mostly been standardised on that used by the British Army prior to the outbreak of World War I. During the war the equipment used changed as tactics evolved , and generally followed British developments . The standard issued rifle was the .303 @-@ inch Short Magazine Lee – Enfield Mark III ( SMLE ) . Infantrymen used 1908 @-@ pattern webbing , while light horsemen used leather bandoliers and load carriage equipment . A large pack was issued as part of marching order . In 1915 infantrymen were issued with the SMLE and long sword bayonet , while periscope rifles were also used . From 1916 they also used manufactured hand grenades and rodded rifle grenades , both of which had been in short supply at Gallipoli ( necessitating the use of improvised " jam @-@ tin " grenades ) . A grenade discharge cup was issued for fitting to the muzzle of a rifle for the projection of the Mills bomb from 1917 . Machine @-@ guns initially included a small number of Maxim or Vickers medium machine @-@ guns , but subsequently also included the Lewis light machine @-@ gun , the latter two of which were issued in greater numbers as the war continued so as to increase the firepower available to the infantry in response to the tactical problems of trench warfare . Light horse units underwent a similar process , although were issued Hotchkiss guns to replace their Lewis guns in early 1917 .
From 1916 the Stokes light trench mortar was issued to infantry to replace a range of trench catapults and smaller trench mortars , whilst it was also used in a battery at brigade @-@ level to provide organic indirect fire support . In addition , individual soldiers often used a range of personnel weapons including knives , clubs , knuckle @-@ dusters , revolvers and pistols . Snipers on the Western Front used Pattern 1914 Enfield sniper rifles with telescopic sights . Light horsemen also carried bayonets ( as they were initially considered mounted infantry ) , although the Australian Mounted Division adopted cavalry swords in late 1917 . Artillery included 18 @-@ pounders which equipped the field batteries , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers used by the howitzer batteries , and 8 @-@ inch and 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzers which equipped the heavy ( siege ) batteries . The 9 @.@ 45 @-@ inch heavy mortar equipped a heavy trench mortar battery , while medium trench mortar batteries were equipped with the 2 @-@ inch medium mortar , and later the 6 @-@ inch mortar . Light Horse units were supported by British and Indian artillery . The main mount used by the light horse was the Waler , while draught horses were used by the artillery and for wheeled transport . Camels were also used , both as mounts and transport , and donkeys and mules were used as pack animals .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Recruitment = = =
Enlisted under the Defence Act 1903 , the AIF was an all volunteer force for the duration of the war . Australia was one of only two belligerents on either side not to introduce conscription during the war ( along with South Africa ) . Although a system of compulsory training had been introduced in 1911 for home service , under Australian law it did not extend to overseas service . In Australia , two plebiscites on using conscription to expand the AIF were defeated in October 1916 and December 1917 , thereby preserving the volunteer status but stretching the AIF 's reserves towards the end of the war . A total of 416 @,@ 809 men enlisted in the Army during the war , representing 38 @.@ 7 percent of the white male population aged between 18 and 44 . Of these , 331 @,@ 781 men were sent overseas to serve as part of the AIF . Approximately 18 percent of those who served in the AIF had been born in the United Kingdom , marginally more than their proportion of the Australian population , although almost all enlistments occurred in Australia , with only 57 people being recruited from overseas . Indigenous Australians were officially barred from the AIF until October 1917 , when the restrictions were altered to allow so @-@ called " half @-@ castes " to join . Estimates of the number of Indigenous Australians who served in the AIF differ considerably , but are believed to be over 500 . More than 2 @,@ 000 women served with the AIF , mainly in the Australian Army Nursing Service .
The recruitment process was managed by the various military districts . At the outset it had been planned to recruit half the AIF 's initial commitment of 20 @,@ 000 personnel from Australia 's part @-@ time forces , and volunteers were initially recruited from within designated regimental areas , thus creating a linkage between the units of the AIF and the units of the home service Militia . In the early stages of mobilisation the men of the AIF were selected under some of the toughest criterion of any army in World War I and it is believed that roughly 30 percent of men that applied were rejected on medical grounds . To enlist , men had to be aged between 18 and 35 years of age ( although it is believed that men as old as 70 and as young as 14 managed to enlist ) , and they had to be at least 5 feet 6 inches ( 168 cm ) , with a chest measurement of at least 34 inches ( 86 cm ) . Many of these strict requirements were lifted later in the war , however , as the need for replacements grew . Indeed , casualties among the initial volunteers were so high , that of the 32 @,@ 000 original soldiers of the AIF only 7 @,@ 000 would survive to the end of the war .
By the end of 1914 around 53 @,@ 000 volunteers had been accepted , allowing a second contingent to depart in December . Meanwhile , reinforcements were sent at a rate of 3 @,@ 200 men per month . The landing at Anzac Cove subsequently resulted in a significant increase in enlistments , with 36 @,@ 575 men being recruited in July 1915 . Although this level was never again reached , enlistments remained high in late 1915 and early 1916 . From then a gradual decline occurred , and whereas news from Gallipoli had increased recruitment , the fighting at Fromelles and Pozieres did not have a similar effect , with monthly totals dropping from 10 @,@ 656 in May 1916 to around 6 @,@ 000 between June and August . Significant losses in mid @-@ 1916 , coupled with the failure of the volunteer system to provide sufficient replacements , resulted in the first referendum on conscription , which was defeated by a narrow margin . Although there was an increase in enlistments in September ( 9 @,@ 325 ) and October ( 11 @,@ 520 ) , in December they fell to the lowest total of the year ( 2 @,@ 617 ) . Enlistments in 1917 never exceeded 4 @,@ 989 ( in March ) . Heavy losses at Passchendaele resulted in a second referendum on conscription , which was defeated by an even greater margin . Recruitment continued to decline , reaching a low in December ( 2 @,@ 247 ) . Monthly intakes fell further in early 1918 , but peaked in May ( 4 @,@ 888 ) and remained relatively steady albeit reduced from previous periods , before slightly increasing in October ( 3 @,@ 619 ) prior to the armistice in November .
Ultimately , the voluntary system of recruitment proved unable to sustain the force structure of the AIF , failing to provide sufficient replacements for the heavy casualties it sustained and requiring a number of units to be disbanded towards the end of the war . In mid @-@ 1918 it was decided to allow the men who had enlisted in 1914 to return to Australia for home leave , further exacerbating the manpower shortage experienced by the Australian Corps . Regardless , by the last year of the war the AIF was a long @-@ serving force — even if it was a citizen army and not a professional one like the pre @-@ war British Army — containing 141 @,@ 557 men with more than two @-@ years service , including , despite the heavy casualties suffered at Gallipoli in 1915 and on the Western Front in 1916 and 1917 , 14 @,@ 653 men who had enlisted in 1914 . Battle hardened and experienced as a result , this fact partially explains the important role the AIF subsequently played in the final defeat of the German Army in 1918 .
= = = Pay = = =
Soldiers of the AIF were among the highest paid of the war . The pay for a private was set at five shillings a day , while an additional shilling was deferred to be paid on discharge . As a result , the AIF earned the sobriquet " six bob a day tourists " . Married men were required to allot two shillings a day for their dependents ; however , a separation allowance was added in 1915 . Reflecting the progressive nature of Australian industrial and social policy of the era , this rate of pay was intended to be equal to that of the average worker ( after including rations and accommodation ) and higher than that of soldiers in the Militia . In contrast , New Zealand soldiers received five shillings , while British infantrymen were initially only paid one shilling , although this was later increased to three . Junior officers in the AIF were also paid at a rate higher than those in the British Army , although senior officers were paid considerably less than their counterparts .
= = = Training = = =
In the early stages of the AIF 's formation , prior to Gallipoli , training was rudimentary and performed mainly at unit @-@ level . There were no formal schools and volunteers proceeded straight from recruiting stations to their assigned units , which were still in the process of being established . Upon arrival , in makeshift camps the recruits received basic training in drill and musketry from officers and non @-@ commissioned officers , who were not trained instructors and had been appointed mainly because they had previous service in the part @-@ time forces . Camps were established in every state including at Enoggera ( Queensland ) , Liverpool ( New South Wales ) , Broadmeadows ( Victoria ) , Brighton ( Tasmania ) , Morphettville ( South Australia ) and Blackboy Hill ( Western Australia ) . In some units this training took place over a period of six to eight weeks , although others — such as the 5th Battalion — spent as little as one day on live firing before departing for overseas . Following the embarkation of the initial force to the Middle East , further training was undertaken in the desert . This was more organised than the training provided in Australia , but was still quite rushed . Individual training was consolidated but progressed quickly into collective training at battalion and brigade @-@ level . Training exercises , marches , drill and musketry practices followed but the standard of the exercises was limited and they lacked realism , meaning that commanders did not benefit from handling their troops under battlefield conditions .
Some soldiers had received training through the compulsory training scheme that had been established in 1911 , while others had served as volunteers in the part @-@ time forces before the war or as members of the British Army , but their numbers were limited and in many cases the quality of the training they had received was also limited . The original intention had been that half the initial intake would consist of soldiers that were currently serving in the Militia , but ultimately this did not come to fruition and while about 8 @,@ 000 of the original intake had some prior military experience , either through compulsory training or as volunteers , over 6 @,@ 000 had none at all . In terms of officers , the situation was better . For example , within the 1st Division , of its initial 631 officers , 607 had had previous military experience . This was largely through service in the pre @-@ war militia , though , where there had been little to no formal officer training . In addition , there was a small cadre of junior officers who had been trained for the permanent force at the Royal Military College , Duntroon , but their numbers were very small and at the outbreak of the war the first class had to be graduated early in order for them to join the AIF , being placed mainly in staff positions . Other than small numbers of Duntroon graduates , from January 1915 the only means to be commissioned into the AIF was from the ranks of enlisted personnel . As a result , by 1918 the majority of company and battalion commanders had risen from the ranks . While the AIF 's initial senior officers had been members of the pre @-@ war military , few had any substantial experience in managing brigade @-@ sized or larger units in the field as training exercises on this scale had been rarely conducted before the outbreak of hostilities . This inexperience contributed to tactical mistakes and avoidable casualties during the Gallipoli campaign .
After the AIF was transferred to the European battlefield , the training system was greatly improved . Efforts were made at standardisation , with a formal training organisation and curriculum — consisting of 14 weeks basic training for infantrymen — being established . In Egypt , as the AIF was expanded in early 1916 , each brigade established a training battalion . These formations were later sent to the United Kingdom and were absorbed into a large system of depots that was established on Salisbury Plain by each branch of the AIF including infantry , engineers , artillery , signals , medical and logistics . After completing their initial instruction at depots in Australia and the United Kingdom , soldiers were posted to in @-@ theatre base depots where they received advanced training before being posted as reinforcements to operational units . Like the British Army , the AIF sought to rapidly pass on " lessons learned " as the war progressed , and these were widely transmitted through regularly updated training documents . The experience gained through combat also improved the skills of the surviving officers and men , and by 1918 the AIF was a very well trained and well led force . After coming to terms with the conditions on the Western Front the Australians had played a part in the development of new combined arms tactics for offensive operations that occurred within the BEF , while in defence they employed patrolling , trench raids , and Peaceful Penetration tactics to dominate no man 's land .
Following the deployment of the AIF a reinforcement system was used to replace wastage . Reinforcements received training in Australia first at camps around the country before sailing as drafts — consisting of about two officers and between 100 and 150 other ranks — and joining their assigned units at the front . Initially , these drafts were assigned to specific units prior to departure and were recruited from the same area as the unit they were assigned to , but later in the war drafts were sent as " general reinforcements " , which could be assigned to any unit as required . These drafts were despatched even before Gallipoli and continued until late 1917 to early 1918 . Some units had as many as 26 or 27 reinforcement drafts . To provide officer reinforcements , a series of AIF officer schools , such as that at Broadmeadows , were established in Australia before officer training was eventually concentrated at a school near Duntroon . These schools produced a large number of officers , but they were eventually closed in 1917 due to concerns that their graduates were too inexperienced and after this most replacement officers were drawn from the ranks of the AIF 's deployed units , and candidates attended either British officer training units , or in @-@ theatre schools established in France . After February 1916 , the issue of NCO training was also taken more seriously , and several schools were established , with training initially being two weeks in duration before being increased to two months .
= = = Discipline = = =
During the war the AIF gained a reputation , at least amongst British officers , for indifference to military authority and indiscipline when away from the battlefield on leave . This included a reputation for refusing to salute officers , sloppy dress , lack of respect for military rank and drunkenness on leave . Indiscipline , misbehaviour , and public drunkenness were reportedly widespread in Egypt in 1914 – 15 , while a number of AIF personnel were also involved in several civil disturbances or riots in the red @-@ light district of Cairo during this period . Australians also appear to have been over @-@ represented among British Empire personnel convicted by court martial of various disciplinary offences on the Western Front from 1916 , especially absence without leave ; however , this may at least be partially explained by the refusal of the Australian government to follow the British Army practice of applying the death penalty to desertion , unlike New Zealand or Canada , as well as to the high proportion of front @-@ line personnel . Instead , Australian soldiers received prison sentences , including hard labour and life imprisonment , for desertion as well as for other serious offences , including manslaughter , assault and theft . More minor offences included drunkenness and defiance of authority . There were also examples of Australian soldiers being involved in looting , while the practice of " scrounging " or " souveniring " was also widespread . The stresses from prolonged combat contributed to a high incidence of indiscipline within AIF units , and especially those in France during the heavy fighting between April and October 1918 . Following the war , the indiscipline within the AIF was often portrayed as harmless larrikinism .
Australia 's working class culture also influenced that of the AIF . Approximately three @-@ quarters of AIF volunteers were members of the working class , with a high proportion also being trade unionists , and soldiers frequently applied their attitudes to industrial relations to the Army . Throughout the war there were incidents where soldiers refused to undertake tasks that they considered demeaning or protested against actual or perceived mistreatment by their officers . These actions were similar to the strikes many soldiers had taken part in during their pre @-@ enlistment employment , with the men not seeing themselves as mutineers . The protests which occurred in 1918 over the planned disbandment of several battalions also used similar tactics to those employed in industrial disputes . Historian Nathan Wise has judged that the frequent use of industrial action in the AIF led to improved conditions for the soldiers , and contributed to it having a less strict military culture than was common in the British Army .
= = Uniforms and insignia = =
The pre @-@ war Australian Army uniform formed the basis of that worn by the AIF , which adopted the broad @-@ brimmed slouch hat and rising sun badge . Peak caps were initially also worn by the infantry , while light horsemen often wore a distinctive emu plume in their slouch hats . A standard khaki puggaree was worn by all arms . From 1916 steel helmets and gas masks were issued for use by infantry on the Western Front . A loose @-@ fitting four @-@ pocket service dress jacket was worn , along with baggy knee breeches , puttees , and tan ankle @-@ boots . A heavy woollen greatcoat was worn during cold weather . The uniform was a drab " pea soup " or khaki colour , while all buttons and badges were oxidised to prevent shine . All personnel wore a shoulder title bearing the word " Australia " . Rank insignia followed the British Army pattern and were worn on the upper arms ( or shoulders for officers ) . Identical hat and collar badges were worn by all units , which were initially only distinguished by small metal numerals and letters on the shoulder straps ( or collars for officers ) . However , in 1915 a system of Unit Colour Patches was adopted , worn on the upper arm of a soldier 's jacket . Wound stripes of gold braid were also authorised to be worn to denote each wound received . Other distinguishing badges included a brass letter " A " which was worn on the colour patch by men and nurses who had served at Gallipoli , blue chevrons representing each year of overseas service , and a red chevron to represent enlistment during the first year of the war . Uniforms worn by the AFC were similar to those of the rest of the AIF , although some officers wore the double @-@ breasted " maternity jacket " which had been worn at the pre @-@ war Central Flying School . AFC " wings " were worn on the left breast , while an AFC colour patch and standard rising sun badges were also worn .
= = Operations = =
= = = Gallipoli = = =
The first contingent of the AIF departed by ship in a single convoy from Albany on 1 November 1914 . Although they were originally bound for England to undergo further training prior to employment on the Western Front , the Australians were subsequently sent to British @-@ controlled Egypt to pre @-@ empt any Turkish attack against the strategically important Suez Canal , and with a view to opening another front against the Central Powers . Aiming to knock Turkey out of the war the British then decided to stage an amphibious lodgement at Gallipoli and following a period of training and reorganisation the Australians were included amongst the British , Indian and French forces committed to the campaign . The combined Australian and New Zealand Army Corps — commanded by British general William Birdwood — subsequently landed at Anzac Cove on the Gallipoli peninsula on 25 April 1915 . Although promising to transform the war if successful , the Gallipoli Campaign was ill @-@ conceived and shortly after the landing a blood stalemate developed . This ultimately lasted eight months before Allied commanders decided to evacuate the troops without having achieved the campaign 's objectives . Australian casualties totalled 26 @,@ 111 , including 8 @,@ 141 killed .
= = = Egypt and Palestine = = =
After the withdrawal from Gallipoli the Australians returned to Egypt and the AIF underwent a major expansion . In 1916 , the infantry began to move to France while the mounted infantry units remained in the Middle East to fight the Turks . Australian troops of the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division saw action in all the major battles of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign , playing a pivotal role in fighting the Turkish troops that were threatening British control of Egypt . The Australians first saw combat during the Senussi uprising in the Libyan Desert and the Nile Valley , during which the combined British forces successfully put down the primitive pro @-@ Turkish Islamic sect with heavy casualties . The ANZAC Mounted Division subsequently saw considerable action in the Battle of Romani between 3 and 5 August 1916 against the Turks who were eventually pushed back . Following this victory the British forces went on the offensive in the Sinai , although the pace of the advance was governed by the speed by which the railway and water pipeline could be constructed from the Suez Canal . Rafa was captured on 9 January 1917 , while the last of the small Turkish garrisons in the Sinai were eliminated in February .
The advance entered Palestine and an initial , unsuccessful attempt was made to capture Gaza on 26 March 1917 , while a second and equally unsuccessful attempt was launched on 19 April . A third assault occurred between 31 October and 7 November and this time both the ANZAC Mounted Division and the Australian Mounted Division took part . The battle was a complete success for the British , over @-@ running the Gaza – Beersheba line and capturing 12 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers . The critical moment was the capture of Beersheba on the first day , after the Australian 4th Light Horse Brigade charged more than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) . The Turkish trenches were overrun , with the Australians capturing the wells at Beersheba and securing the valuable water they contained along with over 700 prisoners for the loss of 31 killed and 36 wounded . Later , Australian troops assisted in pushing the Turkish forces out of Palestine and took part in actions at Mughar Ridge , Jerusalem and the Megiddo . The Turkish government surrendered on 30 October 1918 . Units of the Light Horse were subsequently used to help put down a nationalist revolt in Egypt in 1919 and did so with efficiency and brutality , although they suffered a number of fatalities in the process . Total Australian battle casualties in the campaign were 4 @,@ 851 , including 1 @,@ 374 dead .
= = = Western Front = = =
Five infantry divisions of the AIF saw action in France and Belgium , leaving Egypt in March 1916 . I ANZAC Corps subsequently took up positions in a quiet sector south of Armentieres on 7 April 1916 and for the next two and a half years the AIF participated in most of the major battles on the Western Front , earning a formidable reputation . Although spared from the disastrous first day of the Battle of the Somme , within weeks four Australian divisions had been committed . The 5th Division , positioned on the left flank , was the first in action during the Battle of Fromelles on 19 July 1916 , suffering 5 @,@ 533 casualties in a single day . The 1st Division entered the line on 23 July , assaulting Pozieres , and by the time that they were relieved by the 2nd Division on 27 July , they had suffered 5 @,@ 286 casualties . Mouquet Farm was attacked in August , with casualties totalling 6 @,@ 300 men . By the time the AIF was withdrawn from the Somme to reorganise , they had suffered 23 @,@ 000 casualties in just 45 days .
In March 1917 , the 2nd and 5th Divisions pursued the Germans back to the Hindenburg Line , capturing the town of Bapaume . On 11 April , the 4th Division assaulted the Hindenburg Line in the disastrous First Battle of Bullecourt , losing over 3 @,@ 000 casualties and 1 @,@ 170 captured . On 15 April , the 1st and 2nd Divisions were counter @-@ attacked near Lagnicourt and were forced to abandon the town , before recapturing it . The 2nd Division then took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt , beginning on 3 May , and succeeded in taking sections of the Hindenburg Line and holding them until relieved by the 1st Division . Finally , on 7 May the 5th Division relieved the 1st , remaining in the line until the battle ended in mid @-@ May . Combined , these efforts cost 7 @,@ 482 Australian casualties .
On 7 June 1917 , II ANZAC Corps — along with two British corps — launched an operation in Flanders to eliminate a salient south of Ypres . The attack commenced with the detonation of a million pounds ( 454 @,@ 545 kg ) of explosives that had been placed underneath the Messines ridge , destroying the German trenches . The advance was virtually unopposed , and despite strong German counterattacks the next day , it succeeded . Australian casualties during the Battle of Messines included nearly 6 @,@ 800 men . I ANZAC Corps then took part in the Third Battle of Ypres in Belgium as part of the campaign to capture the Gheluvelt Plateau , between September and November 1917 . Individual actions took place at Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle and Passchendaele and over the course of eight weeks of fighting the Australians suffered 38 @,@ 000 casualties .
On 21 March 1918 , the German Army launched its Spring Offensive in a last @-@ ditched effort to win the war , unleashing 63 divisions over a 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) front . As the Allies fell back the 3rd and 4th Divisions were rushed south to Amiens on the Somme . The offensive lasted for the next five months and all five AIF divisions in France were engaged in the attempt to stem the tide . By late May the Germans had pushed to within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of Paris . During this time the Australians fought at Dernacourt , Morlancourt , Villers @-@ Bretonneux , Hangard Wood , Hazebrouck , and Hamel . At Hamel the commander of the Australian Corps , Monash , successfully used combined arms — including aircraft , artillery and armour — in an attack for the first time .
The German offensive ground to a halt in mid @-@ July and a brief lull followed , during which the Australians undertook a series of raids , known as Peaceful Penetrations . The Allies soon launched their own offensive — the Hundred Days Offensive — ultimately ending the war . Beginning on 8 August 1918 the offensive included four Australian divisions striking at Amiens . Using the combined arms techniques developed earlier at Hamel , significant gains were made on what became known as the " Black Day " of the German Army . The offensive continued for four months , and during the Second Battle of the Somme the Australian Corps fought actions at Lihons , Etinehem , Proyart , Chuignes , and Mont St Quentin , before their final engagement of the war on 5 October 1918 at Montbrehain . While these actions were successful , the Australian divisions suffered considerable casualties and by September 1918 the average strength of their infantry battalions was between 300 and 400 , which was less than 50 percent of the authorised strength . The AIF was withdrawn for rest and reorganisation following the engagement at Montbrehain , and was subsequently out of the line when the armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . Although some artillery units continued to support British and American units into November , and the AFC maintained flying operations until the end of the war . Total Australian casualties on the Western Front numbered 181 @,@ 000 , including 46 @,@ 000 of whom died . Another 114 @,@ 000 men were wounded , 16 @,@ 000 gassed , and approximately 3 @,@ 850 were taken prisoners of war .
= = = Other theatres = = =
Small numbers of AIF personnel also served in other theatres . Australian troops from the 1st Australian Wireless Signal Squadron provided communications for British forces during the Mesopotamian Campaign . They participated in a number of battles , including the Battle of Baghdad in March 1917 and the Battle of Ramadi in September that year . Following the Russian Revolution in 1917 , the Caucasus Front collapsed , leaving Central Asia open to the Turkish Army . A special force , known as Dunsterforce after its commander , Major General Lionel Dunsterville , was formed from hand @-@ picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces . Some 20 Australian officers served with Dunsterforce in the Caucasus Campaign and one party under Captain Stanley Savige was instrumental in protecting thousands of Assyrian refugees . Australian nurses staffed four British hospitals in Salonika , and another 10 in India .
= = Disbandment = =
By the end of the war the AIF had gained a reputation as a well @-@ trained and highly effective military force , enduring more than two years of costly fighting on the Western Front before playing a significant role in the final Allied victory in 1918 , albeit as a smaller part of the wider British Empire war effort . Like the other Dominion divisions from Canada and New Zealand , the Australians were viewed as being among the best of the British forces in France , and were often used to spearhead operations . 63 Australians were awarded the Victoria Cross . This reputation came at a heavy cost , with the AIF sustaining approximately 210 @,@ 000 casualties , of which 61 @,@ 519 were killed or died of wounds . This represented a total casualty rate of 64 @.@ 8 percent , which was among the highest of any belligerent for the war . About another 4 @,@ 000 men were captured . The majority of casualties occurred among the infantry ( which sustained a casualty rate of 79 percent ) ; however , the artillery ( 58 percent ) and light horse ( 32 percent ) also incurred significant losses .
After the war , all AIF units went into camp and began the process of demobilisation . The AIF 's involvement in the occupation of former German or Turkish territory was limited as Prime Minister William Hughes requested their early repatriation . The exceptions were No. 4 Squadron , AFC and the 3rd Australian Casualty Clearing Station , which participated in the occupation of the Rhineland . The 7th Light Horse Regiment was also sent to occupy the Gallipoli peninsula for six weeks , along with a New Zealand regiment . At the time of the armistice , there were 95 @,@ 951 soldiers in France and a further 58 @,@ 365 in England , 17 @,@ 255 in the Middle East plus nurses in Salonika and India , all to be transported home . Around 120 Australians decided to delay their departure and instead joined the British Army , serving in Northern Russia during the Russian Civil War , although officially the Australian government refused to contribute forces to the campaign .
By May 1919 , the last troops were out of France , and 70 @,@ 000 were encamped on Salisbury Plain . The men returned home on a " first come , first go " basis , with the process overseen by Monash in Britain and Chauvel in Cairo . Many of the soldiers undertook government @-@ funded training in civilian occupations while awaiting repatriation to Australia . Only 10 @,@ 000 Australian soldiers remained in England by September . Monash , the senior Australian commander , was repatriated on 26 December 1919 . The last transport organised to repatriate troops was H.T. Naldera , which departed London on 13 April 1920 . The AIF officially ceased to exist on 1 April 1921 , and on 1 July 1921 the military hospitals in Australia passed into civilian hands . As a volunteer force , all units were demobilised at the end of the war . Australia 's part @-@ time military force , the Citizens Force , was subsequently reorganised to replicate the AIF 's divisional structure and the numerical designations of many of its units to perpetuate their identities and battle honours .
= = Legacy = =
During and after the war , the AIF was often portrayed in glowing terms . As part of the " Anzac legend " , the soldiers were depicted as good humoured and egalitarian men who had little time for the formalities of military life or strict discipline , yet fought fiercely and skilfully in battle . Australian soldiers was also seen as resourceful and self @-@ reliant . The wartime official correspondent and post @-@ war official historian C.E.W. Bean was central to the development of this stereotype . Bean believed that the character and achievements of the AIF reflected the unique nature of rural Australians , and frequently exaggerated the democratic nature of the force and the proportion of soldiers from rural areas in his journalism and the Official History of Australia in the War of 1914 – 1918 . The perceived qualities of the AIF were seen as being unique , as the product of the harsh Australian environment , the ethos of the bush and egalitarianism . Such notions built on the concept of men from the bush being excellent natural soldiers which was prevalent in Australian culture before the war . The achievements of the AIF , especially during the Gallipoli campaign , were also frequently portrayed by Bean and others as having marked the birth of Australia as a nation . Moreover , the AIF 's performance was often seen as proof that the character of Australians had passed the test of war .
The exploits of the AIF at Gallipoli , and then on the Western Front , subsequently became central to the national mythology . In the years that followed much was made of ethos of the AIF , including its volunteer status and the quality of " mateship " . Yet many of the factors which had resulted in the AIF 's success as a military formation were not exclusively Australian , with most modern armies recognising the importance of small @-@ unit identity and group cohesion in maintaining morale . Many of the qualities that arguably defined the Australian soldier were also claimed by New Zealanders and Canadians as having been exhibited by their soldiers , whilst undoubtedly soldiers of the German , British and American armies also exhibited such traits , even if they were known by different terms . Objectively , the foundations of the AIF 's performance were more likely to have been military professionalism based on " discipline , training , leadership , and sound doctrine " . While the volunteer status of the AIF has been seen by some to explain its military performance , it was by no means unique in this regard . The status of their enlistment made little difference against the artillery , machine @-@ gun fire , and wire obstacles of modern industrial warfare at any rate . Equally , individual skill and morale proved to be less important than sound tactics , with effective fire and movement ultimately making the difference in 1918 . The Australians were not alone among the Allied armies in embracing such tactical innovations , while many of the new technologies and integrated weapon systems they relied upon were provided by the British Army .
Commemorating and celebrating the AIF became an entrenched tradition following World War I , with Anzac Day forming the centrepiece of remembrance of the war . The soldiers who served in the AIF , known colloquially as " Diggers " , in time became " ... one of the paramount Australian archetypes . " When the Second Australian Imperial Force was raised in 1939 following the outbreak of World War II it was seen as inheriting the name and traditions of its predecessor . Perceptions of the AIF have evolved over time . During the 1950s and 1960s social critics began to associate the " Anzac legend " with complacency and conformism , and popular discontent concerning the Vietnam War and conscription from the mid @-@ 1960s led many people to reject it . Historians also increasingly questioned Bean 's views concerning the AIF , leading to more realistic and nuanced assessments of the force . However , some historians continue to stress the AIF 's achievements , and state that it was representative of Australia . The " Anzac legend " grew in popularity during the 1980s and 1990s when it was adopted as part of a new Australian nationalism , with the AIF often being portrayed as a uniquely Australian force that fought in other people 's wars and was sacrificed by the British military in campaigns which were of little importance to Australia . This depiction is controversial , however , and has been rejected by some historians . The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History judges that while it is unclear how popular perceptions of Australia 's military history will evolve , " it is clear that the Anzac legend will remain an important national myth for some time to come " .
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= Operation Mascot =
Operation Mascot was an unsuccessful British carrier air raid conducted against the German battleship Tirpitz at her anchorage in Kaafjord , Norway , on 17 July 1944 . The attack was one of a series of strikes against the battleship launched from aircraft carriers between April and August 1944 , and was initiated after Allied intelligence determined that the damage inflicted during the Operation Tungsten raid on 3 April had been repaired .
A force of 44 British dive bombers and 40 fighters took off from three aircraft carriers in the early hours of 17 July . German radar stations detected these aircraft while they were en route to Kaafjord , and Tirpitz was protected by a smoke screen by the time the strike force arrived . Few of the British airmen were able to spot the battleship , and their attacks did not inflict any significant damage . German losses were limited to a patrol craft , and three British aircraft were destroyed or damaged beyond repair by Kaafjord 's defenders . A group of German submarines attempted to intercept the carrier force as it returned to base , without success . Two U @-@ boats were sunk near the carriers by British patrol aircraft and several others were damaged .
Despite the failure of Operation Mascot , the Royal Navy attempted four further carrier raids against Tirpitz during August 1944 . These attacks were also unsuccessful , and the task of sinking the battleship was transferred to the Royal Air Force .
= = Background = =
From early 1942 Tirpitz posed a significant threat to the Allied convoys transporting supplies through the Norwegian Sea to the Soviet Union . Operating from fjords on the Norwegian coast , the battleship was capable of overwhelming the close @-@ escort forces assigned to the Arctic convoys or breaking out into the North Atlantic . To counter this threat , the Allies were forced to keep a powerful force of warships with the British Home Fleet , and capital ships accompanied most convoys part of the way to the Soviet Union .
Several air and naval attacks were launched against Tirpitz in 1942 and 1943 . On 6 March 1942 , torpedo bombers flying from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious attacked the battleship while she was attempting to intercept Convoy PQ 12 but did not achieve any hits . Land @-@ based bombers from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) and Soviet Air Forces also attempted to strike Tirpitz in her anchorages on several occasions in 1942 and 1943 , but did not inflict any damage . On 23 September 1943 , two British X @-@ class midget submarines penetrated defences around the battleship at her main anchorage at Kaafjord in northern Norway during Operation Source , and placed explosive charges in the water beneath her . This attack caused extensive damage to Tirpitz , putting her out of service for six months .
As Tirpitz was still considered a major threat to Allied shipping , the British military sought to damage or destroy the battleship before she could re @-@ enter service . Another midget submarine attack was considered impractical due to improvements to Kaafjord 's defences , and the commander of the RAF 's Bomber Command refused to attempt heavy bomber raids against the battleship as he believed that such operations were unlikely to be successful and would result in heavy casualties . As a result , the Home Fleet 's aircraft carriers were considered the best means of attacking Kaafjord , and the Admiralty directed the fleet to begin planning such a raid in late 1943 . Following several months of preparations the Home Fleet 's first attack on Kaafjord , which was designated Operation Tungsten , was conducted on 3 April 1944 and involved five aircraft carriers . The two strike forces of 20 Fairey Barracuda dive bombers escorted by 40 fighters were not detected during their flights to Kaafjord , and the battleship was hit by 15 bombs . Tirpitz 's crew suffered heavy casualties , but the ship was not badly damaged . Nevertheless , the damage inflicted on Tirpitz 's superstructure , armament and engines was sufficient to put her out of service for several months while repairs were completed . The commander of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine , Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz , placed a priority on returning the battleship to service so that she could continue to tie down Allied naval resources . He and other senior German officers recognised at this time that the threat of further air attacks meant that Tirpitz could no longer operate against Allied convoys .
British intelligence assessed that Tirpitz could be repaired within six months , and the Admiralty ordered further carrier @-@ borne strikes against the battleship . First Sea Lord Andrew Cunningham did not believe that Barracudas could carry weapons capable of sinking Tirpitz , but he hoped that further attacks would increase the period the battleship was out of service and harm her crew 's morale . The commander of the Home Fleet , Vice Admiral Bruce Fraser , initially resisted this order on the grounds that further carrier raids on Kaafjord were unlikely to be successful as Tirpitz 's defences would have been reinforced and weather conditions were likely to be worse than those encountered during Operation Tungsten . Following an argument with Cunningham , Fraser eventually agreed to attack Kaafjord again . Despite the decision to make further attacks on Kaafjord , many of the Home Fleet 's airmen were posted to other units following Operation Tungsten . This hindered subsequent operations against German forces in Norway as the new aircrew were less experienced than the men they replaced .
Three raids against Tirpitz were cancelled after launch due to unfavourable weather during April and May 1944 . The first of these attacks , Operation Planet , began when the Home Fleet sailed from its base at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands on 21 April . This operation involved the same aircraft carriers as had taken part in Operation Tungsten , aside from the substitution of the escort carrier HMS Fencer with her sister ship Striker . The fleet reached the position where its aircraft were to be flown off three days later , but the raid was cancelled when Allied agents near Kaafjord reported bad weather over the target area . The fleet then sailed south , and attacked a German convoy near Bodø , sinking three merchant ships for the loss of six aircraft . The Home Fleet put to sea to attack Tirpitz again in mid @-@ May in what was designated Operation Brawn . A strike force of 27 Barracudas escorted by Vought F4U Corsair and Supermarine Seafire fighters took off from the carriers HMS Furious and Victorious on the afternoon of 15 May , but encountered heavy cloud over Kaafjord and returned without attacking . The next raid , Operation Tiger Claw , was launched in late May . The planned attack on Kaafjord — which would have also involved aircraft flying from Furious and Victorious — had to be cancelled due to bad weather on 28 May . Instead , the carriers sailed south in search of German convoys . In a raid conducted on 1 June , the carriers ' aircraft sank four merchant vessels near Ålesund . No further attacks were attempted during June as the ships of the Home Fleet were needed to support the Normandy landings that month .
= = Preparations = =
Despite the lack of success , the Admiralty and Admiral Sir Henry Moore , who had assumed command of the Home Fleet on 14 June 1944 , remained committed to attempting further carrier raids against Tirpitz . During June , the Admiralty received a series of intelligence reports indicating that repairs to Tirpitz were generally progressing well and the battleship would soon be ready to put to sea . Late that month Allied spies spotted Tirpitz conducting steaming trials in Kaafjord , and reported that she was capable of sailing at up to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ) and could rotate her main gun turrets . As a result , in late June the Admiralty directed that another aircraft carrier raid be conducted against Kaafjord during mid @-@ July . It was intended that this attack would take place before the resumption of the Arctic convoys , which had been suspended since April 1944 to free up ships for the invasion of France .
As detected by the British , repairs to Tirpitz following Operation Tungsten progressed quickly . Work on repairing the battleship began in late April , and 157 shipyard workers and special equipment were transported from Kiel in Germany to Kaafjord to accelerate the project . Assisted by the long hours of daylight at Kaafjord 's latitude during summer , three shifts of personnel worked on Tirpitz each day . The battleship was capable of moving under her own power by 2 June , and ready to begin gunnery exercises at the end of that month . The repair works concluded in mid @-@ July , though the battleship 's starboard propeller shaft could only be used to drive her forwards . Captain Wolf Junge assumed command of the battleship in May 1944 , replacing Captain Hans Meyer who had been wounded during Operation Tungsten .
= = Opposing forces = =
As Victorious had been redeployed to the Indian Ocean in June , the carriers selected for Operation Mascot were the recently commissioned HMS Indefatigable as well as the veterans Formidable and Furious . The carriers were escorted by the battleship HMS Duke of York , four cruisers and twelve destroyers . Admiral Moore commanded the force from Duke of York , and the carrier group was led by Rear Admiral Rhoderick McGrigor on board Indefatigable .
The composition of the striking force was broadly similar to that used in the earlier operations targeting Tirpitz . Formidable embarked No. 8 Torpedo Bomber Reconnaissance Wing , whose 827 and 830 Naval Air Squadrons each operated 12 Barracudas , as well as 1841 Naval Air Squadron , which was equipped with 18 Corsairs . Indefatigable carried No. 9 Torpedo Bomber Reconnaissance Wing , which was also equipped with 24 Barracudas split between 820 and 826 Naval Air Squadrons , as well as the Seafire @-@ equipped 894 Naval Air Squadron and 1770 Naval Air Squadron 's 12 Fairey Firefly fighters . In a change from her role in the previous attacks , Furious did not embark any Barracudas during Operation Mascot , and instead operated 20 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters from 1840 Naval Air Squadron , three Seafires assigned to 880 Naval Air Squadron and three 842 Flight Fairey Swordfish anti @-@ submarine aircraft .
The defences of Kaafjord were improved following Operation Tungsten . Prior to this raid they had comprised eleven batteries of anti @-@ aircraft guns , several anti @-@ aircraft warships and a system of smoke generators capable of hiding Tirpitz from aircraft . After the attack , additional radar stations and observation posts were established and the number of smoke generators located around the battleship was increased . The improved defences in place by the time of Operation Mascot included a cliff @-@ top observation post near Kaafjord , which was capable of directing the battleship 's anti @-@ aircraft guns if necessary . Tirpitz 's air defences were also strengthened during the period she was under repair by fitting additional 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) cannons , modifying the 150 mm guns so they could be used to attack aircraft , and supplying anti @-@ aircraft shells for her 380 @-@ millimetre ( 15 in ) main guns .
As well as the German forces located near Kaafjord , a patrol line of twelve submarines designated Group Trutz was also established around the island of Jan Mayen and assigned the task of intercepting any British carrier forces that ventured into the Norwegian Sea . The submarines assigned to this force at the time of Operation Mascot were U @-@ 347 , U @-@ 361 , U @-@ 365 , U @-@ 387 , U @-@ 636 , U @-@ 716 , U @-@ 742 , U @-@ 921 , U @-@ 956 , U @-@ 965 , U @-@ 992 , and U @-@ 995 . The German Luftwaffe ( air force ) had few fighters stationed at bases near Kaafjord , and their operations were constrained by a lack of fuel .
= = Attack = =
Rear Admiral McGrigor issued an operational memo to the air units selected for Operation Mascot on 4 July , outlining how the attack would be conducted and providing further orders for the raid eight days later . In accordance with these instructions , the flying squadrons assigned to the three carriers undertook training exercises from their ships and shore bases from 4 July onwards . Intelligence gained from decrypting German radio messages during early July , and photos taken by a RAF aircraft on 12 July , provided further evidence that the battleship was once again fully operational and possibly preparing to put to sea . The airmen were informed on 13 July that they would attack Kaafjord in four days time .
The British fleet left Scapa Flow as a single group on 14 July . During the voyage north , the airmen received detailed briefings on the attack plans and terrain around Kaafjord and were also issued with escape kits to use if they were shot down over Norway . Maintenance personnel also worked to ensure that as many aircraft as possible would be ready . The twelve German submarines in the Norwegian Sea did not make contact with the British force as it sailed north . The weather for much of the voyage was foggy , but the skies were clear when the fleet reached its flying off position to the north of Kaafjord in the evening of 16 July .
The carriers began launching their aircraft shortly after midnight on 17 July . The main striking force comprised 44 Barracudas , with the plan for the raid specifying that No. 8 Torpedo Bomber Reconnaissance Wing 's aircraft would attack before those of No. 9 Torpedo Bomber Reconnaissance Wing . All but two of the dive bombers were armed with powerful 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bombs ; the other aircraft each carried three 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs . 1841 Naval Air Squadron 's 18 Corsairs were assigned to provide protection against German fighters , and the 20 Hellcats and 12 Fireflies operated by 1840 and 1770 Naval Air Squadrons respectively were given the task of suppressing anti @-@ aircraft guns .
After forming up , the bombers and fighters began their flight to Kaafjord at 01 : 35 . The aircraft flew 50 feet ( 15 m ) above the sea to evade German radar until they reached a point ten minutes flying time from the Norwegian coast , at which time the Barracudas climbed to 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and the fighters to higher altitudes . The weather was fine throughout the flight , but clouds were sighted as the aircraft neared the target area .
The British strike force was detected by German radar stations when it reached a point 43 miles ( 69 km ) from Kaafjord at 02 : 00 . It took four minutes to pass a warning to Tirpitz ; her protective smoke generators were in action by 02 : 13 and quickly covered the vessel in an artificial cloud . The battleship and anti @-@ aircraft batteries located on the shore began firing a barrage towards the British aircraft at 02 : 19 . German forces also began jamming the British aircraft 's radios once they came within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of the Norwegian coastline . The smokescreen frustrated the British attack , as the crews of only two of the Barracudas and a pair of fighters managed to spot Tirpitz during the raid .
The Hellcats and Fireflies were first to attack , and strafed anti @-@ aircraft positions as well as the destroyer Z33 and small patrol craft Vp 6307 . The patrol craft was forced aground and later declared a total loss . Due to the thick smoke , the fighter pilots were only able to locate targets by aiming at the sources of tracer gunfire .
The Barracudas were targeted by heavy , but inaccurate , anti @-@ aircraft gunfire as they arrived over Kaafjord . Aside from the two aircraft whose pilots sighted Tirpitz , the 35 other dive bombers attempting to attack the ship were forced to aim at her gun flashes . These bombing attacks took 25 minutes to complete ; seven near misses were achieved but no damage was inflicted on Tirpitz . One of the other Barracudas attacked an anti @-@ aircraft battery , another attempted to bomb a destroyer and a third scored a near miss on the tanker Nordmark . Three of the remaining four Barracudas did not find any targets and jettisoned their bombs into the sea ; the fourth was unable to drop its bombs due to a faulty release mechanism .
Although German gunners fired a heavy anti @-@ aircraft barrage throughout the attack , they achieved little success . Only one British aircraft , a Corsair , was shot down near Kaafjord ; its pilot survived and was taken prisoner . A damaged Barracuda was also forced to ditch near Indefatigable and its crew were rescued by the destroyer HMS Verulam . Several other Barracudas and five Hellcats were damaged during the raid and returned to their carriers . One of the damaged Hellcats was later written off after being judged beyond repair .
A second British raid , which had been scheduled to take off from 08 : 00 on 17 July , was cancelled two minutes before the aircraft were to begin launching when fog began to build up near the carriers , and the British fleet turned south to return to Scapa Flow . Swordfish and Seafire aircraft flew protective patrols over the Home Fleet throughout the morning 's operations .
= = Submarine actions = =
While the attack on Kaafjord was being conducted , the commander of the German submarines in the Norwegian sea ordered Group Trutz to take up new positions to the south @-@ east of Jan Mayen and intercept the British ships as they returned to Scapa Flow . The Admiralty had anticipated this redeployment , and maritime patrol aircraft from No. 18 Group RAF were directed to sweep the Home Fleet 's route back to its base .
The British patrol aircraft prevented Group Trutz from attacking the Home Fleet . At 21 : 48 on 17 July , a Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator assigned to No. 86 Squadron detected and sank U @-@ 361 ; none of the submarine 's crew were rescued . Eight minutes later a No. 210 Squadron Consolidated PBY Catalina piloted by Flying Officer John Cruickshank spotted U @-@ 347 on the surface . The submarine 's anti @-@ aircraft guns damaged the Catalina , killing the navigator and wounding Cruickshank as well as three other crewmen , but the pilot continued his attack and sank U @-@ 347 with depth charges . The Catalina managed to return to base , and Cruickshank was awarded the Victoria Cross for this action . That night the Home Fleet sailed through the gap in the German patrol line that had been opened by the sinking of the two submarines .
Attacks on the German submarines continued for the next six days . On the morning of 18 July a German reconnaissance aircraft spotted the Home Fleet , but the German Naval Command Norway assessed that it was heading north @-@ east to launch another attack . Accordingly , Group Trutz was ordered to sail north , and four more submarines sortied from Narvik to guard the approaches to Alten and Vest fjords . In the evening U @-@ 968 , one of the four boats that had sailed from Narvik , was attacked twice by Liberators ; she shot down the first attacker but was damaged by the second and had to return to port . U @-@ 716 also suffered severe damage from a Liberator attack at 19 : 15 on 18 July but managed to return to Hammerfest . At about 23 : 00 that day U @-@ 716 was seriously damaged by a Short Sunderland but also survived . Three other submarines were attacked on 20 July but only one suffered any damage . Following these actions the commander of submarines in the Norway area decided to dissolve Group Trutz as it was too vulnerable to air attack ; all but four of the surviving submarines returned to port and the remaining boats were ordered to sail north so that they were out of range of the British aircraft . The final attack on the submarines of the former Group Trutz was made on 23 July when a No. 330 Squadron Sunderland damaged U @-@ 992 near Vestfjord .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the attack on 17 July , the British learned from intercepted German radio transmissions and reports provided by Secret Intelligence Service agents that Tirpitz had not suffered any significant damage . Admiral Moore blamed the failure of Operation Mascot on the inexperience of the aircrew involved in the attack , and criticised the strike leader for not selecting alternative targets after it became clear that Tirpitz could not be accurately bombed . Moore also judged that further attacks on Kaafjord using Barracudas would be futile , as the dive bombers ' slow speed gave the Germans enough time to cover Tirpitz with smoke between the time raids were detected and their arrival over the target area . The Admiralty was hopeful that a strategy of repeatedly striking Kaafjord over a 48 @-@ hour period would wear down the defences , and Moore agreed to attempt another attack . Consideration was also given to flying fast and long @-@ ranged de Havilland Mosquito bombers off the carriers in an attempt to achieve surprise , but none of these land @-@ based aircraft could be spared from supporting the Allied bombing of Germany .
The next attack on Kaafjord took place in late August . During Operation Goodwood , aircraft flying from three fleet carriers and two escort carriers conducted four raids between 22 and 29 August . The attackers found Tirpitz covered in smoke on each occasion , and only managed to inflict light damage on the battleship . These unsuccessful attacks cost the British 17 aircraft and 40 airmen killed . The frigate HMS Bickerton was torpedoed and sunk by the submarine U @-@ 354 during the operation ; the same submarine also inflicted heavy damage on the escort carrier Nabob before being destroyed by a British aircraft .
The Admiralty accepted that Barracudas were too slow to be effective against the Kaafjord area following the failure of Operation Goodwood . As a result , the task of attacking the battleship was transferred to RAF Bomber Command . The first heavy bomber raid against Kaafjord ( Operation Paravane ) was conducted on 15 September 1944 , with the bombers flying from staging bases in northern Russia . This attack inflicted irreparable damage on Tirpitz , and she was transferred south to the Tromsø area to be used as an immobile coastal defence battery . The battleship was sunk there with heavy loss of life by another Bomber Command raid on 12 November .
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= Star Trek III : The Search for Spock =
Star Trek III : The Search for Spock is a 1984 American science fiction film released by Paramount Pictures . The film is the third feature film of the Star Trek science fiction franchise and is the center of a three @-@ film story arc that begins with Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan and concludes with Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home . After the death of Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) , the crew of the USS Enterprise returns to Earth . When James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) learns that Spock 's spirit , or katra , is held in the mind of Dr. Leonard " Bones " McCoy ( DeForest Kelley ) , Kirk and company steal the Enterprise to return Spock 's body to his home planet . The crew must also contend with hostile Klingons , led by Kruge ( Christopher Lloyd ) , bent on stealing the secrets of a powerful terraforming device .
Paramount commissioned the film after positive critical and commercial reaction to The Wrath of Khan . Nimoy directed , the first Star Trek cast member to do so . Producer Harve Bennett wrote the script starting from the end and working back , and intended the destruction of the Enterprise to be a shocking development . Bennett and Nimoy collaborated with effects house Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) to develop storyboards and new ship designs ; ILM also handled the film 's many special effects sequences . Aside from a single day of location shooting , all of the film 's scenes were shot on Paramount and ILM soundstages . Composer James Horner returned to expand his themes from the previous film .
The Search for Spock opened June 1 , 1984 . In its first week of release , the film grossed over $ 16 million from almost 2 @,@ 000 theaters across North America . It went on to gross $ 76 million at the domestic box office , toward a total of $ 87 million worldwide . Critical reaction to The Search for Spock was positive , but notably less so than the previous film . Reviewers generally praised the cast and characters , while criticism tended to focus on the plot ; the special effects were conflictingly received . Roger Ebert called the film a compromise between the tones of the first and second Star Trek films . The Search for Spock was released on multiple home video formats , including VHS , DVD , and Blu @-@ ray high definition discs . Nimoy went on to direct The Search for Spock 's sequel , Star Trek IV : The Voyage Home .
= = Plot = =
The Federation Starship Enterprise returns to Earth following a battle with the superhuman Khan Noonien Singh , who tried to destroy the Enterprise by detonating an experimental terraforming device known as Genesis . The casualties of the fight include Admiral James T. Kirk 's Vulcan friend , Spock , whose casket was launched into space and eventually landed on the planet created by the Genesis Device . On arriving at Earth Spacedock , Doctor Leonard McCoy begins to act strangely and is detained . Starfleet Admiral Morrow visits the Enterprise and informs the crew the ship is to be decommissioned ; the crew is ordered not to speak about Genesis due to political fallout over the device .
David Marcus ( Merritt Butrick ) — Kirk 's son , a key scientist in Genesis 's development — and Lieutenant Saavik ( Robin Curtis ) are investigating the Genesis planet on board the science vessel Grissom . Discovering an unexpected life form on the surface , Marcus and Saavik transport to the planet . They find that the Genesis Device has resurrected Spock in the form of a child , although his mind is not present . Marcus admits that he used unstable " protomatter " in the development of the Genesis Device , causing Spock to age rapidly and meaning the planet will be destroyed within hours . Meanwhile , Kruge ( Christopher Lloyd ) , the commander of a Klingon vessel , intercepts information about Genesis . Believing the device to be potentially useful as a weapon , he takes his cloaked ship to the Genesis planet , destroys the Grissom , and takes hostage Marcus , Saavik , and Spock .
Spock 's father , Sarek ( Mark Lenard ) , confronts Kirk about his son 's death . The pair learn that before he died , Spock transferred his katra , or living spirit , to McCoy . Spock 's katra and body are needed to lay him to rest on his homeworld , Vulcan , and without help , McCoy will die from carrying the katra . Disobeying orders , Kirk and his officers spring McCoy from detention , disable the USS Excelsior , and steal the Enterprise from Spacedock to return to the Genesis planet to retrieve Spock 's body .
In orbit , the undermanned Enterprise is attacked and disabled by Kruge . In the standoff that follows , Kruge orders that one of the hostages on the surface be executed . David is killed defending Saavik and Spock . Kirk and company feign surrender and activate the Enterprise 's self @-@ destruct sequence , killing the Klingon boarding party while the Enterprise crew transports to the planet 's surface . Promising the secret of Genesis , Kirk lures Kruge to the planet and has him beam his crew to the Klingon vessel . As the Genesis planet disintegrates , Kirk and Kruge engage in a fistfight ; Kirk emerges victorious after kicking Kruge off a cliff into a lava flow . Kirk and his officers take control of the Klingon ship and head to Vulcan .
There , Spock 's katra is reunited with his body in a dangerous procedure called fal @-@ tor @-@ pan . The ceremony is successful and Spock is resurrected , alive and well , though his memories are fragmented . At Kirk 's prompting , Spock remembers he called Kirk " Jim " and recognizes the crew .
= = Cast = =
William Shatner reprises the role of Admiral James T. Kirk , Starfleet officer . Shatner remarked that being directed by Leonard Nimoy , his longtime co @-@ star and friend , was initially awkward , although as the shoot went on , it became easier as Shatner realized how confident Nimoy was . To reduce weight , Shatner dieted before the start of production , but as filming continued , he tended to " slip " ; the costume department had to make 12 shirts for him . In his book with Chris Kreski , Star Trek Movie Memories : The Inside Story of the Classic Movies , he believes that the scene where he learns of his son 's death is " Kirk 's finest celluloid moment ever " .
Nimoy , in addition to his directing duties , appears towards the end of the film as Spock , but only appears in the opening credits as the director . Nimoy found the most difficult scene to direct was one in which Leonard McCoy talks to the unconscious Spock in sickbay , en route to Vulcan . Nimoy recalled that not only was he in the scene , but his eyes are closed , making it difficult to judge the quality of the shot or the actor 's performance : " It drove DeForest Kelley crazy . He swears that I was trying to direct him with the movement and flutter of my eyelids . " Nimoy was thankful the story required him to appear in a minimal number of scenes . The rapidly aging Spock , at the ages of 9 , 13 , 17 , and 25 , was portrayed successively by Carl Steven , Vadia Potenza , Stephen Manley and Joe W. Davis . Frank Welker provided Spock 's screams , and Steve Blalock doubled for Nimoy , so that a total of seven actors contributed to the role .
DeForest Kelley is cast again as Leonard McCoy , doctor and the carrier of Spock 's living spirit . Kelley has the majority of the film 's memorable scenes , but admitted to occasional difficulties in acting with and being directed by his longtime co @-@ star . However , he has declared that he had no doubts about Nimoy 's ability to direct the film . Responding to suggestions that Star Trek copied Star Wars , Kelley asserted that the opposite was true . Playing the other crew members are James Doohan , as Montgomery Scott , the chief engineer ; George Takei , as Hikaru Sulu , Enterprise 's helmsman ; Walter Koenig , as Pavel Chekov , navigation and acting science officer ; and Nichelle Nichols , as Uhura , the ship 's communications officer . Nichols had always insisted on wearing a skirt ; although the standard female uniform used slacks , the costume designer created a skirted version specifically for her . Takei was dismayed to hear that his character was called " Tiny " by a guard at McCoy 's cell during the film , and argued with the film 's producer to have the line cut . When Takei saw the first screening of the film , he changed his mind and promptly apologized . He would later admit in his To the Stars : The Autobiography of George Takei that " without that snipe from [ the guard ] , the scene [ where Sulu eventually beats up that same guard ] would not have played even half as heroically for Sulu . "
At the age of 87 , and after an acting break of 14 years , Dame Judith Anderson accepted the part of T 'Lar — a Vulcan high priestess who restores Spock 's katra to his body — at her nephew 's urging . Nimoy wanted someone with " power and magic " for the ethereal role . Anderson claimed to be 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) tall , but her true height was closer to 4 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 42 m ) , which presented a problem when the designers needed to make her look appropriately regal . The solution was to dress her with an overlong hem and built @-@ up shoes which , combined with a crown , added 6 inches ( 15 cm ) to her height . Kirstie Alley , who had played Saavik in The Wrath of Khan , did not return to reprise her role because she feared being typecast . Robin Curtis had arrived in Los Angeles in 1982 ; she made friends with the head of Paramount 's casting department , who recommended her for the role . Nimoy met with Curtis , and gave her the assignment the next day .
Nimoy had admired Christopher Lloyd 's work in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest and Taxi , and was impressed by his ability to play powerful villains . Lloyd was given the part of Kruge , a Klingon interested in securing the powerful secrets of Genesis for use as a weapon . Nimoy said that Lloyd brought a welcome element of theatricality to the role . Mark Lenard plays Sarek , Spock 's father and a Vulcan ambassador . Lenard had previously played the role in the television episode " Journey to Babel " . Merritt Butrick appears as David Marcus , Kirk 's son , a scientist who had helped develop the Genesis Device .
Other roles include Robert Hooks as Admiral Morrow , the commander of Starfleet ; James Sikking as Captain Styles , the Commanding Officer of the Excelsior ; Miguel Ferrer as the Excelsior 's First Officer and Helmsman ; and Phillip R. Allen as Captain J.T. Esteban , the captain of the ill @-@ fated Grissom . John Larroquette plays Maltz , a member of Kruge 's bridge crew whom Nimoy describes as " the thoughtful Klingon " . Catherine Shirriff plays Valkris , Kruge 's doomed lover . Grace Lee Whitney , who played Janice Rand in the Star Trek television show , made a cameo appearance ( wearing a wig ) as " Woman in Cafeteria " . Scott McGinnis plays a young man whom Uhura forces into a closet at gunpoint .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The Wrath of Khan was a critical and commercial success , and Paramount Pictures quickly prepared for a third Star Trek film . The Wrath of Khan 's director , Nicholas Meyer , would not return ; he had disagreed with changes made to his film 's ending without his consent . Upon seeing The Wrath of Khan , Leonard Nimoy became " excited " about playing Spock again . When asked by Paramount Pictures if he wanted to reprise the role for the third feature , Nimoy agreed and told them , " You 're damned right , I want to direct that picture ! " Studio chief Michael Eisner was reluctant to hire Nimoy because he mistakenly believed that the actor hated Star Trek and had demanded in his contract that Spock be killed . Nimoy was given the job after he persuaded Eisner that this was not the case . Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry 's first reaction to the news was that producer Harve Bennett had " hired a director you can 't fire " .
Paramount gave Bennett the green light to write Star Trek III the day after The Wrath of Khan opened , the fastest go @-@ ahead the producer had received . He began writing the screenplay , noting that " seventeen other people could have written [ it ] " after the hints at Spock 's resurrection in the previous film . Bennett and Nimoy used the open thread of Spock mind melding with McCoy at the end of The Wrath of Khan as a way to explain Spock 's restoration . The idea and name of the Vulcan " katra " came from Bennett 's discussions with Nimoy . The actor referred the producer to an episode of the television series , " Amok Time " , that suggested to Bennett a high level of " spiritual transference " among the Vulcans . Bennett admitted that the idea of Kirk and company going back to the Genesis planet to recover Kirk 's " noble self " stemmed from a poem he read in a Star Trek fan magazine . The film 's production acknowledged certain expectations from fans — Nimoy remarked that if Spock had not been resurrected and , instead , " Captain Kirk turn [ ed ] to the camera and [ said ] ' Sorry , we didn 't find him , ' people would throw rocks at the screen . " A major issue Bennett wrestled with was how to introduce the story for people who had not seen The Wrath of Khan . Bennett said that his television producer mentality " won out " ; he added a " previously in Star Trek ... " film device , and had Kirk narrate a captain 's log , describing his feelings and sense of loss . Aware of the story 's predictability , Bennett decided to have the USS Enterprise destroyed , and intended this plot element be kept a secret .
Nimoy wanted The Search for Spock to be " operatic " in scope ; " I wanted the emotions to be very large , very broad , life and death themes [ ... ] and the [ look of the film ] and everything about it derives everything from sizable characters playing out a large story on a large canvas , " he said . In addition , he wanted the characters to have significant scenes , however small , that made them grounded and real . Bennett started writing the script with the ending , where Spock says , " Your name is ... Jim " , and worked backwards from that point . Elements such as Kruge killing his lover were added to establish context and add drama and intrigue . Originally , the Romulans were the villains , but Nimoy preferred the more " theatrical " Klingons , feeling that their pursuit of Genesis was analogous to the Soviet race for nuclear weaponry . Bennett took the opportunity to flesh out the alien race , who he felt were ill @-@ defined in the television series . The name of the class of the antagonists ' ship , Bird of Prey , remained unchanged .
The script was completed in six weeks . The production 's estimated budget of $ 16 million was slightly larger than that of The Wrath of Khan , but still much less than 1979 's Star Trek : The Motion Picture . Since elements such as many sets and uniforms had been established , more money was available for special effects . Assistant producer Ralph Winter described the extra money as a " toybox " that allowed more leeway and " fun " in planning the scope of the film .
= = = Design = = =
Nimoy and Bennett worked with effects company Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) to produce special effects , models , and live @-@ action scenes . ILM received a two @-@ page story treatment in November 1982 , titled " Return to Genesis " . Production supervisor Warren Franklin said that the script they received in early 1983 was " one of the best scripts we read " out of the submissions that arrived weekly . Although ILM had provided the effects work for The Wrath of Khan , they had only been approached after effects storyboards had been completed . For The Search for Spock , ILM were brought in much earlier , meaning that visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston and his team were involved from the planning stages . Nimoy credited this early involvement with increasing the amount of creative input into the film 's design and execution .
It became apparent to ILM that The Search for Spock 's script required more design and model work than had been necessary for The Wrath of Khan . A merchant ship destroyed by Kruge early in the film was a kitbash — a design made of combined model pieces . Effects cameraman Don Dow reasoned that since the ship was destroyed so quickly it did not make sense to spend a large amount of time building it . The USS Grissom was named for astronaut Virgil " Gus " Grissom ; the same model would be used to depict other science vessels in the spinoff television series Star Trek : The Next Generation .
The Excelsior was a new design that ILM felt was a better rendition of a United Federation of Planets starship — sleeker and more modern than the Enterprise . The art department created concept sketches to show to Paramount , and at an art director 's urging model maker William George submitted another design , based on what he thought the Enterprise would look like if designed by the Japanese . Nimoy picked George 's angular and simplified take for production . While in the film , the Excelsior is supposed to be larger than its predecessor , the physical model was 12 inches ( 30 cm ) smaller than the Enterprise .
The Earth Spacedock was a design intended to expand the scope of Star Trek . After approving a small three @-@ dimensional maquette of the final design , the effects team created an exterior Spacedock model measuring 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) tall . Rather than painstakingly wiring thousands of small lights , ILM made the model out of clear Plexiglass and painted it ; scratching off the finish created windows , and an inner core of neon lights illuminated the resulting holes . The inside of the dock was simulated by an additional model , 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) long , with a removable center section . The interior illumination was generated by outside fiber optics and 2 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 watt lights .
Art directors Nilo Rodis and Dave Carson designed the Klingon Bird of Prey , while George constructed the model . Nimoy wanted the ship to be reminiscent of an attacking bird , with movable wings that changed depending on whether the ship was in a cruising or attack posture . George took design cues from sketches of bodybuilders and football players , incorporating the starship equivalents of down @-@ stretched , threatening arms and muscular shoulders , together with what looked like shoulder pads and a chin guard on the ship 's outstretched neck . Although the stolen Romulan ship thread was cut from the film , the Bird of Prey design had incorporated elements of Romulan design . " It has some of the basic bird shape , but it 's more ominous " , Ralston said . A graphic bird design was integrated into the ship 's underside .
To save money , many sets , particularly interiors , were redresses of existing sets . The Enterprise bridge was reconfigured to stand in for the Grissom , with the chairs reupholstered and the central computer consoles moved to modify the floor plan . An Earth bar and the Klingon medical bay were redresses of the Enterprise sickbay . The Klingon bridge was a set that Nimoy appropriated from another production . Many blinking consoles were rented from a props company rather than being fabricated . The Enterprise bridge itself remained largely unchanged from its appearance in the previous films , though the floor was repainted from black to grey to make it photograph better . The most drastic change was made to Spock 's quarters . Nimoy had felt the previous grey color scheme did not express a Vulcan style , and had it brightened with yellows and oranges .
Adding local color to the Klingon bridge was a ragged doglike creature the effects team derisively called " Fifi Rebozo " . Ken Ralston thought that giving the Klingon captain a pet would add atmosphere , and sculpted a reptilian dog worked into the script as Kruge 's mascot . The animal 's hair was made from cheap wig clippings ; creature supervisor David Sosalla sprayed the material with adhesive and laid clumps of the distressed fur onto the painted puppet body to make the animal appear " beat @-@ up and moth @-@ eaten " . During filming , Sosalla and crew sprinkled the creature with water to make it look more unpleasant . The animal was a hand puppet ; Ralston operated the head and body by placing his arm into an opening on the creature 's side while hidden inside Kruge 's command chair . Three helpers operated cables that opened the animal 's eyes and made it snarl ; the creature 's head was large enough for Ralston to fit his hand inside the spring @-@ loaded jaw to operate it . Many of the animal 's intended movements were minimized ; the crew did not move its ears because it made the supposedly repulsive creature " cute " . For the animal 's demise during the Klingons ' fight with the Enterprise , an additional " dead " puppet was created , but Ralston used the " live " one for the scene instead .
Many of the props in The Wrath of Khan had been reused from The Motion Picture , or scrounged from other productions , but for The Search for Spock Winter wanted to design uniquely Star Trek items . George and artist Phil Norwood collaborated on many of the prop designs , creating updated and sleeker versions of the original television series communicators and phasers . Many props were created out of wood and embellished with small pieces from model kits . While the Federation tricorder was created using a model race car body , the Klingon props were intended to look dirtier , with sharp surfaces that looked uncomfortable to carry . George was insistent on using the shapes and materials , rather than blinking lights , to suggest the props were real and manufactured .
= = = Costumes and makeup = = =
Robert Fletcher , costume designer for the previous Star Trek films , was responsible for The Search for Spock 's wardrobe . Fletcher 's job was to sketch outfits , choose the necessary fabrics , and complete the fittings for principal characters . He collaborated with costumer Jim Linn , who clothed extras and managed the logistics of cleaning , repairing , and tracking costumes . Most of the Starfleet uniforms had already been designed for the previous film , but Fletcher wanted to dress the main characters in civilian clothes . Fletcher developed a mythology behind each outfit ; the stone ornaments on Sarek 's robe , for instance , were intended to be representative of a Vulcan 's level of consciousness . The costumer had the advantage of access to Paramount 's store rooms , which contained literal tons of expensive fabrics .
The designer and production staff were satisfied with the feudal Japan @-@ inspired Klingon costumes Fletcher made for The Motion Picture , but they had to make new versions ; of 12 original costumes , half had been destroyed during publicity tours . The remaining six were loaned out for an episode of Mork & Mindy and badly damaged ; Fletcher spent three months salvaging what remained . Additions to established clothing included an officer 's vest for Kruge , and jewelry .
In addition to his costume chores , Fletcher designed the Klingon and Vulcan makeup . Makeup artist Thomas R. Burman suggested that Fletcher was asked to help because the studio neglected to contract the work out ; Burman received a contract only three weeks before the start of photography . Burman 's bid of $ 160 @,@ 000 was much higher than Paramount 's $ 50 @,@ 000 budget , but he secured the job when his competitor dropped out close to the start of production . " It didn 't come down to money in the end but to who could do it quickly [ ... ] we had a [ reputation ] for working fast and doing quality work , " Burman explained . Fletcher and Burman agreed that the cragged foreheads of the Klingons in The Motion Picture were too prominent , obscuring the individuals ' faces . " It was just too cartoonish , and I didn 't want a Star Wars look in [ the ] movie . There had never been a good marriage between the forehead appliance and the actor 's faces . We tried to keep them in character rather than have these obtrusive things on their heads , " Burman said . The resulting Klingon makeup took two hours to apply .
= = = Filming = = =
To guard against leaks that had prefigured Spock 's death during production of The Wrath of Khan , Paramount took precautions to secure the sets . Set designer Cameron Birnie noted that the production 's security was highly unusual ; sets were built out of sequence and the crew given only as many pages as they needed to fabricate each locale . Security guards checked the picture identification cards of production staff . Any mention of the production was removed from stationery and documents , and " Trois " ( three , in French ) was written as a code word . Offices and workshops were bereft of identifying signage , with doors double @-@ locked for extra protection . The Search for Spock 's scripts were chemically treated so that copies could be traced to the original ; as a further canary trap , subtle changes in wording distinguished each copy . Nimoy 's name never appeared on call sheets , and Spock was referred to in the script as " Nacluv " ( Vulcan spelled backwards ) . Despite the precautions , word of the Enterprise 's destruction leaked out before the film 's release .
Principal photography commenced on August 15 , 1983 . All but two days of production were filmed on Paramount soundstages , by cinematographer Charles Correll . The Search for Spock was one of the first major feature films to use Eastman 5294 , a color high speed negative film stock . The film allowed Correll latitude in choosing a broad range of exposure indexes . Since The Search for Spock was shot with anamorphic lenses and many theatergoers would see widescreen 70 mm prints , Correll needed to produce a crisp depth of field , a difficult task on many sets . For scenes on the bridge , Correll pushed the exposure index above the Eastman recommendation to keep the image crisp at less than 50 foot @-@ candles .
Many of The Search for Spock 's dialogue sequences feature tight close @-@ up shots . During Kirk and Sarek 's mind meld , Nimoy chose cuts that focused on accentuating the dialogue ; " Instead of watching people 's faces , all you see is the mouth or the eyes and you have the tendency to hear better , " Correll explained . Correll was unhappy that every scene save one was filmed on a soundstage . Feeling that recreating everything on set resulted in a fake look , the cinematographer suggested that Genesis be filmed on Kauai in Hawaii , and that Red Rock Canyon stand in for Vulcan . The production did not have the money to shoot on location , meaning that Nimoy was preoccupied with making sure the various outdoor settings felt believable . While the various vessel exteriors were handled by ILM , Correll was responsible for the look of the interior sets . He preferred to treat these as actual locations inside the ships ; although the sets ' ceilings were designed to be removed so that lights could be rigged in the rafters , Correll used other lighting methods . In the Bird of Prey , he used fluorescent tubes to pick up the walls ' metallic paints , and kept the set smoky to convey a dirty atmosphere .
Before McCoy is arrested by security , he attempts to charter a spaceflight to Genesis in a bar . The scene opens with two officers playing a World War I @-@ era dogfight video game . The wireframe biplanes were created using black lines on clear paper printouts placed on an overlay cell . " It was really just a gag shot " , effects artist Charlie Mullen explained , " the idea that people in the future would be playing an old war game . " To accommodate the effect , Correll had to use a large amount of exposure without making the bar appear overlit . Much of the lighting was provided by tables rigged with fluorescent tubes to provide an effect different from other parts of the film . Correll could not add smoke to the scene to enhance the bar " feel " , because the disturbed atmosphere would have made ILM 's game hard to insert . The scene was intended to end in a barroom brawl when security tried to take McCoy into custody ; Nimoy decided that " it didn 't feel right " and there was not enough time or money to achieve the scene successfully .
The Genesis planet was produced via matte paintings and soundstages on Paramount lots under art director John Edward Chilberg II . Much of the planet occupied Stage 15 , known as the DeMille stage in honor of the director 's Parting of the Red Sea on the stage during filming of The Ten Commandments ( 1956 ) . The space measured 300 by 100 feet ( 91 by 30 m ) . The perceived boundaries of the scenes were extended via matte paintings created by Chris Evans , Frank Ordaz , and Michael Pangrazio . Because parts of the set had to literally collapse during the planet 's destruction , the set was built 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) off the ground and featured trapdoors and pyrotechnics in the floor . The hundreds of 10 @,@ 000 watt lights in the rafters were covered in silk for day scenes to soften the light , and fitted with blue filters for night ; dimmers eased the transition between periods . Since the doomed planet was no longer a paradise , the art director , Nimoy , Bennett and Correll considered constant changes to the colors on the scenes , but decided not to get " fancy photographically " . While many of the scenes appeared lit with minimal light sources such as flickering fires , Correll tried to use as much light as possible . To get the fire to reflect on the actor 's faces , Correll used a variety of tricks with normal lights ; using natural fire would not have provided the required intensity .
A significant feature of the Genesis planet are the alien worms that rapidly evolve from microbes on Spock 's coffin . The creatures start as small , slimy crawlers , then grow to lengths of 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) . The small worms were created by injecting molten " Hot @-@ Melt " vinyl into epoxy polymer molds that were immediately put into cold water to create a translucent product . The resulting hundred or so creatures were painted and coated with methacyl , a slippery , slimy coating . Each worm was attached to an elevated platform by a piece of fishing line ; the lines were tied to rods underneath the set . Offscreen helpers pushed the rods or pulled fishing line to create motion ; the scene required many takes because the fishing line would periodically flash at the camera . The larger worms proved more problematic , with filming taking place at ILM and Paramount Stage 15 . Similar to The Wrath of Khan 's parasitic Ceti eels , the worms featured cobra @-@ like cowls and a ringed mouth of teeth . ILM built one of the worms with more articulation than the others ; Ralston operated the creature through a hole in the set floor with his hand stuck inside the creature . The other worms were animated using pneumatic bladders that caused air to pass through hoses in sequence , creating an undulating motion . During the scene the worms attack Kruge , who kills one of them . The usual method for achieving the effect of the creature wrapping itself around Kruge would have been to film the sequence in reverse , but this posed problems : the slime coating Kruge would have been out of place with reverse filming , and multiple takes would ruin the Klingon makeup Lloyd wore . ILM 's solution involved rigging the worm with fishing lines that were pulled in a choreographed fashion by multiple off @-@ screen helpers to simulate the wrapping movement . When small pieces of the Klingon uniforms caught or snapped the fishing lines , Ralston resorted to steel cables .
The fiery breakup of the Genesis planet involved fire , smoke , and earth upheaval . " The main part of the floor was rigged so that rocks would shoot up out of the ground [ on catapults ] . Trees were rigged to fall and start fires , " Correll explained . Producing the shots required meticulous direction and between 20 and 30 helpers were on hand the day of shooting . Correll shot simultaneously on nine cameras ; the hope was to get as many usable shots as possible in one take , in case all the trapdoors and pyrotechnics had to be reset for another round of filming . This entire sequence was completed in three weeks .
The Vulcan stairs were filmed at Occidental College — the production 's only location shooting . To create the orange atmosphere , Correll used a large 15 by 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 6 m ) floodlight , created for the 1983 Peter Hyams film The Star Chamber , placed on the top of a 110 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) crane . The location 's blue @-@ grey sky was replaced with a matte painting that covered the top half of the stairs shot . Many ornamental touches Nimoy wanted for the procession scene ultimately never materialized . The background of the set was simply a painted piece of canvas ; Nimoy had the background out of focus in all the shots as a way to hide the shortcomings of the scenery . Elements removed from the Vulcan sequence included a procession through the " Vulcan Hall of Ancient Thought " , a space dominated by large heads atop columns and a sculpture towering to a height of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . The scene was cut because the procession dragged on for too long .
Production on the film was temporarily shut down after a fire destroyed several soundstages at Paramount Studios , one of which was adjacent to the set for the Genesis planet . Initially , the set 's pyrotechnics were suspected of causing the fire , but the cause was ruled to be arson . Shatner was among the cast members who grabbed fire hoses to stop the flames . Correll hoped the place would burn down so that he would get his chance to film in Hawaii . While most of the set was undamaged , holes in the side of the building had to be covered with heavy black curtains to prevent outside light from leaking in .
= = = Special effects = = =
As with previous Star Trek films , time and money were major constraints for special effects . The effects artists were concerned about producing the right look no matter the time involved . While effects cameraman Scott Farrar and his assistants constantly traversed the 400 miles ( 640 km ) separating ILM from Paramount , teams at the effects house organized post @-@ production effects and photography . The constant travel took a toll on Ralston , who began to forget which airlines he was taking and what city he was in . As a pause in work meant wasted time , effects editors Bill Kimberlin and Jay Ignaszewski produced usable effects shots for the live @-@ action editors at Paramount ; these half @-@ finished , monochromatic composites gave the editors an idea of scene pacing . ILM contributed 120 shots to the film . Like Correll , Ralston used Eastman 94 for all shots that did not require bluescreen and chroma keying .
ILM filmed starships using motion control for timed and computer @-@ assisted model movement . The ship models required multiple camera passes because different parts of the ship and its lights were filmed at different exposure levels . The Excelsior required eight passes to supplement the main " beauty pass " , the Enterprise six . ILM could have combined passes with multiple exposures , but not without risk ; " If anything got out of synch , or somehow we dropped a frame , we would have to reshoot — and then you 're stuck . You 've ruined two pieces , two elements , " Farrar said .
The Klingon Bird of Prey 's cloaking device required a new effect . The original concept featured the layers of the ship forming up from the inside out , requiring a series of overlaid elements filmed with an Oxberry animation camera . ILM decided the effect appeared too " animated @-@ looking " , and defied common sense : " if there was a fanfare to decloaking , everyone would know the Klingons were coming and blow them out of the sky before they could even finish materializing , " Ralston said . The supervisor decided on subtlety , throwing color separations out of sync to create a blurry ripple effect . While simple , the sequence was more effective than the elaborate planned scene . Effects such as the destruction of the merchant ship were created using projected explosions , a technique perfected during the production of Return of the Jedi . Simulated zero @-@ gravity explosions were filmed and reflected onto a card using the same motion control program used for the models . The result was an explosion that moved with the model .
The most laborious effects sequences took place inside Spacedock ; months were spent completing the station 's interior shots . The effects crew tested different looks to make sure the dock interior seemed appropriately vast . " We found the interior demanded some degree of atmospheric haze , even though there probably wouldn 't be any in space , " Farrar said . To create a slightly degraded look , the crew used blue color gels for lights and shot through smoke for fill shots . They switched to diffusion filters for light passes , as using smoke for longer shots would have required time @-@ consuming smoke level monitoring . Due to difference in the scales of the dock and ship models , it was impossible to film the Excelsior and Enterprise inside the set . Opening the dock 's space doors was problematic because the lights illuminating the inside of the dock from the exterior had to be hidden from the camera to prevent lens flares . Massive fans were used to keep equipment cool and prevent the lights from melting or warping the dock 's interior artwork . The realism of the dock scenes was heightened by live action footage of a cafeteria , with windows overlooking the dock interior . The cafeteria was a set built at ILM and filled with 40 extras in front of a bluescreen so that the dock and Enterprise could be composited in later ; matte paintings extended the ceiling of the set .
Ralston , who considered the Enterprise ugly and the model hard to shoot , delighted in destroying the ship . Several shots were combined together for the complete destruction sequence ; while Ralston would have preferred to take a mallet to the original $ 150 @,@ 000 model , a variety of cheaper models were used . The first part of the ship to be destroyed was the bridge , a separate miniature with stars added to the background . The shot switches to the Bird of Prey moving away as the top of the saucer burns , where explosions ( filmed upside down to simulate the absence of gravity ) were superimposed over a motion control pass of the ship . The camera cuts to a closeup of the ship 's registration number being eaten away by inner explosions . George created a light Styrofoam model that was dissolved by acetone dripped on the saucer from above . By shooting at less than one frame per second and keeping light off the model , the drips were not visible in the print . Burning steel wool on the inside of the saucer created a glowing ember effect from the ship 's inner decks being destroyed . The saucer explosion was simulated by blowing up a talcum powder @-@ covered plaster dish . Two and four ounce bombs and gasoline were used as pyrotechnics in live action scenes of the bridge being destroyed . Stuntmen used spring @-@ loaded platforms to launch themselves in the air .
For the final destruction of the Genesis planet , footage from the Paramount set had to be carefully matched with ILM effects footage . ILM built scale miniatures cut into sections to portray parts of Genesis ' upheaval ( rock slides , fissures opening in the ground ) that live @-@ action scenes could not easily replicate . One of the largest miniatures , measuring 20 by 16 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 by 4 @.@ 9 m ) , had trick trees and trapdoors that could be reset , propane jets for gusts of fire , and solenoid @-@ triggered rockfalls . For scenes where Kirk and Kruge battle at a precipice over a pit of lava , the shot combined animated lava , clouds ( really cotton daubs on black ) , lightning , and a matte painting . Overhead shots of the lava were created by lighting a piece of clear Plexiglass with colored gels and covering the plate with methacyl , vermiculite and charcoal ; the mixture dripped off the surface and coated the crew underneath . ILM simulated Kruge 's demise , a long plunge into the pool of lava , with the help of a stop @-@ motion puppet . Lloyd fell a few feet onto a black mattress ; during a lighting flash the actor was replaced by the puppet that fell the rest of the distance . Because the shot was filmed on black instead of the traditional bluescreen , the animators had to remove or rotoscope the black background around Lloyd one frame at a time . The transition between the footage of Lloyd and the puppet was hidden by a single @-@ frame flash as a bolt of lightning struck Kruge . The scene of Kirk and Spock beaming away as the ground collapses was another created at ILM , as the level of destruction was simply not possible for the live action crew .
Among the other effects ILM had to produce were the transporter beam and the warp speed effect . Mullen noted that the effects ' look changed depending on who was directing the film ; " everyone wants something distinctive , but nobody wants to get far enough away from the TV series to startle the Trekkies . " The effect was produced by cutting out or rotomatting the individual to be transported , then making a vertical slot through which a high @-@ intensity light was positioned . A computer @-@ controlled move would cause the light to spread from the center and fade away , then reset its position and repeat the movement on the opposite side . Handmade acetate filters and gels were applied to give the transporter beam color and patterns , followed by small flickering animated highlights called " bugs " which appeared after the character had dematerialized . The Klingons ' transporters were given a harsh red look to differentiate them from the smooth blue Federation effect . Whereas many of the multicolored rainbow warp trail shots from The Wrath of Khan were stock footage taken from the first film , the producers of the third film wanted something new . A streak effect , in which a beauty pass of the ship was combined with blurred passes for each light intensity , was tried first . The result was disappointing ; as the Enterprise grew larger the streaks became distorted and out of place . Mullen rejected a straight animation of the warp drive as too bouncy , but the footage was cut in for editing while ILM went through six more approaches to the problem . The final effect , a " vaporous , colorful trail " , came together only weeks before the film 's release .
= = = Music = = =
Composer James Horner returned to score The Search for Spock , fulfilling a promise he had made to Bennett on The Wrath of Khan . While Nimoy considered hiring his friend Leonard Rosenman for the score , he was persuaded that Horner 's return would grant continuity between The Wrath of Khan and the new film . Much like the content of the film , Horner 's music was a direct continuation of the score he wrote for the previous film . When writing music for The Wrath of Khan , Horner was aware he would reuse certain cues for an impending sequel ; two major themes he reworked were for Genesis and Spock . While the Genesis theme supplants the title music Horner wrote for The Wrath of Khan , the end credits were quoted " almost verbatim " .
In hours @-@ long discussions with Bennett and Nimoy , Horner agreed with the director that the " romantic and more sensitive " cues were more important than the " bombastic " ones . Horner had written Spock 's theme to give the character more dimension : " By putting a theme over Spock , it warms him and he becomes three @-@ dimensional rather than a collection of schticks , " he said . The theme was expanded in The Search for Spock to represent the ancient alien mysticism and culture of Spock and Vulcan .
Among the new cues Horner wrote was a " percussive and atonal " theme for the Klingons which is represented heavily in the film . Jeff Bond described the cue as a compromise between music from Horner 's earlier film Wolfen , Khan 's motif from The Wrath of Khan , and Jerry Goldsmith 's Klingon music from The Motion Picture . Horner also adapted music from Sergei Prokofiev 's Romeo and Juliet for part of the Enterprise theft sequence and its destruction , while the scoring to Spock 's resurrection on Vulcan was lifted from Horner 's Brainstorm ending .
= = Themes = =
Nimoy wrote that The Search for Spock 's major theme is that of friendship . " What should a person do to help a friend ? How deeply should a friendship commitment go ? ... And what sacrifices , what obstacles , will these people endure ? That 's the emotion line of the film [ and ] its reason for existence , " he recalled . While Spock 's bodily resurrection was complete , his mind was a blank slate — The Search for Spock , Michele and Duncan Barrett argue , says that the important question is whether an individual 's mind functions , as this is the key to a meaningful existence .
Brown University professor Ross S. Kraemer argues that The Search for Spock " became Star Trek 's first and most obvious exploration of Christian themes of sacrificial , salvific death and resurrection " . According to Larry J. Kreitzer , The Wrath of Khan provided " its own versions of Good Friday and a hint of the Easter Sunday to come " , with the hints fulfilled by Spock 's bodily restoration in The Search for Spock . David and Saavik 's discovery of Spock 's empty coffin and burial robes parallels the evidence the Apostles found that pointed to Jesus ' resurrection in the Gospel of Luke , asserts Kraemer . Spock 's resurrection not only proves the Vulcan 's belief in the existence of the katra , but also affirms these are not just a belief system but a certainty . Barrett points to the Star Trek feature films in general and The Search for Spock in particular as a turn away from the irreligious television series . In more practical terms , Jeffery A. Smith pointed to The Search for Spock as one of many Hollywood films culminating in a 1990s trend where death has little permanence ( Ghost , Defending Your Life , What Dreams May Come , Meet Joe Black ) .
The Genesis planet became a doomed experiment partly for dramatic reasons ; having a time limit for the characters to save Spock added tension . Nimoy was also interested in scientific ethics — how quickly can science move and what are the dangers of that movement . University of Houston professor Dr. John Hansen notes that while Spock 's sacrifice in The Wrath of Khan is the " archetype of reason and rationality manifesting the archetype of human virtue , " a selfless and freely @-@ made choice , the death of Valkris ( who has learned too much about the Genesis Device ) in The Search for Spock is far different : the Klingon willingly accepts her death for the " common good " as determined by the state , relinquishing her liberty and life . Hansen contends that the issues of personal liberty and the exploitation of technology , in this case Genesis , are " intertwined " . The Genesis Device was intended as a liberating technology , creating life from lifelessness , but in the Klingon view it is a tool for dominion ( contrasting the contemporary views of how technology can promote or constrain liberty ) .
= = Release = =
The Search for Spock was not heavily marketed . Among the promotional merchandise created for the film 's release were Search for Spock @-@ branded calendars and glasses sold at Taco Bell . A novelization ( ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 49500 @-@ 3 ) was also released , and reached second place on The New York Times paperback bestsellers list . President Ronald Reagan screened the film for friends during a weekend away from the White House in 1984 , spent with White House staff chief Mike Deaver and the president 's own close friend Senator Paul Laxalt . Reagan wrote of the film : " It wasn 't too good . "
The Search for Spock opened June 1 in a record @-@ breaking 1 @,@ 996 theaters across North America ; with competing films Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom , Gremlins , Ghostbusters and Top Secret ! released at the same time , more than half of the nation 's screens were filled by summer blockbusters . The Search for Spock grossed over $ 16 million in its opening weekend . In its second weekend the film 's gross dropped 42 percent . The box office strength of The Search for Spock and Indiana Jones led Paramount to dominate early summer film business . The film made $ 76 @.@ 5 million in North America , for a total of $ 87 million worldwide .
James Horner 's soundtrack to the film was released on a 43 @-@ minute LP record by Capitol Records in 1984 , and also contained a 12 " single titled " The Search for Spock , " composed by Horner and performed by Group 87 , a band featuring composer Mark Isham and Missing Persons drummer Terry Bozzio . It was re @-@ released on Compact Disc in 1989 by GNP Crescendo . Film Score Monthly released an expanded two @-@ compact disc score June 1 , 2010 . The Expanded Edition included both the original Capitol Records release from 1984 and an all @-@ new version which featured the complete soundtrack as heard in the film , including alternate versions as well as many cues heard for the first time outside of the film . The soundtrack would be Horner 's final contribution to Star Trek .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Search for Spock received generally positive reviews from critics . Richard Schickel of Time praised the film as " perhaps the first space opera to deserve that term in its grandest sense " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times and Newsweek wrote that while the film felt weighed down by the increasingly aged actors and television tropes , it was leavened by its dedication . Roger Ebert called the film " good , but not great " and a compromise between the special effects @-@ dependent The Motion Picture and the character @-@ driven The Wrath of Khan . Conversely , USA Today praised the film as the best of the three and the closest to the original spirit of the television series . An overwhelmingly negative view of the film was offered by The Globe and Mail 's Susan Ferrier Mackay , who summed the film up as " ba @-@ a @-@ a @-@ d " . In a 2010 retrospective of the film franchise , author Jill Sherwin suggests the aging Enterprise served as a metaphor for the aging Star Trek franchise . The film has received a score of 55 / 100 on Metacritic , indicating mixed to average reviews , while review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes has given it 78 % , indicating positive reviews .
Critics praised Nimoy 's direction , to which USA Today attributed the film 's success in capturing the essence of the television show . Newsweek wrote that due to Nimoy the film was the best @-@ paced Trek film , and that his familiarity with these actors enabled him to bring out the best from them . Newsweek , and David Sterritt of the Christian Science Monitor , appreciated how the film slowed the action down to allow moments of reflection , comparing this with the focus of most contemporary action films on effects rather than actors . The Washington Post 's Rita Kempley wrote that Nimoy 's direction was competent , but his background in television showed — " the film feels made @-@ for @-@ TV " , she summarized . Fellow Post critic Gary Arnold concurred with Kempley 's television film assessment , but also wrote that Nimoy was smart to focus on the essentials of each scene ; he " [ concentrates ] on the actors in ways that flatter and enhance their work . "
The Search for Spock 's plot solicited comment ; Schickel called the film " overplotted " and filled with " heavy expository burdens " , comparing it to real opera . Sterritt said that the script occasionally veered in " arbitrary " directions and contained missteps , such as how the Grissom and its crew are suddenly lost , but the plot disregards their fate . Arnold wrote that Shatner missed an opportunity to act on par with The Wrath of Khan 's revelation that Kirk was David 's father . The critic considered David 's death an attempt at a similar shock , but felt it was not a success . Harry M. Geduld , writing for The Humanist , criticized the film for what he called " contradictions and implausibilities " , such as Scott 's sabotage of the Excelsior and Spock 's regeneration .
The film 's sense of self @-@ seriousness and the camaraderie amongst the characters were generally cited as positive aspects . Maslin wrote that certain tacky elements of the film 's television roots were outweighed by the closeness of the Enterprise crew and " by their seriousness and avidity about what seem to be the silliest minutiae [ ... ] That 's what longtime Trekkies love about the series , and it 's still here — a little the worse for wear , but mostly untarnished . " The Los Angeles Times wrote that despite its spectacle , the film 's " humanity once again outweighs the hardware , and its innocence is downright endearing " . Mackay offered an alternate view , calling the characters ' actions and dialogue " wooden " and saying that the film 's monsters had more life than the acting . Lloyd 's portrayal of Kruge received praise from New York 's David Denby and The Daily News 's Hunter Reigler .
The film 's effects were conflictingly appraised . Schickel wrote that the effects were " technically adroit " and occasionally " witty " , and Ebert singled out the Bird of Prey as a " great @-@ looking " ship . Sterritt felt that the settings always felt like they were on soundstages rather than out in space , and Denby wrote that more could have been done with Genesis , and that while it was an interesting concept its special effects execution lacked . Kempley appreciated the sets ' low values , writing that " the fakier the sets " , the closer the film felt to its television origins .
= = = Home media = = =
The Search for Spock was released on home video in 1985 . The initial retail offerings included VHS , Betamax , LaserDisc and CED formats with closed captioning . As part of a plan to support its push of 8mm video cassette , Sony partnered with Paramount Home Video to bring titles like The Search for Spock to the platform in 1986 .
The film was given a " bare bones " DVD release on May 11 , 2000 , with no extra features — the release was several months earlier than the release of The Wrath of Khan . Two years later , a two disc " Collector 's Edition " was released with supplemental material and the same video transfer as the original DVD release . It featured a text commentary by Michael Okuda and audio commentary from Nimoy , Bennett , Correll , and Curtis .
The film was released on high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc in May 2009 to coincide with the new Star Trek feature , along with the other five films featuring the original crew in Star Trek : Original Motion Picture Collection . The Search for Spock was remastered in 1080p high @-@ definition from the 2000 DVD transfer . All six films in the set have new 7 @.@ 1 Dolby TrueHD audio . The disc features a new commentary track by former Star Trek : The Next Generation , Deep Space Nine , and Voyager television writers Ronald D. Moore and Michael Taylor .
The film was briefly removed from Netflix in August 2013 because of inaccurately translated Klingon and Vulcan subtitles .
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= Vampyr =
Vampyr ( German : Vampyr – Der Traum des Allan Grey , " Vampire : the Dream of Allan Grey " ; German pronunciation : [ vamˈpiːɐ ̯ ] ) is a 1932 German – French horror film directed by Danish director Carl Theodor Dreyer . The film was written by Dreyer and Christen Jul based on elements from J. Sheridan Le Fanu 's collection of supernatural stories In a Glass Darkly . Vampyr was funded by Nicolas de Gunzburg who starred in the film under the name of Julian West among a mostly non @-@ professional cast . Gunzburg plays the role of Allan Grey , a student of the occult who enters the village of Courtempierre , which is under the curse of a vampire .
Vampyr was challenging for Dreyer to make as it was his first sound film and had to be recorded in three languages . To overcome this , very little dialogue was used in the film and much of the story is told with silent film @-@ styled title cards . The film was shot entirely on location and to enhance the atmospheric content , Dreyer opted for a washed out , soft focus photographic technique . The audio editing was done in Berlin where the character 's voices , sound effects , and score were added to the film .
Vampyr had a delayed release in Germany and opened to a generally negative reception from audiences and critics . Dreyer edited the film after its German premiere and it opened to more mixed opinions at its French debut . The film was long considered a low point in Dreyer 's career , but modern critical reception to the film has become much more favorable with critics praising the film 's disorienting visual effects and atmosphere .
= = Plot = =
On a late evening , Allan Gray arrives at an inn close to the village of Courtempierre and he rents a room to sleep . Gray is awakened suddenly by an old man , who enters the room and leaves a square packet on Gray 's table ; " To be opened upon my death " is written on the wrapping paper . Gray takes the package and walks outside . Shadows guide him to an old castle , where he sees the shadows dancing and wandering on their own . Gray also sees an elderly woman and encounters another old man . Gray leaves the castle and walks to a manor . Looking through one of the windows , Gray sees the man who gave him the package earlier . The man is suddenly murdered by gunshot . Gray is let into the house by servants , who rush to the aid of the fallen man but it is too late to save him . The servants ask Gray to stay the night . Gisèle , the youngest daughter of the Lord of the manor , takes Gray to the library and tells him that her sister , Léone , is gravely ill . Just then they see Léone walking outside . They follow her , and find her unconscious on the ground with fresh bite wounds . They have her carried inside . Gray remembers the parcel and opens it . Inside is a book about horrific demons called Vampyrs .
By reading the book , Gray learns that Léone is a victim of a Vampyr . Vampyrs can force humans into submission . The village doctor visits Léone at the manor , and Gray recognizes him as the old man he saw in the castle . The doctor tells Gray that a blood transfusion is needed and Gray offers his blood to save Léone . Exhausted from blood loss , Gray sleeps . He wakes sensing danger and rushes to Léone , where he surprises the doctor as he is attempting to poison the girl . The doctor flees the manor , and Gray finds that Gisèle is gone . Gray follows the doctor back to the castle , where Gray has a vision of himself being buried alive . After the vision subsides , he rescues Gisèle but the doctor escapes . The old servant of the manor finds Gray 's Vampyr book and discovers that a Vampyr can be defeated by driving an iron bar through its heart . The servant meets Allan Gray at Marguerite Chopin 's grave behind the village Chapel . They open the grave and find the old woman perfectly preserved . They hammer a large metal bar through her heart , killing her . The village doctor is hiding in an old mill , but finds himself locked in a chamber where flour sacks are filled . The old servant arrives and activates the mill 's machinery , filling the chamber with flour and suffocating the doctor . The curse of the Vampyr is lifted and Léone recovers . Gisèle and Gray cross a foggy river by boat and find themselves in a bright clearing .
= = Cast = =
Nicolas de Gunzburg as Allan Gray , a young wanderer , who vaguely resembles a young , slightly better @-@ looking H. P. Lovecraft , and whose studies of occult matters have made him a dreamer . Gray 's view of the world in the film is described as a blur of the real and unreal .
Rena Mandel as Giséle , Léone 's younger sister and the daughter of the Lord of the Manor . Giséle is kidnapped by the Village Doctor late in the film .
Sybille Schmitz as Léone , Giséle 's older sister , who is in thrall to the vampire and finds her strength dwindling day by day .
Jan Hieronimko as the Village Doctor , a pawn of the vampire , Marguerite Chopin , who seems to sleep in a coffin , hinting that he too may be a vampire . The village doctor kidnaps Giséle late in the film .
Henriette Gérard as Marguerite Chopin , the vampire , an elderly woman whose hold extends beyond her immediate victims . Many villagers , including the village doctor , are her minions .
Maurice Schutz as the Lord of the Manor , Giséle and Léone 's father who offers Gray a book about vampirism to help Gray save his daughters . After his murder , he returns briefly as a spirit and takes revenge on the village doctor and a soldier who had helped Marguerite Chopin .
Albert Bras as an Old Servant , a servant at the manor house . After the death of his master , he finds Gray 's book on vampirism and , aided by Gray , ends the vampire 's reign of terror .
N. Babanini as Seine Frau ( His Wife )
Jane Mora as a Nurse
Georges Boidin as the Limping Soldier
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Carl Theodor Dreyer began planning Vampyr in late 1929 , a year after the release of his previous film The Passion of Joan of Arc . The production company behind Dreyer 's previous film had plans for Dreyer to make another film , but the project was dropped which led to Dreyer deciding to go outside the studio system to make his next film . Being Dreyer 's first sound film , it was made under difficult circumstances as the arrival of sound put the European film industry in turmoil . In France , film studios lagged behind technologically with the first French sound films being shot on sound stages in England . Dreyer went to England to study sound film , where he got together with Danish writer Christen Jul who was living in London at the time . Dreyer decided to create a story based on the supernatural and read over thirty mystery stories and found a number of re @-@ occurring elements including doors opening mysteriously and door handles moving with no one knowing why . Dreyer decided that " We can jolly well make this stuff too " . In London and New York , the stage version of Dracula had been a large hit in 1927 . Dreyer and Jul created a story based on vampires which Dreyer considered to be " fashionable things at the time " . Vampyr is based on elements from J. Sheridan Le Fanu 's In a Glass Darkly , a collection of five stories first published in 1872 . Dreyer draws from two of the stories for Vampyr , one being Carmilla , a vampire story with a lesbian subtext and the other being The Room in the Dragon Volant about a live burial . Dreyer found it difficult to decide on a title for the film . It may have initially been titled Destiny and then Shadows of Hell . When the film was presented in the film journal Close Up it was titled The Strange Adventure of David Gray .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Dreyer returned to France to begin casting and location scouting . At the time in France , there was a small movement of artistic independently financed films , including Luis Buñuel 's L 'Âge d 'Or and Jean Cocteau 's The Blood of a Poet which were both released in 1930 . Through Valentine Hugo , Dreyer met Nicolas de Gunzburg , an aristocrat who agreed to finance Dreyer 's next film in return for playing the lead role in it . Gunzberg had arguments with his family about becoming an actor , so he created the pseudonym Julian West , a name that would be the same in all three languages that the film was going to be shot in .
Most of the cast in Vampyr were not professional actors . Jan Hieronimko , who plays the village doctor , was found on a late night metro train in Paris . When approached to act in the film , Hieronimko stared blankly and did not reply . Hieronimko later contacted Dreyer 's crew and agreed to join the film . Many of the other non @-@ professional actors in the film were found in similar fashion in shops and cafes . The only professional actors in the film were Maurice Schutz , who plays the Lord of the Manor , and Sybille Schmitz , who plays his daughter Léone . Many crew members of Vampyr had worked with Dreyer on his previous film The Passion of Joan of Arc . Returning crew members included cinematographer Rudolph Maté and art director Hermann Warm .
The entire film was shot on actual locations with many scenes shot in Courtempierre , France . Dreyer and his cinematographer Rudolph Maté took part in scouting for locations for Vampyr . Dreyer left most of his scouting to an assistant , who Dreyer instructed to find " a factory in ruins , a chopped up phantom , worthy of the imagination of Edgar Allan Poe . Somewhere in Paris . We can 't travel far . " In the original script , the village doctor was supposed to flee the village and get trapped in a swamp . On looking for a suitable mire , the crew found a mill where they saw white shadows around the windows and doors . After seeing this place , they changed the film 's ending to take place at this mill where the doctor dies by suffocating under the milled flour .
= = = Filming = = =
Vampyr was filmed between 1930 and 1931 . Everything being shot on location , as Dreyer believed it would be beneficial by lending the dream @-@ like ghost world of the film as well as allowing them to save money by not having to rent studio space . Dreyer originally wanted Vampyr to be a silent film , as it uses many elements of the silent era such as title cards to explain the story . Dialogue in the film was kept to a minimum . For the scenes with dialogue , the actors mouthed their lines in French , German and English so their lip movements would correspond to the voices that were going to be recorded in post @-@ production . There is no record of the English version being completed . The scenes in the chateau were shot in April and May 1930 . The chateau also acted as housing for the cast and crew during the filming . Life in the chateau was unpleasant for them as it was cold and infested with rats . The church yard scenes were shot in August 1930 . The church was not an actual church , but a barn with a number of tombstones placed around it . This set was designed by the art director Hermann Warm .
Critic and writer Kim Newman described Vampyr 's style as closer to the experimental features such as Un chien andalou than a " quickie horror film " made after the release of Dracula ( 1931 ) . Dreyer originally was going to film Vampyr in what he described as a " heavy style " but changed direction after cinematographer Maté showed him one shot that came out fuzzy and blurred . This washed out look was an effect Dreyer desired , and he had Maté shoot the film through a piece of gauze held three feet ( .9 m ) away from the camera to re @-@ create this look . For other visuals in the film , Dreyer found inspiration from the fine arts . Actress Rena Mandel , who plays Gisèle , said that Dreyer showed her reproductions of paintings of Francisco Goya during filming . In Denmark , a journalist and friend of Dreyer , Henry Hellsen wrote in detail about the film and the artworks it appeared to draw on . When being asked about the intention of the film at the Berlin premiere , Dreyer replied that he " had not any particular intention . I just wanted to make a film different from all other films . I wanted , if you will , to break new ground for the cinema . That is all . And do you think this intention has succeeded ? Yes , I have broken new ground " . The filming of Vampyr was completed the middle of 1931 .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Dreyer shot and edited the film in France and then brought it to Berlin where it was post @-@ synchronized in both German and French . Dreyer did the audio work at Universum Film AG , as they had the best sound equipment available to him at the time . Most of the actors did not dub their own voices . The only voices of the actors that are their own in the film are of Schmitz and Gunzburg . The sounds of dogs , parrots , and other animals in the film were fake and were done by professional imitators . Wolfgang Zeller composed the film 's score and worked with Dreyer to develop the music .
There are differences between the German and French releases of the film . The character Allan Grey is named David Gray for the German release , which Dreyer attributed to a mistake . The German censors ordered cuts to the film that still exist today in some prints . The scenes which had to be toned down include the doctor 's death under the milled flour and the vampire 's death from the stake . There are other scenes that were shot and included in the script that do not exist in any current prints of Vampyr . These scenes reveal the vampire in the factory recoiling against a shadow of a Christian cross as well as a ferryman guiding Gray and Gisèle by getting young children to build a fire and sing a hymn to guide them back to the shore .
Dreyer had prepared a Danish version of the film which was based on the German version with Danish subtitles and title cards . The distributor could not afford to have the title cards completed in the manner they appear in the German version , which were instead finished with a more simple style . The distributor also wanted to make the pages in the book shown in the film as plain title cards which Dreyer did not allow , saying that " the old book is not an text in the ordinary sense , but an actor . Just as much as the others . "
= = Release = =
The premiere of Vampyr in Germany was delayed by UFA , as the studio wanted the American films Dracula and Frankenstein to be released first . The Berlin premiere was 6 May 1932 . At this premiere , the audience booed the film which led to Dreyer cutting several scenes out of the film after the first showing . The film was distributed in France by Société Générale de Cinema who also distributed Dreyer 's previous film The Passion of Joan of Arc . The Paris premiere was in September 1932 where Vampyr was the opening attraction of a new cinema on the Boulevard Raspail . At a showing of the film in Vienna , audiences demanded their money back . When this was denied , a riot broke out that led to police having to restore order with night sticks . When the film premiered in Copenhagen , Denmark in March 1933 , Dreyer did not show up . In the USA , the film premiered with English subtitles under the title " Not Against The Flesh " ; an English @-@ dubbed version , edited severely as to both the film continuity and the music track , appeared a few years later on the roadshow circuit as " Castle of Doom " . Dreyer soon had a nervous breakdown and went to a mental hospital in France . The film was a financial failure .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Press in Europe ranged from mixed to negative . The press in Germany did not like the film . At the Berlin premiere , a writer for The New York Times wrote " Whatever you think of the director Charles [ sic ] Theodor Dreyer , there is no denying that he is ' different . ' He does things that make people talk about him . You may find his films ridiculous — but you won 't forget them ... Although in many ways [ Vampyr ] was one of the worst films I have ever attended , there were some scenes in it that gripped with brutal directness " . Press reaction to the film in Paris was mixed . Reporter Herbert Matthews of The New York Times wrote that Vampyr was " a hallucinating film " , that " either held the spectators spellbound as in a long nightmare or else moved them to hysterical laughter " . For many years after Vampyr 's initial release , the film was viewed by critics as one of Dreyer 's weaker works .
More modern reception for Vampyr has been more positive . The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports that 100 % of critics have given the film positive reviews , based upon a sample of 24 , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . Todd Kristel of the online film database Allmovie gave the film four and a half stars out of five , stating that " Vampyr isn 't the easiest classic film to enjoy , even if you are a fan of 1930s horror movies ... If you 're patient with the slow pacing and ambiguous story line of Vampyr , you 'll find that this film offers many striking images " and that although the film is " not exciting in terms of pacing , it 's a good choice if you want to see a film that establishes a compelling mood " . Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader wrote the " The greatness of Carl Dreyer 's [ Vampyr ] derives partly from its handling of the vampire theme in terms of sexuality and eroticism and partly from its highly distinctive , dreamy look , but it also has something to do with Dreyer 's radical recasting of narrative form " . J. Hoberman of the Village Voice wrote that " Vampyr is Dreyer 's most radical film — maybe one of my dozen favorite movies by any director " . Anton Bitel of Channel 4 awarded the film four and a half stars out of five , comparing it to the silent vampire film Nosferatu , stating that it is " lesser known ( but in many ways superior ) " and that the film is " a triumph of the irrational , Dreyer 's eerie memento mori never allows either protagonist or viewer fully to wake up from its surreal nightmare " .
In the early 2010s , Time Out conducted a poll with several authors , directors , actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films . Vampyr placed at number 50 on their top 100 list .
= = = Home media = = =
Vampyr has been released with low quality image and sound as the original German and French sound and film negatives are lost . Prints of the French and German versions of the film exist but most of them are either incomplete or damaged . Vampyr was released in the United States under the titles of The Vampire and Castle of Doom and in the United Kingdom under the title of The Strange Adventures of David Gray . Many of these prints are severely cut , such as the re @-@ dubbed 60 @-@ minute English @-@ language Castle of Doom print .
Vampyr was originally released on DVD on 13 May 1998 by Image Entertainment which ran at an abridged 72 @-@ minute running time . Image 's release of Vampyr is a straight port of the Laserdisc that film restorer David Shepard produced in 1991 . The subtitles are large and ingrained due to the source print having Danish subtitles which have been blacked out and covered . This DVD also included the short film The Mascot as a bonus feature . The Criterion Collection released a two @-@ disc edition of Vampyr on 22 July 2008 . This edition of the DVD includes the original German version of the film , along with a book featuring Dreyer and Christen Jul 's original screenplay and Sheridan Le Fanu 's 1872 story " Carmilla " . A Region 2 DVD of the film was released by Eureka Films on 25 August 2008 . The Eureka release contains the same bonus material as the Criterion Collection discs , but also includes a commentary from director Guillermo del Toro .
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= Stella Gibbons =
Stella Dorothea Gibbons ( 5 January 1902 – 19 December 1989 ) was an English author , journalist , and poet . She established her reputation with her first novel , Cold Comfort Farm ( 1932 ) , which won the literary Prix Femina Étranger and has been reprinted many times . Although she was active as a writer for half a century , none of her later 22 novels or other literary works — which included a sequel to Cold Comfort Farm — achieved the same critical or popular success . Much of her work was long out of print before a modest revival in the 21st century .
The daughter of a London doctor , Gibbons had a turbulent and often unhappy childhood . After an indifferent school career she trained as a journalist , and worked as a reporter and features writer , mainly for the Evening Standard and The Lady . Her first book , published in 1930 , was a collection of poems which was well received , and through her life she considered herself primarily a poet rather than a novelist . After Cold Comfort Farm , a satire on the genre of rural @-@ themed " loam and lovechild " novels popular in the late 1920s , most of Gibbons 's novels were based within the middle @-@ class suburban world with which she was familiar .
Gibbons became a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 1950 . Her style has been praised by critics for its charm , barbed humour and descriptive skill , and has led to comparison with Jane Austen . The impact of Cold Comfort Farm dominated her career , and she grew to resent her identification with the book to the exclusion of the rest of her output . Widely regarded as a one @-@ work novelist , she and her works have not been accepted into the canon of English literature — partly , other writers have suggested , because of her detachment from the literary world and her tendency to mock it .
= = Life = =
= = = Family background and childhood = = =
The Gibbons family originated in Ireland . Stella 's grandfather , Charles Preston Gibbons , was a civil engineer who spent long periods in South Africa building bridges . He and his wife Alice had six children , the second of whom — the eldest of four sons — was born in 1869 and was known by his fourth Christian name of " Telford " . The Gibbons household was a turbulent one , with tensions arising from Charles Gibbons 's frequent adulteries . Telford Gibbons trained as a doctor , and qualified as a physician and surgeon at the London Hospital in 1897 . On 29 September 1900 he married Maude Williams , the daughter of a stockbroker . The couple bought a house in Malden Crescent , Kentish Town , a working @-@ class district of North London , where Telford established the medical practice in which he continued for the remainder of his life .
Stella , the couple 's first child , was born on 5 January 1902 ; two brothers , Gerald and Lewis , followed in 1905 and 1909 respectively . The atmosphere in the Kentish Town house echoed that of the elder Gibbons 's household , and was dominated by Telford 's frequent bouts of ill @-@ temper , drinking , womanising and occasional acts of violence . Stella later described her father as " a bad man , but a good doctor " . He was charitable to his poorer patients and imaginative in finding cures , but made life miserable for his family . Initially Stella was his favourite , but by the time she reached puberty he frequently mocked her looks and size . Fortunately , her mother was a calm and stabilising influence . Until Stella reached the age of 13 she was educated at home by a succession of governesses , who never stayed long . The family 's bookshelves provided reading material , and she developed a talent for storytelling with which she amused her young brothers .
In 1915 Stella became a pupil at the North London Collegiate School , then situated in Camden Town . The school , founded in 1850 by Frances Buss , was among the first in England to offer girls an academic education , and by 1915 was widely recognised as a model girls ' school . After the haphazard teaching methods of her governesses , Stella initially had difficulty in adjusting to the strict discipline of the school , and found many of its rules and practices oppressive . She shared this attitude with her contemporary Stevie Smith , the future Queen 's Gold Medal for Poetry winner , who joined the school in 1917 . Although a moderate performer in school subjects , Stella found outlets for her talents by writing stories for her fellow @-@ pupils , becoming vice president of the Senior Dramatic Club , and featuring prominently in the school 's Debating Society of which she became the honorary secretary .
= = = Student years = = =
While at school , Gibbons formed an ambition to be a writer , and on leaving in 1921 began a two @-@ year Diploma in Journalism at University College , London ( UCL ) . The course had been established for ex @-@ servicemen returning from the First World War , but attracted several women , among them the future novelist Elizabeth Bowen . As well as English Literature , the curriculum covered economics , politics , history , science and languages ; practical skills such as shorthand and typing were not included .
After the stifling experience of school , Gibbons found university exhilarating and made numerous friendships , particularly with Ida Graves , an aspiring poet who , although on a different course , attended some of the same lectures . The two shared a love of literature and a taste for subversive humour . Graves lived until 1999 , and recalled in an interview late in life that many of the jokes they shared found their way into Cold Comfort Farm , as did some of their common acquaintances . Soon after Gibbons began the course she contributed a poem , " The Marshes of My Soul " , to the December 1921 issue of University College Magazine . This parody , in the newly fashionable vers libre style , was her first published literary work . During the next two years she contributed further poems and prose to the magazine , including " The Doer , a Story in the Russian Manner " , which foreshadows her later novels in both theme and style . Gibbons completed her course in the summer of 1923 , and was awarded her diploma .
= = = Journalism and early writings = = =
Gibbons 's first job was with the British United Press ( BUP ) news agency , where she decoded overseas cables which she rewrote in presentable English . During slack periods she practised at writing articles , stories and poems . She made her first trips abroad , travelling to France in 1924 and Switzerland in 1925 . Swiss Alpine scenery inspired several poems , some of which were later published . In 1924 she met Walter Beck , a naturalised German employed by his family 's cosmetics firm . The couple became engaged , and enjoyed regular weekends together , signing hotel registers as a married couple using false names .
In May 1926 Gibbons 's mother , Maude , died suddenly at the age of 48 . With little reason to remain with her father in the Kentish Town surgery , Gibbons took lodgings in Willow Road , near Hampstead Heath . Five months later , on 15 October , her father died from heart disease aggravated by heavy drinking . Gibbons was now the family 's principal breadwinner ; her youngest brother Lewis was still at school , while the elder , Gerald , was intermittently employed as an actor . The three set up home in a cottage on the Vale of Health , a small settlement in the middle of Hampstead Heath , with literary connections to Keats ( whom Gibbons revered ) , Leigh Hunt and D. H. Lawrence . Later that year , as a result of an error involving the calculation and reporting of foreign exchange rates , Gibbons was sacked from the BUP , but quickly found a new position as secretary to the editor of the London Evening Standard . Within a short time she was promoted , and became a reporter and features writer at the then substantial salary of just under £ 500 a year , although she was not given a by @-@ line until 1928 .
During her Evening Standard years , Gibbons persevered with poetry , and in September 1927 her poem " The Giraffes " appeared in The Criterion , a literary magazine edited by T. S. Eliot . This work was read and admired by Virginia Woolf , who enquired if Gibbons would write poems for the Woolf publishing house , the Hogarth Press . In January 1928 J. C. Squire , a leading voice in the " Georgian " poetry movement , began to publish Gibbons 's poems in his magazine , The London Mercury . Squire also persuaded Longmans to publish the first collection of Gibbons 's verses , entitled The Mountain Beast , which appeared in 1930 to critical approval . By this time her by @-@ line was appearing with increasing frequency in the Standard . As part of a series on " Unusual Women " she interviewed , among others , the former royal mistress Lillie Langtry . The paper also published several of Gibbons 's short stories .
Despite this evident industry , Gibbons was dismissed from the Standard in August 1930 . This was ostensibly an economy measure although Gibbons , in later life , suspected other reasons , particularly the increasing distraction from work that arose from her relationship with Walter Beck . The engagement had ended painfully in 1928 , primarily because Gibbons was looking for a fully committed relationship whereas he wanted something more open . Her biographer and nephew , Reggie Oliver , believes Gibbons never entirely got over Beck , even after 1929 when she met Allan Webb , her future husband . She was not unemployed for long ; she quickly accepted a job offer as an editorial assistant at the women 's magazine , The Lady . Here , according to The Observer writer Rachel Cooke , " she applied her versatility as a writer to every subject under the sun bar cookery , which was the province of a certain Mrs Peel . " At the same time she began work on the novel that would become Cold Comfort Farm ; her colleague and friend Elizabeth Coxhead recorded that Gibbons " neglected her duties disgracefully " to work on this project .
= = = Cold Comfort Farm = = =
In her time with The Lady , Gibbons established a reputation as a caustic book reviewer , and was particularly critical of the then fashionable " loam and lovechild " rural novels . Novelists such as Mary Webb and Sheila Kaye @-@ Smith had achieved considerable popularity through their depictions of country life ; Webb was a favourite of the British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin . Gibbons had first become familiar with the genre in 1928 when she provided summaries of Webb 's The Golden Arrow for the Evening Standard 's 1928 serialisation . She found the writing overblown and the plotting ridiculous , and decided that her own first novel would be a comic parody of the genre . By February 1932 she had completed the manuscript and delivered it to her publishers , Longmans .
Gibbons 's chosen title for her novel had been " Curse God Farm " , before her friend Elizabeth Coxhead , who had connections in the Hinckley district of Leicestershire , suggested " Cold Comfort " as an alternative , using the name of a farm in the Hinckley area . Gibbons was delighted with the suggestion , and the work was published as Cold Comfort Farm in September 1932 . The plot concerns the efforts of " a rational , bossy London heroine " to bring order and serenity to her rustic relations , the Starkadders , on their run @-@ down Sussex farm . According to the Feminist Companion to Literature in English , Gibbons 's parody " [ demolishes ] ... the stock @-@ in @-@ trade of earthy regionalists such as Thomas Hardy , Mary Webb , Sheila Kaye @-@ Smith and D. H. Lawrence " . The literary scholar Faye Hammill describes the work as " an extremely sophisticated and intricate parody whose meaning is produced through its relationship with the literary culture of its day and with the work of such canonical authors as D. H. Lawrence , Thomas Hardy , and Emily Brontë " . In her history of the 1930s , Juliet Gardiner ascribes a socio @-@ economic dimension to the book : " a picture of rural gloom caused by government lassitude and urban indifference " .
The work was an immediate critical and popular success . The satire was heightened by Gibbons 's mockery of purple prose , whereby she marked the most florid and overwritten passages of the book with asterisks , " for the reader 's delectation and mirth " . One critic found it hard to accept that so well @-@ developed a parody was the work of a scarcely known woman writer , and speculated that " Stella Gibbons " was a pen @-@ name for Evelyn Waugh . Gibbons suddenly found herself in demand in literary circles and from fellow writers , raised to a celebrity status that she found distasteful . She acquired an agent , who advised her that she could confidently expect a regular and comfortable income as a novelist . This assurance prompted her , at the end of 1932 , to resign her position with The Lady and to embark on a full @-@ time writing career .
In March 1931 Gibbons had become engaged to Allan Webb , a budding actor and opera singer five years her junior . He was the son of a cricketing parson , and the grandson of Allan Becher Webb , a former Bishop of Bloemfontein who served as Dean of Salisbury Cathedral . On 1 April 1933 the couple were married at St Matthew 's , Bayswater . Later that year she learned that Cold Comfort Farm had been awarded the Prix Étranger , the foreign novel category of the prestigious French literary prize , the Prix Femina . It had won against works by two more experienced writers , Bowen and Rosamond Lehmann . This outcome irritated Virginia Woolf , herself a former Prix Étranger winner , who wrote to Bowen : " I was enraged to see they gave the £ 40 ( the cash value of the prize ) to Gibbons ; still , now you and Rosamond can join in blaming her " . Cooke observes that of all the Prix Étranger winners from the inter @-@ war years , only Cold Comfort Farm and Woolf 's To the Lighthouse are remembered today , and that only the former has bequeathed a phrase that has passed into common usage : " something nasty in the woodshed " .
= = = Established author = = =
= = = = 1930s = = = =
During the remainder of the 1930s Gibbons produced five more novels , as well as two poetry collections , a children 's book , and a number of short stories . From November 1936 the family home was in Oakshott Avenue , on the Holly Lodge Estate off Highgate West Hill , where Gibbons regularly worked in the mornings from ten until lunchtime . Her novels were generally well received by critics and the public , though none earned the accolades or attention that had been given to Cold Comfort Farm ; readers of The Times were specifically warned not to expect Gibbons 's second novel , Bassett ( 1934 ) , to be a repetition of the earlier masterpiece . Enbury Heath ( 1935 ) is a relatively faithful account of her childhood and early adult life with , according to Oliver , " only the thinnest veil of fictional gauze cover [ ing ] raw experience " . Miss Linsey and Pa ( 1936 ) was thought by Nicola Beauman , in her analysis of women writers from 1914 to 1939 , to parody Radclyffe Hall 's 1928 lesbian novel The Well of Loneliness . Gibbons 's final prewar novels were Nightingale Wood ( 1935 ) — " Cinderella brought right up to date " — and My American ( 1939 ) , which Oliver considers her most escapist novel , " a variant of Hans Christian Andersen 's The Snow Queen . "
Gibbons always considered herself a serious poet rather than a comic writer . She published two collections of poetry in the 1930s , the latter of which , The Lowland Verses ( 1938 ) contains " The Marriage of the Machine " , an early lament on the effects of industrial pollution : " What oil , what poison lulls / Your wings and webs , my cormorants and gulls ? " Gibbons 's single children 's book was the fairy tale collection The Untidy Gnome , published in 1935 and dedicated to her only child Laura , who was born that year .
= = = = War years , 1939 – 45 = = = =
The advent of war in September 1939 did not diminish Gibbons 's creative energy . In November she began a series of articles , " A Woman 's Diary of the War " , for St Martin 's Review , the journal of the London church of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields . The series ran until November 1943 , and includes many of Gibbons 's private reflections on the conflict . In October 1941 she wrote : " [ T ] he war has done me good ... I get a dour satisfaction out of managing the rations , salvaging , fire watching , and feeling that I am trying to work for a better world " . In July 1940 Webb enlisted in the Middlesex Regiment , and the following year was commissioned into the King 's Royal Rifle Corps . He later served overseas , mostly in Cairo .
The title story in Gibbons 's 1940 collection , Christmas at Cold Comfort Farm , failed to equal the impact of the original . When the collection was reissued many years later it was described as " oddly comforting and amusing ... and possibly a truer depiction of the times than we might think " . Gibbons published three novels during the war : The Rich House ( 1941 ) , Ticky ( 1942 ) and The Bachelor ( 1944 ) . Ticky , a satire on mid @-@ nineteenth century army life , was Gibbons 's favourite from all her novels , although she acknowledged that hardly anyone liked it . It failed commercially , despite a favourable review in The Times Literary Supplement . Oliver surmises that " the middle of the Second World War was perhaps the wrong time to satirise ... the ridiculous and dangerous rituals that surround the male aggressive instinct " . The Bachelor won critical praise for its revealing account of life in war @-@ torn Britain — as did several of Gibbons 's postwar novels .
= = = Postwar years = = =
Gibbons 's first postwar novel was Westwood ( 1946 ) . The book incorporates a comic depiction of the novelist Charles Morgan , whose novel The Fountain Gibbons had reviewed before the war and found " offensive as well as wearisome " . In Westwood , Morgan appears in the guise of the novelist " Gerald Challis " , a pompous , humourless bore . Oliver considers this characterisation to be one of Gibbons 's " most enjoyable and vicious " satirical portraits . In her introduction to the book 's 2011 reprint , Lynne Truss describes it as " a rich , mature novel , romantic and wistful , full of rounded characters and terrific dialogue " that deserved more commercial success than it received . The public 's expectations were still prejudiced by Cold Comfort Farm , which by 1949 had sold 28 @,@ 000 copies in hardback and 315 @,@ 000 in paperback . Anticipating that a sequel would be popular , that year Gibbons produced Conference at Cold Comfort Farm , her shortest novel , in which the farm has become a conference centre and tourist attraction . There is much mockery of contemporary and indeed future artistic and intellectual trends , before the male Starkadders return from overseas , wreck the centre and restore the farm to its original primitive state . The book was moderately successful but , Oliver remarks , does not compare with the original .
In 1950 Gibbons published her Collected Poems , and in the same year was made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature . Throughout the 1950s she continued , at roughly two @-@ year intervals , to produce politely received novels , none of which created any particular stir . Among these was Fort of the Bear ( 1953 ) , in which she departed from her familiar London milieu by setting the story largely in the wilder regions of Canada . This was the last of her books handled by Longmans ; thereafter her work was published by Hodder and Stoughton . A journey to Austria and Venice in 1953 provided material for her novel The Shadow of a Sorcerer ( 1955 ) . From 1954 , having accepted an invitation from Malcolm Muggeridge , the editor of Punch , Gibbons provided frequent contributions to the magazine for the following 15 years . Among these was a science fiction story , " Jane in Space " , written in the style of Jane Austen . Gibbons , who wrote the introduction to the 1957 Heritage edition of Sense and Sensibility , was a long @-@ time admirer of Austen , and had described her in a Lady article as " one of the most exquisite " of woman artists .
After the war , Allan Webb resumed his stage career with the role of Count Almaviva in the 1946 Sadler 's Wells production of The Marriage of Figaro . In 1947 he appeared in the original run of the Vivian Ellis musical Bless the Bride , and made several further stage appearances in the following two years . During this time he had a brief affair with the actress Sydney Malcolm , a misjudgement for which Gibbons quickly forgave him . He left the theatre in 1949 to become a director of a book club specialising in special editions , and later bought a bookshop in the Archway district of London . His health failed in the late 1950s and in 1958 he was diagnosed with cancer of the liver . He died in July 1959 at Oakshott Avenue .
= = = Late career = = =
After Webb 's death , Gibbons remained at Oakshott Avenue and continued to write novels . From 1961 she rented a summer house at Trevone in Cornwall , which became the setting for her 1962 novel The Weather at Tregulla . She returned to literary criticism after many years , when in 1965 she contributed an essay to Light on C.S. Lewis , a review of that writer 's work edited by Jocelyn Gibb . In 1966 she wrote an essay for Punch , " Genesis of a Novel " , in which she mused on the detrimental effect of Cold Comfort Farm on her long term career . She likened the book to " some unignorable old uncle , to whom you have to be grateful because he makes you a handsome allowance , but is often an embarrassment and a bore " . Gibbons made her last overseas trip in 1966 , to Grenoble in France where she visited her old friend Elizabeth Coxhead . This visit provided material for her 1968 novel The Snow Woman in which Gibbons overcame her habitual distaste for emotional excess by opening the book with a melodramatic birth on a sofa . The Woods in Winter ( 1970 ) was her last published novel ; she decided at that point that she was no longer prepared to subject her work to editorial control . In the 1980s she wrote two more novels for private circulation among friends , The Yellow Houses and An Alpha . These books @-@ An Alpha retitled Pure Juliet — were published by Vintage Classics in 2016 , after the manuscripts were released by Gibbons 's family .
= = = Final years = = =
The last two decades of Gibbons 's life were uneventful and lived almost entirely beyond the public eye . She kept her health and looks until almost the end of her life — in a biographical sketch , Jill Neville recorded that " her beauty endured , as did her upright carriage , typical of Edwardian ladies who were forced as girls to walk around with a book balanced on their heads . " As well as her unpublished novels she wrote occasional short stories , two of which were rejected by the BBC , and contributed three new poems to Richard Adams 's 1986 anthology Occasional Poets , a work which included verses from part @-@ time poets such as Iris Murdoch , William Golding , Alan Ayckbourn and Quentin Crisp . These were Gibbons 's last published works . One of Gibbons 's poems in the anthology was " Writ in Water " , inspired by her love for the poetry of Keats . In 2013 the manuscript of this poem was presented to the Keats @-@ Shelley Memorial House museum in Rome .
Gibbons maintained a wide circle of friends , who in her later years included Adams , the entertainer Barry Humphries and the novelist John Braine . From the mid @-@ 1970s she established a pattern of monthly literary tea parties in Oakshott Avenue at which , according to Neville , " she was known to expel guests if they were shrill , dramatic , or wrote tragic novels . " As her own productivity dwindled and finally ceased altogether , she kept a commonplace book in which she was recording her thoughts and opinions on literature as late as 1988 .
From the mid @-@ 1980s Gibbons experienced recurrent health problems , not helped when she resumed smoking . In her last months she was looked after at home by her grandson and his girlfriend . She died there on 19 December 1989 , after collapsing the previous day , and was buried in Highgate Cemetery , alongside her husband . At her funeral , her nephew and future biographer Reggie Oliver read two of her poems , the latter of which , " Fairford Church " , concludes with the words : " Little is sure . Life is hard . / We love , we suffer and die . / But the beauty of the earth is real / And the Spirit is nigh . "
= = Writing = =
= = = Style = = =
Gibbons 's writing has been praised by critics for its perspicacity , sense of fun , charm , wit and descriptive skill — the last a product of her journalistic training — which she used to convey both atmosphere and character . Although Beauman refers to " malicious wit " , Truss sees no cruelty in the often barbed humour , which reflected Gibbons 's detestation of pomposity and pretence . Truss has described Gibbons as " the Jane Austen of the 20th century " , a parallel which the novelist Malcolm Bradbury thought apt ; Flora Poste in Cold Comfort Farm , with her " higher common sense " , is " a Jane @-@ ite heroine transformed into a clear @-@ eyed modern woman " . Bradbury also observed that many of Gibbons 's novels end in Austen @-@ like nuptials .
Truss highlights the importance that Gibbons places on detachment as a necessary adjunct to effective writing : " Like many a good doctor , she seems to have considered sympathy a peculiar and redundant emotion , and a terrible waste of time . " This matter @-@ of @-@ fact quality in her prose might , according to Gibbons 's Guardian obituarist Richard Boston , be a reaction against the turbulent and sometimes violent emotions that she witnessed within her own family who , she said , " were all madly highly @-@ sexed , like the Starkadders " . It is , observed Neville , an irony that the overheated melodrama that Gibbons most disliked was at the heart of her one great success ; Gibbons 's writings on everyday life brought her restrained approval , but no noticeable literary recognition . Nevertheless , her straightforward , style , unadorned except in parody , is admired by Rachel Cooke , who praises her as " a sworn enemy of the flatulent , the pompous and the excessively sentimental . " While short of sentimentality , Gibbons 's writing , in prose or verse , did not lack sensitivity . She had what one analyst described as " a rare ability to enter into the feelings of the uncommunicative and to bring to life the emotions of the unremarkable " . Some of Gibbons 's poetry expressed her love of nature and a prophetic awareness for environmental issues such as sea pollution , decades before such concerns became fashionable . In a critical summary of Gibbons 's poems , Loralee MacPike has described them as " slight lyrics ... [ which ] tend toward classic , even archaic , diction , and only occasionally ... show flashes of the novels ' wit " .
= = = Reception and reputation = = =
The immediate and enduring success of Cold Comfort Farm dominated the rest of Gibbons 's career . Neville thought that after so singular a success at the start of her career , the rest was something of an anticlimax , despite her considerable industry and undoubted skills . The 1985 edition of The Oxford Companion to English Literature defines Gibbons solely in terms of Cold Comfort Farm ; it mentions none of her other works — while providing her bêtes noires Morgan and Mary Webb with full entries . To Gibbons , Cold Comfort Farm became " That Book " or " You @-@ Know @-@ What " , its title never mentioned . Despite her growing irritation and expressed distaste for it , the book continued to be lauded by successive generations of critics , Boston described it as " one of those rare books of comic genius that imprints itself on the brain and can never afterwards be eradicated " . A more negative view of the book has been expressed by the literary critic Mary Beard , who considers it " a rather controlling victory of modern order , cleanliness , contraception and medicine over these messy , different , rural types ... I found myself screaming for the rights of these poor country folk NOT to fall into the hands of people like Flora " .
Although Boston suggested that Gibbons 's rating in the academic English Literature world ought to be high , her literary status is indeterminate . She did not promote herself , and was indifferent to the attractions of public life : " I 'm not shy " , she told Oliver , " I 'm just unsociable " . Truss records that Gibbons had " overtly rejected the literary world ... she didn 't move in literary circles , or even visit literary squares , or love in literary triangles " . Truss posits further reasons why Gibbons did not become a literary canon . Because she was a woman who wrote amusingly , she was classified as " middlebrow " ; furthermore , she was published by Longmans , a non @-@ literary publisher . Her lampooning of the literary establishment in the spoof dedication of Cold Comfort Farm to one " Anthony Pookworthy " did not amuse that establishment , who were further offended by the book 's mockery of the writing of such canonical figures as Lawrence and Hardy — hence Virginia Woolf 's reaction to the Prix Étranger award .
The literary critic John Carey suggests that the abandonment by intellectuals of " the clerks and the suburbs " as subjects of literary interest provided an opening for writers prepared to exploit this underexplored area . He considers John Betjeman and Stevie Smith as two writers who successfully achieved this . Hammill believes that Gibbons should be named alongside these two , since in her writings she rejects the stereotypical view of suburbia as unexciting , conventional and limited . Instead , says Hammill , " Gibbons 's fictional suburbs are socially and architecturally diverse , and her characters — who range from experimental writers to shopkeepers — read and interpret suburban styles and values in varying and incompatible ways " . Hammill adds that Gibbons 's strong identification with her own suburban home , in which she lived for 53 years , may have influenced her preference to stay outside the mainstream of metropolitan literary life , and from time to time mock it .
After many years in which almost all of Gibbons 's output has been out of print , in 2011 the publishers Vintage Classics reissued paperback versions of Westwood , Starlight , and Conference at Cold Comfort Farm . They also announced plans to publish 11 of the other novels , on a print @-@ on @-@ demand basis .
= = = List of works = = =
Publisher information relates to first publication only . Many of the books have been reissued , usually by different publishers .
= = = = Novels = = = =
= = = = Short stories = = = =
Roaring Tower and other stories . London : Longmans . 1937 . OCLC 6705456 .
Christmas at Cold Comfort Farm and other stories . London : Longmans . 1940 . OCLC 771331616 .
Beside the Pearly Water . London : Peter Nevill . 1954 . OCLC 6922440 .
= = = = Children 's books = = = =
The Untidy Gnome . London : Longmans . 1935 . OCLC 560579789 .
= = = = Poetry = = = =
The Mountain Beast . London : Longmans . 1930 .
The Priestess and other poems . London : Longmans . 1934 . OCLC 7123475 .
The Lowland Venus . London : Longmans . 1938 . OCLC 10421672 .
Collected Poems . London : Longmans . 1950 . OCLC 3372203 .
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= 1804 dollar =
The 1804 dollar was a dollar coin struck by the Mint of the United States , of which fifteen specimens are currently known to exist . Though dated 1804 , none were struck in that year ; all were minted in the 1830s or later . They were first created for use in special proof coin sets used as diplomatic gifts during Edmund Roberts ' trips to Siam and Muscat . Some silver dollars were struck in 1804 , though all were dated 1803 . In 1806 , production was suspended by order of James Madison , then Secretary of State , and the denomination was not struck again until the 1804 @-@ dated pieces were minted .
Edmund Roberts distributed the coins in 1834 and 1835 . Two additional sets were ordered for government officials in Japan and Cochinchina , but Roberts died in Macau before they could be delivered . Besides those 1804 dollars produced for inclusion in the diplomatic sets , the Mint struck some examples which were used to trade with collectors for pieces desired for the Mint 's coin cabinet . Numismatists first became aware of the 1804 dollar in 1842 , when an illustration of one example appeared in a publication authored by two Mint employees . A collector subsequently acquired one example from the Mint in 1843 . In response to numismatic demand , several examples were surreptitiously produced by Mint officials . Unlike the original coins , these later restrikes lacked the correct edge lettering , although later examples released from the Mint bore the correct lettering . The coins produced for the diplomatic mission , those struck surreptitiously without edge lettering and those with lettering are known collectively as " Class I " , " Class II " and " Class III " dollars , respectively .
From their discovery by numismatists , 1804 dollars have commanded high prices . Auction prices reached $ 1 @,@ 000 by 1885 , and in the mid @-@ twentieth century , the coins realized over $ 30 @,@ 000 . In 1999 , a Class I example sold for $ 4 @.@ 14 million , then the highest price paid for any coin . Their high value has caused 1804 dollars to be a frequent target of counterfeiting and other methods of deception .
= = Background = =
The Coinage Act of 1792 , the legislation which provided for the establishment of the Mint of the United States ( today the United States Mint ) , authorized coinage of multiple denominations of gold , silver and copper coins . According to the act , the dollar , or " unit " , was to " be of the value of a Spanish milled dollar as the same is now current , and to contain three hundred and seventy @-@ one grains and four sixteenth parts of a grain of pure , or four hundred and sixteen grains of standard silver " . The act went on to state that the coin would be struck in an alloy consisting of 89 @.@ 2 percent silver and 10 @.@ 8 percent copper . The purity and weight standards outlined in the Act were based on the mean of several assays conducted on Spanish milled dollars . However , the dollars were mandated by Spanish law to contain 90 @.@ 2 percent silver , and most of the unworn examples in circulation in the United States at the time contained approximately 1 @.@ 75 grains ( 0 @.@ 113 g ) more than the silver dollars authorized by the Act . In 1793 , President George Washington signed into law a bill which declared Spanish milled dollars legal tender , provided that they weighed no less than 415 grains ( 26 @.@ 9 g ) , which meant that at the lowest weight allowed by law , the Spanish dollars would contain approximately 0 @.@ 5 percent less silver than the United States dollar coins . As a result , the United States silver dollars and unworn Spanish dollars were largely forced out of circulation in accordance with Gresham 's law ; the lighter Spanish dollars were shipped in quantity for circulation in the United States , while the heavier pieces would be turned in to the Philadelphia Mint to be recoined into United States coinage to take advantage of the discrepancy in weight . At that time , silver bullion was supplied to the Mint exclusively by private depositors , who , according to the Coinage Act of 1792 , had the right to have their bullion coined free of charge . As large silver coins were a preferred method of commerce throughout the world , especially China , a considerable number of the United States dollars requested by silver depositors were exported to satisfy that demand .
The first dollar coins , known as Flowing Hair dollars , were issued by the Mint beginning in 1794 . By 1800 , a majority of depositors requested their bullion be struck as silver dollars , which were then utilizing the Draped Bust design . This contributed to a shortage of small change in circulation , and as a result , the public became increasingly critical of the Mint . Mint Director Elias Boudinot began encouraging depositors to accept fractional coins , and the production of dollars began to decrease in relation to the smaller coins . Dollar coin production ceased in March 1804 , although those pieces bore the date of 1803 . In his 1805 report , Mint Director Robert Patterson stated that " [ t ] he striking of small coins is a measure which has been adopted to accommodate the banks and other depositors , and at their particular request , both with a view of furnishing a supply of small change , and to prevent the exportation of the specie of the United States to foreign countries . " Though none had been struck for over two years , Secretary of State James Madison officially suspended silver dollar coinage on May 1 , 1806 , addressing a letter to Patterson :
Sir : In Consequence of a representation from the director of the Bank of the United States that considerable purchases have been made of dollars coined at the mint for the purpose of exporting them , and as it is probable further purchases and exportations will be made the President directs that all the silver to be coined at the mint shall be of small denominations , so that the value of the largest pieces shall not exceed half a dollar .
= = Production = =
= = = Edmund Roberts ' diplomatic mission = = =
In 1832 , commercial shipper Edmund Roberts began acting as an envoy to Asia on behalf of the United States government , with the intent of negotiating trade deals in the region . During his mission , he reached deals both with Said bin Sultan , the Sultan of Muscat and Oman , and the Phra Khlang of Siam ( modern Thailand ) , an important financial minister of that nation . Roberts was given items which were to be presented as gifts to the officials with whom he was negotiating , but described them as being of " very mean quality , and of inconsiderable value " . After the treaties were ratified in the United States , Roberts had to return to Siam and Muscat to receive approval from the representatives of those nations . In a letter to the Department of State dated October 8 , 1834 , Roberts decried the gifts of his previous journey as inadequate and insulting to his hosts in the Orient . In addition to several other items , he requested a set of coins as an appropriate offering to Said bin Sultan :
I am rather at a loss to know what articles will be most acceptable to the Sultan , but I suppose a complete set of new gold & silver & copper coins of the U.S. neatly arranged in a morocco case & then to have an outward covering would be proper to send not only to the sultan , but to other Asiatics .
In a November 11 , 1834 letter sent to Mint Director Samuel Moore , Secretary of State John Forsyth approved Roberts ' suggestion , writing :
The President [ Andrew Jackson ] has directed that a complete set of the coins of the United States be sent to the King of Siam , and another to the Sultan of Muscat . You are requested , therefore , to forward to the Department for that purpose , duplicate specimens of each kind now in use , whether of gold , silver , or copper .
He also directed Moore to have two Morocco leather boxes made to house the coins . He stated that one should be yellow in color , and the other crimson , and that funds could be drawn from the Treasury for the value of the boxes and coins . Later , in a letter dated December 2 , 1834 , Forsyth directed Moore to include " national emblems " ( including an eagle and stars ) on the exterior of the cases .
In their book The Fantastic 1804 Dollar , numismatic historians Eric P. Newman and Kenneth E. Bressett assert that a problem arose at the Mint as to how to interpret Forsyth 's order . As his initial correspondence indicated that the sets were to include coins of every type then in use , Mint officials included both the silver dollar and gold eagle . The moratorium on silver dollar coinage had been lifted in 1831 , but none had been coined since those issued in March 1804 . Two sets of coins , minted in proof finish , were completed and delivered along with their boxes to Roberts shortly prior to his departure on the USS Peacock on April 27 , 1835 . The dollars included the sets bore the Draped Bust design , depicting an allegorical representation of Liberty on the obverse and a heraldic eagle on the reverse . A list of diplomatic gifts was also proposed for missions to Japan and Cochin @-@ China ( today part of Vietnam ) , which included two additional sets of coins .
Roberts delivered the first set of coins to Said bin Sultan on October 1 , 1835 . He delivered the next set to King Rama III of Siam the following year , on April 6 . Roberts died in Macau on June 12 , 1836 , before he could initiate contact with any other nations . On June 30 , Edmund P. Kennedy , commodore of the diplomatic fleet , wrote to the State Department that he had " directed that the presents [ which remained ungifted due to Robert 's death ] be forwarded to the United States " . The proof sets meant for Cochin @-@ China and Japan were likely included in the shipment of returned presents . All dollars struck for inclusion in the diplomatic gift sets were likely dated 1804 . It is unknown why that date was chosen for the dollars , but numismatic historian R.W. Julian suggests that it could have been done to prevent angering collectors who would not have been able to acquire the 1834 @-@ dated coin for their collections ; Chief Coiner Adam Eckfeldt , after consulting with Moore , mistakenly determined that 19 @,@ 570 dollars bearing the date 1804 were struck in that year . The dollars minted for the diplomatic gift sets , as well as other examples struck with the same dies , are collectively known as " Class I " 1804 dollars . In total , eight specimens of this type are known today .
= = = Later restrikes = = =
During the nineteenth century , Mint employees produced unauthorized copies of medals and coins , sometimes backdated . Although coin restrikes were created openly at the Philadelphia Mint from the 1830s , the practice became clandestine by the end of the 1850s . In the decades after the first 1804 dollars were produced , collectors became aware of their existence and desired to obtain them . Several were struck at the Mint in 1858 . Those coins , which became known as " Class II " 1804 dollars , had plain , unlettered edges , as opposed to standard issue Draped Bust dollars and those struck as diplomatic gifts , all of which had edge lettering applied by the Castaing machine . In 1859 , James Ross Snowden unsuccessfully requested permission from the Treasury Secretary to create patterns and restrikes of rare coins for sale to collectors , and in that year , dealers began offering plain edge 1804 dollars to the public . At least three were offered for sale by various dealers in 1859 , and coin dealer Ebenezer Locke Mason claimed that he was offered three by Theodore Eckfeldt , a Mint employee and nephew of Adam Eckfeldt ( who had died in 1852 ) . After the public became aware that Mint officials had permitted restrikes , there was a minor scandal which resulted in a Congressional investigation and the destruction of outdated coinage dies . The controversy prompted William E. DuBois , Mint Assayer , to try , in 1860 , to recall the examples of the 1804 dollar in private hands . According to DuBois , five coins were known to be privately owned , of which four were recovered . He stated that three were destroyed in his presence , and one was added to the Mint 's coin cabinet ( of which he was curator , and which is today the National Numismatic Collection ) , where it remains today . The coin , which is the sole known Class II specimen in existence , was struck over an 1857 Swiss shooting thaler minted for a shooting festival in the Canton of Bern . The fifth coin , alluded to by DuBois , is not currently accounted for , although its edge may have been lettered after its recovery in an attempt to pass it as an original . Coins with added lettering are known as " Class III " 1804 dollars . The obverse coinage die used to strike the Class II and Class III 1804 dollars was deposited in safekeeping in 1860 , and the reverse die was destroyed in that year . The obverse die was defaced in 1869 .
Class III dollars are identical to the Class II dollar , except lettering similar to that on the Class I dollars was applied to the edge of the coins . Based on the slightly concave appearance of the Class III dollars , it is likely that all were given edge lettering at some point after striking ; as the Castaing machine was meant to be used prior to striking , its improper use resulted in a deformation of the coin surface . Newman and Bressett assert that they were struck at approximately the same time as the Class II dollars , and that the edges were lettered and the coins concealed by Mint employees until 1869 , when one was offered to a coin collector , who rejected it as a restrike . However , numismatist S. Hudson Chapman believed that some Class III dollars were struck as late as 1876 . In 1875 , several were sold by Philadelphia coin dealer John W. Haseltine . Six specimens of the Class III dollar are known today .
= = Numismatic interest = =
Collectors first became aware of the existence of the 1804 dollar in 1842 , when a pantograph reproduction of one specimen was featured in A Manual of Gold and Silver Coins of All Nations , a work authored by Mint employees Jacob R. Eckfeldt and William DuBois . The first private collector to obtain an example was Matthew A. Stickney , who acquired the coin from the Mint on May 9 , 1843 , by trading certain rare coins from his collection , including a unique early United States Immune Columbia coin struck in gold . Interest in coin collecting and the 1804 dollars began increasing , and by 1860 , the dollars saw extensive coverage by numismatists . In 1885 , auctioneer W.E. Woodward described the 1804 dollar as " the king of coins " , a moniker which it maintains today . Numismatic historian Q. David Bowers asserts that the 1804 dollar has attracted more attention than any other coin . All fifteen extant specimens are acknowledged and studied by numismatists . They are identified by nicknames based on prominent owners , or the first individuals known to have possessed the coins .
At the 1962 American Numismatic Association convention , British numismatist David B. Spink announced that he was in possession of a theretofore unknown 1804 dollar specimen . The coin was housed in a yellow leather case embossed with an eagle and other ornamentation , conforming to the description of that made for the King of Siam . The set consisted of a half cent , cent , dime , quarter , half dollar , dollar , quarter eagle , half eagle and eagle . As all of the coins in the set were dated 1834 with the exception of the dollar and eagle , it provided the first definitive proof that an 1804 dollar was included in the diplomatic presentation sets . According to Spink , the set was offered to him by two women whom he believed were descendants of Anna Leonowens , tutor of the children of Rama IV ( half @-@ brother and heir of Rama III ) and fictionalized protagonist of the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The King and I.
= = = Years of production = = =
The fact that no 1804 dollars were struck in 1804 was not widely accepted by numismatists until the early twentieth century . Before such time , the actual year in which they were struck remained contentious among numismatists . Early on , collectors assumed that the 1804 dollars were struck in 1804 , and their rarity was explained by various theories . The bulk of the mintage was variously rumored to have been paid to Barbary pirates as ransom , lost at sea en route to China , and melted before leaving the Philadelphia Mint . In 1867 , numismatist W. Elliot Woodward acknowledged that 1804 dollars were struck as diplomatic gifts in 1834 , but he also believed that others were struck in 1804 . Numismatists Lyman H. Low and William T. R. Marvin , writing for the American Journal of Numismatics in 1899 , stated that " the journal confidently asserts that there is no dollar dated 1804 which was struck in that year by the U.S. Mint . " In 1891 , numismatist John A. Nexsen wrote that the Class I 1804 dollars were " without doubt coined in 1804 " . In 1905 , he recanted his earlier assertions , stating that " no one now believes that they were coined in 1804 . "
According to Newman and Bressett , the manner in which the 1804 dollars were produced is proof that none were struck in 1804 . They note that the Castaing machine 's edging dies utilized an ' H ' that was undersized in relation to the other letters , the same as those used on Draped Bust dollars throughout the regular production of those coins . However , the edge lettering on all Class I 1804 dollars is deformed and partially obliterated , meaning that they were not struck in an open @-@ collared coinage press as was used in 1804 , but one which used a steel collar that was not introduced to the Mint until 1833 . The deformation of the edge lettering was caused by pressure pushing the coinage metal against the steel collar containing the coin blank . Additionally , many 1804 dollars were struck in proof finish , a technique which was first employed at the Mint in 1817 .
= = = Sale prices = = =
From the time numismatists became aware of 1804 dollars , they have commanded high prices , both in relation to their face value and the numismatic value of other silver dollars . Some early examples were maintained in the Mint 's coin cabinet for use in trades , and in 1859 , dealers began offering Class II dollars priced at $ 75 , while Theodore Eckfeldt reportedly offered a Philadelphia coin dealer three coins for $ 70 each . In 1883 , a Class III dollar was reportedly purchased in Vienna for $ 740 , and a Class I specimen was auctioned for $ 1 @,@ 000 in 1885 by Henry and Samuel H. Chapman . In 1903 , an example sold for $ 1 @,@ 800 , and the same coin reportedly sold for $ 4 @,@ 250 in 1941 . In 1960 , a Class III dollar fetched $ 28 @,@ 000 at an auction conducted by Stack 's , a coin firm , and the same coin reached $ 36 @,@ 000 at another Stack 's sale in 1963 . A Class I specimen brought $ 77 @,@ 500 at a 1970 Stack 's , and during a 1980 rise in coin prices , a Class III example sold for $ 400 @,@ 000 by Bowers and Ruddy Galleries . A Class I example reached $ 990 @,@ 000 at a Superior Galleries auction in 1990 , and an example once owned by coin collector Louis Eliasberg became the first 1804 dollar to surpass $ 1 million at auction , selling for $ 1 @,@ 815 @,@ 000 at a sale conducted by Bowers and Merena , Inc . , in 1997 .
The price reached an all @-@ time high in 1999 , when the finest known specimen , graded Proof @-@ 68 by the Professional Coin Grading Service , which is believed to have been the example presented to Said bin Sultan , was auctioned by Bowers and Merena for $ 4 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 . At the time of the sale , this was the highest price paid for any coin . In 2008 , a Class I example was sold by Heritage Auctions for $ 3 @,@ 737 @,@ 500 , and a Class III was sold by the same firm for $ 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in 2009 .
= = = Counterfeits and reproductions = = =
Counterfeits and spurious reproductions of the 1804 dollar have been created since numismatists became aware of the coins ' high value . James A. Bolen , a medallist and coin collector who created copies of valuable coins between 1862 and 1869 , fabricated an 1804 dollar by altering the last digit in the date of a genuine 1803 example . Although Bolen added his name to the edge of the coin , other forgers created altered date coins with the intent to deceive . Nineteenth @-@ century stage actor John T. Raymond purchased a specimen of the coin , which was later revealed to be a forgery , for $ 300 . All silver dollars dated between 1800 and 1803 were subject to alteration to 1804 dollars , but 1801 was the date most commonly used for that purpose .
In addition to altered dates , electrotypes of the 1804 dollar were created , both for the purposes of study and fraud . One such coin in the collection of the San Francisco Mint was described by them as genuine from 1887 to 1927 . Electrotypes were also created by Mint employees , and one was used as the basis for the pantograph reproductions which appeared in Eckfeldt and DuBois ' 1842 A Manual of Gold and Silver Coins of All Nations .
More modern replicas , known as " Saigon copies " , were commonly offered as original at low prices to American soldiers during the Vietnam War . In Saigon and other South Vietnamese cities , as well in nearby Thailand , military personnel were offered the copies by vendors who sometimes claimed that they were family heirlooms . In 2012 , Professional Coin Grading Service founder David Hall stated that counterfeit 1804 dollars had been available in Hong Kong for decades .
= = Known specimens = =
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= Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollar =
The Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollar was struck in 1928 by the United States Bureau of the Mint in honor of the 150th anniversary of Captain James Cook 's landing in Hawaii , the first European to reach there . The coin depicts Captain Cook on the obverse and a Hawaiian chieftain on the reverse . Only 10 @,@ 000 were struck for the public , making it rare and valuable .
In 1927 , the legislature of the Territory of Hawaii passed a resolution calling on the U.S. government to produce a commemorative coin for the 150th anniversary of Cook 's arrival in Hawaii . Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon thought the occasion important enough that , unusually for him , he did not oppose such an issue . The bill for the Hawaii half dollar passed through Congress without opposition or amendment , and became the Act of March 7 , 1928 with the signature of President Calvin Coolidge .
Sculptor Chester Beach made the plaster models for the coins from sketches by Juliette May Fraser . Beach had some trouble gaining approval for his designs , as there were issues raised by the Mint and by Victor Stewart Kaleoaloha Houston , Hawaii Territory 's delegate to Congress . These concerns were eventually addressed , and the coin went into production . Although the issue price , at $ 2 , was the highest for a commemorative half dollar to that point , the coins sold out quickly and have risen in value to over a thousand dollars .
= = Inception = =
The Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollar was proposed because of the observances there for the 150th anniversary of Captain James Cook becoming the first European to reach the Hawaiian Islands , or , as it was termed then , its discovery . Planners decided on a date for the celebrations as August 1928 , as midway between the sesquicentennial of Cook 's landing in January 1778 and of his death in the islands in February 1779 . A resolution was passed by the legislature of the Territory of Hawaii to give the celebrations official status , and to ask the federal government to have the armed forces participate . The resolution requested that Washington invite the United Kingdom ( Cook 's allegiance ) and other nations . It also asked the federal government to issue a half dollar and postage stamps in honor of the anniversary . At the time , commemoratives were not sold by the government — Congress , in authorizing legislation , designated an organization which had the exclusive right to purchase the coins at face value and vend them to the public at a premium . In the case of the Hawaii half dollar , the Cook Sesquicentennial Commission of Hawaii was the designated group .
Bruce Cartwright , Jr . , was in charge of choosing a coin design for the Cook commission . Mrs. Ethelwyn Castle , a civic @-@ minded person , arranged for him to meet Juliette May Fraser , a local artist . Cartwright had prepared cartoon @-@ style drawings , with the portrait of Cook based on a Wedgwood plaque that had been owned by Queen Emma , showing the explorer facing right . Within two days , Fraser had produced sketches . On November 2 , Charles Moore , chairman of the Commission of Fine Arts wrote to Assistant Director of the Mint Mary M. O 'Reilly that Juliette Fraser 's sketches were excellent and would translate well into a coin .
The Commission of Fine Arts met , and , at the suggestion of sculptor @-@ member Lorado Taft , decided to ask Buffalo nickel designer James Earle Fraser ( no relation ) who would be most suitable to turn the sketches into plaster models , from which the Mint could make coinage dies and hubs . James Fraser suggested Peace dollar designer Anthony de Francisci , but sculptor Chester Beach was engaged instead .
= = Legislation = =
Numismatic historian Don Taxay thought it likely that members of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights and Measures had agreed to support a Hawaii half dollar prior to a bill being submitted , as preparations had already begun . Legislation for such was introduced into the House of Representatives by the territory 's delegate to Congress , Victor Stewart Kaleoaloha Houston , on December 5 , 1927 . It was referred to the coinage committee , of which New Jersey Congressman Randolph Perkins was the chair , and which held hearings on the bill on January 23 , 1928 . Delegate Houston appeared in support of his bill , and to the surprise of committee members , had gotten a statement from Treasury Secretary Andrew Mellon , stating that Mellon did not oppose the bill . Usually , when a commemorative coin was proposed , Mellon argued that a medal should be issued instead . This had been the case for the Norse @-@ American medal three years previously ; its sponsor , committee member Ole J. Kvale of Minnesota , had scuttled plans for a coin because of Treasury Department opposition . Congressman Kvale was " very much interested in learning what powers of persuasion have been exercised by the gentleman from Hawaii to bring out such a favorable report " . Kvale , a Norse @-@ American , asked , " why this discrimination against two and a half million people in the United States has come about in favor of about 35 @,@ 000 whites in that Territory ? "
Houston stated he had not lobbied the Treasury for the coin , and Perkins , before promising to find out more information , speculated that perhaps it was because the coins were to be issued far from the continental United States . Houston told the committee that the coin was " something that may be kept by those who attend the celebration as a memorial of it and will be available to foreigners who come there , as well as our own people who celebrate the occasion " . Kvale stated he would vote for the bill . Mississippi 's Bill G. Lowrey noted that as he had said before , he would not vote for any coin bill ; Perkins agreed that Lowrey had made his position clear . Perkins issued a report on February 1 , 1928 , recounting the history behind the proposed coin and indicating his committee 's support .
The bill was passed without objection by the House of Representatives on February 20 , 1928 . The bill was received by the Senate the following day and was referred to the Committee on Banking and Currency . On February 27 , South Dakota 's Peter Norbeck reported the bill back to the Senate without amendment , and included in the report a letter from Secretary Mellon to Perkins dated February 13 , in which Mellon expanded on his reasons for not opposing the Hawaii coin legislation . Mellon stated that only a token number of pieces would be issued , and that the celebration , sponsored by the territorial government , was of national significance . The bill was passed by the Senate on March 2 , 1928 without recorded opposition and was enacted on March 7 , 1928 with the signature of President Calvin Coolidge . It provided for the issuance of up to 10 @,@ 000 half dollars in honor of the sesquicentennial , with the commission 's profits from the coin to be used toward establishing a Captain James Cook collection in the territorial archives .
= = Preparation = =
Once Beach accepted the commission on March 12 , 1928 , Juliette Fraser 's sketches were forwarded to him . On April 7 , he sent completed models to the Mint and photographs to the Fine Arts Commission . Both the Mint and Houston responded with criticism , the former that the relief of the coin was high and difficult to reduce to coin @-@ sized hubs . On April 19 , Mint Chief Engraver John R. Sinnock wrote in a memorandum that the coin would be very hard to produce because the area of greatest relief on each side was in the same part of the design . Beach agreed to lower any high points that might cause the Mint difficulty .
Delegate Houston had a long list of quibbles about the coin 's design . For example , Beach had placed an anklet on the chief 's leg ; Houston felt such an item would not have been worn . Beach defended some of his choices , such as the anklet ( which was removed when Houston insisted ) , and promised to comply with the remainder . This did not satisfy Houston , who was also unhappy about the shape of the palm tree on the coin , and Beach modified the design again . Beach forwarded final models , indicating that he would only consider making changes if the Mint requested it . He wrote to Moore , " I think the proper thing for Mr. Houston to do would be to take the sculptor and family to Hawaii and let us live in the cocoanut [ sic ] trees for a while and absorb the atmosphere of that paradise . "
The coin was endorsed by the Commission of Fine Arts ; on May 9 , O 'Reilly wrote to Beach that the design had received Secretary Mellon 's approval .
= = Design = =
The obverse depicts Captain James Cook . He faces towards a compass needle and the words CAPT . JAMES COOK DISCOVERER OF HAWAII ; thus , his gaze is westward . IN GOD WE TRUST is to the right , the name of the country above , and the denomination below . The words HALF DOLLAR are flanked by eight triangles , four on each side . These represent the eight largest volcanic islands of Hawaii : Oahu , Maui , Kauai , the " Big Island " of Hawaii , Niihau , Lanai , Kahoolawe , and Molokai . The designer 's initials , CB , are found to the right of the base of the bust .
The reverse is based on a statue of King Kamehameha I of Hawaii , designed by Thomas R. Gould , and intended " to symbolize the past and future glory of the Kingdom [ of Hawaii ] " . The sculpture that stands in downtown Honolulu ( 1883 ) is a replacement for one that sank while being transported from Germany ; the original ( 1880 ) was later salvaged and stands at Kohala on the island of Hawaii . The coin features a Hawaiian chieftain in ceremonial dress surmounting the top of a hill , with his arm extended in greeting . He represents Hawaii rising from obscurity . The palm tree that rises above him is intended to signify romance . A Hawaiian village at Waikiki Beach with Diamond Head nearby are seen behind him , representing history and antiquity . The design is almost free of lettering , with only " E PLURIBUS UNUM " ( " Out of many , one " ) and 1778 1928 to be seen . Ferns are visible under that Latin motto : Houston wanted the plants removed , but Beach insisted on retaining them to balance the design . Juliette Fraser had made a number of sketches , all with the same basic design elements , but with the chieftain in various poses and with Diamond Head in different positions .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his volume on U.S. coins and medals , wrote that the obverse " is too crowded , despite the large , flat , clothed bust " and that the various elements of the reverse design " are all too much for one small coin " . He deemed " the coin honoring Hawaii in 1928 ... no more a credit to Chester Beach than was the Lexington Concord coin [ of 1925 ] " .
= = Production , distribution , and collecting = =
The Philadelphia Mint coined 10 @,@ 008 Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollars in June 1928 , with the eight pieces above the authorized mintage reserved for inspection and testing at the 1929 meeting of the annual Assay Commission . Fifty of the ten thousand were specially finished as sandblast proof pieces , to be presented to various individuals and institutions , such as members of the Cook commission , President Coolidge , and the British Admiralty . Of the remainder , half were to be sold on the Hawaiian Islands , half reserved for orders from elsewhere . The Bank of Hawaii took charge of distribution on behalf of the Cook commission . The price was $ 2 per coin , the highest for a half dollar commemorative to that point .
Sales began October 8 , 1928 ; supplies were quickly exhausted . Numismatists Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen , in their book on commemoratives , write that while " there was never any scandal about these coins " , there were unconfirmed rumors of hordes of coins , totaling as many as 1 @,@ 500 , taken from the allocation for Hawaiians and kept off the market . One such grouping , of 137 pieces , comprised coins from an allotment for the Bank of Hawaii for sale to its employees . When the coin the bank put on display was stolen , the bank president took the others off sale , and they remained in the vaults until 1986 , when they were sold at auction . Many Hawaii Sesquicentennial half dollars were purchased by non @-@ collectors and display the effects of poor handling .
The Captain Cook Memorial Collection , purchased in part with funds raised from the coins , is now in the Bishop Museum in Honolulu . The Hawaii Sesquicentennial coin is the scarcest commemorative half dollar by design ; according to R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins published in 2015 , it lists for between $ 1 @,@ 850 and $ 11 @,@ 000 depending on condition . The sandblast proofs are listed for up to $ 50 @,@ 000 but none has recently been sold at auction — an exceptional specimen of the regular type went under the hammer for $ 25 @,@ 850 in 2013 . At least three different counterfeits are known .
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= Roger de Pont L 'Évêque =
Roger de Pont L 'Évêque ( or Robert of Bishop 's Bridge ; c . 1115 – 1181 ) was a contemporary of Thomas Becket and later Archbishop of York . Born in Normandy , he preceded Becket as Archdeacon of Canterbury , and together with Becket served Theobald of Bec while Theobald was Archbishop of Canterbury . While in Theobald 's service , Roger was alleged to have committed a crime which Becket helped to cover up . Roger succeeded William FitzHerbert as archbishop in 1154 , and while at York rebuilt York Minster , which had been damaged by fire .
Roger did not become deeply involved in the dispute between King Henry II of England and Becket until 1170 , when the King had Roger preside at the coronation of the king 's son Henry the Young King , a function that would normally have been performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury . In retaliation Becket excommunicated Roger in late 1170 , and some have seen this excommunication as one reason for King Henry 's anger at Becket which led to Becket 's martyrdom . After being suspended from office by the pope for his supposed role in Becket 's death , Roger was eventually restored to office in late 1171 , and died in 1181 . The see of York remained vacant after his death until 1189 .
= = Early life = =
Roger was probably born around 1115 and was a native of Pont @-@ l 'Évêque in Normandy . His only known relative was a nephew , Geoffrey , to whom Roger gave the offices of provost of Beverley Minster and archdeacon of York . Roger was a clerk of Archbishop Theobald 's before being named Archdeacon of Canterbury , some time after March 1148 . When Becket joined Theobald 's household , their contemporary William FitzStephen recorded that Roger disliked the new clerk , and twice drove Thomas away before the archbishop 's brother Walter arranged Thomas ' return .
According to John of Salisbury , who first reported this story in 1172 after the death of Thomas Becket , as a young clerk Roger was involved in a scandal involving a homosexual relationship with a boy named Walter . After Walter made the relationship public , Roger reacted by embroiling Walter in judicial case that ended with Walter 's eyes being gouged out . When Walter then accused Roger of this crime , Roger persuaded a judge to condemn Walter to death by hanging . Becket supposedly was involved in the cover @-@ up afterwards , by arranging with Hilary of Chichester and John of Coutances for Roger to swear an oath that he was innocent . According to John of Salisbury , Roger then went to Rome in 1152 and was cleared of involvement by Pope Eugene III . John of Salisbury further alleges that it was only after bribery that the pope cleared Roger . Frank Barlow , a medieval historian and Becket 's biographer , points out in his biography of Becket that while Roger was accused of these crimes , and may even have been guilty of some sort of criminal homosexuality , John of Salisbury 's motives for bringing up this story in 1172 were almost certainly to defame Roger . Such a story would naturally have put Roger in the worst possible light .
It was while Roger was Theobald 's clerk that he made lasting friendships with Gilbert Foliot and Hugh de Puiset . Roger attended the Council of Reims in 1148 with Theobald , John of Salisbury , and possibly Thomas Becket . This council condemned some of Gilbert de la Porrée 's teachings , and consecrated Foliot as Bishop of Hereford . While it was later recalled that Roger and Becket did not get along , there is no evidence of hatred between the two before the Becket crisis happened .
= = Archbishop = =
Roger was consecrated Archbishop of York on 10 October 1154 . When he went north to York , the legal scholar Vacarius , who had been part of Theobald 's household , followed Roger and spent the next 50 years in the north . Vacarius was responsible for introducing Roman civil law into England , and did so under the patronage of Roger . He wrote a standard textbook on the civil law , the Liber pauperum , and was an important advisor for Roger .
Roger attended the Council of Tours in 1163 , along with a number of other English bishops . Pope Alexander III named Roger a papal legate in February 1164 , but his powers did not include the city of Canterbury or anything to do with Archbishop Becket . They did , however , include Scotland .
In late 1164 Roger led a deputation from Henry II that visited the papal court , or curia , to try to persuade Alexander III that any decision on the deposition of Becket should take place in England under a papal legate , rather than in Rome . While Becket was in exile , Roger also managed to secure papal permission for archbishops of York to carry their cross in front of them anywhere in England , a right that had long been a bone of contention between Canterbury and York . Later , the pope rescinded the permission , but consistently refused to give primacy to either Canterbury or York in their struggles .
Roger did not like monks , and William of Newburgh said that he often referred to the foundation of Fountains Abbey as the worst mistake of Archbishop Thurstan 's episcopate . Roger also was accused of avarice , and of making unworthy clerical appointments . However , he also started the rebuilding of York Minster , which had been damaged by fire in 1137 , and helped with the building of a church at Ripon . He also endowed the school at York with an annual income of 100 shillings .
= = Controversy with Becket = =
Roger got drawn into the controversy with Becket because Henry II wanted to have his eldest living son crowned as king during Henry 's lifetime . ( Traditionally , the ceremony is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury ) This was a new practice for England , but was a custom of the Capetian kings of France , which Henry decided to imitate . Henry II insisted that his son , Henry be crowned at Westminster Abbey on 14 June 1170 by Archbishop Roger of York . Also present at the coronation were the bishops of London , Salisbury , Exeter , Chester , Rochester , St Aspah , Llandaff , Durham , Bayeux , Évreux and Sées . The only English bishops absent seem to have been Winchester , Norwich , Worcester , and of course Thomas Becket , Archbishop of Canterbury , who was in exile . The remaining English sees were vacant . This overstepped a long tradition which reserved coronations to the Archbishop of Canterbury , a reservation confirmed as recently as 1166 by Pope Alexander III . In 1170 , however , Henry II received papal permission to have Roger crown the younger Henry , a permission which Alexander later revoked .
Before Becket returned to England , on 1 December 1170 , he excommunicated Roger , as well as Gilbert Foliot the Bishop of Lincoln and Josceline de Bohon the Bishop of Salisbury . After Becket landed in England the three excommunicates went to Becket and asked for absolution , but while Becket was willing to absolve Gilbert and Josceline , he insisted that only the pope could absolve an archbishop . Roger persuaded the others that they should stick together , and all three went to King Henry in Normandy , to secure the king 's permission for their appeals to Rome .
Roger 's and his fellow @-@ bishops ' stories to Henry are often cited as the spark that touched off the king 's anger at Becket and led to his martyrdom . However , it was more probably the stories of Becket 's behaviour upon arrival in England that caused Henry 's anger , and which indirectly led to the death of Becket . Roger was suspended by Pope Alexander III because he was implicated in Becket 's death , but was restored to office on 16 December 1171 .
= = Death and afterwards = =
Roger died on 26 November 1181 and was buried at Durham . Other sources give the date of death as 22 November or 20 November . After Roger 's death , the king declared his will invalid and confiscated most of his wealth . Henry 's excuse was that bishops ' wills made after the bishop became ill , that bequeathed most of their property to charity , were invalid .
Roger had one son , named William , at some point in his career . Some verses in hexameter written by Roger to Maurice of Kirkham , the prior of Kirkham Priory , are extant and have been published as part of Maurice 's works . York remained vacant from Roger 's death in 1181 until 1189 .
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= Rhodesian mission in Lisbon =
The Rhodesian mission in Lisbon ( Portuguese : Missão da Rodésia em Lisboa ) , the capital of Portugal , operated from September 1965 to May 1975 . It was a diplomatic mission representing Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) , initially as a self @-@ governing colony of Britain and , after the Unilateral Declaration of Independence in November 1965 , as an unrecognised state . Rhodesia informed Britain of its intent to open a Lisbon mission headed by an accredited representative , independent from the Britain Embassy in the city , in June 1965 . Whitehall refused to endorse the idea but Rhodesia continued nonetheless , and later that month appointed Harry Reedman to head the mission . The British government attempted unsuccessfully to block this unilateral act — Rhodesia 's first — for some months afterwards .
The affair came amid the larger dispute between Whitehall and Salisbury regarding the terms under which Rhodesia could be granted sovereign independence . Rhodesia 's mostly white government insisted that statehood should come under the constitution introduced with Britain 's approval in 1961 , while Whitehall insisted that a set timetable for the introduction of black majority rule would have to be in place before the country could be fully independent . The Rhodesian government 's stance on this matter caused it to become isolated within the Commonwealth , which from 1964 excluded it from most of its internal bodies , while the Rhodesian military became unofficially embargoed by its established British and American suppliers .
Rhodesia had run itself as a self @-@ governing colony since 1923 , but ultimate responsibility for foreign affairs remained with Britain . Rhodesia 's staunch opposition to immediate black rule and its disillusionment regarding Britain propelled it towards Portugal , which governed Angola and Mozambique , territories respectively to the west and east of Rhodesia . In their attempt to prove that an independent Lisbon mission was legal , the Rhodesians presented an argument based on British legislation conferring on the colonial government the right to appoint its own " diplomatic agents , or consular or trade representatives , in countries which are willing to receive them " . The British countered that ultimate purview over Rhodesian foreign affairs still lay with Whitehall . They proposed that Reedman be integrated into the British Embassy in Lisbon as a Rhodesian consul , but Rhodesia refused to accept a lesser post for Reedman than those enjoyed by the independent Rhodesian representatives in South Africa and Mozambique .
Following months of abortive Anglo @-@ Rhodesian talks and unsuccessful attempts by Britain to deter Portugal diplomatically , Reedman travelled to Lisbon in September 1965 to take up his post at the head of an independent Rhodesian mission . The Portuguese Ministry of Foreign Affairs , which insisted it was neutral regarding Rhodesia , outraged Whitehall by accepting Reedman 's letter of accreditation — though Lisbon was careful to avoid provoking Britain , omitting the word " diplomatic " from the titles given to both Reedman and his mission . The Rhodesians still regarded themselves as victorious , saying they had set out to gain an independent diplomatic representative in Lisbon , and now had one . The historian J R T Wood would call this " Rhodesia 's first independent and indeed unilateral act — the veritable straw in the wind . " On 11 November 1965 , less than two months after Reedman 's investiture , Rhodesia went one further and unilaterally declared its independence from Britain . The mission in Lisbon operated until 1975 , when it was closed following the Carnation Revolution in Portugal the previous year .
= = Background = =
= = = Responsible government , Federation and the Wind of Change = = =
Having been governed and developed by the British South Africa Company since the 1890s , Southern Rhodesia became a self @-@ governing colony within the British Empire in 1923 , when it was granted responsible government by Whitehall . The Southern Rhodesian capital , Salisbury , was henceforth empowered to run its own affairs in almost all matters , including defence . Foreign affairs was one of the few areas reserved by the British government . As the Empire 's lone self @-@ governing colony , Southern Rhodesia was considered a sui generis case , almost on a par with a dominion . Starting in 1932 , Imperial Conferences included the Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister alongside those from the dominions , a unique situation which continued after Imperial Conferences were superseded by Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conferences in 1944 .
As most of the Southern Rhodesian politicians saw it , they were as good as independent ; if full autonomy were granted in the form of dominionship , the only practical difference would be a rise in expenses for foreign representation , as Salisbury would have to maintain its own embassies abroad . Believing full dominion status to be effectively symbolic and " there for the asking " , Prime Minister Godfrey Huggins ( in office from 1933 to 1953 ) regarded independence as a non @-@ issue . He twice refused British overtures hinting at dominion status , and instead pursued an initially semi @-@ independent Federation with the directly administered British colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland .
Mandated by the results of the 1953 referendum , Federation began later that year with Southern Rhodesia , the most developed of the three territories , at its head . Salisbury doubled as Federal capital . The Federation was granted several privileges by Britain during its earlier years ; for example , a 1957 British Act of Parliament empowered it to appoint its own " diplomatic agents , or consular or trade representatives , in countries which are willing to receive them " so long as it informed Britain when it was doing so . The most prominent of these appointments was made in 1961 , when the Union of South Africa split from the Commonwealth of Nations and became a republic . An accredited representative of Salisbury was set up in Pretoria soon after , independent of Britain 's embassy there . An independent office representing the Federation was also set up in Lourenço Marques , the capital of Portuguese Mozambique , while further afield , Federal officials were set up within the British embassies in West Germany , Japan and the United States .
The Federation ultimately failed because of the shifting international attitudes and rising black nationalist ambitions of the late 1950s and early 1960s , often collectively called the Wind of Change . The idea of " no independence before majority rule " gained considerable ground in British political circles as the UK , France and Belgium vastly accelerated their withdrawal from the continent . Amid a flurry of bloody civil wars , military coups and other disasters , most of the new African countries became autocratic one @-@ party states within a few years . Already wary of black nationalism on racial grounds , Salisbury became increasingly antipathetic towards it as a result of these developments , particularly when the brutal Congo Crisis caused thousands of Congolese whites to become refugees in Northern and Southern Rhodesia . In 1962 , with the Federation in its constitutional death throes amid Nyasaland 's clamours for secession and immediate black rule , Federal Prime Minister Roy Welensky was horrified and outraged to be told by Britain 's Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations , Duncan Sandys , that " we British have lost the will to govern . " " But we haven 't , " retorted Julian Greenfield , Welensky 's law minister .
= = = Federal dissolution ; Salisbury pushes for independence = = =
The Southern Rhodesians presumed that in the event of Federal dissolution , they would be first in line for independence , and would receive it without major adjustments to their 1961 constitution . Indeed , intergovernmental correspondence during early 1963 did much to confirm Salisbury 's belief that this was the case . While Federal break @-@ up talks progressed , Sandys issued a letter of intent in which he said that powers conferred on the Federal government by British legislation would transfer to Southern Rhodesia at the end of Federation . It was agreed that Salisbury would keep the Federal overseas missions in Pretoria and Lourenço Marques , as well as the British Embassy desks in Bonn , Tokyo and Washington . Arrangements for Federal dissolution concluded in mid @-@ 1963 , and the Federation formally ended on 31 December that year . Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland became independent during 1964 , respectively renamed Zambia and Malawi , under black majority governments . Southern Rhodesia was denied the same on the grounds that whites held too dominant a position , prompting indignation and fury from the governing Rhodesian Front ( RF ) and its supporters . Prime Minister Winston Field 's failure to secure independence from Britain during early 1964 led to his forced resignation and replacement by his deputy , Ian Smith , in April that year .
Two months into his premiership , Smith was deeply offended when Whitehall informed him that , for the first time since 1932 , Southern Rhodesia would not be represented at the year 's Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference as the decision had been taken to only include fully independent states in future . The quarrel over the terms for independence caused the Southern Rhodesian military 's traditional British and American suppliers to impose an informal embargo , and motivated Britain to cut off financial aid to Salisbury around the same time . The United States promptly followed suit . Political violence between the rival black nationalist movements in Rhodesia intensified during mid @-@ 1964 , leading to jail terms or preventive restriction for several prominent nationalists , and concurrent bans for their respective parties . When Northern Rhodesia became Zambia in October 1964 , Southern Rhodesia dropped " Southern " from its name , and initiated legislation to this effect , but Britain refused assent , saying that the colony could not legally rename itself . Salisbury continued using the shortened name anyway .
The Rhodesian government was ardently anti @-@ communist , and opposed immediate black rule , which Smith said would cause " the destruction of our country " , pointing to ongoing events such as the Congo Crisis as evidence . Parliament remained mostly white , but Salisbury contended it had close to unanimous support from all races in pursuing independence under the 1961 constitution , citing various tests of opinion it conducted in late 1964 . The Prime Minister stood obdurately against any constitutional change he believed was too radical , regarding this as a matter of national and regional security . According to his memoirs , he worked to prevent a " mad rush into one man , one vote with all the resultant corruption , nepotism , chaos and economic disaster which we had witnessed in all the countries around us . " The Labour Cabinet of British Prime Minister Harold Wilson , which replaced the previous Conservative administration in October 1964 , did not give credence to the Rhodesian tests of opinion , and insisted on majority rule as a condition for independence . The Commonwealth repeatedly urged Britain to intervene directly should Rhodesian defiance continue , while British liberals worried that if left unchecked Salisbury might drift towards South African @-@ style apartheid .
= = = Britain , Portugal and Rhodesia = = =
British policy @-@ makers regarded Portugal as a traditional friend — the Anglo @-@ Portuguese Alliance dated back to 1386 , and both countries were in the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation ( NATO ) and the European Free Trade Association — but the combined strength of the communist bloc and the Afro @-@ Asian lobby in the United Nations forced the British to peel back their support for the pluricontinental Estado Novo ( " New State " ) during the early 1960s . Portugal 's Colonial War , starting in Angola in 1961 , pitted it against a number of guerrilla factions in its African territories , most of which subscribed to communist political thinking . Britain opposed communist encroachment into southern Africa , but knew it would become an international pariah if it publicly opposed general consensus at the UN , which roundly condemned colonialism in all forms and supported communist @-@ backed insurgencies across the region , regarding them as racial liberation movements . It therefore attempted an awkward balancing act whereby it would appear to oppose Portugal without meaningfully doing so .
Britain 's stance towards Rhodesia was influenced in a similar way , with Whitehall unable to back down on the policy of no independence before majority rule without causing international uproar . Also contributory was the disproportionate sway over Britain 's African policy held by Julius Nyerere , the President of Tanzania , who was a fervent proponent for majority rule across Africa without delay , implemented by military force if need be . British politicians deferred to Nyerere on almost every proposal they made regarding Rhodesia during the 1960s and 1970s . In the immediate post @-@ Federal period , Britain forlornly tried to stifle Rhodesia 's further alignment with South Africa and Portugal , realising that British influence in the region was severely limited while the three remained so closely linked . A 1965 British government memorandum described the trio as " a defiant and mutually sustaining bloc " .
Great personal rapport developed between Smith and his Portuguese counterpart , António de Oliveira Salazar . On first meeting in Portugal in September 1964 , the two Prime Ministers found they shared many common views regarding race relations in their respective countries , Britain 's handling of the Commonwealth , and what Smith called the " complacency of the major powers of the free world " in the face of what the pair saw as inexorable communist expansionism . After hearing Smith 's argument in favour of Rhodesian independence , Salazar privately pledged Portugal 's complete support . The RF called a new general election for May 1965 and , campaigning on an election promise of independence , won a clean sweep of all 50 " A " -roll seats . A week later , Wilson met with Portuguese Foreign Minister Alberto Franco Nogueira , whom he pressed on Portugal 's secret dealings with Rhodesia . Nogueira categorically denied anything of the sort .
= = Rhodesia seeks British endorsement for a Lisbon mission = =
= = = Gibbs ' speech on 9 June = = =
Following the Rhodesian Front 's decisive May 1965 election victory , parliament was opened by the British @-@ appointed Governor , Sir Humphrey Gibbs , on 9 June . For the first time , Rhodesia had an official Leader of the Opposition who was black : Josiah Gondo , leader of the United People 's Party , now sat opposite Smith and the all @-@ white RF in the House of Assembly . Though Gibbs represented the British Crown in Rhodesia , he had been a local resident most of his life , and had feet in both camps , regarding himself as loyal both to Rhodesia and to the faraway monarch . While opening parliament , he told the House of Assembly that the RF 's strengthened majority amounted to " a mandate to lead the country to its full independence " — later in the speech he referred to this as " our independence " .
Gibbs then said that Rhodesia wished to have the best possible relations with its neighbours , and startled British observers by saying the government had informed him that it would follow recommendations made by Portugal during recent talks , and would open its own diplomatic mission in the Portuguese capital Lisbon as soon as was practical . Evan Campbell , Rhodesia 's High Commissioner in London , asked Whitehall the same day to endorse the appointment of Harry Reedman as Rhodesia 's " accredited representative " to Portugal , reasoning that the 1957 act allowing the Federation to do so still covered Rhodesia under the principle of national succession . The 1963 letter of intent from Sandys confirmed this in Rhodesia 's eyes . Historian J R T Wood calls this " Rhodesia 's first independent and indeed unilateral act — the veritable straw in the wind . "
= = = Rhodesian motivations = = =
Aside from reinforcing Luso @-@ Rhodesian relations , the Lisbon appointment was designed to secure the African nation a diplomatic foothold in Europe outside of Britain 's reach and to help Salisbury find new trading partners and diplomatic allies on the continent . Among other things , the Rhodesians intended to make up the shortfalls in military equipment caused by the undeclared Anglo @-@ American arms embargo . Reedman , the former minister for immigration and tourism , was also a retired officer of the British Royal Air Force ( where he had been involved in bomber research ) , and an experienced engineer and businessman : all the right ingredients , the government thought , for someone in the position to source European aircraft , weapons and other equipment , while also representing Rhodesian interests in mainland Europe .
Lord Brockway , head of the Movement for Colonial Freedom , believed that Rhodesia was attempting to assert de facto independence in the eyes of the international community by deliberately defying Britain over the Lisbon issue . " If Salisbury is permitted to claim diplomatic rights in foreign capitals , its assertion of sovereignty is accepted , " he wrote in an article for the British democratic socialist weekly Tribune .
= = = Britain refuses = = =
Britain was caught unprepared by Campbell 's request , and issued no response for over a week . In the meantime Campbell , whose retirement was due , was relieved by the Rhodesian government on 10 June . His replacement , Brigadier Andrew Skeen , took over Campbell 's London office at Rhodesia House , 429 Strand six days later .
Bent on securing Reedman 's investiture quickly , the Rhodesian government made it publicly known on 19 June that , pursuant to British and Portuguese approval , Reedman would be appointed within seven days . Whitehall still took no action . Wilson and his Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations , Arthur Bottomley , were occupied at Chequers , the official country residence of the British Prime Minister , where they were entertaining the Commonwealth heads of state .
In Bottomley 's absence , his office explored the issue and resolved that Rhodesia could retain its representative in South Africa , but should not be allowed to appoint another in Lisbon ; a consul was acceptable , they concluded , but only as part of the British Embassy staff . Bottomley remained unaware of this progress until a call from his office on 25 June , whereupon he still did nothing . Unwilling to wait , Rhodesia confirmed Reedman 's appointment the next day , much to Wilson 's fury . Only now was Bottomley finally jolted into action ; he informed Salisbury of his ministry 's findings on 29 June , offering them the consul within the embassy , but refusing to sanction an independent office .
= = Early negotiations = =
= = = Rhodesian disillusionment ; Britain adopts delaying tactics = = =
Independence talks between Britain and Rhodesia continued for a fortnight without major reference to the Reedman appointment , with Britain more concerned with discussing a possible Rhodesian unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) . Smith delivered an openly defiant speech to his parliament on 30 June , attacking Britain for its handling of the Commonwealth 's newer members , which he said were unduly influencing British policy in Africa . Britain was desperate to avoid the international humiliation that would accompany the organisation 's break @-@ up , he claimed , and was therefore attempting to hold it together by appeasing the less prominent members . While making clear his disdain , the Prime Minister pledged to go on with negotiations , saying that he did not believe Britain truly endorsed its professed line .
In dealing with the immovable Smith , Wilson 's ministers adopted a programme of deliberate frustration and delay : Britain would interminably stonewall the Rhodesian Prime Minister , maintaining the facade of continued negotiation by very occasionally repeating their stance , in the hope that either Smith would back down , or his Cabinet would eventually lose faith in his negotiating prowess and replace him with somebody more malleable . Wood writes that Wilson , Bottomley and their Labour contemporaries were " distracted by their own political agendas " , and did not understand the extent of Rhodesia 's considerable disillusionment with Britain by this time . Effectively " kicked ... out of the Commonwealth " , as Huggins later commented , a fortress mentality was developing in Salisbury , propelling it towards unilateral action . Wood concludes that Britain 's maintenance of this stonewalling tactic was misjudged , and only exacerbated the Rhodesian government 's feeling of alienation .
In the British House of Lords on 26 July , Brockway pressed Lord Taylor , the Under @-@ Secretary of State for the Colonies , on Rhodesia 's claims , arguing that failure to block the Lisbon appointment would amount to conceding de facto recognition to Rhodesia as an independent state . Taylor 's response was that Britain remained committed to upholding its ultimate purview over Rhodesian overseas relations . Brockway then asked how Rhodesia had attained its independent office in Pretoria ; surely , he said , this provided " a precedent which was rather dangerous ? " Taylor replied that Pretoria and Salisbury had exchanged High Commissioners before South Africa left the Commonwealth in 1961 , and that Britain had granted Rhodesia special dispensation to retain the Pretoria mission thereafter . He stressed that in Britain 's eyes this was no precedent for Lisbon .
= = = Britain despatches Cledwyn Hughes to Rhodesia , 22 – 27 July = = =
The British decided to despatch one of their Commonwealth ministers to Rhodesia for talks during early July , but debated for a while over whether it should be Bottomley or his deputy , Cledwyn Hughes , who should be sent . Wilson considered this a matter of urgency as he had heard a rumour that Rhodesia might declare independence on its main national holiday , Rhodes ' Day ( that year 12 July ) , but this proved false . On 15 July , Britain 's High Commissioner to Rhodesia , John Baines Johnston , was instructed to propose a week @-@ long round of talks between Smith and Hughes in Salisbury . Johnston was given permission to cave if the Rhodesian Prime Minister insisted on meeting with Bottomley , but this did not prove necessary : Smith cabled back on the 18th accepting Hughes ' visit . The British delegation arrived in Salisbury four days later .
Discussions proceeded rapidly during the week , but did not touch on the issue of Lisbon until the fifth day , 26 July , when Hughes and Johnston met with Smith , Deputy Prime Minister Clifford Dupont , and Trade and Industry Minister George Rudland . Dupont opened the discussion by referring to Sandys ' statement from 1963 , which said the Rhodesian government would retain any rights previously granted to the Federation , which Dupont reasoned surely included the ability given in 1957 to appoint its own overseas agents if it informed Britain . As Portugal had indicated its willingness to accept a Rhodesian diplomat , Dupont said , the Rhodesian government was acting perfectly within its rights .
Hughes countered that he did not believe the wording of the 1957 document gave Rhodesia the right to devise its own representation overseas without first gaining assent from Britain . The Reedman appointment would probably be seen internationally as a major rise in Rhodesian diplomatic profile , he said , and might damage Britain 's reputation , which would in turn make the ongoing negotiations for independence more difficult for both sides . He repeated Bottomley 's previous offer of a consul on the British Embassy staff , adding that the official would not have to be physically located within the embassy , and could set up his own office elsewhere so long as he remained nominally affiliated to it .
Smith replied that in his interpretation Rhodesia was required to keep Whitehall informed , but prior British concurrence was not necessary ; if Britain contested this , the Prime Minister said , then surely the 1957 entrustment had never meant anything . Dupont then spoke again , rejecting the idea that the Rhodesian mission should be a mere subsidiary consulate of the British Embassy . Hughes replied firmly that the 1957 despatch did not give the Rhodesians free rein over external matters , and warned them to be more flexible if they intended to find common ground . Eager to avoid open confrontation , Smith told Dupont to reconsider his tone , and changed the subject .
Hughes met with several other Rhodesian figures before leaving late on 27 July , but Lisbon remained off the programme most of the time . Just before Hughes departed , Dupont released a statement saying that Reedman would take office in Lisbon on 1 August , and would be " warmly welcomed " by the Portuguese government . Hughes decried this in a brief telephone call to Smith , but could do little more before leaving Rhodesia that evening . On 29 July , Smith fielded questions from the press , commenting on both Lisbon and the independence talks in general . He expressed the belief that Rhodesia had made more progress towards independence talking with Hughes than it ever had before , but qualified this by saying only Wilson 's reply to the proposals given to Hughes would show if this were indeed true . He said that although he thought Whitehall was keen to resolve the independence issue , he did not believe their line had changed . He declared that he and the RF would not change their stance in any way . Moving to the subject of Lisbon , Smith stressed that this was separate from the independence dispute , then overruled Dupont 's announcement of two days before : Reedman 's appointment would remain provisional until further notice , he said .
= = Anglo @-@ Rhodesian animosity deepens = =
= = = Bottomley tours West Africa , arousing Rhodesian suspicion = = =
Bottomley toured West Africa during early August , and , in Ghana and Nigeria , gave several speeches reassuring his hosts that immediate majority rule was an unconditional requirement for Rhodesian independence . He ruled out the use of military force in the event of a Rhodesian UDI , and pledged to instead end such a rebellion through economic sanctions . Bottomley 's dismissal of the use of force drew damning criticism from Joshua Nkomo , the imprisoned leader of the Marxist – Leninist Zimbabwe African People 's Union , who said this showed Britain was not serious about decolonising Rhodesia as it had its other African possessions . Meanwhile , Bottomley 's comments increased anti @-@ British sentiment . In his memoirs , Smith describes the mood in forthright terms , accusing Britain of " resorting to politics of convenience and appeasement " . " We waited and waited ... [ but ] the British were not prepared to make a clear decision , " he writes ; " they were consulting the bankrupt and communist dictatorships before replying to us . " Becoming exasperated by the lack of progress , even the more hesitant members of the Rhodesian government began to see the road leading towards UDI as the only one viable for them . Lisbon , however , remained the immediate bone of contention , and on this issue the Rhodesians became yet more determined not to give an inch .
= = = Meeting between Johnston and Smith on 18 August = = =
Smith organised a meeting with Johnston , starting at 09 : 00 on 18 August , where he informed the British High Commissioner that he had considered the Lisbon appointment extensively , with the help of Dupont , several legal advisers , and a judge of the Rhodesian High Court . The judge had examined the relevant documents , and had come to the conclusion that Dupont 's interpretation of them was correct . Smith therefore felt certain that Reedman 's appointment was legitimate so long as Portugal agreed . A long argument ensued , with neither man willing to budge . Smith said that he had always tried to be flexible and civil , but that he and his government felt they had to make a stand . By making clear to Lisbon the exact nature of their proposed representative , and informing Britain of their intent , Smith said the Rhodesians had filled every legal obligation .
Johnston dismissed Smith 's argument , asserting that neither the Federation nor Rhodesia had ever made such an appointment ( this was actually false ; the Federal government had opened independent diplomatic missions in South Africa and Portuguese Mozambique , and Rhodesia retained them both ) . Johnston concluded that Rhodesia was trying to prematurely advance its international standing . The previous entrustments , he said , had been made to allow Britain and Rhodesia to cooperate subject to Whitehall 's ultimate authority , and did not entitle Rhodesia to do as it liked in the field of external affairs , especially if its chosen line ran counter to Britain 's . In an attempt to intimidate Smith , Johnston sternly asked why the Rhodesian Prime Minister would risk causing a major international incident by deliberately defying Britain ; Smith replied that following Britain 's several slights against Rhodesia over the previous year and a half , Salisbury would not accept another . The conversation continued in this manner for some time afterwards . Smith proposed that the relevant documents be examined jointly by two judges , one British and one Rhodesian , but Johnston refused this . The meeting ended without agreement .
= = = Bottomley returns to Britain = = =
The Rhodesian press reported extensively on the Lisbon controversy during the second half of August , generally predicting that neither Britain , Portugal nor Rhodesia would back down . While most reporters believed that Whitehall would take a strong line , few could see any way it could actually stop Reedman from taking office . On 20 August , Bottomley spoke at his final conference in Lagos , and repeated all he had previously said regarding Britain 's stance on Rhodesia . Back in London three days later , he reaffirmed his previous stance regarding Lisbon , saying that he would be pleased to have a Rhodesian on the staff of the British Embassy there , but would allow no more . In the same interview , he expressed the belief that Wilson had averted a Rhodesian UDI in October the previous year by warning Salisbury of the economic consequences . Speaking in Gwelo on 27 August , Smith derided this statement , calling it " incredible " . His administration had not even considered a declaration of independence then , he said , but it was contemplated now , and he believed Anglo @-@ Rhodesian relations were at their all @-@ time lowest ebb . He urged Britain to return to the bargaining table quickly .
= = Britain attempts to block the appointment = =
= = = Wilson resolves to challenge Portugal = = =
The British continued their policy of stalling Smith . At the end of August 1965 , they did not consider a Rhodesian UDI an immediate threat , and therefore focussed on the colony 's maintained defiance of the mother country regarding Reedman and Lisbon . On 30 August , Johnston summarised Britain 's stand on the issue for Bottomley 's Commonwealth Relations Office . According to his understanding , he said , Rhodesia had been told just before Federal dissolution that it would retain the Federation 's former powers regarding external affairs , but that this entrustment was subject to British discretion , and could not be exercised without extensive prior consultation and conformity to Britain 's line .
Johnston rued bitterly that the Rhodesians had apparently made practical arrangements for an independent office in Lisbon anyway , even going to the trouble of renting the prospective mission premises . He repeated the claim he had made in the meeting with Smith on 18 August , saying once more that the Federal government had not made appointments off its own bat . He accepted that there was an independent Rhodesian envoy in Pretoria , but argued that this was the result of South Africa 's enforced withdrawal from the Commonwealth . He did not mention the Rhodesian ( formerly Federal ) office in Lourenço Marques , which Wood comments could be considered " precedent for Portugal " .
On 5 September , the Salisbury Sunday Mail reported that Smith was standing firm on Reedman 's absolute independence in Lisbon , and that Portugal had accepted the envoy . British Foreign Secretary Michael Stewart reacted with alarm , convening an urgent meeting the same day with Hughes and Sir Archibald Ross , Britain 's ambassador to Portugal . Here Hughes proposed hauling Portugal over the coals , insisting that the Lisbon mission represented " creeping independence " for Rhodesia , and therefore had to be stopped .
Ross disagreed , reasoning this would only damage relations between Britain and Portugal , an undesirable prospect given the countries ' common membership in NATO , the European Free Trade Association and more . There was much at stake ; Britain enjoyed an annual £ 48 million trade surplus with Portugal , and Portuguese Railways was in the process of buying 50 diesel locomotives from English Electric . In the Azores archipelago , Portugal provided NATO with a strategically key air base , which was unprotected by treaty ; given the inclination , Lisbon might close it .
Hughes insisted that there was nothing more they could do to deter Rhodesia directly ; they had already threatened to expel Rhodesia 's representative from the British Embassy in Washington , with no effect . The only open course therefore had to be to take a firmer line with Portugal . Two days later , on 7 September , Wilson discussed the matter with Hughes and Stewart , and agreed with their conclusions , telling them to proceed .
= = = Meeting between Johnston and Smith on 8 September ; the appointment is confirmed = = =
The same day , Bottomley wrote to Smith , saying that he and Wilson were disheartened by the lack of progress regarding both independence and the Lisbon appointment . He was willing to visit Rhodesia personally , but could not come until October because he had to be in Blackpool to attend the Labour Party Conference , due to commence on 26 September . The next morning , on 8 September , Johnston told Smith that if Reedman proceeded to Portugal in open disregard for Britain 's wishes , it would negatively affect future independence negotiations . Rhodesia 's delay in justifying the appointment was also having a detrimental affect , Johnston asserted . Finally , he threatened to evict the Rhodesian envoys from Washington , Bonn and Tokyo if Rhodesia did not desist . Smith was yet again unmoved . Any procrastination regarding Lisbon was Britain 's fault , he insisted . He told Johnston to wait for the afternoon session in Rhodesia 's Legislative Assembly to hear Dupont 's official announcement of Reedman 's appointment , as well as the full Rhodesian explanation behind it .
Smith said he understood this would irk the British , but insisted that he and his government were no longer willing to wait . He had repeatedly offered to respect the judgement of an impartial arbitration team , he reminded Johnston , but the British had shot this idea down each time . He therefore felt compelled to follow the advice given by his own legal team , which was that the appointment was legitimate . His government would not accept a lesser appointment in Lisbon than in Pretoria and Lourenço Marques . He dismissed Johnston 's threat to expel the Rhodesian representatives in West Germany , Japan and America ; relations with Portugal and South Africa were far more important , he said , as they were Rhodesia 's two closest neighbours geographically .
Johnston protested that the British government could not take part in the kind of judicial enquiry Smith described , as its sovereignty could not be subject to any outside judgement and there was nothing to arbitrate anyway . Smith was again resolute : why , he queried , was Whitehall so adamant to avoid legal arbitration if its ministers were so sure they were right ? He promised to drop the matter if such a panel ruled against him , but to no avail . Johnston said only that he would telegraph Whitehall to inform them that Reedman 's appointment was imminent . Dupont confirmed it that afternoon , telling the Rhodesian Legislative Assembly that the mission had been accepted by Portugal .
= = = Britain mobilises NATO support against Portugal ; Lisbon insists it is neutral = = =
Meanwhile , Stewart and Ross argued with Nogueira and the Portuguese chargé d 'affaires in London , José Manuel de Villas @-@ Boas de Vasconcellos Faria . On 8 September , Nogueira said the Portuguese were accepting Reedman as a Rhodesian representative , but were not defining his status as they wished to remain neutral in what they regarded as an exclusively Anglo @-@ Rhodesian problem . So far as he could see , Nogueira said , Portugal had done no harm to British interests . Stewart firmly told Nogueira that Britain expected Portugal to make a statement within 24 hours saying that it would not deal with Reedman while he remained off the British Embassy staff . Nogueira replied that his government was not going to accord official diplomatic recognition to Reedman , and that Dupont understood this . Ross now threatened to involve NATO if Portugal did not thoroughly explain its conduct . Unmoved , Nogueira said this surprised him ; if the British were so keen to have Reedman on the staff at their embassy , he answered , that was down to them . Portugal was totally neutral in the affair , he insisted .
Britain vigorously rallied other NATO countries to take a stand against Portugal over Reedman . France warned that NATO pressure was unlikely to yield results in his matter , but Belgium 's NATO representative , André de Staercke , agreed to challenge Salazar on 11 September . At his meeting with de Staercke , Salazar denied that Portugal was giving Rhodesia its own diplomatic representation , and said there had been some misunderstanding . Portugal would not obstruct Reedman 's entry should he arrive , Salazar said , as he was travelling on a ( Rhodesian @-@ issued ) British passport . On 14 September , Nogueira 's ministry released a statement saying that if Britain challenged Portugal over Rhodesia at NATO , Lisbon would " use the greatest firmness to repel any attempt to attribute particular responsibilities or to make criticism of Portugal 's position " .
Britain raised the issue formally in the North Atlantic Council , NATO 's most senior political governing body , the same day . Here Portugal 's delegate , Vasco da Cunha , argued that given the standing existence of independent Rhodesian offices in Lourenço Marques , Pretoria and London , the matter was between Britain and Rhodesia , and not Portugal 's business . Rhodesia had simply asked to have Reedman head a representative office in Lisbon , and he would not present a letter of accreditation . If Rhodesia had exaggerated this , da Cunha said , that was not Portugal 's concern . The Italian , Belgian , Danish , French and U.S. delegates in turn sided with Britain , and collectively asked da Cunha to tell his government to publicly declare its non @-@ acceptance of Reedman while he lacked British approval . Da Cunha refused , saying this would only irritate his compatriots " because of the neglect by their allies of their interests in the past " . The meeting broke up without agreement . Whitehall was pleased with the pro @-@ British sentiment displayed therein , while Lisbon remained unmoved .
= = Appointment = =
= = = Reedman arrives in Lisbon and receives Portuguese approval = = =
Having spent the previous week in London , Reedman flew into Lisbon Portela Airport on 15 September 1965 . He was met there by the Portuguese Foreign Ministry 's assistant chief of protocol , Luis Quartim Bastos , and three Rhodesian officials , who had arrived a fortnight before . Nobody from the British Embassy was present . Bastos told a reporter that he was at the airport on Nogueira 's behalf to accord Reedman " the classic welcome for the arrival of heads of mission " . Speaking the next day , Reedman appeared genial and optimistic . " We [ Portugal and Rhodesia ] have everything in common , " he said , " including the will for survival , an awareness of the true situation overseas , and a greater feeling towards what we are doing . "
Two days later , Dupont announced that he had issued a letter of accreditation to Reedman for presentation to Nogueira . The envoy would not present credentials , Dupont explained , as he was representing the Rhodesian government , and not its head of state , Queen Elizabeth II . The Deputy Prime Minister expressed confusion regarding the appointment 's discussion at NATO , saying that Rhodesia was far outside the organisation 's geographical area of responsibility . He said that the letter of accreditation would confer on Reedman the title of " Accredited Diplomatic Representative " , and that Reedman would thereafter head the " Rhodesian Diplomatic Mission " in Lisbon , which would operate on the same level as the Rhodesian office in Pretoria . The Portuguese Foreign Ministry quickly issued a statement correcting Dupont 's wording , saying that Reedman would lead the " Rhodesian Mission " , with no reference to diplomatic status .
To Britain 's alarm and indignation , the Portuguese government announced on 21 September that Nogueira had accepted " a letter of introduction " from Reedman , conferring upon him the title " Chief of the Rhodesian Mission " , with powers to deal with the Portuguese Foreign Ministry in Luso @-@ Rhodesian matters without British interference . This followed the precedent set by Reedman 's counterpart in South Africa , the statement said . Speaking publicly in Salisbury the same evening , Dupont told reporters that there had never been any intention to claim ambassadorial status for Reedman , and that Rhodesia had constantly kept Britain informed of what was happening regarding the appointment . So far as he was concerned , he said , the Rhodesian government had achieved its objective of attaining an independent diplomatic representative in Portugal , and had not exceeded its mandate in any way while doing so . Britain protested strenuously , saying Portugal was going back on its word . Portugal insisted that its reception of Reedman and his Lisbon mission did not prejudice Britain 's responsibility over Rhodesia , and was justified because of the long @-@ standing ties between Portugal and Rhodesia , as well as their common involvement in many southern African issues .
= = = Rhodesia initiates clandestine arms purchases = = =
Reedman carried instructions from Salisbury to spend up to £ 3 million on European weapons , aircraft and equipment as soon as he could . The Rhodesian government now believed that it would almost certainly declare independence unilaterally and , knowing the purchase of materiel would be more difficult following this , wished to have the Rhodesian Security Forces ' necessary ammunition , weapons , spare parts and other equipment in place beforehand . Soon after arriving in Portugal , Reedman contacted the Lisbon @-@ based Zoio brothers , José , Luiz and Jean , who had recently supplied the Portuguese Armed Forces in Angola with British @-@ made weapons in direct contravention of NATO 's embargo against arming Portugal 's African @-@ based troops . The Zoios were interested in stocking Rhodesia 's arsenal , and promptly agreed to arrange an order of weapons from a third party on Reedman 's behalf in exchange for a letter of credit from the Rhodesian government .
Pretending their client was the government of Pakistan , the Zoio brothers contacted a licensed arms dealer from England , Major W R L Turp MBE of Bexley , Kent , who quickly agreed in principle , requesting a letter of credit from a Geneva bank and appropriate end @-@ user certificates for the weapons . Meanwhile , Reedman 's military attaché , Wing Commander John Mussell , travelled to Belgium to buy starter cartridges for the Rolls @-@ Royce Avon 109 jet engines used by the Royal Rhodesian Air Force 's English Electric Canberra bombers , as well as engines for Rhodesia 's Hawker Hunter jet fighters , which were produced in Belgium under licence from Britain .
= = = Reedman speaks on Portuguese state radio , 24 September = = =
On 24 September , Reedman appeared on Portugal 's state @-@ owned national radio station , Emissora Nacional de Radiodifusão , addressing the Portuguese nation as " head of the Rhodesian diplomatic mission to Portugal " . He spoke along lines reminiscent of Smith 's speech to parliament on 30 June , saying the Afro @-@ Asian element " made a mockery of the Commonwealth " and enabled Chinese @-@ initiated communist encroachment into Africa . More than one Commonwealth member state hosted training facilities for black communist guerrillas , he said , which threatened all " civilised states in Africa " . He dismissed one man , one vote as false " trash democracy " , and said that in the present geopolitical climate countries run by black Africans inevitably destroyed themselves . " This your Rhodesian neighbour will not in any circumstances allow , " he pledged . " We [ Portugal and Rhodesia ] stand together in a common cause because of civilisation . "
Ross rebuked Nogueira for allowing the broadcast , saying its content was insidious and goading . Nogueira agreed that Reedman 's words were provocative , but said Portugal could not be blamed as it did not censor public broadcasts . Britain considered withdrawing Ross in protest , but its Foreign Office ruled this out , saying Britain could not afford to be without an ambassador in Lisbon to influence Portugal 's actions in the event of UDI . British Cabinet Secretary Burke Trend rejected this view , pointing to Lisbon 's conduct regarding Reedman , which he said showed the Portuguese " ha [ d ] very clearly made up their minds " to support a Rhodesian UDI . The British ambassador would not be able to affect matters , he surmised , and British interests would be better served by immediately taking a firm hand against Portugal , in the hope that this would send a strong message to Rhodesia . Ross then protested to the Portuguese about Reedman 's calling himself " head of the Rhodesian diplomatic mission " on the radio ; Lisbon replied impassively that this was a private expression of views by Reedman , and not Portugal 's responsibility .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Final steps to UDI = = =
While the British remained firmly against separate Rhodesian representation in Lisbon , there was little they could do to stop it . Ross was nominally put on extended leave , but not withdrawn . Deciding that he could no longer wait for Bottomley to fulfil his promise to visit Rhodesia during October , Smith resolved to instead meet with Wilson personally in London , and arranged to travel on 3 October , arriving the next day . While Smith prepared to travel , Britain continued its frantic efforts to curry international anti @-@ Rhodesian sentiment , among other things urging each NATO member government not to deal with Reedman . In London , Britons who sympathised with Smith came out to support him in large numbers , surprising both the British and the Rhodesians . The two Prime Ministers ' talks were largely unproductive , and little common ground was found before Smith flew home on 12 October .
Two weeks later , Wilson travelled to Salisbury to continue the talks . The British Prime Minister proposed that future black representation in the Rhodesian parliament might be safeguarded by the revocation of some of Salisbury 's self @-@ governing powers , held since 1923 . This was a horrific prospect in the eyes of his Rhodesian opponents , and proved the final straw for Smith 's government . The Unilateral Declaration of Independence was signed by the Rhodesian Cabinet on 11 November 1965 , to almost unanimous international acrimony . The next day the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 216 , which condemned the declaration as an illegal one " made by a racist minority " , and called on all member states to withhold diplomatic recognition .
= = = Portugal 's role in Rhodesian sanction @-@ busting = = =
Smith was confident that the British military would never agree to engage in what he said would be a " fratricidal war " against Rhodesia ; he was proven correct when a British Ministry of Defence council , convened by Wilson and headed by Denis Healey , determined such intervention " impossible " , citing various logistical problems , the danger of provoking a pre @-@ emptive Rhodesian attack on Zambia , and the psychological issues that would surely accompany any confrontation between British and Rhodesian troops . Wilson therefore put all his eggs in the sanctions basket , predicting in January 1966 that the embargo would bring Rhodesia to its knees " within a matter of weeks rather than months " . The UN embargo proved ineffective , largely because both Portugal and South Africa refused to participate . Both declared themselves neutral in the Rhodesian affair , and continued to supply Rhodesia with vital resources such as oil , both at a governmental level and privately . Portugal provided the seaports of Mozambique and the oil refinery at Lourenço Marques . Car stickers marked " obrigado moçambique " — " Thank You Mozambique " — quickly became popular with white Rhodesian motorists .
Clandestine trade with other nations continued , initially at a reduced level ; among other things , Portugal illicitly labelled unsold Rhodesian tobacco as Mozambican product , then sold it on Salisbury 's behalf in Europe and Asia . Through this and a series of similar sanction @-@ busting operations Rhodesia avoided the economic cataclysm predicted by Wilson , and , with the help of South Africa and Portugal , gradually became more self @-@ sufficient . Aiming to directly cut off the main supply lines of oil to Rhodesia , namely the Portuguese Mozambican ports at Beira and Lourenço Marques , Wilson set up the Beira Patrol , a Royal Navy squadron based in the Mozambique Channel , in March 1966 . This blockade was endorsed the following month by UN Security Council Resolution 221 . Too small to cover both Beira and Lourenço Marques , and unable to legally fire on tankers once they were in Portuguese waters , the patrol met with little success , but it endured regardless for nearly a decade .
The Zoios ' clandestine transaction with Turp initially progressed well , but fell apart in March 1966 , when Turp discovered he would actually be arming Rhodesia rather than Pakistan , reacted with alarm and informed the British government . The British Board of Trade tightened its control over arms transactions , and encouraged its NATO counterparts to do the same , while the Zoios turned their attention to Belgian , Italian and West German arms dealers . In October 1966 , a huge consignment of army and air force equipment arrived in Rhodesia from the seaports of Mozambique , with many of the containers bearing metropolitan Portuguese markings . Prominent among the European weapons were FN FAL battle rifles from Belgium , which allowed an unofficial Rhodesian trade delegation to operate quietly in spite of the sanctions .
= = = Carnation Revolution ends Luso @-@ Rhodesian cooperation = = =
Rhodesia 's Lisbon mission remained open throughout the late 1960s and early 1970s , providing a key link between the Rhodesian and Portuguese governments , which remained close . When Rhodesia adopted a republican constitution in 1970 , Portugal bowed to British diplomatic pressure and withdrew its consul @-@ general , João de Freitas Cruz , from Salisbury , but the Rhodesian office in Lisbon remained open . With the Carnation Revolution of 1974 , Portugal 's African policy was suddenly reversed . By contrast to the former authoritarian government , which had been committed to a pluricontinental Portugal , fighting costly wars against independence movements in its African territories to maintain it , the new leftist administration rapidly initiated moves to withdraw from Africa as quickly as possible . Following hurried negotiations between Portugal and the nationalist guerrillas in each territory , both Mozambique and Angola became independent under communist governments in 1975 . Lisbon 's stance on Rhodesia altered accordingly . The Portuguese government ordered the closure of the Rhodesian mission in April 1975 , and simultaneously withdrew its own remaining officials from Rhodesia . The Rhodesian mission in Lisbon formally closed on 1 May 1975 .
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= Mortimer Wheeler =
Sir Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler CH , CIE , MC , TD , FSA , FRS , FBA ( 10 September 1890 – 22 July 1976 ) was a British archaeologist and officer in the British Army . Over the course of his career , he served as Director of both the National Museum of Wales and London Museum , Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , and the founder and Honorary Director of the Institute of Archaeology in London , further writing twenty @-@ four books on archaeological subjects .
Born in Glasgow to a middle @-@ class family , Wheeler was raised largely in Yorkshire before relocating to London in his teenage years . After studying Classics at University College London ( UCL ) , he began working professionally in archaeology , specializing in the Romano @-@ British period . During World War I he volunteered for service in the Royal Artillery , being stationed on the Western Front , where he rose to the rank of major and was awarded the Military Cross . Returning to Britain , he obtained his doctorate from UCL before taking on a position at the National Museum of Wales , first as Keeper of Archaeology and then as Director , during which time he oversaw excavation at the Roman forts of Segontium , Y Gaer , and Isca Augusta with the aid of his first wife , Tessa Wheeler . Influenced by the archaeologist Augustus Pitt Rivers , Wheeler argued that excavation and the recording of stratigraphic context required an increasingly scientific and methodical approach , developing the " Wheeler Method " . In 1926 , he was appointed Keeper of the London Museum ; there , he oversaw a reorganisation of the collection , successfully lobbied for increased funding , and began lecturing at UCL .
In 1934 , he established the Institute of Archaeology as part of the federal University of London , adopting the position of Honorary Director . In this period , he oversaw excavations of the Roman sites at Lydney Park and Verulamium and the Iron Age hill fort of Maidan Castle . During World War II , he re @-@ joined the Armed Forces and rose to the rank of brigadier , serving in the North African Campaign and then the Allied invasion of Italy . In 1944 he was appointed Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , through which he oversaw excavations of sites at Harappa , Arikamedu , and Brahmagiri , and implemented reforms to the subcontinent 's archaeological establishment . Returning to Britain in 1948 , he divided his time between lecturing for the Institute of Archaeology and acting as archaeological adviser to Pakistan 's government . In later life , his popular books , cruise ship lectures , and appearances on radio and television , particularly the BBC series Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? , helped to bring archaeology to a mass audience . Appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , he raised large sums of money for archaeological projects , and was appointed British representative for several UNESCO projects .
Wheeler is recognised as one of the most important British archaeologists of the twentieth century , responsible for successfully encouraging British public interest in the discipline and advancing methodologies of excavation and recording . Further , he is widely acclaimed as a major figure in the establishment of South Asian archaeology . However , many of his specific interpretations of archaeological sites have been discredited or reinterpreted , and he was often criticised for bullying colleagues and sexually harassing young women .
= = Early life = =
= = = Childhood : 1890 – 1907 = = =
Mortimer Wheeler was born on 10 September 1890 in the city of Glasgow , Scotland . He was the first child of the journalist Robert Mortimer Wheeler and his second wife Emily Wheeler ( née Baynes ) . The son of a tea merchant based in Bristol , in youth Robert had considered becoming a Baptist minister , but instead became a staunch freethinker while studying at the University of Edinburgh . Initially working as a lecturer in English literature , Robert turned to journalism after his first wife died in childbirth . His second wife , Emily , shared her husband 's interest in English literature , and was the niece of Thomas Spencer Baynes , a Shakespearean scholar at St. Andrews University . Their marriage was emotionally strained , a situation exacerbated by their financial insecurity . Within two years of their son 's birth , the family moved to Edinburgh , where a daughter named Amy was born . The couple gave their two children nicknames , with Mortimer being " Boberic " and Amy being " Totsy " .
When Wheeler was four , his father was appointed chief leader writer for the Bradford Observer . The family relocated to Saltaire , a village northwest of Bradford , a cosmopolitan city in Yorkshire , northeast England , which was then in the midst of the wool trade boom . Wheeler was inspired by the moors surrounding Saltaire and fascinated by the area 's archaeology . He later wrote about discovering a late prehistoric cup @-@ marked stone , searching for lithics on Ilkley Moor , and digging into a barrow on Baildon Moor . Although suffering from ill health , Emily Wheeler taught her two children with the help of a maid up to the age of seven or eight . Mortimer remained emotionally distant from his mother , instead being far closer to his father , whose company he favoured over that of other children . His father had a keen interest in natural history and a love of fishing and shooting , rural pursuits in which he encouraged Mortimer to take part . Robert acquired many books for his son , particularly on the subject of art history , with Wheeler loving to both read and paint .
In 1899 , Wheeler joined Bradford Grammar School shortly before his ninth birthday , where he proceeded straight to the second form . In 1902 Robert and Emily had a second daughter , whom they named Betty ; Mortimer showed little interest in this younger sister . In 1905 , Robert agreed to take over as head of the London office of his newspaper , by then renamed the Yorkshire Daily Observer , and so the family relocated to the southeast of the city in December , settling into a house named Carlton Lodge on South Croydon Road , West Dulwich . In 1908 they moved to 14 Rollescourt Avenue in nearby Herne Hill . Rather than being sent for a conventional education , when he was 15 Wheeler was instructed to educate himself by spending time in London , where he frequented The National Gallery and the Victoria and Albert Museum .
= = = University and early career : 1907 – 14 = = =
After passing the entrance exam on his second attempt , in 1907 Wheeler was awarded a scholarship to read classical studies at University College London ( UCL ) , commuting daily from his parental home to the university campus in Bloomsbury , central London . At UCL , he was taught by the prominent classicist A. E. Housman . During his undergraduate studies , he became editor of the Union Magazine , for which he produced a number of illustrated cartoons . Increasingly interested in art , he decided to switch from classical studies to a course at UCL 's art school , the Slade School of Fine Art ; he returned to his previous subject after coming to the opinion that – in his words – he never became more than " a conventionally accomplished picture maker " . This interlude had adversely affected his classical studies , and he received a second class BA on graduating .
Wheeler began studying for a Master of Arts degree in classical studies , which he attained in 1912 . During this period , he also gained employment as the personal secretary of the UCL Provost Gregory Foster , although he later criticised Foster for transforming the university from " a college in the truly academic sense [ into ] a hypertrophied monstrosity as little like a college as a plesiosaurus is like a man " . It was also at this time of life that he met and began a relationship with Tessa Verney , a student then studying history at UCL , when they were both serving on the committee of the University College Literary Society .
During his studies , Wheeler had developed his love of archaeology , having joined an excavation of Viroconium Cornoviorum , a Romano @-@ British settlement in Wroxeter , in 1913 . Considering a profession in the discipline , he won a studentship that had been established jointly by the University of London and the Society of Antiquaries in memory of Augustus Wollaston Franks . The prominent archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans doubled the amount of money that went with the studentship . Wheeler 's proposed project had been to analyse Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , and with the grant he funded a trip to the Rhineland in Germany , there studying the Roman pottery housed in local museums ; his research into this subject was never published .
At this period , there were very few jobs available within British archaeology ; as the later archaeologist Stuart Piggott related , " the young Wheeler was looking for a professional job where the profession had yet to be created . " In 1913 Wheeler secured a position as junior investigator for the English Royal Commission on Historical Monuments , who were embarking on a project to assess the state of all structures in the nation that pre @-@ dated 1714 . As part of this , he was first sent to Stebbing in Essex to assess Late Medieval buildings , although once that was accomplished he focused on studying the Romano @-@ British remains of that county . In summer 1914 he married Tessa in a low @-@ key , secular wedding ceremony , before they moved into Wheeler 's parental home in Herne Hill .
= = = First World War : 1914 – 18 = = =
After the United Kingdom 's entry into World War I in 1914 , Wheeler volunteered for the armed forces . Although preferring solitary to group activities , Wheeler found that he greatly enjoyed soldiering . For the next seven months , he was posted as an instructor in the University of London Officer Training Corps . It was during this period , in January 1915 , that a son was born to the Wheelers , and named Michael . Michael was their only child , something that was a social anomaly at the time , although it is unknown if this was by choice or not . In May 1915 , Wheeler transferred to the Royal Field Artillery ( Territorial Force ) and shortly thereafter was appointed captain . In this position he was stationed at various bases across Britain , often bringing his wife and child with him ; his responsibility was as a battery commander , initially of field guns and later of howitzers .
In October 1917 Wheeler was posted to the 76th Army Field Artillery Brigade , one of the Royal Field Artillery brigades under the direct control of the General Officer Commanding , Third Army . The brigade was then stationed in Belgium , where it had been engaged in the Battle of Passchendaele against German troops along the Western Front . There , he was immediately placed in command of an artillery battery , replacing a major who had been poisoned by mustard gas . Being promoted to the rank of acting major , he was part of the Left Group of artillery covering the advancing Allied infantry in the battle . Throughout , he maintained correspondences with his wife , his sister Amy , and his parents . After the Allied victory in the battle , the brigade was transferred to Italy .
Wheeler and the brigade arrived in Italy on 20 November , and proceeded through the Italian Riviera to reach Caporetto , where it had been sent to bolster the Italian troops against a German and Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . As the Russian Republic removed itself from the war , the German Army refocused its efforts on the Western Front , and so in March 1918 Wheeler 's brigade was ordered to leave Italy , getting a train from Castelfranco to Vieux Rouen in France . Back on the Western Front , the brigade was assigned to the 2nd Division , again part of Julian Byng 's Third Army , reaching a stable area of the front in April . Here , Wheeler was engaged in artillery fire for several months , before the British went on the offensive in August . On 24 August , in between the ruined villages of Achiet and Sapignies , he led an expedition which captured two German field guns while under heavy fire from a castle mound ; he was later awarded the Military Cross for this action . Wheeler continued as part of the British forces pushing westward until the German surrender in November 1918 . He was not demobilised for several months , instead being stationed at Pulheim in Germany until March ; during this time he wrote up his earlier research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , making use of access to local museums , before returning to London in July 1919 .
= = Career = =
= = = National Museum of Wales : 1919 – 26 = = =
On returning to London , Wheeler moved into a top @-@ floor flat near Gordon Square with his wife and child . He returned to working for the Royal Commission , examining and cataloguing the historic structures of Essex . In doing so , he produced his first publication , an academic paper on Colchester 's Roman Balkerne Gate which was published in the Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society in 1920 . He soon followed this with two papers in the Journal of Roman Studies ; the first offered a wider analysis of Roman Colchester , while the latter outlined his discovery of the vaulting for the city 's Temple of Claudius which was destroyed by Boudica 's revolt . In doing so , he developed a reputation as a Roman archaeologist in Britain . He then submitted his research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pots to the University of London , on the basis of which he was awarded his Doctorate of Letters ; thenceforth until his knighthood he styled himself as Dr Wheeler . He was unsatisfied with his job in the Commission , unhappy that he was receiving less pay and a lower status than he had had in the army , and so began to seek out alternative employment .
He obtained a post as the Keeper of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales , a job that also entailed becoming a lecturer in archaeology at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire . Taking up this position , he moved to Cardiff with his family in August 1920 , although he initially disliked the city . The museum was in disarray ; prior to the war , construction had begun on a new purpose @-@ built building to house the collections . This had ceased during the conflict and the edifice was left abandoned during Cardiff 's post @-@ war economic slump . Wheeler recognised that Wales was very divided regionally , with many Welsh people having little loyalty to Cardiff ; thus , he made a point of touring the country , lecturing to local societies about archaeology . According to the later archaeologist Lydia C. Carr , the Wheelers ' work for the cause of the museum was part of a wider " cultural @-@ nationalist movement " linked to growing Welsh nationalism during this period ; for instance , the Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru was founded in 1925 .
Wheeler was impatient to start excavations , and in July 1921 started a six @-@ week project to excavate at the Roman fort of Segontium ; accompanied by his wife , he used up his holiday to oversee the project . A second season of excavation at the site followed in 1922 . Greatly influenced by the writings of the archaeologist Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , Wheeler emphasised the need for a strong , developed methodology when undertaking an archaeological excavation , believing in the need for strategic planning , or what he termed " controlled discovery " , with clear objectives in mind for a project . Further emphasising the importance of prompt publication of research results , he wrote full seasonal reports for Archaeologia Cambrensis before publishing a full report , Segontium and the Roman Occupation of Wales . Wheeler was keen on training new generations of archaeologists , and two of the most prominent students to excavate with him at Segontium were Victor Nash @-@ Williams and Ian Richmond .
Over the field seasons of 1924 and 1925 , Wheeler ran excavations of the Roman fort of Y Gaer near Brecon , a project aided by his wife and two archaeological students , Nowell Myres and Christopher Hawkes . During this project , he was visited by the prominent Egyptologist Sir Flinders Petrie and his wife Hilda Petrie ; Wheeler greatly admired Petrie 's emphasis on strong archaeological methodologies . Wheeler published the results of his excavation in The Roman Fort Near Brecon . He then began excavations at Isca Augusta , a Roman site in Caerleon , where he focused on revealing the Roman amphitheatre . Intent on attracting press attention to both raise public awareness of archaeology and attract new sources of funding , he contacted the press and organised a sponsorship of the excavation by the middle @-@ market newspaper the Daily Mail . In doing so , he emphasised the folkloric and legendary associations that the site had with King Arthur . In 1925 , Oxford University Press published Wheeler 's first book for a general audience , Prehistoric and Roman Wales ; he later expressed the opinion that it was not a good book .
In 1924 , the Director of the National Museum of Wales , William Evans Hoyle , resigned amid ill health . Wheeler applied to take on the role of his replacement , providing supportive testimonials from Charles Reed Peers , Robert Bosanquet , and H. J. Fleure . Although he had no prior museum experience , he was successful in his application and was appointed Director . He then employed a close friend , Cyril Fox , to take on the vacated position of Keeper of Archaeology . Wheeler 's proposed reforms included extending the institution 's reach and influence throughout Wales by building affiliations with regional museums , and focusing on fundraising to finance the completion of the new museum premises . He obtained a £ 21 @,@ 367 donation from the wealthy shipowner William Reardon Smith and appointed Smith to be the museum 's treasurer , and also travelled to Whitehall , London , where he successfully urged the British Treasury to provide further funding for the museum . As a result , construction on the museum 's new building was able to continue , and it was officially opened by King George V in 1927 .
= = = London Museum : 1926 – 33 = = =
Upon the retirement of the Keeper of the London Museum , Harmon Oates , Wheeler was invited to fill the vacancy . He had been considering a return to London for some time and eagerly agreed , taking on the post , which was based at Lancaster House in the St James 's area , in July 1926 . In Wales , many felt that Wheeler had simply taken the directorship of the National Museum to advance his own career prospects , and that he had abandoned them when a better offer came along . Wheeler himself disagreed , believing that he had left Fox at the Museum as his obvious successor , and that the reforms he had implemented would therefore continue . The position initially provided Wheeler with an annual salary of £ 600 , which resulted in a decline in living standards for his family , who moved into a flat near to Victoria Station .
Tessa 's biographer L.C. Carr later commented that together , the Wheelers " professionalized the London Museum " . Wheeler expressed his opinion that the museum " had to be cleaned , expurgated , and catalogued ; in general , turned from a junk shop into a tolerably rational institution " . Focusing on reorganising the exhibits and developing a more efficient method of cataloguing the artefacts , he also authored A Short Guide to the Collections , before using the items in the museum to write three books : London and the Vikings , London and the Saxons , and London and the Romans . Upon his arrival , the Treasury allocated the museum an annual budget of £ 5 @,@ 000 , which Wheeler deemed insufficient for its needs . In 1930 , Wheeler persuaded them to increase that budget , as he highlighted increasing visitor numbers , publications , and acquisitions , as well as a rise in the number of educational projects . With this additional funding , he was able to employ more staff and increase his own annual salary to £ 900 .
Soon after joining the museum , Wheeler was elected to the council of the Society of Antiquaries . Through the Society , he became involved in the debate as to who should finance archaeological supervision of building projects in Greater London ; his argument was that the City of London Corporation should provide the funding , although in 1926 it was agreed that the Society itself would employ a director of excavation based in Lancaster House to take on the position . Also involved in the largely moribund Royal Archaeological Institute , Wheeler organised its relocation to Lancaster House . In 1927 , Wheeler took on an unpaid lectureship at University College London , where he established a graduate diploma course on archaeology ; one of the first to enroll was Stuart Piggott . In 1928 , Wheeler curated an exhibit at UCL on " Recent Work in British Archaeology " , for which he attracted much press attention .
Wheeler was keen to continue archaeological fieldwork outside London , undertaking excavations every year from 1926 to 1939 . After completing his excavation of the Carlaeon amphitheatre in 1928 , he began fieldwork at the Roman settlement and temple in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , having been invited to do so by the aristocratic landowner , Charles Bathurst . It was during these investigations that Wheeler personally discovered the Lydney Hoard of coinage . Wheeler and his wife jointly published their excavation report in 1932 as Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric , Roman and Post @-@ Roman Site in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , which Piggott noted had " set the pattern " for all Wheeler 's future excavation reports .
From there , Wheeler was invited to direct a Society of Antiquaries excavation at the Roman settlement of Verulamium , which existed on land recently acquired by the Corporation of St Albans . He took on this role for four seasons from 1930 to 1933 , before leaving a fifth season of excavation under the control of the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon and the architect A. W. G. Lowther . Wheeler enjoyed the opportunity to excavate at a civilian as opposed to military site , and also liked its proximity to his home in London . He was particularly interested in searching for a pre @-@ Roman Iron Age oppidum at the site , noting that the existence of a nearby Catuvellauni settlement was attested to in both classical texts and numismatic evidence . With Wheeler focusing his attention on potential Iron Age evidence , Tessa concentrated on excavating the inside of the city walls ; Wheeler had affairs with at least three assistants during the project . After Tessa wrote two interim reports , the final excavation report was finally published in 1936 as Verulamium : A Belgic and Two Roman Cities , jointly written by Wheeler and his wife . The report resulted in the first major published criticism of Wheeler , produced by the young archaeologist Nowell Myres in a review for Antiquity ; although stating that there was much to praise about the work , he critiqued Wheeler 's selective excavation , dubious dating , and guesswork . Wheeler responded with a piece in which he defended his work and launched a personal attack on both Myres and Myres 's employer , Christ Church , Oxford .
= = = Institute of Archaeology : 1934 – 39 = = =
Wheeler had long desired to establish an academic institution devoted to archaeology that could be based in London . He hoped that it could become a centre in which to establish the professionalisation of archaeology as a discipline , with systematic training of students in methodological techniques of excavation and conservation and recognised professional standards ; in his words , he hoped " to convert archaeology into a discipline worthy of that name in all senses " . He further described his intention that the Institute should become " a laboratory : a laboratory of archaeological science " . Many archaeologists shared his hopes , and to this end Petrie had donated much of his collection of Near Eastern artefacts to Wheeler , in the hope that it would be included in such an institution . Wheeler was later able to persuade the University of London , a federation of institutions across the capital , to support the venture , and both he and Tessa began raising funds from wealthy backers . In 1934 , the Institute of Archaeology was officially opened , albeit at this point without premises or academic staff ; the first students to enroll were Rachel Clay and Barbara Parker , who went on to have careers in the discipline . While Wheeler – who was still Keeper of the London Museum – took on the role of Honorary Director of the Institute , he installed the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon as secretary of the Management Committee , describing her as " a level @-@ headed person , with useful experience " .
After ending his work at Verulamium , Wheeler turned his attention to the late Iron Age hill @-@ fort of Maidan Castle near to Dorchester , Dorset , where he excavated for four seasons from 1934 to 1937 . Co @-@ directed by Wheeler , Tessa , and the Curator of Dorset County Museum , Charles Drew , the project was carried out under the joint auspices of the Society of Antiquaries and the Dorset Field Club . With around 100 assistants each season , the dig constituted the largest excavation that had been conducted in Britain up to that point , with Wheeler organising weekly meetings with the press to inform them about any discoveries . His excavation report was published in 1943 as Maidan Castle , Dorset . The report 's publication allowed further criticism to be voiced of Wheeler 's approach and interpretations ; in his review of the book , the archaeologist W. F. Grimes criticised the highly selective nature of the excavation , noting that Wheeler had not asked questions regarding the socio @-@ economic issues of the community at Maidan Castle , aspects of past societies that had come to be of increasing interest to British archaeology . Over coming decades , as further excavations were carried out at the site and archaeologists developed a greater knowledge of Iron Age Britain , much of Wheeler 's interpretation of the site and its development was shown to be wrong , in particular by the work of the archaeologist Niall Sharples .
In 1936 , Wheeler embarked on a visit to the Near East , sailing from Marseilles to Port Said , where he visited the Old Kingdom tombs of Sakkara . From there he went via Sinai to Palestine , Lebanon , and Syria . During this trip , he visited various archaeological projects , but was dismayed by the quality of their excavations ; in particular , he noted that the American @-@ run excavation at Tel Megiddo was adopting standards that had been rejected in Britain twenty @-@ five years previously . He was away for six weeks , and upon his return to Europe discovered that his wife Tessa had died of a pulmonary embolism after a minor operation on her toe . According to Tessa 's biographer , for Wheeler this discovery was " the peak of mental misery , and marked the end of his ability to feel a certain kind of love " . That winter , his father also died . By the summer of 1937 , he had embarked on a new romance , with a young woman named Mavis de Vere Cole , who had first met Wheeler when visiting the Maidan Castle excavations with her then @-@ lover , the painter Augustus John . After she eventually agreed to his repeated requests for marriage , the two were wedded early in 1939 in a ceremony held at Caxton Hall , with a reception at Shelley House . They proceeded on a honeymoon to the Middle East .
After a search that had taken several years , Wheeler was able to secure a premises for the Institute of Archaeology : St. John 's Lodge in Regent 's Park , central London . Left empty since its use as a hospital during the First World War , the building was owned by the Crown and was controlled by the First Commissioner of Works , William Ormsby @-@ Gore ; he was very sympathetic to archaeology , and leased the building to the Institute at a low rent . The St. John 's Lodge premises were officially opened on 29 April 1937 . During his speech at the ceremony , the University of London 's Vice @-@ Chancellor Charles Reed Peers made it clear that the building was only intended as a temporary home for the Institute , which it was hoped would be able to move to Bloomsbury , the city 's academic hub . In his speech , the university 's Chancellor , Alexander Cambridge , 1st Earl of Athlone , compared the new institution to both the Institute of Historical Research and the Courtauld Institute of Art .
Wheeler had also become President of the Museums Association , and in a presidential address given in Belfast talked on the topic of preserving museum collections in war time , believing that Britain 's involvement in a second European conflict was imminent . In anticipation of this event , in August 1939 he arranged for the London Museum to place many of its most important collections into safe keeping . He was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Bristol University , and at the award ceremony met the Conservative Party politician Winston Churchill , who was then engaged in writing his multi @-@ volume A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples ; Churchill asked Wheeler to aid him in writing about late prehistoric and early medieval Britain , to which the latter agreed .
After Maidan Castle , Wheeler turned his attention to France , where the archaeological investigation of Iron Age sites had lagged behind developments in Britain . There , he oversaw a series of surveys and excavations with the aid of Leslie Scott , beginning with a survey tour of Brittany in the winter of 1936 – 37 . After this , Wheeler decided to excavate the oppidum at Camp d 'Artus , near Huelgoat , Finistère . In addition to bringing many British archaeologists to work on the site , he hired six local Breton workmen to assist the project , coming to the belief that the oppidum had been erected by local Iron Age tribes to defend themselves from the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar . Meanwhile , Scott had been placed in charge of an excavation at the smaller nearby hill fort of Kercaradec , near Quimper . In July 1939 , the project focused its attention on Normandy , with excavations beginning at the Iron Age hill forts of Camp de Canada and Duclair . They were brought to an abrupt halt in September 1939 as the Second World War broke out in Europe , and the team evacuated back to Britain . Wheeler 's excavation report , co @-@ written with Katherine Richardson , was eventually published as Hill @-@ forts of Northern France in 1957 .
= = = Second World War : 1939 – 45 = = =
Wheeler had been expecting and openly hoping for war with Nazi Germany for a year prior to the outbreak of hostilities ; he believed that the United Kingdom 's involvement in the conflict would remedy the shame that he thought had been brought upon the country by its signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938 . Volunteering for the armed services , he was assigned to assemble the 48th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery at Enfield , where he set about recruiting volunteers , including his son . As the 48th swelled in size , it was converted into the 42nd Mobile Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in the Royal Artillery , which consisted of four batteries and was led by Wheeler – now promoted to the rank of colonel – as Commanding Officer . Given the nickname of " Flash Alf " by those serving under him , he was recognised by colleagues as a ruthless disciplinarian and was blamed by many for the death of one of his soldiers from influenza during training . Having been appointed secretary of the Society of Antiquaries in 1939 and then director in 1940 , he travelled to London to deal with society affairs on various occasions . In 1941 Wheeler was awarded a Fellowship of the British Academy . Cole had meanwhile entered into an affair with a man named Clive Entwistle , who lambasted Wheeler as " that whiskered baboon " . When Wheeler discovered Entwistle in bed with his wife , he initiated divorce proceedings that were finalised in March 1942 .
In the summer of 1941 , Wheeler and three of his batteries were assigned to fight against German and Italian forces in the North African Campaign . In September , they set sail from Glasgow aboard the RMS Empress of Russia ; because the Mediterranean was controlled largely by enemy naval forces , they were forced to travel via the Cape of Good Hope , before taking shore leave in Durban . There , Wheeler visited the local kraals to compare them with the settlements of Iron Age Britain . The ship docked in Aden , where Wheeler and his men again took shore leave . They soon reached the British @-@ controlled Suez , where they disembarked and were stationed on the shores of the Great Bitter Lake . There , Wheeler took a brief leave of absence to travel to Jerusalem , where he visited Petrie on his hospital deathbed . Back in Egypt , he gained permission to fly as a front gunner in a Wellington bomber on a bombing raid against Axis forces , to better understand what it was like for aircrew to be fired on by an anti @-@ aircraft battery .
Serving with the Eighth Army , Wheeler was present in North Africa when the Axis armies pushed the Allies back to El Alamein . He was also part of the Allied counter @-@ push , taking part in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance on Axis @-@ held Tripoli . On the way he became concerned that the archaeological sites of North Africa were being threatened both by the fighting and the occupying forces . After the British secured control of Libya , Wheeler visited Tripoli and Leptis Magna , where he found that Roman remains had been damaged and vandalised by British troops ; he brought about reforms to prevent this , lecturing to the troops on the importance of preserving archaeology , making many monuments out @-@ of @-@ bounds , and ensuring that the Royal Air Force changed its plans to construct a radar station in the midst of a Roman settlement . Aware that the British were planning to invade and occupy the Italian island of Sicily , he insisted that measures be introduced to preserve the historic and archaeological monuments on the island .
Promoted to the rank of brigadier , after the German surrender in North Africa , Wheeler was sent to Algiers where he was part of the staff committee planning the invasion of Italy . There , he learned that the India Office had requested that the army relieve him of his duties to permit him to be appointed Director General of Archaeology in India . Although he had never been to the country , he agreed that he would take the job on the condition that he be permitted to take part in the invasion of Italy first . As intended , Wheeler and his 12th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade then took part in the invasion of Sicily and then mainland Italy , where they were ordered to use their anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect the British 10th Corps . As the Allies advanced north through Italy , Wheeler spent time in Naples and then Capri , where he met various aristocrats who had anti @-@ fascist sympathies .
Wheeler left Italy in November 1943 and returned to London . There , he resigned as the director of the London Museum and focused on organising the Institute of Archaeology , preparing it for its adoption of a new director , V. Gordon Childe , after the war . He also resigned as director of the Society of Antiquaries , but was appointed the group 's representative to the newly formed Council for British Archaeology . He developed a relationship with a woman named Kim Collingridge , and asked her to marry him . As she was a devout Roman Catholic , he officially converted to the religion , something which shocked many of his friends , who believed that he was being dishonest because he did not genuinely believe in the doctrines of the faith . He then set sail for Bombay aboard a transport ship , the City of Exeter , in February 1944 .
= = = Archaeological Survey of India : 1944 – 48 = = =
Wheeler arrived in Bombay in the spring of 1944 . There , he was welcomed by the city 's governor , John Colville , before heading by train to Delhi and then Simla , where the headquarters of the Archaeological Survey of India were located . Wheeler had been suggested for the job by Archibald Wavell , the Viceroy of India , who had been acting on the recommendations of the archaeologist Leonard Woolley , who had authored a report lamenting the state of the archaeological establishment in the British @-@ controlled subcontinent . Wheeler recognised this state of affairs , in a letter to a friend complaining about the lack of finances and equipment , commenting that " We 're back in 1850 " . He initially found much to dislike in India , and in his letters to friends in Britain expressed derogatory and racist sentiments toward Indians : he stated that " they feed wrongly and think wrongly and live wrongly ... I already find myself regarding them as ill @-@ made clockwork toys rather than as human beings , and I find myself bullying them most brutally . " He expelled those staff members whom he deemed too idle , and physically beat others in an attempt to motivate them .
From the beginning of his tenure , he sought to distance himself from previous Director @-@ Generals and their administrations by criticising them in print and attempting to introduce new staff who had no loyalty to his predecessors . Assigned with a four @-@ year contract , Wheeler attempted to recruit two archaeologists from Britain , Glyn Daniel and Stuart Piggott , to aid him in reforming the Archaeological Survey , although they declined the offer . He then toured the subcontinent , seeking to meet all of the Survey 's staff members . He had drawn up a prospectus containing research questions that he wanted the Survey to focus on ; these included understanding the period between the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and the Achaemenid Empire , discerning the socio @-@ cultural background to the Vedas , dating the Aryan invasion , and establishing a dating system for southern India prior to the sixth century CE . During his time in office he also achieved a 25 per cent budget increase for the Archaeological Survey , and convinced the government to agree to the construction of a National Museum of Archaeology , to be built in New Delhi .
In October 1944 , he opened his six @-@ month archaeological field school in Taxila , where he instructed various students from across India in the methodologies of the discipline . Wheeler became very fond of his students , with one of them , B. B. Lal , later commenting that " behind the gruff exterior , Sir Mortimer had a very kind and sympathetic heart " . Throughout his period in India , his students were some of the only individuals to whom Wheeler warmed ; more widely , he was annoyed by what he saw as the idleness , incompetence and corruption of Indian society . Initially focusing on the northwest of the subcontinent , Wheeler was particularly fascinated by the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization . On his initial inspection of the Indus Valley sites of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa , he organised a very brief excavation which revealed fortifications around both settlements . He later led a more detailed excavation at Harappa , where he exposed further fortifications and established a stratigraphy for the settlement .
Turning his attention to southern India , Wheeler discovered remnants of a Roman amphora in a museum , and began excavations at Arikamedu , revealing a port from the first century CE which had traded in goods from the Roman Empire . The excavation had been plagued by severe rains and tropical heat , although it was during the excavation that World War II ended ; in celebration , Wheeler gave all his workers an extra rupee for the day . It has since been alleged that while Wheeler took credit for discovering the significance of this site , it had previously been established by A. Aiyappan , the Superintendent of the Government Museum in Madras , and the French archaeologist Jouveau Dubreuil , with Wheeler intentionally ignoring their contribution . He later undertook excavations of six megalithic tombs in Brahmagiri , Mysore , which enabled him to gain a chronology for the archaeology of much of southern India .
Wheeler established a new archaeological journal , Ancient India , planning for it to be published twice a year . He had trouble securing printing paper and faced various delays ; the first issue was released in January 1946 , and he would release three further volumes during his stay . Wheeler married Kim Collingridge in Simla , before he and his wife took part in an Indian Cultural Mission to Iran . The Indian government had deemed Wheeler ideal to lead the group , which departed via train to Zahidan before visiting Persepolis , Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , Pasargadae , and Kashan . Wheeler enjoyed the trip , and was envious of Tehran 's archaeological museum and library , which was far in advance of anything then found in India . Crossing into Iraq , in Baghdad the team caught a flight back to Delhi . In 1946 , he was involved in a second cultural mission , this time to Afghanistan , where he expressed a particular interest in the kingdom of ancient Bactria and visited the archaeology of Balkh .
Wheeler was present during the 1947 Partition of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India and the accompanying ethnic violence between Hindu and Muslim communities . He was unhappy with how these events had affected the Archaeological Survey , complaining that some of his finest students and staff were now citizens of Pakistan and no longer able to work for him . He was based in New Delhi when the city was rocked by sectarian violence , and attempted to help many of his Muslim staff members escape from the Hindu @-@ majority city unharmed . He further helped smuggle Muslim families out of the city hospital , where they had taken refuge from a violent Hindu mob . As India neared independence from the British Empire , the political situation had changed significantly ; by October 1947 he was one of the last British individuals in a high @-@ up position within the country 's governing establishment , and recognised that many Indian nationalists wanted him to also leave .
As their relationship had become increasingly strained , his wife had left and returned to Britain . Although hoping to leave his post in India several months early , he was concerned for his economic prospects , and desperately searched for a new job position . Through friends in the British archaeological community , he was offered a job as the Secretary of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments for Wales , although he was upset that this would mean a drop in his professional status and income and decided to turn it down . Instead , he agreed to take up a chair in the Archaeology of the Roman Provinces at the Institute of Archaeology . In addition , the Pakistani Minister of Education invited him to become the Archaeological Adviser to the Pakistani government ; he agreed to also take up this position , on the condition that he would only spend several months in the country each year over the next three .
= = Later life = =
= = = Between Britain and Pakistan : 1948 – 52 = = =
Returning to London , Wheeler moved into the Hallam Street flat where his son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law were living . Wheeler and the latter disliked each other , and so in summer 1950 he moved out and began renting an apartment in Mount Street . A year later he moved into his wife 's house in Mallord Street , in an unsuccessful hope of reigniting their relationship . Taking up his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology , he began to lecture to students almost every day . There , he found that he developed a relationship of mutual respect with the director , Childe , despite their strong personal and professional differences . In April 1949 , after the retirement of Cyril Fox , Wheeler was nominated for the Presidency of the Society of Antiquaries , but lost to James Mann ; many archaeologists , including Childe and O. G. S. Crawford , resigned from the Society in protest , deeming Wheeler to have been a far more appropriate candidate for the position . Wheeler was nevertheless elected director of the Society . In 1950 he was awarded the Petrie Medal , and in 1952 was knighted . That same year he was invited to give the Norton lectures for the Archaeological Institute of America , and while in the United States was also awarded the Lucy Wharton Drexel medal at Pennsylvania . He nevertheless disliked the country , and in later life exhibited anti @-@ Americanism .
Wheeler spent three months in Pakistan during early 1949 , where he was engaged in organising the fledgling Pakistani Archaeological Department with the aid of former members of the Archaeological Survey and new students whom he recruited . The Minister of Education , Fazlur Rahman , was sympathetic to Wheeler 's plans , and the government agreed to establish a National Museum of Pakistan in Karachi , which opened in April 1950 . Wheeler himself was appointed the first President of the Pakistani Museums Association , and found himself as a mediator in the arguments between India and Pakistan over the redistribution of archaeological and historic artefacts following the partition . He also wrote a work of archaeological propaganda for the newly formed state , Five Thousand Years of Pakistan ( 1950 ) .
To instruct new Pakistani students in the methods of archaeology , in early 1950 Wheeler ran a training excavation at Mohenjo @-@ daro ; there , he was joined by the British student Leslie Alcock , who spoke both Punjabi and Urdu and who was appointed a site supervisor by Wheeler . This excavation proved to be the only one for which Wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . Instead , he made reference to its findings in his book The Indus Civilization , published as part of the series The Cambridge History of India . His relationship with the Pakistani government had become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year .
Wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in Britain . Based on the one he had organised in India , Wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at Verulamium in the summer of 1949 to instruct British students in the methodologies of excavation . In summer 1950 , he was invited by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments to direct a trial excavation at Bindon Hill in Dorset . It was a leisurely project which he treated as a seaside holiday . He was invited by the Ancient Monuments Department of the Ministry of Works to excavate the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications in North Riding , Yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . Aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the British archaeological scene , he was joined by Alcock and Alcock 's wife , among others . Wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 .
In 1949 Wheeler was appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy after Frederic G. Kenyon stepped down from the position . According to Piggott , the institution had " unhappily drifted into senility without the excuse of being venerable " , and Wheeler devoted much time attempting to revitalise the organisation and ensured that Charles Webster was appointed President . Together , Wheeler and Webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the Academy , increasing the number of Fellows who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation 's council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and though defeated in 1951 , Wheeler and Webster were able to push it through in 1952 . In doing so , Piggott stated , Wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @-@ perpetuating gerontocracy " . To aid him in these projects , Wheeler employed a personal assistant , Molly Myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life .
= = = Popular fame : 1952 – 69 = = =
In 1956 , Wheeler retired from his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology . Childe was also retiring from his position of director that year , and Wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . Wheeler vocally opposed the nomination of W.F. Grimes , deeming his career undistinguished ; instead , he championed Glyn Daniel as a candidate , although ultimately Grimes was selected . That year , Wheeler 's marriage broke down , and he moved from his wife 's house to a former brothel at 27 Whitcomb Street in central London . From 1954 to 1959 , he served as the President of the Society of Antiquaries , and after resigning supported Ian Richmond as his replacement ; however , Joan Evans was selected . From 1964 to 1966 he served as Chairman of the Ancient Monuments Board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old for the role . In December 1963 , Wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospitalised for over a month . In November 1967 , Wheeler became a Companion of Honour , and in 1968 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society .
= = = = Media fame and public archaeology = = = =
Wheeler became famous in Britain as " the embodiment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . In 1952 , Wheeler was invited to be a panelist on the new BBC television series , Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? . Based on the American quiz programme What in the World ? , the show was hosted by Glyn Daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which had been selected from various museums . However , Wheeler is alleged to have prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects had been temporarily removed from display . The show proved popular with British audiences , and would air for six more years . It brought Wheeler to public attention , resulting in a Television Personality of the Year award for him in 1954 . He also appeared in an episode of Buried Treasure , an archaeology show also hosted by Daniel , in which the pair travelled to Denmark to discuss Tollund Man . In 1957 , he appeared in a second episode of Buried Treasure , for which he travelled to Pakistan to discuss that nation 's archaeology , and in 1958 again appeared in an episode , this time on the site of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Rhodesia . In 1959 he presented his own three @-@ part series on The Grandeur That Was Rome , for which he travelled to Hadrian 's Wall , Pompeii , and Leptis Magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was Wheeler 's last major foray into television . Meanwhile , he also made appearances on BBC radio , initially featuring on the John Irving series The Archaeologist , but later presenting his own eight @-@ part series on Roman Britain and also appearing on the series Asian Club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the Indian subcontinent .
From 1954 onward , Wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . Oxford University Press also published two of his books in 1954 . The first was a book on archaeological methodologies , Archaeology from the Earth , which was translated into various languages . The second was Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier , discussing evidence for Roman activity at sites like Arikamedu and Segontium . In 1955 Wheeler released his episodic autobiography , Still Digging , which had sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . In 1959 , Wheeler wrote Early India and Pakistan , which was published as part as Daniel 's " Ancient Peoples and Places " series for Thames and Hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions .
He authored the section entitled " Ancient India " for Piggott 's edited volume The Dawn of Civilisation , which was published by Thames and Hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for Roger Wood 's photography book Roman Africa in Colour , which was also published by Thames and Hudson . He then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " New Aspects of Antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . The rival publisher Weidenfeld & Nicolson had also persuaded Wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , Splendours of the East . They also published his 1968 book Flames Over Persopolis , in which Wheeler discussed Persopolis and the Persian Empire in the year that it was conquered by Alexander the Great .
In 1954 , the tour company R.K. Swan invited Wheeler to provide lectures on the archaeology of ancient Greece aboard their Hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . In 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent for the rival tour company Fairways and Swinford . After Swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their Hellenic Cruise division , he made two fortnight tours a year , in spring and summer . In late 1969 he conducted the Swans tour to the Indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as Ceylon . During this period , Wheeler had kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in India and Pakistan , helping to secure them work and funding where possible .
Wheeler had continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the Somme and Pas de Calais where he sought to obtain more information on the French Iron Age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . Pakistan 's Ministry of Education invited Wheeler to return to their country in October 1956 . Here , he undertook test excavations at Charsada to determine a chronology of the site . In 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of President of the Camelot Research Committee , which had been established to promote the findings of excavations at Cadbury Castle in Somerset run by his friends Ralegh Radford and Alcock ; the project ended in 1970 . He also agreed to sit as Chairman of the Archaeological Committee overseeing excavations at York Minster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . Wheeler had also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . While he had become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocally criticising the British Museum as " a mountainous corpse " , lambasting it as being poorly managed and overcrowded with artefacts . The BBC staged a public debate with the museum director Frank Francis .
= = = = British Academy and UNESCO = = = =
As Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , Wheeler focused on increasing the organisation 's revenues , thus enabling it to expand its remit . He developed personal relationships with various employees at the British Treasury , and offered the Academy 's services as an intermediary in dealing with the Egypt Exploration Society , the British School at Athens , the British School at Rome , the British School at Ankara , the British School in Iraq , and the British School at Jerusalem , all of which were then directly funded independently by the Treasury . Accepting this offer , the Treasury agreed to double its funding of the Academy to £ 5 @,@ 000 a year . Approaching various charitable foundations , from 1955 Wheeler also secured funding from both the Pilgrim Trust and the Nuffield Foundation , and in 1957 then secured additional funding from the Rockefeller Foundation .
With this additional money , the Academy was able to organise a survey of the state of the humanities and social sciences in the United Kingdom , authoring a report that was published by Oxford University Press in 1961 as Research in the Humanities and the Social Sciences . On the basis of this report , Wheeler was able to secure a dramatic rise in funding from the British Treasury ; they increased their annual grant to £ 25 @,@ 000 , and promised that this would increase to £ 50 @,@ 000 shortly after . According to his later biographer Jacquetta Hawkes , in doing so Wheeler raised the position of the Academy to that of " the main source of official patronage for the humanities " within the United Kingdom , while Piggott stated that he set the organisation upon its " modern course " .
To improve Britain 's cultural influence abroad , Wheeler had been urging the establishment of a British Institute of History and Archaeology in East Africa , touring East Africa itself in August 1955 . In 1956 the Academy requested £ 6 @,@ 000 from the Treasury to fund this new institution , to which they eventually agreed in 1959 . The Institute was initially established in Dar es Salaam in 1961 , although later relocated to Nairobi . Meanwhile , Wheeler had also been campaigning for the establishment of a British Institute of Persian Studies , a project which was supported by the British Embassy in Tehran ; they hoped that it would rival the successful French Institute in the city . In 1960 , the Treasury agreed , with the new institution being housed on the premises of the University of Tehran . He further campaigned for the establishment of a British Institute in Japan , although these ideas were scrapped amid the British financial crisis of 1967 .
Wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these British institutions abroad ; in 1967 he visited the British School in Jerusalem amid the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours , and in January 1968 visited the Persian institute with the archaeologist Max Mallowan and Mallowan 's wife Agatha Christie , there inspecting the excavations at Siraf . In 1969 he proceeded to the Italian city of Rome to inspect the British School there . That year , he resigned as Honorary Secretary of the Academy . The position became a salaried , professional one , with the numismatist Derek Allen taking on the position .
Recognising his stature within the archaeological establishment , the government appointed Wheeler as the British representative on a UNESCO project to undertake a programme of rescue archaeology in the Nile Valley ahead of the construction of the Aswan Dam , which was going to flood large areas of Egypt and Sudan . Personally securing UK funding for the project , he deemed it an issue of national and personal shame when he was unable to persuade the British government to supply additional funding for the relocation of the Abu Simbel temples . In October 1968 , he took part in a UNESCO visit to Pakistan to assess the state of Mohenjo @-@ daro , writing the project 's report on how the archaeological site could best be preserved . His involvement with UNESCO continued for the rest of his life , and in March 1973 he was invited to the organisation 's conference in Paris .
= = = Final years : 1970 – 76 = = =
During his final years , Wheeler remained involved in various activities , for instance sitting on the advisory panel of the Antiquity journal and the Management Committee of the Royal Archaeological Institute . In March 1971 , the archaeologist Barry Cunliffe and a number of his undergraduate students at the University of Southampton organised a conference on the subject of " The Iron Age and its Hillforts " to celebrate Wheeler 's eightieth birthday . Wheeler attended the event , whose conference proceedings were published as a festschrift for the octogenarian . In spring 1973 , Wheeler returned to BBC television for two episodes of the archaeology @-@ themed series Chronicle in which he discussed his life and career . The episodes were well received , and Wheeler became a close friend of the show 's producer , David Collison .
In the 1970s , Wheeler became increasingly forgetful and came to rely largely on his assistant , Molly Myres , to organise his affairs . Amid increasing ill health , in September 1973 he moved full @-@ time into Myres 's house in Leatherhead , Surrey , although he continued to use his central London flat during day @-@ trips to the city . There , he authored a final book , My Archaeological Mission to India and Pakistan , although much of the text was culled from his previous publications ; it was published by Thames and Hudson in 1976 . After suffering a stroke , Wheeler died at Myers ' home on 22 July 1976 . In memoriam , the British Academy , Royal Academy , and Royal Society flew their flags at half @-@ mast . Wheeler 's funeral was held with military trappings at a local crematorium , while a larger memorial service was held in St James 's Church , Piccadilly in November .
= = Personal life = =
Wheeler was known as " Rik " among friends . He divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others despising him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . The archaeologist Max Mallowan asserted that he " was a delightful , light @-@ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . His charm offensives were often condemned as being insincere . During excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to his authority . Hence , he has been termed " a benevolent dictator " . He was meticulous in his writings , and would repeatedly revise and rewrite both pieces for publication and personal letters . Throughout his life , he was a heavy smoker .
Wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . Despite not taking a strong interest in politics , Wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the Suffragettes and their cause of greater legal rights for women . Nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " , something that may have been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . He expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties .
Wheeler was married three times . In May 1914 , Wheeler married Tessa Verney . Tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . Their only child , a son Michael , was born in January 1915 ; he became a barrister . Following Tessa 's death , in 1939 , Wheeler married Mavis de Vere Cole , although their relationship was strained ; Cole 's diaries revealed that Wheeler physically hit her when she annoyed him . In 1945 Mortimer Wheeler married his third wife , Margaret " Kim " Collingridge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout Catholicism . Meanwhile , Wheeler was well known for his conspicuous promiscuity , favouring young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . He was further known for having casual sex in public places . This behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and mistresses , of which he was aware . As a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist Gabriel Moshenska informed a reporter from the Daily Mail that Wheeler had developed a reputation as " a bit of a groper and a sex pest and an incredible bully as well " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Wheeler has been termed " the most famous British archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists Gabriel Moshenska and Tim Schadla @-@ Hall . Highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout British society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a showman 's willingness to package and sell the past " . This was an issue about which Wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society , the English archaeologist Stuart Piggott noted that Wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist 's obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . "
Piggott believed that Wheeler 's greatest impact was as " the great innovator in field techniques " , comparing him in this respect to Pitt @-@ Rivers . Piggott stated that the " importance of Wheeler 's contribution to archaeological technique , enormous and far @-@ reaching , lies in the fact that in the early 1920s he not only appreciated and understood what Pitt @-@ Rivers had done , but saw that his work could be used as a basis for adaptation , development and improvement . " L. C. Carr stated that it was for his methodological developments , oft termed " the Wheeler Method " , that Wheeler was best known ; in this she contrasted him with those archaeologists who were best known for their associations with a specific archaeological site , such as Arthur Evans and Knossos or Leonard Woolley and Ur .
Wheeler was well known for his publications on archaeological matters ; Carr stated that both Wheeler and his first wife emphasised " technical rigour and a full presentation of materials unearthed , as well as a literary discussion of their meaning calculated to appeal to a larger audience . " Focusing on Wheeler 's publications regarding South Asian archaeology , Sudeshna Guha noted that he " produced an assemblage of image @-@ objects that embodied the precision he demanded from excavation photography . " Mallowan noted that " Immediate and swift presentation of results was more important to him than profound scholarship , although his critical sense made him conscious that it was necessary to maintain high standards and he would approve of nothing that was slipshod . " Jacquetta Hawkes commented that he made errors in his interpretation of the archaeological evidence because he was " sometimes too sure of being right , too ready to accept his own authority " . She asserted that while Wheeler was not an original thinker , he had " a vision of human history that enabled him to see each discovery of its traces , however small , in its widest significance . "
Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the autocratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and excavator . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could have come near to attaining his command of incisive strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist Dilip K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler had contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the Palaeolithic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler had " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for systematising and professionalising Indian archaeology and for " instituting a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . "
On Wheeler 's death , H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation has not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he had come to be remembered as " a cartoonish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty Morty " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . "
= = = Biographies and studies = = =
In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : Adventurer in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she had developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a daemonic energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social egalitarianism had stifled and condemned aspects of his greatness .
In the 2000 film Hey Ram , the lead character , Saket Ram ( played by Kamal Haasan ) and his friend , Amjad Khan ( played by Shah Rukh Khan ) are shown as employees of Wheeler , who was portrayed by Lewis K. Elbinger , before the 1947 Hindu @-@ Muslim riots . In a 2003 volume of the South Asian Studies journal , Sudeshna Gusha published a research article examining Wheeler 's use of photography in his excavations and publications in the Indian subcontinent . In 2011 , the academic journal Public Archaeology published a research paper by Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall that analysed Wheeler 's role in presenting archaeology to the British public . Two years later , the Papers from the Institute of Archaeology issued a short comic strip by Moshenska and Alex Salamunovich depicting Wheeler 's activities in studying the archaeology of Libya during World War II .
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= The One with All the Thanksgivings =
" The One with All the Thanksgivings " ( also known as " The One with the Thanksgiving Flashbacks " ) is the eighth episode of the fifth season of Friends . It first aired on the NBC network in the United States on November 19 , 1998 . In the episode , the main characters spend Thanksgiving at Monica 's ( Courteney Cox ) apartment and begin telling stories about their worst Thanksgivings : Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) learning of his parent 's divorce , Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) losing arms in past lives and Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) having his head stuck in a turkey . Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) reveals Monica 's worst Thanksgiving — accidentally cutting off Chandler 's toe after he called her " fat " in their first encounter . When Monica begs Chandler to forgive her , he accidentally reveals that he loves her .
The episode was directed by Kevin S. Bright and written by Gregory S. Malins . It guest stars Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles as Jack and Judy Geller , with a cameo appearance by Morgan Fairchild as Nora Tyler Bing . The idea was conceived by the writers , who suggested short stories about the " worst Thanksgivings ever " . A flashback approach was incorporated as the producers realized the audience responded well to it , despite concern the episode might be confused for a clip show .
In its original broadcast the episode reached a 16 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating and finished the week ranked second . The episode earned Debra McGuire a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series . Since airing , it frequently ranks high in polls about the series ' best episode .
= = Synopsis = =
Ross 's ( David Schwimmer ) complaint that his divorce and eviction means he is having the worst Thanksgiving ever prompts the others to tell their stories . Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) reminds everyone of when his parents told him they were divorcing . Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) then tells of story from a past life when she was a nurse and lost an arm , though Ross objects , with the demand of only tales of present lives . Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) says she knows Monica 's ( Courteney Cox ) story , but Phoebe interrupts with a story about the time Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) had a turkey stuck on his head . Monica tells of Thanksgiving 1987 . Monica and Rachel are eighteen years old and seniors in high school , and an overweight Monica spends time comforting Rachel , after Chip ended their relationship . When Ross learns of Rachel 's breakup , he asks Chandler to stay overnight in the hope of getting a date , but Chandler refuses , claiming that he doesn 't want to be stuck with " your fat sister " Monica . Overhearing the conversation from behind the door , Monica breaks down in tears and storms out .
Back in the present , Chandler apologizes to Monica . Rachel reveals that 's not the story she was referring to . The flashbacks continue to 1988 ; Ross and Chandler arrive for dinner to find that Monica has slimmed down , and Chandler now finds her attractive . Monica tells Rachel that she wants to humiliate Chandler for calling her fat , so Rachel suggests tricking him into taking off his clothes . Monica tries to seduce Chandler by rubbing various objects , including a knife , against her skin . She drops the knife and severs his toe . He is rushed to hospital to have it reattached but , in the commotion , Monica mixes up the digit with a carrot . In the present , Chandler becomes upset after learning that he had lost his toe because he called Monica fat , and angrily leaves . When Monica comes by his apartment seeking his forgiveness by putting a turkey on her head , he inadvertently tells her he loves her for the first time in their relationship . A tag scene shows another of Phoebe 's past life memories as she serves in a World War I field hospital and again lost an arm .
= = Production = =
" The One with All the Thanksgivings " was written by Gregory S. Malins and directed by Kevin S. Bright . It is the fifth Thanksgiving special in the Friends series . The producers knew from past recordings that the audience responded well to seeing " the Friends as they were " and decided to incorporate a flashback episode into a Thanksgiving special . Show creator David Crane considered the Thanksgiving @-@ themed episode as the " hallmark show " in each season . Marta Kauffman added dialogue centering on six characters being together in a room made the holiday special work . When discussing story ideas , the writers decided to create " a bunch of little pieces " , until someone suggested " what if it 's the worst Thanksgivings ? " , later used as the hook . Working on a flashback meant the episode needed " to have meaning " as the story continues in the present . It was difficult to keep the characters , particularly Chandler , spontaneously mad for something that happened " years ago " . The comedic content was bigger than usual , because Phoebe 's arm was blown off and Joey 's head stuck in a turkey .
Many scenes were shot in advance . The producers disliked filming beforehand as they preferred " the audience to tell us what 's good and what 's bad . " They also were concerned that a flashback episode would be mistaken for a clip show , but felt it would be believable because they were " flashing so far back into the past . " According to Kauffman , certain scenes filmed in the apartment were shot in advance because " it was all over the place " ; the cast were tired and full and their energy levels were low . Special effects and costume changes meant " three or four scenes " were also pre @-@ shot to ensure the dialogue was happening in front of the audience . This was completed in two days .
Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles reprised their roles as Jack and Judy Geller . The set for the Geller house was used previously in " The One Where Joey Moves Out " , for Jack 's birthday party and in the season seven episode " The One Where Rosita Dies " , when Ross and Monica visit their parent 's garage . The flashback in Thanksgiving 1987 was Monica and Chandler 's first meeting along with Rachel and Chandler . Bright commented that the show tries not to contradict itself ; " once we establish something , we try not to undo it . " In " The Pilot " it appears Rachel meets Chandler for the first time . She also meets him in a later flashback episode , " The One Where The Stripper Cries " . To excuse the continuity error , Bright adds they do not remember each other meeting because they look different .
A special rubber and foam turkey was created for Joey and Monica to place on their heads for sanitary and insurance reasons . A weaving , invisible to the audience , was placed in the middle of the turkey to allow the character to see . Chandler 's " flock of seagulls " hairstyle , mentioned in a previous episode , was based on the 1980s time period . For safety , the scene where Monica severed Chandler 's toe was pre @-@ shot . Originally the sound of a knife slashing through Chandler 's shoe was placed , but according to Crane it " got a little too graphic " . Dramatic music was dubbed over instead .
= = Cultural references = =
The inspiration for Phoebe 's character spurting blood was Dan Aykroyd 's Bass @-@ O @-@ Matic commercial on Saturday Night Live . In the sketch , Aykroyd plays a pitchman who sells a blender specifically designed to liquefy fish . He accidentally gets his hand stuck in the funnel , which causes it to be chopped off while blood sprays everywhere . The turkey stuck on Joey 's head is a reference to Act 4 in " Merry Christmas Mr. Bean " from Mr. Bean . Ross and Chandler 's costumes in 1988 were inspired by Miami Vice , which was popular at the time . The music used in Chandler 's accident was " The Murder " from Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing , the show finished second in ratings for the week of November 16 – 22 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 15 @.@ 5 million households . It was the network 's second highest @-@ rated show that week , after ER , which aired on the same night . The episode premiered in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on February 25 , 1999 and reached 1 @.@ 88 million viewers which made it the most watched show that week . It aired on Channel 4 on August 27 , 1999 and was watched by 4 @.@ 40 million viewers making Friends the channel 's third @-@ highest rated program for the week ending August 29 , 1999 .
Entertainment Weekly rated the episode " B + " and called the " pre @-@ nose job " Rachel and " Fat Monica " great sight gags . It cited Joey 's line " It 's not so much an underpant as it is a feat of engineering " ( in reference to a thong ) as the best of the episode . The authors of Friends Like Us : The Unofficial Guide to Friends wrote " This unusual episode is one of the series ' best ever , with the non @-@ stop comedy roller @-@ coaster suddenly throwing a brilliant surprise ending at you " .
Debra McGuire was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series , while the mixers were nominated for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special . The popularity of this episode placed it on one of the first Region 1 " best of " DVD releases . It was also released as part of Friends : The Complete Fifth Season in Regions 1 , 2 , and 4 .
In 2004 , " The One with All the Thanksgivings " was ranked fifth in a list of the top 10 Friends episodes by the Daily Herald and in 2010 , was identified as one of the five best Thanksgiving @-@ themed episodes by Contra Costa Times .
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= Body piercing =
Body piercing , a form of body modification , is the practice of puncturing or cutting a part of the human body , creating an opening in which jewellery may be worn . The word piercing can refer to the act or practice of body piercing , or to an opening in the body created by this act or practice . Although the history of body piercing is obscured by popular misinformation and by a lack of scholarly reference , ample evidence exists to document that it has been practiced in various forms by both sexes since ancient times throughout the world .
Ear piercing and nose piercing have been particularly widespread and are well represented in historical records and among grave goods . The oldest mummified remains ever discovered were sporting earrings , attesting to the existence of the practice more than 5 @,@ 000 years ago . Nose piercing is documented as far back as 1500 BC . Piercings of these types have been documented globally , while lip and tongue piercings were historically found in African and American tribal cultures . Nipple and genital piercing have also been practiced by various cultures , with nipple piercing dating back at least to Ancient Rome while genital piercing is described in Ancient India c . 320 to 550 CE . The history of navel piercing is less clear . The practice of body piercing has waxed and waned in Western culture , but it has experienced an increase of popularity since World War II , with sites other than the ears gaining subcultural popularity in the 1970s and spreading to mainstream in the 1990s .
The reasons for piercing or not piercing are varied . Some people pierce for religious or spiritual reasons , while others pierce for self @-@ expression , for aesthetic value , for sexual pleasure , to conform to their culture or to rebel against it . Some forms of piercing remain controversial , particularly when applied to youth . The display or placement of piercings have been restricted by schools , employers and religious groups . In spite of the controversy , some people have practiced extreme forms of body piercing , with Guinness bestowing World Records on individuals with hundreds and even thousands of permanent and temporary piercings .
Contemporary body piercing practices emphasize the use of safe body piercing materials , frequently utilizing specialized tools developed for the purpose . Body piercing is an invasive procedure with some risks , including allergic reaction , infection , excessive scarring and unanticipated physical injuries , but such precautions as sanitary piercing procedures and careful aftercare are emphasized to minimize the likelihood of encountering serious problems . The healing time required for a body piercing may vary widely according to placement , from as little as a month for some genital piercings to as much as two full years for the navel .
= = History = =
Body adornment has only recently become a subject of serious scholarly research by archaeologists , who have been hampered in studying body piercing by a sparsity of primary sources . Early records rarely discussed the use of piercings or their meaning , and while jewellery is common among grave goods , the deterioration of the flesh that it once adorned makes it difficult to discern how the jewellery may have been used . Also , the modern record has been vitiated with the 20th @-@ century inventions of piercing enthusiast Doug Malloy . In the 1960s and 1970s , Malloy marketed contemporary body piercing by giving it the patina of history . His pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief included such commonly reproduced urban legends as the notion that Prince Albert invented the piercing that shares his name in order to diminish the appearance of his large penis in tight trousers , and that Roman centurions attached their capes to nipple piercings . Some of Malloy 's myths are reprinted as fact in subsequently published histories of piercing .
= = = Ear piercing = = =
Ear piercing has been practiced all over the world since ancient times . There is considerable written and archaeological evidence of the practice . Mummified bodies with pierced ears have been discovered , including the oldest mummified body discovered to date , the 5 @,@ 300 @-@ year @-@ old Ötzi the Iceman , which was found in a glacier in Austria . This mummy had an ear piercing 7 – 11 mm diameter . The oldest earrings found in a grave date to 2500 BCE . These were located in the Sumerian city of Ur , home of the Biblical patriarch Abraham . Earrings are mentioned in the Bible . In Genesis 35 : 4 , Jacob buries the earrings worn by members of his household along with their idols . In Exodus 32 , Aaron makes the golden calf from melted earrings . Deuteronomy 15 : 12 – 17 dictates ear piercing for a slave who chooses not to be freed . Earrings are also referenced in connection to the Hindu goddess Lakshmi in the Vedas . Earrings for pierced ears were found in a grave in the Ukok region between Russia and China dated between 400 and 300 BCE .
Among the Tlingit of the Pacific Northwest of America , earrings were a sign of nobility and wealth , as the placement of each earring on a child had to be purchased at an expensive potlatch . Earrings were common in the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt ( 1550 – 1292 BCE ) , generally taking the form of a dangling , gold hoop . Gem @-@ studded , golden earrings shaped like asps seem to have been reserved for nobility . The ancient Greeks wore paste pendant earrings shaped like sacred birds or demigods , while the women of ancient Rome wore precious gemstones in their ears .
In Europe , earrings for women fell from fashion generally between the 4th and 16th centuries , as styles in clothing and hair tended to obscure the ears , but they gradually thereafter came back into vogue in Italy , Spain , England and France — spreading as well to North America — until after World War I when piercing fell from favor and the newly invented Clip @-@ on earring became fashionable . According to The Anatomie of Abuses by Philip Stubbs , earrings were even more common among men of the 16th century than women , while Raphael Holinshed in 1577 confirms the practice among " lusty courtiers " and " gentlemen of courage . " Evidently originating in Spain , the practice of ear piercing among European men spread to the court of Henry III of France and then to Elizabethan era England , where earrings ( typically worn in one ear only ) were sported by such notables as Robert Carr , 1st Earl of Somerset , Shakespeare , Sir Walter Raleigh and Charles I of England . Common men wore earrings as well . From the European Middle Ages , a superstitious belief that piercing one ear improved long @-@ distance vision led to the practice among sailors and explorers . Sailors also pierced their ears in the belief that their earrings could pay for a Christian burial if their bodies washed up on shore .
= = = Nose piercing = = =
Nose piercing also has a long history. c . 1500 BCE , the Vedas refer to Lakshmi 's nose piercings , but modern practice in India is believed to have spread from the Middle Eastern nomadic tribes by route of the Mughal emperors in the 16th century . It remains customary for Indian Hindu women of childbearing age to wear a nose stud , usually in the left nostril , due to the nostril 's association with the female reproductive organs in Ayurvedic medicine . This piercing is sometimes done the night before the woman marries .
In Genesis 24 : 22 , Abraham 's servant gave Rebecca a nose ring . Nose piercing has been practiced by the Bedouin tribes of the Middle East and the Berber and Beja peoples of Africa , as well as Australian Aborigines . Many Native American and Alaskan tribes practiced septum piercing . It was popular among the Aztecs , the Mayans and the tribes of New Guinea , who adorned their pierced noses with bones and feathers to symbolize wealth and ( among men ) virility . The name of the Nez Perce tribe was derived from the practice , though nose piercing was not common within the tribe . The Aztecs , Mayans and Incas wore gold septum rings for adornment , with the practice continued to this day by the Kuna of Panama . Nose piercing also remains popular in Pakistan and Bangladesh and is practiced in a number of Middle Eastern and Arab countries .
= = = Piercings of the lip and tongue = = =
Lip piercing and lip stretching were historically found in African and American tribal cultures . Pierced adornments of the lip , or labrets , were sported by the Tlingit as well as peoples of Papua New Guinea and Amazonia . Aztecs and Mayans also wore labrets , while the Dogon people of Mali and the Nuba of Ethiopia wore rings . The practice of stretching the lips by piercing them and inserting plates or plugs was found throughout Pre @-@ Columbian Mesoamerica and South America as well as among some of the tribes of the Pacific Northwest and Africa . In some parts of Malawi , it was quite common for women to adorn their lips with a lip disc called a " pelele " that by means of gradual enlargement from childhood could reach several inches of diameter and would eventually alter the occlusion of the jaw . Such lip stretching is still practiced in some places . Women of the Mursi of Ethiopia wear lip rings on occasion that may reach 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter .
In some Pre @-@ Columbian and North American cultures , labrets were seen as a status symbol . They were the oldest form of high status symbol among the Haida women , though the practice of wearing them died out due to Western influence .
Tongue piercing was practiced by the Aztec , Olmec and Mayan cultures as a ritual symbol . Wall paintings highlight a ritual of the Mayans during which nobility would pierce their tongues with thorns , collecting the blood on bark which would be burned in honor of the Mayan gods . It was also practiced by the Haida , Kwakiutl and Tlingit , as well as the Fakirs and Sufis of the Middle East .
= = = Nipple , navel and genital piercing = = =
The history of nipple piercing , navel piercing , and genital piercing has been particularly misrepresented by printed works continuing to repeat myths that were originally promulgated by Malloy in the pamphlet Body & Genital Piercing in Brief . For example , according to Malloy 's colleague Jim Ward , Malloy claimed navel piercing was popular among ancient Egyptian aristocrats and was depicted in Egyptian statuary , a claim that is widely repeated . Other sources say there are no records to support a historical practice for navel piercing .
However , records do exist that refer to practices of nipple and genital piercing in various cultures prior to the 20th century . Kama Sutra , dated to the Gupta Empire of Ancient India , describes genital piercing to permit sexual enhancement by inserting pins and other objects into the foreskin of the penis . The Dayak tribesmen of Borneo passed a shard of bone through their glans for the opposite reason , to diminish their sexual activity . In the Talmud ( Tractate Shabbat 64a ) , there may be mention of a genital piercing in the probition against the kumaz , which medieval French Talmudic commenter Rashi interpreted as a chastity piercing for women . Other interpreters have , however , suggested that the kumaz was rather a pendant shaped like a vulva or a girdle .
Nipple piercing may have been a sign of masculinity for the soldiers of Rome . Nipple piercing has also been connected to rites of passage for both British and American sailors who had traveled beyond a significant latitude and longitude . Western women of the 14th century sometimes sported pierced as well as rouged nipples left visible by the low @-@ cut dresses fashionable in the day . It is widely reported that in the 1890s , nipple rings called " bosom rings " resurfaced as a fashion statement among women of the West , who would wear them on one or both sides , but if such a trend existed , it was short @-@ lived .
= = = Growing popularity in the West = = =
By the early part of the 20th century , piercing of any body part had become uncommon in the West . After World War II , it began increasing in popularity among the gay male subculture . Even ear piercing for a time was culturally unacceptable for women , but that relatively common form of piercing began growing in popularity from the 1960s . In the 1970s , piercing began to expand , as the punk movement embraced it , featuring nontraditional adornment such as safety pins ; and Fakir Musafar began popularizing it as a form of Modern Primitivism , which incorporated piercing elements from other cultures , such as stretching .
Body piercing was also heavily popularized in the United States by a group of Californians including Malloy and Ward , who is regarded as " the founding father of modern body piercing " . In 1975 , Ward opened a home @-@ based piercing business in West Hollywood , which was followed in 1978 by the opening of Gauntlet Enterprises , " the first professional body piercing specialty studio in America . " From it , Ward distributed the pamphlet which Malloy had written and Ward illustrated , disseminating much misinformation but stimulating interest in more exotic piercings . As word of body piercing spread to the wider community , Ward , Malloy and Musafar collaborated on launching the first publication dedicated to the subject , PFIQ .
A significant development in body piercing in England occurred in 1987 , when during Operation Spanner , a group of homosexuals — including well known body piercer Alan Oversby — were convicted of assault for their involvement in consensual sadomasochism over a 10 @-@ year period , including acts of body piercing . The courts declared that decorative body piercing was not illegal , but that erotic body piercing was . Subsequently , the group Countdown on Spanner formed in 1992 in protest . The group appealed the decision before the High Court of Justice , the House of Lords and finally the European Commission of Human Rights , attempting to overturn the verdict which ruled consent immaterial in acts of sadomasochism , without success . In spite of their repeated failures , the situation publicized the issue , with The Times editorializing the court 's decision as " illiberal nonsense " in 1993 .
Body modification in general became more popular in the United States in the 1990s , as piercing also became more widespread , with growing availability and access to piercings of the navel , nose , eyebrows , lips , tongue , nipples and genitals . In 1993 , a navel piercing was depicted in MTV Video Music Awards ' " Music Video of the Year " , " Cryin ' " , which inspired a plethora of young female fans to follow suit . According to 2009 's The Piercing Bible , it was this consumer drive that " essentially inspired the creation of body @-@ piercing as a full @-@ fledged industry . " Body piercing was given another media @-@ related boost in 2004 , when during a Half @-@ time performance at Super Bowl XXXVIII singer Janet Jackson experienced a " wardrobe malfunction " that left exposed Jackson 's pierced nipple . Some professional body piercers reported considerable increases in business following the heavily publicized event .
Alongside traditional piercing techniques , modern body adornment includes variant techniques such as pocketing and flesh stapling , although as of 2007 these were still not widely made available by piercers . In the first of these , a scalpel opens the skin or mucous membranes , into which the larger end of a piece of jewellery or — if using a bar — two ends are inserted . These kinds of piercings may be difficult to remove , as fibrous tissue can form around the end or ends of the jewellery or the implanted tube into which the jewellery is placed . When a bar is used , pocketing looks quite similar to flesh stapling . The latter technique is frequently done in the form of a ladder . Modern body piercing practices also include dermal anchoring or dermal piercing , which combines piercing and implantation to create a single point of opening in the body ( whereas pocketing creates two ) to permit one end of the jewellery to show above the surface of the skin . While this technique can be performed almost anywhere on the body , as of 2007 it was popularly done between the eyes , on the chest , or on the finger , to simulate a ring .
= = = 21st century = = =
The practice of body piercing is subject to trends and fashions . Belly button and eyebrow piercings were popular during the 1990s when the piercing trend entered the mainstream . In recent years , the septum piercing and nipple piercing are considered highly fashionable . Additionally , the practice of ear lobe gauging or stretching has become popular with the turn of the century .
A 2005 survey of 10 @,@ 503 people in England over the age of 16 found that approximately 10 % ( 1 @,@ 049 ) had body piercings in sites other than the earlobe , with a heavy representation of women aged 16 – 24 ( 46 @.@ 2 % piercing in that demographic ) . Among the most common body sites , the navel was top at 33 % , with the nose and ear ( other than lobe ) following at 19 % and 13 % . The tongue and nipple tied at 9 % . The eyebrow , lip and genitals were 8 % , 4 % and 2 % , respectively . Preference among women followed closely on that ranking , though eyebrow piercings were more common than nipple piercings . Among male responders , the order was significantly different , descending in popularity from nipple , eyebrow , ear , tongue , nose , lip and genitals .
A cross @-@ cultural study published in 2011 found that individuals with piercings were likely to be involved in other forms of countercultural expression as well .
= = Reasons for piercing = =
Reasons for piercing vary greatly . A 2001 survey in Clinical Nursing Research , an international publication , found that 62 % of people who have had piercings have done so in an effort " to express their individuality . " People also pierce to commemorate landmark events or to overcome traumatic ones . According to the assistant director of the Frankfurt University Teaching Hospital for Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy , some sexual abuse survivors choose body piercing as a means of " reclaiming body parts from memories of abuse " . Piercing can also be chosen for simple aesthetic value , to highlight particular areas of the body , as a navel piercing may reflect a woman 's satisfaction with the shape and condition of her stomach . Some people pierce , permanently or temporarily , to enhance sexual pleasure . Genital and nipple piercings may increase sexual satisfaction . Some people participate in a form of body play known as play piercing , in which piercings may be done temporarily on the genitals or elsewhere on the body for sexual gratification .
Piercing combined with suspension was historically important in the religious ceremonies of some Native Americans , featuring in many variants of the Sun Dance ceremony , including that practiced by the Crow Nation . During the Crow ceremony , men who wished to obtain visions were pierced in the shoulders or chest by men who had undergone the ceremony in the past and then suspended by these piercings from poles in or outside of the Sun Dance Lodge . Some contemporary Southeast Asian rituals also practice body piercing , as a form of spiritual self @-@ mortification . Generally , the subject attempts to enter an analgesic trance prior to the piercing .
Bridging the gap between self @-@ expressive piercing and spiritual piercing , modern primitives use piercing and other forms of body modification as a way of ritually reconnecting with themselves and society , which according to Musafar once used piercing as a culturally binding ritual . But at the same time that piercing can be culturally binding , it may also be a means of rebellion , particularly for adolescents in Western cultures .
A fifteen @-@ year analysis published in 2011 , Body Piercing and Identity Construction found that public piercing served as a mechanism of both accelerated camaraderie and political communication , while private piercings served to enhance sexuality and contest heteronormativity .
= = Piercing prohibitions and taboos = =
While body piercing has grown more widespread , it can remain controversial , particularly in youth . Some countries impose age of consent laws requiring parental permission for minors to receive body piercings . Scotland requires parental consent for youths below 16 , while in 2011 Wales began considering a similar law . In addition to imposing parental consent requirements , Western Australia prohibits piercing private areas of minors , including genitals and nipples , on penalty of fine and imprisonment for the piercer . Many states in the US also require parental consent to pierce minors , with some also requiring the physical presence of the parents during the act . The state of Idaho has imposed a minimum age for body piercing at 14 .
In 2004 , controversy erupted in Crothersville , Indiana when a local high school featured a spread on " Body Decorations " in its yearbook that featured tattoos and body piercings of teachers and students . That same year , in Henry County , Georgia , a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy remained in in @-@ school suspension for a full month for violating school policy by wearing eyebrow , nose , labret and tongue piercings to school before his mother decided to homeschool him .
According to 2006 's Tattoos and Body Piercing , corporate dress codes can also strictly limit piercing displays . At that time , Starbucks limited piercings to two per ear and jewellery to small , matched earrings . Employees of Walt Disney Parks and Resorts were not permitted to display piercings at all .
Body piercing in some religions is held to be destructive to the body . Some passages of the Bible , including Leviticus 19 : 28 , have been interpreted as prohibiting body modification because the body is held to be the property of God . The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints has taken an official position against most piercings unless for medical reasons , although they accept piercings for women as long as there is only one set of piercings in the lower lobe of the ears and no other place on the body . Wearing of very large nose rings on Shabbat is forbidden by the Talmud .
= = World records = =
Officially titled " Most Pierced Woman " , Elaine Davidson of Scotland holds the Guinness World Record for most permanent piercings , first setting this record in 2000 upon verification by Guinness judges of 462 body piercings , with 192 at the time being around her head and face . As of 8 June 2006 , her Guinness @-@ certified piercings numbered 4 @,@ 225 . In February 2009 , The Daily Telegraph reported that she had 6 @,@ 005 . The " Most Pierced Man " as of 2009 was Luis Antonio Agüero , who had 230 permanent piercings , with 175 rings adorning his face alone .
In January 2003 , Canadian Brent Moffat set the World Record for most body piercings in one session ( 700 piercings with 18g surgical needles in 1 session of 7 hours , using play piercing where the skin is pierced and sometimes jewellery is inserted , which is worn temporarily ) . In December of the same year , Moffat had 900 piercings in 4 ½ hours . On 4 March 2006 , the record was overturned by Kam Ma , who had 1 @,@ 015 temporary metal rings inserted in 7 hours and 55 minutes . The record for most body piercings with surgical needles was set on 29 May 2008 , when Robert Jesus Rubio allowed 900 18 @-@ gauge , 0 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) -long surgical needles to be inserted into his body .
= = Contemporary piercing practices = =
= = = Contemporary body piercing jewellery = = =
Body piercing jewellery should be hypoallergenic . A number of materials are used , with varying strengths and weaknesses . Surgical stainless steel , niobium and titanium are commonly used metals , with titanium the least likely to cause allergic reaction of the three . Platinum and palladium are also safe alternatives , even in fresh piercings . Initial piercings should never be done with gold of any grade , as gold is mixed with other metals , and sterling silver is not a good alternative in a piercing , as it may cause allergies in initial piercings and will tarnish in piercings of any age . An additional risk for allergic reaction may arise when the stud or clasp of jewellery is made from a different metal than the primary piece .
Body piercing jewellery is measured by thickness and diameter / length . Most countries use millimeters . In the USA , the Brown & Sharpe AWG gauging system is used , which assigns lower numbers to thicker middles . 00 gauge is 9 @.@ 246 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 3640 in ) , while 20 gauge is 0 @.@ 813 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 0320 in ) .
= = = Piercing tools = = =
Permanent body piercings are performed by creating an opening in the body using a sharp object through the area to be pierced . This can either be done by puncturing an opening using a needle ( usually a hollow medical needle ) or scalpel or by removing tissue , either with a dermal punch or through scalpelling .
Tools used in body piercing include :
The piercing needle
The standard method in the United States involves making an opening using a beveled @-@ tip hollow medical needle , which is available in different lengths , gauges and even shapes . While straight needles are useful for many body parts , curved needles are manufactured for areas where straight needles are not ideal . The needle selected is typically the same gauge ( or sometimes larger as with cartilage piercings ) as the initial jewellery to be worn , with higher gauges indicating thinner needles . The needle is inserted into the body part being pierced , frequently by hand but sometimes with the aid of a needle holder or pusher . While the needle is still in the body , the initial jewellery to be worn in the piercing is pushed through the opening , following the back of the needle . Jewellery is often inserted into the hollow end of a needle , so that as the needle pulls through the jewellery is left behind .
The indwelling cannula
Outside of the United States , many piercers use a needle containing a cannula ( or catheter ) , a hollow plastic tube placed at the end of the needle . In some countries , the piercing needle favoured in the United States is regarded as a medical device and is illegal for body piercers . The procedure is similar to the piercing needle method , but the initial jewellery is inserted into the back of the cannula and the cannula and the jewellery are then pulled through the piercing . More bleeding may follow , as the piercing is larger than the jewellery .
The dermal punch
A dermal punch is used to remove a circular area of tissue , into which jewellery is placed , and may be useful for larger cartilage piercings . They are popular for use in ears , though not legal for use by nonmedical personnel in some parts of the United States .
The piercing gun
The vast majority of women in the west have their ears pierced with a piercing gun . The safety of piercing guns , which were originally developed for tagging livestock , has been disputed . The Department of Health of Western Australia does not recommend their use for piercing body parts other than the lobes of ears , and the Association of Professional Piercers recommends that piercing guns not be used for any piercing , requiring members to agree not to use piercing guns in their practice .
Cork
Cork may be placed on the opposite side of the body part being pierced to receive the needle .
Forceps
Forceps , or clamps , may be used to hold and stabilize the tissue to be pierced . Most piercings that are stabilized with forceps use the triangular @-@ headed " Pennington " forcep , while tongues are usually stabilized with an oval @-@ headed forcep . Most forceps have large enough openings in their jaws to permit the needle and jewellery to pass directly through , though some slotted forceps are designed with a removable segment instead for removal after the piercing . Forceps are not used in the freehand method , in which the piercer supports the tissue by hand .
Needle receiving tubes
A hollow tube made of metal , shatter @-@ resistant glass or plastic , needle receiving tubes , like forceps , are used to support the tissue at the piercing site and are common in septum and some cartilage piercings . Not only are these tubes intended to support the tissue , but they also receive the needle once it has passed through the tissue , offering protection from the sharp point . Needle receiving tubes are not used in the freehand piercing method .
Anaesthesia
Anaesthesia is supplied by some piercers , particularly in the United Kingdom and Europe . The anaesthesia may be topical or injected . Piercers and other non @-@ medical personnel are not legally permitted to administer anaesthetics in the United States .
= = Risks associated with body piercing = =
Body piercing is an invasive procedure with risks . In a 2005 survey of 10 @,@ 503 persons over the age of 16 in England , complications were reported in 31 % of piercings , with professional help being necessary in 15 @.@ 2 % . 0 @.@ 9 % had complications serious enough to require hospitalization .
Some risks of note include :
Allergic reaction to the metal in the piercing jewellery , particularly nickel . This risk can be minimized by using high quality jewellery manufactured from titanium or niobium or similar inert metals .
Infection , bacterial or viral , particularly from Staphylococcus aureus , group A streptococcus and Pseudomonas spp . Reports at the 16th European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases in 2006 indicated that bacterial infections are seldom serious , but that ten to twenty percent of piercings result in local benign bacterial infection . The Mayo Clinic estimates 30 % . Risk of infection is greatest among those with congenital heart disease , who have a much higher chance of developing life @-@ threatening infective endocarditis , hemophiliacs and diabetics , as well as those taking corticosteroids . In 2006 , a diabetic woman in Indiana lost a breast due to an infection from a nipple piercing . Viral infections may include hepatitis B , hepatitis C and , potentially , HIV , although as of 2009 there had been no documented cases of HIV caused by piercing . While rare , infection due to piercing of the tongue can be fatal . Higher prevalence of colonization of Candida albicans was reported in young individuals with tongue piercing , in comparison to non @-@ tongue @-@ pierced matched individuals .
Excess scar tissue , including hypertrophic scar and keloid formation . While piercings can be removed , they may leave a hole , mark or scar .
Physical trauma including tearing , friction or bumping of the piercing site , which may cause edema and delay healing . The risks can be minimized by wearing properly sized jewellery and not changing it unnecessarily , by not touching the piercing more than required for aftercare , and by being conscious of environmental factors ( such as clothing ) that may impact the piercing .
Oral trauma , including recession of gingival tissue and dental fracture and wear . Recession of gingival tissue affects 19 % to 68 % of subjects with lip and / or intra @-@ oral ornaments . In some cases , the alveolar tooth @-@ bearing bone is also involved , jeopardizing the stability and durability of the teeth in place and requiring a periodontal regeneration surgery . Dental fracture and wear affects 14 % to 41 % of subjects with lip and / or intra @-@ oral ornaments .
Contemporary body piercing studios generally take numerous precautions to protect the health of the person being pierced and the piercer . Piercers are expected to sanitize the location to be pierced as well as their hands , even though they will often wear gloves during the procedure ( and in some areas must , as it is prescribed by law ) . Quite frequently , these gloves will be changed multiple times , often one pair for each step of setup to avoid cross contamination . For example , after a piercer has cleaned the area to be pierced on a client , the piercer may change gloves to avoid recontaminating the area with the gloves he / she used to clean it . Wearing sterile gloves is required by law for professional piercing procedures in some areas , such as the states of Florida and South Carolina . Tools and jewellery should be sterilized in autoclaves , and non @-@ autoclavable surfaces should be cleaned with disinfectant agents on a regular basis and between clients .
In addition , the Association of Professional Piercers recommends classes in First Aid in blood @-@ borne pathogens as part of professional training .
= = = The healing process and body piercing aftercare = = =
The aftercare process for body piercing has evolved gradually through practice , and many myths and harmful recommendations persist . A reputable piercing studio should provide clients with written and verbal aftercare instructions , as is in some areas mandated by law .
The healing process of piercings is broken down into three stages :
The inflammatory phase , during which the wound is open and bleeding , inflammation and tenderness are all to be expected ;
The growth or proliferative phase , during which the body produces cells and protein to heal the puncture and the edges contract around the piercing , forming a tunnel of scar tissue called a fistula . This phase may last weeks , months , or longer than a year .
The maturation or remodeling phase , as the cells lining the piercing strengthen and stabilize . This stage takes months or years to complete .
It is normal for a white or slightly yellow discharge to be noticeable on the jewellery , as the sebaceous glands produce an oily substance meant to protect and moisturize the wound . While these sebum deposits may be expected for some time , only a small amount of pus , which is a sign of inflammation or infection , should be expected , and only within the initial phase . While sometimes difficult to distinguish , sebum is " more solid and cheeselike and has a distinctive rotten odor " , according to The Piercing Bible .
The amount of time it typically takes a piercing to heal varies widely according to the placement of the piercing . Genital piercings can be among the quicker to heal , with piercings of the clitoral hood and Prince Albert piercings healing in as little as a month , though some may take longer . Navel piercings can be the slowest to heal , with one source reporting a range of six months to two full years . The prolonged healing of navel piercings may be connected to clothing friction .
= = = Related media = = =
A chart comparing wire gauges likely to be encountered when making jewellery
A chart comparing O @-@ ring sizes ( Aerospace Specification series numbering ) to American gauge jewellery
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= Eve Russell =
Eve Russell is a fictional character on the American soap opera Passions , which aired on NBC from 1999 to 2007 and on DirecTV in 2007 – 08 . Passions followed the romantic and supernatural adventures in the fictional New England coastal town of Harmony . Created by the soap 's head writer , James E. Reilly , Eve was played by Tracey Ross for the series ' entire run . In 2003 , Amanda Maiden and Kimberly Kevon Williams played Eve in flashbacks .
Eve , part of Passions ' Russell family , is introduced as the perfect wife of T. C. Russell and mother of Whitney and Simone . Eve 's desperation to conceal all evidence of her past relationship — and child — with Julian Crane leads to the breakup of her marriage and family , especially when her adoptive sister Liz Sanbourne arrives in Harmony and ruins Eve 's life for abandoning her first family . Later storylines focus on her on @-@ again , off @-@ again relationship with Julian and her search for their son , who is revealed as Vincent Clarkson despite long speculation by the show 's characters and media outlets that he was Chad Harris @-@ Crane . Ross and Johnson made cameo appearances as Eve and T. C. in the series finale of the NBC primetime drama Providence . At the end of the show , several props and costumes related to Eve were sold in an auction , along with other items from the show .
Ross 's performance was praised by fans and critics , while the character 's later storylines were negatively received by the cast . Eve and Julian , known by fans as " Evian " , were called " the Odd Couple of Passions " by Soap Opera Weekly and the actors ' chemistry was positively received by critics . Ross received eight nominations for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Daytime Drama Series , winning at the 38th NAACP Image Awards . She has cited Eve as expanding the TV representation of African @-@ Americans and interracial relationships .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Ross was originally hesitant to audition for another soap opera after her stint on Ryan ’ s Hope as Diana Douglas from 1985 to 1987 , which she compared to " working in a morgue " because the show was constantly threatened with cancellation . Although NBC repeatedly contacted the actress about the character of Eve Russell over several months before her agent convinced her to audition for the role , she described Passions as " my kind of show " because of the supernatural and fantasy elements in the first week 's scripts . According to Ross , she did not realize that Passions was supposed to be " wacky " until the character Grace Bennett floated out her bedroom window .
Sheraton Kalouria , senior vice president of NBC ’ s daytime programming , said that the show ’ s racially diverse ensemble is represented by " the African American Russells and the Hispanic Lopez @-@ Fitzgeralds ... It ’ s truly color @-@ blind storytelling " . According to Ross , Eve was not defined by African @-@ American identity during her creation and casting : " If they wanted to make my character any other ethnicity they wouldn 't have to change a thing about her . I don 't know what else I could ask for . She 's just a person . " The actress cited the show 's racial diversity as a primary reason for her attraction to the role . Ross " felt tremendous support from NBC and Passions that the black characters and / or Hispanic characters are all essential parts of the story " .
Ross described Eve 's relationship with Julian Crane as an authentic representation of an interracial couple . She felt that Eve was not a " walking , living philosophical statement " about race relations , but instead was written as a fully realized person with her own story . Ross credited " the people who laid the groundwork for [ her ] " and allowed characters to be played other than " in a minstrel @-@ like way " ( similar to Ellen DeGeneres paving the way for Will & Grace ) for allowing a character like Eve to be created , and equated playing Julian and Eve 's love story to " playing Romeo and Juliet " . Passions was Ross ' first singing role ; the show primarily used " My Baby 's Gone " to symbolize Eve 's relationship with Julian . Eve and Julian 's relationship was seen positively by fans , who referred to the couple as " Evian . " TV Guide listed Eve and Julian as one of the best soap @-@ opera supercouples , praising the chemistry between Ross and Masters . Soap Opera Weekly referred to the pairing as " the Odd Couple of Passions " . Ross initially felt intimidated by playing a part of a supercouple , saying " [ i ] t means so much to me that I want to do it justice " .
= = = Characterization = = =
Ross characterized Eve as " a contradiction inside an enigma " . She initially saw the character as easy to play ( " everyone 's best friend , and the town doctor , and a great mother " ) . The actress had a more difficult time when Eve began behaving in morally questionable ways to protect secrets about her past . She described that playing Eve was " as if somebody came and told you that your closest friend is doing abominable things " . However , Ross appreciated Eve 's characterization as a human being who " is neither all good nor all bad , [ who ] has strengths and weaknesses " .
Early in the show , the actress based her understanding of Eve on the character 's relationships with Grace and Ivy Winthrop ( Kim Johnston Ulrich ) . Ross described Eve 's love for Grace as " my rock in the sea " when the " difficult to play " Eve took extreme , illegal measures to hide her past . Following Ulrich 's interpretation of Ivy as valuing Eve as a confidant , Ross characterized Eve as respecting Ivy 's " ability to take charge " instead of " always tiptoeing around and walking on eggshells " . She viewed Ivy 's schemes to blackmail Eve as an attempt at a deeper connection ; as " the closest thing to a friend that Ivy had " , Eve interpreted their relationship as a desire for friendship .
In an interview with The Atlas Society , Ross discussed that her approach to Eve was inspired by Ayn Rand 's objectivism and called Eve 's willingness to " take any sacrifices you might be willing to make " a good example of Rand 's ideology . She compared Eve to Catherine Halsey in Rand 's 1943 novel , The Fountainhead , with Eve most resembling Catherine " at the midpoint of the novel , before she was completely destroyed " . Ross said that her portrayal of Eve was also influenced by Eve White , a character with dissociative identity disorder played by Joanne Woodward in the 1957 film The Three Faces of Eve . According to Ross , she researched books on sociopaths and psychopaths to better understand Eve 's desire to hide her past at any cost .
= = Appearances = =
= = = 2001 : Hidden Passions : Secrets from the Diaries of Tabitha Lenox = = =
The 2001 novel Hidden Passions : Secrets from the Diaries of Tabitha Lenox identifies Eve Russell as the only child of " too @-@ busy Harvard history Professor Warren Johnson and journalist Tanya Lincoln Johnson " . The series changed Eve 's family , identifying her parents as Warren Johnson and Ruby Lincoln ( a poor couple from the American South ) and introducing Mr. Sanbourne as her stepfather and Liz Sanbourne as her adoptive sister . Despite the book 's billing as canonical when it was published , the show contradicts much of its information . As a teenager , Eve runs away to Boston to pursue a career as a jazz singer ; she becomes involved with she is involved with alcohol , drugs and prostitution . In Boston , Eve meets Julian Crane , who introduced her to alcohol and drugs , and she becomes close friends with fellow jazz singer Crystal Harris . During this time , she accidentally hits future husband T. C. Russell while driving under the influence , ruining his tennis career . T. C. , unaware that Eve is responsible for the accident , believes that Julian was driving . Eve and Julian separate after she learns that she is pregnant ; Julian 's marriage to the daughter of former Governor Harrison Winthrop , Ivy , is arranged by his father Alistair . Crystal , the only person Eve tells about her pregnancy , helps deliver her son .
Although Eve initially believes that her baby died , she learns that he survived when she discovers Vincent Clarkson in 2007 . Hidden Passions identifies Vincent as born on Christmas . The book states Alistair arranged for Vincent 's death , but the hitman Jack placed the baby into social services without Alistair 's knowledge . The series changed Alistair 's involvement in Vincent 's life ; Alistair abuses and manipulates Vincent as a tool for his plans to maintain power over Harmony . For most of the series , Eve and Julian 's child is believed to be Chad Harris @-@ Crane , who is later shown to be Liz 's child from her rape by Alistair . After the apparent death of her child , Eve leaves Boston and gives up music to attend medical school . Alistair sends her money ( which she uses to pay her tuition ) to keep quiet about her relationship — and child — with Julian . Eve eventually moves to Harmony and becomes a respected physician at Harmony Hospital . She marries T. C. and has two children , Whitney and Simone .
= = = 1999 – 2008 : Passions = = =
Eve 's early storylines focus on her attempt to keep her past hidden from her family and her neighbors in Harmony . Ivy Winthrop unearths proof of Eve 's relationship with Julian to blackmail her into breaking up Grace Bennett 's marriage to Sam Bennett . In 2003 , Liz arrives Harmony to seek revenge on her sister , who left her in an abusive household , but Eve keeps Liz 's identity as her adoptive sister a secret from her family and the town . In a 2002 – 2004 storyline , Eve relies more on Julian as Liz attempted to expose her and seduce her husband . Eve works with Julian to find their child . Overwhelmed by Liz 's desire for vengeance and the search for her child , Eve is unaware of Whitney 's relationship with Chad . The storyline culminates in July 2004 , when Liz brings Eve 's aunt Irma Johnson to tell T. C. the truth about her relationship with Julian and their child . Whitney turns against her mother , incorrectly assuming that her child with Julian is Chad ( making her relationship with him incestuous ) . T. C. divorces Eve , unable to forgive her lies about her past with Julian and her pregnancy , and begins a romantic relationship with Liz . Eve and Julian renew their relationship , despite his wife Rebecca Hotchkiss ' refusal to grant him a divorce .
In 2005 , Liz drinks poisoned punch which Rebecca had intended for Eve . Liz accuses Eve of deliberately giving her the punch , and Eve is arrested for attempted murder . During the arrest and trial , Eve and Julian grow closer together and T. C. ends his relationship with Liz to reconcile with his ex @-@ wife . Julian makes a deal with Rebecca that he would give her anything she wants in exchange for her testimony that she saw Liz with the vial of poison ; the judge declares a mistrial . The plot then focuses on Eve 's love triangle with T. C. and Julian as she is torn between taking care of T. C. after his stroke and accepting Julian 's proposal of marriage . Eve discovers Julian 's affair with Valerie Davis , an employee of Crane Industries , leading to her decision to nurse T. C. back to health and renew their relationship to reunite their family . Julian later explains Eve that he was paying Valerie to search for their son ; Eve forgives Valerie , and she and Julian continue their search . In 2007 , Eve and Julian discover that Vincent Clarkson ( a blackmailer who raped and murdered several people ) is their son , and try to support him despite his criminal past . However , Eve cannot accept her son 's criminality and incestuous , adulterous affair with Chad Harris @-@ Crane ( Vincent 's uncle , adoptive cousin and brother @-@ in @-@ law ) and begins abusing drugs and alcohol . Her career and reputation suffer , and she has a breakdown after Vincent 's apparent death on August 30 , 2007 . In the show 's final NBC episode on September 7 , 2007 , Vincent is revealed as intersex ; he separates his identity into Vincent and Valerie , an indication of dissociative identity disorder .
After the show 's transition from NBC to DirecTV , Eve 's storylines emphasize her romance with Julian and difficult relationship with Vincent . Believed dead , Vincent reveals himself , his gender identity and his pregnancy to Eve after seducing Julian ( his father ) and threatens to kill her if she tells anyone . In late 2007 , he begins tormenting Eve out of revenge for her failure to prevent his abduction when he was born . Julian checks Eve into rehab after she relapses , abusing drugs and alcohol to cope with Vincent 's frequent appearances . Vincent arranges for Eve 's release from rehab to help him prepare for the impending birth . Vincent 's psychopathic accomplice , Viki Chatsworth , later repeatedly stabs Julian in the groin and severs his penis . Vincent plies Eve with drugs and alcohol so she botches her attempt to surgically reattach Julian 's penis ; she reattaches it upside @-@ down , and an erection might kill him . In May 2008 , Eve and Julian assist Vincent with the birth of his son on the Russells ' kitchen table , when Eve explains everything about Vincent and Valerie to Julian . Eve plans to form a relationship again with Vincent ( believing that motherhood has mellowed him ) , and convinces Julian not to turn him in to the police . During the rehearsal for the joint weddings of Luis Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald and Fancy Crane , Noah Bennett and Paloma Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald , Miguel Lopez @-@ Fitzgerald and Kay Bennett , and Edna Wallace and Norma Bates , Eve assures Julian that they love each other emotionally and intellectually ; Julian vows that the Crane family will take more responsibility for their actions now that Alistair is dead . At the rehearsal dinner , Eve and the other dinner guests eat Vincent and Vicki 's poisoned mushroom sauce . She dies , but is resurrected when witch Tabitha Lenox renounces magic and becomes a born @-@ again Christian . In the series finale , Kay uses her magic to heal Julian 's penis . Since T. C. , Whitney , and Simone moved to New Orleans in 2007 , Eve and Vincent are the only two Russells in the final episode .
= = Other media = =
Tracey Ross and Rodney Van Johnson made cameo appearances as Eve and T. C. Russell in the series finale of the NBC primetime drama , Providence , one of the first daytime @-@ primetime crossovers . After DirecTV 's decision to cancel the show , Passions joined Premiere Props in a public , two @-@ day estate sale of props and costumes from the series . The auction gave fans " an opportunity to own a piece of their favorite show " . Several Eve @-@ related items were offered for sale , including a medical coat splattered with blood from her botched surgery on Julian and a framed copy of her medical degree .
= = Reception = =
= = = Cast response = = =
Eve 's character and storylines received a mixed response from Passions ' cast members . Johnson praised the show for its use of its African @-@ American characters like Eve . He appreciated the show ’ s representation of " a full African @-@ American family " on daytime television with serious storylines , not " just a flash in the pan " . According to Johnson , the Russell family received an impressive response from African @-@ American viewers . Johnson said the chance to work with Tracey Ross , who he called the it girl for the African @-@ American community following her appearance on Star Search , influenced his acceptance of the role .
Cast members were more critical of Eve 's later appearances on the show . Ross reacted negatively to Eve 's involvement in Vincent 's storylines . She said that Vincent giving birth to his father 's child made her " physically nauseous " and she could only complete the birth scenes after the show 's acting coach , Maria O 'Brien , convinced her of " [ their ] comedic possibilities " . Eve 's incorrect reattachment of Julian 's penis was criticized by co @-@ star McKenzie Westmore ( " This has got to be the worst storyline ever done , what are they doing ? " ) , who cited it as a reason for the show 's cancellation .
= = = Critical response = = =
Critics praised Ross ' performances as Eve for broadening the representation of African @-@ American characters on television . An article in Jet described each member of the Russells ( including Eve ) as being an " integral part of the show " rather than token characters . Ross 's portrayal of the character was also warmly received by viewers , who frequently rated her their favorite Passions actress in Soap Opera Digest polls .
For the role of Eve , Ross received eight nominations for the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Daytime Drama Series and won at the 38th NAACP Image Awards . Despite Passions ' focus on African @-@ American female characters like Eve , Lynette Rice of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the show failed to attract the " hard @-@ to @-@ reach audience [ of ] African @-@ American women " ; according to Kalouria , " Quite frankly , many of them aren 't aware Passions is even on . "
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= Dave Karofsky =
David " Dave " Karofsky , often referred to as Karofsky , is a recurring fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actor Max Adler , and has appeared in Glee since its first season episode " Mash @-@ Up " , first broadcast on October 21 , 2009 . Initially known only by his surname , Karofsky was introduced as a bully and a member of the McKinley High hockey team who slushies football captain Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , and who teams with fellow athlete and bully Azimio ( James Earl ) to torment various fellow students , usually members of the school glee club , New Directions . Later in the season , he is identified as a member of the football team , and is a football player in the second season . Karofsky is revealed to be a closeted homosexual early in that season , and is still closeted at the end of the season , though he has stopped being a bully , and has won the election for Junior Prom King . He transfers to another school for his senior year , but is outed there and after being bullied by his classmates he attempts suicide , though he is saved by his father .
Karofsky was initially used as an ordinary jock bully , but Adler 's acting impressed show co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy ; he expanded Karofsky 's role in the show 's second season by having him especially target gay glee club member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , only to turn out to be gay himself , though closeted . That revelation sparked a wave of reaction from people who thought it was important for Glee to show " the confusion and the torture one person can put themselves through being closeted " . Reviewers have been impressed with Adler 's portrayal of Karofsky , including Michael Slezak of TVLine , who in the second season characterized it as " surprisingly nuanced " and with a " terrific amount of depth " , and Billboard 's Rae Votta , who wrote in the third season , " As always , Kurt and Karofsky 's scenes shine as the strongest in whichever episode they 're featured . "
= = Storylines = =
In the first season of Glee , Karofsky appears in five episodes . He is a jock and a bully , initially a member of the McKinley High hockey team . He is first seen in the episode " Mash @-@ Up " , where he slushies football captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) . He reappears in " Mattress " , teamed with football player Azimio ( James Earl ) , and writes on Finn 's face with black markers to demonstrate how they will deface the glee club 's yearbook photo , which Karofsky does at the end of the episode . By " Theatricality " he is on the football team with Azimio , and they shove Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) and Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) against lockers for wearing Lady Gaga costumes — part of a glee club assignment — around school .
Karofsky is featured in the first eleven episodes of the second season continuing his bullying ways ; in the sixth , " Never Been Kissed " , he especially targets Kurt , who is gay . After he slams Kurt into a locker , Kurt chases after and confronts him , and an increasingly agitated Karofsky abruptly grabs Kurt and kisses him . Before Karofsky can initiate a second kiss , a stunned Kurt shoves him away , and Karofsky leaves . Kurt and his new gay friend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) later try to talk to him about being gay and closeted , but he denies that the kiss happened and soon resumes his bullying . He even threatens to kill Kurt if he tells anyone else about the kiss . Kurt 's father Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) finds out about the threat , but not the kiss , and Karofsky is soon expelled , but is allowed to return by the school board because no physical violence to Kurt had been witnessed ; Kurt transfers to Dalton Academy to get away from him .
The football team has clinched a spot in the championship game , but animosity is running high between glee and non @-@ glee members and harming the team 's performance ; in " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) and glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) force the entire football team to join the glee club for a week to settle their differences and dispel their prejudices . Karofsky is praised by Will as a good performer and dancer , but when the hockey team attacks the football team for their low @-@ status glee club activities , Karofsky leads a walkout from the joint rehearsals by all the non @-@ glee members , and Beiste kicks them off the team . On championship night , the team members — except for Karofsky — relent just before the half @-@ time show , which the team and glee club perform together . Karofsky joins in when he sees the crowd 's positive reaction to the start of the half @-@ time show , a mashup of " Thriller " and " Heads Will Roll " ; the full team ultimately wins the game . Later , in school , Finn approaches Karofsky about joining the glee club and apologizing to Kurt , but Karofsky rejects his suggestion out of hand , since the championship victory has him back on top of the social ladder .
Karofsky appears in three additional episodes later in the second season . Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) decides in the episode " Born This Way " that she wants to become prom queen ; she sees Karofsky and realizes he would be a credible prom king partner moments before she sees him checking out a male student 's butt and also realizes he is as closeted as she is . She then blackmails him into teaming up with her as a pretend couple — beards — and starting an anti @-@ bullying club , with the purpose of getting Kurt to return to McKinley and New Directions . Karofsky apologizes to Kurt for his bullying in a meeting with Will , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , and their respective fathers Paul ( Daniel Roebuck ) and Burt ; Kurt is happy to be able to transfer back . In " Prom Queen " , with the prom less than a week away , Karofsky and Santana arrange to guard Kurt at school when they learn he will be bringing Blaine as his prom date ; Karofsky tells Kurt , tearfully , that he is sorry for what he did to him . At the prom , Karofsky is voted prom king but Santana is not elected prom queen ; instead , an appalled Kurt is written in and wins . As they take the floor for the traditional prom king and queen dance , Kurt suggests that this is Karofsky 's chance to come out and " make a difference " , but Karofsky is not ready to do so , and walks away .
He next appears in the third season episode " The First Time " . He has transferred to another high school from McKinley for his senior year , fearing that he might be outed if he stayed ; he sees Kurt in a gay bar , and tells Kurt he has become a regular there and feels accepted . He is Kurt 's secret admirer for Valentine 's Day in the episode " Heart " , and after Kurt gently turns him down , he is recognized by a classmate , who later spreads the word to others in the school that Karofsky is gay . In " On My Way " , he is taunted and bullied by his athletic teammates and by others , at school and using online media , so severely that he attempts to hang himself , but is saved by his father , who finds him in time . Kurt visits Karofsky in the hospital where Karofsky tells Kurt his best friend never wants to see him again and how his mother thinks he has a disease and can be " cured " . Karofsky , in tears the whole time , again apologizes to Kurt saying he made Kurt 's life hell but he couldn 't handle it himself , and the two agree to become friends .
In the sixth season , Karofsky is dating Blaine , but when he finds out that Blaine still loves Kurt they break up on good terms .
= = Development = =
Dave Karofsky is played by actor Max Adler , who first appeared in the first season episode " Mash @-@ Up " , initially as a member of the William McKinley High School hockey team . Karofsky began as a background character who tormented members of the glee club , and was known only by his surname . So far as Adler knew , his role was for a single episode only , but he returned once more before the first half of the first season ended , and then three times in the nine episodes of the second half of that season . The last of these , " Theatricality " , written and directed by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , proved to be pivotal : Murphy was impressed with his acting and wanted to write more for him .
Although Karofsky begins the second season as an ordinary jock bully , Murphy hinted to Adler that there would be more in store for the character . According to Adler , Murphy approached him at the second season premiere and said , " ' we just wrote some really good stuff for you for episode six ' . " The actor recalls , " I had no idea what that meant , until I read it ! " Adler had long wondered why his character behaved the way he did : " I thought there 's got to be a reason why he 's so angry , why he 's such a bully , why he 's going out of his way to make other people 's lives a living hell " . Although he had considered various ideas for Karofsky — " maybe he was jealous of the glee club , maybe he was gay , maybe a million different things " — when he got the script for that episode he " was just as shocked as anybody else " when his character kissed Kurt , though he " thought it was so awesome that they would allow this character to go there . "
There was a strong reaction from the show 's viewers . Adler said , " I 've heard from a lot of fans how important this character is for them because it 's important to watch the internal struggle , the confusion and the torture one person can put themselves through being closeted . " He wants Karofsky to " accept himself and come out because [ he thinks ] it would be a beacon of hope for everyone else who 's struggling " , and noted , " people do get hope from Glee . " He also said , " I think [ Ryan Murphy ] trusts me to do what I 'm doing with the character , which is one heck of a compliment from him . " Murphy has indicated a preference for positive future developments , and said in early January 2011 , " This show is by nature optimistic and I think a character like Karofsky could turn to booze or pills or alcohol and kill themselves or do something dark . But I also love Max and I love that character and I sorta want that character to have a happy ending . " At one point in the bullying storyline , Karofsky threatens to kill Kurt , a scene that Adler characterized as " very powerful . Chilling , terrifying , horrifying , yet , at the same time , heartbreaking . … Because there are kids who have messaged me since that episode saying they used to hear that line spoken to them day in and day out at school " , and they dreaded school because of it .
In addition to Karofsky 's newly revealed sexual orientation , other aspects of his personality have been explored . In " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , when the football team is forced to spend a week working with the glee club that Karofsky and other members have been bullying , the " softer side " of his personality is seen , especially when he 's performing with the club . After the club 's director surprises him with a compliment on his performing , Karofsky is the one who suggests that the team perform an extra musical number for the halftime show they are preparing for , though he comes up with a rationale that makes it sound like a necessity to keep up their social status rather than something he particularly wants to do . Adler said , " I feel like that it did make him happy and , obviously , he has some natural abilities that Mr. Schuester was able to spot . I don 't think he 's ever allowed himself to do that ever in his life , to dance or learn a song , especially to do that in public . ... Doing that was such an obstacle to overcome . " In " Furt " and " Born This Way " , it is revealed that he had been kind , a cub scout , and an " A " student . However , his behavior had changed for the worse in the former episode before returning to the good in the latter . Although the anti @-@ bullying club formed by Karofsky and Santana in " Born This Way " is created with ulterior motives in mind , Karofsky subsequently makes a tearful apology to Kurt in " Prom Queen " , and then insists that Kurt wait for his safety escort after the next class period .
= = Reception = =
The first time Karofsky received significant notice from critics was for the second season 's sixth episode , " Never Been Kissed " . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times commented that it was testament to the writers and cast that Karofsky 's kiss startled the audience as much as it did Kurt , and commended the transitioning of Karofsky from a faceless jock into " a nuanced character with a back story and hidden motives of his own . " MTV 's Aly Semigran wrote that , should the episode inspire a single teenager to have courage in the face of discrimination , or re @-@ consider bullying , it would be an impressive accomplishment . Linda Holmes of National Public Radio dismissed " Never Been Kissed " as " one of the most facile and emotionally inauthentic episodes the show has ever produced " , and felt that Karofsky 's swift transition from bullying to kissing Kurt was absurd and " emotionally unsound " . His appearances over the next few episodes drew only oblique commentary , such as The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon 's characterization in his review on " Furt " of the bullying storyline as a " very important arc that 's been well @-@ acted by all parties involved " . In " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " , The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff wrote , " I thought giving Kurt 's bully , Karofsky ( ... ) , a miniature story arc that resolved itself only partially was a smart move . Up until now , he 's been kind of a walking cliché , and now he gets to be someone who 's not all repressed sexuality and monstrous tendencies . " Reiter commented , " And best of all , we got to watch Karofsky 's character develop a bit more . It was nice to see him let loose a little and dance , but all his back @-@ and @-@ forthing about glee was a little confusing . "
Michael Slezak of TVLine complimented " Max Adler 's surprisingly nuanced performance " as Karofsky in " Born This Way " : " The complex play of emotions in Karofsky 's eyes when Santana simultaneously came out to him , threatened to out him , predicted his sad future as a closeted state senator or deacon , and offered him a quick @-@ fix solution by pretending to be his beard , was tremendous . " He added , " Adler is bringing a terrific amount of depth to Karofsky . " VanDerWerff referred to Karofsky 's parallel journey with Santana , who is also closeted , in his comments about the episode and the next one where the character appears , " Prom Queen " . He said in his review of the latter , " the characters I 'm most interested in at this point are Karofsky and Santana . They 're both people trying to do the right thing , but they 're also both people who are defeated by their own weakest impulses . ... They 're both hemmed in by the decisions they 've made and their inability to be true to themselves " . Meghan Brown of The Atlantic praised Karofsky 's " tearful apology to Kurt " in that episode as being " painful and poignant " , and Slezak went further :
Whatever awards Chris Colfer and Max Adler get nominated for in the next six months , they earned ' em during this conversation , where Kurt wondered if maybe , just maybe , he wasn 't getting bullied because kids were indifferent to him being gay , not because Karofsky was serving as his security detail . ... [ Y ] ou could see in Kurt 's eyes the decision to start treating Karofsky not as a former tormentor , but as a terrified kid struggling with his sexual orientation . And Karofsky 's break — his first true apology for bullying Kurt , and his first tentative step toward admitting the root cause of his anger — had me reaching for the Kleenex . Tell me I 'm not the only one hoping Glee will keep journeying down Karofsky 's difficult road toward self @-@ acceptance .
Karofsky 's reappearance and interaction with Kurt in the third season episode " The First Time " received very positive reviews . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times characterized the scene with Kurt and Karofsky as " subtle " and " a home run " , and Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West called it a " perfect little nuanced scene " , while Michael Ausiello of TVLine said it was his " favorite scene of the episode " . His next appearance in " Heart " , again with Kurt , was described by Slezak as " electric , with Kurt tenderly giving the ' just friends ' speech to Dave " . Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch thought the plot of having Karofsky be Kurt 's secret admirer was " vaguely stalker @-@ ish on Karofsky 's part , and contrived on the part of the show " , and Robert Canning of IGN predicted that after Karofsky had been seen by his classmate , it would " just be an episode or two before Karofsky gets bullied into thinking about suicide , if not actually taking his own life " . When he reviewed the next episode , " On My Way " , which featured Karofsky 's suicide attempt , Canning stated that his " cynicism [ in the " Heart " review ] was won over by a powerfully acted and directed story " . He also said , " the initial locker room scene was heartbreaking " and " Max Adler 's subtle facial expressions were brilliant " .
VanDerWerff wrote , " The sequence in which Karofsky prepared himself for death was , unquestionably , one of the best things Glee has ever done " , and Slezak called it " as devastating as anything I ’ ve seen on TV this year " . HuffPost TV 's Crystal Bell applauded Adler " for doing such an amazing job " on the suicide scene . She stated , " I would have preferred if Karofsky 's story line would have been the focus of the entire episode . " VanDerWerff commented that " as the show got the little details of Karofsky 's desperate act just right , the whole thing took on a weight " , and singled out the scene " where the teachers talked about what had happened and the smash cut to Karofsky 's father screaming at him to get up " as " heart @-@ wrenching " . Bell declared that the " best scene in the entire episode is when Kurt visits Karofsky in the hospital " . Lynch called it " one of the most touching scenes of this season " and " guileless , well @-@ acted and eye @-@ watering " . Rae Votta of Billboard wrote , " As always , Kurt and Karofsky 's scenes shine as the strongest in whichever episode they 're featured . "
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= Heart ( Glee ) =
" Heart " ( stylized as " ♥ " in Fox 's video preview materials ) is the thirteenth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ seventh overall . Written by Ali Adler and directed by co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on February 14 , 2012 , and features Valentine 's Day love songs performed by the McKinley High glee club . It also features the debuts of special guest stars Jeff Goldblum and Brian Stokes Mitchell as Rachel 's two fathers and The Glee Project winner Samuel Larsen as transfer student Joe Hart .
Whitney Houston 's version of Dolly Parton 's " I Will Always Love You " is performed by Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) in the episode , and the completed episode had been delivered to the network and was scheduled to run in three days when Houston died unexpectedly on February 11 , 2012 ; a dedication to her was added in the episode 's end credits . Reviewers gave Riley 's rendition a very positive reception , the best of those given to the ten songs that were heard in the episode , though the performances in general were well received . It was one of two songs from the episode to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian Hot 100 , along with " Stereo Hearts " , while the other six singles did not chart .
Reviews of the episode varied widely , but there was more positive reaction than not . The greatest enthusiasm was for Rachel 's fathers , though Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) was complimented on his brief scenes , and the scene with Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Karofsky ( Max Adler ) was also praised . The episode was also significant because it featured an on @-@ screen kiss by Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , which was the show 's first lesbian kiss .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 99 million American viewers and received a 2 @.@ 8 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , the lowest rating of the third season to date . The total viewership was down over 11 % from the previous episode , " The Spanish Teacher " .
= = Plot = =
Will ( Matthew Morrison ) assigns the members of New Directions to perform the best love songs for Valentine 's Day . Sugar ( Vanessa Lengies ) takes the opportunity to announce a Valentine 's Day party , for which everyone must have a date , including herself . Artie ( Kevin McHale ) and Rory ( Damian McGinty ) both set out to woo Sugar with gifts , and she vacillates between them , so they move to song : Artie sings " Let Me Love You " and Rory , after he says he has been informed that his visa for a second year at McKinley has been denied , performs " Home " . Sugar chooses Rory as her date .
Santana ( Naya Rivera ) and Brittany ( Heather Morris ) are about to kiss in the hall when Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) stops them . He tells them that he has received complaints about their public displays of affection , which Santana decries as a double @-@ standard , citing the much longer public kisses of Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and Rachel ( Lea Michele ) .
Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) , Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) are members of a Christian club called the God Squad and decide to raise money by performing singing telegrams for Valentine 's Day ; their newest member is the previously home @-@ schooled Joe Hart ( Samuel Larsen ) . The group serenades Rachel with " Stereo Hearts " at Finn 's behest . Santana then hires them to sing for Brittany , which sparks a discussion among squad members on the morality of homosexuality ; Joe must decide whether he is comfortable delivering a singing telegram for a gay couple .
Mercedes breaks up with Shane ( LaMarcus Tinker ) , but she will not date Sam because she feels guilty for hurting Shane and wants to be sure of her own feelings . She performs " I Will Always Love You " as her song , and Sam leaves in tears .
Finn and Rachel reveal their marriage plans to New Directions , most of whom are less than enthused . Rachel 's two fathers Hiram and LeRoy Berry ( Jeff Goldblum and Brian Stokes Mitchell ) , along with Finn 's mother Carole ( Romy Rosemont ) and his step @-@ father Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) , act very supportive and arrange for the couple to spend the night together in Rachel 's room , expecting that the reality of having to live together will encourage the teens to postpone their wedding . The ruse backfires , and the engaged pair announce that they will be getting married even sooner than planned .
Kurt has been receiving valentines and gifts all week from a secret admirer that he believes to be Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , who is still home recovering from eye surgery . He arrives at Sugar 's party early to discover his admirer is actually former bully Karofsky ( Max Adler ) , who declares his love for Kurt . Kurt lets him down gently , but their parting words are overheard by a classmate of Karofsky 's , and Karofsky flees .
Once the party is underway , the God Squad delivers their singing telegram , a " Cherish / Cherish " mash @-@ up , to Brittany on Santana ’ s behalf , and the couple kisses . Sugar and Rory dance , but he is confused by her saying that she will miss him when he has to leave . Blaine arrives , having finally recovered , to lead the group in singing " Love Shack " .
= = Production = =
" Heart " is the second episode to be written by co @-@ executive producer Ali Adler , and it was directed by co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk . It commenced filming on January 13 , 2012 , the same day that the eleventh episode , the Michael Jackson tribute episode , completed its final musical number , and while the twelfth episode was being filmed , which had begun on January 5 , 2012 . The episode completed its filming with two musical numbers on January 31 , 2012 .
On December 8 , 2011 , it was reported that the show had begun casting Rachel 's two fathers . It was not until January 17 , 2012 , that the actors playing Hiram and LeRoy Berry were identified as Jeff Goldblum and Brian Stokes Mitchell , respectively . Two days later they were on the set , shooting their first scenes with Lea Michele , who tweeted a picture of the three of them .
The appearance was long in coming , and Goldblum and Stokes Mitchell were not the first actors cast in those roles , though they are the first to appear on screen . A scene had been written in 2009 for the second episode , " Showmance " , that featured Rachel 's fathers , but it was subsequently cut from the script even though the actors had already been cast and reported for work . Shortly before the final nine episodes of the first season were to begin airing , co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , when asked at PaleyFest in March 2010 whether her fathers would be appearing , replied : " Not this season . We 've never met them ; I think that 's a great surprise . I think you want to hold that a little bit . " Between the second and third seasons , co @-@ creator Ian Brennan said , " It 's tricky with parents " , referenced the scene cut from " Showmance " , and noted , " we 've talked about it forever , about different sets of parents " , but " when you 're in high school , your parents stop being the major influence in your life " . He then added , " I think soon we 'll probably reveal more and more " .
The second of the two winners of The Glee Project 's seven @-@ episode arc , Samuel Larsen , debuts in this episode as a new transfer student to McKinley named Joe Hart . Larsen had arrived on the set by January 17 , 2012 , according to Cory Monteith , who described Larsen 's role as one that " ties into a lot of preexisting storylines " , and " a smart way to bring him into the show " . Larsen 's first day of filming with the glee club was January 25 , 2012 , and a number of his fellow actors tweeted of his arrival , including Lea Michele , Dianna Agron , and fellow Glee Project winner Damian McGinty .
Although it was originally thought that Darren Criss would be missing " one and a half episodes " , and therefore might return in time to appear in this episode after missing the twelfth one , co @-@ star Chris Colfer initially stated that Criss would not be appearing : " You 'll find out how [ Blaine ] leaves for a little bit and then comes back , but it ’ s nothing too bad or serious " . He later said that Blaine " is in the episode , it 's not in the way you might think " ; Criss did return in time to appear in the musical finale . Recurring guest stars who are appearing in the episode include glee club members Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) , Rory Flanagan ( McGinty ) and Sugar Motta ( Lengies ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , Finn 's mother Carole Hudson @-@ Hummel ( Rosemont ) and stepfather Burt Hummel ( O 'Malley ) , former McKinley student Dave Karofsky ( Adler ) and McKinley football player Shane Tinsley ( Tinker ) .
The episode features cover versions of ten songs , nine of which have been released as eight singles available for downloading , with the two @-@ song mash @-@ up released as one single , but no release of " Chapel of Love " , which was heard in only a brief snippet on the show . Performances include Nat King Cole 's " L @-@ O @-@ V @-@ E " sung by Jenna Ushkowitz and Harry Shum , Jr . ; Dolly Parton 's " I Will Always Love You " in the style of the Whitney Houston cover version sung by Riley ; " Stereo Hearts " by Gym Class Heroes featuring Adam Levine sung by Larsen , Overstreet and Riley ; and Mario 's " Let Me Love You " sung by McHale . Other songs that are featured include Cole Porter 's " You 're the Top " from the musical Anything Goes , " Love Shack " by The B @-@ 52 's , Michael Bublé 's " Home " , and a mash @-@ up of two songs entitled " Cherish " : The Association song and the Madonna song . Whitney Houston died unexpectedly on February 11 , 2012 , three days before the episode was scheduled to air and the day after the finished episode was delivered to the network . The producers subsequently announced that they would pay tribute to Houston with a dedication to her in the end credits .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Heart " was first broadcast on February 14 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It received a 2 @.@ 8 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 6 @.@ 99 million American viewers during its initial airing , a significant decrease from the 3 @.@ 3 / 9 rating / share and 7 @.@ 81 million viewers of the previous episode , which was broadcast on February 7 , 2012 , and the lowest rating of the third season to date . In Canada , however , viewership increased , and 1 @.@ 72 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere . It was the thirteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , up two slots and over 9 % from the 1 @.@ 57 million viewers who watched " The Spanish Teacher " the previous week .
In the United Kingdom , " Heart " first aired on March 22 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 792 @,@ 000 viewers . Viewership was up slightly from " The Spanish Teacher " , which attracted 771 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " Heart " was broadcast on March 9 , 2012 . It was watched by 563 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fourteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from twelfth the week before . Despite the drop , actual viewership was almost unchanged from the previous episode , " The Spanish Teacher " , which was seen by 564 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Heart " received a wide range of opinion from reviewers , though the balance was clearly on the positive side . Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone , wrote that it was " thoroughly enjoyable from start to finish " , and HuffPost TV 's Crystal Bell called it " a standout episode of the season " . Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle characterized it as " sort of terrible " and " unfunny " , and IGN 's Robert Canning gave it an " okay " grade of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 , but Canning also acclaimed " the introduction of Rachel 's two dads played by Jeff Goldblum and Broadway vet Brian Stokes Mitchell " ; he said they were " fantastic " and their schemes regarding the engagement " delightful " . Bell called theirs " the most surprising pleasant performances of the night " and added " I absolutely adored these two " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal summed up their appearance as " annoyingly perfect " , and TV Guide 's Kate Stanhope devoted an entire article to the pair , wrote , " What 's not to like ? Seamless chemistry , witty back @-@ and @-@ forth " , and noted that their appearance filled out Rachel 's backstory . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club was another who pointed out that you could see , from their characterization , " how Rachel got to be the way she was " . Billboard 's Rae Votta approved of the episode as a whole and of the Berry parents : " For a pair that have been noticeably absent from the show for two and a half seasons , they cram a ton of character moments into a single scene " . VanDerWerff wrote that the scheme by the Berry fathers " to get the two to break off their marriage plans by talking earnestly about teenage lovemaking " was " very , very creepy and just a little unsound , but I sort of like that it suggests to me that , yeah , this is who these guys are . " He characterized Hiram and LeRoy as " goofy sitcom characters " , unlike Burt or Carole .
Kevin Sullivan of MTV stated that Principal Figgins " stole the show with his outburst and the passing reference to Finchel " , and VanDerWerff said his was " a very funny moment in the episode " , and also complimented the sequence for having alluded to " how it ’ s still much harder to have a same @-@ sex kiss on a broadcast network than it is to have Rachel and Finn neck disgustingly " . The God Squad , however , was not well received : Canning described it as " conveniently arriving for the sake of one storyline in this episode " and debating " a forced issue that we all knew would result in acceptance " , and VanDerWerff pointed out that as " we already know how the other three kids are going to shake out " , it was " surprisingly undramatic " and its sole purpose to " watch a new character decide if he 's okay with gay people " . Futterman , on the other hand , felt that the sequence " tastefully incorporated religion 's views into the show 's ongoing look at gay relationships " .
While the sequence featuring Mercedes singing " I Will Always Love You " was very well received , Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch was not happy about the state of Mercedes and Sam 's relationship : " If these two don 't get together soon , I 'm voting we just call the whole thing off , because I 'm tired of these false starts . " VanDerWerff , referring to the third member of that romantic triangle , wrote that one of the two " tertiary characters " he responded to most was " Shane , who didn ’ t say anything but gave good cry @-@ face " . VanDerWerff 's other character was Karofsky , and Michael Slezak of TVLine characterized his scene with Kurt as " electric , with Kurt tenderly giving the ' just friends ' speech to Dave " . Lynch thought the plot of having Karofsky be Kurt 's secret admirer was " vaguely stalker @-@ ish on Karofsky 's part , and contrived on the part of the show " , and Canning accurately predicted that after Karofsky had been seen by his classmate , it would " just be an episode or two before Karofsky gets bullied into thinking about suicide , if not actually taking his own life " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The theme of the episode — love songs — inspired VanDerWerff to note that such songs " are great for musicals because they pretty much do all of the work necessary in terms of expressing inner emotions and moving the plot forward " . He said that " every song in this episode had a clear emotional and plot purpose " except for the " Love Shack " finale . Futterman wrote that the glee club succeeded in finding and performing " the world 's greatest love songs " , and the reactions from other reviewers were generally favorable as well .
With the death of Whitney Houston three days before the episode aired , a great deal of attention was given to Amber Riley 's performance of Houston 's hit during the episode , " I Will Always Love You " , and its unexpected function as a tribute to the singer . Reviews were glowing : Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times called it a " gorgeous , lush take " that was " definitely an episode highlight " , and Bell described is as " a beautiful cover " , " the perfect song for Mercedes to sing to Sam " and a " haunting performance " . Flandez wrote that it was a " heart @-@ rending love song that becomes a homage of the 48 @-@ year @-@ old fallen star " , and " brought goosebumps " ; the shot near the end , " of Mercedes dressed in a sweetheart gown , standing alone , reaching for the stars , was memorable " . The Washington Post 's Jen Chaney said that " Riley deserves a standing ovation " , and that she sang the song with " a power motivated by genuine emotions that tied in directly to her storyline " ; the " heartbreaking context of Houston 's death ... immediately elevated this moment to the very best one of Glee 's entire third season . " In December 2012 , TV Guide listed the rendition as one of Glee 's best performances .
Chaney characterized Tina and Mike 's duet of " L @-@ O @-@ V @-@ E " as " cute and buoyant " and gave it an " A − " , and Bell called it " absolute perfection " . While Slezak praised their " sweet vocals " , he wondered why their " rare moment in the spotlight had to serve as a backdrop to the Artie @-@ Sugar @-@ Rory triangle " and gave the performance a " B " . Chaney thought the " quick edits actually gave the song a nice energy , but also prevented us from seeing more of Tina and Mike dancing " , which she said " was a shame " . Flandez and Lynch both praised Mike 's singing ; Lynch said his " voice sounded great " , and Flandez declared that " Mike has really come into his own as a singer " . For " Let Me Love You " , Lynch wrote that " Artie busted out some serious sex appeal " and gave the " spot @-@ on smooth " performance a " B + " . He also described Artie as " effortlessly convincing " on the song . Slezak bestowed an " A − " and said , " Artie finally finds an R & B jam that lets him get his swag on and fits his voice to a tee ! " Votta made mention of " Kurt , Sam , Puck and Mike doing an impressive job as boyband style backup " , but Chaney called the performance , including the choreography , " underwhelming " and gave it a " C " grade .
Futterman noted that " Rory 's a natural to sing Bublé " on " Home " and Chaney said he " sang it nicely enough " , but neither expressed much enthusiasm about the rendition , and Chaney gave it a " C " grade . Slezak and Lynch were slightly more generous with their matching grades of " C + " , but were also unimpressed : Lynch declared it " too schmaltzy for my tastes " , and Slezak admitted he doesn 't " get " McGinty . The two songs sung by Hiram and LeRoy Berry received little comment , in part due to their brevity . Chaney was disappointed that " Chapel of Love " was so brief , while Lynch called it " acceptably fun " , and similarly approved of " You 're the Top " , which he called " goofy , lighthearted family fun " . Futterman characterized the latter song as " appropriately over @-@ the @-@ top " , though Slezak maintained that " no gay dads in the world would perform this song with their teenage daughter " .
The pair of performances by the McKinley High God Squad , however , received rather more attention . The first , " Stereo Hearts " , received a trio of " B − " grades from reviewers : Chaney said it was " a bit much " but " semi @-@ enjoyable " , Slezak described it as a " somewhat bland rendition " , and Lynch wrote that " Joe Hart 's vocal debut on Glee proper was fine , but Sam 's rapping was not " . Bell said " Mercedes was flawless " and then called the song 's rapping " one major flaw " , but Futterman wrote that " Sam wins for most surprising Glee vocalist by convincingly taking on Travie McCoy 's rap " . Flandez said that the " voices melded well together " . The " Cherish " mash @-@ up was better received , and garnered grades from " B " up to " A − " , the highest from Slezak , who deemed it a " delicious " dessert . Lynch said " Quinn sounded great " with his " B " grade , and Chaney 's " peppy , sweet number " was attached to a " B + " . Flandez called it a " cute mashup " , and VanDerWerff said the rendition was " nice and understated " .
Hankinson , despite his criticism of the episode , liked " Love Shack " so much it was his favorite song of the episode , and Futterman called it a " well @-@ executed note " on which to end the show . Both Lynch and Slezak said that Blaine failed to project the campiness the song required , and that they were glad Kurt took over from him . Their grades were quite different : Slezak gave a " C − " , while Lynch , who complimented Mercedes as well as Kurt , bestowed a " B + " . Chaney was more enthusiastic than both and gave the " rousing " cover an " A " : she was enthusiastic about Criss " bebopping all over the place " , and also noted that " the most entertaining all @-@ company performances on Glee are the ones where it 's clear how much fun everyone had during filming " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Two of the episode 's eight released singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " I Will Always Love You " debuted at number eighty @-@ seven on sales of 36 @,@ 000 downloads , and " Stereo Hearts " debuted at number ninety . The same two songs also debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 , but in the reverse order : " Stereo Hearts " was at number seventy @-@ four , and " I Will Always Love You " was at number ninety @-@ two .
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= Jack Crawford ( cricketer ) =
John Neville " Jack " Crawford ( 1 December 1886 – 2 May 1963 ) was an English first @-@ class cricketer who played mainly for Surrey and South Australia . An amateur , he played as an all @-@ rounder . As a right @-@ handed batsman , Crawford had a reputation for scoring quickly and hitting powerful shots . He bowled medium @-@ paced off spin and was noted for his accuracy and his ability to make the ball turn sharply from the pitch . Unusually for a first @-@ class cricketer , Crawford wore spectacles while playing .
Crawford established a reputation as an outstanding cricketer while still a schoolboy . He played Test cricket for England before he was 21 years old , and successfully toured Australia with the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) in 1907 – 08 . He played only 12 matches for England , although critics believed he had a great future in the sport and was a potential future England captain . In two successive English seasons , he completed the double of 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets in first @-@ class games .
A dispute over the composition of a Surrey side chosen to play a high @-@ profile game in 1909 , after several professional players were omitted for disciplinary reasons , led to an increasingly bitter argument between Crawford and the Surrey authorities . Crawford was told he had no future with the club , and moved to Australia . There , he worked as a teacher and continued his cricket career with South Australia . This arrangement had a controversial end , when he clashed with the South Australian Cricket Association over money and moved to New Zealand to play for Otago .
That relationship also ended badly , and he left Otago before being conscripted into the New Zealand armed forces near the end of the First World War . When he was demobilised , he returned to England and made his peace with Surrey . He played a handful of games between 1919 and 1921 but faded out of first @-@ class cricket to pursue a career in industry . In all first @-@ class cricket , Crawford scored 9 @,@ 488 runs at an average of 32 @.@ 60 and took 815 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 66 . Although he continued to play cricket at a lower level , the remainder of Crawford 's life passed in relative obscurity .
= = Early life and career = =
Jack Crawford was born on 1 December 1886 at Cane Hill , Coulsdon , Surrey , the youngest of three sons to the Rev John Charles Crawford and his wife Alice ; the couple also had three daughters . Crawford senior was the chaplain at the recently opened Cane Hill Asylum , in the grounds of which Crawford was born . He grew up in a cricketing environment . His father and uncle , Frank Crawford , played first @-@ class cricket for Kent ; his brothers Vivian and Reginald were also first @-@ class cricketers . The whole family played cricket and encouraged Crawford from a young age , and from the age of eleven he regularly played with adults .
After attending Glengrove School in Eastbourne , Crawford went to St Winifred 's School in Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames where , in his two years in the cricket team , he scored 2 @,@ 093 runs and took 366 wickets . In 1902 , Crawford moved to Repton School . Reaching the cricket team in his first year , he remained in the eleven until he left the school in 1905 . His impact was considerable . A 1906 report in Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack rated him as one of the best three schoolboy cricketers in the previous 40 years , only matched by A. G. Steel and Stanley Jackson . Cricket historians similarly praised his cricket at Repton . Benny Green notes that his prolific achievements " created ... chaos among schoolboy cricketers . " Gerald Brodribb describes him as " probably the best ever " schoolboy cricketer .
By 1904 , Crawford dominated the Repton team . He scored 759 runs and his 75 wickets were more than the combined total of all the other bowlers in the team . He was particularly effective in the school 's most important fixtures . The report in Wisden described him as possibly the best amateur bowler in England that year : he bowled medium @-@ paced off spin , although he varied the speed of his delivery from slow to fast . Surrey County Cricket Club took an interest in Crawford almost immediately , calling him to a trial in 1903 . Following his achievements in 1904 , he was invite to play for the county . The county club was in the midst of a spell of uncertainty ; several men captained the team , but only for a handful of matches each . The composition of the side continually changed , and the team performed poorly , causing unrest among supporters accustomed to success . Crawford was just one of many players brought in as an experiment , albeit one of the most successful . He made his first @-@ class debut against Kent . Taking three wickets and top @-@ scoring in Surrey 's first innings with 54 , Crawford did well enough to retain his place for another seven games , and was praised in the press for his performances . Against Gloucestershire , he took seven wickets for 43 runs in the second innings , and a total of ten wickets in the match . In the season as a whole he took 44 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 93 to top the county 's bowling averages , and scored 229 runs at an average of 16 @.@ 35 .
Although hampered by injuries during the 1905 season for Repton , his last at the school , Crawford scored 766 runs with a batting average of 85 . In the five matches in which he was fit to bowl he took 55 wickets at an average under 13 . In the August holidays , he returned to play for Surrey . In his second game , he took seven for 90 against Yorkshire and in his third , he scored his maiden first @-@ class century — 119 not out against Derbyshire — to become the youngest centurion for the county , a record that was not broken until 2013 . Later , he took eight for 24 against Northamptonshire and scored 142 not out against Leicestershire . At the end of the season , he played in the Hastings Festival , appearing in several representative games for teams representing the South of England and played for the Rest of England against the County Champions Yorkshire . Crawford finished second in Surrey 's batting averages for 1905 ; in all first @-@ class games he scored 543 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 93 and took 47 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 46 . As the season ended , he was invited by the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) to join their tour of South Africa that winter .
= = International cricketer = =
= = = Tour to South Africa = = =
Having finished his school career , Crawford joined the first MCC tour of South Africa in the 1905 – 06 season . The team was not particularly strong — before the tour , critics judged it to possess the equivalent strength of a moderate county side . The MCC was criticised by the press in both England and South Africa for omitting many of the strongest players . As the youngest member of the team , Crawford was given the traditional role of writing press reports to be sent back home during the tour . When the team played in Worcester during the tour , the local press carried a report that Crawford planned to remain in South Africa . The 1906 Wisden carried the same story ; in a comment on his success in 1905 , it suggested that it was uncertain for how long he would play , and questioned whether , if he played Test cricket , he would do so for England or South Africa . The cricket historian Nigel Hart queries why Wisden mentioned South Africa ; Crawford 's only known connection came through his uncle , who had left South Africa five years before .
In all first @-@ class matches on the tour , Crawford scored 531 runs at an average of 31 @.@ 23 , coming third in the tour batting averages , and took 34 wickets at an average of 18 @.@ 44 , placing him fifth among the regular bowlers in the team . In the early tour matches , Crawford recorded two five wicket hauls and scored 98 . He made his Test match debut for England against South Africa in the first Test at the age of 19 years and 32 days to become England 's youngest Test cricketer , a record he held until Brian Close made his debut in 1949 . Batting at number six , Crawford scored 44 runs in the first innings and 43 in the second ; he took a wicket with his first delivery , bowling Bert Vogler . He was wicketless in the second innings , and bowled inaccurately as the home side recorded a one @-@ wicket win . Wisden noted that Crawford batted well in both innings . After a month of cricket in between the Tests , during which Crawford scored 212 in a minor game , the English team were suffering from fatigue when the remaining matches were played . In the second Test , Crawford was promoted to open the batting , a position he retained for most of the series . In the final match , he scored 74 , his first Test fifty and the highest score of his Test career . His best bowling also came in the final match , where he took three for 69 .
In the Test series , Crawford scored 281 runs at an average of 31 @.@ 22 and took nine wickets at 35 @.@ 77 . England lost the series 4 – 1 , finding it difficult to bat against the South African googly bowlers . Wisden 's tour report described Crawford 's batting as one of the few positives for his side . Writing home during the tour , the MCC captain Pelham Warner frequently praised Crawford and the extent of his ability at a young age . The English press even parodied what Crawford 's biographer , Michael Burns , describes as Warner 's " near @-@ obsession " with Crawford . Other critics believed that Crawford should have been more successful as a bowler but was distracted by the matting surfaces used in South Africa ; because he was able to make the ball bounce and turn extravagantly from the surface , he tried to spin the ball too much and lost accuracy as a result .
= = = Surrey cricketer = = =
Returning to England for the 1906 season , Crawford completed the double of 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets in first @-@ class cricket , the youngest player at the time to accomplish this feat . Against Gloucestershire , he scored 148 and then took seven for 85 and four for 63 with the ball ; he also took ten wickets in his next game . In total , he compiled 1 @,@ 174 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 10 , and took 118 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 28 . These performances earned him selection for the representative Gentlemen versus Players matches at both Lord 's and The Oval , in which he played for the amateur Gentlemen . At the end of the season , he was chosen as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation said : " Few cricketers have won equal fame at so early an age " , and noted the unusual ease with which he had moved into first @-@ class cricket . Crawford 's powerful batting and straight hitting were praised , as was his accurate bowling . The report also stated : " That he should have done all this is the more astonishing from the fact that he invariably plays in glasses . No one handicapped in this way has ever been so consistently successful both as batsman and bowler . "
Crawford had a reputation by this stage as a batsman who favoured aggressive , powerful shots and his performances drew in crowds . In 1907 , in the space of a few days , he hit deliveries in two different matches through the windows of both the home and the visitors ' dressing rooms at The Oval . Towards the end of the season , he scored 103 runs in 90 minutes against Kent , his only century that year , hitting several deliveries into the crowd ; The Times described the ball in this innings as " soaring away like a bird " . Crawford 's overall batting record was similar to the previous season : he scored 1 @,@ 158 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 47 . With the ball , he took 124 wickets at 16 @.@ 95 , completing his second double . Once again , he was selected in both Gentlemen v Players matches , taking six for 54 in the second , and was chosen to play two of the three Test matches against South Africa . These were his only Test matches in England ; he scored 26 runs in three innings and was wicketless after bowling 29 overs . He missed England 's victory in the second match , the only match in the series not to be a draw , but Wisden 's correspondent believed that the pitch conditions for that game made it a mistake to leave Crawford out . Despite his lack of success in the Tests , Crawford was invited to tour Australia that winter even before the South African series was complete ; he suggested to the press that he might remain in Australia after the tour .
= = = Tour to Australia = = =
The MCC team which toured Australia in 1907 — 08 , like that which toured South Africa , faced questions about its strength . Because at least four first @-@ choice players chose not to tour , and another was not selected despite strong claims , the team was less representative than usual for an Ashes series . The tourists lost the Tests 4 – 1 , although Wisden suggested that the series was more competitive than suggested by the results .
Crawford began the tour well , taking seven wickets in the opening first @-@ class match against Western Australia . In the second game , he scored 114 runs in 58 minutes against South Australia , the fastest first @-@ class century scored in Australia until then , followed by bowling figures of five for 40 in the second innings . Crawford contributed little more with bat or ball in the lead @-@ up to the Test series ; in England , the cricketer Gilbert Jessop wrote an article suggesting that Crawford had become an " unsound " batsman . He scarcely bowled in the first Test , won by Australia , and both the English and Australian press were critical of his bowling . Frederick Fane , the acting @-@ captain of England , seemed to share this view in the second Test , withholding Crawford from the attack for some time . However , Crawford took five for 79 in the first innings helped to restrict Australia on a good batting pitch and took eight wickets in the match as England levelled the series .
Australia won the remaining games to win the series . In the third match , Crawford scored his only half @-@ century of the series , hitting 62 out of England 's 363 to help his team build up a first innings lead . However , Australia scored 506 at the second attempt , during which Crawford bowled nearly 46 overs to take three for 113 . The series was settled in the fourth Test ; Australia recorded a big victory after rain affected the pitch and created difficult batting conditions during England 's first innings . On the first day , Crawford took five for 48 , his best Test figures , as Australia were bowled out for 214 on a very good pitch . Wisden noted Crawford " [ mixed ] up his pace with remarkable skill " . By this stage of the tour , the press looked on him much more favourably , and he received praise for his performances . However , his heavy workload with the ball affected his health ; he lost a stone in weight during the tour , and before the final Test a Melbourne doctor diagnosed that he had " strained the right side of his heart " and advised that he see a specialist . Crawford played in that game , won by Australia , despite his ill health , with several other players unfit , and the tour manager later wrote that he looked poorly throughout and should not have played . Nevertheless , he bowled 54 overs and took eight wickets in the match .
Wisden considered Crawford 's bowling to be one of the most successful features of the tour and praised his ability to spin the ball , reporting : " It was said of Crawford that even on the most perfect wickets he could at times make the ball break back . " He led the English Test bowling averages with 30 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 73 . His batting was less productive than expected ; in five Tests , he scored 162 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 00 , batting usually at number eight . In all first @-@ class matches on the tour , he scored 610 runs at 26 @.@ 52 and took 66 wickets at 25 @.@ 19 . Crawford 's contributions enhanced his growing reputation and critics expected his cricket to go from strength to strength . Australian batsman Clem Hill commented : " There are grand cricketers in this game , and then there is Jack Crawford . " The final game in the series turned out to be Crawford 's last Test . In 12 Test matches , he had scored 469 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 33 and took 39 wickets at 29 @.@ 48 .
As the tour neared its completion , the Australian press reported that Crawford planned to remain in Australia , that he had attracted the attention of several " society " women , and had become engaged . Even so , he returned to England when the tour ended . In May 1909 , he published a book about the tour , JN Crawford 's Trip to " Kangaroo " land .
= = Dispute with Surrey = =
= = = Background = = =
During the 1908 season , Crawford narrowly failed to complete his third double . He scored 1 @,@ 371 runs at an average of 37 @.@ 05 and took 98 wickets at 21 @.@ 48 . His season began with a probable dispute over the Surrey captaincy . H. D. G. Leveson Gower had been appointed captain for 1908 but the combination of an injury and his marriage left him unavailable for four matches near the beginning of the season . Crawford also missed the beginning of the season ; a newspaper article by Albert Trott , a former Australian Test all @-@ rounder now playing for Middlesex , suggested that Crawford withdrew from the team because he was not appointed captain in Leveson Gower 's absence . Instead Harry Bush , who had not played first @-@ class cricket for five years , led the team . Trott was sympathetic to Crawford , stating that the Surrey committee went out of their way " to inflict a most undeserved slight " on Crawford .
In the remainder of the season , Crawford scored 232 against Somerset , his highest first @-@ class score , as well as centuries against Derbyshire and Hampshire . The increased strength and variety of Surrey 's bowling attack restricted his opportunities ; he was used less as a strike bowler and bowled fewer overs than in the previous season . Contemporary reports suggested that his performances tailed off as the season progressed , possibly through tiredness from having played too much cricket , and that he became a less accurate bowler through trying too hard to spin the ball . The Surrey captaincy remained unsettled ; Crawford led the team on several occasions , including Surrey 's final game of the season , when his brother Vivian captained Leicestershire , their opponents .
Crawford , who played as an amateur but was not independently wealthy , received an increased expenses allowance during 1908 , but other financial dealings with the committee were less successful : they paid his laundry bills in 1905 , but refused to do so afterwards ; additionally , they refused his request in 1907 to have part of his expenses paid for matches that he missed , as happened with the wages of professionals . His financial problems were compounded by his inability to find a suitable job , and the Surrey committee threatened that he " ought not to be played on the same terms " unless he " [ commenced ] to earn his livelihood " .
Crawford 's performances in the 1909 season were less effective than in previous years . He began well , but was later hampered by an injury which prevented him from bowling . His batting average also fell . Surrey experienced disciplinary problems with several of their professional players during the season . The club president , Lord Alverstone , favoured amateurs , arguing that a losing amateur team was preferable to a professional side that won ; several professionals were left out in favour of amateurs . Apart from adversely affecting some players ' careers , this preference had destabilised the team over several seasons . Crawford disagreed with Alverstone , but nevertheless frequently assumed the leadership in the absence of the regular captain Leveson Gower for much of the season . He captained Surrey to a win over the touring Australian team early in 1909 after a strong performance by the professional bowler Tom Rushby . However , his captaincy was strongly criticised in the press , particularly over his management of the bowling . Around this time , Crawford 's form declined . With the bat , he was often dismissed attempting aggressive shots , and he lost his effectiveness as a bowler . As a result , he was not chosen for the Gentlemen and missed selection in the Ashes series . The press continued to criticise his captaincy , despite Surrey 's good results under his leadership . Burns notes : " For a young man with no experience of prolonged failure on the cricket field , this was almost certainly a traumatic time . "
Surrey had other problems at this time . When the team arrived in Chesterfield to play Derbyshire , eight of the professionals were arrested following an incident in the street ; the matter was cleared up and the press suggested that the police had been over @-@ eager . The county subsequently defeated Derbyshire by an innings in early July ; Rushby and his fellow professionals Walter Lees and W. C. Smith were very successful with the ball . Shortly after this , Rushby and Lees were involved in an incident of some kind — the exact details are unknown . Leveson Gower suspended them , making them unavailable for Surrey 's second match against the Australians . Crawford was asked to lead the team for that game , but with Rushby and Lees omitted , another bowler missing and himself unable to bowl owing to a shoulder injury , he considered the attack too weak . Consequently , he refused the captaincy , and apologised to the Australians for the selection of what he thought a substandard side . In Crawford 's absence , Surrey were led by the professional Tom Hayward ; the match , affected by rain , was drawn .
= = = Correspondence and split = = =
The cricket press noticed the absence of Crawford and the professionals from Surrey 's team over the following games , and noted that Crawford was now playing club cricket . Meanwhile , Alverstone wrote to Crawford that the Surrey committee fully supported Leveson Gower 's decision to omit Rushby and Lees , and told him that Surrey would not select him again unless he apologised to Leveson Gower . Crawford refused , writing to Alverstone : " I do not know who was responsible for the selection of the second eleven sort of team furnished up for such an important match ... There seems to be some impression amongst a few of the Surrey committee that I am some young professional instead of being a young fellow who has had an experience of cricket that has seldom fallen to the lot of anyone , and my request for an alteration of the team should have had some weight " . In his History of Cricket , Benny Green describes the letter as evidence of a " literate and quietly self @-@ confident young man who will not easily be manipulated . "
Alverstone replied that he " regretted " Crawford 's views ; the committee respected Crawford as a " brilliant amateur with great experience " , but Crawford had not supported his captain — a prime duty for an amateur . Crawford replied that he had been unaware of the reason for the suspensions of Rushby and Lees — which Alverstone and the committee disputed — and would have supported Leveson Gower , but suggested it was unfair to ask him to captain a weak bowling team and then demand he apologise for preferring not to . He also observed that the players omitted from the team against the Australians had since been restored to the county side , making their exclusion harder to understand in the first place .
At this point Leveson Gower withdrew his invitation for Crawford to appear at the Scarborough Festival ; Leveson Gower also prevented Crawford 's selection for the MCC winter tour of South Africa . Crawford 's father wrote to the Surrey committee in support of his son . By the beginning of August 1909 , two weeks after the match against the Australians , the Surrey committee severed their connection with Crawford ; Leveson Gower felt that he had shown the " deepest ingratitude " . Wisden reported : " The committee were much incensed and passed a resolution that Crawford be not again asked to play for the county . " Informed of his expulsion by letter , Crawford replied to the committee a final time : " I fail to see why I should practically be branded as a criminal because , as acting captain , I declined the responsibility of skippering a team which did not include three essential players , an independence which I trust will remain in spite of the awful example made of me to every amateur in the United Kingdom . "
The Surrey committee initially attempted to keep the dispute private , but Crawford sent copies of the letters to the newspapers , explaining in a letter that he wished to end speculation about his absence from the Surrey team . Burns notes that this " [ generated ] a strong response from the public , mainly unsympathetic to the young amateur " in the letters pages of many newspapers . Many commentators felt that the argument could have been resolved easily had either side made concessions . Green comments that the committee probably either expected Crawford to back down , or were happy to sacrifice him to establish their authority . Another of the players involved , Rushby , left Surrey at the end of the season to play league cricket , but later returned to the team . Crawford 's father made a further attempt to end the dispute between Surrey and his son in 1910 , asking the committee to reverse their decision . Wisden reported that Alverstone declined on the grounds that it would suggest a lack of confidence in the committee , but that if Crawford " came forward in a sportsmanlike way [ Alverstone ] would be proud to give his personal support to the step proposed . This of course meant that an apology was expected . "
In his History of Cricket , Green contended that the " Surrey committee must be held accountable for a degree of idiocy rarely met with even in the realms of cricket administration " for the way they dealt with Crawford , " one of the world 's most prodigious all @-@ rounders . " Hart observes that Crawford was challenging figures high up in the cricket establishment on the Surrey committee ; he also suggests that Crawford 's actions in his later career , and the complaints made against him by other cricket authorities , reveal a stubbornness in his character and suggest he was not merely a victim of the Surrey committee . The Times speculated that factors other than the dispute may have contributed to Surrey 's decision . Burns believes that Crawford was feeling pressure from several directions : his inability to secure a job , possible frustration at the controlling influence of his father , a desire to be independent , his poor run of form and criticism of his captaincy . Even though , according to Burns , it was an " unwinnable battle " , he suggests simply : " Young Jack was in the mood for a fight . "
At the end of the season , Crawford played his last matches in England for 10 years , appearing for an " England XI " against the Australians and for the Gentlemen of the South . He had previously discussed emigrating to Australia with the Australian Test player Victor Trumper , who had asked Clem Hill to investigate a potential teaching post at St Peter 's College , Adelaide . Originally , assuming that he would be part of the MCC tour to South Africa , he planned to take take up his position in March 1910 . When the dispute arose , Crawford sent a telegram to inform the college he would take up the post of " Resident Master " early in 1910 , for a salary of £ 160 per year . Burns suggests that this knowledge that he had the offer of work may have prompted him to take a stand against the Surrey committee . In October 1910 he was offered the position of " Ordinary Master " at the college , and £ 50 towards his travel expenses if he departed immediately . He left England by boat two days later , seen off by his family . No cricket figures saw his departure , but there was considerable interest from the press .
= = Later career = =
= = = Cricket in South Australia = = =
At St Peter 's School , Crawford combined his teaching role with supervision of sports , including acting as coach for the cricket team . On several occasions , he had to request leave from the headmaster to play first @-@ class cricket . After arriving in Australia in December 1909 , he was playing district cricket for East Torrens within a week , and played in South Australia 's last three matches in the Sheffield Shield competition ; the team went on to win the trophy for the first time since 1893 – 94 . Crawford played a large part in this success . There was some controversy over his eligibility to play ; New South Wales initially protested , but there was a precedent for ignoring the requirement of a three @-@ month qualification period , and the New South Wales Cricket Association ( NSWCA ) Executive Committee accepted this in the case of Crawford , to the displeasure of the full NSWCA . Over four seasons , Crawford played 22 matches for South Australia , scoring 1 @,@ 512 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 86 and taking 120 wickets at 23 @.@ 86 . Green suggests that such a performance would have earned him Test selection if he had been Australian , and Wisden noted that his record in Australia was impressive .
In the 1910 – 11 Australian season , Crawford scored a half @-@ century in every first @-@ class game he played but was less successful with the ball . His success against the touring South Africans , perhaps helped by his experience facing their googly bowlers on previous occasions , brought him close to selection for the Australian Test team that year . The Australian Board of Control eventually decided that , as he had already appeared for England , they could not choose him ; instead they picked Charlie Kelleway as the all @-@ rounder . Crawford resigned from his position as St Peter 's in March 1911 , suggesting to the press that he might move into farming . He may have considered leaving South Australia , but the Cricket Association appointed him as a clerk at the Adelaide Oval , a position which earned £ 200 per annum , with additional responsibility for coaching and youth scouting . Meanwhile , in England , after unsuccessful attempts by his father to change the mind of the Surrey committee , including a failed bid to secure his own election to the committee , Crawford sent a written apology to Surrey at some time in 1910 . Consequently , the committee passed a motion in March 1911 which ended the ban on Crawford playing for the county .
Press rumours over the following 12 months cast doubt on Crawford 's future , suggestions including a return to England for the 1912 season . Instead , he remained with South Australia in the 1911 – 12 season . Although less successful generally , he played for a non @-@ representative Australian XI against the MCC touring team which contested the Ashes that season and scored 110 in as many minutes against bowlers including Sydney Barnes , at the time regarded as the greatest bowler in the world . The following season , in which South Australia again won the Shield , Crawford took seven for 31 against Western Australia , including a hat @-@ trick , and scored 163 in 177 minutes against Victoria before taking eight for 66 in their first innings .
In 1913 , Crawford was included in an Australian team which toured North America . The team was organised by Edgar Mayne , a South Australian batsman who tried to secure backing from the Australian Board of Control to make it an official representative team , but the Board refused to do so . In all matches , Crawford scored over 1 @,@ 000 runs and took over 200 wickets , and he was particularly effective as a bowler in the matches designated first @-@ class . He later stated that this was the best tour he had been on ; more press rumours suggested that he would return to England at the conclusion of the tour , but he returned to Australia with the rest of the team .
= = = Further controversy = = =
In December 1913 , Crawford wrote to the South Australian Cricket Association ( SACA ) asking for a six @-@ month leave of absence and a guaranteed renewal of his contract . The SACA described his letter as " arrogant " before eventually granting his request and offering him a three @-@ year contract worth around £ 300 per year , including coaching fees . In effect , he wanted to double his salary or leave to seek a position in New Zealand . Describing these events , Hart comments : " Crawford 's financial dealings with the SACA reveal him both as mercenary and as an awkward ' cuss ' . The latter aspect of his personality needs to be taken into account lest he be considered merely an establishment victim in his parting with Surrey " . On the field , Crawford was successful in 1913 – 14 . He took 34 wickets , and against New South Wales he hit 91 in 89 minutes before taking 10 wickets ; against Victoria he took eleven wickets . This latter match was his last for South Australia . Later in 1914 , Crawford toured New Zealand with an Australian team — assembled without the approval of the Australian Board of Control — which contained many leading players , under the captaincy of the former Canterbury batsman Arthur Sims . In first @-@ class games on this tour Crawford took 21 wickets and scored a century , but his most notable innings came in a minor match . Against the " XV of South Canterbury " , he scored 354 in five @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter hours , striking 14 sixes and 45 fours . He and Victor Trumper shared a partnership of 298 in 69 minutes , and Monty Noble helped him to score 50 runs in 9 minutes as the Australian team scored 922 for nine .
In March 1914 , the Otago Cricket Association ( OCA ) offered Crawford a three @-@ year contract worth £ 350 per year , and a share in the management of a sports store , to play for them . Briefly returning to Adelaide after the tour , he resigned from his South Australia contract before moving to Dunedin in June 1914 . The South Australian Cricket Association were widely criticised for failing to retain Crawford ; in their defence , the committee publicly stated that Crawford had been offered an increased deal and had promised to turn down any offers made to him in New Zealand , but went back on his word . Later historians — Nigel Hart in his biography of Crawford , and Chris Harte in his A History of Australian Cricket ( 1993 ) — condemned Crawford as arrogant and mercenary for his behaviour towards South Australia . Harte also suggests that Crawford left Australia with many debts . Burns , however , suggests that Crawford may have wanted to maximise his earnings to support his upcoming marriage , and notes that his South Australian team @-@ mates held no grudges and even organised a farewell presentation . Once in his new position , Crawford immediately organised a Colts team which produced several future Otago players . While qualifying to play for Otago , he played club cricket in Dunedin , scoring 559 runs and taking 88 wickets . During the 1914 – 15 season he appeared in four first @-@ class games for Otago , in which he scored 337 runs and took 30 wickets . He briefly returned to Australia in 1915 to marry Anita Schmidt in Melbourne in April . Schmidt — from Adelaide and described in the society press as a " beauty " — and Crawford met in 1912 when the former was 18 years old and became well @-@ known as a couple at fashionable events in Adelaide . Burns suggests that the wedding took place in Melbourne rather than Adelaide because Crawford may have been avoiding his creditors . Two days after the wedding , the couple returned to New Zealand .
Crawford 's wages caused the OCA some financial difficulty and were the cause of extended negotiations in 1915 . Part of the settlement involved Crawford receiving a lower salary in return for freedom to offer his services to other clubs on a freelance basis . As a consequence , he represented different teams throughout the season in local cricket . He was also paid to coach at Otago Boys High School . There were other difficulties ; the association complained about the lateness of Crawford 's report on the Otago team , and were unhappy that he also coached golf . Crawford in turn told the association that several Otago players were late for practice . After further complaints about Crawford 's coaching in 1916 , the OCA decided to terminate his contract . Crawford initially offered to continue for less money — £ 245 . The OCA bargained , suggesting a payment of £ 200 , whereupon Crawford insisted that he should be paid £ 300 . The OCA then proposed to terminate his contract immediately for a payment of £ 150 but he refused . He was eventually paid £ 200 in June to leave Otago . That November , with the First World War into its third year , New Zealand brought in conscription . Crawford was called up in July 1917 , and was posted to a training camp near Wellington in late 1917 . During this time , he played twice for Wellington 's cricket team in first @-@ class matches during early 1918 . When given weekend passes , he visited his wife who was left alone in Dunedin . He travelled to England prior to a posting to the Western Front , although he arrived too late to join the fighting . He was part of the New Zealand Rifle Brigade but it is unclear what his rank was . The Repton School War Register states that he was a rifleman but New Zealand press accounts named him as a quartermaster sergeant . According to a 1992 article in Wisden Cricket Monthly by Jim Sullivan , Crawford was demoted while he was in the army . The reasons are unknown , but Burns speculates that his " independent and obstinate nature " made it difficult for him to accept military discipline . While Crawford was in the army , his wife moved to Adelaide . According to Anita , the marriage became unhappy in 1916 and Crawford left her in November of that year . She claimed that he had not supported her financially from that point . When the war ended , she returned to live in Australia with her parents . Her subsequent career as a dress designer and fashion buyer necessitated a move to London , where Crawford was living , in 1921 but the couple never reconciled . They were divorced , with some publicity in Australia , in 1923 ; in court , she gave evidence that he had an affair with a " third party " . She went on to remarry and to have a successful career as a designer and orchestral conductor .
= = = Return to England = = =
After the First World War , Crawford returned to live in England , and was demobilised from the New Zealand Army in April 1919 . Looking for work , he wrote to Surrey offering to play for them if they found him some employment in turn , but the committee , while writing that they would be pleased if he played for the county again , could not " see [ their ] way to find him employment " . Crawford may have been contemplating playing professional cricket — unheard of for a former Public School cricketer — but instead found work at Repton , his old school . It is unclear what his position at Repton was at this time ; he seems to have had no official cricketing role and it is possible he worked as a teacher simply to maintain his amateur status . In any case , Crawford only remained at Repton until the end of the academic year ; his short stay may have been the result of poor results by the cricket team . However , Burns suggests : " Another indication that the school was not entirely happy to be associated with the Surrey rebel , whose baggage also included an indifferent war record , was that when the Old Boys cricket team , the Repton Pilgrims , was formed in 1921 , Crawford was alone among the school 's former distinguished players not to be made a member . He was not invited to join the club until 1952 . "
Having settled his disagreement with Surrey , Crawford resumed his English first @-@ class cricket career in 1919 . After appearing for the Gentlemen against the Players , Crawford returned to play for Surrey against the Australian Imperial Forces . He scored 144 not out , which was later described by Wisden as the innings of his life . Surrey were 26 for five in reply to the tourists ' innings of 436 when Crawford came in to bat . Neville Cardus reported : " [ Crawford ] fell upon the advancing Australian attack , and by driving seldom equalled , threw it back . " He more than doubled his score after the ninth wicket had fallen , hitting 73 out of the last 80 runs scored in 35 minutes to take Surrey past the target required to avoid the follow @-@ on . Among his other successes , he scored 92 against Yorkshire . Playing against Kent , he hit 48 not out as Jack Hobbs and he scored 96 in 32 minutes ; this partnership took Surrey to victory as they chased an apparently impossible chase in the short time remaining in the match .
In total , Crawford played in eight games in 1919 , scoring 488 runs and taking 20 wickets . Wisden commented that his batting was as good as it had ever been , but his bowling lacked spin and accuracy . He played only four more times in first @-@ class cricket . Part of the explanation was that he joined Dunlop Rubber as a manager at one of its mills in Rochdale . He played as an amateur for Rochdale Cricket Club in 1920 , but by 1921 he had left the club — the Manchester Guardian speculated that he had returned to Surrey . He returned to live with his family in Merton Park , and played for the local cricket club . Of his first @-@ class matches , one was for Surrey against the Australian touring team of 1921 and the others were for teams representing the Gentlemen . In his entire first @-@ class career , Crawford scored 9 @,@ 488 runs at an average of 32 @.@ 60 and took 815 wickets at 20 @.@ 66 .
From the mid @-@ 1920s until his retirement in 1952 , Crawford worked for the importers Elders and Fyffes . He played cricket and hockey for the firm until the Second World War , but kept a far lower profile than in his earlier cricketing life . He married his second wife , Hilda May Beman , in December 1925 , but he never had children . He maintained a loose connection with cricket ; he appeared at a birthday dinner for Pelham Warner , at a centenary celebration for the Free Foresters Cricket Club and in a radio broadcast for Jack Hobbs 's 80th birthday . Crawford had a stroke in early 1962 and remained ill for the rest of the year ; he died , aged 76 , in a Surrey hospital on 2 May 1963 .
= = Style and technique = =
Crawford 's obituary in The Times described him as one of the best young players to play cricket in England and said : " Although he invariably played in glasses , he was a most attractive player to watch , an aggressive hitter of the ball and a dangerous medium @-@ paced bowler " . Wisden described him as a " hard @-@ hitting batsman " , and said he played mainly from the front foot . He had an orthodox batting technique , moved his feet well to get to the ball , and played very straight . Herbie Collins , who played with Crawford in Australia , described one of his innings as " a hurricane innings , full of classical shots charged with dynamite . "
As a bowler , Crawford 's technique was also orthodox , although he was unusual in using his second and third fingers to spin the ball — most bowlers used their first and second . His bowling pace varied from fast to medium , and he spun the ball so much that his fingers snapped audibly as he released it . An accurate bowler , it was difficult for batsmen to score runs against him . Crawford could swing the ball away from the bat , but his most effective delivery was his off break : Clem Hill stated that Crawford could make the ball turn several inches , despite the hard pitches prevalent in Australia when he played there . John Arlott described him as " the schoolboy genius who turned on Australian pitches where no one else deviated from straight " . In 1937 , Herbie Collins wrote , at a time when Wally Hammond was considered to be the world 's leading all @-@ rounder , that " people who have seen both men consider [ Crawford ] a better all @-@ rounder " .
Commenting on the interruption of Crawford 's career by his dispute with Surrey , Neville Cardus wrote : " His break with Surrey must be regarded as a sad deprivation of fame and pleasure to himself , and a grievous loss to the annals of English cricket . It is as certain as anything in a man 's life can be confidently postulated , that had he continued to play in English county cricket ... he would have taken his place amongst the select company of England 's captains . " The Times commented : " It was one of the great disappointments of English cricket in the first quarter of this century that his outstanding promise was never fully realized . " Hart observes that Crawford 's on @-@ field successes were many up to 1909 but after that , his career effectively stalled during his absence from English cricket . Hart notes Crawford 's " capacity to get on the scoreboard and up establishment noses . He could turn games around and agreements over , antagonise the powerful , endear himself to the young and those young enough at heart to care to characterise great personal performances as ' heroic ' " . He concludes that Crawford spent the last 40 years of his life " in comparative sporting obscurity " . No @-@ one on the Surrey committee ever expressed regret at what had happened , and Leveson Gower did not mention the affair in his autobiography .
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= Chew Stoke =
Chew Stoke is a small village and civil parish in the Chew Valley , in Somerset , England , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) south of Bristol . It is at the northern edge of the Mendip Hills , a region designated by the United Kingdom as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty , and is within the Bristol / Bath green belt . The parish includes the hamlet of Breach Hill , which is approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of Chew Stoke itself .
Chew Stoke has a long history , as shown by the number and range of its heritage @-@ listed buildings . The village is at the northern end of Chew Valley Lake , which was created in the 1950s , close to a dam , pumping station , sailing club , and fishing lodge . A tributary of the River Chew , which rises in Strode , runs through the village .
The population of 991 is served by one shop , two public houses , a primary school and a bowling club . Together with Chew Magna , it forms the ward of Chew Valley North in the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset . Chew Valley School and its associated leisure centre are less than a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from Chew Stoke . The village has some areas of light industry but is largely agricultural ; many residents commute to nearby cities for employment .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
Archaeological excavations carried out between 1953 and 1955 by Philip Rahtz and Ernest Greenfield from the Ministry of Works found evidence of extensive human occupation of the area . Consecutive habitation , spanning thousands of years from the Upper Palaeolithic , Mesolithic , and Neolithic periods ( Old , Middle , and New Stone Age ) , to the Bronze and Iron Ages had left numerous artefacts behind . Discoveries have included stone knives , flint blades , and the head of a mace , along with buildings and graves .
= = = Romano @-@ Celtic temple = = =
Chew Stoke is the site of a Romano @-@ Celtic double @-@ octagonal temple , possibly dedicated to the god Mercury . The temple , on Pagans Hill , was excavated by Philip Rahtz between 1949 and 1951 . It consisted of an inner wall , which formed the sanctuary , surrounded by an outer wall forming an ambulatory , or covered walkway 56 @.@ 5 feet ( 17 @.@ 2 m ) across . It was first built in the late 3rd century but was twice rebuilt , finally collapsing in the 5th century . The positioning of the temple on what is now known as Pagans Hill may seem apt , but there is no evidence for any link between the existence of the temple and the naming of the road .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
During the Middle Ages , farming was the most important activity in the area , and farming , both arable and dairy , continues today . There were also orchards producing fruits such as apples , pears , and plums . Evidence exists of lime kilns , used in the production of mortar for the construction of local churches .
In the Domesday Book of 1086 , Chew Stoke was listed as Chiwestoche , and was recorded as belonging to Gilbert Fitz @-@ Turold . He conspired with the Duke of Normandy against King William Rufus , and subsequently , all his lands were seized . The next recorded owner was Lord Beauchamp of Hache . He became " lord of the manor " when the earls of Gloucester , with hereditary rights to Chew Stoke , surrendered them to him . According to Stephen Robinson , the author of Somerset Place Names , the village was then known as Chew Millitus , suggesting that it may have had some military potential . The name " Stoke " , from the old English stoc , meaning a stockade , may support that idea .
The parish was part of the hundred of Chew .
= = = Bilbie family of bell and clockmakers = = =
The Bilbie family of bell founders and clockmakers lived and worked in Chew Stoke for more than 200 years , from the late 17th century until the 19th century . They produced more than 1 @,@ 350 church bells , which were hung in churches all over the West Country . Their oldest surviving bell , cast in 1698 , is still giving good service in the local St Andrew 's Church . The earliest Bilbie clocks date from 1724 and are highly prized . They are mostly longcase clocks , the cheapest with 30 @-@ hour movements in modest oak cases , but some have high quality eight @-@ day movements with additional features , such as showing the high tide at Bristol docks . These latter clocks were fitted into quality cabinet maker cases and command high prices .
= = = Recent history = = =
In the 20th century , Chew Stoke expanded slightly with the influx of residents from the Chew Valley Lake area . These new residents were moved to Chew Stoke when the lake was created in the 1950s . In World War II , 42 children and three teachers , who had been evacuated from Avenmore school in London , were accommodated in the village . On 10 July 1968 , torrential rainfall , with 175 millimetres ( 7 in ) falling in 18 hours on Chew Stoke , double the area 's average rainfall for the whole of July , led to widespread flooding in the Chew Valley , and water reached the first floor of many buildings . The damage in Chew Stoke was not as severe as in some of the surrounding villages , such as Pensford ; however , fears that the Chew Valley Lake dam would be breached caused considerable anxiety .
On 4 February 2001 , Princess Anne opened the Rural Housing Trust development at Salway Close . Each year , over a weekend in September ( usually the first ) , a " Harvest Home " is held with horse and pet shows , bands , a funfair , and other entertainments . The Harvest Home was cancelled in 1997 as a mark of respect following the death of Princess Diana in the previous week . The Radford 's factory site , where refrigeration equipment was formerly manufactured , was identified as a brownfield site suitable for residential development in the 2002 Draft Local Plan of Bath and North East Somerset . That plan has generated controversy about balancing land use to meet residential , social , and employment needs .
During November 2012 a series of floods affected many parts of Britain . On 22 November a man died after his car was washed down a flooded brook in Chew Stoke and trapped against a small bridge .
= = Governance = =
Chew Stoke has its own nine @-@ member parish council with responsibility for local issues , including setting an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover the council 's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The council 's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council .
The village is part of the ward of Chew Valley North in the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset , which has the wider responsibility for providing services such as education , refuse collection , and tourism . The ward is currently represented by Councillor Malcolm Hannay , a member of the Conservative Party . It is also part of the North East Somerset , and part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament .
The police service is provided by Avon and Somerset Constabulary with two Community Support Officer and one police officer covering the wider Chew Valley area . The Avon Fire and Rescue Service have a fire station at Chew Magna .
= = Geography = =
The area of Chew Stoke is surrounded by arable land and dairy farms on the floor of the Chew Valley . It is located along the Strode Brook tributary of the River Chew , on the northwest side of the Chew Valley Lake . While much of the area has been cleared for farming , trees line the tributary and many of the roads . The village is built along the main thoroughfare , Bristol Road , which runs northeast to southwest . An older centre is located along Pilgrims Way , which loops onto Bristol Road and features an old stone packhorse bridge — now pedestrianised — and a 1950s Irish bridge , used as a ford in winter . The bridge is 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) wide and has 36 inches ( 910 mm ) parapets . Houses line both of these roads , with residential cul @-@ de @-@ sacs and lanes extending from them .
Chew Stoke is approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Bristol , 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Bath , and 9 miles ( 14 km ) from Keynsham . It is 1 @.@ 3 miles ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) south of Chew Magna on the B3130 road that joins the A37 and A38 . The A368 crosses the valley west of the lake . The " Chew Valley Explorer " bus route 672 / 674 , running from Bristol Bus Station to Cheddar , provides public transport access . This service is operated by CT coaches and Eurotaxis and subsidised by Bath and North East Somerset council . In 2002 , a 1 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) cycle route , the Chew Lake West Green Route , was opened around the western part of the lake from Chew Stoke . It forms part of the Padstow to Bristol West Country Way , National Cycle Network Route 3 . It has all @-@ weather surfacing , providing a smooth off @-@ road facility for ramblers , mobility @-@ challenged visitors , and cyclists of all abilities . Funding was provided by Bath and North East Somerset Council , with the support of Sustrans and the Chew Valley Recreational Trail Association . The minor roads around the lake are also frequently used by cyclists . Bristol Airport is approximately 10 miles ( 16 km ) away , and the nearest train stations are Keynsham , Bath Spa , and Bristol Temple Meads .
= = Demography = =
The population of Chew Stoke , according to the census of 1801 , was 517 . This number increased slowly during the 19th century to a maximum of 819 but fell to around 600 by the end of the century . The population remained fairly stable until World War II . During the latter half of the 20th century , the population of the village rose to 905 people . Data for 1801 – 1971 is available at Britain Through Time ; data for 1971 – 2001 is available from BANES The 2001 Census gives detailed information about the Chew Valley North ward , which includes both Chew Magna and Chew Stoke . The ward had 2 @,@ 307 residents , living in 911 households , with an average age of 42 @.@ 3 years . Of those , 77 % of residents described their health as ' good ' , 21 % of 16- to 74 @-@ year @-@ olds had no work qualifications , and the area had an unemployment rate of 1 @.@ 3 % . In the Index of Multiple Deprivation 2004 , the ward was ranked at 26 @,@ 243 out of 32 @,@ 482 wards in England , where 1 was the most deprived and 32 @,@ 482 the least deprived . A small number of light industrial / craft premises exist at " Fairseat Workshops " , formerly the site of a dairy . However , they provide little employment , and many residents commute to jobs in nearby cities .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = St Andrews Church = = =
St Andrews Church , a Grade II * listed building on the outskirts of Chew Stoke , was constructed in the 15th century and underwent extensive renovation in 1862 . The inside of the church is decorated with 156 angels in wood and stone , and the church includes a tower with an unusual spirelet on the staircase turret . In the tower hang bells cast by the Bilbie family . The reconstructed Moreton Cross in the churchyard was moved there when Chew Valley Lake flooded , and the base of the cross shaft , about 80 feet ( 24 m ) southwest of the tower , is thought to date from the 14th century and is itself a Grade II * listed building , as is the Webb monument in the churchyard . The churchyard gate , at the southeast entrance , bears a lamp provided by public subscription to commemorate Queen Victoria 's Jubilee of 1897 and is a Grade II listed structure .
In the church are bronze plaques commemorating the eleven local people who died in World War I and the six who were killed in World War II . There is also a stained glass window showing a saint with a sword standing on a snake , and crossed flags commemorating those from World War II . There is also a memorial plaque to the local Bilbie family of bell founders and clockmakers inside the church , and just inside the porch , on the left of the church door , is a stone figure holding an anchor , which was moved to the church from Walley Court with the flooding of the lake . There is an unconfirmed story that this was given to the Gilbert family , then living at the court , by Queen Elizabeth I.
= = = Rectory = = =
The Rectory , at the end of Church Lane , opposite the church hall , is believed to have been built in 1529 by Sir John Barry , rector 1524 – 46 . It has since undergone substantial renovations , including the addition of a clock tower for the Rev. W.P. Wait and further alterations c.1876 for Rev. J. Ellershaw . The clock tower has since been removed . The building has an ornate south front with carvings of shields bearing the coat of arms of the St Loe family , who were once chief landowners in the area , alone or impaled with arms of Fitzpane , Ancell , de la Rivere , and Malet . It is Grade II * listed .
= = = New rectory = = =
The Reverend John Ellershaw built the new rectory in the 1870s . The last rector to occupy it was Lionel St Clair Waldy from 1907 to 1945 . It was then bought by Douglas Wills , who donated it and the rectory field to Winford Hospital as a convalescent home for 16 children . It was later used as a nurses ' home before being sold for private use . It is now split into several residential units .
= = = Grade II listed buildings = = =
As with many cities and towns in the United Kingdom , the age of a number of the buildings in Chew Stoke , including the church , school , and several houses , reflects the long history of the village . For example , Chew Stoke School has approximately 170 pupils between 4 and 11 years old . After the age of 11 , most pupils attend Chew Valley School . These two buildings were built in 1858 on the site of a former charity school founded in 1718 . The architect was S.B. Gabriel of Bristol . Additional classrooms were built in 1926 , and further alterations and extensions were carried out in 1970 .
An obelisk on Breach Hill Lane , dating from the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , is said to have been built as a waterworks marker . It has a square limestone plinth about 3 feet ( 1 m ) high . The obelisk is about 32 feet ( 10 m ) high with a pyramidal top and small opening at the top on two sides .
The importance of farming is reflected in the age of many of the farmhouses . Manor Farm , on Scot Lane ( not to be confused with at least two other Manor Farms in the locality ) is thought to date from 1495 and , as such , is probably the oldest building in the village . Presently ( 2007 ) occupied by Mr and Mrs Slater ; the building has recently ( 2002 ) undergone a sympathetic extension to incorporate an old semi @-@ derelict barn onto the main house for use as a garage and workshop . Mr Slater , a Chartered Engineer , is interested in bringing the art of clock making back to the village . Rookery Farmhouse , in Breach Hill Lane , is dated at 1720 , with later 18th century additions to either side of the central rear wing . An attached stable , 20 feet ( 6 m ) northeast of the farmhouse , is also a Grade II listed building . School Farmhouse , in School Lane , dates from the late 17th century and has a studded oak door in the side of the house . Wallis Farmhouse , farther along School Lane , is dated at 1782 . Yew Tree Farmhouse , one of the oldest buildings in the area , is a cruck built farmhouse of which there are very few in North Somerset . It was included in the dendrochronology project carried out by the Somerset Vernacular Building Research Group 1996 – 1998 and the crucks gave a felling date of 1386 , the house has been extensively altered and added to over later centuries . North Hill Farmhouse also has 15th century origins . Paganshill Farmhouse dates from the 17th century . Fairseat Farmhouse is from the 18th century and includes a plaque recording that John Wesley preached at the house on 10 September 1790 . In August of that year , Fairseat Farmhouse was " registered among the records of this County as a House set apart for the worship of God and religious exercise for Protestant Dissenters . " At that time the house belonged to Anna Maria Griffon . In the garden is a large evergreen oak ( Ilex ) which measured 98 feet ( 30 m ) across until half of it broke away in a gale in 1976 .
The Methodist Chapel was built in 1815 / 16 after religious services had been established at Fairseat Farm , and the chapel was rebuilt in the late 19th century with limestone walls with stone dressings and a slate hipped roof with brick eaves stacks and crestings .
In the hamlet of Stoke Villice , which is south of the main village , there is a 19th @-@ century milestone inscribed " 8 miles to Bristol " that also has listed status .
= = Education = =
Chew Stoke Church of England Voluntary Aided Primary School serves the village itself and surrounding villages in the Chew Valley . It is a Church of England voluntary controlled school linked with the St. Andrew 's parish church . It has about 170 pupils between 4 and 11 years old . After the age of 11 , most pupils attend Chew Valley School .
The school was founded as a charity in 1718 . Its original buildings were demolished in 1858 and replaced with new ones to designs by S.B. Gabriel that are now Grade II listed . The school bell was donated by the Bilbie family of bell founders based in the village . Additional classrooms were built in 1926 , and further alterations and extensions were built in 1970 .
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= Tropical Storm Gabrielle ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Gabrielle was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that passed over North Carolina before tracking out to sea . The seventh named storm of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , Gabrielle developed as a subtropical cyclone on September 8 about 385 miles ( 625 km ) southeast of Cape Lookout , North Carolina . Unfavorable wind shear impacted the storm for much of its duration , although a temporary decrease in the shear allowed the cyclone to become a tropical storm . On September 9 , Gabrielle made landfall at Cape Lookout National Seashore in the Outer Banks of North Carolina with winds of 60 mph ( 90 km / h ) . Turning to the northeast , the storm quickly weakened and dissipated on September 11 .
In advance of the storm , tropical cyclone watches and warnings were issued for coastal areas , while rescue teams and the U.S. Coast Guard were put on standby . The storm dropped heavy rainfall near its immediate landfall location but little precipitation elsewhere . Along the coast of North Carolina , high waves , rip currents , and storm surge were reported . Slight localized flooding was reported . Gusty winds also occurred , though no wind damage was reported . Along the coast of Florida , rough surf drowned one person . Overall damage was minor .
= = Meteorological history = =
A cold front moved off the southeast coast of the United States on September 1 . Gradually decaying , the front degenerated into an area of cloudiness and showers just east of the Georgia coast on September 2 . Tracking eastward , a weak low pressure area developed the next day . It slowly became better organized as its motion became erratic , and by late on September 4 the convection had become concentrated to the east of the center . On September 5 , a Hurricane Hunters flight indicated the system had not acquired the characteristics of a tropical or subtropical cyclone . Interaction with an upper @-@ level trough resulted in moderate wind shear which suppressed further development , and by September 6 the thunderstorm activity lost much organization . Upper @-@ level winds became increasingly favorable , allowing the convection to concentrate about halfway between North Carolina and Bermuda . With a deep @-@ layer ridge to its north , the system turned to a steady west @-@ northwest track . A reconnaissance aircraft flight late on September 7 reported a very elongated center , with peak flight winds of 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) about 100 miles ( 160 km ) northeast of the center . Subsequent to the flight , the center became slightly better organized , and based on the large wind field and the presence of an upper @-@ level low to its west @-@ southwest , the National Hurricane Center classified the system as Subtropical Storm Gabrielle early on September 8 while located about 385 miles ( 625 km ) southeast of Cape Lookout , North Carolina .
Upon becoming a subtropical cyclone , Gabrielle was located in an area of cooler air to its north , dry air to its south and west , southerly wind shear , and cooler water temperatures along its path . Despite these unfavorable conditions , a curved convective band developed in its northern and western quadrants , and the circulation became better defined . Subsequently , the rainbands in its northeastern quadrant dissipated , leaving the well @-@ defined center far removed from the convection . By later that day , the circulation began to become more involved with the remaining convection . Based on evidence of a weak warm @-@ core , the system was re @-@ designated as Tropical Storm Gabrielle late on September 8 about 185 miles ( 300 km ) southeast of Cape Lookout , North Carolina .
Vertical wind shear decreased as the storm passed over the Gulf Stream , allowing a strong convective burst to develop near the center . As it approached the coast of North Carolina , the center re @-@ developed within the deep convection underneath the mid @-@ level circulation , although increased northerly wind shear displaced the center of Gabrielle to the north of the thunderstorm activity . Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , it is estimated Gabrielle moved ashore at Cape Lookout National Seashore at 1530 UTC on September 9 with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , though due to the shear the strongest winds remained offshore . Tracking around the ridge over the western Atlantic , the storm turned to the north and north @-@ northeast , emerging into the ocean near Kill Devil Hills , North Carolina early on September 10 as a poorly organized system with convection far to the south of the center . Gabrielle weakened to a tropical depression shortly thereafter , and maintained scattered convection despite unfavorable wind shear as it tracked along the northern portion of the Gulf Stream . By midday on September 11 , the circulation had become ill @-@ defined and elongated ; failing to meet the criteria of a tropical cyclone , the National Hurricane Center declared Gabrielle dissipating well to the south of Nova Scotia . By early the next day , the remnants of Gabrielle were absorbed by an approaching cold front .
= = Preparations = =
Upon becoming a subtropical cyclone , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from Edisto Beach , South Carolina to Oregon Inlet in North Carolina , including the Pamlico Sound . As the storm approached the coast , the watch south of Cape Fear , North Carolina was discontinued , and a tropical storm warning was issued from Surf City , North Carolina northward to the North Carolina – Virginia state border ; a watch was also issued northward to Cape Charles Light on the Delmarva Peninsula , and to New Point Comfort on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay , which was upgraded to a warning the next day .
Prior to the arrival of the storm , the National Park Service closed visitor centers and campgrounds along the Outer Banks . For about 12 hours , the ferry between Hatteras and Ocracoke was closed . North Carolina Governor Mike Easley put rescue teams and the National Guard on standby . Residents and tourists were advised to secure loose objects , and to remain indoors . As the storm 's effects were expected to be minor , no evacuations were ordered . On Ocracoke Island , boats were hauled out . The threat of the storm forced the cancellation of a fishing tournament at Atlantic Beach , which resulted in effects to the local economy .
Initially , uncertainty in Gabrielle 's track led the National Hurricane Center 's five @-@ day track forecast cone to include the Mid @-@ Atlantic , southeastern New York , and southern New England . Forecasters predicted rough surf and rip currents , prompting the Coast Guard to perform preparations in the Northeastern United States . On Cape Cod , Massachusetts , an HU @-@ 25 Falcon jet flew along the coastline , broadcasting storm advisories to offshore vessels . A Coast Guard patrol boat was deployed offshore for search and rescue . Boaters and mariners were advised to exercise caution , and were told to " make safe decisions " . However , the storm passed well to the south with little effect .
= = Impact = =
Rough surf from Gabrielle along the coast of Florida drowned one surfer and forced the rescue of 200 swimmers . Officials at New Smyrna Beach estimated 6 to 9 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 7 m ) seas . By early on September 9 , the outer rainbands began affecting southeastern North Carolina . Sustained winds of tropical storm force from the storm occurred along coastline , unofficially reaching 44 miles per hour ( 71 km / h ) at Frisco . Wind gusts were stronger , unofficially reaching 61 miles per hour ( 98 km / h ) at Ocracoke . Along the coast , rough surf was reported , and waves reached 10 to 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) . Rip currents caused numerous swimmers to be rescued by lifeguards . Heavy rainfall from the storm was confined to near its immediate landfall location , peaking at 9 @.@ 03 inches ( 229 mm ) at a station 7 @.@ 2 miles ( 12 km ) to the east @-@ northeast of Newport ; other areas reported 4 to 8 inches ( 0 @.@ 10 to 0 @.@ 20 m ) . Two offshore ships observed tropical storm @-@ force winds , though the reports were considered to be overestimated .
In some locations , the rainfall led to flooding , which prevented farmers from harvesting crops . Elsewhere throughout the state , the storm failed to relieve severe drought conditions as it was initially hoped to . The passage of the storm left a portion of North Carolina Highway 12 on Hatteras Island closed for three hours , briefly flooding part of the road . Streets in Morehead City and Beaufort were closed , and several homes and businesses suffered minor flood damage . In Carteret County , the flooding inflicted $ 5 @,@ 000 ( 2007 USD ) in property damage . Storm surge was fairly light along the coast , peaking at 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal at Hatteras Island . Overall damage in the state was minor , including minor beach erosion and some flooded streets . No fatalities were reported .
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= U.S. Route 12 in Washington =
U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) is a major east @-@ west U.S. Highway , running from Aberdeen , Washington , to Detroit , Michigan . It spans 430 @.@ 80 miles ( 693 @.@ 31 km ) across the state of Washington , and is the only numbered highway to span the entire state from west to east , starting near the Pacific Ocean , and crossing the Idaho state line near Clarkston . It crosses the Cascade Range over White Pass , south of Mount Rainier National Park . Portions of it are concurrent with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and Interstate 82 ( I @-@ 82 ) , although the majority of the route does not parallel any Interstate Highway .
Although US 12 was not extended into Washington until 1967 , portions of it have been part of Washington 's state highway system since as early as 1905 . The last part of the highway to open was over White Pass in 1951 , although it was added to the state highway system by the legislature in 1931 . Most of the route ( except for the approximately 160 miles ( 260 km ) between Elma and Naches ) had been part of the U.S. Highway System since its inception in 1926 as part of U.S. Route 410 . The portion between Napavine and Grand Mound was also designated a U.S. Highway in 1926 as part of U.S. Route 99 .
= = Route description = =
U.S. Route 12 begins in Aberdeen on a pair of one @-@ way streets , Heron Street eastbound and Wishkah Street westbound . At its western terminus , US 12 intersects US 101 , which goes west along Heron and Wishkah , and south across Grays Harbor to the south side of Aberdeen . The eastbound and westbound lanes of US 12 merge just east of the Wishkah River , near the Grays Harbor Historic Seaport . US 12 then leaves Aberdeen to the east along the Chehalis River , where it passes through the towns of Central Park and Montesano . Between Aberdeen and Elma , US 12 is four lanes wide . The majority of the highway in Washington , however , is a rural two @-@ lane road .
In the town of Elma , US 12 exits the highway at a diamond interchange . From there , the main highway continues east to Olympia as State Route 8 ( SR 8 ) , and US 12 heads southeast towards Oakville and Rochester . East of Oakville , US 12 runs north of the Chehalis Indian Reservation . It then continues east through the town of Rochester , and interchanges with I @-@ 5 at exit 88 in the town of Grand Mound .
US 12 continues south concurrent with I @-@ 5 through Chehalis and Centralia before exiting again at exit 68 south of Napavine . The highway then heads east along the Cowlitz River and passes through the town of Mossyrock , where it intersects SR 122 . East of Mossyrock , US 12 runs just north of Mossyrock Dam and Riffe Lake . In the town of Morton , it intersects SR 7 , which heads north to Tacoma . It then ascends the Cascade Range , passing south of Mount Rainier , and intersects SR 123 , which serves the Stevens Canyon entrance of Mount Rainier National Park . Twelve miles ( 19 km ) east of this intersection , US 12 crosses the Cascades over White Pass at an elevation of 4 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 372 m ) . White Pass is the only crossing of the Cascades open year @-@ round between I @-@ 90 over Snoqualmie Pass and SR 14 through the Columbia River Gorge .
After it descends the mountains , US 12 intersects SR 410 ( formerly US 410 ) west of Naches , which serves Chinook Pass , Cayuse Pass , and the White River entrance of Mount Rainier National Park . East of Naches , US 12 widens once again to four lanes as it approaches the city of Yakima . There , it has an interchange with I @-@ 82 and US 97 at exit 31 . US 12 then runs concurrently with I @-@ 82 , bypassing the towns of Toppenish and Prosser and paralleling the Yakima River , until exit 102 near the Tri @-@ Cities . At exit 102 , it meets the western terminus of Interstate 182 . US 12 and I @-@ 182 then run concurrently east over Goose Gap and through the Tri @-@ Cites . In Pasco , I @-@ 182 ends , and US 12 intersects US 395 .
US 12 then heads south to the town of Wallula , intersecting US 730 , then east to Walla Walla , north to Dodge , and east to Clarkston before crossing the Idaho state line over the Snake River just outside Lewiston . US 12 through Walla Walla consists of a four @-@ lane bypass , also known as Inland Empire Highway . The alignment of US 12 through Walla Walla County passes by a number of historical landmarks , such as Whitman Mission and Fort Walla Walla .
= = History = =
The Washington State Legislature created the State Highway Board in 1905 and appropriated funds to construct — but not maintain — twelve highways in sparsely settled areas of the state . Main highways in more populated areas would continue to be entirely under county control , though sometimes built with 50 % state aid . Six of these highways were east @-@ west crossings of the Cascades , including one in the corridor currently served by U.S. Route 12 — State Road 5 , the Cowlitz Pass State Road , climbing east from a point near Salkum via the Cowlitz River , over Cowlitz Pass , and down towards Yakima . A 1907 amendment renamed State Road 5 the Cowlitz @-@ Natches Road , moved the Cascade crossing north to Carlton Pass , and defined the portion east of the pass to follow the Bumping River and Naches River to a point near Naches . East of the mouth of the American River , this replaced part of State Road 1 ( North Yakima and Natches State Road ) , which had been defined in 1897 to cross the Cascades north of Chinook Pass and included in the 1905 appropriations .
Under a 1909 law , the State Highway Board surveyed a connected network of proposed state roads . Included was a westerly extension of SR 5 via Chehalis to South Bend and Aberdeen and an easterly extension to Pullman . A route from Yakima southeast and east via the Tri @-@ Cities to Idaho was also surveyed , mostly as an extension of State Road 8 ( Columbia River Road ) . The legislature added most of these routes to the state highway system in 1913 , when they formed a two @-@ tiered system of primary and secondary roads . Primary roads were completely controlled by the state , including maintenance , and received only names , while secondary roads kept their numbers and county maintenance . The National Park Highway replaced State Road 5 west of Riffe , and extended as surveyed to and beyond South Bend , and the McClellan Pass Highway replaced State Road 1 and continued via State Road 5 to Yakima . The majority of the route from Yakima via Connell to Pullman was not added at that time ; it was finally taken over in 1937 as Secondary State Highways 11A and 11B . Only the route via the Tri @-@ Cities , forming part of the Inland Empire Highway , continued from Yakima to Idaho . East of Pomeroy , the original survey had curved south , using State Road 16 to near the Oregon state line ; this was bypassed by the 1913 designation , which instead continued directly east to Clarkston . Unlike the earlier state roads , these primary roads mostly followed existing passable county roads . The incomplete roadway between Riffe and the American River remained as part of secondary State Road 5 , and the legislature designated the surveyed route from the National Park Highway near Raymond north to Aberdeen as secondary State Road 20 in 1915 .
A 1923 restructuring of the system re @-@ assigned numbers to almost all the primary state highways . State Road 5 became a primary route and was greatly expanded , taking over the entire McClellan Pass Highway and the National Park Highway east of the Pacific Highway . The former secondary State Road 5 was realigned starting from near Packwood , heading north instead of east , alongside the Ohanapecosh River to the old McClellan Pass Highway at Cayuse Pass , west of the summit of the Cascades . The new State Road 5 , named the National Park Highway System , now included four roads in the vicinity of Mount Rainier National Park , but as the road across the Cascades at Chinook Pass was not yet built , these roads did not connect with each other . Also included in this numbering was the designation of the Inland Empire Highway , including Yakima to Clarkston , as State Road 3 . In 1925 , a spur was added to State Road 9 — the Olympic Highway , looping around the Olympic Peninsula — connecting Elma to the Pacific Highway at Grand Mound , and creating a shortcut between the Cowlitz River route and Aberdeen . The Olympic Highway from Elma west to Aberdeen had been added to the state highway system in 1905 west of and 1913 east of Montesano .
As part of the U.S. Highway system laid out in 1925 and finalized in late 1926 , U.S. Route 410 connected Aberdeen with Clarkston , following the Olympic Highway ( State Road 9 ) to Olympia , the Pacific Highway ( State Road 1 ) — concurrent with US 99 — to Tacoma , the National Park Highway System ( State Road 5 ) to Yakima , and the Inland Empire Highway ( State Road 3 ) to Clarkston . This differed from present US 12 between Elma and Naches in that it followed the route through Olympia and Tacoma rather than along the Cowlitz River . However , despite being part of the state highway system since 1897 , US 410 's crossing of the Cascades , the first between the Columbia River Gorge and Snoqualmie Pass , was not opened to traffic until 1931 . A shortcut from near Packwood east across White Pass to Naches , very close to the original plan for the east half of State Road 5 , was added to the state highway system in 1931 as another branch of the highway . The roadway between Packwood and Cayuse Pass , added to the state highway system on a different alignment in 1905 , was finally completed in 1940 , and the White Pass Highway was dedicated on August 12 , 1951 , opening a shortcut between southwest Washington and Yakima .
When the U.S. Highways were first established in 1926 , US 12 ended in Miles City , Montana , and most of US 12 's current routing in Washington was followed by US 410 . U.S. Route 12 was extended westward in stages ; an extension to Lewiston , Idaho , was approved on June 19 , 1962 . At various times in the early 1960s , the states of Idaho , Washington , and Oregon submitted plans for further westward extension to the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) to either Vancouver , Washington or Boardman , Oregon — or , a plan submitted in 1963 had the highway going only as far as Pasco — but all of these plans were rejected . Washington introduced a new system of sign route numbers in 1964 . While US 410 was still signed as such , present US 12 became State Route 8 between US 410 at Elma and US 99 / I @-@ 5 at Grand Mound and State Route 14 between US 99 / I @-@ 5 at Chehalis and US 410 at Naches . The extension of US 12 to Aberdeen was finally approved on June 20 , 1967 , with US 12 taking over much of US 410 's former routing . However , where US 410 had crossed the Cascades at Chinook Pass , US 12 used the all @-@ weather White Pass , replacing SR 8 and SR 14 . Signs were changed in late December 1967 , and the bypassed segments of US 410 became a new SR 8 between Elma and Olympia , and SR 410 between Tacoma and Naches .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Live Like We 're Dying =
" Live Like We 're Dying " is a song written by Danny O 'Donoghue , Andrew Frampton , Mark Sheehan , and Steve Kipner . It appeared as a bonus track on The Script 's self @-@ titled debut studio album , as well as a B @-@ side for some of the album 's singles . It is better known for being performed by American recording artist Kris Allen . The song serves as the lead single from his self @-@ titled major label debut album . It was released for digital download on September 21 , 2009 .
The song received positive reviews , peaking at eighteen in the United States , and also charting on other U.S. charts , including the top ten of the Pop Songs . It also charted abroad in Canada and New Zealand . The song 's accompanying music video , which takes place in a desert and features a countdown clock in conjunction with the song 's meaning , was also received warmly , and according to critics , was an end to the low @-@ budget , storyline @-@ centered , debut music videos from previous American Idol alumni .
= = Background = =
The song was originally recorded by Irish band the The Script as a bonus track for the Japanese release of their self @-@ titled debut album and a B @-@ side track for their debut single " We Cry " in Australia , Finland , Great Britain , Ireland , New Zealand , Sweden , and Switzerland .
In an interview with MTV News , Allen stated that the song had been earmarked as his album 's potential single since he won American Idol back in May 2009 . Allen stated , " [ The song ] was actually one that we had listened to really early on , and we kind of just fell in love with it . Everyone did . " When an interview for his cover story shared with , Idol runner @-@ up , Adam Lambert , Allen explained , " It 's a song that has a really good message @-@ that we only have so much time , let 's make the most of it . It 's definitely got one of the choruses where I can picture people rolling down the windows of their cars and singing along to it . "
After the success of the single , in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Allen said ,
" It took a while , but it ’ s done really incredible . It exceeded all my expectations anyway . To be honest , I was a little worried when it first came out and it wasn ’ t doing great . But I think it ’ s just about working hard and getting people to hear the song , and then everyone started believing in it a little bit more . I remember getting a text from Keith Urban saying ' I ’ m not gonna lie : The first time I heard that song I wasn ’ t crazy about it . But after a couple listens , I really , really like it . ' And I mean , I think that ’ s how everybody felt about the song . And I think that ’ s a testament to a good song . You don ’ t have to love ‘ em the first time you hear ‘ em . It grew on people . "
= = Composition = =
" Live Like We 're Dying " is described to be in a " moderate pop rock " groove , and consisting of " shuffly " guitar playing . The song has been referred to as " danceable " , and the chorus as " grooving " and " syncopated " . It is written in the key of C major and Allen 's vocals span from G3 to A4 . The song contains inspirational lyrics , as Allen gives a " muscular " and " engaged " vocal performance , and delivers the lines in a rhythmic fashion . According to Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly , the song contains new @-@ age sentiments .
= = Critical reception = =
Bill Lamb of About.com praised the song for being an excellent first single , calling it " possibly the best first post @-@ American Idol single yet by an American Idol champion " and stating that it " could appeal to a massive audience " . He also applauded the song 's " outstanding , inspirational lyrics " and Allen 's vocal performance . Entertainment Weekly ' ' s Michael Slezak called the song " a future smash hit " and described it as " downright verbose – packing in some sweet , new @-@ age @-@ y sentiments about existing in the moment , living without regret , and saying ' I love you ' early and often to the people in our lives " . He stated that rather than being cliché the song 's lyrics are " winningly inspirational thanks to the conviction in Kris ’ vocals " . Yahoo ! News described it as " impressive " and felt that Allen 's version of the song " improves on the unreleased version with a nuanced vocal and a nimble , rhythmic delivery " . Monica Herrera of Billboard said that Allen " improves " the Script 's version " with a nuanced vocal and a nimble , rhythmic delivery " . Herrera also stated that " Allen still seems " emboldened by the risks he took on Idol " and that his fans " should be feeling the same after hearing the first track from his November 17 debut . "
James Montgomery of MTV News said that the song seemed " tailor @-@ made " for him , playing on the strengths that led him to win American Idol . Montgomery also said , " his husky , broad voice , shuffly guitar playing and genuinely sweet disposition – and wraps them in a well @-@ worn , subtly sexy tune , full of wide @-@ eyed , dare we say inspirational sentiments . Yet , at the same time , it 's also incredibly earnest in tone . " Misha Berson of the Seattle Times described the song as " surprising , and maybe a little jarring at first , if you expected a ballad or a mellow groove with a spare arrangement , like some of Allen 's best performances on American Idol that paved the way to his Season 8 win " . In spite of Berson 's initial surprise at the song 's sound , she went on to praise the single as " very catchy , a bit inspirational " , and " energetic " . She praised the chorus and further commended the song as " a marked improvement over what some Idol winners have put out as their first post @-@ show single " .
= = Chart performance = =
The song debuted after its first week of availability at number eighty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 , selling 24 @,@ 000 copies . It fell off the chart the following week , and remained off until it re @-@ entered at number ninety @-@ two on November 21 , 2009 . It peaked at number eighteen on the chart on the week of March 13 , 2010 . The song peaked at ten on the Mainstream Top 40 ( Pop Songs ) chart , becoming the first male American Idol winner to enter the chart 's top ten , and the fourth winner to achieve the feat following behind Kelly Clarkson , Carrie Underwood and Jordin Sparks , respectively . The song also peaked on the Adult Contemporary , Adult Pop Songs , and Christian Songs charts at nine , three and twenty @-@ one . As of December 2010 , " Live Like We 're Dying " has sold 1 @,@ 582 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the United States . The song was certified platinum by the RIAA on October 15 , 2010 .
Internationally , " Live Like We 're Dying " had limited chart presence . It peaked at number eighteen in New Zealand and number forty @-@ one in Canada .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Marco Puig and filmed in a desert near Los Angeles , California . The video premiered first on AOL 's PopEater on November 6 , 2009 . Allen told Billboard magazine , " The video looks great . It was really fun shooting it @-@ we shot it from 8 p.m. until 8 a.m. so it was an all @-@ night thing with no breaks . [ The shoot was ] set up like a digital clock , but it 's huge , it 's this monstrous thing @-@ like 25 feet tall and who knows how long . I get to hold a flare , which was pretty cool . I ended up throwing it at people on set . "
The video begins with Allen pulling up to a junkyard in a white pickup truck at night , with a watch hanging from his key chain . Then , Allen takes a power cord out of the back of the truck and carries it through the junkyard until he plugs it in and flips a switch to turn on a large countdown clock . As the clock reaches zero , Allen leaves and begins walking away from the camera as the sun rises . Throughout the video , Allen is shown playing both an acoustic guitar and a piano , as well as singing without any instruments .
Michael Slezak of Entertainment Weekly said that the video was " a luxe @-@ looking , moodily lit affair that finds the season 8 champ clad in a physique @-@ appropriate black henley and stalking his way through an abandoned construction site featuring a giant countdown clock , a dramatic sunrise , and copious amounts of recycled plastic sheeting . " Slezak also said that , " the folks at 19 gave Kris the proper budget to kick off his video career – at least we finally know what the company did with the savings gleaned from hiring student filmmakers to helm Blake Lewis and Diana DeGarmo ’ s tragic first clips " . James Montgomery of MTV News noted that the video looked better and more expensive that past @-@ first videos by American Idol alumni under 19 . Montgomery also compared the video 's " artfully color @-@ saturated frames and great expanses " to Snow Patrol 's " Run " clip and the Madonna , Justin Timberlake , and Timbaland 's " 4 Minutes " , doing away with the " narrative crutch most Idol champs ' debuts lean on ( see , for example , David Cook 's ' Light On ' ) , putting the focus squarely on Allen himself . " He also said that , " while Allen 's debut video isn 't as flashy @-@ dashy as Idol compatriot Adam Lambert 's ' Time for Miracles , ' it 's just as good – mostly because , rather than rely on fiery explosions , ' Dying ' plays it straight , showcasing Allen and his talents " , and called it " bold " as Allen was never shown as the " flashy type " .
= = Live performances = =
Allen performed the song on Good Morning America on November 17 , 2009 . In addition he also performed the song on Live with Regis and Kelly , and The Tonight Show with Conan O 'Brien to promote his album . Allen performed the song on the So You Think You Can Dance live results show December 9 , 2009 . Allen also performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman on December 16 , 2009 . Allen once again performed the song at the Billboard New Year 's Eve show , which aired on Fox on December 31 , 2009 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting - Steve Kipner , Andrew Frampton , Danny O 'Donoghue , Mark Sheehan
Production - Steve Kipner , Andrew Frampton
Background vocals - Billy Sollox
Drums - Glen Power
Bass - Danny O 'Donoghue
Electric guitar - Paul Inder , Mark Sheehan
Acoustic guitar - Andrew Frampton
Keyboards - Andrew Frampton , Steve Kipner
Mixing - Spike Stent
Engineering - Dan Frampton , Ted Paduck
Source
= = Charts = =
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= Acrocanthosaurus =
Acrocanthosaurus ( / ˌækroʊˌkænθəˈsɔːrəs / ak @-@ ro @-@ KAN @-@ thə @-@ SAWR @-@ əs ; meaning " high @-@ spined lizard " ) is a genus of theropod dinosaur that existed in what is now North America during the Aptian and early Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous . Like most dinosaur genera , Acrocanthosaurus contains only a single species , A. atokensis . Its fossil remains are found mainly in the U.S. states of Oklahoma , Texas , and Wyoming , although teeth attributed to Acrocanthosaurus have been found as far east as Maryland .
Acrocanthosaurus was a bipedal predator . As the name suggests , it is best known for the high neural spines on many of its vertebrae , which most likely supported a ridge of muscle over the animal 's neck , back and hips . Acrocanthosaurus was one of the largest theropods , approaching 11 @.@ 5 m ( 38 ft ) in length , and weighing up to 6 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 6 @.@ 8 short tons ) . Large theropod footprints discovered in Texas may have been made by Acrocanthosaurus , although there is no direct association with skeletal remains .
Recent discoveries have elucidated many details of its anatomy , allowing for specialized studies focusing on its brain structure and forelimb function . Acrocanthosaurus was the largest theropod in its ecosystem and likely an apex predator which preyed on sauropods , ornithopods , and ankylosaurs .
= = Description = =
Acrocanthosaurus was among the largest theropods known to exist . The largest known specimen ( NCSM 14345 ) is estimated to have measured 11 @.@ 5 m ( 38 ft ) from snout to tail tip and weighed 5 @.@ 7 t ( 6 @.@ 3 short tons ) to 6 @.@ 2 t ( 6 @.@ 8 short tons ) , with an upper maximum weight of 7 @.@ 25 t ( 7 @.@ 99 short tons ) within the realm of possibility for this specimen . Its skull alone was nearly 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) in length .
The skull of Acrocanthosaurus , like most other allosauroids , was long , low and narrow . The weight @-@ reducing opening in front of the eye socket ( antorbital fenestra ) was quite large , more than a quarter of the length of the skull and two @-@ thirds of its height . The outside surface of the maxilla ( upper jaw bone ) and the upper surface of the nasal bone on the roof of the snout were not nearly as rough @-@ textured as those of Giganotosaurus or Carcharodontosaurus . Long , low ridges arose from the nasal bones , running along each side of the snout from the nostril back to the eye , where they continued onto the lacrimal bones . This is a characteristic feature of all allosauroids . Unlike Allosaurus , there was no prominent crest on the lacrimal bone in front of the eye . The lacrimal and postorbital bones met to form a thick brow over the eye , as seen in carcharodontosaurids and the unrelated abelisaurids . Nineteen curved , serrated teeth lined each side of the upper jaw , but a tooth count for the lower jaw has not been published . Acrocanthosaurus teeth were wider than those of Carcharodontosaurus and did not have the wrinkled texture that characterized the carcharodontosaurids . The dentary ( tooth @-@ bearing lower jaw bone ) was squared off at the front edge , as in Giganotosaurus , and shallow , while the rest of the jaw behind it became very deep . Acrocanthosaurus and Giganotosaurus shared a thick horizontal ridge on the outside surface of the surangular bone of the lower jaw , underneath the articulation with the skull .
The most notable feature of Acrocanthosaurus was its row of tall neural spines , located on the vertebrae of the neck , back , hips and upper tail , which could be more than 2 @.@ 5 times the height of the vertebrae from which they extended . Other dinosaurs also had high spines on the back , sometimes much higher than those of Acrocanthosaurus . For instance , the unrelated Spinosaurus had spines nearly 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) tall , about 11 times taller than the bodies of its vertebrae . The lower spines of Acrocanthosaurus had attachments for powerful muscles like those of modern bison , probably forming a tall , thick ridge down its back . The function of the spines remains unknown , although they may have been involved in communication , fat storage , or temperature control . All of its cervical ( neck ) and dorsal ( back ) vertebrae had prominent depressions ( pleurocoels ) on the sides , while the caudal ( tail ) vertebrae bore smaller ones . This is more similar to carcharodontosaurids than to Allosaurus .
Aside from its vertebrae , Acrocanthosaurus had a typical allosauroid skeleton . Acrocanthosaurus was bipedal , with a long , heavy tail counterbalancing the head and body , maintaining its center of gravity over its hips . Its forelimbs were relatively shorter and more robust than those of Allosaurus but were otherwise similar : each hand bore three clawed digits . Unlike many smaller fast @-@ running dinosaurs , its femur was longer than its tibia and metatarsals , suggesting that Acrocanthosaurus was not a fast runner . Unsurprisingly , the hind leg bones of Acrocanthosaurus were proportionally more robust than its smaller relative Allosaurus . Its feet had four digits each , although as is typical for theropods , the first was much smaller than the rest and did not make contact with the ground .
= = Classification and systematics = =
Acrocanthosaurus is classified in the superfamily Allosauroidea within the infraorder Tetanurae . This superfamily is characterized by paired ridges on the nasal and lacrimal bones on top of the snout and tall neural spines on the neck vertebrae , among other features . It was originally placed in the family Allosauridae with Allosaurus , an arrangement also supported by studies as late as 2000 . Most studies have found it to be a member of the related family Carcharodontosauridae .
At the time of its discovery , Acrocanthosaurus and most other large theropods were known from only fragmentary remains , leading to highly variable classifications for this genus . J. Willis Stovall and Wann Langston Jr. first assigned it to the " Antrodemidae " , the equivalent of Allosauridae , but it was transferred to the taxonomic wastebasket Megalosauridae by Alfred Sherwood Romer in 1956 . To other authors , the long spines on its vertebrae suggested a relationship with Spinosaurus . This interpretation of Acrocanthosaurus as a spinosaurid persisted into the 1980s , and was repeated in the semi @-@ technical dinosaur books of the time .
Tall spined vertebrae from the Early Cretaceous of England were once considered to be very similar to those of Acrocanthosaurus , and in 1988 Gregory S. Paul named them as a second species of the genus , A. altispinax . These bones were originally assigned to Altispinax , an English theropod otherwise known only from teeth , and this assignment led to at least one author proposing that Altispinax itself was a synonym of Acrocanthosaurus . These vertebrae were later assigned to the new genus Becklespinax , separate from both Acrocanthosaurus and Altispinax .
Most cladistic analyses including Acrocanthosaurus have found it to be a carcharodontosaurid , usually in a basal position relative to the African Carcharodontosaurus and Giganotosaurus from South America . It has often been considered the sister taxon to the equally basal Eocarcharia , also from Africa . Neovenator , discovered in England , is often considered an even more basal carcharodontosaurid , or as a basal member of a sister group called Neovenatoridae . This suggests that the family originated in Europe and then dispersed into the southern continents ( at the time united as the supercontinent Gondwana ) . If Acrocanthosaurus was a carcharodontosaurid , then dispersal would also have occurred into North America . All known carcharodontosaurids lived during the early @-@ to @-@ middle Cretaceous Period .
The following cladogram after Novas et al . , 2013 , shows the placement of Acrocanthosaurus within Carcharodontosauridae .
= = Discovery and naming = =
Acrocanthosaurus is named for its tall neural spines , from the Greek ɑκρɑ / akra ( ' high ' ) , ɑκɑνθɑ / akantha ( ' thorn ' or ' spine ' ) and σɑʊρος / sauros ( ' lizard ' ) . There is one named species ( A. atokensis ) , which is named after Atoka County in Oklahoma , where the original specimens were found . The name was coined in 1950 by American paleontologists J. Willis Stovall and Wann Langston Jr . Langston had proposed the name " Acracanthus atokaensis " for the genus and species in his unpublished 1947 master 's thesis , but the name was changed to Acrocanthosaurus atokensis for formal publication .
The holotype and paratype ( OMNH 10146 and OMNH 10147 ) , discovered in the early 1940s and described at the same time in 1950 , consist of two partial skeletons and a piece of skull material from the Antlers Formation in Oklahoma . Two much more complete specimens were described in the 1990s . The first ( SMU 74646 ) is a partial skeleton , missing most of the skull , recovered from the Twin Mountains Formation of Texas and currently part of the Fort Worth Museum of Science and History collection . An even more complete skeleton ( NCSM 14345 , nicknamed " Fran " ) was recovered from the Antlers Formation of Oklahoma by Cephis Hall and Sid Love , prepared by the Black Hills Institute in South Dakota , and is now housed at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences in Raleigh . This specimen is the largest and includes the only known complete skull and forelimb . Skeletal elements of OMNH 10147 are almost the same size as comparable bones in NCSM 14345 , indicating an animal of roughly the same size , while the holotype and SMU 74646 are significantly smaller .
The presence of Acrocanthosaurus in the Cloverly Formation was established in 2012 with the description of another partial skeleton , UM 20796 . This specimen , consisting of parts of two vertebrae , partial pubic bones , a femur , a partial fibula , and fragments , represents a juvenile animal . It came from a bonebed in the Bighorn Basin of north @-@ central Wyoming , and was found near the shoulder blade of a Sauroposeidon . An assortment of other fragmentary theropod remains from the formation may also belong to Acrocanthosaurus , which may be the only large theropod in the Cloverly Formation .
Acrocanthosaurus may be known from less complete remains outside of Oklahoma , Texas , and Wyoming . A tooth from southern Arizona has been referred to the genus , and matching tooth marks have been found in sauropod bones from the same area . Several teeth from the Arundel Formation of Maryland have been described as almost identical to those of Acrocanthosaurus and may represent an eastern representative of the genus . Many other teeth and bones from various geologic formations throughout the western United States have also been referred to Acrocanthosaurus , but most of these have been misidentified ; there is , however , some disagreement with this assessment regarding fossils from the Cloverly Formation .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Growth and longevity = = =
From the bone features of the holotype OMNH 10146 and NCSM 14345 , it is estimated that Acrocanthosaurus requires at least 12 years to fully grow . This number may be much higher because in the process of bones remodeling and the growth of the medullary cavity , some Harris lines were lost . If accounting for these lines , Acrocanthosaurus needs 18 – 24 years to be mature .
= = = Forelimb function = = =
Like those of most other non @-@ avian theropods , Acrocanthosaurus forelimbs did not make contact with the ground and were not used for locomotion ; instead they served a predatory function . The discovery of a complete forelimb ( NCSM 14345 ) allowed the first analysis of the function and range of motion of the forelimb in Acrocanthosaurus . The study examined the bone surfaces which would have articulated with other bones to determine how far the joints could move without dislocating . In many of the joints , the bones did not fit together exactly , indicating the presence of a considerable amount of cartilage in the joints , as is seen in many living archosaurs . Among other findings , the study suggested that , in a resting position , the forelimbs would have hung from the shoulders with the humerus angled backwards slightly , the elbow bent , and the claws facing medially ( inwards ) . The shoulder of Acrocanthosaurus was limited in its range of motion compared to that of humans . The arm could not swing in a complete circle , but could retract ( swing backwards ) 109 ° from the vertical , so that the humerus could actually be angled slightly upwards . Protraction ( swinging forward ) was limited to only 24 ° past the vertical . The arm was unable to reach a vertical position when adducting ( swinging downwards ) , but could abduct ( swing upwards ) to 9 ° above horizontal . Movement at the elbow was also limited compared to humans , with a total range of motion of only 57 ° . The arm could not completely extend ( straighten ) , nor could it flex ( bend ) very far , with the humerus unable even to form a right angle with the forearm . The radius and ulna ( forearm bones ) locked together so that there was no possibility of pronation or supination ( twisting ) as in human forearms .
None of the carpals ( wrist bones ) fit together precisely , suggesting the presence of a large amount of cartilage in the wrist , which would have stiffened it . All of the digits were able to hyperextend ( bend backwards ) until they nearly touched the wrist . When flexed , the middle digit would converge towards the first digit , while the third digit would twist inwards . The first digit of the hand bore the largest claw , which was permanently flexed so that it curved back towards the underside of the hand . Likewise , the middle claw may have been permanently flexed , while the third claw , also the smallest , was able to both flex and extend .
After determining the ranges of motion in the joints of the forelimb , the study went on to hypothesize about the predatory habits of Acrocanthosaurus . The forelimbs could not swing forward very far , unable even to scratch the animal 's own neck . Therefore , they were not likely to have been used in the initial capture of prey and Acrocanthosaurus probably led with its mouth when hunting . On the other hand , the forelimbs were able to retract towards the body very strongly . Once prey had been seized in the jaws , the heavily muscled forelimbs may have retracted , holding the prey tightly against the body and preventing escape . As the prey animal attempted to pull away , it would only have been further impaled on the permanently flexed claws of the first two digits . The extreme hyperextensibility of the digits may have been an adaptation allowing Acrocanthosaurus to hold struggling prey without fear of dislocation . Once the prey was trapped against the body , Acrocanthosaurus may have dispatched it with its jaws . Another possibility is that Acrocanthosaurus held its prey in its jaws , while repeatedly retracting its forelimbs , tearing large gashes with its claws .
= = = Brain and inner ear structure = = =
In 2005 , scientists reconstructed an endocast ( replica ) of an Acrocanthosaurus cranial cavity using computed tomography ( CT scanning ) to analyze the spaces within the holotype braincase ( OMNH 10146 ) . In life , much of this space would have been filled with the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid , in addition to the brain itself . However , the general features of the brain and cranial nerves could be determined from the endocast and compared to other theropods for which endocasts have been created . While the brain is similar to many theropods , it is most similar to that of allosauroids . It most resembles the brains of Carcharodontosaurus and Giganotosaurus rather than those of Allosaurus or Sinraptor , providing support for the hypothesis that Acrocanthosaurus was a carcharodontosaurid .
The brain was slightly sigmoidal ( S @-@ shaped ) , without much expansion of the cerebral hemispheres , more like a crocodile than a bird . This is in keeping with the overall conservatism of non @-@ coelurosaurian theropod brains . Acrocanthosaurus had large and bulbous olfactory bulbs , indicating a good sense of smell . Reconstructing the semicircular canals of the ear , which control balance , shows that the head was held at a 25 ° angle below horizontal . This was determined by orienting the endocast so that the lateral semicircular canal was parallel to the ground , as it usually is when an animal is in an alert posture .
= = = Possible footprints = = =
The Glen Rose Formation of central Texas preserves many dinosaur footprints , including large , three @-@ toed theropod prints . The most famous of these trackways was discovered along the Paluxy River in Dinosaur Valley State Park , a section of which is now on exhibit in the American Museum of Natural History in New York City , although several other sites around the state have been described in the literature . It is impossible to say what animal made the prints , since no fossil bones have been associated with the trackways . However , scientists have long considered it likely that the footprints belong to Acrocanthosaurus . A 2001 study compared the Glen Rose footprints to the feet of various large theropods but could not confidently assign them to any particular genus . However , the study noted that the tracks were within the ranges of size and shape expected for Acrocanthosaurus . Because the Glen Rose Formation is close to the Antlers and Twin Mountains Formations in both geographical location and geological age , and the only large theropod known from those formations is Acrocanthosaurus , the study concluded that Acrocanthosaurus was most likely to have made the tracks .
The famous Glen Rose trackway on display in New York City includes theropod footprints belonging to several individuals which moved in the same direction as up to twelve sauropod dinosaurs . The theropod prints are sometimes found on top of the sauropod footprints , indicating that they were formed later . This has been put forth as evidence that a small pack of Acrocanthosaurus was stalking a herd of sauropods . While interesting and plausible , this hypothesis is difficult to prove and other explanations exist . For example , several solitary theropods may have moved through in the same direction at different times after the sauropods had passed , creating the appearance of a pack stalking its prey . The same can be said for the purported " herd " of sauropods , who also may or may not have been moving as a group . At a point where it crosses the path of one of the sauropods , one of the theropod trackways is missing a footprint , which has been cited as evidence of an attack . However , other scientists doubt the validity of this interpretation because the sauropod did not change gait , as would be expected if a large predator were hanging onto its side .
= = = Pathology = = =
The skull of the Acrocanthosaurus atokensis holotype shows light exostotic material on the squamosal . The neural spine of the eleventh vertebra was fractured and healed while the neural spine of its third tail vertebra had an unusual hook @-@ like structure .
= = Paleoecology = =
Definite Acrocanthosaurus fossils have been found in the Twin Mountains Formation of northern Texas , the Antlers Formation of southern Oklahoma , and the Cloverly Formation of north @-@ central Wyoming and possibly even the Arundel Formation in Maryland and in Florida . These geological formations have not been dated radiometrically , but scientists have used biostratigraphy to estimate their age . Based on changes in ammonite taxa , the boundary between the Aptian and Albian stages of the Early Cretaceous has been located within the Glen Rose Formation of Texas , which may contain Acrocanthosaurus footprints and lies just above the Twin Mountains Formation . This indicates that the Twin Mountains Formation lies entirely within the Aptian stage , which lasted from 125 to 112 million years ago . The Antlers Formation contains fossils of Deinonychus and Tenontosaurus , two dinosaur genera also found in the Cloverly Formation , which has been radiometrically dated to the Aptian and Albian stages , suggesting a similar age for the Antlers . Therefore , Acrocanthosaurus most likely existed between 125 and 100 million years ago .
During this time , the area preserved in the Twin Mountains and Antlers formations was a large floodplain that drained into a shallow inland sea . A few million years later , this sea would expand to the north , becoming the Western Interior Seaway and dividing North America in two for nearly the entire Late Cretaceous . The Glen Rose Formation represents a coastal environment , with possible Acrocanthosaurus tracks preserved in mudflats along the ancient shoreline . As Acrocanthosaurus was a large predator , it is expected that it had an extensive home range and lived in many different environments in the area . Potential prey animals include sauropods like Astrodon or possibly even the enormous Sauroposeidon , as well as large ornithopods like Tenontosaurus . The smaller theropod Deinonychus also prowled the area but at 3 m ( 10 ft ) in length , most likely provided only minimal competition for Acrocanthosaurus .
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= Delaware @-@ class battleship =
The Delaware @-@ class battleships of the United States Navy were the second class of American dreadnoughts . With this class , the 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 t ) limit imposed on capital ships by the United States Congress was waived , which allowed designers at the Navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair to correct what they considered flaws in the preceding South Carolina class and produce ships not only more powerful but also more effective and rounded overall . Launched in 1909 , these ships became the first in US naval history to exceed 20 @,@ 000 long tons ( 20 @,@ 321 t ) .
The Delawares carried a battery of ten 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in five turrets , an increase of two guns over the South Carolinas . With these ships , the US Navy re @-@ adopted a full @-@ fledged medium @-@ caliber weapon for anti @-@ torpedo boat defense . While the 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) gun was smaller than that used by other major navies , this would , with few exceptions , become the standard medium @-@ gun caliber for the US Navy for the better part of the 20th century . As for speed , the Delawares were capable of 21 kn ( 24 mph ; 39 km / h ) , a significant improvement over the earlier class 's 18 @.@ 5 kn ( 21 mph ; 34 km / h ) . This would become the speed for all American standard @-@ type battleships . Propulsion systems were mixed ; while North Dakota was fitted with steam turbines , Delaware retained triple @-@ expansion engines . US turbines at this point did not give great advantages in output or speed over triple @-@ expansion systems , as the engineering difficulties faced by turbine manufacturers there were still extremely great , and were much less fuel @-@ efficient , a significant concern for a Navy with Pacific responsibilities but lacking Britain 's extensive network of coaling stations .
These ships saw varied service during their careers . As part of Battleship Division Nine of the US Atlantic Fleet , Delaware was assigned to the British Grand Fleet after America 's entry into World War I , where she escorted convoys and participated in the blockade of the German High Seas Fleet . In contrast , North Dakota remained on the American coast throughout the war , due in part to worries about her troublesome turbine engines . Post @-@ war , they conducted training cruises with the US Atlantic Fleet . In 1924 , Delaware was broken up for scrap metal in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . North Dakota survived until 1931 , when she too was scrapped , under the terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty .
= = Design = =
Prompted by the launch of and misinformation about HMS Dreadnought , the US Navy and Congress faced what they perceived as a vastly better battleship than the two South Carolina battleships then under construction , which were designed under tonnage constraints that Congress had imposed on capital ships . Actually , the South Carolinas were inferior only in speed to Dreadnought ; they carried fewer heavy guns but , unlike Dreadnought , could bring all of them to bear on the broadside . Because of this , they could fire an equal weight of metal . Also , because greater time and care had been taken with their armor and bulkhead arrangement , they were better protected than the British ship . None of this was realized at the time . Nevertheless , the Navy 's Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) had struggled tremendously to design an adequate warship under congressional limits and had taken battleship design as far under those restrictions as it could . Seeing now that those limits had become unrealistic , Congress ended them ; any subsequent constraints would be dictated by treaty limitations . The language of the authorizing act of June 26 , 1906 was for a battleship " carrying as heavy armor and as a powerful armament as any known vessel of its class , to have the highest practicable speed and the greatest practicable radius of action . "
The Delaware class was the second of 11 distinct US capital ship designs begun from 1906 to 1919 ; some 29 battleships and six battlecruisers were laid down during this period , though seven of the battleships and all six of the battlecruisers were cancelled . Except for the Lexington @-@ class battlecruisers , these were all relatively slow ships , designed for no more than 23 kn ( 26 mph ; 43 km / h ) . They ranged in displacement from 16 @,@ 000 to 42 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 to 42 @,@ 674 t ) . At this time , no US dreadnought class battleship had yet hit the water as all were either at some stage of building or in design . Virtually the entire US Navy battle line was being designed by drawing on experience from pre @-@ dreadnought designs , or from observation of foreign battleship design .
The design for these ships was actually ready in 1905 or 1906 . Two variants were offered — a 10 @-@ gun version on 20 @,@ 500 long tons ( 20 @,@ 829 t ) and a 12 @-@ gun alternative on 24 @,@ 000 long tons ( 24 @,@ 385 t ) . The larger ship was rejected as too expensive for the firepower it offered , even after its displacement was reduced to 22 @,@ 000 long tons ( 22 @,@ 353 t ) tons . Also , because C & R was required to consider private designs , construction on the Delawares did not commence until 1907 . None of the private designs was considered remotely satisfactory by the Navy . However , Fore River later developed its version into the battleship Rivadavia , which was built for the Argentine navy . While the C & R design was considered superior , it still came under criticism , particularly for the poor placement of and lack of protection for the secondary armament .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Delawares were significantly more powerful than their predecessors , the South Carolina @-@ class , and are mentioned by Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships as the first to match the standard set by the British with Dreadnought . This was due in large part to the elimination of Congressional limits on the size of new battleships ; the only restriction the Congress placed on their design was that the cost of hull and machinery could not exceed 6 million USD . The Delaware @-@ class ships were also significantly larger than the South Carolinas . They were 510 ft ( 155 m ) long at the waterline and 518 ft 9 in ( 158 m ) long overall . By comparison , the South Carolina @-@ class ships were 452 ft 9 in ( 138 m ) long overall . The Delawares had a beam of 85 ft 3 in ( 26 m ) and a draft of 27 ft 3 in ( 8 m ) ; the South Carolinas measurements were 80 ft 3 in ( 24 m ) and 24 ft 6 in ( 7 m ) , respectively . The Delaware @-@ class ships displaced 20 @,@ 380 long tons ( 20 @,@ 707 t ) at standard displacement and 22 @,@ 060 long tons ( 22 @,@ 414 t ) at full load , while the South Carolinas displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 t ) at standard displacement and 17 @,@ 617 long tons ( 17 @,@ 900 t ) at full load . Their bows had an early example of bulbous forefeet .
= = = Propulsion = = =
For reasons including expected hostilities with Japan , requiring travel across the Pacific Ocean , long operational range was a recurrent theme in all US battleship designs . As an experiment , these ships received different powerplants . Delaware received triple @-@ expansion reciprocating engines , while North Dakota was fitted with Curtiss direct drive steam turbine engines . Both ships had 14 Babcock & Wilcox boilers , both original power plants were rated at 25 @,@ 000 shp ( 18 @,@ 642 kW ) ; and both ships were capable of reaching 21 knots . Chief Constructor Washington L. Capps predicted North Dakota would have a 25 percent shorter radius than Delaware at 16 knots and 45 percent less at 14 knots , based on tank tests and the known performance of steam turbines at that time . This estimate was proved true during the ships ' trial runs in 1909 . Also , because Delaware 's engine bearings were equipped with forced lubrication instead of a gravity @-@ fed system , she was able to steam at full speed for 24 hours without any need for engine repair . This would normally have been unthinkable as reciprocating engines were known generally to shake themselves apart if run at full power for long . However , this penchant for reliability came under question in the late 1930s as battleships with reciprocating engines performed poorly in the Pacific . By 1915 , more powerful and efficient geared turbines had been installed in North Dakota to replace her Curtiss turbines . These provided 31 @,@ 300 shp ( 23 @,@ 340 kW ) horsepower , some 6 @,@ 000 shp ( 4 @,@ 474 kW ) greater than her original engines .
= = = Armament = = =
= = = = Main guns = = = =
The Delaware @-@ class ships were armed with ten 12 @-@ inch / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in five twin gun turrets ; this was an addition of two guns compared to the preceding South Carolinas . The gun housings were the Mark 7 type , and they allowed for depression to − 5 degrees and elevation to 15 degrees . The guns had a rate of fire of 2 to 3 rounds per minute . They fired 870 lb ( 395 kg ) shells , of either armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) or Common types , though the Common type was obsolete by 1915 and put out of production . The propellant charge was 310 lb ( 141 kg ) in silk bags , and provided a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 823 m / s ) . The guns were expected to fire 175 rounds before the barrels would require replacement . The two ships carried 100 shells per gun , or 1 @,@ 000 rounds in total . At 15 degrees elevation , the guns could hit targets out to approximately 20 @,@ 000 yd ( 18 @,@ 288 m ) .
Two turrets were mounted fore in a superfiring pair , while the other three were mounted aft of the main superstructure , all on the centerline . The placement of the rear gun turrets proved problematic . Capps placed the rear superfiring turret , Number 3 , closest amidships . Since it represented the greatest weight borne by the ship 's structure due to its tall barbette , this placement would allow it support by the greatest amount of underwater volume available . The other two rear turrets , Numbers 4 and 5 , were placed level and back to back . This arrangement was detrimental in two ways . First , Number 3 could not fire astern with Number 4 trained forward , which left only the two 12 " guns of Number 5 to do so . Second , because the engine room was situated between Numbers 3 and 4 , steam lines ran from the boiler rooms amidships around the ammunition magazine for Number 3 turret to the engine room . These lines , it was later found , had the potential to heat the powder in the magazine and degrade its ballistics . This design flaw was also prevalent in several British dreadnoughts but was considered inescapable by naval designers on structural grounds .
Another challenge with the main armament was that its weight , 437 long tons ( 444 t ) per turret , which had to be spread over much of the hull , led to increased stress on the structure . The closer the weight of the heavy guns to the ends , the greater the stress and risk for structural failure due to metal fatigue . High speed required fine ends , which were not especially buoyant , and the amount of space needed amidships for machinery precluded moving the main turrets further inboard . Not having to worry about a displacement limit allowed Capps the option of deepening the hull , which helped to some extent . He added a forecastle to allow for better seakeeping and to make room for officers ' quarters and restored the full height of the hull aft . The problem itself , however remained .
= = = = Secondary guns = = = =
The Naval War College in its 1905 Newport Summer Conference considered the 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns fitted to the South Carolina class too light for effective anti @-@ torpedo @-@ boat defense . A committee on this issue formed during the conference suggested that a gun with a high velocity and flat trajectory would work best — one powerful enough to smash an attacking vessel yet light enough for easy handling and rapid firing . For this purpose , the committee found 5 @-@ inch guns appeared best suited . During the Delawares ' design , C & R considered 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns but concerns voiced by the Naval War College about the lack of heavy splinter protection for these guns and smoke uptakes led to an adaption of 5 @-@ inch / 50caliber guns to balance the increase in armor weight .
The Delawares mounted fourteen 5 @-@ inch / 50 caliber Mark 6 guns , two forward on the main deck , 10 inch casemates on the side and two aft on the main deck abeam No. 5 turret . They had a rate of fire of 6 to 8 rounds per minute . They fired three types of rounds : a " light " AP shell that weighed 50 lb ( 23 kg ) and a " heavy " AP round that weighed 60 lb ( 27 kg ) . The third type was the Common Mark 15 shell , which also weighed 50 lb . The 50 lb shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 914 m / s ) , while the larger 60 lb shells traveled at a slightly slower 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 823 m / s ) . The guns were emplaced on both Mark 9 and Mark 12 pedestal mounts ; the Mark 9 version limited elevation to 15 degrees , while the Mark 12 allowed for up to 25 degrees . The 5 @-@ inch / 50 was able to penetrate most effectively at 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 572 m ) , which was the deciding factor in the decision to equip the Delaware class with them . The 5 @-@ inch guns were supplied with a total of 240 rounds per barrel .
While these guns were considered an improvement by the Navy over that of the South Carolinas , their placement remained problematic as even in calm water , they were extremely wet and thus difficult to man . The forward guns were moved into the superstructure after sea trials . The casemate @-@ mounted secondary armament was one deck below the main deck and provided the majority of the complaints from shipping water from the forward positions and breaking the flow of the bow wave imparting extra drag on the design .
= = = = Anti @-@ aircraft guns = = = =
As with the South Carolina class , these ships were fitted with two 3 @-@ inch / 50 caliber anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in Mark 11 mounts in 1917 . The Mark 11 mount was the first 3 @-@ inch AA mounting issued by the US Navy . They had a trunnion height of 66 @.@ 25 in ( 168 cm ) compared to a height of 45 in ( 114 cm ) for the pedestal mountings used against surface craft . This allowed them an elevation range between − 10 and 85 degrees . Maximum range was 14 @,@ 600 yd ( 13 @,@ 350 m ) at 43 degrees and maximum ceiling 30 @,@ 400 ft ( 9 @,@ 266 m ) at 85 degrees .
= = = = Torpedo tubes = = = =
The Delawares carried two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes below the waterline . The Bliss @-@ Leavitt 21 @-@ inch Mark 3 Model 1 torpedo designed for these tubes had an overall length of 196 in ( 5 @.@ 0 m ) , a weight of 2 @,@ 059 lb ( 934 kg ) and propelled an explosive charge of 210 lb ( 95 kg ) of TNT to a range of 9 @,@ 000 yd ( 8 @,@ 230 m ) at a speed of 27 kn ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h )
= = = Armor = = =
The armored belt ranged in thickness from 9 to 11 in ( 229 to 279 mm ) in the more important areas of the ship . Casemated guns mounted in the hull had between 8 and 10 in ( 203 and 254 mm ) of armor plate . The barbettes that housed the main gun turrets were armored with between 4 and 10 in ( 102 and 254 mm ) of armor ; the side portions more vulnerable to shell fire were thicker , while the front and rear sections of the barbette , which were less likely to be hit , received thinner armor to save weight . The gun turrets themselves were armored with 12 in ( 305 mm ) of armor . The conning tower was 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick . As in the designs of all early dreadnoughts , the deck armor was very thin at 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) in most areas and 2 in ( 51 mm ) over machinery and magazine spaces . These ships were expected to do most of their firing at ranges less than 10 @,@ 000 yd ( 9 @,@ 144 m ) . At such distances , deck strikes would be a rare event .
= = Service history = =
= = = USS Delaware = = =
During trials , Delaware was run at full speed for 24 hours straight to prove that her machinery could handle the stress . She was the first American battleship to achieve the feat . Late in 1910 , Delaware sailed to Europe , followed by a trip to South America early in 1911 . She made a further two voyages to Europe in 1912 and 1913 , before returning to the US Atlantic Fleet for training exercises that were conducted in the western Atlantic and Caribbean . Delaware took part in the Second battle of Vera Cruz in April – May 1914 .
When the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , Delaware was initially tasked with readiness training off the East Coast . Late in the year , she was deployed to Europe as part of the US Navy 's Battleship Division Nine , under the command of Rear Admiral Hugh Rodman . The force arrived on 7 December and was assigned to the 6th Battle Squadron of the Grand Fleet . In July 1918 , Delaware was withdrawn from overseas service and returned to the United States .
In 1920 , the US Navy adopted hull numbers for its ships ; Delaware was assigned the hull number BB @-@ 28 . Delaware made only two more cruises , both for midshipmen , under her new identification number : one in 1922 and the second in early 1923 . Delaware sailed to Europe on the second trip , and stopped at a number of ports , including Gibraltar . She returned to the US in August of that year , at which point her crew was reassigned to the newer battleship Colorado . She was then taken to the Boston Navy Yard , where her armaments were removed . The ship was decommissioned in November 1923 and sold to shipbreakers in February 1924 .
= = = USS North Dakota = = =
Upon commissioning , the ship was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet , alongside her sister Delaware . Her first overseas cruise came in November 1910 , when she steamed across the Atlantic to visit France and Britain . North Dakota also took part in the invasion of Vera Cruz in 1914 . Unlike her sister , North Dakota remained off the American coast for the duration of the United States ' involvement in World War I. Hugh Rodman , the commander of the American expeditionary force , specifically requested that North Dakota be kept stateside ; he felt her turbine engines were too unreliable for the ship to be deployed to a war zone .
From 1917 , she was employed as a training ship for gunners and engineers . Post @-@ war , North Dakota made a second trip to Europe , primarily to ports in the Mediterranean Sea . During the visit , the ship was tasked with the return of the remains of the Italian ambassador , Vincenzo Macchi di Cellere , who had died 20 October 1919 in Washington , DC . The ship participated in the aerial bombing demonstrations off the Virginia Capes in 1921 . In 1923 , a third trip to Europe , this time with midshipmen from the Naval Academy aboard . The ship stopped in Spain , Scotland , and Scandinavia .
Like her sister , she was relegated to the surplus naval forces that had to be dismantled under the Washington Naval Treaty . In November 1923 , North Dakota was decommissioned ; she had her armaments removed in 1924 , after which she was converted into a target ship . She was redesignated as " unclassified " , and served as a target until 1931 , when she was scrapped .
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= 1889 – 90 Currie Cup =
The 1889 – 90 Currie Cup was the inaugural edition of the Currie Cup , the premier first @-@ class cricket tournament in South Africa . The 1889 – 90 competition involved just two teams , Transvaal and Kimberley . The two sides played a single , three @-@ day match , which was won by Transvaal by six wickets .
Both sides made low scores in their first innings ; Kimberley , who had opted to bat first , were dismissed for 98 runs , and in their reply Transvaal reached 117 , a lead of just 19 runs . In the second innings , they both fared better ; a century from Bernard Tancred helped Kimberley to a total of 235 , but Transvaal reached their total in 38 five @-@ ball overs , helped by a century from Monty Bowden .
= = Background = =
First @-@ class cricket was first played in South Africa in the previous 1888 – 89 season , when Robert Warton managed a side which toured the country , playing against representative teams from each of the provinces , and two matches against South Africa , which were later adjudged to have Test cricket status . During that tour , Donald Currie donated the Currie Cup to be awarded to the team which performed best against the touring side ; which was judged to be Kimberley . In other first @-@ class matches during the 1889 – 90 season , Kimberley faced Natal twice , winning both matches . Transvaal did not play any first @-@ class cricket prior to their Currie Cup contest with Kimberley .
Transvaal challenged Kimberley for the Currie Cup in 1890 , the first such challenge for the trophy . A number of the team selections were controversial : the selection committee for Transvaal chose Aubrey Smith and Monty Bowden , both of whom had remained in South Africa after touring as part of the England cricket team the previous year , and Charlie Finlason , who played the majority of his cricket for the opposition Kimberley team . Finlason , a newspaper journalist , had fallen out with Smith after writing a number of articles criticising him and the English side . When Finlason was selected for Transvaal , Smith — who was captaining the side — made him bat at number eleven .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
The match began on Saturday 5 April 1890 at the Eclectics Cricket Club Ground in Kimberley . The toss was won by the Kimberley captain , Walter Woodthorpe , who opted to bat first . Bernard Tancred and Robert Snedden opened the batting , and scored 25 runs together before the first wicket fell . The Transvaal bowlers took three more wickets for the addition of just 27 runs , leaving Kimberley on 52 for 4 . The batsmen then shared a partnership of 40 runs , but upon the loss of the next wicket , Kimberley suffered a collapse , and were eventually bowled out for 98 runs . Tancred top @-@ scored for the side , accruing 42 runs , but only two other batsmen reached double figures ; Snedden and John Coghlan , both of whom scored 13 . Transvaal only used three bowlers during the innings ; Aubrey Smith and Bentley Wimble each took four wickets , while Charles Vintcent took the remaining two .
Transvaal began their reply strongly ; their openers , Monty Bowden and John Hickson put on 69 runs for the first wicket , the majority being scored by Bowden . Once they lost their first wicket , the team continued to lose wickets at regular intervals ; the second @-@ highest partnership of the innings was the 17 runs made for the tenth , or last , wicket . George Glover was the best of the bowlers , collecting six wickets . Glover and Albert Rose @-@ Innes bowled the majority of the overs , and took nine of the wickets between them . Bowden 's score of 63 was substantially the best by any batsman in the innings , only John Piton , Spranger Harrison and Hickson scored more than 10 runs , and none managed as many as 20 .
The third innings of the match gave Kimberley a second attempt at batting on the first day ; they lost wickets regularly through the afternoon , but opener Tancred remained at the crease throughout , finishing the day unbeaten on 55 , with the team on 100 for six . The match resumed on Monday 7 April 1890 , with no play scheduled for the Sunday . After the early loss of Rose @-@ Innes for 20 runs , Charles Rutherfoord joined Tancred . The pair scored 97 runs together , taking the score up to 226 . Three quick wickets then ended the Kimberley innings ; they scored 235 runs from 83 overs , in which Tancred scored a century , hitting 106 runs before being leg before wicket to Bowden . Vintcent took the most wickets for Transvaal , claiming four for 70 . Smith claimed two wickets , and Bowden , who was designed on the scorecard as the team 's wicket @-@ keeper also claimed two wickets from the three overs that he bowled .
Transvaal batted rapidly in their second innings , reaching the required total to win the match inside the second day of the match , which had been scheduled for three days in total . Opening batsman Bowden batted throughout the whole innings , remaining not out on 126 when his side won the match . He was joined at the end by Vintcent , who scored 60 runs in a partnership of 126 runs between the two players . Kimberley tried six different bowlers in an effort to bowl Transvaal out , but only Rose @-@ Innes and Irvine Grimmer took wickets , claiming two apiece .
= = = Scorecard = = =
Key
* – Captain
† – Wicket @-@ keeper
c Fielder – Indicates that the batsman was dismissed by a catch by the named fielder
b Bowler – Indicates which bowler gains credit for the dismissal
lbw – Indicates the batsman was dismissed leg before wicket
ht wkt – Indicates the batsman was dismissed hit wicket
st – Indicates the batsman was stumped
= = Aftermath = =
Transvaal and Kimberley remained the only sides to contest the Currie Cup in the following season , and in their 1891 match , Kimberley won by 58 runs in a timeless match . The tournament was not played in 1891 – 92 , but when it restarted the following year , a third team , Western Province joined , while Kimberley were renamed Griqualand West .
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= Antlion =
The antlions are a group of about 2 @,@ 000 species of insect in the family Myrmeleontidae , known for the fiercely predatory habits of their larvae , which in many species dig pits to trap passing ants or other prey . The adult insects are less well known , as they mostly fly at dusk or after dark , and may be mistakenly identified as dragonflies or damselflies ; they are sometimes known as antlion lacewings , and in North America , the larvae are sometimes referred to as doodlebugs because of the strange marks they leave in the sand .
Antlions are worldwide in distribution . The greatest diversity occurs in the tropics , but a few species are found in cold @-@ temperate locations , one such being the European Euroleon nostras . They most commonly occur in dry and sandy habitats where the larvae can easily excavate their pits , but some larvae hide under debris or ambush their prey among leaf litter .
Antlions are poorly represented in the fossil record . Myrmeleontiformia is generally accepted to be a monophyletic group , and within the Myrmeleontoidea , the antlions ' closest living relatives are thought to be the owlflies ( Ascalaphidae ) . The predatory actions of the larvae have attracted attention throughout history , and antlions have been mentioned in literature since classical times .
= = Etymology = =
The exact meaning of the name " antlion " is uncertain . It has been thought to refer to ants forming a large percentage of the prey of the insect , the suffix " lion " merely suggesting destroyer or hunter . In any case , the term seems to go back to classical antiquity . The antlion larva is often called a " doodlebug " in North America because of the odd winding , spiralling trails it leaves in the sand while relocating , which look as if someone has been doodling .
The scientific name of the type genus Myrmeleo – and thus , the family as a whole – is derived from Ancient Greek léon ( λέων ) " lion " + mýrmex ( μύρμηξ ) " ant " , in a loan translation of the names common across Europe . In most European and Middle Eastern languages , at least the larvae are known under the local term corresponding to " antlion " .
= = Description = =
Antlions can be fairly small to very large neuropterans , with wingspans ranging from 2 to 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The African genus Palpares contains some of the largest examples . Acanthaclisis occitanica is the largest European species , with an 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) wingspan , and most North American species approach this size .
The adult has two pairs of long , narrow , multiveined , translucent wings and a long , slender abdomen . Although they somewhat resemble dragonflies or damselflies , they belong to a different infraclass of winged insects . Antlion adults are easily distinguished from damselflies by their prominent , apically clubbed antennae which are about as long as the head and thorax combined . Also , the pattern of wing venation differs , and compared to damselflies , the adults are very feeble fliers and are normally found fluttering about at night in search of a mate . Adult antlions are typically nocturnal , and rarely seen by day .
Males of most species have a unique structure , a bristle @-@ bearing knob known as a " pilula axillaris " , at the base of the rear wing . The abdomen in males is usually longer than in females and often has an extra lobe . The tip of the abdomen of females shows greater variation than that of males , depending perhaps on oviposition sites , and usually bears tufts of bristles for digging and a finger @-@ like extension .
The antlion larva is a ferocious @-@ looking animal with a robust , fusiform body , a very plump abdomen , and a thorax bearing three pairs of walking legs . The prothorax forms a slender mobile " neck " for the large , square , flattened head , which bears an enormous pair of sickle @-@ like jaws with several sharp , hollow projections . The jaws are formed by the maxillae and mandibles ; the mandibles each contain a deep groove over which the maxilla fits neatly , forming an enclosed canal for injecting venom to immobilise the victim , and enzymes to digest its soft parts . The larva is clad in forward @-@ pointing bristles which help it to anchor itself and exert greater traction , enabling it to subdue prey considerably larger than itself . Antlion larvae are unusual among insects in lacking an anus . All the metabolic waste generated during the larval stage is stored , some is used to spin the silk for the cocoon and the rest is eventually voided as meconium at the end of its pupal stage .
= = Distribution = =
There are about 2 @,@ 000 species of antlion found in most parts of the world , with the greatest diversity being in warmer areas . The best known species are those in which the larvae dig pits to trap their prey , but by no means all species do this . Antlions live in a range of usually dry habitats including open woodland floors , scrub @-@ clad dunes , hedge bases , river banks , road verges , under raised buildings and in vacant lots .
= = Life @-@ cycle = =
Apart from pit @-@ trap @-@ forming taxa , the biology of members of the family Myrmeleontidae , to which the antlions belong , has been little studied . The life @-@ cycle begins with oviposition ( egg @-@ laying ) in a suitable location . The female antlion repeatedly taps the prospective laying site with the tip of her abdomen and then inserts her ovipositor into the substrate and lays an egg .
Depending on the species and where it lives , the larva either conceals itself under leaves , debris or pieces of wood , hides in a crack or digs a funnel @-@ shaped pit in loose material . As ambush predators , catching prey is a risky business because food arrives unpredictably and , for the species that make one , maintaining the trap is costly ; the larvae therefore have low metabolic rates and can survive for long periods without food . They can take several years to complete their life @-@ cycle ; they mature faster with plentiful food , but can survive for many months without feeding . In cooler climates they dig their way deeper and remain inactive during the winter .
When the larva attains its maximum size , it pupates and undergoes metamorphosis . It makes a globular cocoon of sand stuck together with fine silk spun from a slender spinneret at the rear end of the body . The cocoon may be buried several centimetres deep in the sand . After the completion of its transformation into an adult insect in about one month , it emerges from the case , leaving the pupal integument behind , and works its way to the surface . After about twenty minutes , the adult 's wings are fully opened and it flies off in search of a mate . The adult is considerably larger than the larva and antlions exhibit the greatest disparity in size between larva and adult of any type of holometabolous insect ; this is by virtue of the fact that the exoskeleton of the adult is extremely thin and flimsy , with an exceptionally low mass per unit of volume . The adult typically lives for about 25 days , but some insects survive for as long as 45 days .
= = Ecology = =
Antlion larvae eat small arthropods – mainly ants – while the adults of some species eat pollen and nectar , and others are predators of small arthropods . In certain species of Myrmeleontidae , such as Dendroleon pantherinus , the larva , although resembling that of Myrmeleon structurally , makes no pitfall trap , but hides in detritus in a hole in a tree and seizes passing prey . In Japan , Dendroleon jezoensis larvae lurk on the surface of rocks for several years while awaiting prey ; during this time they often become coated with lichen , and have been recorded at densities of up to 344 per square metre .
The larva is a voracious predator . Within a few minutes of seizing its prey with its jaws and injecting it with venom and enzymes , it begins to suck out the digestion products . The larva is extremely sensitive to ground vibrations , the low @-@ frequency sounds made by an insect crawling across the ground ; the larva locates the source of the vibrations by the differences in timing of the arrival of waves detected by receptors , tufts of hairs on the sides of the two hindmost thoracic segments .
In trap @-@ building species , an average @-@ sized larva digs a pit about 2 in ( 5 cm ) deep and 3 in ( 7 @.@ 5 cm ) wide at the edge . This behavior has also been observed in the Vermileonidae ( Diptera ) , whose larvae dig the same sort of pit to feed on ants . Having marked out the chosen site by a circular groove , the antlion larva starts to crawl backwards , using its abdomen as a plough to shovel up the soil . By the aid of one front leg , it places consecutive heaps of loosened particles upon its head , then with a smart jerk throws each little pile clear of the scene of operations . Proceeding thus , it gradually works its way from the circumference towards the center . As it slowly moves round and round , the pit gradually gets deeper and deeper , until the slope angle reaches the critical angle of repose ( that is , the steepest angle the sand can maintain , where it is on the verge of collapse from slight disturbance ) . When the pit is completed , the larva settles down at the bottom , buried in the soil with only the jaws projecting above the surface , often in a wide @-@ opened position on either side of the very tip of the cone . The steep @-@ sloped trap that guides prey into the larva 's mouth while avoiding crater avalanches is one of the simplest and most efficient traps in the animal kingdom . Since the sides of the pit consist of loose sand at its angle of repose , they afford an insecure foothold to any small insects that inadvertently venture over the edge , such as ants . Slipping to the bottom , the prey is immediately seized by the lurking antlion ; if it attempts to scramble up the treacherous walls of the pit , it is speedily checked in its efforts and brought down by showers of loose sand which are thrown at it from below by the larva . By throwing up loose sand from the bottom of the pit , the larva also undermines the sides of the pit , causing them to collapse and bring the prey with them . Thus , it does not matter whether the larva actually strikes the prey with the sand showers .
Antlion larvae are capable of capturing and killing a variety of insects and other arthropods , and can even subdue small spiders . The projections in the jaws of the larva are hollow and through this , the larva sucks the fluids out of its victim . After the contents are consumed , the dry carcass is flicked out of the pit . The larva readies the pit once again by throwing out collapsed material from the center , steepening the pit walls to the angle of repose .
Antlion larvae require loose soil , not necessarily but often sand . The larvae prefer dry places protected from the rain . When it first hatches , the tiny larva specialises in very small insects , but as it grows larger , it constructs larger pits , and thus catches larger prey , sometimes much larger than itself .
Other arthropods may make use of the antlion larva 's ability to trap prey . The larva of the Australian horsefly ( Scaptia muscula ) lives in antlion pit traps and feeds on the prey caught , and the female chalcid wasp ( Lasiochalcidia igiliensis ) purposefully allows itself to be trapped so that it can parasitise the antlion larva by ovipositing between its head and thorax .
= = Evolution = =
The closest living relatives of antlions within the Myrmeleontoidea are the owlflies ( Ascalaphidae ) ; the Nymphidae are more distantly related . The extinct Araripeneuridae and Babinskaiidae are considered likely to be stem groups in the Myrmeleontiformia clade . The phylogeny of the Neuroptera has been explored using mitochondrial DNA sequences , and while issues remain for the group as a whole ( the " Hemerobiiformia " being paraphyletic ) , the Myrmeleontiformia is generally agreed to be monophyletic , giving the following cladogram :
The subfamilies are shown below ; a few genera , mostly fossil , are of uncertain or basal position . The fossil record of antlions is very small by neuropteran standards . However , some Mesozoic fossils attest to the antlions ' origin more than 150 million years ago . These were at one time separated as the Palaeoleontidae , but are now usually recognized as early antlions .
The subfamilies in the Myrmeleontoidea , with select genera , are :
Acanthaclisinae
Brachynemurinae
Dendroleontinae
Bankisus Navás , 1912 ( = Navasius )
† Dendroleon
Dimarinae
Echthromyrmicinae
Glenurinae
Myrmecaelurinae
Myrmeleontinae
Euroleon Esben @-@ Petersen , 1918
Euroleon nostras ( European antlion )
Glenoleon Banks , 1913
Glenoleon falsus
Glenoleon pulchellus Australia
Hagenomyia
Hagenomyia tristis Africa
Nemoleontinae ( sometimes in Myrmeleontinae )
Palparinae ( including Araripeneurinae )
Pseudimarinae
Stilbopteryginae
Antlions of uncertain systematic position are :
† Palaeoleon ( fossil )
Porrerus
† Samsonileon
= = In culture and folklore = =
In popular folklore in the southern United States , people recite a poem or chant to make the antlion come out of its hole . Similar practices have been recorded from Africa , the Caribbean , China and Australia .
The Myrmecoleon was a mythical ant @-@ lion hybrid written about in the 2nd century AD Physiologus , where animal descriptions were paired with Christian morals . The ant @-@ lion as described was said to starve to death because of its dual nature – the lion nature of the father could only eat meat , but the ant half from the mother could only eat grain chaff , thus the offspring could not eat either and would starve . It was paired with the Biblical verse Matthew 5 : 37 The fictional ant @-@ lion of Physiologus is probably derived from a misreading of Job 4 : 11 .
The French naturalist Jean @-@ Henri Fabre wrote that " The Ant @-@ lion makes a slanting funnel in the sand . Its victim , the Ant , slides down the slant and is then stoned , from the bottom of the funnel , by the hunter , who turns his neck into a catapult . "
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= Tet Offensive =
The Tet Offensive ( Vietnamese : Sự kiện Tết Mậu Thân 1968 , or Tổng tiến công và nổi dậy Tết Mậu Thân ) was one of the largest military campaigns of the Vietnam War , launched on January 30 , 1968 , by forces of the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese People 's Army of Vietnam against the forces of the South Vietnamese Army of the Republic of Vietnam , the United States , and their allies . It was a campaign of surprise attacks against military and civilian commands and control centers throughout South Vietnam . The name of the offensive comes from the Tết holiday , the Vietnamese New Year , when the first major attacks took place .
The North Vietnamese launched a wave of attacks in the late night hours of 30 January in the I and II Corps Tactical Zones of South Vietnam . This early attack did not lead to widespread defensive measures . When the main North Vietnamese operation began the next morning the offensive was countrywide and well coordinated , eventually more than 80 @,@ 000 North Vietnamese troops striking more than 100 towns and cities , including 36 of 44 provincial capitals , five of the six autonomous cities , 72 of 245 district towns , and the southern capital . The offensive was the largest military operation conducted by either side up to that point in the war .
Though initial attacks stunned both the US and South Vietnamese armies , causing them to temporarily lose control of several cities , they quickly regrouped , beat back the attacks , and inflicted heavy casualties on North Vietnamese forces . During the Battle of Huế , intense fighting lasted for a month , resulting in the destruction of the city by US forces . During their occupation , the North Vietnamese executed thousands of people in the Massacre at Huế . Around the US combat base at Khe Sanh fighting continued for two more months . Although the offensive was a military defeat for North Vietnam , it had a profound effect on the US government and shocked the US public , which had been led to believe by its political and military leaders that the North Vietnamese were being defeated and incapable of launching such an ambitious military operation . U.S. public support for the war declined and the U.S. sought negotiations to end the war .
The term " Tet offensive " usually refers to the January – February 1968 offensive , but it can also include the so @-@ called " Mini @-@ Tet " offensives that took place in May and August .
= = Background = =
= = = United States = = =
During the fall of 1967 , the question of whether the U.S. strategy of attrition was working in South Vietnam weighed heavily on the minds of the American public and the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson . General William C. Westmoreland , the commander of the Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) believed that if a " crossover point " could be reached by which the number of communist troops killed or captured during military operations exceeded those recruited or replaced , the Americans would win the war . There was a discrepancy , however , between MACV and the Central Intelligence Agency 's ( CIA ) order of battle estimates concerning the strength of Viet Cong guerrilla forces within South Vietnam . In September , members of the MACV intelligence services and the CIA met to prepare a Special National Intelligence Estimate that would be used by the administration as a gauge of U.S. success in the conflict .
Provided with an enemy intelligence windfall accrued during Operations Cedar Falls and Junction City , the CIA members of the group believed that the number of Viet Cong guerrillas , irregulars , and cadre within the South could be as high as 430 @,@ 000 . The MACV Combined Intelligence Center , on the other hand , maintained that the number could be no more than 300 @,@ 000 . Westmoreland was deeply concerned about the possible perceptions of the American public to such an increased estimate , since communist troop strength was routinely provided to reporters during press briefings . According to MACV 's chief of intelligence , General Joseph A. McChristian , the new figures " would create a political bombshell " , since they were positive proof that the North Vietnamese " had the capability and the will to continue a protracted war of attrition . "
In May , MACV attempted to obtain a compromise from the CIA by maintaining that Viet Cong militias did not constitute a fighting force but were essentially low level fifth columnists used for information collection . The agency responded that such a notion was ridiculous , since the militias were directly responsible for half of the casualties inflicted on U.S. forces . With the groups deadlocked , George Carver , CIA deputy director for Vietnamese affairs , was asked to mediate the dispute . In September , Carver devised a compromise : The CIA would drop its insistence on including the irregulars in the final tally of forces and add a prose addendum to the estimate that would explain the agency 's position . George Allen , Carver 's deputy , laid responsibility for the agency 's capitulation at the feet of Richard Helms , the director of the CIA . He believed that " it was a political problem ... [ Helms ] didn 't want the agency ... contravening the policy interest of the administration . "
During the second half of 1967 the administration had become alarmed by criticism , both inside and outside the government , and by reports of declining public support for its Vietnam policies . According to public opinion polls , the percentage of Americans who believed that the U.S. had made a mistake by sending troops to Vietnam had risen from 25 percent in 1965 to 45 percent by December 1967 . This trend was fueled not by a belief that the struggle was not worthwhile , but by mounting casualty figures , rising taxes , and the feeling that there was no end to the war in sight . A poll taken in November indicated that 55 percent wanted a tougher war policy , exemplified by the public belief that " it was an error for us to have gotten involved in Vietnam in the first place . But now that we 're there , let 's win – or get out . " This prompted the administration to launch a so @-@ called " Success Offensive " , a concerted effort to alter the widespread public perception that the war had reached a stalemate and to convince the American people that the administration 's policies were succeeding . Under the leadership of National Security Advisor Walt W. Rostow , the news media then was inundated by a wave of effusive optimism .
Every statistical indicator of progress , from " kill ratios " and " body counts " to village pacification , was fed to the press and to the Congress . " We are beginning to win this struggle " asserted Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey on NBC 's Today show in mid @-@ November . " We are on the offensive . Territory is being gained . We are making steady progress . " At the end of November , the campaign reached its climax when Johnson summoned Westmoreland and the new U.S. Ambassador , Ellsworth Bunker , to Washington , D.C. , for what was billed as a " high level policy review " . Upon their arrival , the two men bolstered the administration 's claims of success . From Saigon , pacification chief Robert Komer asserted that the CORDS pacification program in the countryside was succeeding , and that sixty @-@ eight percent of the South Vietnamese population was under the control of Saigon while only seventeen percent was under the control of the Viet Cong . General Bruce Palmer , Jr . , one of Westmoreland 's three Field Force commanders , claimed that " the Viet Cong has been defeated " and that " He can 't get food and he can 't recruit . He has been forced to change his strategy from trying to control the people on the coast to trying to survive in the mountains . "
Westmoreland was even more emphatic in his assertions . At an address at the National Press Club on 21 November he reported that , as of the end of 1967 , the communists were " unable to mount a major offensive ... I am absolutely certain that whereas in 1965 the enemy was winning , today he is certainly losing ... We have reached an important point when the end begins to come into view . " By the end of the year the administration 's approval rating had indeed crept up by eight percent , but an early January Gallup poll indicated that forty @-@ seven percent of the American public still disapproved of the President 's handling of the war . The American public , " more confused than convinced , more doubtful than despairing ... adopted a ' wait and see ' attitude . " During a discussion with an interviewer from Time magazine , Westmoreland defied the communists to launch an attack : " I hope they try something , because we are looking for a fight . "
= = = North Vietnam = = =
= = = = Party politics = = = =
Planning in Hanoi for a winter @-@ spring offensive during 1968 had begun in early 1967 and continued until early the following year . According to American sources , there has been an extreme reluctance among Vietnamese historians to discuss the decision @-@ making process that led to the General Offensive General Uprising , even decades after the event . In official Vietnamese literature , the decision to launch the Tet Offensive was usually presented as the result of a perceived U.S. failure to win the war quickly , the failure of the American bombing campaign against North Vietnam , and the anti @-@ war sentiment that pervaded the population of the U.S. The decision to launch the general offensive , however , was much more complicated .
The decision signaled the end of a bitter , decade @-@ long debate within the North Vietnamese Government between first two , and then three factions . The moderates believed that the economic viability of North Vietnam should come before support of a massive and conventional southern war and they generally followed the Soviet line of peaceful coexistence by reunifying Vietnam through political means . Heading this faction were party theoretician Trường Chinh and Minister of Defense Võ Nguyên Giáp . The militant faction , on the other hand , tended to follow the foreign policy line of the People 's Republic of China and called for the reunification of the nation by military means and that no negotiations should be undertaken with the Americans . This group was led by Communist Party First Secretary Lê Duẩn and Lê Đức Thọ ( no relation ) . From the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1960s , the militants had dictated the direction of the war in South Vietnam .
General Nguyễn Chí Thanh the head of Central Office for South Vietnam ( COSVN ) , headquarters for the South , was another prominent militant . The followers of the Chinese line centered their strategy against the US and its allies on large @-@ scale , main force actions rather than the protracted guerrilla war espoused by Mao Zedong .
By 1966 – 1967 , however , after suffering massive casualties , stalemate on the battlefield , and destruction of the northern economy by U.S. aerial bombing , there was a dawning realization that , if current trends continued , Hanoi would eventually lack the resources necessary to affect the military situation in the South . As a result , there were more strident calls by the moderates for negotiations and a revision of strategy . They felt that a return to guerrilla tactics was more appropriate since the U.S. could not be defeated conventionally . They also complained that the policy of rejecting negotiations was in error . The Americans could only be worn down in a war of wills during a period of " fighting while talking . " During 1967 things had become so bad on the battlefield that Lê Duẩn ordered Thanh to incorporate aspects of protracted guerrilla warfare into his strategy .
During the same period , a counter @-@ attack was launched by a new , third grouping ( the centrists ) led by President Hồ Chí Minh , Lê Đức Thọ , and Foreign Minister Nguyễn Duy Trinh , who called for negotiations . From October 1966 through April 1967 , a very public debate over military strategy took place in print and via radio between Thanh and his rival for military power , Giáp . Giáp had advocated a defensive , primarily guerrilla strategy against the U.S. and South Vietnam . Thanh 's position was that Giáp and his adherents were centered on their experiences during the First Indochina War and that they were too " conservative and captive to old methods and past experience ... mechanically repeating the past . "
The arguments over domestic and military strategy also carried a foreign policy element as well , because North Vietnam , as the South Vietnamese forces , was largely dependent on outside military and economic aid . The vast majority of North Vietnam military equipment was provided by either the Soviet Union or China . Beijing advocated that North Vietnam conduct a protracted war on the Maoist model , fearing that a conventional conflict might draw them in as it had in the Korean War . They also resisted the idea of negotiating with the allies . Moscow , on the other hand , advocated negotiations , but simultaneously armed Hanoi 's forces to conduct a conventional war on the Soviet model . North Vietnamese foreign policy , therefore consisted of maintaining a critical balance between war policy , internal and external policies , domestic adversaries , and foreign allies with " self @-@ serving agendas . "
To " break the will of their domestic opponents and reaffirm their autonomy vis @-@ à @-@ vis their foreign allies " hundreds of pro @-@ Soviet , party moderates , military officers , and intelligentsia were arrested on 27 July 1967 , during what came to be called the Revisionist Anti @-@ Party Affair . All of the arrests were based on the individual 's stance on the Politburo 's choice of tactics and strategy for the proposed General Offensive . This move cemented the position of the militants as Hanoi 's strategy : The rejection of negotiations , the abandonment of protracted warfare , and the focus on the offensive in the towns and cities of South Vietnam . More arrests followed in November and December .
= = = = General Offensive and Uprising = = = =
The operational plan for the General Offensive and Uprising had its origin as the " COSVN proposal " at Thanh 's southern headquarters in April 1967 and had then been relayed to Hanoi the following month . The general was then ordered to the capital to explain his concept in person to the Military Central Commission . At a meeting in July , Thanh briefed the plan to the Politburo . On the evening of 6 July , after receiving permission to begin preparations for the offensive , Thanh attended a party and died of a heart attack after drinking too much .
After cementing their position during the Party crackdown , the militants sped up planning for a major conventional offensive to break the military deadlock . They concluded that the Saigon government and the U.S. presence were so unpopular with the population of the South that a broad @-@ based attack would spark a spontaneous uprising of the population , which , if the offensive was successful , would enable the North Vietnamese to sweep to a quick , decisive victory . Their basis for this conclusion included : a belief that the South Vietnamese military was no longer combat @-@ effective ; the results of the September 1967 South Vietnamese presidential election ( in which the Nguyễn Văn Thiệu / Nguyễn Cao Kỳ ticket had only received 24 percent of the popular vote ) ; the Buddhist crises of 1963 and 1966 ; well @-@ publicized anti @-@ war demonstrations in Saigon ; and continuous criticism of the Thiệu government in the southern press . Launching such an offensive would also finally put an end to what have been described as " dovish calls for talks , criticism of military strategy , Chinese diatribes of Soviet perfidy , and Soviet pressure to negotiate — all of which needed to be silenced . "
In October , the Politburo decided on the Tet holiday as the launch date and met again in December to reaffirm its decision and formalize it at the 14th Plenary session of the Party Central Committee in January 1968 . The resultant Resolution 14 was a major blow to domestic opposition and " foreign obstruction . " Concessions had been made to the center group , however , by agreeing that negotiations were possible , but the document essentially centered on the creation of " a spontaneous uprising in order to win a decisive victory in the shortest time possible . "
Contrary to Western belief , General Giáp did not plan or command the offensive himself . Thanh 's original plan was elaborated on by a party committee headed by Thanh 's deputy , Phạm Hùng , and then modified by Giáp . The Defense Minister may have been convinced to toe the line by the arrest and imprisonment of most of the members of his staff during the Revisionist Anti @-@ Communist Party Affair . Although Giáp went to work " reluctantly , under duress " , he may have found the task easier due to the fact that he was faced with a fait accompli . Since the Politburo had already approved the offensive , all he had to do was make it work . He combined guerrilla operations into what was basically a conventional military offensive and shifted the burden of sparking the popular uprising to the Viet Cong . If it worked , all would be well and good . If it failed , it would be a failure only for the Communist Party militants . For the moderates and centrists , it offered the prospect of negotiations and a possible end to the American bombing of the North . Only in the eyes of the militants , therefore , did the offensive become a " go for broke " effort . Others in the Politburo were willing to settle for a much less ambitious " victory . "
The operation would involve a preliminary phase , during which diversionary attacks would be launched in the border areas of South Vietnam to draw American attention and forces away from the cities . The General Offensive , General Uprising would then commence with simultaneous actions on major allied bases and most urban areas , and with particular emphasis on the cities of Saigon and Huế . Concurrently , a substantial threat would have to be made against the U.S. combat base at Khe Sanh . The Khe Sanh actions would draw North Vietnamese forces away from the offensive into the cities , but Giáp considered them necessary in order to protect his supply lines and divert American attention . Attacks on other U.S. forces were of secondary , or even tertiary importance , since Giáp considered his main objective to be weakening or destroying the South Vietnamese military and government through popular revolt . The offensive , therefore was aimed at influencing the South Vietnamese public , not that of the U.S. There is conflicting evidence as to whether , or to what extent , the offensive was intended to influence either the March primaries or the November presidential election in the U.S.
According to General Trần Văn Trà , the new military head of COSVN , the offensive was to have three distinct phases : Phase I , scheduled to begin on 30 January , would be a countrywide assault on the cities , conducted primarily by Viet Cong forces . Concurrently , a propaganda offensive to induce ARVN troops to desert and the South Vietnamese population to rise up against the government would be launched . If outright victory was not achieved , the battle might still lead to the creation of a coalition government and the withdrawal of the Americans . If the general offensive failed to achieve these purposes , follow @-@ up operations would be conducted to wear down the enemy and lead to a negotiated settlement ; Phase II was scheduled to begin on 5 May , and Phase III on 17 August .
Preparations for the offensive were already underway . The logistical build @-@ up began in mid @-@ year , and by January 1968 , 81 @,@ 000 tons of supplies and 200 @,@ 000 troops , including seven complete infantry regiments and 20 independent battalions made the trip south on the Ho Chi Minh Trail . This logistical effort also involved re @-@ arming the Viet Cong with new AK @-@ 47 assault rifles and B @-@ 40 rocket @-@ propelled grenade launchers , which granted them superior firepower over their less well @-@ armed ARVN opponents . To pave the way and to confuse the allies as to its intentions , Hanoi launched a diplomatic offensive . Foreign Minister Trinh announced on 30 December that Hanoi would rather than could open negotiations if the U.S. unconditionally ended Operation Rolling Thunder , the bombing campaign against North Vietnam . This announcement provoked a flurry of diplomatic activity ( which amounted to nothing ) during the last weeks of the year .
South Vietnamese and U.S. military intelligence estimated that North Vietnamese and Viet Cong forces in South Vietnam during January 1968 totaled 323 @,@ 000 men , including 130 @,@ 000 North Vietnamese regulars , 160 @,@ 000 Viet Cong and members of the infrastructure , and 33 @,@ 000 service and support troops . They were organized into nine divisions composed of 35 infantry and 20 artillery or anti @-@ aircraft artillery regiments , which were , in turn , composed of 230 infantry and six sapper battalions .
= = = Allied unpreparedness = = =
= = = = Suspicions and diversions = = = =
Signs of impending communist action did not go unnoticed among the allied intelligence collection apparatus in Saigon . During the late summer and fall of 1967 both South Vietnamese and U.S. intelligence agencies collected clues that indicated a significant shift in communist strategic planning . By mid @-@ December , mounting evidence convinced many in Washington and Saigon that something big was underway . During the last three months of the year intelligence agencies had observed signs of a major North Vietnamese military buildup . In addition to captured documents ( a copy of Resolution 13 , for example , was captured by early October ) , observations of enemy logistical operations were also quite clear : in October , the number of trucks observed heading south through Laos on the Hồ Chí Minh Trail jumped from the previous monthly average of 480 to 1 @,@ 116 . By November this total reached 3 @,@ 823 and , in December , 6 @,@ 315 . On 20 December , Westmoreland cabled Washington that he expected the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese " to undertake an intensified countrywide effort , perhaps a maximum effort , over a relatively short period of time . "
Despite all the warning signs , however , the allies were still surprised by the scale and scope of the offensive . According to ARVN Colonel Hoang Ngoc Lung the answer lay with the allied intelligence methodology itself , which tended to estimate the enemy 's probable course of action based upon their capabilities , not their intentions . Since , in the allied estimation , the communists hardly had the capability to launch such an ambitious enterprise : " There was little possibility that the enemy could initiate a general offensive , regardless of his intentions . " The answer could also be partially explained by the lack of coordination and cooperation between competing intelligence branches , both South Vietnamese and American . The situation from the U.S. perspective was best summed up by an MACV intelligence analyst : " If we 'd gotten the whole battle plan , it wouldn 't have been believed . It wouldn 't have been credible to us . "
From spring through the fall of 1967 , the U.S. Command in Saigon was perplexed by a series of actions initiated by the North Vietnamese and the Viet Cong in the border regions . On 24 April a U.S. Marine Corps patrol prematurely triggered a North Vietnamese offensive aimed at taking the airstrip and combat base at Khe Sanh , the western anchor of the Marines ' defensive positions in Quảng Trị Province . By the time the action there had ended in May , 940 North Vietnamese troops and 155 Marines had been killed . For 49 days during early September and lasting into October , the North Vietnamese began shelling the U.S. Marine outpost of Con Thien , just south of the Demilitarized Zone or DMZ . The intense shelling ( 100 – 150 rounds per day ) prompted Westmoreland to launch Operation Neutralize , an intense aerial bombardment campaign of 4 @,@ 000 sorties into and just north of the demarcation line .
On 27 October , an ARVN battalion at Sông Bé , the capital of Phước Long Province , came under attack by an entire North Vietnamese regiment . Two days later , another North Vietnamese Regiment attacked a U.S. Special Forces border outpost at Lộc Ninh , in Bình Long Province . This attack sparked a ten @-@ day battle that drew in elements of the U.S. 1st Infantry Division and the ARVN 18th Division and left 800 North Vietnamese troops dead at its conclusion .
The most severe of what came to be known as " the Border Battles " erupted during October and November around Dak To , another border outpost in Kon Tum Province . The clashes there between the four regiments of the 1st North Vietnamese Division , the U.S. 4th Infantry Division , the U.S. 173rd Airborne Brigade , and ARVN infantry and Airborne elements , lasted for 22 days . By the time the fighting was over , between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 600 North Vietnamese and 262 U.S. troops had lost their lives . MACV intelligence was confused by the possible motives of the North Vietnamese in prompting such large @-@ scale actions in remote regions where U.S. artillery and aerial firepower could be applied indiscriminately , which meant that tactically and strategically , these operations made no sense . What the North Vietnamese had done was carry out the first stage of their plan : to fix the attention of the U.S. Command on the borders and draw the bulk of U.S. forces away from the heavily populated coastal lowlands and cities .
Westmoreland was more concerned with the situation at Khe Sanh , where , on 21 January , a force estimated at 20 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 North Vietnamese troops had besieged the U.S. Marine garrison . MACV was convinced that the North Vietnamese planned to stage an attack and overrun the base as a prelude to an all @-@ out effort to seize the two northernmost provinces of South Vietnam . To deter any such possibility , he deployed 250 @,@ 000 men , including half of MACV 's U.S. maneuver battalions , to the I Corps Tactical Zone .
This course of events disturbed Lieutenant General Frederick Weyand , commander of U.S. forces in III Corps , which included the Capital Military District . Weyand , a former intelligence officer , was suspicious of the pattern of communist activities in his area of responsibility and notified Westmoreland of his concerns on 10 January . Westmoreland agreed with his estimate and ordered 15 U.S. battalions to redeploy from positions near the Cambodian border back to the outskirts of Saigon . When the offensive did begin , a total of 27 allied maneuver battalions defended the city and the surrounding area . This redeployment may have been one of the most critical tactical decisions of the war .
= = = = Before the offensive = = = =
By the beginning of January 1968 , the U.S had deployed 331 @,@ 098 Army personnel and 78 @,@ 013 Marines in nine divisions , an armoured cavalry regiment , and two separate brigades to South Vietnam . They were joined there by the 1st Australian Task Force , a Royal Thai Army regiment , two South Korean infantry divisions , and a Republic of Korea Marine Corps brigade . South Vietnamese strength totaled 350 @,@ 000 regulars in the Army , Air Force , Navy , and Marine Corps . They were in turn supported by the 151 @,@ 000 @-@ man South Vietnamese Regional Forces and 149 @,@ 000 @-@ man South Vietnamese Popular Forces , which were the equivalent of regional and local militias .
In the days immediately preceding the offensive , the preparedness of allied forces was relatively relaxed . Hanoi had announced in October that it would observe a seven @-@ day truce from 27 January to 3 February for the Tet holiday , and the South Vietnamese military made plans to allow recreational leave for approximately half of its forces . General Westmoreland , who had already cancelled the truce in I Corps , requested that its ally cancel the upcoming cease @-@ fire , but President Thiệu ( who had already reduced the cease @-@ fire to 36 hours ) , refused to do so , claiming that it would damage troop morale and only benefit communist propagandists .
On 28 January , eleven Viet Cong cadres were captured in the city of Qui Nhơn while in possession of two pre @-@ recorded audio tapes whose message appealed to the populace in " already occupied Saigon , Huế , and Da Nang . " The following afternoon , General Cao Văn Viên , chief of the Vietnamese Joint General Staff , ordered his four corps commanders to place their troops on alert . Yet , there was still a lack of a sense of urgency on the part of the allies . If Westmoreland had a grasp of the potential for danger , he did not communicate it very well to others . On the evening of 30 January , 200 U.S. officers — all of whom served on the MACV intelligence staff — attended a pool party at their quarters in Saigon . According to James Meecham , an analyst at the Combined Intelligence Center who attended the party : " I had no conception Tet was coming , absolutely zero ... Of the 200 @-@ odd officers present , not one I talked to knew Tet was coming , without exception . "
The general also failed to communicate his concerns adequately to Washington . Although he had warned the President between 25 and 30 January that " widespread " communist attacks were in the offing , his admonitions had tended to be so oblique or so hedged with official optimism that even the administration was unprepared . No one – in either Washington or Vietnam – was expecting what happened .
= = Offensive = =
" Crack the Sky , Shake the Earth "
Whether by accident or design , the first wave of attacks began shortly after midnight on 30 January as all five provincial capitals in II Corps and Da Nang , in I Corps , were attacked . Nha Trang , headquarters of the U.S. I Field Force , was the first to be hit , followed shortly by Ban Mê Thuột , Kon Tum , Hội An , Tuy Hòa , Da Nang , Qui Nhơn , and Pleiku . During all of these operations , the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese followed a similar pattern : mortar or rocket attacks were closely followed by massed ground assaults conducted by battalion @-@ strength elements of the Viet Cong , sometimes supported by North Vietnamese regulars . These forces would join with local cadres who served as guides to lead the regulars to the most senior South Vietnamese headquarters and the radio station . The operations , however , were not well coordinated at the local level . By daylight , almost all communist forces had been driven from their objectives . General Phillip B. Davidson , the new MACV chief of intelligence , notified Westmoreland that " This is going to happen in the rest of the country tonight and tomorrow morning . " All U.S. forces were placed on maximum alert and similar orders were issued to all ARVN units . The allies , however , still responded without any real sense of urgency . Orders cancelling leaves either came too late or were disregarded .
At 03 : 00 on 31 January North Vietnamese forces assailed Saigon , Cholon , and Gia Định in the Capital Military District ; Quảng Trị ( again ) , Huế , Quảng Tín , Tam Kỳ , and Quảng Ngãi as well as U.S. bases at Phú Bài and Chu Lai in I Corps ; Phan Thiết , Tuy Hòa , and U.S. installations at Bong Son and An Khê in II Corps ; and Cần Thơ and Vĩnh Long in IV Corps . The following day , Biên Hòa , Long Thanh , Bình Dương in III Corps and Kien Hoa , Dinh Tuong , Gò Công , Kiên Giang , Vĩnh Bình , Bến Tre , and Kien Tuong in IV Corps were assaulted . The last attack of the initial operation was launched against Bạc Liêu in IV Corps on 10 February . A total of approximately 84 @,@ 000 Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops participated in the attacks while thousands of others stood by to act as reinforcements or as blocking forces . Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces also mortared or rocketed every major allied airfield and attacked 64 district capitals and scores of smaller towns .
In most cases , the defense against the communists was a South Vietnamese affair . Local militia or ARVN forces , supported by the National Police , usually drove the attackers out within two or three days , sometimes within hours ; but heavy fighting continued several days longer in Kon Tum , Buôn Ma Thuột , Phan Thiết , Cần Thơ , and Bến Tre . The outcome in each instance was usually dictated by the ability of local commanders — some were outstanding , others were cowardly or incompetent . During this crucial crisis , however , no South Vietnamese unit broke or defected to the communists .
According to Westmoreland , he responded to the news of the attacks with optimism , both in media presentations and in his reports to Washington . According to closer observers , however , the general was " stunned that the communists had been able to coordinate so many attacks in such secrecy " and he was " dispirited and deeply shaken . " According to Clark Clifford , at the time of the initial attacks , the reaction of the U.S. military leadership " approached panic " . Although Westmoreland 's appraisal of the military situation was correct , he made himself look foolish by continuously maintaining his belief that Khe Sanh was the real objective of the North Vietnamese and that 155 attacks by 84 @,@ 000 troops was a diversion ( a position he maintained until at least 12 February ) . Washington Post reporter Peter Braestrup summed up the feelings of his colleagues by asking " How could any effort against Saigon , especially downtown Saigon , be a diversion ? "
= = = Saigon = = =
Although Saigon was the focal point of the offensive , the communists did not seek a total takeover of the city . Rather , they had six primary targets to strike in the downtown area : the headquarters of the ARVN General Staff at Tan Son Nhut Air Base ; the Independence Palace , the US Embassy , Saigon , the Republic of Vietnam Navy Headquarters , and the National Radio Station . These objectives were all assaulted by a small number of militants of the local C @-@ 10 Sapper Battalion . Elsewhere in the city or its outskirts , ten Viet Cong Local Force Battalions attacked the central police station and the Artillery Command and the Armored Command headquarters ( both at Gò Vấp ) . The plan called for all these initial forces to capture and hold their positions for 48 hours , by which time reinforcements were to have arrived to relieve them .
The defense of the Capital Military Zone was primarily a South Vietnamese responsibility and it was initially defended by eight ARVN infantry battalions and the local police force . By 3 February they had been reinforced by five ARVN Ranger Battalions , five Marine Corps , and five ARVN Airborne Battalions . U.S. Army units participating in the defense included the 716th Military Police Battalion , seven infantry battalions ( one mechanized ) , and six artillery battalions .
At the Armored Command and Artillery Command headquarters on the northern edge of the city the North Vietnamese planned to use captured tanks and artillery pieces but the tanks had been moved to another base two months earlier and that the breech blocks of the artillery pieces had been removed , rendering them useless .
One of the most important Viet Cong targets , from a symbolic and propagandistic point of view , was the National Radio Station . Its troops had brought along a tape recording of Hồ Chi Minh announcing the liberation of Saigon and calling for a " General Uprising " against the Thiệu government . They seized the building , held it for six hours and , when running out of ammunition , the last eight attackers destroyed it and sacrificed themselves using explosive charges , but they were unable to broadcast due to the cutting off of the audio lines from the main studio to the tower as soon as the station was seized .
The US Embassy , Saigon , a massive six @-@ floor building situated within a four @-@ acre compound , had only been completed in September . At 02 : 45 it was attacked by a 19 @-@ man sapper team that blew a hole in the 8 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) surrounding wall and charged through . With their officers killed in the initial attack and their attempt to gain access to the building having failed , the sappers simply occupied the chancery grounds until they were all killed or captured by US reinforcements that were landed on the roof of the building six hours later . By 09 : 20 the embassy and grounds were secured , with the loss of five US personnel .
At 03 : 00 on 31 January , twelve Vietcong sappers approached the Vietnamese Navy Headquarters in two civilian cars , killing two guards at a barricade at Me Linh Square and then advanced towards the base gate . The sound of gunfire alerted base sentries who secured the gate and sounded the alarm . A .30 @-@ caliber machine gun on the second floor of the headquarters disabled both cars and killed or wounded several sappers while the Navy security force organized a counterattack . Simultaneously a U.S. Navy advisor contacted the U.S. military police who soon attacked the Vietcong from adjoining streets , the resulting crossfire ended the attack , killing eight sappers with two captured .
Small squads of Viet Cong fanned out across the city to attack various officers and enlisted men 's billets , homes of ARVN officers , and district police stations . Provided with " blacklists " of military officers and civil servants , they began to round up and execute any that could be found .
On 1 February General Nguyễn Ngọc Loan , chief of the National Police , publicly executed Viet Cong officer Nguyễn Văn Lém captured in civilian clothing in front of photographer Edward T. Adams and a film cameraman . That photography , with the title of Saigon Execution won the 1969 Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography and it 's widely seen as a defining moment in the Vietnam War for its influence on public opinion in the United States about the war , even being called " the picture that lost the war " .
Outside the city proper two Viet Cong battalions attacked the U.S. logistical and headquarters complex at Long Binh . Biên Hòa Air Base was struck by a battalion , while the adjacent ARVN III Corps headquarters was the objective of another . Tan Son Nhut Air Base , in the northwestern part of the city , was attacked by three battalions . A combat @-@ ready battalion of ARVN paratroopers , awaiting transport to Da Nang , went instead directly into action and halted the attack . A total of 35 communist battalions , many of whose troops were undercover cadres who had lived and worked within the capital or its environs for years , had been committed to the Saigon objectives . By dawn most of the attacks within the city center had been eliminated , but severe fighting between Viet Cong and allied forces erupted in the Chinese neighborhood of Cholon around the Phú Thọ racetrack , southwest of the city center , which was being used as a staging area and command and control center by the North Vietnamese . Bitter and destructive house @-@ to @-@ house fighting erupted in the area . On 4 February , the residents were ordered to leave their homes and the area was declared a free fire zone . Fighting in the city came to a close only after a fierce battle between the ARVN Rangers and PAVN forces on 7 March .
Except at Huế and mopping @-@ up operations in and around Saigon , the first surge of the offensive was over by the second week of February . The U.S. estimated that during the first phase ( 30 January – 8 April ) approximately 45 @,@ 000 PAVN soldiers were killed and an unknown number were wounded . For years this figure has been held as excessively optimistic , as it represented more than half the forces involved in this battle . Stanley Karnow claims he confirmed this figure in Hanoi in 1981 . Westmoreland himself claimed a smaller number of enemies disabled , estimating that during the same period 32 @,@ 000 PAVN troops were killed and another 5 @,@ 800 captured . The South Vietnamese suffered 2 @,@ 788 killed , 8 @,@ 299 wounded , and 587 missing in action . U.S. and other allied forces suffered 1 @,@ 536 killed , 7 @,@ 764 wounded , and 11 missing .
= = = Huế = = =
At 03 : 40 on the foggy morning of 31 January , allied defensive positions north of the Perfume River in the city of Huế were mortared and rocketed and then attacked by two battalions of the 6th PAVN Regiment . Their target was the ARVN 1st Division headquarters located in the Citadel , a three @-@ square mile complex of palaces , parks , and residences , which were surrounded by a moat and a massive earth and masonry fortress built at the beginning of the 19th century by Emperor Gia Long . The undermanned ARVN defenders , led by General Ngô Quang Trưởng , managed to hold their position , but the majority of the Citadel fell to the PAVN . On the south bank of the river , the 4th PAVN Regiment attempted to seize the local MACV headquarters , but was held at bay by a makeshift force of approximately 200 Americans . The rest of the city was overrun by PAVN forces which initially totaled approximately 7 @,@ 500 men . Both sides then rushed to reinforce and resupply their forces . Lasting 25 days , the battle of Huế became one of the longest and bloodiest single battles of the Vietnam War .
During the first days of the North Vietnamese occupation , U.S. intelligence vastly underestimated the number of PAVN troops and little appreciated the effort that was going to be necessary to evict them . General Westmoreland informed the Joint Chiefs that " the enemy has approximately three companies in the Huế Citadel and the marines have sent a battalion into the area to clear them out . " Since there were no U.S. formations stationed in Huế , relief forces had to move up from Phu Bai , eight kilometers to the southeast . In a misty drizzle , U.S. Marines of the 1st Marine Division and soldiers of the 1st ARVN Division and Marine Corps cleared the city street by street and house by house , a deadly and destructive form of urban combat that the U.S. military had not engaged in since the Battle of Seoul during the Korean War , and for which neither side were trained . Because of the historical and cultural significance of the city , American forces did not immediately apply air and artillery strikes as widely as they had in other cities .
Outside Huế , elements of the U.S. 1st Air Cavalry Division and the 101st Airborne Division fought to seal PAVN access and cut off their lines of supply and reinforcement . By this point in the battle 16 to 18 PAVN battalions ( 8 @,@ 000 @-@ 11 @,@ 000 men ) were taking part in the fighting for the city itself or the approaches to the former imperial capital . Two of the North Vietnamese regiments had made a forced march from the vicinity of Khe Sanh to Huế in order to participate . During most of February , the allies gradually fought their way towards the Citadel , which was only taken after four days of intense struggle . The city was not declared recaptured by U.S. and ARVN forces until 24 February , when members of the 2nd Battalion , 3rd Regiment , 1st ARVN Division raised the South Vietnamese flag over the Palace of Perfect Peace .
During the intense action , the allies estimated that North Vietnamese forces had between 1 @,@ 042 and 5 @,@ 000 killed and 89 captured in the city and in the surrounding area . 216 U.S. Marines and soldiers had been killed during the fighting and 1 @,@ 609 were wounded . 421 ARVN troops were killed , another 2 @,@ 123 were wounded , and 31 were missing . More than 5 @,@ 800 civilians had lost their lives during the battle and 116 @,@ 000 were left homeless out of an original population of 140 @,@ 000 . 40 @-@ 50 % of Huế was destroyed by the end of the battle .
In the aftermath of the recapture of the city , the discovery of several mass graves ( the last of which were uncovered in 1970 ) of South Vietnamese citizens of Huế sparked a controversy that has not diminished with time . The victims had either been clubbed or shot to death or simply buried alive . The official allied explanation was that during their initial occupation of the city , the PAVN had quickly begun to systematically round up ( under the guise of re @-@ education ) and then execute as many as 2 @,@ 800 South Vietnamese civilians that they believed to be potentially hostile to communist control . Those taken into custody included South Vietnamese military personnel , present and former government officials , local civil servants , teachers , policemen , and religious figures . Historian Gunther Lewy claimed that a captured Viet Cong document stated that the communists had " eliminated 1 @,@ 892 administrative personnel , 38 policemen , 790 tyrants . " The North Vietnamese officer , Bùi Tín , later further muddied the waters by stating that their forces had indeed rounded up " reactionary " captives for transport to the North , but that local commanders , under battlefield exigencies , had executed them for expediency 's sake .
General Ngô Quang Trưởng , commander of the 1st ARVN Division , believed that the captives had been executed by the communists in order to protect the identities of members of the local Viet Cong infrastructure , whose covers had been blown . The exact circumstances leading to the deaths of those citizens of Huế discovered in the mass graves may never be known exactly , but most of the victims were killed as a result of PAVN and NLF executions , considering evidence from captured documents and witness testimonies among other things .
= = = Khe Sanh = = =
The attack on Khe Sanh , which began on 21 January before the other offensives , may have been intended to serve two purposes — as a real attempt to seize the position or as a diversion to draw American attention and forces away from the population centers in the lowlands , a deception that was " both plausible and easy to orchestrate . " In General Westmoreland 's view , the purpose of the Combat Base was to provoke the North Vietnamese into a focused and prolonged confrontation in a confined geographic area , one which would allow the application of massive U.S. artillery and air strikes that would inflict heavy casualties in a relatively unpopulated region . By the end of 1967 , MACV had moved nearly half of its maneuver battalions to I Corps in anticipation of just such a battle .
Westmoreland — and the American media , which covered the action extensively — often made inevitable comparisons between the actions at Khe Sanh and the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ , where a French base had been besieged and ultimately overrun by Viet Minh forces under the command of General Giáp during the First Indochina War . Westmoreland , who knew of Nguyen Chi Thanh 's penchant for large @-@ scale operations — but not of his death — believed that this was going to be an attempt to replicate that victory . He intended to stage his own " Dien Bien Phu in reverse . "
Khe Sanh and its 6 @,@ 000 U.S. Marine Corps , Army , and ARVN defenders was surrounded by two to three North Vietnamese divisions , totaling approximately 20 @,@ 000 men . Throughout the siege , which lasted until 8 April , the allies were subjected to heavy mortar , rocket , and artillery bombardment , combined with sporadic small @-@ scale infantry attacks on outlying positions . With the exception of the overrunning of the U.S. Special Forces camp at Lang Vei , however , there was never a major ground assault on the base and the battle became largely a duel between American and North Vietnamese artillerists , combined with massive air strikes conducted by U.S. aircraft . By the end of the siege , U.S Air Force , Marine Corps , and Navy aircraft had dropped 39 @,@ 179 tons of ordnance in the defense of the base .
The overland supply route to the base had been cut off , and airborne resupply by cargo aircraft became extremely dangerous due to heavy North Vietnamese antiaircraft fire . Thanks to innovative high @-@ speed " Super Gaggles " , which utilized fighter @-@ bombers in combination with large numbers of supply helicopters , and the Air Force 's utilization of C @-@ 130 Hercules cargo aircraft employing the innovative LAPES delivery method , aerial resupply was never halted .
When the Tet Offensive began , feelings ran high at MACV that the base was in for a serious attack . In I Corps , the Tet Truce had been cancelled in apprehension of a communist assault that never happened . The offensive passed Khe Sanh by and the intermittent battle continued . Westmoreland 's fixation upon the base continued even as the battle raged around him in Saigon . On 1 February , as the offensive reached its height , he wrote a memo for his staff — which was never delivered — claiming that " The enemy is attempting to confuse the issue ... I suspect he is also trying to draw everyone 's attention from the area of greatest threat , the northern part of I Corps . Let me caution everyone not to be confused . "
In the end , a major allied relief expedition ( Operation Pegasus ) launched by all three brigades of the First Cavalry Division reached Khe Sanh on 8 April , but North Vietnamese forces were already withdrawing from the area . Both sides claimed that the battle had served its intended purpose . The MACV estimated that 5 @,@ 500 North Vietnamese troops had been killed and considerably more wounded . During Operation Pegasus , 730 American lives lost and another 2 @,@ 642 wounded .
= = = Phases II and III = = =
To further enhance their political posture at the Paris talks , which opened on 13 May , the North Vietnamese opened the second phase of the General Offensive in late April . U.S. intelligence sources estimated between February and May the North Vietnamese dispatched 50 @,@ 000 men down the Ho Chi Minh Trail to replace losses incurred during the earlier fighting . Some of the most prolonged and vicious combat of the war opened on 29 April and lasted until 30 May when the 8 @,@ 000 men of the 320th PAVN Division , backed by artillery from across the DMZ , threatened the U.S. logistical base at Đông Hà , in northwestern Quảng Trị Province . In what became known as the Battle of Dai Do , the North Vietnamese clashed savagely with U.S. Marine , Army , and ARVN forces before withdrawing . The North Vietnamese lost an estimated 2 @,@ 100 men after inflicting casualties on the allies of 290 killed and 946 wounded .
During the early morning hours of 4 May , communist units initiated the second phase of the offensive ( known by the South Vietnamese and Americans as " Mini @-@ Tet " ) by striking 119 targets throughout South Vietnam , including Saigon . This time , however , allied intelligence was better prepared , stripping away the element of surprise . Most of the communist forces were intercepted by allied screening elements before they reached their targets . 13 Viet Cong battalions , however , managed to slip through the cordon and once again plunged the capital into chaos . Severe fighting occurred at Phu Lam , ( where it took two days to root out the 267th Viet Cong Local Force Battalion ) , around the Y @-@ Bridge , and at Tan Son Nhut . By 12 May , however , it was all over . Viet Cong forces withdrew from the area leaving behind over 3 @,@ 000 dead .
The fighting had no sooner died down around Saigon than U.S. forces in Quảng Tín Province suffered what was , without doubt , the most serious American defeat of the war . On 10 May , two regiments of the 2nd PAVN Division attacked Kham Duc , the last Special Forces border surveillance camp in I Corps . 1 @,@ 800 U.S. and South Vietnamese troops were isolated and under intense attack when MACV made the decision to avoid a situation reminiscent of that at Khe Sanh . Kham Duc was evacuated by air while under fire , and abandoned to the North Vietnamese .
The communists returned to Saigon on 25 May and launched a second wave of attacks on the city . The fighting during this phase differed from Tet Mau Than and " Mini @-@ Tet " in that no U.S. installations were attacked . During this series of actions , Viet Cong forces occupied six Buddhist pagodas in the mistaken belief that they would be immune from artillery and air attack . The fiercest fighting once again took place in Cholon . One notable event occurred on 18 June when 152 members of the Viet Cong 's Quyet Thang Regiment surrendered to ARVN forces , the largest communist surrender of the war . The actions also brought more death and suffering to the city 's inhabitants . A further 87 @,@ 000 were made homeless while more than 500 were killed and another 4 @,@ 500 were wounded . During the second phase ( 5 May – 30 May ) U.S. casualties amounted to 1 @,@ 161 killed and 3 @,@ 954 wounded , while 143 South Vietnamese servicemen were killed and another 643 were wounded .
Phase III of the offensive began on 17 August and involved attacks in I , II , and III Corps . Significantly , during this series of actions only North Vietnamese forces participated . The main offensive was preceded by attacks on the border towns of Tây Ninh , An Lộc , and Loc Ninh , which were initiated in order to draw defensive forces from the cities . A thrust against Da Nang was preempted by the U.S. Marines on 16 August . Continuing their border @-@ clearing operations , three North Vietnamese regiments asserted heavy pressure on the U.S. Special Forces camp at Bu Prang , in Quang Duc Province , five kilometers from the Cambodian border . The fighting lasted for two days before the North Vietnamese broke it off ; the combat resulted in the deaths of 776 North Vietnamese , 114 South Vietnamese , and two Americans .
Saigon was struck again during this phase , but the attacks were less sustained and once again easily repulsed . As far as MACV was concerned , the August offensive " was a dismal failure . " In five weeks of fighting and after the loss of 20 @,@ 000 troops , not a single objective had been attained during this " final and decisive phase . " Yet , as historian Ronald Spector has pointed out " the communist failures were not final or decisive either . " During the same period 700 U.S. troops were killed in action .
The horrendous casualties and suffering endured by communist units during these sustained operations were beginning to tell . The fact that there were no apparent military gains made that could possibly justify all the blood and effort just exacerbated the situation . During the first half of 1969 , more than 20 @,@ 000 communist troops rallied to allied forces , a threefold increase over the 1968 figure . On 5 April 1969 , COSVN issued Directive 55 to all of its subordinate units : " Never again and under no circumstances are we going to risk our entire military force for just such an offensive . On the contrary , we should endeavor to preserve our military potential for future campaigns . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = North Vietnam = = =
The leadership in Hanoi was despondent at the outcome of their offensive . Their first and most ambitious goal , producing a general uprising , had ended in a dismal failure . In total , approximately 85 @,@ 000 – 100 @,@ 000 communist troops had participated in the initial onslaught and in the follow @-@ up phases . Overall , during the " Border Battles " of 1967 and the nine @-@ month winter @-@ spring campaign , 45 @,@ 267 communist troops had been killed in action .
The keys to the failure of Tet are not difficult to discern . Hanoi had underestimated the strategic mobility of the allied forces , which allowed them to redeploy at will to threatened areas ; their battle plan was too complex and difficult to coordinate , which was amply demonstrated by the 30 January attacks ; their violation of the principle of mass , attacking everywhere instead of concentrating their forces on a few specific targets , allowed their forces to be defeated piecemeal ; the launching of massed attacks headlong into the teeth of vastly superior firepower ; and last , but not least , the incorrect assumptions upon which the entire campaign was based . According to General Tran Van Tra : " We did not correctly evaluate the specific balance of forces between ourselves and the enemy , did not fully realize that the enemy still had considerable capabilities , and that our capabilities were limited , and set requirements that were beyond our actual strength .
The communist effort to regain control of the countryside was somewhat more successful . According to the U.S. State Department the Viet Cong " made pacification virtually inoperative . In the Mekong Delta the Viet Cong was stronger now than ever and in other regions the countryside belongs to the VC . " General Wheeler reported that the offensive had brought counterinsurgency programs to a halt and " that to a large extent , the V.C. now controlled the countryside . " Unfortunately for the Viet Cong , this state of affairs did not last . Heavy casualties and the backlash of the South Vietnamese and Americans resulted in more territorial losses and heavy casualties .
The horrendous losses inflicted on Viet Cong units struck into the heart of the irreplaceable infrastructure that had been built up for over a decade . MACV estimated that 181 @,@ 149 Viet Cong and North Vietnamese troops had been killed during 1968 . From this point forward , Hanoi was forced to fill one @-@ third of the Viet Cong 's ranks with North Vietnamese regulars . However , this change had little effect on the war , since North Vietnam had little difficulty making up the casualties inflicted by the offensive . Some Western historians have come to believe that one insidious ulterior motive for the campaign was the elimination of competing southern members of the Party , thereby allowing the northerners more control once the war was won .
It was not until after the conclusion of the first phase of the offensive that Hanoi realized that its sacrifices might not have been in vain . General Tran Do , North Vietnamese commander at the battle of Huế , gave some insight into how defeat was translated into victory :
" In all honesty , we didn 't achieve our main objective , which was to spur uprisings throughout the South . Still , we inflicted heavy casualties on the Americans and their puppets , and this was a big gain for us . As for making an impact in the United States , it had not been our intention — but it turned out to be a fortunate result " .
On 5 May Trường Chinh rose to address a congress of Party members and proceeded to castigate the Party militants and their bid for quick victory . His " faction @-@ bashing " tirade sparked a serious debate within the party leadership which lasted for four months . As the leader of the " main force war " and " quick victory " faction , Lê Duẩn also came under severe criticism . In August , Chinh 's report on the situation was accepted in toto , published , and broadcast via Radio Hanoi . He had single @-@ handedly shifted the nation 's war strategy and restored himself to prominence as the Party 's ideological conscience . Meanwhile , the Viet Cong proclaimed itself the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam , and took part in future peace negotiations under this title . It would be a long seven years until victory .
= = = South Vietnam = = =
South Vietnam was a nation in turmoil both during and in the aftermath of the offensive . Tragedy had compounded tragedy as the conflict reached into the nation 's cities for the first time . As government troops pulled back to defend the urban areas , the Viet Cong moved in to fill the vacuum in the countryside . The violence and destruction witnessed during the offensive left a deep psychological scar on the South Vietnamese civilian population . Confidence in the government was shaken , since the offensive seemed to reveal that even with massive American support , the government could not protect its citizens .
The human and material cost to South Vietnam was staggering . The number of civilian dead was estimated by the government at 14 @,@ 300 with an additional 24 @,@ 000 wounded . 630 @,@ 000 new refugees had been generated , joining the nearly 800 @,@ 000 others already displaced by the war . By the end of 1968 , one of every twelve South Vietnamese was living in a refugee camp . More than 70 @,@ 000 homes had been destroyed in the fighting and perhaps 30 @,@ 000 more were heavily damaged and the nation 's infrastructure had been virtually destroyed . The South Vietnamese military , although it had performed better than the Americans had expected , suffered from lowered morale , with desertion rates rising from 10 @.@ 5 per thousand before Tet to 16 @.@ 5 per thousand by July . 1968 became the deadliest year of the war to date for the ARVN with 27 @,@ 915 men killed .
Moreover , in addition to the heavy civilian casualties inflicted in the battle by U.S. forces to retake the cities from the NLF and NVA , the presence of NLF fighters in the villages exposed their rural bases to attack . Writes Marilyn B. Young :
In Long An province , for example , local guerrillas taking part in the May — June offensive had been divided into several sections . Only 775 out of 2 @,@ 018 in one section survived ; another lost all but 640 out of 1 @,@ 430 . The province itself was subjected to what one historian has called a " My Lai from the Sky " – non @-@ stop B @-@ 52 bombing .
In the wake of the offensive , however , fresh determination was exhibited by the Thiệu government . On 1 February Thiệu declared a state of martial law and , on 15 June , the National Assembly passed his request for a general mobilization of the population and the induction of 200 @,@ 000 draftees into the armed forces by the end of the year ( a decree that had failed to pass only five months previously due to strong political opposition ) . This increase would bring South Vietnam 's troop strength to more than 900 @,@ 000 men . Military mobilization , anti @-@ corruption campaigns , demonstrations of political unity , and administrative reforms were quickly carried out . Thiệu also established a National Recovery Committee to oversee food distribution , resettlement , and housing construction for the new refugees . Both the government and the Americans were encouraged by a new determination that was exhibited among the ordinary citizens of the Republic . Many urban dwellers were indignant that the communists had launched their attacks during Tet and it drove many who had been previously apathetic into active support of the government . Journalists , political figures , and religious leaders alike — even the militant Buddhists — professed confidence in the government 's plans .
Thiệu saw an opportunity to consolidate his personal power and he took it . His only real political rival was Vice President Kỳ , the former Air Force commander , who had been outmaneuvered by Thiệu in the presidential election of 1967 . In the aftermath of Tet , Kỳ supporters in the military and the administration were quickly removed from power , arrested , or exiled . A crack @-@ down on the South Vietnamese press also ensued and there was a worrisome return of former President Ngô Đình Diệm 's Cần Lao Party members to high positions in the government and military . By the summer of 1968 , the President had earned a less exalted sobriquet among the South Vietnamese population , who had begun to call him " the little dictator . "
Thiệu had also become very suspicious of his American allies , unwilling to believe ( as did many South Vietnamese ) that the U.S. had been caught by surprise by the offensive . " Now that it 's all over " , he queried a visiting Washington official , " you really knew it was coming didn 't you ? " Lyndon Johnson 's unilateral decision on 31 March to curtail the bombing of North Vietnam only confirmed what Thiệu already feared , that the Americans were going to abandon South Vietnam to the communists . For Thiệu , the bombing halt and the beginning of negotiations with the North brought not the hope of an end to the war , but " an abiding fear of peace . " He was only mollified after an 18 July meeting with Johnson in Honolulu , where the American president affirmed that Saigon would be a full partner in all negotiations and that the U.S. would not " support the imposition of a coalition government , or any other form of government , on the people of South Vietnam . "
= = = United States = = =
The Tet Offensive created a crisis within the Johnson administration , which became increasingly unable to convince the American public that it had been a major defeat for the communists . The optimistic assessments made prior to the offensive by the administration and the Pentagon came under heavy criticism and ridicule as the " credibility gap " that had opened in 1967 widened into a chasm .
The shocks that reverberated from the battlefield continued to widen : On 18 February 1968 MACV posted the highest U.S. casualty figures for a single week during the entire war : 543 killed and 2 @,@ 547 wounded . As a result of the heavy fighting , 1968 went on to become the deadliest year of the war for the US forces with 16 @,@ 592 soldiers killed . On 23 February the U.S. Selective Service System announced a new draft call for 48 @,@ 000 men , the second highest of the war . On 28 February Robert S. McNamara , the Secretary of Defense who had overseen the escalation of the war in 1964 – 1965 , but who had eventually turned against it , stepped down from office .
= = = = Troop request = = = =
During the first two weeks of February , Generals Westmoreland and Wheeler communicated as to the necessity for reinforcements or troop increases in Vietnam . Westmoreland insisted that he only needed those forces either in @-@ country or already scheduled for deployment and he was puzzled by the sense of unwarranted urgency in Wheeler 's queries . Westmoreland was tempted , however , when Wheeler emphasized that the White House might loosen restraints and allow operations in Laos , Cambodia , or possibly even North Vietnam itself . On 8 February , Westmoreland responded that he could use another division " if operations in Laos are authorized " . Wheeler responded by challenging Westmoreland 's assessment of the situation , pointing out dangers that his on @-@ the @-@ spot commander did not consider palpable , concluding : " In summary , if you need more troops , ask for them . "
Wheeler 's bizarre promptings were influenced by the severe strain imposed upon the U.S. military by the Vietnam commitment , one which had been undertaken without the mobilization of its reserve forces . The Joint Chiefs had repeatedly requested national mobilization , not only to prepare for a possible intensification of the war , but also to ensure that the nation 's strategic reserve did not become depleted . By obliquely ordering Westmoreland to demand more forces , Wheeler was attempting to solve two pressing problems . In comparison with MACV 's previous communications , which had been full of confidence , optimism , and resolve , Westmoreland 's 12 February request for 10 @,@ 500 troops was much more urgent : " which I desperately need ... time is of the essence . " On 13 February , 10 @,@ 500 previously authorized U.S. airborne troops and marines were dispatched to South Vietnam . The Joint Chiefs then played their hand , advising President Johnson to turn down MACV 's requested division @-@ sized reinforcement unless he called up some 1 @,@ 234 @,@ 001 marine and army reservists .
Johnson dispatched Wheeler to Saigon on 20 February to determine military requirements in response to the offensive . Both Wheeler and Westmoreland were elated that in only eight days McNamara would be replaced by the hawkish Clark Clifford and that the military might finally obtain permission to widen the war . Wheeler 's written report of the trip , however , contained no mention of any new contingencies , strategies , or the building up the strategic reserve . It was couched in grave language that suggested that the 206 @,@ 756 @-@ man request it proposed was a matter of vital military necessity . Westmoreland wrote in his memoir that Wheeler had deliberately concealed the truth of the matter in order to force the issue of the strategic reserve upon the President .
On 27 February , Johnson and McNamara discussed the proposed troop increase . To fulfill it would require an increase in overall military strength of about 400 @,@ 000 men and the expenditure of an additional $ 10 billion during fiscal 1969 and another $ 15 billion in 1970 . These monetary concerns were pressing . Throughout the fall of 1967 and the spring of 1968 , the U.S. was struggling with " one of the most severe monetary crises " of the period . Without a new tax bill and budgetary cuts , the nation would face even higher inflation " and the possible collapse of the monetary system " . Johnson 's friend Clifford was concerned about what the American public would think of the escalation : " How do we avoid creating the feeling that we are pounding troops down a rathole ? "
According to the Pentagon Papers , " A fork in the road had been reached and the alternatives stood out in stark reality . " To meet Wheeler 's request would mean a total U.S. military commitment to South Vietnam . " To deny it , or to attempt to cut it to a size which could be sustained by the thinly stretched active forces , would just as surely signify that an upper limit to the U.S. military commitment in South Vietnam had been reached . "
= = = = Reassessment = = = =
To evaluate Westmoreland 's request and its possible impact on domestic politics , Johnson convened the " Clifford Group " on 28 February and tasked its members with a complete policy reassessment . Some of the members argued that the offensive represented an opportunity to defeat the North Vietnamese on American terms while others pointed out that neither side could win militarily , that North Vietnam could match any troop increase , that the bombing of the North be halted , and that a change in strategy was required that would seek not victory , but the staying power required to reach a negotiated settlement . This would require a less aggressive strategy that was designed to protect the population of South Vietnam . The divided group 's final report , issued on 4 March , " failed to seize the opportunity to change directions ... and seemed to recommend that we continue rather haltingly down the same road . "
On 1 March , Clifford had succeeded McNamara as Secretary of Defense . During the month , Clifford , who had entered office as a staunch supporter of the Vietnam commitment and who had opposed McNamara 's de @-@ escalatory views , turned against the war . According to Clifford : " The simple truth was that the military failed to sustain a respectable argument for their position . " Between the results of Tet and the meetings of the group that bore his name , he became convinced that deescalation was the only solution for the United States . He believed that the troop increase would lead only to a more violent stalemate and sought out others in the administration to assist him in convincing the President to reverse the escalation , to cap force levels at 550 @,@ 000 men , to seek negotiations with Hanoi , and turn responsibility for the fighting over to the South Vietnamese . Clifford quietly sought allies and was assisted in his effort by the so @-@ called " 8 : 30 Group " – Nitze , Warnke , Phil G. Goulding ( Assistant Secretary of Defense for Public Affairs ) , George Elsey , and Air Force Colonel Robert E. Pursely .
On 27 February , Secretary of State Dean Rusk had proposed that a partial bombing halt be implemented in North Vietnam and that an offer to negotiate be extended to Hanoi . On 4 March , Rusk reiterated the proposal , explaining that , during the rainy season in the North , bombing was less effective and that no military sacrifice would thus occur . This was purely a political ploy , however , since the North Vietnamese would probably again refuse to negotiate , casting the onus on them and " thus freeing our hand after a short period ... putting the monkey firmly upon Hanoi 's back for what was to follow . "
While this was being deliberated , the troop request was leaked to the press and published in The New York Times on 10 March . The article also revealed that the request had begun a serious debate within the administration . According to it , many high @-@ level officials believed that the U.S. troop increase would be matched by the communists and would simply maintain a stalemate at a higher level of violence . It went on to state that officials were saying in private that " widespread and deep changes in attitudes , a sense that a watershed has been reached . "
A great deal has been said by historians concerning how the news media made Tet the " turning point " in the public 's perception of the war . Popular CBS anchor Walter Cronkite stated during a news broadcast on February 27 , " We have been too often disappointed by the optimism of the American leaders , both in Vietnam and Washington , to have faith any longer in the silver linings they find in the darkest clouds " and added that , " we are mired in a stalemate that could only be ended by negotiation , not victory . " Far from suffering a loss of morale , however , the majority of Americans had rallied to the side of the president . A Gallup poll in January 1968 revealed that 56 percent polled considered themselves hawks on the war and 27 percent doves , with 17 percent offering no opinion . By early February , at the height of the first phase of the offensive , 61 percent declared themselves hawks , 23 percent doves , and 16 percent held no opinion . Johnson , however , made few comments to the press during or immediately after the offensive , leaving an impression of indecision on the public . It was this lack of communication that caused a rising disapproval rating for his conduct of the war . By the end of February , his approval rating had fallen from 63 percent to 47 percent . By the end of March the percentage of Americans that expressed confidence in U.S. military policies in Southeast Asia had fallen from 74 to 54 percent .
By 22 March , President Johnson had informed Wheeler to " forget the 100 @,@ 000 " men . The President and his staff were refining a lesser version of the troop increase – a planned call @-@ up of 62 @,@ 000 reservists , 13 @,@ 000 of whom would be sent to Vietnam . Three days later , at Clifford 's suggestion , Johnson called a conclave of the " Wise Men " . With few exceptions , all of the members of the group had formerly been accounted as hawks on the war . The group was joined by Rusk , Wheeler , Bundy , Rostow , and Clifford . The final assessment of the majority stupefied the group . According to Clifford , " few of them were thinking solely of Vietnam anymore " . All but four members called for disengagement from the war , leaving the President " deeply shaken . " According to the Pentagon Papers , the advice of the group was decisive in convincing Johnson to reduce the bombing of North Vietnam .
Lyndon Johnson was depressed and despondent at the course of recent events . The New York Times article had been released just two days before the Democratic Party ( United States ) ' s New Hampshire primary , where the President suffered an unexpected setback in the election , finishing barely ahead of Senator Eugene McCarthy . Soon afterward , Senator Robert F. Kennedy announced he would join the contest for the Democratic nomination , further emphasizing the plummeting support for Johnson 's administration in the wake of Tet .
The President was to make a televised address to the nation on Vietnam policy on 31 March and was deliberating on both the troop request and his response to the military situation . By 28 March Clifford was working hard to convince him to tone down his hard @-@ line speech , maintaining force levels at their present size , and instituting Rusk 's bombing / negotiating proposal . To Clifford 's surprise , both Rusk and Rostow ( both of whom had previously been opposed to any form of deescalation ) offered no opposition to Clifford 's suggestions . On 31 March , President Johnson announced the unilateral ( although still partial ) bombing halt during his television address . He then stunned the nation by declining to run for a second term in office . To Washington 's surprise , on 3 April Hanoi announced that it would conduct negotiations , which were scheduled to begin on 13 May in Paris .
On 9 June , President Johnson replaced Westmoreland as commander of MACV with General Creighton W. Abrams . Although the decision had been made in December 1967 and Westmoreland was made Army Chief of Staff , many saw his relief as punishment for the entire Tet debacle . Abrams ' new strategy was quickly demonstrated by the closure of the " strategic " Khe Sanh base and the ending of multi @-@ division " search and destroy " operations . Also gone were discussions of victory over North Vietnam . Abrams ' new " One War " policy centered the American effort on the takeover of the fighting by the South Vietnamese ( through Vietnamization ) , the pacification of the countryside , and the destruction of communist logistics . The new administration of President Richard M. Nixon would oversee the withdrawal of U.S. forces and the continuation of negotiations .
= = = Memoirs and biographies = = =
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= Afterburn ( roller coaster ) =
Afterburn is a steel inverted roller coaster located at Carowinds amusement park . After more than two years of planning and construction , the roller coaster opened on March 20 , 1999 . The ride previously operated as Top Gun : The Jet Coaster , before it was renamed Afterburn following Cedar Fair 's purchase of the park in 2006 .
Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard , Afterburn stands 113 feet ( 34 m ) tall and reaches speeds of 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . It features a 2 @,@ 956 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 901 m ) track and a nearly three @-@ minute @-@ long ride time . Afterburn has generally been well received , having been featured several times as a top 50 roller coaster in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards .
= = History = =
In early 1997 , Paramount 's Carowinds began consultations with roller coaster manufacturer Bolliger & Mabillard about adding a new ride to their park . During 18 months of discussions , several designs and themes for the ride were developed , including theming it to the Godzilla franchise . In July 1998 , the park announced the addition of Top Gun : The Jet Coaster for the 1999 season . At a cost of $ 10 @.@ 5 million , it would be the single biggest investment in the park 's history . The announcement followed Paramount Parks adding Top Gun @-@ themed inverted and suspended roller coasters to several of their parks throughout the 1990s , including Paramount 's Great America , Paramount Canada 's Wonderland , and Paramount 's Kings Island . To construct the attraction at Carowinds , the park 's Bayern Kurve ride , Wild Bull , had to be removed . The park intended to keep the ride in storage for a potential relocation elsewhere within the park . The removal of Wild Bull shortened construction time because no trees or buildings had to be removed . Construction began in late July 1998 , with the first track arriving in August . Testing was completed in January 1999 .
Top Gun : The Jet Coaster soft opened to guests and media on March 16 , 1999 . Riders of the first cycle included NASCAR drivers Stanton Barrett , Tony Stewart , Jerry Nadeau , and Kenny Wallace . The ride officially opened to the public on March 20 , 1999 . On July 1 , 2006 , the Cedar Fair Entertainment Company announced their acquisition of all of the Paramount Parks , including Carowinds . The aforementioned Top Gun roller coasters at other parks were all renamed to Flight Deck by the 2008 season , with Carowinds ' installation being renamed to Afterburn . For the 2014 season , the ride 's 15th season , Afterburn will receive a new coat of paint .
= = Characteristics = =
The 2 @,@ 956 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 901 m ) Afterburn stands 113 feet ( 34 m ) tall . The ride features a total of six inversions including a vertical loop , an Immelmann loop , a zero @-@ g roll , a batwing , and a corkscrew . Riders over 54 inches ( 140 cm ) achieve a top speed of 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) on the two @-@ minute forty @-@ seven second ride . Afterburn operates with two trains featuring eight cars . Each car seats riders four across , for a total of 32 riders per train . The theoretical hourly capacity of the ride is 1 @,@ 380 riders .
To match the original Top Gun theme , the ride 's area was designed to feel like a military base . The main queue was housed in a hangar with a two @-@ third scale F14 Tomcat fighter . Guests enter the ride area by passing through the batwing element .
= = Ride experience = =
As the train leaves the station , a recorded message , " Clear for Takeoff , " is played . Afterburn then climbs its chain lift hill , reaching a peak height of 113 feet ( 34 m ) . After a small pre @-@ drop , the roller coaster train then drops to the right before entering its first inversion , a vertical loop . Riders then travel through an underground trench and enter an Immelmann loop which sends the train in the opposite direction . The train then drops towards the ground , climbs back up , and spins through a zero @-@ g roll , an inverting element where riders experience the feeling of weightlessness . Afterwards , the train dives back towards the ground and enters the two @-@ inversion batwing element which crosses through a tunnel underneath the park 's rear entrance .
As Afterburn exits the batwing , it climbs through a camelback hill over the station before entering its final inversion , a corkscrew to the right . The train then begins a 270 @-@ degree climbing helix to the left , after which it reaches the ride 's brake run and returns to the station .
= = Reception = =
Afterburn has been well received . Arthur Levine of About.com stated the ride " is among the best inverted coasters " he 's ridden , giving the ride a 4 out of 5 rating . Levine praises the ride for the lack of headbanging that results from over @-@ the @-@ shoulder @-@ restraints ( OTSR ) on many roller coasters . The Coaster Critic describes the " pacing and order of inversions [ as ] near perfect " , giving the ride an " excellent " rating of 9 out of 10 .
Afterburn has appeared in Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards several times . It debuted at position 18 in 1999 , before disappearing from the poll for the three years to follow . The ride returned to the poll , before hitting a low of 45 in 2012 .
In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Afterburn entered at position 12 in 1999 , before slowly declining to a low of 41 in 2012 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below .
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= 1966 Syrian coup d 'état =
The 1966 Syrian coup d 'état refers to events between 21 and 23 February in which the government of the Syrian Arab Republic was overthrown and replaced . The ruling National Command of the Arab Socialist Ba 'ath Party were removed from power by a union of the party 's Military Committee and the Regional Command , under the leadership of Salah Jadid .
The coup was precipitated by a heightening in the power struggle between the party 's old guard , represented by Michel Aflaq , Salah al @-@ Din al @-@ Bitar , and Munif al @-@ Razzaz , and the younger factions adhering to a Neo @-@ Ba 'athist position . On 21 February , supporters of the old guard in the army ordered the transfer of their rivals . Two days later , the Military Committee , backing the younger factions , launched a coup that involved violent fighting in Aleppo , Damascus , Deir ez @-@ Zor , and Latakia . As a result of the coup , the party 's historical founders fled the country and spent the rest of their lives in exile .
Jadid 's government was the most radical administration in Syria 's history . The coup created a permanent schism between the Syrian and Iraqi regional branches of the Ba 'ath Party and their respective National Commands , with many senior Syrian Ba 'athists defecting to Iraq . As a legacy of the coup , during Jadid 's rule , Syria initiated a propaganda campaign against the Iraqi Ba 'athists . Jadid 's government would be overthrown in the Corrective Movement of 1970 , which brought Hafez al @-@ Assad to power .
= = Background = =
= = = Consolidation of power = = =
After taking power in the 1963 Syrian coup d 'état , officially the 8th of March Revolution , a power struggle broke erupted between the Nasserites in the National Council for the Revolutionary Command and the Ba 'ath Party . The Nasserites sought to reestablish the United Arab Republic , the former federation encompassing Egypt and Syria from 1958 to 1961 , on Gamal Abdel Nasser 's terms , the Ba 'athists were skeptical of a new union with Nasser , and wanted a loose federation where the Ba 'ath Party could rule Syria alone without interference . The Nasserites mobilised large street demonstrations in favour of a union . It took time before the Ba 'ath Party knew how to respond to the issue , since the majority of Syrian Arab Nationalists were not adherents to Ba 'athism , but of Nasserism and Nasser in general .
Instead of trying to win the support of the populace , the Ba 'athists moved to consolidate their control over the Syrian military . Several hundred Nasserites and conservatives were purged from the military , and Ba 'athists were recruited to fill senior positions . Most of the newly recruited Ba 'athist officers came from the countryside or from a low social class . These Ba 'athist officers replaced the chiefly " urban Sunni upper @-@ middle and middle class " officer corps , and replaced it with an officer corps with a rural background who more often the " kinsmen of the leading minority officer " . These changes led to the decimation of Sunni control over the military establishment .
The cost of clamping down on the protests was a loss of legitimacy , and the emergence of Amin al @-@ Hafiz as the first Ba 'athist military strongman . The traditional elite , consisting of the upper classes , who had been overthrown from political power by the Ba 'athists , felt threatened by the Ba 'ath Party 's socialist policies . The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria was a historical rival of the Syrian Regional Branch , and it felt threatened by the party 's secular nature . Akram al @-@ Hawrani and his supporters and the Syrian Communist Party opposed the one @-@ party system which the Ba 'ath Party was establishing .
The majority of Sunni Muslims were Arab nationalists , but not Ba 'athist , making them feel alienated . The party was chiefly dominated by minority groups such as Alawites , Druzes , and Isma 'ilis , and people from the countryside in general ; this created an urban – rural conflict based predominantly on ethnic differences . With its coming to power , the Ba 'ath Party was threatened by the predominantly anti @-@ Ba 'athist sentiment in urban politics — probably the only reason why the Ba 'athists managed to stay in power was the rather weakly organised and fragmented opposition it faced .
= = = Conflict with the Aflaqites = = =
Cohesive internal unity had all but collapsed within after the 1963 seizure of power ; Michel Aflaq , Salah al @-@ Din al @-@ Bitar , and their followers wanted to implement " classic " Ba 'athism in the sense that they wanted to establish a loose union with Nasser 's Egypt , implement a moderate form of socialism , and to have a one @-@ party state which respected the rights of the individual , tolerating freedom of speech and freedom of thought . However , the Aflaqites ( or Aflaqists ) were quickly forced into the background , and at the 6th National Ba 'ath Party Congress , the Military Committee and their supporters succeeding in creating a new form of Ba 'athism – a Ba 'athism strongly influenced by Marxism – Leninism . This new form of Ba 'athism laid emphasis on " revolution in one country " rather than to unifying the Arab world . At the same time , the 6th National Congress implemented a resolution which stressed the implementation of a socialist revolution in Syria . Under this form of socialism , the economy as a whole would adhere to state planning and the commanding heights of the economy and foreign trade were to be nationalised . They believed these policies would end exploitation of labour , that capitalism would disappear , and in agriculture they envisioned a plan were land was given " to he who works it " . However , private enterprise would still exist in retail trade , construction , tourism , and small industry in general . These changes and more would refashion the Ba 'ath Party into a Leninist party .
In the aftermath of the 1964 riot in Hama and other cities , the radicals were on the retreat and the Aflaqites regained control for a brief period . Bitar formed a new government which halted the nationalisation process , reaffirm respect for civil liberties and private property . However , these policy changes did not win sufficient support , and the population at large still opposed Ba 'ath Party rule . The upper classes continued to disinvest capital and smuggle capital out of the country , and the only foreseeable solution to this loss of capital was continuing with nationalisation . The party 's left @-@ wing argued that the bourgeoisie would never be won over unless they were given total control over the economy as they had before . It was this power struggle between the moderate Aflaqites who dominated the National Command of the Ba 'ath Party and the radicals who dominated the Syrian Regional Command of the Ba 'ath Party which led to the 1966 coup d 'état .
= = Power struggle = =
Before the crushing of the riots of 1964 , a power struggle started within the Military Committee between Minister of Defence Muhammad Umran , and Salah Jadid . Umran , the committee 's most senior member , wanted reconciliation with the rioters and an end to confrontation with the middle class , in contrast , Jadid believed the solution was to coerce and repress the protesters so as to save the 8th of March Revolution . This was the first open schism within the Military Committee , and would prove decisive in coming events . With Hafez al @-@ Assad 's support , the Military Committee initiated a violent counter @-@ attack on the rioters This decision led to Umran 's downfall . He responded by revealing the Military Committee 's plan of taking over the Ba 'ath Party to the party 's National Command . Aflaq , the Secretary General of the National Command , responded to the information by ordering the dissolution of the Syrian Regional Command . He was forced to withdraw his request because the party 's rank @-@ and @-@ file rose in protest . When an old guard Ba 'athist tauntingly asked Aflaq " how big a role his party still played in government " , Aflaq replied " About one @-@ thousandth of one percent " . Umran 's revelations to the National Command led to his exile , and with the National Command impotent , the Military Committee , through its control of the Syrian Regional Command , initiated an attack on the bourgeoisie and initiated a nationalisation drive which extended state ownership to electricity generation , oil distribution , cotton ginning , and to an estimated 70 percent of foreign trade .
After Umran 's downfall , the National Command and the Military Committee continued their respective struggle for control of the Ba 'ath Party . While the National Command invoked party rules and regulations against the Military Committee , it was clear from the beginning that the initiative lay with the Military Committee . The reason for the Military Committee 's success was its alliance with the Regionalists , a group of branches which had not adhered to Aflaq 's 1958 orders to dissolve the Syrian Regional Branch . The Regionalists disliked Aflaq and opposed his leadership . Assad called the Regionalists the " true cells of the party " .
The power contest between the allied Military Committee and the Regionalists against the National Command was fought out within the party structure . However , the Military Committee and the Regionalists managed to turn the party structure on its head . At the 2nd Regional Congress ( held in March 1965 ) , it was decided to endorse the principle that the Regional Secretary of the Regional Command would be the ex officio head of state , and the Regional Command acquired the power to appoint the prime minister , the cabinet , the chief of staff , and the top military commanders . This change curtailed the powers of the National Command , who thenceforth had very little say in Syrian internal affairs . In response , at the 8th National Congress ( April 1965 ) Aflaq had originally planned to launch an attack on the Military Committee and the Regionalists , but was persuaded not to by fellow National Command members – most notably by a Lebanese member , Jibran Majdalani , and a Saudi member , Ali Ghannam – because it could lead to the removal of the party 's civilian leadership , as had occurred in the Iraqi Regional Branch . Because of this decision , Aflaq was voted from office as Secretary General , to be succeeded by fellow National Command member Munif al @-@ Razzaz . Razzaz was a Syrian @-@ born Jordanian who was not rooted enough in party politics to solve the crisis , even if under his command several joint meetings of the National and Regional Commands took place . Not longer after Aflaq 's loss of office , Hafiz , the Secretary of the Regional Command , changed his allegiance to support the National Command . While Hafiz was the de jure leader of Syria ( he held the offices of Regional Command secretary , Chairman of the Presidential Council , prime minister and commander @-@ in @-@ chief ) , it was Jadid , the Assistant Secretary General of the Regional Command , who was the de facto leader of Syria .
= = The coup = =
In November 1965 , the National Command issued a resolution which stated it was forbidden for the Regional Command to transfer or dismiss military officers without the consent of the National Command . After hearing of the resolution , Jadid rebelled immediately , and ordered Colonel Mustafa Tlas to arrest the commanders of the Homs garrison and his deputy , both supporters of National Command . In response , Razzaz called for an emergency session of the National Command which decreed the Regional Command dissolved , and made Bitar Prime Minister . Hafiz was made Chairman of a new Presidential Council and Shibli al @-@ Aysami his deputy . Umran was recalled from exile and reappointed to the office of Minister of Defence and commander @-@ in @-@ chief , and Mansur al @-@ Atrash was appointed Chairman of a new and expanded National Revolutionary Council . Jadid and his supporters responded by making war on the National Command . Assad , who neither liked nor had sympathy for the Aflaqites , did not support a showdown through the use of force . In response to the coming coup , Assad , along with Naji Jamil , Husayn Mulhim and Yusuf Sayigh , left for London .
The coup began on 21 February 1966 when Umran tested his authority as Minister of Defence by ordering the transfer of three key Jadid supporters ; Major @-@ General Ahmad Suwaydani , Colonel Izzad Jadid and Major Salim Hatum . The Military Committee would respond the next day , but before that it staged a ruse which threw the National Command off balance . The ruse was that Abd al @-@ Ghani Ibrahim , the Alawi commander of the front facing Israel , reported to headquarters that a quarrel had broken out among front @-@ line officers , and that guns had been used . Umran , al @-@ Hafiz and the Chief of Staff left for the Golan Heights in a hurry for a lengthy discussion with the officer corps there ; when they returned at 3 am on 23 February they were exhausted . Two hours later , at 5 am , Jadid launched his coup . Not long after , the attack on al @-@ Hafiz 's private residence began , led by Salim Hatum and Rifaat al @-@ Assad , and supported by a squadron of tank units led by Izzad Jadid . Despite a spirited defence , Hafiz 's forces surrendered after all their ammunition was spent – Hafiz 's daughter lost an eye in the attacks . The commander of al @-@ Hafiz 's bodyguard , Mahmud Musa , was nearly killed by Izzad Jadid , but was saved and smuggled out of Syria by Hatum . There was resistance outside Damascus . In Hama , Tlass was forced to send forces from Homs to quell the uprising , while in Aleppo Aflaq loyalists briefly controlled the radio station and some resistance was reported in Latakia and Deir ez @-@ Zor . After their military defeats , resistance all but collapsed – Razzaz was the only National Command member to put up any organised resistance after the military defeats , issuing statements against the government from his different hiding places .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = The new government = = =
Immediately after the coup , officers loyal to Umran and the Aflaqites were purged from the armed forces , being imprisoned alongside Umran at Mezze prison . One of the first acts of Jadid 's government was to appoint Assad Minister of Defence . Assad however , did not support the coup , and told Mansur al @-@ Atrash , Jubran Majdalani , and other Aflaqites that he did not support Jadid 's actions . Later , in an interview with Le Monde , Assad claimed that the military 's intervention was regrettable because the Ba 'ath Party was democratic , and that the disputes should have been resolved in a democratic manner . However , Assad did view the actions as necessary , as it put an end , in his view , to the dictatorship of the National Command .
Jadid 's government has been referred to as Syria 's most radical government in history . He initiated rash and radical policies internally and externally , and tried to overturn Syrian society from the top to the bottom . While Assad and Jadid agreed ideologically , they did not agree on how to implement these beliefs in practice . The Military Committee , which had been the officers ' key decision @-@ making process during 1963 – 66 , lost its central institutional authority under Jadid because the fight against the Aflaqites was over – the key reason for the committee 's existence in the first place . While Jadid never acquired , or took the offices of Prime Minister or President , instead opting to rule through the office of Assistant Secretary of the Regional Command , he was the undisputed ruler of Syria from 1966 to 1970 . Before the 1966 coup , Jadid had controlled the Syrian armed forces through his post as Head of the Bureau of Officers ' Affairs , but from 1966 onwards Jadid became absorbed with running the country , and in his place , Assad was given the task of controlling the armed forces . This would later prove to be a mistake , and lead to Jadid 's downfall in the 1970 Corrective Revolution .
Jadid appointed Nureddin al @-@ Atassi as President , Regional Secretary of the Regional Command and Secretary General of the National Command , Yusuf Zu 'ayyin became Prime Minister again , and Ibrahim Makhus was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs . Other personalities were former Head of Military Intelligence Ahmad al @-@ Suwaydani , who was appointed Chief of Staff , Colonel Muhammad Rabah al @-@ Tawil was appointed Minister of Labour and Head of the newly established Popular Resistance Forces , and Colonel Abd al @-@ Karim al @-@ Jundi , a founding member of the Military Committee , was appointed Minister of Agrarian Reform and later , Minister of Interior .
= = = Neo @-@ Ba 'athism = = =
Some believe , Avraham Ben @-@ Tzur being the most prominent writer on the subject , that the Ba 'athist ideology preached in Syria after the coup should be referred to as neo @-@ Ba 'athism since it has nothing to do with the ideology 's classic form espoused by Aflaq , Bitar and the Aflaqites in general . Munif al @-@ Razzaz agreed with the theory , stating that from 1961 onwards , there existed two Ba 'ath parties – " the military Ba 'ath Party and the Ba 'ath Party , and real power lay with the former . " He further noted that the military Ba 'ath ( as " paraphrased by Martin Seymour " ) " was and remains Ba 'athist only in name ; that it was and remains little more than a military clique with civilian hangers @-@ on ; and that from the initial founding of the Military Committee by disgruntled Syrian officers exiled in Cairo in 1959 , the chain of events and the total corruption of Ba 'athism proceeded with intolerable logic . " Bitar agreed , stating that the 1966 coup " marked the end of Ba 'athist politics in Syria . " Aflaq shared the sentiment , and stated ; " I no longer recognise my party ! " .
= = = The split = = =
The ousting of Aflaq , Bitar , and the National Command is the deepest schism in the Ba 'ath movement 's history . While there had been many schisms and splits in the Ba 'ath Party , Aflaq and Bitar always emerged as the victors , and remained party leaders , but the 1966 coup brought a new generation of leaders to power who had different aims to their predecessors . While Aflaq and Bitar still had supporters in Syria and in non @-@ Syrian Regional Branches , they were hampered by the lack of financial means – the Syrian Regional Branch had funded them since 1963 . Jadid and his supporters now had the Syrian state at their disposal , and were theoretically able to establish new party organisations or coerce pro @-@ Aflaq opinion , this failed to work since most of the regional branches changed their allegiance to Baghdad . Later in 1966 , the first post @-@ Aflaqite National Congress , officially designated the 9th , was held , and a new National Command was elected . Another change was to the ideological orientation of the Syrian Regional Branch and the new National Command ; while the Aflaqites believed in an all @-@ Arab Ba 'ath Party and the unification of the Arab world , the Syria 's new leaders saw this as impractical . Following the coup , the National Command became subservient in all but name to the Syrian Regional Command , and ceased to have an effective role in Arab or Syrian politics .
Following the exile of the National Command , some of its members , including Hafiz , convened the 9th Ba 'ath National Congress ( to differentiate it from the Syrian " 9th National Congress " ) and elected a new National Command , with Aflaq , who did not attend the congress , as the National Command 's Secretary General . For those like Bitar and Razzaz , the exile from Syria was too hard , and they left the party . Aflaq moved to Brazil , remaining there till 1968 .
= = = = Party @-@ to @-@ party relations = = = =
When the National Command was toppled in 1966 , the Iraqi Regional Branch remained , at least verbally , supportive of the " legitimate leadership " of Aflaq . When the Iraqi Regional Branch regained power in 1968 in the 17 July Revolution no attempts were made at a merger , to achieve their supposed goal of Arab unity , or reconciliation with the Syrian Ba 'ath . After the establishment of Ba 'ath rule in Iraq , many members of the Syrian @-@ dominated Ba 'ath movement defected to its Iraqi @-@ counterpart , few if any Iraqi @-@ loyal Ba 'athists attempted to change its allegiance to Damascus . The reason for this was that those defecting from Damascus were loyal to the old , Aflaqite National Command . Several older members such as Bitar , Hafiz , Shibli al @-@ Aysami and Elias Farah , either visited Iraq or sent a congratulatory message to Ahmed Hassan al @-@ Bakr , the Regional Secretary of the Iraqi Regional Command . Aflaq did not visit Iraq until 1969 , but from late @-@ 1970 , he would become a leading Iraqi Ba 'ath official , although he never acquired any decision @-@ making power .
From the beginning the Damascus government began an overwhelmingly anti @-@ Iraqi Ba 'athist propaganda campaign , to which their counterparts in Baghdad responded . However , the Iraqi Ba 'athists helped Assad , who at the 4th Regional Congress of the Syrian Regional Branch called for the reunification of the Ba 'ath Party , in his attempt to seize power from Jadid . It was reported that Assad promised the Iraqis to recognize Aflaq 's historical leadership . Iraq 's foreign minister Abd al @-@ Karim al @-@ Shaykli even had his own personal office in the Syrian Ministry of Defence , which Assad headed . However , this should not be misconstrued , the Iraqi Regional Branch was Arab nationalist in name only , and was in fact Iraqi nationalist .
The Syrian Regional Branch began denouncing Aflaq as a " thief " . They claimed that he had stolen the Ba 'athist ideology from Zaki al @-@ Arsuzi and proclaimed it as his own , with Assad hailing Arsuzi as the principal founder of Ba 'athist thought . The Iraqi Regional Branch , however , still proclaimed Aflaq as the founder of Ba 'athism . Assad has referred to Arsuzi as the " greatest Syrian of his day " and claimed him to be the " first to conceive of the Ba 'ath as a political movement . " Aflaq was condemned to death in absentia in 1971 by Assad 's government . The Syrian Regional Branch erected a statue in Arsuzi 's honour not long after the 1966 coup . Nevertheless , the majority of Ba 'ath followers outside Syria still view Aflaq , not Arsuzi , as the principal founder of Ba 'athism .
When the Iraqi Regional Branch seized power , the Syrian Regional Branch responded by not mentioning in the press release that a Ba 'ath organisation had taken power in Iraq . For instance , it mentioned that Bakr had been appointed president , but did not mention his party 's affiliation , and instead referred to the incident as a military coup . While the Syrian Ba 'ath denied giving any legitimacy to Iraqi Ba 'ath , the Iraqi Ba 'ath were more conciliatory . For instance , Bakr stated " They are Ba 'athists , we are Ba 'athists " shortly after the Iraqi Regional Branch seized power . Foreign Minister Shaykli stated shortly after that " there is nothing preventing co @-@ operation between us [ meaning Iraq and Syria ] " . The anti @-@ Iraq propaganda reached new heights within Syria at the same time that Assad was strengthening his position within the party and state . When Jadid was toppled by Assad during the Corrective Movement in 1970 , it did not signal a change in attitudes , and the first joint communique of the Syrian @-@ dominated National Command and the Syrian Regional Command referred to the Iraqi Ba 'ath as a " rightist clique " .
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= Trustee Act 2000 =
The Trustee Act 2000 ( c 29 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that regulates the duties of trustees in English trust law . Reform in these areas had been advised as early as 1982 , and finally came about through the Trustee Bill 2000 , based on the Law Commission 's 1999 report " Trustees ' Powers and Duties " , which was introduced to the House of Lords in January 2000 . The bill received the Royal Assent on 23 November 2000 and came into force on 1 February 2001 through the Trustee Act 2000 ( Commencement ) Order 2001 , a Statutory Instrument , with the Act having effect over England and Wales .
The Act covers five areas of trust law : the duty of care imposed upon trustees , trustees ' power of investment , the power to appoint nominees and agents , the power to acquire land , and the power to receive remuneration for work done as a trustee . It sets a new duty of care , both objective and standard , massively extends the trustees ' power of investment and limits the trustees ' liability for the actions of agents , also providing for their remuneration for work done in the course of the trust .
= = Background = =
Lawyers and academics had been pushing for reform of this area of law since at least 1982 , when the Law Commission published a report advising reform of the rules over trustees delegating their powers to other people . Other trusts reform came about through the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996 , but this did not cover most of trusts law . Although there were some other small changes ( such as a 1996 Statutory Instrument that extended the rights of trustees under the Trustee Investments Act 1961 ) little else was done . Further papers were published on similar areas in 1997 and 1999 , and finally the Trustee Bill 2000 was introduced to the House of Lords in January 2000 , implementing the proposals laid out in the Law Commission 's 1999 report " Trustees ' Powers and Duties " . The Act was given the Royal Assent on 23 November 2000 , and most of it came into effect on 1 February 2001 through the Trustee Act 2000 ( Commencement ) Order 2001 .
= = Act = =
The Act is divided into six parts , forty @-@ three sections and four schedules , and focuses upon five specific areas of law . These are the duty of care imposed upon trustees , trustees ' power of investment , the power to appoint nominees and agents , the power to acquire land , and the power to receive remuneration for work done as a trustee .
= = = Duty of care = = =
Part I of the Act sets out a general duty of care , which trustees have towards beneficiaries . Section 1 defines this duty , which is that a trustee ,
This test has both an objective and subjective element . There is an objective baseline of care that every trustee , depending on the size and responsibility of their office , to exercise " such care and skill as is reasonable in the circumstances " . This codifies the common law and reflects company and insolvency law . It indicates that a professional trustee would be held to a higher standard than a family trustee . The subjective element requires a court to exercise greater scrutiny if a trustee had any special skills , which takes the trustee 's ability above the objective baseline . So if a trustee had a special accountancy qualification that trustee would be expected to exercise a greater than normal degree of care over the trust 's accounts .
According to Schedule 1 , the duty of care may be excluded by the trust instrument , but if it is not , it must be exercised when ,
investing trust capital ;
acquiring or managing land ;
appointing or reviewing agents ;
insuring trust properties ;
exercising powers to compound liabilities ;
dealing with audits and valuations of trust property .
Commentators have agreed that this is largely a reiteration of the previous common law rule on the duty of care . In Speight v Gaunt , Lord Blackburn said that " as a general rule a trustee sufficiently discharges his duty if he takes in managing trust affairs all those precautions which an ordinary prudent man of business would take in managing similar affairs of his own " , similar to an objective test . It has been pointed out that the new duty of care creates problems , because it sets a fixed , objective point . It is not known where this point is , however - a professional trustee obviously cannot be held to the standards of a lay trustee , but it has been seen as equally unfair that a lay trustee would be held to the standards of a professional one . This duty , unlike the previous common law duty , at no point requires the trustee to act . The duty of care has been seen to be advantageous to charities compared to the old one , because it allows those charities forced to employ lay trustees to use professional agents to exercise some duties .
= = = Investment powers = = =
Investment powers and limits on those powers are set out in Part II of the Act . Section 3 ( 1 ) states that " subject to the provisions of this part , a trustee may make any kind of investment that he could make if he was absolutely entitled to the assets of the trust " . This is far looser than the previous provisions , which were contained in the Trustee Investments Act 1961 . The 1961 Act was repeatedly criticised for its " very conservative investment policy for trustees " . The powers of investment trustees were given were restrictive and narrow , and at the same time the trustees were expected to go through expensive and complicated procedures to exercise them . This new power of investment is treated as a default provision - it is overridden if the trust instrument itself restricts the ways trust money can be invested . If the trust instrument was created prior to 3 August 1961 , however , its provisions regarding investments are treated as void . The new provisions apply retrospectively , i.e. to trusts created before the passage of the Act . They do not , however , apply to trusts governed by the Charities Act 1993 , Authorised Unit Trusts or occupational pension schemes .
Section 4 of the Act requires trustees to look at the " standard investment criteria " when investing . These criteria are defined in Section 4 ( 3 ) as the need to check the suitability of investments for the trust , and the importance of diversification . Section 4 ( 2 ) requires that , having exercised their power of investment , trustees must regularly refer back to the standard investment criteria to check that they are being fulfilled . This does little more than restate what is given in the Trustee Investments Act 1961 , however , and this provision has been criticised for not defining " suitable " . In Cowan v Scargill [ 1985 ] Ch 270 Megarry VC suggested that trustees have an overriding duty to invest solely in the financial interests of beneficiaries , unless the trust instrument laid down otherwise . So even though the National Union of Mineworkers ' leader , Arthur Scargill , wanted the mineworkers ' pensions to be reinvested in the British Coal industry and keep jobs , the court held that because this would make less money than other investments it would be a breach of trust . Subsequent case law has qualified this controversial principle , such as Harries v The Church Commissioners for England [ 1992 ] 1 WLR 1241 , and it is a point of ongoing debate . It is assumed by academics that , if a trust suffered a loss as a result of a trustee investing in unsuitable areas , the trustee would be liable for breach of trust .
Under Section 5 , trustees are required to obtain " proper advice " before investing , unless the circumstances mean that it is inappropriate or unnecessary to do so . " Proper advice " is defined in Section 5 ( 4 ) as " advice of a person who is reasonably believed by the trustee to be qualified to give it by his ability in and practical experience of financial and other matters relating to the proposed investment " . This is an objective test , and as with much of Section 4 , is almost identical to the test laid out in the 1961 Act . The advice must be sought before the exercise of any investment power , and is also required if the trustee wishes to change where and how the trust is invested .
= = = Acquisition of land = = =
Rules on the acquisition of land are covered in Part III of the Act . Until the passage of the Act , trustees had no right to purchase land with trust money , with two exceptions ; first , if the trust instrument authorised or required the trustee to purchase land and second , Section 6 ( 4 ) of the Trusts of Land and Appointment of Trustees Act 1996 , which allowed trustees to buy land either as an investment or for habitation by the beneficiaries .
Under Section 8 of the Act , trustees can purchase land " as an investment , for occupation by the beneficiaries or for any other reason " . Once this land has been purchased they are free to do with it what they could if they were the absolute owner ; they can sell it , lease it or mortgage it . This is a default provision , and can be made irrelevant if the trust instrument contains other rules and requirements . This land may only be bought in Britain ; if trustees wish to purchase land outside Britain , they must either invest in companies which own land or alter the trust instrument to allow it .
= = = Agents and delegation = = =
Part IV of the act covers the delegation of powers to agents , and the trustees liability for their acts . This is an area that has long been criticised by practitioners and academics , particularly the provisions of the Trustee Act 1925 . The Act allowed the trustees to appoint an agent in good faith , and gave them no liability for the agent 's acts . In Re Vickery it was confirmed that a trustee may escape liability for an agent 's acts if he acted in good faith , which was simply a test of honesty rather than reasonableness .
Sections 11 – 20 of the 2000 Act cover the appointment of agents . Section 11 ( 1 ) allows for trustees " [ to ] authorise any person to exercise any or all of their delegable functions as their agent " , with Section 11 ( 2 ) defining " delegable functions " as any function other than the powers to distribute or dispose of trust assets , allocating fees or other payments , appointing a trustee or further delegating duties . Section 15 requires that , where an administrative function is delegated , special conditions must be satisfied . Section 15 ( 1 ) makes it mandatory to write and sign a policy agreement , which lays out guidance on how a function should be undertaken .
Sections 21 – 23 cover the review of agents and the liability of trustees for agents actions . Section 21 identifies that review and liability occurs when the trustees appoints agents , nominees and custodians under the Act or under similar provisions in the trust instrument . Section 22 provides a duty on trustees who delegate their powers , with the duty consisting of three elements . Firstly , trustees are required to make sure that agent is suitable for the job he is employed to do . Secondly , they are required to consider whether or not to intervene in the appointment if circumstances demand it . Thirdly , trustees are required to intervene after appointment if the circumstances demand it . Section 23 establishes trustees ' liability for the actions of agents ; a trustee is liable for negligence if he violates the general duty of care set out in Section 1 , but not otherwise .
= = = Remuneration = = =
Part V of the Act , sections 28 to 33 , deals with trustees ' remuneration . Section 28 states the default position is that trustees are entitled to remuneration if it says so in the trust instrument or if a trustee acts in a " professional capacity " . A trust can differ from this default , but the Act confirms the recent developments in the common law from the old default position that trustees were entitled to nothing unless it was explicitly stated that they were . Section 29 goes on to say that non @-@ charitable professional trustees are entitled to " reasonable remuneration " which will be a sum that the court thinks is comensurate to the work done , along the principles of quantum meruit . This is automatic if the trustee is a corporation , but will require consent of all other trustees if the trustees are natural persons . Section 30 stipulates that rules on charitable trustee remuneration are to be found in a statutory instrument drawn up by the Secretary of State . Trustees will be reimbursed from the trust fund itself , as will be authorised agents , nominees and custodians who are properly appointed by the trustees all so long as the expenses and payable remuneration are incurred while conducting the affairs of the trust .
= = = Repeals = = =
The Act repealed :
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= The Girl in the Fireplace =
" The Girl in the Fireplace " is the fourth episode of series two of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was first broadcast on 6 May 2006 on the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) , was directed by Euros Lyn and is the only episode in the 2006 series written by Steven Moffat . Sophia Myles guest @-@ starred as the historical figure Madame de Pompadour . The episode is inspired by Audrey Niffenegger 's novel The Time @-@ Traveler 's Wife .
In the episode , the Doctor — an alien time @-@ traveller played by David Tennant — and his companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) and Mickey Smith ( Noel Clarke ) find time windows on a 51st @-@ century spaceship leading to 18th @-@ century France and a group of clockwork androids using them to stalk Madame de Pompadour throughout her life .
The programme 's executive producer Russell T Davies , who conceived the idea while researching for Casanova , described the episode as a love story for the Doctor . The episode was filmed in England and Wales . It was well received by most critics , was nominated for a Nebula Award and won the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form .
= = Plot = =
The TARDIS materialises on a seemingly derelict spaceship drifting in space . The Doctor , Rose , and Mickey explore the ship and are puzzled to find an eighteenth @-@ century French fireplace . When he looks through the fireplace , the Doctor sees a young girl and asks who she is . She replies that her name is Reinette and that she lives in Paris in 1727 . The Doctor deduces that the fireplace is a time window , a device that allows direct access to another time and place . The Doctor steps through the time window and arrives in Reinette 's bedroom only to find that months have passed there . He discovers a ticking humanoid wearing eighteenth century clothing and a jester 's mask hiding under Reinette 's bed . After it threatens him with a saw @-@ like device that slides out of its arm , the Doctor tricks the creature into returning through the time window to the spacecraft , where he and his companions learn that it is actually an intricate clockwork android . The android teleports away , and the Doctor warns Mickey and Rose not to go looking for it . The Doctor returns to Reinette 's bedroom while Mickey and Rose arm themselves and go looking for the android . Returning to Reinette 's bedroom , the Doctor discovers that she is now a young woman . She flirts with the Doctor and they kiss , before she leaves to join her mother . The Doctor then realises that she is Madame de Pompadour , the mistress of King Louis XV .
Back on the ship , the Doctor and his companions find several additional time windows and learn that each leads to a different moment in Madame de Pompadour 's life . In one of them , the Doctor sees another clockwork creature menacing her and steps through the window to defend her . The Doctor tells Reinette to give the android orders , and it obeys her . It tells her that it is a repair android and that their spaceship was damaged in an ion storm . The androids did not have the parts necessary to repair the ship and killed the crew to use their organs for parts . The androids need one last part ; Reinette 's brain . Confused , the Doctor creates a telepathic link with Reinette , but is startled to find that she can also see into his mind . The androids capture Rose and Mickey and are about to harvest them for parts when the Doctor rescues them . The Doctor discovers that the androids plan to open a time window to Reinette 's life at the age of 37 , believing that her brain at that age will be compatible with the ship 's systems . The clockwork androids appear at a costume ball and take Reinette and her guests hostage . At one end of the room is an enormous mirror , which is actually a time window . The Doctor and his companions can see through it , but they cannot enter without smashing the window and breaking the connection as the androids locked it after the Doctor 's previous interruptions .
The androids threaten to decapitate Reinette , but the Doctor on horseback crashes through the mirror to save her . The androids give up and shut down when the Doctor tells them that they now cannot return to their ship to finish the repairs . Reinette tells the Doctor that she had her fireplace moved to Versailles in the hope that he would return . The Doctor finds that the fireplace is still an operating time window and uses it to return to the spaceship . He tells Reinette to pack a bag and prepare to leave . The Doctor returns to the fireplace seconds later but discovers that seven years have passed in Reinette 's time . King Louis XV finds the Doctor , tells him that Reinette has died and gives him a letter in which Reinette expresses her hopes for the Doctor 's quick return and confesses her love for him . The Doctor returns to the TARDIS and watches the time windows close before leaving the ship . The TARDIS crew muse about the reasons the androids wanted Madame de Pompadour 's brain to complete their repairs , and the Doctor conjectures that the ship 's memory banks were damaged by the ion storm . When the TARDIS dematerializes , a portrait can be seen stating the birth and death date of Madame de Pompadour . As the episode ends , the lifeless ship drifts through space ; its name is SS Madame de Pompadour .
= = = Continuity = = =
While the episode appears to follow immediately from the previous episode " School Reunion " , Moffat says in the DVD audio commentary that when he wrote " Girl in the Fireplace " he had not yet read the end of " School Reunion " , hence the lack of Rose 's continuing animosity shown towards Mickey after he joins the TARDIS crew . After reading the Doctor 's mind , Reinette says " Doctor who ? " , a reference both to the series ' title and to the long @-@ running mystery about the Doctor 's actual name . She also says that it is " more than just a secret " , but does not elaborate further . Moffat said that he added the dialogue because he believes that because the Doctor does not tell even his closest companions his name , there must be a " dreadful secret " about it . Moffat also says that he did not include the word " Torchwood " ( an " arc word " in the second series ) in the script because Davies did not ask him to do so .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and characters = = =
In 2004 , Russell T Davies — Doctor Who 's executive producer — was responsible for Casanova , a serial set in the 18th century . During his research , Davies become fascinated by Madame de Pompadour and wanted to include her in a story which also involved The Turk — a clockwork man who played chess around the same period and which was later revealed to be a hoax . In early 2005 , Moffat — who had written " The Empty Child " and " The Doctor Dances " for the series — was assigned to write the story . Euros Lyn was later assigned to direct it . Sophia Myles stated in an interview on Doctor Who Confidential that she did not have to audition for the role of Madame de Pompadour , she was offered it .
In an interview with The Independent , Russell T Davies said the episode is " practically a love story for the Doctor ... It 's very understated , very beautifully done , but it 's nonetheless a Time Lord falling in love and Rose 's reaction to him falling in love with someone else . " Moffat was inspired by Audrey Niffenegger 's novel The Time @-@ Traveler 's Wife , though the episode 's structure is different from that of the novel . During the production , Moffat considered " Madame de Pompadour " , " Every Tick of My Heart " , " Reinette and the Lonely Angel " and " Loose Connection " for the episode 's title . " The Girl in the Fireplace " was planned as the second episode of the 2006 series , however when Davies realised how experimental it had become in Moffat 's hands , he decided to move it to fourth in the running order between " School Reunion " and " Rise Of The Cybermen " .
While Moffat was creating the clockwork automata he first decided to hide their faces with wigs , but when producer Phil Collinson told him this would severely limit camera angles , and that it could appear comical , the androids were given carnival masks to wear . Neill Gorton of Millennium Effects designed the androids and they were constructed by Richard Darwen and Gustav Hoegan .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for the episode took place between 12 and 27 October 2005 . The scenes set in Versailles were filmed elsewhere ; the first scenes filmed in which Reinette 's body is taken away from city were filmed at Culverhouse Cross in Cardiff , Madame de Pompadour 's sitting room and bedroom scenes were filmed at Tredegar House — a 17th @-@ century mansion in Newport , Dyffryn Gardens in the Vale of Glamorgan was used as the set for the palace gardens , and Ragley Hall near Alcester was used for the ballroom scenes . The scenes on the spaceship , which were shot by the second unit , were also filmed in Newport .
Two horses were used in the episode ; one was used for the scenes in close quarters on the spaceship , and another for jumps . According to Doctor Who Confidential , the horse was not allowed into the ballroom for the climactic scene . Thus , the elements of the Doctor riding through the mirror , the horse , the mirror breaking and the reactions of the extras in the ballroom had to be filmed separately and then composited together with chroma key . Tennant 's head was superimposed upon that of the stunt rider in post @-@ production . Initially , the programme 's staff considered the use of special effects but realised this would be very expensive and rejected the idea .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Girl in the Fireplace " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 6 May 2006 . The final rating for the episode was 7 @.@ 90 million , making it the thirteenth most watched programme on British television that week . It received an Appreciation Index of 84 , considered " excellent " . The episode 's script was nominated for the 2006 Nebula Award , and " The Girl in the Fireplace " won the 2007 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form .
Writing for IGN , Ahsan Haque praised Tennant and Myles ' acting , the episode 's pacing and the " extremely touching " story . He wrote that " with a little more attention to temporal details , this episode would have been considered as one of the series ' greatest moments " . In particular , Haque wrote that the episode would have worked better had the writers explained more precisely why the Doctor could not use the TARDIS to visit Madame Pompadour before she died . Metro said the clockwork androids were one of the " most memorable villains " while The Guardian 's Daniel Martin said , " The Girl in the Fireplace " is " one of the most acclaimed episodes from the Davies era " .
Ross Ruediger from Slant Magazine wrote that the episode " may be the crowning achievement " of Doctor Who 's second series . Ruediger called it an episode " for the new millennium " as he thought it " could never exist under the banner of the old series . " He called it a " thought @-@ provoking piece " , and wrote that episodes like this could not be broadcast every week since it " would be too taxing on the average viewer 's brain " . IGN 's Matt Wales ranked " The Girl in the Fireplace " the third best Tennant Doctor Who story , calling it " one of Doctor Who 's most touching adventures " .
= = Related topic = =
clockpunk
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Girl in the Fireplace " reviews at Outpost Gallifrey
" The Girl in the Fireplace " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Hastings Line =
The Hastings Line is a secondary railway line in Kent and East Sussex , England , linking Hastings with the main town of Tunbridge Wells , and from there into London via Tonbridge and Sevenoaks . Although primarily carrying passengers , the railway serves a gypsum mine which is a source of freight traffic . Southeastern operates passenger trains on the line .
The railway was constructed by the South Eastern Railway in the early 1850s across the difficult terrain of the High Weald . Supervision of the building of the line was lax , enabling contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . These deficiencies showed up after the railway had opened . Rectifications led to a restricted loading gauge along the line , requiring the use of dedicated rolling stock .
Served by steam locomotives from opening until the late 1950s , passenger services were then taken over by a fleet of diesel @-@ electric multiple units built to the line 's loading gauge . Diesel locomotives handled freight , also built to fit the loading gauge . The diesel @-@ electric multiple units served on the line until 1986 , when the line was electrified and the most severely affected tunnels were reduced from double track to single .
= = Background = =
The South Eastern Railway ( SER ) completed its main line from London to Dover , Kent in 1844 , branching off the rival London , Brighton and South Coast Railway 's ( LBSC ) line at Redhill . Construction of a single line branch from Tunbridge ( modern spelling " Tonbridge " [ Note 2 ] ) to Tunbridge Wells , a fashionable town where a chalybeate spring had been discovered in 1606 , began in July 1844 . At the time , Parliament had not given assent for the railway . The Act of Parliament enabling the construction of the line had its first reading in the House of Commons on 28 April 1845 . The bill completed its passage through the House of Commons and the House of Lords on 28 July , following which Royal Assent was granted on 31 July by Queen Victoria .
The engineer in charge of the construction was Peter W. Barlow and the contractors were Messrs. Hoof & Son . In April 1845 the SER decided that the branch would be double track . A 410 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 370 m ) tunnel was required 44 chains ( 890 m ) after leaving Tunbridge . This was named " Somerhill Tunnel " after the nearby mansion . A mile and 54 chains ( 2 @.@ 70 km ) after leaving Somerhill Tunnel , a 270 @-@ yard @-@ long ( 250 m ) viaduct was required . Southborough Viaduct stands 40 feet ( 12 m ) high and has 26 arches . A temporary station was built at Tunbridge Wells as the 823 yd ( 753 m ) Wells Tunnel was still under construction . It was 4 miles 7 chains ( 6 @.@ 58 km ) from Tunbridge . The temporary station subsequently became a goods station . The first train , comprising four locomotives and 26 carriages , arrived at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September . Trains from Tunbridge had to reverse before starting the climb to Somerhill Tunnel , as there was no facing junction at Tunbridge . This situation was to remain until 1857 , when a direct link was built at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 700 . The old link remained in use until c . 1913 .
The SER was granted permission to build a line from Ashford in Kent to St Leonards , East Sussex in 1845 . The LBSC reached St Leonards from Lewes the following year . This gave the LBSC a shorter route to Hastings than the SERs route , then still under construction . The SER sought permission to extend their branch from Tunbridge Wells across the High Weald to reach Hastings . Authorisation for the construction of a 25 @-@ mile @-@ 60 @-@ chain ( 41 @.@ 44 km ) line to Hastings was obtained on 18 June 1846 , Parliament deemed the line between Ashford and St Leonards to be of military strategic importance . Therefore , they stipulated that this line was to be completed before any extension was built from Tunbridge Wells . The extension into Tunbridge Wells opened on 25 November 1846 without any public ceremony . In 1847 , the SER unsuccessfully challenged the condition that the line between Ashford and St Leonards be completed first . That line was opened in 1851 , passing through Hastings and making an end @-@ on junction with the LBSC line from Lewes .
= = Construction = =
The Hastings Line is built over the difficult , forested , and hilly terrain across the High Weald and sandstone Hastings Beds , necessitating the construction of eight tunnels between Tonbridge and the south coast seaside resort of Hastings . The SER was anxious to construct the line as economically as possible , since it was in competition with the LBSC to obtain entry into Hastings and was not in a strong financial position in the mid 1840s .
The construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Robertsbridge was contracted to Messrs. Hoof & Wyths , subcontracted to Messrs. H. Warden . By March 1851 , the trackbed had been constructed as far as Whatlington , East Sussex , a distance of 19 miles ( 30 @.@ 58 km ) . All tunnels had been completed and a single line of railway had been laid for a distance of 10 miles 40 chains ( 16 @.@ 90 km ) from Tunbridge Wells . When the 15 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 24 @.@ 94 km ) section from Tunbridge Wells to Robertsbridge opened on 1 September , a single line of track extended a further 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 44 km ) to Whatlington . On the 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) section between Whatlington and St Leonards , 750 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 570 @,@ 000 m3 ) out of 827 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 632 @,@ 000 m3 ) had been excavated . Construction of the line between Tunbridge Wells and Bopeep Junction cost in excess of £ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = = Deficiencies in the construction of the tunnels = = =
Supervision of the construction was lax , which enabled the contractors to skimp on the lining of the tunnels . This manifested itself in March 1855 when part of the brickwork of Mountfield Tunnel collapsed . An inspection of Grove Hill , Strawberry Hill and Wells tunnels revealed that they too had been constructed with too few layers of bricks . Grove Hill Tunnel had been built with just a single ring of bricks and no filling above the crown of the brickwork . The SER took the contractors to court and were awarded £ 3 @,@ 500 in damages . However , rectifying the situation cost the company £ 4 @,@ 700 . Although the contractors had charged for six rings of bricks , they had only used four . Due to the cost of reboring the tunnels , this had to be rectified by the addition of a further two rings of brickwork , reducing the width of the tunnels by 18 inches ( 460 mm ) . The result of this was that the loading gauge on the line was restricted , and special rolling stock had to be built , later becoming known as Restriction 0 rolling stock . This problem would affect the line until 1986 .
Wadhurst Tunnel collapsed in 1862 and it was discovered by the SER that the same situation existed there too . Rectification cost £ 10 @,@ 231 . By 1877 , only one train was permitted in Bopeep Tunnel at a time . The tunnel was partly widened in 1934 – 35 . In November 1949 , serious defects were discovered in the tunnel . Single @-@ line working was put in place on 19 November , but the tunnel had to be closed completely a week later . The tunnel was partially relined with cast iron segments . It reopened to traffic on 5 June 1950 . Mountfield Tunnel was underpinned in 1938 – 39 , remaining open with single @-@ line working in operation . It partially collapsed on 17 November 1974 , resulting in single @-@ line working until 31 January 1975 . The line was then closed until 17 March whilst the track was singled through the tunnel .
= = = Openings = = =
The line was opened by the SER in three main stages : From Tunbridge – Tunbridge Wells , Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge and Robertsbridge – Bopeep Junction . A temporary station was opened at Tunbridge Wells on 19 September 1845 while Wells Tunnel was completed . The temporary station later became the goods depot . Tunbridge Wells ( later Tunbridge Wells Central ) station opened on 25 November 1846 . The Tunbridge Wells – Robertsbridge section opened on 1 September 1851 , with the Robertsbridge – Battle section opening on 1 January 1852 . The Battle – Bopeep Junction section opened on 1 February 1852 .
= = = Description of the route = = =
The line climbs steeply out of the Medway Valley at gradients of between 1 in 47 [ Note 3 ] and 1 in 300 to a summit south of Tunbridge Wells , the line undulates as far as Wadhurst at gradients between 1 in 80 and 1 in 155 before descending into the Rother Valley , which it follows as far as Robertsbridge at gradients between 1 in 48 and 1 in 485 . The line then climbs at gradients between 1 in 86 and 1 in 170 before a dip where it crosses the River Brede . This is followed by a climb to Battle with gradients between 1 in 100 and 1 in 227 before the line falls to Hastings at gradients of between 1 in 100 and 1 in 945 .
Bopeep Junction is the junction of the Hastings Line with the East Coastway Line . It lies east of Bopeep Tunnel . There is a pub in Bulverhythe called The Bo Peep . The name was a nickname for Customs and Excise men .
= = = Tunnels = = =
There are eight tunnels between Tonbridge and Hastings . In order from north to south they are :
= = = Stations = = =
The original stations on the Tunbridge Wells to Hastings section of the line are mostly in the Gothic or Italianate styles . These were designed by William Tress . Frant , Wadhurst , Witherenden , Etchingham and Robertsbridge stations opened on 1 September 1851 . Other station openings are detailed below . Stations are listed under their original names .
Tunbridge
Tunbridge station had opened in May 1842 . Following the opening of the branch to Tunbridge Wells in 1845 , it was renamed Tunbridge Junction in January 1852 . The original station stood to the east of the road bridge , whereas the current station , opened in 1864 , stands to the west . Trains leaving Tunbridge had to reverse to reach Tunbridge Wells . This arrangement lasted until 1857 , when a new section of line was constructed enabling trains to reach the Hastings Line without reversal . The station is 29 miles 42 chains ( 47 @.@ 52 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .
Southborough
Southborough station opened on 1 March 1893 . It was renamed High Brooms on 21 September 1925 to avoid confusion with Southborough station on the Chatham Main Line , which had already been renamed Bickley . The station is 32 miles 70 chains ( 52 @.@ 91 km ) from Charing Cross .
Tunbridge Wells
The first station at Tunbridge Wells was temporary and was situated north of Wells Tunnel . It opened on 19 September 1845 and was replaced by the present Tunbridge Wells Station on 25 November 1846 . It subsequently became Tunbridge Wells Goods station , later renamed Tunbridge Wells Central Goods station . The goods station closed in 1980 , with a siding retained for engineers use . The original station was 44 miles 23 chains ( 71 @.@ 27 km ) from London Bridge via Redhill . [ Note 4 ]
The building on the up side of the station was built in the Italianate style . A new building by A. H. Blomfield was constructed on the down side in 1911 . The station was renamed Tunbridge Wells Central on 9 July 1923 with the ex @-@ LBSC station being renamed Tunbridge Wells West . Following the closure of the Tunbridge Wells – Eridge railway on 6 July 1985 , the name reverted to Tunbridge Wells . The station is 34 miles 32 chains ( 55 @.@ 36 km ) from Charing Cross .
Frant
Frant station is 36 miles 53 chains ( 59 @.@ 00 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is on the down side .
Wadhurst
Wadhurst station is 39 miles 23 chains ( 63 @.@ 23 km ) from Charing Cross . The station building is in the Italianate style , with a later one @-@ bay extension . The 1893 @-@ built signal box , decommissioned on 20 April 1986 , was purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway .
Witherenden
Witherenden station is 43 miles 66 chains ( 70 @.@ 53 km ) from Charing Cross . It was renamed Ticehurst Road in December 1851 , and Stonegate on 16 June 1947 .
Etchingham
Etchingham station is 47 miles 34 chains ( 76 @.@ 32 km ) from Charing Cross . The building is on the up side .
Robertsbridge
Robertsbridge station is 49 miles 37 chains ( 79 @.@ 60 km ) from Charing Cross . On 26 March 1900 , it became a junction with the opening of the Rother Valley Railway to freight . The line opened to passengers on 2 April 1900 , and was renamed the Kent and East Sussex Railway in 1904 . The Kent and East Sussex Railway closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and to freight on 12 June 1962 , except for a short section serving a mill at Robertsbridge which closed on 1 January 1970 .
Mountfield Halt
Mountfield Halt opened in 1923 . It closed on 6 October 1969 . The platforms were built of sleepers and were demolished in the early 1970s . The station was 53 miles 37 chains ( 86 @.@ 04 km ) from Charing Cross .
Battle
Battle station opened on 1 September 1851 . The buildings are in the Gothic style and stand on the up side . The station is 55 miles 46 chains ( 89 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross .
Crowhurst
A siding had existed at Crowhurst from 1877 . The station opened on 1 June 1902 and was located at the junction for the Bexhill West Branch Line , which also opened the same day . Despite the line 's closure on 14 June 1964 , Crowhurst station remains open . The station is 57 miles 45 chains ( 92 @.@ 64 km ) from Charing Cross .
West St Leonards
West St Leonards station opened on 1 October 1887 . The buildings are wood framed and covered with weatherboards . The station is 60 miles 59 chains ( 97 @.@ 75 km ) from Charing Cross .
St Leonards Warrior Square
St Leonards Warrior Square station opened on 13 February 1851 along with a new section of line between Hastings and the LBSCs Hastings & St Leonards station . This gave the LBSC better access to Hastings . It lies between Bopeep Tunnel and Hastings Tunnel . The station is 61 miles 55 chains ( 99 @.@ 28 km ) from Charing Cross .
Hastings
Hastings station opened on 13 February 1851 along with the SER branch from Ashford . The station was rebuilt and enlarged by the SER in 1880 as it was then inadequate for the increasing seasonal traffic . In 1930 the station was rebuilt by the Southern Railway . This entailed closure of the engine sheds at Hastings , with locomotives being transferred to St Leonards . The original station building , by Tress , was demolished and a new Neo @-@ Georgian station building by J. R. Scott was erected . The rebuilt station was completed on 5 July 1931 . The station was rebuilt in 2003 by Railtrack . The 1931 @-@ built building was demolished and a new structure erected in its place . The station is 62 miles 33 chains ( 100 @.@ 44 km ) from Charing Cross via Orpington .
= = = Links to other lines = = =
= = = = Built = = = =
In the late 1860s , a single track link was built between the SERs Tunbridge Wells station and the LBSCs Tunbridge Wells station , which had opened in 1866 . It was 1875 before powers were granted to run a passenger service over this section of line . The junction with the main line was Grove Junction . It was removed on 7 July 1985 , following closure of the Tunbridge Wells Central – Eridge line the previous day .
In 1900 , the Rother Valley Railway opened from Robertsbridge to Tenterden . It was extended in stages to Tenterden Town and Headcorn , which was reached in 1905 . The line closed to passengers on 2 January 1954 and freight on 12 June 1961 , except for access to Hodson 's Mill closed in 1970 . The Rother Valley Railway heritage railway are rebuilding the line between Robertsbridge and Junction Road , with completion scheduled by 2018 . In 1902 , a branch line was built to Bexhill West , with a new station at the junction with the main line at Crowhurst . This line closed on 14 June 1964 .
= = = = Authorised = = = =
In 1903 , a railway was authorised to be built from Robertsbridge to Pevensey , East Sussex . The line was authorised under the Light Railways Act 1896 , but was not constructed .
= = = = Proposed = = = =
In 1856 , it was proposed to build a 6 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) long branch from Witherenden to Mayfield , East Sussex . [ Note 5 ] In 1882 , an 18 @-@ mile @-@ 40 @-@ chain ( 29 @.@ 77 km ) long railway was proposed from Ticehurst Road to Langney , East Sussex , giving access to Eastbourne . Stations were proposed at Burwash , Dallington , Bodle Street Green , Boreham Street , Pevensey and Langney .
= = = Planned electrification = = =
Electrification of the Hastings Line was first considered by the SER as early as 1903 . Lack of finance meant that no decision had been made by the time World War I broke out in 1914 . It was stated in 1921 that electrification was a long term aim . In the mid @-@ 1930s , the Southern Railway , which had been formed from the SER , LBSC , London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) and London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) in 1923 under the Railways Act 1921 , electrified a number of lines . The East Coastway Line was electrified in 1935 , with a depot being built at Ore , East Sussex . In 1937 , it was proposed to electrify the line between Sevenoaks and St Leonards Warrior Square at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . The scheme was deferred , with another proposal in 1937 costing £ 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 also failing to gain favour before World War II broke out . One of the main reasons that electrification was not given the go @-@ ahead was the fact that non @-@ standard rolling stock would be required . The Southern Railway had provided the line with 104 new carriages and six Pullman Cars between 1929 and 1934 . Two electric locomotives were ordered in 1937 . They were built to the Hastings Line loading gauge .
In October 1946 , the Southern Railway announced a programme to electrify all lines in Kent and East Sussex in three stages . The Hastings Line between Tonbridge and Bopeep Junction was to be part of the third stage . Track would have been slewed within the affected tunnels with only one train normally allowed in the tunnel . In an emergency , two trains would be allowed in the tunnel at the same time , but restricted to 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) . Standard 9 feet 0 inches ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) wide stock would be used . Following the nationalisation of railways in the United Kingdom under the Transport Act 1947 , the Southern Region of British Railways shelved new electrification schemes , concentrating on the construction of new steam locomotives . In 1952 , the possibility of operating standard rolling stock on the line had been examined . The Operating Department objected to the use of single line sections through the various tunnels . The 1930s stock was refurbished with the aim of extending its service by a further ten years . The first two phases of the Southern Railways ' electrification scheme were revived in 1955 . This did not include the Hastings Line and it was announced in 1956 that a fleet of diesel @-@ electric trains would be constructed to operate the service until the line was electrified . At that time , the rolling stock built in the 1930s was overdue for replacement . The modernisation to the Hastings Line and the introduction of the diesel @-@ electric trains cost £ 797 @,@ 000 , of which £ 595 @,@ 000 was the cost of the first seven trains . A further thirteen trains cost £ 1 @,@ 178 @,@ 840 .
Electrification was finally carried out in the 1980s , as detailed below .
= = Operators = =
From 1845 , the line was operated by the SER . In 1899 , the SER and LCDR entered into a joint working partnership , the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) . On 1 January 1923 , the Railways Act 1921 came into force , resulting in the Grouping . The SECR became part of the Southern Railway ( SR ) . On 1 January 1948 , the Transport Act 1947 came into force , and the SR became part of British Railways , with the former SR lines becoming the Southern Region . British Railways was rebranded British Rail on 1 January 1965 . On 10 June 1986 , Network SouthEast branded trains began operating . On 1 January 1994 , the Railways Act 1993 came into force , privatising British Rail . Passenger services were taken over by Connex South Eastern on 13 October 1996 . On 27 June 2003 , Connex lost the franchise due to poor financial management . The Strategic Rail Authority took over the running of passenger trains from 9 November 2003 , using their South Eastern Trains train operating company . On 1 April 2006 , Southeastern took over the operation of passenger trains on the route .
= = Operation = =
= = = Steam era ( 1845 – 1957 ) = = =
From the opening of the line , passenger stock consisted of 4 @-@ wheel carriages . In 1845 , there were eight passenger trains a day from Tunbridge Wells to London , with half that number on Sundays . On 23 June 1849 , the Royal Train took Queen Victoria and Prince Albert to Tunbridge Wells to visit Queen Adelaide , the Queen Dowager . The train , consisting of the Royal Saloon , two first class carriages and a brake van made the journey from Bricklayers Arms to Tunbridge Wells in 75 minutes . It was driven by James Cudworth , the Locomotive Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 70 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line again on 18 December 1849 conveying Queen Victoria and Princess Alice from Windsor , Berkshire to Tunbridge Wells on a visit to Princess Louise . The journey via Waterloo took 100 minutes . The train was driven by William Jacomb , Resident Engineer of the LSWR , and Edgar Verringer , Superintendent of the LSWR . At Waterloo , driving of the train was taken over by John Shaw , General Manager of the SER and Mr. Cockburn , Superintendent of the SER . The return journey took 105 minutes .
With the opening of the extension to Robertsbridge , there were three trains a day , with two on Sundays . These were augmented by an additional train daily when the extension to Bopeep Junction opened . In 1860 , there were seven up trains and six down trains daily ; Hastings to London via Redhill taking two hours . From 1861 , Cudworth 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 2 " Little Mail " class locomotives were introduced . In 1876 , the Sub @-@ Wealden Gypsum Co built a 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long line from a junction south of Mountfield Tunnel to a gypsum mine located in Great Wood , Mountfield . This line was still in operation as of 2007 . Bogie carriages entered service on the line in 1880 . In 1890 , the winter service was eleven trains each way , of which five were fast . [ Note 6 ] An additional two trains daily operated between Tunbridge Wells and Wadhurst . By 1910 , this had increased to twenty trains each way , of which twelve were fast , plus the extra two Wadhurst services . Four trains ran on Sundays . The service was reduced during World War I , but Sunday services had increased to seven by 1922 .
By the 1930s the line was worked by L and L1 class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 locomotives . The Schools class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0s were introduced in 1930 ; the width of these was 8 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 54 m ) measured across the cab , and 8 feet 6 1 ⁄ 2 inches ( 2 @.@ 604 m ) measured across the cylinders . The service was again reduced during World War II , with fourteen trains daily in 1942 , of which four were fast ; there were seven trains on Sundays . As built , it was envisaged that the West Country and Battle of Britain class locomotives would be able to work the line . Forty @-@ eight locomotives of the West Country and 22 of the Battle of Britain class were built with cabs that were 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) wide and paired with tenders of the same width . It was subsequently decided not to work these locomotives over the line . Locomotives from these two classes that were rebuilt gained a 9 @-@ foot @-@ 0 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 2 @.@ 74 m ) cab . Unrebuilt locomotives retained their narrow cab .
By 1948 , the service was sixteen trains , of which seven were fast . An additional three trains ran as far as Wadhurst . In 1957 , the service was eighteen trains daily , of which nine were fast . There were nine trains on Sundays . The Schools Class locomotives worked the line until 1957 when steam was withdrawn on the Hastings Line . Diesel @-@ electric multiple units of what became British Rail Class 201 , 202 and 203 ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route .
Under British Railways , classes D1 , E1 , H , N1 , M7 , Q , Q1 , Std 3 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 2T , Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Std 4 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T and U1 were permitted to work between Tonbridge and Grove junction . Freight trains from Tonbridge West Yard were not permitted to depart until the line was clear as far as Southborough Viaduct . Other classes of locomotive known to have worked over this section of line include C , and E4 .
= = = Diesel @-@ electric era ( 1957 – 86 ) = = =
Special narrow bodied diesel electric multiple units were introduced in 1957 – 58 to replace steam traction . British Rail Class 201 ( 6S ) , 202 ( 6L ) and 203 ( 6B ) ( the " Hastings Diesels " ) took over working the route . These units were constructed of narrow rolling stock . They were delivered in six @-@ car formations ( the 6Bs including a buffet car ) and two units were often operated in multiple to form twelve @-@ car trains . In latter years some of the units were reduced to five , and later still , to four cars .
The 6S units were intended to be introduced into service in June 1957 . On 5 April a fire at Cannon Street signal box disabled all signalling equipment there . As a result , locomotive @-@ hauled trains were banned from the station . A temporary signal box was commissioned on 5 May and the 6S units were introduced on peak services the next day . Two units coupled together formed the 06 : 58 and 07 : 26 Hastings – Cannon Street services in the morning , and the 17 : 18 and 18 : 03 Cannon Street – Hastings services in the evening . From 17 June the 6S and 6L units were working services throughout the day . The 6B units entered service between May and August 1958 .
The Hastings Diesels had almost completely replaced steam by June 1958 . With the introduction of the Hastings Diesels , an hourly service was provided . This split at Tunbridge Wells , with the front portion running fast to Crowhurst and the rear portion stopping at all stations . The service ran every two hours on Sundays . The Hastings Diesels also worked services on the Bexhill West Branch Line until closure on 14 June 1964 . On 22 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central .
In 1962 , twelve Class 33 / 2 diesel locomotives , were also built with narrow bodies for the Hastings line . These enabled the last steam workings , overnight newspaper trains , to be withdrawn from the Hastings Line . Nineteen British Rail Class 207 ( 3D ) diesel electric multiple units were built in 1962 . They operated over the Tonbridge – Grove Junction section of the line as part of a Tonbridge – Eastbourne ( later Tonbridge – Eridge ) service . In 1963 , Frant , Stonegate , Wadhurst and Mountfield Halt were proposed to be closed under the Beeching Axe . One special working took place on 3 April 1966 when one of the ex @-@ Great Western Railway diesel railcars , W20W , was worked between Tonbridge and Robertsbridge as an out of gauge load . The railcar had been purchased by the Kent and East Sussex Railway for £ 415 including delivery to Robertsbridge . After trying to " wriggle out " of the deal , British Rail eventually found a solution . The vehicle was ballasted so that it leant away from the tunnel walls by some 3 inches ( 80 mm ) and was worked to Robertsbridge at a maximum of 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) . From 1977 , there were two trains an hour , one fast and one slow . In May 1980 , the buffet cars were withdrawn from the 6B units , which were recoded as 5L , but retaining the Class 203 designation . The fast trains were withdrawn in January 1981 , with trains now stopping at all stations .
= = = Electric era ( since 1986 ) = = =
On 28 October 1983 , it was announced that the Hastings Line was to be electrified . Reasons that decided the issue included a commitment by British Rail to eliminate asbestos from all stock in service by 1988 and the increasing cost of maintaining the then ageing Hastings Diesels . The scheme was to cost £ 23 @,@ 925 @,@ 000 . Electrification was finally completed in 1986 , the line was electrified using 750 V DC third rail using standard rolling stock , and the expedient of singling the track through the narrow tunnels . The tunnels either side of Tunbridge Wells Central station were not singled because the fact that the south portal of Wells Tunnel and north portal of Grove Hill Tunnel were at the ends of the platforms meant it was impossible to install pointwork without reducing the length of platform available . A speed restriction was imposed through Wells Tunnel . Parliamentary powers were sought in 1979 to bore a second Grove Hill Tunnel , but there was much opposition from local residents . This , and the high cost , caused the proposal to be abandoned . The track in Grove Hill Tunnel was relaid on a concrete base , allowing alignment to be precisely controlled .
The line was declared to conform to the standard C1 loading gauge on 14 March . The first passenger carrying train comprising C1 stock to use the line was a railtour on 15 March hauled by 50 025 Invincible . It was organised by the Southern Electric Group and ran from Paddington to Folkestone Harbour . A preview service of electric trains ran on 27 April 1986 and the full timetabled service commenced on 12 May 1986 . The next day , a wrong @-@ side failure occurred involving three signals between Tonbridge and Hastings . Contractors had made errors in the wiring of the signal heads . With the inauguration of electric services , a half @-@ hourly service was operated , with trains departing from Charing Cross at 15 and 45 minutes past the hour . Those departing at xx : 15 called at Waterloo East , Sevenoaks , Tonbridge , High Brooms , Tunbridge Wells , Wadhurst , Battle , St Leonards Warrior Square and Hastings , taking 84 minutes . Those departing at xx : 45 called at Waterloo East , London Bridge , Orpington , Sevenoaks , Hildenborough , Tonbridge and then all stations to Hastings , taking 99 minutes . The Royal Train visited the line on 6 May , conveying Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother . It was stabled at Wadhurst whilst she ate lunch . The train was hauled by a Class 73 diesel @-@ electric locomotive . Upon electrification , services were operated by 4CEP , 4CIG and 4VEP electric multiple units . Class 508 electric multiple units also operated services on the line . When these units were withdrawn in the mid @-@ 2000s , they were replaced by Class 375 Electrostar , Class 465 Networker and Class 466 Networker units .
Train services on the line are provided by Southeastern , and are mostly operated by Class 375 Electrostar , or occasionally Class 465 / 466 Networker units . The line still sees a freight service to and from British Gypsum 's sidings at Mountfield .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
A number of accidents have occurred on the Hastings Line , none of which have involved the death of a passenger .
On 4 October 1852 , a passenger train was derailed between Ticehurst Road and Etchingham when the formation was flooded and washed away . Both engine crew members were injured .
On 21 June 1856 , a passenger train derailed between Tunbridge Wells and Tunbridge Junction , killing the driver and injuring the fireman and a passenger .
On 30 September 1866 , the slip portion of a train , which was to be worked forwards to Hastings , failed to stop at Tunbridge due to an error by the slip guard . It crashed into a rake of empty carriages 262 yards ( 240 m ) east of the station . Eleven of the 40 passengers were injured .
On 22 February 1892 , a SER locomotive was run into by a LBSC passenger train at Hastings . The passenger train had overrun a danger signal . Both locomotives were damaged .
On 29 August 1896 , the locomotive of a Charing Cross to Hastings train was derailed near Etchingham when it collided with a traction engine and threshing machine using an occupation crossing .
On 29 April 1912 , SECR F1 class locomotive No. 216 was working an empty stock train when it suffered the failure of the firebox crown near Tunbridge Wells due to a lack of water in the boiler . Both engine crew were severely injured by escaping steam and jumping from the moving locomotive .
On 6 January 1930 , the rear carriages of a passenger train from Hastings to London were partially buried by a landslip near Wadhurst tunnel . The train was divided and the front part continued on to Tunbridge Wells , where it arrived 100 minutes late .
On 23 December 1958 , 6L unit 1017 collided with 6B unit 1035 at Tunbridge Wells Central . Eighteen people were injured , with three of them admitted to hospital .
On 8 November 2010 , a passenger train operated by Class 375 unit 375 711 failed to stop at Stonegate station due to maintenance errors in respect of the train 's sanding apparatus . The train overran the station by 2 miles 36 chains ( 3 @.@ 94 km ) . Following the incident , Southeastern reduced the interval that the sand hoppers were to be refilled from seven days to five days . The company was fined £ 65 @,@ 000 and ordered to pay £ 22 @,@ 589 in costs .
On 23 December 2013 , a landslip at Wadhurst was the first in a series of landslips up to February 2014 which led the line between Wadhurst and St. Leonards Warrior Square being closed and reopened three times , with speed restrictions in place following repairs . The train service was replaced by buses during closures . Southeastern was criticised by Hastings and Rye MP Amber Rudd over poor customer service during this period . By 12 March , the section between Wadhurst and Robertsbridge had reopened , with full service being restored on 31 March .
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= Consolatio ( Cicero ) =
Consolatio or " Consolation " is a lost work written by Marcus Tullius Cicero in the year 45 BC . The work had been written to soothe his grief after the death of his daughter , Tullia , which had occurred in February of the same year . Not much is known about the work , although it seems to have been inspired by the Greek philosopher Crantor 's ancient work De Luctu ( " On Grief " ) , and its structure was probably similar to a series of letter correspondences between Servius Sulpicius Rufus and Cicero .
Fragments of the work survive , having been quoted by Lactantius , and Jerome makes note of the work in a consolatory letter to Heliodorus of Altino . A popular piece of writing until its loss , the Consolatio is widely accepted as the distinct work that transmitted the earlier consolatio literary tradition to the Romans of the late Republic . In 1583 , Italian scholar Carlo Sigonio claimed to have discovered a non @-@ fragmentary version of the Consolatio , although most scholars now agree that this work was either a fraud or a hoax , with modern stylometric methods seeming to back this up .
= = Background = =
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( January 3 , 106 BC – December 7 , 43 BC ) was an Ancient Roman philosopher and politician , famous for his oratory skills . He came from a wealthy municipal family of the Roman equestrian order , and is widely considered one of Rome 's greatest orators , and one of the premier prose stylists during the Golden Age of Latin . Tullia Ciceronis ( August 5 , 79 BC or 78 BC – February 45 BC ) , Cicero 's daughter , died in the winter of 45 BC after giving birth to her second son ; this caused Cicero to go into a period of deep mourning .
Cicero decided to stay with his friend Titus Pomponius Atticus for a time , during which he perused Atticus 's library , reading any and all books that dealt with overcoming grief . Unsatisfied with what he found , he relocated to his villa at Astura , where he composed the Consolatio . It was during this time that he also wrote the famed — and now lost — dialogue Hortensius . Cicero later opined that the Consolatio was written in an attempt not only to heal himself emotionally , but also to benefit others who are mourning or experiencing sadness .
= = Composition = =
A reference to the Consolatio made by the Christian theologian Jerome in a consolation letter to Heliodorus of Altino concerning the death of St. Nepotian suggests that the work was heavily based on the Greek philosopher Crantor 's ancient work De Luctu ( " On Grief " ) . Paul MacKendrick argues that the general outline for the Consolatio can be deduced based both on the structure used by Servius Sulpicius Rufus in a consolation letter sent to Cicero following Tullia 's death , as well as the structure of Cicero 's reply . From what little remains of the work , it would appear that the piece was addressed to Cicero himself . A novel part of the Consolatio seems to be Cicero 's idea that Tullia deserves to be deified into a god . Cicero notes that , in order for his plan to work , her assent must both be recognized by the gods , as well as the Roman public . In order to win over the public , he concludes that he will build Tullia a shrine .
The only extant pieces of the Consolatio are fragments , of which seven were preserved by the early Christian author Lactantius in his work Divinarum Institutionum ( The Divine Institutes ) . In the work , Lactantius used the excerpt from the Consolatio both to point out the futility of paganism , as well as to argue that pagans actually accept some tenets of Christianity , without them even realizing it . Lactantius criticized what Cicero wrote , but also applauded Cicero for paralleling — albeit coincidentally — what the Bible says at times . However , the quotes preserved by Lactantius have been criticized due to their lack of context . MacKendrick notes that Lactantius was using partial quotations in order to frame what Cicero wrote so that Lactantius could more easily refute his ideas . Other excerpts from the Consolatio were preserved by Cicero himself , of which two sections were quoted by him in his Tusculanae Disputationes .
Another important reference to the work can be found in the aforementioned letter by Jerome addressed to Heliodorus ; Jerome noted that the Consolatio contained references to " men who showed equal fortitude in sorrow and war , and whose bereavements [ Cicero ] has set forth in his book " .
= = Legacy = =
The work was of major importance , and today the Consolatio is widely accepted as the distinct work that transmitted the earlier consolatio literary tradition to the Romans of the late Republic . The work supposedly survived well into the 15th century ; St. Ambrose Traversari claimed to have discovered a copy of the text at Perugia , Italy in 1432 AD .
= = = Forgery = = =
In 1583 , Italian scholar Carlo Sigonio claimed to have discovered a non @-@ fragmentary version of the Consolatio . While this news was met with excitement at first , scholars — after reading the work — began to argue that the manuscript was a fraud , with humanist Antonio Riccoboni being among the most vocal . However , Sigonio continued to defend the work until his death , even mentioning in two different orations his belief in the truthfulness of the text . The scholar Latino Latini , however , later claimed in a letter that Sigonio had admitted to the forgery on his deathbed . By and large , the academic community concluded that the version of the Consolatio discovered was not genuine , and the document later earned the name the Pseudo @-@ Ciceronian Consolatio .
Despite the gradual condemnation of the work and the accusation that Sigonio had created it himself , there were some holdouts . Robinson Ellis , in 1893 , argued that the Pseudo @-@ Ciceronian Consolatio , while probably not a genuine work of Cicero 's , was not a forgery by Sigonio . He reasoned that , because St. Ambrose Traversari had claimed to have found a copy of the work so close to its rediscovery by Sigonio in 1583 , it was possible that Sigonio had simply found the Perugian text . He also proposed the idea that , because the Pseudo @-@ Ciceronian Consolatio contained all of the extant fragments from Lactantius 's work , the true Consolatio had been lost and replaced by a " spurious one " in the distant past that was read by Lactantius , Augustine , and Jerome , who mistakenly assumed its veracity ; this false Consolatio was then rediscovered by Sigonio , who unwittingly believed it also to be genuine . Finally , Ellis argued that , because Sigonio was a man of " high character " who had spent much of his life editing the fragments of Cicero , for Sigonio to stoop to forgery would have been completely out of character .
In 1999 , Richard Forsyth , David Holmes , and Emily Tse used linguistic techniques to test the veracity of the document . The paper differentiated between two types of Latin : Cicero 's writing and " Ciceronianism " , which is a style of New Latin popular in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries that sought to emulate the style of Cicero . Forsyth , Holmes , and Tse argued that , if the Pseudo @-@ Ciceronian Consolatio were devoid of " Ciceronianism " , that is to say New Latin , it could be accepted as a genuine work of Cicero . Forsyth , Holmes , and Tse collected six Classical Latin authors ( Cicero , Julius Caesar , Cornelius Nepos , Gaius Sallustius Crispus , Lucius Annaeus Seneca , and Publius Cornelius Tacitus ) , and five New Latin authors ( Sigonio , Piero Vettori , Marc @-@ Antoine Muret , Bernadino di Loredan , and Riccoboni ) and compared them using stylometric methods . The three concluded that the text of the Pseudo @-@ Ciceronian Consolatio is " extremely uncharacteristic of Cicero , and indeed that the text is much more likely to have been written during the Renaissance than in classical times . " Furthermore , the study also provided evidence that the work matched more closely with the style of Sigonio , rather than any of the other New Latin writers , suggesting that he created the document .
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= Hurricane Erika ( 1997 ) =
Hurricane Erika was the strongest and longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone in the 1997 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed from a tropical wave on September 3 and moved west @-@ northwestward across the tropical Atlantic Ocean , steadily intensifying until it attained hurricane status on September 4 , becoming the fifth named storm and third hurricane of the season . Erika passed a short distance to the north of the Lesser Antilles , and later turned to the north in response to an approaching trough . The hurricane quickly strengthened to become the only major hurricane of the season , reaching maximum sustained winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) on September 8 ; after maintaining its peak strength for 24 hours , Erika began to weaken as it passed over cooler waters . It turned to the east , weakened to a tropical storm , and became extratropical after passing near the Azores archipelago .
The hurricane produced light rainfall and winds throughout the northern Lesser Antilles . The passage of Erika carried a cloud of volcanic ash to Antigua from the eruption of the Soufrière Hills Volcano on Montserrat , a rare occurrence . Strong waves from the hurricane produced beach erosion and coastal flooding in northern Puerto Rico , and caused the death of two surfers . Moderate wind gusts in the northern Leeward Islands and Puerto Rico left thousands of residents without power , and resulted in $ 10 million ( 1997 USD , $ 12 @.@ 6 million 2006 USD ) in damage in the U.S. Caribbean territories . Erika also produced gusty winds and light rain in the Azores . Erika was the only tropical cyclone in the Atlantic Ocean in the months of August and September , the first occurrence of such event in an Atlantic hurricane season since 1929 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large tropical wave , which eventually became Erika , moved off the coast of Africa on August 31 . Shortly after leaving the coast , it displayed a large low @-@ level circulation , though as it tracked westward , the circulation failed to contract significantly . It slowly organized , and by September 3 the convection within the circulation had sufficiently organized for the system to be classified as Tropical Depression Six , while located about 1150 miles ( 1850 km ) east of the southernmost Lesser Antilles . The depression moved west @-@ northwestward at approximately 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) under the influence of a well @-@ established subtropical ridge , and late on September 3 the system intensified into a tropical storm . At that time , the National Hurricane Center in Miami gave the storm the name of Erika .
Erika continued to the west @-@ northwest , and in the early hours of September 4 , an eye @-@ like feature appeared to have developed in the center of the deep convection . The feature was not an eye , though , as visible satellite imagery revealed a center partially exposed from the convection . Despite unfavorable wind shear , Erika strengthened further and intensified into a hurricane late on September 4 , while located 530 miles ( 850 km ) east @-@ southeast of Guadeloupe . Deep convection re @-@ developed near the center , and the hurricane slowly strengthened as it continued west @-@ northwestward . Hurricane Erika decelerated its forward motion as it approached the Lesser Antilles , and passed within 85 miles ( 135 km ) of the islands as a Category 1 hurricane . An approaching trough weakened the subtropical ridge , resulting in Erika turning to the north and later to the northeast . On September 7 , Erika began to quickly intensify , and the hurricane reached its peak strength of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) on September 8 , while located about 350 miles ( 565 km ) north of the Lesser Antilles . Erika maintained peak intensity for about 24 hours before weakening over cooler waters .
After passing about 350 miles ( 565 km ) east of Bermuda on September 10 , Erika turned to the east @-@ northeast in response to westerly steering currents . Increased upper @-@ level wind shear weakened the hurricane to a tropical storm on September 12 . Erika continued to weaken as it turned to the east @-@ southeast , though it maintained deep convection near the center despite unfavorable atmospheric conditions . On September 14 the storm turned to the northeast again , and re @-@ strengthened to reach winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while located 510 miles ( 820 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Azores . On September 15 Erika passed near the western Azores islands , and quickly weakened as deep convection diminished . Erika became an extratropical cyclone on September 16 north of the Azores , and after executing a clockwise loop , the extratropical storm dissipated on September 19 about 230 miles ( 370 km ) southwest of Ireland .
= = Preparations = =
Early in the storm 's development , forecasting Erika 's motion was difficult , with a persistent leftward bias in official forecasts . In response to Erika 's threat , the government of Saint Martin first issued a tropical storm warning late on September 4 . The next day , the respective governments of Antigua , Montserrat , Barbuda , Saint Kitts and Nevis , Anguilla , Dominica , Guadeloupe , and Saint Barthélemy issued tropical storm warnings for their islands . When Erika 's motion resulted in a path that would take it closer to the islands , all of the aforementioned islands excluding Guadeloupe upgraded the tropical storm warning to a hurricane warning . In addition , a hurricane watch was issued for the British and United States Virgin Islands , as well as Puerto Rico . In public advisories , the National Hurricane Center stated tropical storm conditions were likely to be experienced in the Azores . Early forecasts anticipated a threat to the island of Bermuda .
The governments of the islands in the predicted path of Erika urged residents to quickly prepare for the hurricane through radio addresses . In the wake of busy seasons in 1995 and 1996 , which some islands were still recovering from , emergency preparations began . In Puerto Rico , fishermen secured their boats in preparation for the storm . Also on the island , citizens formed long lines at gas stations and purchased emergency supplies . Officials in Anguilla enacted a plan that would turn off the island 's power supply if the winds exceeded 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . As a precaution , authorities on Saint Martin enacted a curfew for all but those in service jobs .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Erika produced strong waves and high low @-@ level winds throughout the Lesser Antilles . Just weeks after the eruption of the Soufrière Hills Volcano on Montserrat , the storm blew a cloud of falling ash over Antigua . Tropical storm @-@ force winds affected several of the islands in the Lesser Antilles .
Winds from Hurricane Erika peaked at 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) with a gust of 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) in the Cyril E. King Airport on Saint Thomas . The outer rainbands produced light to moderate rainfall in the Virgin Islands , peaking at 3 @.@ 28 inches ( 83 mm ) at the University of the Virgin Islands in Saint Thomas and 1 @.@ 32 inches ( 36 mm ) in Saint John . The precipitation produced localized street flooding , while the combination of winds and rain caused power interruptions . Offshore , strong waves capsized one dinghy and broke a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) boat from its moorings . On Saint Croix , the hurricane produced sustained winds of 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) and a peak wind gust of 29 mph ( 46 km / h ) at the Henry E. Rohlsen Airport . Rainfall on the island was light , peaking at 0 @.@ 83 inches ( 21 mm ) at Christiansted . The wind gusts downed a few power lines , and damage was minor .
The outer rainbands of Erika passed over Puerto Rico , producing maximum sustained winds of 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) and a peak wind gust of 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) at the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport . The wind gusts snapped tree branches into power lines , leaving up to 12 @,@ 000 people without power in San Juan , Guaynabo and Bayamón . Rainfall was light on the island , with Caguas reporting a peak total of 0 @.@ 77 inches ( 20 mm ) . The hurricane produced swells of 10 to 12 ft ( 3 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) on the northern coast of Puerto Rico , causing beach erosion or coastal flooding . One road was closed when sections of it were flooded or washed out . The strong waves forced the evacuation of eight families in the northern portion of the island . The strong waves killed two surfers in the northeastern waters of the island . Damage in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands totaled to $ 10 million ( 1997 USD , $ 12 @.@ 6 million 2006 USD ) in a preliminary estimate .
Thirty @-@ one ships encountered Erika from September 4 , when it was a tropical storm , to September 18 , when it was extratropical . Two recorded hurricane force winds , with a peak wind report of 99 mph ( 159 km / h ) . The lowest recorded pressure by a ship was 1000 @.@ 4 mbar ( 29 @.@ 542 inHg ) while located 105 miles ( 170 km ) from Erika as an extratropical storm . The lowest recorded pressure while Erika was a tropical cyclone was 1000 @.@ 5 mbar ( 29 @.@ 545 inHg ) while located 190 miles ( 305 km ) from the center . While passing near the Azores , Tropical Storm Erika produced maximum sustained winds of 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) at Lajes Field . Gusts were much stronger , with a report of 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) in Flores . In addition , a 200 ft ( 61 m ) tower on Lajes recorded a gust of 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . The storm dropped up to 2 @.@ 35 inches ( 60 mm ) of rain in Flores and produced rough seas throughout the archipelago . Damage , if any , is unknown in the Azores .
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= Culture of the Song dynasty =
The Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 AD ) was a culturally rich and sophisticated age for China . There was blossoming of and advancements in the visual arts , music , literature , and philosophy . Officials of the ruling bureaucracy , who underwent a strict and extensive examination process , reached new heights of education in Chinese society , while general Chinese culture was enhanced by widespread printing , growing literacy , and various arts .
Appreciation of art among the gentry class flourished during the Song dynasty , especially in regard to paintings , which is an art practiced by many . Trends in painting styles amongst the gentry notably shifted from the Northern ( 960 – 1127 ) to Southern Song ( 1127 – 1279 ) periods , influenced in part by the gradual embrace of the Neo @-@ Confucian political ideology at court .
People in urban areas enjoyed theatrical drama on stage , restaurants that catered to a variety of regional cooking , lavish clothing and apparel sold in the markets , while both urban and rural people engaged in seasonal festivities and religious holidays .
= = Visual arts = =
Chinese painting during the Song dynasty reached a new level of sophistication with further development of landscape painting . The shan shui style painting — " shan " meaning mountain , and " shui " meaning river — became prominent features in Chinese landscape art . The emphasis laid upon landscape painting in the Song period was grounded in Chinese philosophy ; Taoism stressed that humans were but tiny specks amongst vast and greater cosmos , while Neo @-@ Confucianist writers often pursued the discovery of patterns and principles that they believed caused all social and natural phenomena . The making of glazed and translucent porcelain and celadon wares with complex use of enamels was also developed further during the Song period . Longquan celadon wares were particularly popular in the Song period . Black and red lacquerwares of the Song period featured beautifully carved artwork of miniature nature scenes , landscapes , or simple decorative motifs . However , even though intricate bronze @-@ casting , ceramics and lacquerware , jade carving , sculpture , architecture , and the painting of portraits and closely viewed objects like birds on branches were held in high esteem by the Song Chinese , landscape painting was paramount . By the beginning of the Song dynasty a distinctive landscape style had emerged . Artists mastered the formula of creating intricate and realistic scenes placed in the foreground , while the background retained qualities of vast and infinite space . Distant mountain peaks rise out of high clouds and mist , while streaming rivers run from afar into the foreground .
There was a significant difference in painting trends between the Northern Song period ( 960 – 1127 ) and Southern Song period ( 1127 – 1279 ) . The paintings of Northern Song officials were influenced by their political ideals of bringing order to the world and tackling the largest issues affecting the whole of their society , hence their paintings often depicted huge , sweeping landscapes . On the other hand , Southern Song officials were more interested in reforming society from the bottom up and on a much smaller scale , a method they believed had a better chance for eventual success . Hence , their paintings often focused on smaller , visually closer , and more intimate scenes , while the background was often depicted as bereft of detail as a realm without substance or concern for the artist or viewer . This change in attitude from one era to the next stemmed largely from the rising influence of Neo @-@ Confucian philosophy . Adherents to Neo @-@ Confucianism focused on reforming society from the bottom up , not the top down , which can be seen in their efforts to promote small private academies during the Southern Song instead of the large state @-@ controlled academies seen in the Northern Song era .
Ever since the Southern and Northern Dynasties ( 420 – 589 ) , painting had become an art of high sophistication that was associated with the gentry class as one of their main artistic pastimes , the others being calligraphy and poetry . During the Song dynasty there were avid art collectors that would often meet in groups to discuss their own paintings , as well as rate those of their colleagues and friends . The poet and statesman Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) and his accomplice Mi Fu ( 1051 – 1107 ) often partook in these affairs , borrowing art pieces to study and copy , or if they really admired a piece then an exchange was often proposed . The small round paintings popular in the Southern Song were often collected into albums as poets would write poems along the side to match the theme and mood of the painting .
Although they were avid art collectors , some Song scholars did not readily appreciate artworks commissioned by those painters found at shops or common marketplaces , and some of the scholars even criticized artists from renowned schools and academies . Anthony J. Barbieri @-@ Low , a Professor of Early Chinese History at the University of California , Santa Barbara , points out that Song scholars ' appreciation of art created by their peers was not extended to those who made a living simply as professional artists :
During the Northern Song ( 960 – 1126 CE ) , a new class of scholar @-@ artists emerged who did not possess the tromp l 'oiel skills of the academy painters nor even the proficiency of common marketplace painters . The literati 's painting was simpler and at times quite unschooled , yet they would criticize these other two groups as mere professionals , since they relied on paid commissions for their livelihood and did not paint merely for enjoyment or self @-@ expression . The scholar @-@ artists considered that painters who concentrated on realistic depictions , who employed a colorful palette , or , worst of all , who accepted monetary payment for their work were no better than butchers or tinkers in the marketplace . They were not to be considered real artists .
However , during the Song period , there were many acclaimed court painters and they were highly esteemed by emperors and the royal family . One of the greatest landscape painters given patronage by the Song court was Zhang Zeduan ( 1085 – 1145 ) , who painted the original Along the River During Qingming Festival scroll , one of the most well @-@ known masterpieces of Chinese visual art . Emperor Gaozong of Song ( 1127 – 1162 ) once commissioned an art project of numerous paintings for the Eighteen Songs of a Nomad Flute , based on the woman poet Cai Wenji ( 177 – 250 AD ) of the earlier Han dynasty . The Southern Song dynasty court painters included Zhao Mengjian ( 趙孟堅 , c.1199 @-@ 1264 ) , a member of the Imperial family , known for popularising the Three Friends of Winter .
During the Song period Buddhism saw a small revival since its persecution during the Tang dynasty . This could be seen in the continued construction of sculpture artwork at the Dazu Rock Carvings in Sichuan province . Similar in design to the sculptures at Dazu , the Song temple at Mingshan in Anyue , Sichuan province features a wealth of Song era Buddhist sculptures , including the Buddha and deities clad in lavish imperial and monastic robes .
= = = Paintings = = =
= = = Ceramics = = =
= = Poetry and literature = =
Chinese literature during the Song period contained a range of many different genres and was enriched by the social complexity of the period . Although the earlier Tang dynasty is viewed as the zenith era for Chinese poetry ( particularly the shi style poetry of Du Fu , Li Bai , Bai Juyi ) , there were important poetic developments by famous poets of the Song era , with the flourishing of the ci form being especially being associated with Song poetry . Song developments in poetry included the works of the social critic and pioneer of the " new subjective style " Mei Yaochen ( 1002 – 1060 ) , the politically controversial yet renowned master Su Shi ( 1037 – 1101 ) , the eccentric yet brilliant Mi Fu ( 1051 – 1107 ) , the premier Chinese female poet Li Qingzhao ( 1084 – 1151 ) , and many others . Although having roots in the Liang dynasty ( 502 – 557 AD ) , and further development during the brief existence of the Southern Tang immediate preceding the Song , the ci form of Chinese poetry found its greatest acceptance and popularity during the Song dynasty , and was used by most Song poets . The high court Chancellor Fan Zhongyan ( 989 – 1052 ) , ardent Neo @-@ Confucian Ouyang Xiu ( 1007 – 1072 ) , the great calligrapher Huang Tingjian ( 1045 – 1105 ) , and the military general Xin Qiji ( 1140 – 1207 ) were especially known for their ci poetry , amongst many others . The great ci poet Li Yu ( who ruled the Southern Tang under the name Li Houzhu ) wrote some of his most famous works during his time as a prisoner at the first Song court , following the demise of his former kingdom : Li Yu is an important transitional figure , sometimes considered to be the first major Song poet , and sometimes acclaimed as the last major Tang poet .
Historiography in literature remained prominent during the Song , as it had in previous ages and would in successive ages of China . Along with Song Qi , the essayist and historian Ouyang Xiu were responsible for compiling the New Book of Tang by 1060 , covering the history of the Tang dynasty . Chancellor Sima Guang ( 1019 – 1086 ) , the political nemesis of Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) , was responsible for heading a team of scholars that compiled the enormous historical work of the Zizhi Tongjian , a universal history completed in 1084 AD with a total of over 3 million written Chinese characters in 294 volumes . It covered the major themes and intricate nuances of Chinese history from 425 BC during the Warring States all the way up to the 10th century and the fall of the Tang . In 1189 it was compiled and condensed into fifty @-@ nine books by Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) , while this project was totally complete with the efforts of his disciples around the time of his death in 1200 .
There were also very large encyclopedic works written in the Song period , such as the Four Great Books of Song compiled first by Li Fang in the 10th century and fully edited by the time of Cefu Yuangui in the 11th century . The largest of these was the 1013 publication of the Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau , a massive encyclopedia consisting of 9 @.@ 4 million written Chinese characters divided into 1000 volumes . There were are also rhyme dictionaries written during the Song dynasty , such as the Jiyun of 1037 . Although Neo @-@ Confucianism became dominant over Buddhism in China during this period , there was still a significant amount of Buddhist literature . For example , there was the collection of Zen Buddhist kōans in the Blue Cliff Record of 1125 , which was expanded by Yuanwu Keqin ( 1063 – 1135 ) . ' Travel record literature ' ( ' youji wenxue ' ) was also a popular category of literature during the Song period , which was accounts of one 's own travel experiences typically written in narrative or prose styles , and included authors such as Fan Chengda ( 1126 – 1193 ) . A great example of Chinese travel literature in the Song period would be Su Shi 's ( 1037 – 1101 ) Record of Stone Bell Mountain .
There were many technical and scientific writings during the Song period . The two most eminent authors of the scientific and technical fields were Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) and his contemporary Su Song ( 1020 – 1101 ) . Shen Kuo published his Dream Pool Essays in 1088 AD , an enormous encyclopedic book that covered a wide range of subjects , including literature , art , military strategy , mathematics , astronomy , meteorology , geology , geography , metallurgy , engineering , hydraulics , architecture , zoology , botany , agronomy , medicine , anthropology , archeology , and more . As for Shen Kuo 's equally brilliant peer , Su Song created a celestial atlas of five different star maps , wrote the 1070 AD pharmaceutical treatise of the Ben Cao Tu Jing ( Illustrated Pharmacopoeia ) , which had the related subjects of botany , zoology , metallurgy , and mineralogy , and wrote his famous horological treatise of the Xin Yi Xiang Fa Yao in 1092 AD , which described in full detail his ingenious astronomical clock tower constructed in the capital city of Kaifeng . Although these two figures were perhaps the greatest technical authors in their field during the time , there were many others . For producing textiles , Qin Guan 's book of 1090 AD , the Can Shu ( Book of Sericulture ) , included description of a silk @-@ reeling machine that incorporated the earliest known use of the mechanical belt drive in order to function . In the literary field of agronomy , there was the Jiu Huang Huo Min Shu ( The Rescue of the People ; a Treatise on Famine Prevention and Relief ) edited by Dong Wei in the 12th century , the Cha Lu ( Record of Tea ) written by Cai Xiang in 1060 AD , the Zhu Zi Cang Fa ( Master Zhu on Managing Communal Granaries ) written by Zhu Xi in 1182 AD , and many others . There were also great authors of written works pertaining to geography and cartography during the Song , such as Yue Shi ( his book in 983 ) , Wang Zhu ( in 1051 ) , Li Dechu ( in 1080 ) , Chen Kunchen ( in 1111 ) , Ouyang Wen ( in 1117 ) , and Zhu Mu ( in 1240 ) . Although an early form of the local geographic gazetteer existed in China since the 1st century , the matured form known as " treatise on a place " , or fangzhi , replaced the old " map guide " , or tujing , under the Song . The major differences between the two were that fangzhi were products of local initiative and decision @-@ making , were typically ten to fifty chapters in length , and were almost always printed for a large audience , whereas tujing were products of infrequent demands from the central government and were typically only four chapters long . The widespread availability of printing in the Song allowed many ordinary people to access materials that were once read almost exclusively by experts , such as printed texts and handbooks on agriculture , childbirth , pharmacy and medicine , domestic economics , geography , divination , and Taoist rituals .
= = Performing arts = =
Theatre and drama in China trace their roots back to the academy of music known as the Pear Garden , founded in the early 8th century during the Tang dynasty . However , historian Stephen H. West asserts that the Northern Song era capital Kaifeng was the first real center where the performing arts became " an industry , a conglomerate involving theatre , gambling , prostitution , and food . " The rise in consumption by merchants and scholar @-@ officials , he states , " accelerated the growth of both the performance and the food industries , " asserting a direct link between the two due to their close proximity within the cities . Of the fifty some theatres located in the ' pleasure districts ' of Kaifeng , four of these theatres were large enough to entertain audiences of several thousand each , drawing huge crowds which nearby businesses thrived upon . The chief crowd that gathered was composed of those from the merchant class , while government officials only went to restaurants and attended theatre performances during holidays .
From Kaifeng , the zaju dramatic style employed the beiqu style of poetic lyrics . After the capital had shifted to Hangzhou , the dramatic style of xiwen ( also nanxi or nanqu ) developed separately . These two different regional genres of musical drama used different regional dialects of speech , recitation , and dialogue , entailed their own unique sets of role types ( juese ) , and employed different types of musical instruments playing different tunes . In Kaifeng drama , one singer was preferred for each play , accompanied by string and percussion instruments . In Hangzhou drama , there was a multitude of singers on stage for each set , while string and wind instruments were preferred .
Color and clothing distinguished the rank of theatre actors in the Song . Similar to vendors who wore specific outfits to identify which guild they belonged to , actors ' generic costumes reflected the role type they played on stage , whether it be student , young man , young woman , official , soldier , etc . Actors honed their theatrical skills at drama schools . Musicians also found work in the theatre industry , since plays performed in the markets were often accompanied by music . Actors on stage always spoke their lines in Classical Chinese ; vernacular Chinese that imitated the common spoken language was not introduced into theatrical performances until the Yuan dynasty . Although trained to speak in the erudite Classical language , acting troupes commonly drew their membership from one of the lowest classes in society : prostitutes . Themes enjoyed in stage skits varied from satires about corrupt officials to comedy acts with titles like " Setting fire when delivering the soup , " " Raising a ruckus in the winehouse , " " The peony smells best when the wine is stolen , " and " Catching a monkey in a restaurant . " The only xiwen play to have survived from the Southern Song era is the Zhang Xie zhuang yuan ( 张協狀元 ) , featuring interludes such as a clown stealing food and wine at a wedding banquet in act 16 and a quick comedy sketch about renting a room in act 24 .
Surprisingly , actors on stage did not have a wholesale monopoly on theatrical entertainment , as even vendors and peddlers in the street , singing lewd songs and beating on whatever they could find to compensate for percussion instruments , could draw crowds . This practice was so widespread that West claims " the city itself was turned into a stage and the citizens into the essential audience . " Many of the songs played for stage performances were tunes that originated from vendors ' and peddlers ' songs . Contests were held on New Year 's Day to determine which vendor or peddler had the best chants and songs while selling wares ; the winners were brought before the imperial court to perform . The Wulin jiushi of the Southern Song states that these vendors , when presented to the consorts and concubines of the palace , were lavished with heaps of gold and pearls for their wares ; some vendors would " become rich in a single evening . " Theatrical stunts were also performed to gain attention , such as fried @-@ glutinous @-@ rice @-@ ball vendors hanging small red lamps on portable bamboo racks who would twirl them around to the beat of a drum to dazzle crowds . Puppet shows in the streets and wards were also popular .
= = Festivities = =
In ancient China there were many domestic and public pleasures in the rich urban environment unique to the Song dynasty . For the austere and hardworking peasantry , annual festivals and holidays provided a time of joy and relaxation , and for the poorest it meant a chance to borrow food and alcoholic drink so that everyone could join in the celebration . People would gather around their local sanctuary to observe the festival 's games , theatrical entertainments , juggling , clowning , and other performances . The festivities on New Years were considered the most important of the year by the Chinese , its momentous occasion correlating with the beginning of February on the Western calendar . Preparations for the New Years festival took place over a month 's time , as people busied themselves painting door gods , crafting paper streamers with lucky characters for " welcoming the spring , " making printed images of Zhong Kui , and cooking special kinds of foods such as porridge of red haricot beans . The widely popular Lantern Festival was held every 15th day of 1st lunar month . According to the literatus and official Zhou Mi ( 1232 – 1298 AD ) , during the Xiao @-@ Zong period ( 1163 – 1189 AD ) the best lantern festivals were held at Suzhou and Fuzhou , while Hangzhou was also known for the its great variety of colorful paper lanterns , in all shapes and sizes . Meng Yuanlao ( active 1126 – 1147 ) recalled in Dongjing Meng Hua Lu ( Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital ) how the earlier Northern Song capital at Kaifeng would host festivals with tens of thousands of colorful and brightly lit paper lanterns hoisted on long poles up and down the main street , the poles also wrapped in colorful silk with numerous dramatic paper figures flying in the wind like fairies . There were also other venerated holidays , such as the Qingming Festival , as it was supposedly this period of the year that was depicted in the artwork ( mentioned above ) by the artist Zhang Zeduan ( although some would argue the painting actually represented the time of autumn in the year ) .
With the advent of the discovery of gunpowder in China , lavish fireworks displays could also be held during festivities . For example , the martial demonstration in 1110 AD to entertain the court of Emperor Huizong , when it was recorded that a large fireworks display was held alongside Chinese dancers in strange costumes moving through clouds of colored smoke in their performance . The common people also purchased firecrackers from city shopkeepers and vendors , made of simple sticks of bamboo filled with a small amount of gunpowder .
Although they were discontinued after the devastation of the Anshi Rebellion ( 755 – 763 ) during the Tang dynasty , lavish Chinese carnivals were revived and once again celebrated during the Song dynasty . Chinese carnival celebrations were held nationwide when the emperor felt a great occasion warranted a grand display of his benevolence and generosity , such as renowned military victories , abundant harvests after long droughts or famines , the granting of grand amnesties by the throne , sacrifices to deities , the installation of a crown prince , marriages within the imperial family , etc .
= = Clothing and apparel = =
There were many types of clothing and different clothing trends in the Song period , yet clothes in China were always modeled after the seasons and as outward symbols of one 's social class . Coal used for heating one 's home was scarce and often expensive , so people often wore clothing with extra silk @-@ floss and fur @-@ lined coats in the winter . The clothing material preferred by the rich was silk , and for special occasions they had silk robes with gold brocade . The clothing material used by the poor was often hempen cloth , but cotton clothes were also used , the latter being most widely available in the south . The types of clothes worn by peasants and commoners were largely uniform in appearance ( with color standard of black and white ) , and so was the case for the upper class and elite . In fact , wealthy and leading members of society followed accepted guidelines and ritual requirements for clothing . In the upper class , each stratified grade in the social hierarchy was distinguished by the color and specific ornamentation of robes , the shape and type of headgear , and even the style of girdle worn . This rigid order was especially so during the beginning of the dynasty . However , the lines of hierarchy slowly began to blur as the color purple , once reserved solely for the attire of third rank officials or higher , began to diffuse amongst all ranks of officials who bore the color indiscriminately . Along with lower grade civil officials in the government protesting the rigid regulations for attire , the wealthy members of the merchant class also contributed to the disintegration of rules for ceremonial attire worn only by certain members of society . Yet there were still visible distinctions between civil officials and the class of rich merchants and business owners ; the officials were distinguished by their long robes reaching to the ground , while merchants often wore a blouse that came down below the waist with trousers . Pants and trousers were introduced to China during the Warring States in the 4th century BC , and were not exclusive to merchants ; every soldier wore trousers as part of his uniform , while trousers were also worn by the common people . Although most men were cleanshaven , soldiers , military officers , and professional boxing champions preferred side @-@ whiskers and goatee beards , as they were a sign of virility .
The attire of Song women was distinguished from men 's clothing by being fastened on the left , not on the right . Women wore long dresses or blouses that came down almost to the knee . They also wore skirts and jackets with short or long sleeves . When strolling about outside and along the road , women of wealthy means chose to wear square purple scarves around their shoulders . Ladies also wore hairpins and combs in their hair , while princesses , imperial concubines , and the wives of officials and wealthy merchants wore head ornaments of gold and silver that were shaped in the form of phoenixes and flowers .
People in the Song dynasty never left their homes barefoot , and always had some sort of headgear on . Shops in the city specialized in certain types of hats and headgear , including caps with pointed tails , as well as belts and waistwraps . Only Buddhist monks shaved their heads and strolled about with no headgear or hat of any sort to cover their heads . For footwear , people could purchase leather shoes called ' oiled footwear ' , wooden sandals , hempen sandals , and the more expensive satin slippers .
= = Food and cuisine = =
From the Song period , works such as Dongjing Meng Hua Lu ( Dreams of Splendor of the Eastern Capital ) preserve lists of names for entrées and food dishes in customer menus for restaurants and taverns , as well as for feasts at banquets , festivals and carnivals , and modest dining . Many of the peculiar names for these dishes do not provide clues as to what types of food ingredients were used . However , judging from the listed seasonings they used for these dishes , such as pepper , ginger , soya sauce , oil , salt , and vinegar , Song era cuisine is perhaps not too different from the Chinese cuisine of today . Other additional seasonings and ingredients included walnuts , turnips , crushed Chinese cardamon kernels , fagara , olives , ginkgo nuts , citrus zest , and sesame oil .
Regional differences in culture brought about different types of foods , while in certain areas the cooking traditions of regional cultures blended together ; such was the case of the Southern Song capital at Hangzhou . After the mass exodus from the north , people brought Henan @-@ style cooking and foods ( popular in the previous Northern Song capital at Kaifeng ) to Hangzhou , which was blended with the cooking traditions of Zhejiang . However , records indicate that already in the Northern Song period , the first capital at Kaifeng sported restaurants that served southern Chinese cuisine . This catered to capital officials whose native provinces were in the southeast , and would have found northern cuisine lacking in sufficient seasoning for their tastes . In fact , texts from the Song era provide the first use of the phrases nanshi , beishi , and chuanfan to refer specifically to northern , southern , and Sichuan cooking , respectively . Many restaurants were known for their specialties ; for example , there was one restaurant in Hangzhou that served only iced foods , while some restaurants catered to those who wanted either hot , warm , room temperature , or cold foods . Descendants of those from Kaifeng owned most of the restaurants found in Hangzhou , but many other regional varieties in foodstuffs and cooking were sponsored by restaurants . This included restaurants catering Sichuan cuisine that emphasized use of pepper , dishes and beverages from Hebei and Shandong , and coastal foods of shrimp and saltwater fish . The memory and patience of waiters had to be keen ; in the larger restaurants , serving dinner parties that required twenty or so dishes became a hassle if even a slight error occurred . If a guest reported the mistake of a waiter to the head of the restaurant , the waiter could be verbally reprimanded , have his salary docked , or in extreme cases , kicked out of the establishment for good .
In the early morning in Hangzhou , along the wide avenue of the Imperial Way , special breakfast items and delicacies were sold . This included fried tripe , pieces of mutton or goose , soups of various kinds , hot pancakes , steamed pancakes , and iced cakes . Noodle shops were also popular , and remained open all day and night along the Imperial Way . According to one Song source on Kaifeng , the night markets closed at the third night watch but reopened on the fifth , while they had also gained a reputation for staying open during winter storms and the darkest , rainiest days of winter .
There were also some exotic foreign foods imported to China from abroad , including raisins , dates , Persian jujubes , and grape wine ; rice wine was more common in China , a fact noted even by the 13th century Venetian traveler Marco Polo . Although grape @-@ based wine had been known in China since the ancient Han dynasty Chinese ventured into Hellenistic Central Asia , grape @-@ wine was often reserved for the elite . Besides wine , other beverages included pear juice , lychee fruit juice , honey and ginger drinks , tea , and pawpaw juice . Dairy products and farming were foreign concepts to the Chinese , which explains the absence of cheese and milk in their diet . Beef was also rarely eaten , since the bull was an important draft animal . The main diet of the lower classes remained rice , pork , and salted fish , while it is known from restaurant dinner menus that the upper classes did not eat dog meat . The rich are known to have consumed an array of different meats , such as chicken , shellfish , fallow deer , hares , partridge , pheasant , francolin , quail , fox , badger , clam , crab , and many others . Local freshwater fish from the nearby lake and river were also caught and brought to market , while the West Lake provided geese and duck as well . Common fruits that were consumed included melons , pomegranates , lychees , longans , golden oranges , jujubes , Chinese and Japanese quinces , apricots and pears ; in the region around Hangzhou alone , there were eleven kinds of apricots and eight different kinds of pears that were produced . Specialties and combination dishes in the Song period included scented shellfish cooked in rice @-@ wine , geese with apricots , lotus @-@ seed soup , spicy soup with mussels and fish cooked with plums , sweet soya soup , baked sesame buns stuffed with either sour bean filling or pork tenderloin , mixed vegetable buns , fragrant candied fruit , strips of ginger and fermented beanpaste , jujube @-@ stuffed steamed dumplings , fried chestnuts , salted fermented bean soup , fruit cooked in scented honey , and ' honey crisps ' of kneaded and baked honey , flour , mutton fat and pork lard . Dessert molds of oiled flour and sugared honey were shaped into girls ' faces or statuettes of soldiers with full armor like door guards , and were called " likeness foods " ( guoshi ) .
= = Philosophy = =
Song intellectuals sought answers to all philosophical and political questions in the Confucian Classics . This renewed interest in the Confucian ideals and society of ancient times coincided with the decline of Buddhism , which was then largely regarded as foreign , and as offering few solutions for practical problems . However , Buddhism in this period continued as a cultural underlay to the more accepted Confucianism and even Taoism , both seen as native and pure by conservative Neo @-@ Confucians . The continuing popularity of Buddhism can be seen with strong evidence by achievements in the arts , such as the 100 painting set of the Five Hundred Luohan , completed by Lin Tinggui and Zhou Jichang in 1178 .
The conservative Confucian movement could be seen before the likes of Zhu Xi ( 1130 – 1200 ) , with staunch anti @-@ Buddhists such as Ouyang Xiu ( 1007 – 1072 ) . In his written work of the Ben @-@ lun , he wrote of his theory for how Buddhism had so easily penetrated Chinese culture during the earlier Southern and Northern Dynasties period . He argued that Buddhism became widely accepted when China 's traditional institutions were weakened at the time . This was due to many factors , such as foreign Xianbei ruling over the north , and China 's political schism that caused warfare and other ills . Although Emperor Wen of Sui ( r . 581 – 604 ) abolished the Nine Ranks in favor of a Confucian @-@ taught bureaucracy drafted through civil service examinations , he also heavily sponsored the popular ideology of Buddhism to legitimate his rule . Hence , it was given free rein and influence to flourish and dominate Chinese culture during the Sui and Tang periods ; historian Arthur F. Wright describes Confucianism in this period as being reverted to a state of " stale archaism " . Ouyang Xiu wrote :
" This curse [ Buddhism ] has overspread the empire for a thousand years , and what can one man in one day do about it ? The people are drunk with it , and it has entered the marrow of their bones ; it is surely not to be overcome by eloquent talk . What , then , is to be done ?
In conclusion on how to root out the ' evil ' that was Buddhism , Ouyang Xiu presented a historical example of how it could be uprooted from Chinese culture :
Of old , in the time of the Warring States , Yang Zhu and Mo Di were engaged in violent controversy . Mencius deplored this and devoted himself to teaching benevolence and righteousness . His exposition of benevolence and righteoussness won the day , and the teachings of Mo Di and Yang Zhu were extirpated . In Han times the myriad schools of thought all flourished together . Tung Chung @-@ shu deplored this and revived Confucianism . Therefore the Way of Confucius shone forth , and the myriad schools expired . This is the effect of what I have called " correcting the root cause in order to overcome the evil " .
Although Confucianism was cast in stark contrast to the perceived alien and morally inept Buddhism by those such as Ouyang Xiu , Confucianism nonetheless borrowed ideals of Buddhism to provide for its own revival . From Mahayana Buddhism , the Bodhisattva ideal of ethical universalism with benevolent charity and relief to those in need inspired those such as Fan Zhongyan and Wang Anshi , along with the Song government . In contrast to the earlier heavily Buddhist Tang period , where wealthy and pious Buddhist families and Buddhist temples handled much of the charity and alms to the poor , the Song government took on this ideal role instead , through its various programs of welfare and charity ( refer to Society section ) . In addition , the historian Arthur F. Wright notes this situation during the Song period , with philosophical nativism taking from Buddhism its earlier benevolent role :
It is true that Buddhist monks were given official appointments as managers of many of these enterprises , but the initiative came from Neo @-@ Confucian officials . In a sense the Buddhist idea of compassion and many of the measures developed for its practical expression had been appropriated by the Chinese state .
Although Buddhism lost its prominence in the elite circles and government sponsorships of Chinese society , this did not mean the disappeance of Buddhism from Chinese culture . Zen Buddhism continued to flourish during the Song period , as Emperor Lizong of Song had the monk Wuzhun Shifan share the Chán ( Zen ) doctrine with the imperial court . Much like the Eastern Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate promoting Roman paganism and Theurgy amongst the leading members of Roman society while pushing Christianity 's influence into the lower classes , so too did Neo @-@ Confucians of the 13th century succeed in driving Buddhism out of the higher echelons of Chinese society .
In terms of Buddhist metaphysics , Zhou Dunyi influenced the beliefs and teachings of Northern Song @-@ era Confucian scholars such as Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi ( who were brothers ) , and was a major influence for Zhu Xi , one of the leading architects of Neo @-@ Confucianism . They emphasized moral self @-@ cultivation over service to the ruler of the state ( healing society 's ills from the bottom @-@ up , not the top @-@ down ) , as opposed to statesmen like Fan Zhongyan or Su Shi , who pursued their agenda to advise the ruler to make the best decisions for the common good of all . The Cheng brothers also taught that the workings of nature and metaphysics could be taught through the principle ( li ) and the vital energy ( qi ) . The principle of nature could be moral or physical , such as the principle of marriage being moral , while the principle of trees is physical . Yet for principles to exist and function normally , there would have to be substance as well as vital energy . This allowed Song intellectuals to validate the teachings of Mencius on the innate goodness of human nature , while at the same time providing an explanation for human wrongdoing . In essence , the principle underlying a human being is good and benevolent , but vital energy has the potential to go astray and be corrupted , giving rise to selfish impulses and all other negative human traits .
The Song Neo @-@ Confucian philosophers , finding a certain purity in the originality of the ancient classical texts , wrote commentaries on them . The most influential of these philosophers was Zhu Xi , whose synthesis of Confucian thought and Buddhist , Taoist , and other ideas became the official imperial ideology from late Song times to the late 19th century . The basis of his teaching was influenced by the Cheng brothers , but he greatly extended their teachings , forming the core of Neo @-@ Confucianism . This included emphasis on the Four Books : the Analects , Mencius , Doctrine of the Mean , and the Great Learning ( the latter two being chapters in the ancient Book of Rites ) . His viewpoint was that improvement of the world began with improvement of the mind , as outlined in the Great Learning . His approach to Confucianism was shunned by his contemporaries , as his writings were forbidden to be cited by students taking the Imperial Examinations . However , Emperor Lizong of Song found his writing to be intriguing , reversing the policy against him , and making it a requirement for students to study his commentaries on the Four Books .
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= Augustin Pyramus de Candolle =
Augustin Pyramus de Candolle also spelled Augustin Pyrame de Candolle ( 4 February 1778 – 9 September 1841 ) was a Swiss botanist . René Louiche Desfontaines launched de Candolle 's botanical career by recommending him at an herbarium . Within a couple of years de Candolle had established a new genus , and he went on to document hundreds of plant families and create a new natural plant classification system . Although de Candolle 's main focus was botany , he also contributed to related fields such as phytogeography , agronomy , paleontology , medical botany , and economic botany .
Candolle originated the idea of " Nature 's war " , which influenced Charles Darwin and the principle of natural selection. de Candolle recognized that multiple species may develop similar characteristics that did not appear in a common evolutionary ancestor ; this was later termed analogy . During his work with plants , de Candolle noticed that plant leaf movements follow a near @-@ 24 @-@ hour cycle in constant light , suggesting that an internal biological clock exists . Though many scientists doubted de Candolle 's findings , experiments over a century later demonstrated that ″ the internal biological clock ″ indeed exists .
Candolle 's descendants continued his work on plant classification . Alphonse de Candolle and Casimir Pyrame de Candolle contributed to the Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis , a catalog of plants begun by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle .
= = Early life = =
Augustin Pyramus de Candolle was born on 4 February 1778 in Geneva , Switzerland , to Augustin de Candolle , a former official , and his wife , Louise Eléonore Brière . His family descended from one of the ancient families of Provence in France , but relocated to Geneva at the end of the 16th century to escape religious persecution .
At age seven de Candolle contracted of a severe case of hydrocephalus , which significantly affected his childhood . Nevertheless , he is said to have had great aptitude for learning , distinguishing himself in school with his rapid acquisition of knowledge in classical and general literature and his ability to write fine poetry . In 1794 , he began his scientific studies at the Collège Calvin , where he studied under Jean Pierre Étienne Vaucher , who later inspired de Candolle to make botanical science the chief pursuit of his life .
= = Career in botany = =
Candolle 's initiation to botany happened in 1794 thanks to Pierre Etienne Vaucher in Geneva . He spent then four years at the Geneva Academy , studying science and law according to his father 's wishes . In 1798 , he moved to Paris after Geneva had been annexed to the French Republic . His botanical career began with the help of René Louiche Desfontaines , who recommended de Candolle for work in the herbarium of Charles Louis L 'Héritier de Brutelle during the summer of 1798 . The position elevated de Candolle 's reputation and also led to valuable instruction from Desfontaines himself. de Candolle established his first genus , Senebiera , in 1799 .
de Candolle 's first books , Plantarum historia succulentarum ( 4 vols . , 1799 ) and Astragalogia ( 1802 ) , brought him to the notice of Georges Cuvier and Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck. de Candolle , with Cuvier 's approval , acted as deputy at the Collège de France in 1802 . Lamarck entrusted him with the publication of the third edition of the Flore française ( 1803 – 1815 ) , and in the introduction entitled Principes élémentaires de botanique , de Candolle proposed a natural method of plant classification as opposed to the artificial Linnaean method . The premise of de Candolle 's method is that taxa do not fall along a linear scale ; they are discrete , not continuous .
In 1804 , de Candolle published his Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes and was granted a doctor of medicine degree by the medical faculty of Paris . Two years later , he published Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum. de Candolle then spent the next six summers making a botanical and agricultural survey of France at the request of the French government , which was published in 1813 . In 1807 he was appointed professor of botany in the medical faculty of the University of Montpellier , where he would later become the first chair of botany in 1810 . While in Montpellier , de Candolle published his Théorie élémentaire de la botanique ( Elementary Theory of Botany , 1813 ) , which introduced a new classification system and the word taxonomy . Candolle moved back to Geneva in 1816 and in the following year was invited by the government of the Canton of Geneva to fill the newly created chair of natural history .
de Candolle spent the rest of his life in an attempt to elaborate and complete his natural system of botanical classification. de Candolle published initial work in his Regni vegetabillis systema naturale , but after two volumes he realized he could not complete the project on such a large scale . Consequently , he began his less extensive Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis in 1824 . However , he was able to finish only seven volumes , or two @-@ thirds of the whole . Even so , he was able to characterize over one hundred families of plants , helping to lay the empirical basis of general botany . Although de Candolle 's main focus was botany , throughout his career he also dabbled in fields related to botany , such as phytogeography , agronomy , paleontology , medical botany , and economic botany .
= = Later life = =
Augustin de Candolle was the first of four generations of botanists in the de Candolle dynasty . His son , Alphonse de Candolle , whom he fathered with his wife , Mademoiselle Torras , eventually succeeded to his father 's chair in botany and continued the Prodromus . Casimir Pyrame de Candolle , Augustin de Candolle 's grandson , also contributed to the Prodromus through his detailed , extensive research and characterization of the Piperaceae family of plants . Augustin de Candolle 's great @-@ grandson , Richard Émile Augustin de Candolle , was also a botanist . Augustin de Candolle died on 9 September 1841 in Geneva , after being sick for many years .
= = Legacy = =
He is remembered in the plant genera Candollea and Candolleodendron , and the mushroom Psathyrella candolleana . Candollea , a scientific journal that publishes papers on systematic botany and phylotaxonomy , was named after de Candolle and his descendants in honor of their contribution to the field of botany . He was a mentor to the French @-@ Mexican botanist Jean @-@ Louis Berlandier .
= = = Classification system = = =
de Candolle was the first to put forward the idea of " Nature 's war " , writing of plants being " at war one with another " with the meaning of different species fighting each other for space and resources . Charles Darwin studied de Candolle 's " natural system " of classification in 1826 when at the University of Edinburgh , and in the inception of Darwin 's theory in 1838 he considered " the warring of the species " , adding that it was even more strongly conveyed by Thomas Malthus , producing the pressures that Darwin later called natural selection . In 1839 de Candolle visited Britain and Darwin invited him to dinner , allowing the two scientists the opportunity to discuss the idea .
de Candolle was also among the first to recognize the difference between the morphological and physiological characteristics of organs . He ascribed plant morphology as being related to the number of organs and their positions relative to each other rather than to their various physiological properties . Consequently , this made him the first to attempt to attribute specific reasons for structural and numerical relationships amongst organs , and thus to distinguish between major and minor aspects of plant symmetry . To account for modifications of symmetry in parts of different plants , an occurrence that could hinder the discovery of an evolutionary relationship , de Candolle introduced the concept of homology .
= = = Chronobiology = = =
de Candolle also made contributions to the field of chronobiology . Building upon earlier work on plant circadian leaf movements contributed by such scientists as Jean @-@ Jacques d 'Ortous de Mairan and Henri @-@ Louis Duhamel du Monceau , de Candolle observed in 1832 that the plant Mimosa pudica had a free @-@ running period of leaf opening and closing of approximately 22 – 23 hours in constant light , significantly less than the approximate 24 @-@ hour period of the Earth 's light @-@ dark cycles . Since the period was shorter than 24 hours , he hypothesized that a different clock had to be responsible for the rhythm ; the shortened period was not entrained — coordinated — by environmental cues , thus the clock appeared to be endogenous . Despite these findings , a number of scientists continued to search for " factor X " , an unknown exogenous factor associated with the earth 's rotation that was driving circadian oscillations in the absence of a light dark schedule , until the mid @-@ twentieth century . In the mid @-@ 1920s , Erwin Bunning repeated Candolle 's findings and came to similar conclusions , and studies that showed the persistence of circadian rhythm in the South Pole and in a space lab further confirmed the existence of oscillations in the absence of environmental cues .
= = Published works = =
Reticularia rosea ( 1798 )
Historia Plantarum Succulentarum ( 4 vols . , 1799 )
Astragalogia ( 1802 )
Flore française ( 1805 – 1815 ) editor , 3rd ed . ( Introduction : Principes élémentaires de botanique page 61 )
vol . I 1815
vol . II 1805
vol . III 1815
vol . IV 1815 Latin Index page 931
vol . V 1815 Supplementary volume , volume index page 650
Les liliacées vols . 1 @-@ 4 , ( 1805 @-@ 1808 ) of 8
Essai sur les propriétés médicales des plantes comparées avec leurs formes extérieures et leur classification naturelle ( 1804 )
Synopsis plantarum in flora Gallica descriptarum ( 1806 )
Mémoire sur la Géographie des Plantes de France , Considerée dans Ses Rapports avec la Hauteur Absolue ( 1817 )
Théorie élémentaire de la botanique ( 1813 ) , 2nd ed . 1819
Flore du Mexique ( 1819 ) transcribed in Hervé M. Burdet , " Le récit par Augustin Pyramus de Candolle de l 'élaboration de la Flore du Mexique , dite aussi Flore des dames de Genève , " Anales del Jardín Botánico de Madrid , 54 ( 1996 ) 575 @-@ 88 .
Regni vegetabillis systema naturale ( 2 vol . , 1818 – 21 )
Essai Élémentaire de Géographie Botanique ( 1820 )
Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis ( 17 vols . , 1824 @-@ 1873 )
First seven volumes 1824 @-@ 1839 , continued by Alphonse de Candolle
= = = Collections of works = = =
View digitized titles by and a short biography of de Candolle in Botanicus.org
de Candolle 's works in Gallica
de Candolle at Biodiversity Heritage Library
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= Eisenhower National Historic Site =
Eisenhower National Historic Site preserves the home and farm of Dwight D. Eisenhower , the 34th President of the United States , and its surrounding property of 690 @.@ 5 acres ( 279 @.@ 4 ha ) . It is located in Cumberland Township , Adams County , Pennsylvania , just outside of Gettysburg . Purchased by then @-@ General Eisenhower and his wife Mamie in 1950 , the farm served as a weekend retreat for the President and a meeting place for world leaders , and became the Eisenhowers ' home after they left the White House in 1961 .
With its putting green , skeet range , and view of South Mountain and the Gettysburg Battlefield , it offered President Eisenhower a much @-@ needed respite from the pressures of Washington . It was also a successful cattle operation , with a show herd of black Angus cattle . Some of the more notable of Eisenhower 's guests were Premier Nikita Khrushchev of the Soviet Union , President Charles de Gaulle of France , Prime Minister Winston Churchill of Britain , and Governor Ronald Reagan of California .
= = History = =
Dwight D. ( Ike ) Eisenhower had a long history with the Gettysburg area . His graduating class from West Point had visited the battlefield in 1915 . In 1918 , he was assigned to nearby Camp Colt in his first independent command as an army officer , commanding a tank training unit ; he and Mamie Eisenhower were newly married .
Throughout his long army career , Dwight Eisenhower and his wife never had a house to call their own , with the couple moving from army post to army post . After he became Columbia University 's president in 1948 , Mamie requested that they finally have a place to call their own . A married couple that were friends with the Eisenhowers , George and Mary Allen , had recently purchased a small farm around Gettysburg , and recommended the area . In 1950 , they found a " run @-@ down farm " on the outskirts of Gettysburg , and purchased the farm and its 189 acres ( 76 ha ) for $ 40 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 393 @,@ 416 today ) from one Allen Redding , who had owned the farm since 1921 . Eisenhower stated that he could feel the " forgotten heroisms " that occurred on the grounds as the Battle of Gettysburg .
When purchased , the 189 acres ( 0 @.@ 76 km2 ) included 600 chickens , 25 cows , and many dilapidated buildings dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries . Renovation of the property was delayed when Eisenhower became supreme commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization in 1951 . After he had attained the presidency of the United States in 1953 , Mamie had him rebuild the old house . Much of the original building had to be torn down , due to its deterioration . The total cost of renovation was $ 250 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 2 @,@ 211 @,@ 132 today ) . This large expense was due partly to Mamie 's whims , but also to Eisenhower 's employment of union labor ; he spent $ 65 @,@ 000 ( equal to $ 574 @,@ 894 today ) for union workmen who came each day from Washington , D.C. ( 75 miles ( 121 km ) away ) to work on the farmhouse . On their 1955 wedding anniversary , the Eisenhowers held a party to celebrate completion of the work . The entire staff of the White House were invited , attending in two shifts , so that the White House would not be unstaffed . The staff were forever grateful to the Eisenhowers for including them in the festivities .
From its completion in 1955 to the end of Eisenhower 's second term on January 20 , 1961 , the President spent 365 days total on the Gettysburg farm . The longest of these stays was 38 days in late 1955 , while recovering from a heart attack he had suffered that September . After 1955 , the Eisenhowers spent most weekends and summer vacations at the Gettysburg farm . They sometimes went to both the Gettysburg farm and Camp David , prompting one person to call Camp David " an annex to Gettysburg " .
The Gettysburg farm provided a few headaches . Democrats chose the amount of time the Eisenhowers spent at the Gettysburg farm as another way to attack him . Paul M. Butler , head of the Democratic National Committee , called him a part @-@ time president due to his many stays in Gettysburg . When his World War II colleague Bernard Montgomery visited the farm , Eisenhower commented to Montgomery ( speaking as military commander to military commander ) that he would have fired a subordinate that would initiate Pickett 's Charge . Many Southerners saw this as disrespect toward Robert E. Lee , and protested . Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev visited the farm in September 1959 , and was " grandfathery " to the Eisenhower grandchildren . David Eisenhower said that Khrushchev was such a nice guy , he ( David ) could become a Communist if he did not know better , causing much embarrassment to the Eisenhowers .
The Eisenhowers donated their home and farm ( 230 acres ( 93 ha ) total at the time ) to the National Park Service in 1967 , with lifetime living rights for the former president . Two years later , Eisenhower died at the age of 78 . Mamie Eisenhower rejected the idea of moving to Washington to be closer to family and friends and , with Federal permission , lived on the farm until her death in 1979 , although the living area for Mamie was reduced to 14 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) . The National Park Service opened the site in 1980 .
= = Grounds = =
The plans for decoration and construction of the house were dictated by Mamie Eisenhower . At one point , Eisenhower told the contractor " For God 's sakes , just give her what she wants and send me the bill . " His main concern was personally mixing the paint to recolor the barn , which had a red coat he thought was hideous , so he painted it a light gray @-@ green . Mamie , meanwhile , was delighted in being able to use everything they always had in storage , and decorated more for sentimentality than for aesthetics .
Cattle were raised at the farm . Eisenhower would often poke the rump of a bull with his shotgun to show what quality of steak the animal would eventually produce , alarming the Secret Service agents that were protecting him . Once , while barbecuing ( something he loved to do on the farm ) , he made the mistake of announcing which cow he was cooking . As it had been the favorite cow of his granddaughter Susan Eisenhower , she was brought to tears .
A row of fifty Norway spruce trees lines the main driveway leading to the farm . These trees represent the fifty U.S. states , and were given to Eisenhower as birthday presents from each of the state Republican Party chairmen in 1955 . The furthest one from the house was the tree representing Texas , and it was seen as a mark of Eisenhower 's recovery that he was able to walk that far after his heart attack .
The Eisenhowers ( especially Dwight in the beginning ) spent most of their time in a glass @-@ covered porch overlooking Seminary Ridge . Reading and playing cards with friends were popular pastimes on the porch , it was said that he would sit for hours reflecting on his life and legacy .
In his book The Lost Continent : Travels in Small @-@ Town America , Bill Bryson said of the site that it was the most fun he could remember having in a Republican household , and described the decor of the house as " 1960s Republican " . Bryson did express dismay in discovering that the last book such an important man ever read was Zane Grey 's West of the Pecos .
= = Today = =
The Eisenhower National Historic Site is open daily from 9 : 00 am to 5 : 00 pm , except for Thanksgiving , Christmas and New Year 's Day . The home , grounds , barns and cattle operation are available for public tours . Visitors may reach the site via a shuttle bus which departs from the Gettysburg National Military Park Visitor Center . The total land area is 690 acres ( 280 ha ) . Two different films cover the grounds and President Eisenhower 's life .
Eisenhower National Historic Site
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= Leopard catshark =
The leopard catshark ( Poroderma pantherinum ) is a species of catshark , and part of the family Scyliorhinidae , endemic to the coastal waters of South Africa . Abundant in inshore waters under 20 m ( 66 ft ) deep , this bottom @-@ dweller favors rocky reefs , kelp beds , and sandy flats . Growing to a length of 84 cm ( 33 in ) , the leopard catshark has a stout body with two dorsal fins placed well back , and a short head and tail . It is extremely variable in color and pattern , with individuals ranging from almost white to black and covered by diverse patterns of black spots , blotches , rosettes , and / or lines . The color pattern changes with age and some forms seem to be location @-@ specific , suggesting the presence of multiple distinct , local populations . In the past , some of the more distinct color forms have been described as different species .
Mainly nocturnal in habits , after dusk the leopard catshark hunts for small , benthic bony fishes and invertebrates in shallow water . In daytime , it generally rests inside caves and crevices , sometimes in groups . This species has been documented ambushing spawning chokka squid ( Loligo vulgaris reynaudi ) within their spawning grounds . Reproduction is oviparous and proceeds year @-@ round . Females produce rectangular , light @-@ colored egg capsules two at a time , attaching them to structures on the sea floor . Small and harmless , the leopard catshark adapts well to captivity and is often exhibited in public aquariums . It is caught by commercial and recreational fishers as bycatch , and often killed as a pest . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Data Deficient ; its numbers do not seem to be declining , but heavy human activity occurs within its native waters . The possibly fragmented nature of its distribution also merits caution for each local population .
= = Taxonomy = =
Because of its highly variable color pattern , the leopard catshark has historically been known under a multitude of names . In an 1837 issue of Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London , Scottish physician and zoologist Andrew Smith listed without descriptions the new genus Poroderma , containing the species P. africanum ( the pyjama shark ) , P. pantherinum , P. submaculatum , and P. variegatum . German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle assigned these sharks to the genus Scyllium , and in their 1838 – 1841 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen furnished descriptions for S. pantherinum and S. variegatum , and listed two more names without description , S. leopardinum and S. maeandrinum . In 1934 , American zoologist Henry Weed Fowler described P. marleyi , characterized by large black spots .
Subsequent authors have recognized these names as based on pattern variants of the leopard catshark ; resolving the identity of P. marleyi proved especially problematic and it was not confirmed to be a synonym of this species until 2003 . The valid scientific name of the leopard catshark is considered to be Poroderma pantherinum , attributed to Müller and Henle as they were responsible for the description . The specific epithet pantherinum refers to the panther @-@ like patterning of the type specimen , a 65 cm ( 26 in ) long female collected off the Cape of Good Hope . Other common names for this shark include barbeled catshark and blackspotted catshark .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The leopard catshark inhabits the temperate and subtropical inshore waters off South Africa , from Saldanha Bay in the west to the mouth of the Tugela River in the east . There are old and almost certainly erroneous records from Mauritius and Madagascar . Given the color pattern diversity within the species , its range is likely fragmented into a number of small local populations along the South African coast . Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , the leopard catshark is most commonly encountered from the intertidal zone to a depth of 20 m ( 66 ft ) , though it has been reported from as deep as 256 m ( 840 ft ) on the uppermost portion of the continental slope . This species favors rocky reefs , kelp forests , and sandy flats off beaches .
= = Description = =
The leopard catshark is the smaller and slimmer of the two Poroderma species . The head and snout are short and slightly flattened , with a somewhat pointed snout tip . Each nostril is split into tiny incurrent and excurrent openings by a three @-@ lobed flap of skin in front , of which the central lobe forms a slender barbel that reaches past the mouth . The horizontally oval eyes are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) and placed rather high on the head , with a thick ridge running under each . The mouth is wide and arched , with short furrows at the corners extending onto both jaws ; the upper teeth are exposed when the mouth is closed . There are 18 – 30 and 13 – 26 tooth rows on either side of the upper and lower jaws respectively . The teeth have a narrow central cusp with a pair of small lateral cusplets ; those of adult males are slightly more curved than those of females .
The body is rather laterally compressed and tapers towards the tail , with two dorsal fins set far back . The first dorsal fin originates over the rear of the pelvic fins and is much larger than the second , which originates over the midpoint of the anal fin base . The bases of the pectoral and pelvic fins are about equal ; the pectoral fins are large and broad while the pelvic fins are much lower . Adult males have stubby claspers with the inner margins of the pelvic fins partially fused over them to form an " apron " . The caudal fin is short and broad , with an indistinct lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The very thick skin is covered by well @-@ calcified dermal denticles . Each denticle has an arrowhead @-@ shaped crown with three posterior points , mounted on a short stalk .
The background color of the leopard catshark ranges from off @-@ white to glossy jet black above and white to almost black below , sometimes with an abrupt transition between the two . Overlaid is a striking pattern of black markings variously combining small to large spots , blotches , complete to incomplete rosettes , and / or short to long lines , that may extend almost to the midline of the belly . There are four named forms : ' typical ' , with leopard @-@ like rosettes and broken lines , ' marleyi ' , with large round spots , ' salt and pepper ' , with densely packed dots , and ' melanistic ' , with an almost completely black upper surface and irregular stripes and / or spots ; many sharks are intermediate between these forms . Color pattern is affected by development : all hatchling sharks have large black spots , that with age tend to break up into rosettes and smaller spots , that may eventually merge into lines . The ' marleyi ' form appears to be a type of paedomorphosis , in which in the hatchling pattern is carried into adulthood . Color pattern is also related to geographic location , with the ' marleyi ' and ' salt and pepper ' forms apparently restricted to the waters off the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu @-@ Natal . The leopard catshark reaches a maximum known length of 84 cm ( 33 in ) and a maximum known weight of 3 @.@ 2 kg ( 7 @.@ 1 lb ) ; males grow slightly larger than females .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The slow @-@ swimming leopard catshark generally spends the day resting inside caves or crevices , either alone or in groups . At night , it moves towards the shore to actively forage for small bony fishes , cephalopods , crustaceans , and polychaete worms . In False Bay , fishes are the most important prey type , followed by cephalopods and then the Cape rock lobster ( Jasus lalandii ) . This shark has been observed attacking octopus and cuttlefish by seizing and tearing off tentacles with a twisting motion . Like its close relative the pyjama shark , it will temporarily abandon its nocturnal habits to take advantage of the daytime mass spawnings of the chokka squid ( Loligo vulgaris reynaudi ) , which occur unpredictably year @-@ round with a peak from October to December . The sharks lie motionless amongst the squids ' egg masses with their heads hidden , and make sudden lunges at female squid that have descended to the sea floor to attach their eggs .
The leopard catshark is oviparous and apparently reproduces throughout the year . Females produce two eggs at a time , one within each oviduct . Each egg is protected by a rectangular capsule 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long and 3 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) across , which is light brown to olive in color and thinner @-@ walled than those of the pyjama shark . The corners of the capsule bear long tendrils that enable the female to secure them to underwater structures . In the aquarium , the eggs hatch in approximately five and a half months . The hatchling shark measures 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) long ; males and females begin to mature sexually at 47 – 67 cm ( 19 – 26 in ) and 43 – 64 cm ( 17 – 25 in ) long respectively , corresponding to an age of around 10 years . One source reports the maximum lifespan as at least 15 years , while another source gives at least 19 years .
Predators of the leopard catshark include larger sharks and marine mammals ; it is one of the cartilaginous fish most often consumed by the broadnose sevengill shark ( Notorynchus cepedianus ) . When threatened , it curls into a ring with its tail covering its head , a behavior also performed by the shysharks ( Haploblepharus ) . Its eggs are also heavily preyed upon , by animals such as the whelks Burnupena papyracea and B. lagenaria , which can pierce the outer covering to extract the yolk . This species is known to be parasitized by the praniza larvae of the isopod Gnathia pantherina , which infest the nostrils , mouth , and gills .
= = Human interactions = =
Quite common within its range , the leopard catshark is harmless to humans . It is a popular subject of public aquariums because of its small size , attractive appearance , and hardiness . The aquarium trade supports a minor fishery that targets the two Poroderma species . This shark is regularly caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fishers , and almost invariably discarded despite being edible . Nevertheless , fishing mortality is likely to be high as many fishers using line gear make a point to kill hooked sharks , seeing them as pests that " steal " bait . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks sufficient information to assess the leopard catshark beyond Data Deficient , though notes that its inshore habitat is heavily fished and otherwise impacted by human activity . The possible distribution of this shark across many small , distinct populations also warrants additional investigation and monitoring .
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= Somerton =
Somerton / ˈsʌmərtən / is a small town and civil parish in the English county of Somerset . It gave its name to the county , and was briefly , around the start of the 14th century , the county town , and around 900 AD was possibly the capital of Wessex . It has held a weekly market since the Middle Ages , and the main square with its market cross is today an attractive location for visitors . Situated on the River Cary , approximately 8 @.@ 8 miles ( 14 @.@ 2 km ) north @-@ west of Yeovil , Somerton has its own town council serving a population of 4 @,@ 697 as of 2011 . Residents are often referred to locally as Somertonians . The civil parish includes the hamlets of Etsome , Hurcot , Catsgore , and Catcombe .
The history of Somerton dates back to the Anglo @-@ Saxon era , when it was an important political and commercial centre . After the Norman conquest of England the importance of the town declined , despite being the county town of Somerset in the late thirteenth century and early fourteenth century . Having lost county town status , Somerton then became a market town in the Middle Ages , whose economy was supported by transport systems using the River Parrett , and later rail transport via the Great Western Railway , and by light industries including glove making and gypsum mining .
In the centre of Somerton the wide market square , with its octagonal roofed market cross , is surrounded by old houses , while close by is the 13th century Church of St Michael and All Angels . Somerton also had links with Muchelney Abbey in the Middle Ages . The BBC drama The Monocled Mutineer was filmed in Somerton from 1985 to 1986 .
= = History = =
The earliest reference to the town is in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which records that in 733 the King of Wessex , Æthelheard lost control of Somerton to Æthelbald , King of Mercia . Somerton was the site of the 949 meeting of the witan , a form of Anglo @-@ Saxon parliament . The town returned to West Saxon royal control in the ninth century , and it was listed in the Domesday Book of 1086 as " Sumertone " . The name may come from Old English for " sea @-@ lake enclosure " , " summer town " or " summer farmstead " . The Somerton name was extended to the people in the area it controlled , and this area became known as Somerset , although Somerton soon ceased to be the most important settlement and never grew into a large town . The parish was the largest in the Hundred of Somerton . It was , briefly , the county town of Somerset from the late thirteenth century into the early fourteenth century . A building referred to as " Somerset castle " is believed to have been built around 1280 as a county gaol , with a visitor in 1579 describing the remaining portion as " an old tower embattled about castle @-@ like " . It was owned by Sir Ralph Cromwell between 1423 and 1433 . Details are vague and visible remains have vanished , so its status as a castle and its very existence is in doubt , with one writer , D.J.C. King , feeling that people were confusing it with Somerton Castle in Lincolnshire .
The Abbots of Muchelney Abbey held the Rectorship of the parish church of Somerton during the Middle Ages . They built a tithe barn , to house the tithes of crops and produce paid by the parish to the town 's Rector . The Abbey was dissolved in 1539 during the English Reformation , and the tithes and the tithe barn passed into the ownership of Bristol Cathedral . In the 20th century the barn was converted into private housing .
Glove making was a major industry in the town in the early nineteenth century , along with the production of rope and twine . The Somerton Brewery , owned by a local landowner named Thomas Templeman , was first recorded under the Tithe Apportionment Act of 1841 . The brewery became a large producer in Somerset until its final closure around 1935 . Before the National Insurance and the Health Service was introduced , Somerton Men 's Club acted as a local provident society within the area . Gypsum was extracted by hand at the Hurcott open @-@ cast mine from the Victorian era up until it closed down in 1953 . In 1906 , a railway station opened on the Castle Cary Cut @-@ Off which was built by the Great Western Railway . Whilst the line still remains in use , the station was closed in 1962 . When the Marconi Company built the radio stations known as the Imperial Wireless Chain for the Post Office during 1925 – 26 , they also established their own transmitting station at Dorchester with a receiving station 30 miles ( 48 km ) away at Somerton .
Somerton was hit by four Luftwaffe bombs on the morning of 29 September 1942 during the Second World War . The bombs were aimed at the Cow and Gate milk factory and it was largely destroyed . Ten nearby houses were badly damaged . Nine people were killed and thirty seven injured . A memorial at the dairy site commemorates those killed . The factory later became a district council depot , and was recently bought by the town council for possible use as the site of a new town hall .
= = Governance = =
The town council has responsibility for local issues , including setting an annual precept ( local rate ) to cover the council 's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny . The town council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police , district council officers , and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime , security , and traffic . The town council 's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities , as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance , repair , and improvement of highways , drainage , footpaths , public transport , and street cleaning . Conservation matters ( including trees and listed buildings ) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council .
In October 2009 , eleven of the local councillors resigned en masse , citing excessive criticism from local residents and in particular criticism from a hostile local weblog . In February 2012 the External Auditor appointed by the Audit Commission published a critical Report in the Public Interest regarding the activities of Somerton Town Council in the fiscal year 2008 to 2009 .
The town falls within the non @-@ metropolitan district of South Somerset , which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , having previously been part of Langport Rural District . The district council is responsible for planning permission and building control , local roads , council housing , environmental health , markets and fairs , refuse collection and recycling , cemeteries and crematoria , leisure services , parks , and tourism . Somerset County Council is responsible for major services such as the Local Education Authority , social services , libraries , main roads , public transport , policing and fire services , trading standards , waste disposal and strategic planning .
Somerton is in the electoral ward of Wessex and whilst it is by far the most populous area , the ward stretches north to Compton Dundon . The total population of the ward taken from the 2011 census was 5 @,@ 402 .
Somerton elects one Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Somerton and Frome county constituency , represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom , and is part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament which elects six MEPs using the d 'Hondt method of party @-@ list proportional representation .
= = Geography = =
Somerton is situated on a plateau , above and to the south of the deep valley of the River Cary . The river flows west and then north through the Somerton Moor and then into King 's Sedgemoor Drain on the Somerset Levels eventually joining the River Parrett near Bridgwater . The town is 116 miles ( 187 km ) from London , 28 miles ( 45 km ) south from Bristol and 9 miles ( 14 km ) north @-@ west from Yeovil , just off the Dorset border . Somerton 's hamlets include Etsome , Hurcot , Lower Somerton , Littleton and Midney . Great Breach Wood is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) and is situated just 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) north @-@ east from Somerton , near the hamlet of Littleton .
Somerton 's climate is typical of the climate of south @-@ west England which is usually cool winters with warmer summers and precipitation all year round , with more rain experienced in winter .
= = Demography = =
The Somerton parish had a population of 4 @,@ 706 as of 2002 . In the 1801 census the population of the town was 1 @,@ 145 and the first half of the 19th century saw strong growth ( reflecting that seen elsewhere in England during this period ) , with the population rising to 2 @,@ 140 in 1851 . It however then began to drop , starting with a significant drop to 1 @,@ 917 by the 1861 census . The population steadily fell until 1921 , before steadily rising thereafter . It was not until 1961 that the population of Somerton had risen above its former population of 1851 . The population has since continued to steadily increase .
= = Economy = =
A weekly market has been held in Somerton for much of its history . The cloth industry dominated the town 's market from the 17th century until the 20th century , when agriculture took over as the leading industry . Some light industries and services , such as garage repair , physiotherapy , water treatment , and builders and decorators , are located in the business park on Bancombe Road .
= = Landmarks = =
The main square , Market Place , with its market cross is today an attractive location for visitors . Market crosses have stood in the square since before 1390 ; the present Butter Cross , a roofed market cross , was rebuilt in 1673 , and is Somerton 's most noted feature . The structure was the property of the Earls of Ilchester who sold it to the town in 1916 . It is a Scheduled Ancient Monument . Next to the Butter Cross stands the " Market Hall " , previously known as the " Town Hall " , although the building has never fulfilled either of these functions . Bordering the square are the church , and the Lady Smith Memorial Hall , also known as the " Parish Rooms " , which was built in 1902 , and the 17th century Market House , now a restaurant . The Red Lion was opened by the Earl of Ilchester in 1768 as a model coaching inn . It closed in 1995 ; after a period of neglect it has been redeveloped as town houses .
From the early 1980s onwards projects aiming to improve Somerton for film industry purposes have been undertaken . The market square was heavily revamped , creating a central parking area with easy access to the local amenities . The BBC drama The Monocled Mutineer was filmed in Somerton from 1985 to 1986 .
= = Somerton Court = =
Somerton Court , originally known as " Somerton Erleigh " . The house has had various owners including Edward IV 's brother , the Duke of Clarence , and Henry Percy , 6th Earl of Northumberland , who sold the estate in 1530 . It passed through a number of hands until 1597 when it was purchased by James Fisher , whose son later rebuilt it in 1641 . The court remained in the Fisher family 's possession until 1808 when it was sold . Its new owner renamed the house " Somerton Court " , and replaced the gabled dormers with Gothic battlements and turrets . The house was later enlarged by the Hall @-@ Stephenson family . During World War II it was occupied by Royal Navy WRENS . In the 1970s it was purchased by a local businessman Stuart Pattemore . In 1987 Somerton Court and the estate of 55 acres and 4 cottages including The Dower House was purchased by Roger Byron @-@ Collins when it subject to extensive upgrading and extensions . It was resold in 2005 . The Dower House was built in the early 19th century . Somerton Court is now used for Wedding Receptions . The house now stands in 55 acres grounds .
= = Transport = =
The town 's former , and only , railway station was on the Castle Cary Cut @-@ Off , once part of the Great Western Railway . Although the line still remains in use the station closed to passengers in 1962 , and goods in 1964 . The nearest station is now at Castle Cary . On the outskirts of the town stands the impressive Somerton Viaduct .
Despite Somerton being situated in a rural area , the closest main road from Somerton is the A303 road that runs near the town and stretches all the way into northern Hampshire and finally ends at Basingstoke . The minor B3165 road runs through the town although the road is less commonly used and does not join to the A303 for another 4 miles ( 6 km ) . Two B roads , the B3153 and B3165 , run through Somerton ; the B3165 , mentioned earlier , starts in the town and runs southwards to the A372 Langport road . The A372 itself runs south @-@ east to the junction of the A303 and A37 roads at Podimore services .
= = Religious sites = =
The Anglican Church , St Michael 's and All Angels , has origins which date from the 13th century , with a major reshaping in the mid 15th century , and further restoration in 1889 . It is built of local lias stone cut and squared , with Hamstone dressing . It has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building .
It is notable for a carved roof , with lions and a small cider barrel purportedly carved by the monks of Muchelney Abbey . Sir John Betjeman was also inspired by an inscription on the candelabra . The church is quite plain on the outside but inside is one of the finest wooden carved roofs in the county . It is shallow pitched with massive , richly decorated tie beams and short king posts . The whole area of the roof is divided into square carved panels set in the framework of the structural timbers which are decorated with carved bosses where they intersect . There are 640 panels each carved with the same quatrefoil design . In the triangular spaces above each beam are dragon @-@ like beasts . It is said there are bullet holes in the timbers , caused by soldiers who camped in the church in 1646 before the Battle of Langport . The 17th century pulpit and altar table are Jacobean woodwork . There are five other churches in the town , including Catholic and Methodist groups .
= = Education = =
Somerton has two primary schools in the town , but no secondary schools . Children aged between 4 and 7 attend the County Infants ' school at Etsome Terrace . It has around 120 students in five classes that are named after flowers . Older children ( between 7 and 11 years ) attend the Monteclefe CEVA Junior School on Kirkham Street , which provides the second part of primary education in the area .
= = Twin towns = =
Licciana Nardi , Tuscany , Italy
Sillé @-@ le @-@ Guillaume , Pays @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Loire , France
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= R v Baillie =
R v Baillie , also known as the Greenwich Hospital Case , was a 1778 prosecution of Thomas Baillie for criminal libel . The case initiated the legal career of Thomas Erskine . Baillie , the Lieutenant @-@ Governor of the Greenwich Hospital for Seamen , a facility for injured or pensioned off seamen , had noted irregularities and corruption in the hospital , which was formally run by the Earl of Sandwich . After his official reporting of the problems failed to bring about reform in the hospital , Baillie published a pamphlet that was critical of the hospital 's officers , alleging that Sandwich had given appointments to pay off political debts ; Sandwich ignored the pamphlet but ensured that Baillie was indicted for criminal libel . Baillie hired five barristers , including Erskine , then newly called to the Bar , and appeared before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King 's Bench on 23 November 1778 .
After four of the barristers had spoken , Mansfield announced that the court session would resume the next morning rather than continue into the night , which gave Erskine the time he needed to present a full speech rather than a brief comment . In it he accused Sandwich of cowardice and of orchestrating the attack on Baillie , arguing that Baillie was merely doing his duty by attempting to bring the problems with the hospital into the public eye , and was therefore not acting in bad faith . If the issues with the hospital were not acknowledged , Erskine claimed , the Royal Navy would be " crippled by abuses " , with seamen no longer willing to risk their lives for a fleet that would fail to treat them well in their retirement . Erskine was successful in having Baillie found not guilty , and after leaving the court was met with a standing ovation ; Emory Speer writes that " It is probably true that never did a single speech so completely ensure professional success " .
= = Background = =
From 1705 to 1865 , the Greenwich Hospital for Seamen provided medical care to injured seamen and lodgings for those injured sailors who had been pensioned off or were unable to work on ships . Directed by an admiral , " it was more like a ship in port than a clinical facility ... its residents all wore navy uniforms ; food was identical to that served on vessels ( a weekly four pounds of meat and gallon of beer ) ; the seamen received a full ration of tobacco each week ; and time was told by the number of bells " . The facility was established by Royal Charter and led by a group of commissioners . Captain Thomas Baillie was a respected sailor who , after retirement , had been appointed Lieutenant @-@ Governor of the hospital . Here he found corruption , in breach of the Hospital 's Royal Charter , and endeavoured to bring it to the attention of the directors hospital , the hospital 's governors , and eventually the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty .
After failing to receive any satisfactory response from those in power over the hospital , Baillie published a pamphlet in 1778 detailing the problems and corruption , which had gone so far as to include denying food to the sailors . The publication of the pamphlet reflected badly on the Earl of Sandwich , who was at the time First Lord of the Admiralty . In his efforts to gain votes and pay off political debts Sandwich had given many of the positions in the hospital to his cronies , who had never served as sailors . Although he publicly ignored Baillie 's allegations , Sandwich ensured through back channels that he was suspended from his job , and had associates go to the Court of King 's Bench and secure a writ allowing them to sue him for criminal libel .
By chance , Baillie happened to have dinner with a friend of Thomas Erskine , a newly qualified barrister and former seaman with the Royal Navy . Erskine himself also attended the dinner , although Baillie and Erskine were then unacquainted . When Erskine , unaware of Baillie 's presence , " launched into an eloquent tirade against the corrupt and tyrannical practises of Sandwich " , Baillie resolved to have him as counsel in the case . The next morning , Erskine received the brief for R v Baillie and a retainer of one guinea . Initially thinking he was the only barrister Baillie had retained , he was disappointed to find out that he was but one of five , the other four being Bearcroft , Peckham , Murphy and Hargrave , and that he was scheduled to speak last .
= = Trial = =
The case of R v Baillie , a prosecution for criminal libel , opened on 23 November 1778 at 1 pm before Lord Mansfield , the Lord Chief Justice , in the Court of King 's Bench . Prior to this , Baillie and his counsel had been debating how to respond to the case ; Bearcroft , Peckham , Murphy and Hargrave advocated negotiating a settlement before it went to trial , while Erskine urged them to argue Baillie 's case before the court and eventually succeeded in convincing Baillie that this was the right thing to do . The case opened with an address by Sir John Scott , the Solicitor General for England and Wales , who was prosecuting Baillie , followed by " long , dreary " speeches by Bearcroft , Peckham , Murphy and Hargrave , defending him . An illness that befell Hargrave caused several interruptions to the proceedings , and as a result darkness had fallen by the time he finished speaking . Lord Mansfield announced that rather than dragging the proceedings out late into the night , the court session would end for the evening and resume the next morning , when Erskine would have his chance to speak . Erskine recognised this as a great opportunity , as it would present him with a refreshed court the following day , rather than an exhausted one ; he said later that he " always blessed God for the providential [ illness ] of Hargrave " .
Returning the next morning , the counsel found a packed court ; owing to the involvement of Lord Sandwich and other significant political figures , the case had received a substantial amount of publicity , and thus an audience . Erskine , who without the interruptions would merely have made a short statement and " remained in obscurity " , had taken the adjournment as an opportunity to write a full speech . In it Erskine argued that Baillie , unlike others charged with libel , had merely been doing his duty ; he " was not a disappointed malicious informer , prying into official abuses ... not troublesomely inquisitive into other men 's departments , but conscientiously correcting his own at the risk of his office " . After Mansfield cautioned him for growing heated on the subject of Sandwich , who was not before the court , Erskine replied by stating that Sandwich had " placed [ the plaintiffs ] in the front of the battle , in hopes to escape under their shelter ... I will drag him to light , who is the dark mover behind this scene of iniquity " .
Erskine then argued that if Sandwich was not responsible for the actions of the hospital 's officers , he should respond by denying responsibility for them and restoring Baillie to his office ; if he did not , he would be " a shameless oppressor , a disgrace to his rank , and a traitor to his trust " . Were the situation in the hospital allowed to continue , the Royal Navy would be " crippled by abuses " , with seamen no longer willing to risk their lives for a fleet that would fail to reward them with good treatment in retirement . Baillie , who had merely tried to prevent this from happening , deserved " a palace , instead of a prison " ; Erskine then left Baillie in the hands of the judges , and the case was dismissed with costs .
= = Aftermath = =
The reaction to the trial and to Erskine 's speech was tremendous ; upon leaving the court he was given a standing ovation by the attorneys present , many of whom offered him briefs on the spot . Joseph Jekyll reported that the court was " in a trance of amazement " , and Emory Speer wrote that " It is probably true that never did a single speech so completely insure professional success " . Erskine claimed to have received 65 briefs immediately after the trial as a result of the case , which may be an exaggeration , although he undoubtedly did well out of his victory . He became Lord Chancellor in the Ministry of All the Talents and was renowned as an excellent , albeit unorthodox , advocate . Sandwich remained in office until the government fell in 1792 ; Baillie , on the other hand , was not reinstated at the Hospital despite an insistent effort to regain his former position . The events of the trial were replicated in an episode of Garrow 's Law , with William Garrow depicted as representing Baillie ( rather than Erskine ) and his main antagonist , Arthur Hill , replacing Lord Sandwich .
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= Breathe ( Taylor Swift song ) =
" Breathe " is a country pop song written and performed by American singer @-@ songwriters Taylor Swift and Colbie Caillat . Produced by Nathan Chapman and Swift , it is the seventh track from Swift 's second studio album , Fearless ( 2008 ) . The song was written about the end of a friendship . Musically , the song is driven by acoustic guitar .
The song received favorable responses from contemporary music critics . " Breathe " was one of two songs featuring Caillat that was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 2010 , the other being Jason Mraz 's " Lucky " , the winner of the award . " Breathe " peaked at number eighty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . Its appearance tied Swift with Hannah Montana ( Miley Cyrus ) for two records on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Background = =
Swift was very fond of Caillat 's 2007 debut album , Coco . Swift explained , " When it came out , I fell in love with the way that she makes music . " Swift later contacted her management and asked if she could write a song with Caillat . They confirmed Caillat would be available due to a then upcoming concert in Nashville , Tennessee and , coincidentally , on the same day , Swift had a vacation day . According to Swift , " Breathe " is about having to depart from a someone , however , not blaming anyone . Swift believed the scenario was one of the most difficult goodbyes , " when it 's nobody 's fault . It just has to end . " Swift explained , " It was total therapy because I came in and I was like look , ' One of my best friends , I 'm gonna have to not see anymore and it 's not gonna be part of what I do . It 's the hardest thing to go through . It 's crazy listening to the song because you would think it 's about a relationship and it 's really about losing a friend and having a fallout . " Caillat and Swift said one of the beauties of the song was that many people would be able to relate to it because it is never specific as why the departure is occurring or whose fault it was .
Swift desired for Caillat to sing background vocals but in a loud manner , enough for audiences to recognize who sang backup . Originally Swift and Caillat were only to harmonize in the chorus , but as Caillat recorded , Swift decided to include her voice more throughout the track because of how impressed she was . Swift first recorded the entire song , and Caillat then recorded background vocals separately . Swift was very pleased with the finished product : " I think she sounds beautiful on it . I 'm so excited to have her voice on my album . "
= = Composition = =
" Breathe " is a country pop song with a length of four minutes and twenty @-@ one seconds . The song has soft rock and adult contemporary elements in it . It was written in common time and has a ballad tempo of 72 beats per minute . It is written in the key of D ♭ major , and Swift and Caillat 's vocals span one octave , from G ♭ 3 to B ♭ 4 . " Breathe " follows the chord progression D ♭ 5 – A ♭ – G ♭ . The song 's instrumentation relies mainly on acoustic guitar , which are often plucked , while , on occasion , violins provide the accompaniment .
The lyrics for " Breathe " are about heartbreak and the loss of a person the narrator spent much time with . In the song 's verses , the narrator acknowledges that people change and grow apart , though she is upset because she knows the person " like the back of her hand . " In the song 's refrains , she realizes the need to remain strong and breathe in order to live without the person . Ken Tucker of Billboard believed " Breathe " was a " love @-@ gone @-@ wrong song . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received positive responses from contemporary music critics . Ken Tucker of Billboard said the song was suited for women of different age groups . James Read of The Boston Globe implied " Breathe " was not one of Fearless ' most interesting tracks . Gary Trust , also from Billboard wrote , " this ballad , perhaps along with fellow potential singles such as ' You 're Not Sorry ' and ' Forever & Always , ' could keep Swift 's string of smashes stretching into 2011 . " Jonathan Keefe of Slant Magazine thought Swift should have chosen another collaborator as he believed Caillat was inert .
" Breathe " was one of two songs featuring Caillat that was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals in 2010 , the other being Jason Mraz 's " Lucky " , the winner of the award . About " Breathe " not winning the award , Caillat said , " I love ' Breathe ' with Taylor , but I 've been performing ' Lucky ' with Jason all around the world the last year , so I 'm happy it won . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending November 29 , 2008 , " Breathe " debuted and peaked at number eighty @-@ seven on the Billboard Hot 100 . Its appearance , along with six other songs , on the chart tied Swift with Hannah Montana ( Miley Cyrus ) for the female act to have the most songs charting on the Billboard Hot 100 in the same week , a record later surpassed by Swift herself when she charted eleven songs at once in 2010 . It was also one of six songs to debut that tied her with Cyrus , again , for the most debuts on the chart in the same week . The song spent one week on the chart .
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= Long hair =
Long hair is a hairstyle where the hair is allowed to grow to considerable length . Exactly what constitutes long hair can change from culture to culture , or even within cultures . For example , a woman with chin @-@ length hair in some cultures may be said to have short hair , while a man with the same length of hair in some of the same cultures would be said to have long hair .
Males having short , cut hair is in many cultures viewed as being under society 's control , such as while in the military or prison or as punishment for a crime , while males having long hair signifies being outside of the mainstream . Long , thick hair has been a sign of wealth , power or prominence throughout time and history .
Long lustrous female hair is rated attractive by both men and women across cultures . The prevalence of trichophilia ( hair partialism or fetishism ) is 7 % in the population , and very long hair is a common subject of devotion in this group .
= = Biological significance = =
Humans , horses , and orangutangs are among the few species that may grow their head hair very long . Humans are believed to have lost their fur 2 @.@ 5 – 3 million years ago when transitioning from a forest habitat to the open savanna , as an effect of natural selection , since this development made it possible to run fast and hunt animals close to the equator without getting overheated . An exception was however head hair , which was kept to provide thermal insulation of the scalp from the sun , to protect against ultra @-@ violet radiation exposure , and also to provide cooling ( when sweat evaporates from soaked hair ) . The ability to grow straight hair , has been observed among Homo sapiens sub @-@ groups in less sunny regions further away from the equator . Relative to kinky Afro @-@ textured hair , straight hair allows more UV light to pass to the scalp ( which is essential for the production of vitamin D , that is important for bone development ) .
Scientists also view the ability to grow very long hair as a result of sexual selection , since long and healthy hair is a sign of fertility and youth . An evolutionary biology explanation for this attraction is that hair length and quality can act as a cue to youth and health , signifying a woman 's reproductive potential . As hair grows slowly , long hair may reveal 2 – 3 years of a person 's health status , nutrition , age and reproductive fitness . Malnutrition and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins due to starvation causes loss of hair or changes in hair color ( e.g. dark hair turning reddish ) .
= = Psychological significance = =
Anthropologists speculate that the functional significance of long head hair may be adornment , a by @-@ product of secondary natural selection once other androgenic / somatic hair ( body hair ) had largely been lost . Another possibility is that long head hair is a result of Fisherian runaway sexual selection , where long lustrous hair is a visible marker for a healthy individual . For some groups or individuals , however , short hair is the selected trait .
By seven to nine months , infants can tell the sexes apart based on hair length , voice pitch and faces .
= = Cultural meaning = =
Ways of life often viewed as more rigid , such as soldiers and religious cultures , frequently have explicit rules regarding hair length . For example , Buddhist monks shave their heads as part of their order of worship . Similarly , religious men with long hair include the Nazarites of the Hebrew Bible ( Samson being a famous example ) and the Sikhs . Subservient cultures may view male long hair negatively , and are sometimes detected by their rulers through hair length , as was the case with the Gaelic Irish under English rule and the Moors under Spanish rule in Medieval Spain .
East Asian cultures have traditionally seen long , unkempt hair in a woman as a sign of sexual intent or a recent sexual encounter , as usually their hair is tied up in styles such as the ponytail , plait , or any bun .
= = Transferred meaning = =
The traditional connotation of " long hair " in English meant , roughly , someone artistically knowledgeable or wise , an aesthete . As a descriptive term , it has been applied to Merovingians and classical music enthusiasts , as well as hippies and aesthetes .
= = Hair lengths = =
Hair length is most often measured ( in centimeters or inches ) from the line of the scalp on the forehead up over the highest point of the skull to its termination , and sometimes from the crown , the latter resulting in 10 centimeter lower values in average . In cosmetology , hair lengths are usually categorized according to the part of the body where the bulk of the longest hair terminates : chin level , shoulder length , lower shoulderblade / mid @-@ back level , waist length , hip @-@ length , classic length ( extends to almost buttock @-@ length , i.e. upper thigh @-@ length , where the legs meet the buttocks ) , thigh @-@ length , knee @-@ length and ankle / floor length hair .
Hair usually takes about two years to reach shoulder length , and about seven years to reach waist @-@ length / hip @-@ length , including occasional trims ( approximately 80 – 90 cm ( 32 – 36 inches ) from forehead for most people )
= = = Maximum hair length = = =
The maximum hair length that is possible to reach is about 15 cm ( 6 in ) for infants ( below the age of 1 ) , about 60 cm ( 24 in ) for children , and generally 100 cm ( 40 in ) for adults . Documentation for decrease of the maximum length with age cannot be found in the literature . Some individuals can reach excessive lengths . Lengths greater than 150 cm ( 59 in ) are frequently observed in long hair contests . Xie Qiuping had the longest documented hair in the world , measuring 5 @.@ 627 m ( 18 ft 5 @.@ 54 in ) in May 2004 .
The maximum terminal hair length depends on the length of the anagen ( period of hair growth ) for the individual . Waist @-@ length hair or longer is only possible to reach for people with long anagen . The anagen lasts between 2 and 7 years , for some individuals even longer , and follows by shorter catagen ( transition ) and telogen ( resting ) periods . Between 85 % and 90 % of the hair strands are in anagen at any given time . The fibroblast growth factor 5 ( FGF5 ) gene affects the hair cycle in mammals including humans ; blocking FGF5 in the human scalp ( by applying a herbal extract that blocked FGF5 ) extends the hair cycle , resulting in less hair fall and increased hair growth .
= = Cultural history = =
= = = In Jewish and Christian scriptures = = =
In the Old Testament , the Nazirites would go for long periods of time without cutting their hair to show devotion to God . Samson is one example ; his strength depended upon his refraining from cutting his hair , described as worn in " seven locks " .
In the New Testament , Saint Paul ( formerly Saul of Tarsus ) wrote , " Doth not even nature itself teach you , that , if a man have long hair , it is a shame unto him ? But if a woman have long hair , it is a glory to her : for her hair is given her for a covering . But if any seem contentious , we have no such custom , neither do the churches of God . "
= = = Western culture = = =
= = = = Ancient Greece and Rome = = = =
In ancient Greece , long male hair was a symbol of wealth and power , while a shaven head was appropriate for a slave . The ancient Greeks had several gods and heroes who wore their hair long , including Zeus , Achilles , Apollo , and Poseidon . Greek soldiers are said to have worn their hair long in battle . Such warriors considered it a sign of aristocracy and are said to have combed it openly in order to show off . Also , in order to keep enemies from getting a hold of it in battle , they were known to cut the front short , but leave it long in the back , where it was more out of reach . A widely held alternative interpretation of the conventional belief is that they kept it long , and simply tied it back in a style known as a ponytail in order to keep it out of their enemies ' reach . The ponytail method allowed warriors , who often traveled to battle with a minimal amount of equipment in order to avoid excessively heavy loads over long marches , to keep their hair manageable with a small piece of string to hold their pony tail in place and a knife to cut the back to length with one simple slice . Around the sixth century , however , the Greek men shifted to shorter hairstyles , with the exception of the Spartans . Women in the culture remained with the longer style , which for them showed freedom , health , and wealth , as well as good behavior . In men , it was considered a sign of false pride by this time .
Pliny the Elder in his Natural History and Varro related that the Romans did not begin to cut their hair short until barbers were introduced to Italy from Sicily by P. Ticinius Mena in 299 BC . Women in Roman times valued long hair , usually with a center part . Apart from in the earliest times , men 's hair was usually shorter than women 's , although other cultures of the time , such as Greeks in the east , considered long hair to be typical of philosophers , who were thought to be too engrossed in learning to bother with hair . Strictly in the province of Rome , however , the shorter hairstyle was especially popular . When Julius Caesar conquered the Gauls , who favored long hair , he ordered it to be cut short .
= = = = Middle Ages = = = =
In the European middle ages , shorter hair often signified servitude and peasantry , while long hair was often attributed to freemen , as was the case with the Germanic Goths and Merovingians .
The Gaelic Irish ( both men and women ) took great pride in their long hair — for example , a person could be heavily fined for cutting a man 's hair short against his will . When the Anglo @-@ Normans and the English colonized Ireland , hair length came to signify one 's allegiance . Irishmen who cut their hair short were deemed to be forsaking their Irish heritage . Likewise , English colonists who wore their hair long in the back were deemed to be forsaking their role as English subjects and giving in to the Irish life . Thus , hair length was one of the most common ways of judging a true Englishman in this period . Muslims in Christian areas were ordered to keep their hair short and parted , as their longer style was considered rebellious and barbaric .
The long hair tradition was widespread among English and French men in the 11th and 12th centuries , though it was considered , mostly because of endorsement of the Roman Catholic Church , acceptable for men also to have shorter hair . The tradition was largely brought about by monarchs who rejected the shorter hairstyle , causing the people to follow . Wulfstan , a religious leader , worried that those with longer hair would fight like women , and be unable to protect England from foreign invasion . This idea can be found in later military leaders as well , such as those of the American Confederacy . Knights and rulers would also sometimes cut or pull out their hair in order to show penitence and mourning , and a squire 's hair was generally shorter than a knight 's . Married women who let their hair flow out in public were frowned upon , as this was normally reserved for the unwed , although they were allowed to let it out in mourning , to show their distressed state . Through these centuries it was expected of Eastern Christians to wear long hair as well as long beards , which was especially expected from clergy and monks .
In England , during the English Civil Wars of 1642 to 1651 , male hair length was emblematic of the disputes between Cavaliers and Roundheads ( Puritans ) . Cavaliers wore longer hair , and were less religious @-@ minded , thought of by the Roundheads as lecherous . The more devout Roundheads typically had somewhat shorter hair
Around this time , long hair in England also came to be associated with adventurers who traveled to America and were familiar with the native culture there , short hair with less adventurous types .
= = = = Recent trends among women = = = =
Growing and wearing long hair was common among women in the Western world until World War One . Long female hair never ceased in western culture , though it was rare during the 1920s and 1930s , and was frequent especially around 1970 and 1985 .
In most current cultures , it is more typical for women to wear long hair than for men to do so . An American study shows significant correlation between hair length and age , which indicates that younger women tend to have longer hair than older women . A significant correlation was also found between women 's hair length and hair quality . Moreover , hair quality was correlated with the women 's perceived physical health . Consistent with principles of evolutionary psychology , these results indicate that hair length and quality can act as a cue to a woman 's youth and health , signifying reproductive potential . The correlation between the woman 's hair length and marital status , or number of children , was however not more than to be expected from the correlation between hair length and age .
= = = = Recent trends among men = = = =
Before World War One men generally had longer hair and beards . However , short hair on men was introduced in World War One for soldiers . Slaves and defeated armies were often required to shave their heads . The trench warfare in 1914 to 1918 exposed men to flea and lice infestations , which prompted the order to cut short hair , establishing a military tradition , and it expanded among civils by imitation .
Beat poets during the 1950s wore longer hairstyles . By 1960 , a small " beatnik " community in Newquay , Cornwall , England ( including a young Wizz Jones ) had attracted the attention of their neighbors for growing their hair to a length past the shoulders , resulting in a television interview with Alan Whicker on BBC television 's Tonight series . The 1960s also introduced The Beatles , who started a more widespread longer hair trend . The social revolution of the 1960s led to a renaissance of unchecked hair growth , and long hair , especially on men , was worn as a political or countercultural symbol or protest and as a symbol of masculinity . This cultural symbol extended to several Western countries in the Americas , Western Europe , South Africa , and Australia . Specific long hairstyles such as dreadlocks have been part of counterculture movements seeking to define other alternative cultures and lifestyles since this time . Longer hair in general remained popular due to the youth rebellion throughout the liberal decade of the 1960s . The long hair trend grew with the spread of the hippie movement in the 1960s and , in the 1970s , longer hair styles would become the norm among men and women .
In the 1970s , the popularity of Jamaica 's reggae music and musician Bob Marley prompted interest in dreadlocks internationally . The anti @-@ establishment philosophy of Rastafari , echoed in much of the reggae of the time , resonated with leaning youth of all ethnicities – especially and primarily among African Americans and other Blacks , but among counterculture whites as well . Eastern Christians are encouraged to wear long hair with long beard . In the 1980s the view of long hair as a solitary signifier of political or counter @-@ cultural identity was countered and parodied in films such as Rambo and many other militaristic heroes of media which challenged then @-@ contemporary views of tradition . Today , longer hairstyles among men are still quite popular among neopagans and rock enthusiasts ; for example , musicians in heavy metal and power metal bands often wear long hair . Long hair may be grown for the purpose of being donated to an organization , such as Locks of Love , for hairpieces to help those who could not have hair otherwise , such as those who are diagnosed with alopecia areata .
= = = = African Americans = = = =
When African slaves were freed in America , they struggled to reach the social status of whites . Many former slaves tried to conform their hairstyles as part of this struggle . Women , especially , felt pressure to make their hair long and oily , rather than keeping the shorter , tightly coiled style they had known . However , during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s , African @-@ Americans such as Malcolm X advocated hairstyles such as afros and dreadlocks , in order to embrace their race , and to return to West African roots .
Social pressures at the time were heavily influencing these Americans ( women ) to have long , straight hair , like white people did . This resulted in the Black is beautiful movement , wherein African Americans wore long hair , that was however , untreated and unmodified . More recently , hair @-@ extensions have become widespread . Scholars have pointed out the continued pressure on black women to have long , smooth hair . Amelia Jones points out that dolls for children , such as Barbies , add to this pressure , citing as an example a new , black Barbie with long hair . Blacks , she believes , should be able to be themselves without feeling pressured to " tame " their hair .
= = = = Contemporary North America = = = =
1972 , it was estimated that 24 % of American women wore shoulder length hair or longer ( 44 % of women in ages 14 to 44 ) , meaning slightly more than 12 % of men and women altogether . Similar frequency was found in 2001 , when it was estimated that about 13 % of the US adult population , male as well as females , has hair shoulder @-@ length or longer , about 2 @.@ 4 % have hair reaching to the bottom of the shoulder blades or longer , about 0 @.@ 3 % have hair waist length or longer , and only about 0 @.@ 017 % have hair buttocks @-@ length or longer . By extrapolating the above data and the number of hair length records , the number of people with waist length hair in USA is estimated to 27 million , with buttocks @-@ length hair to 40 @,@ 000 , with knee length hair to 2 @,@ 000 and with ankle length hair to 70 .
= = = Middle East = = =
= = = = Judaism = = = =
Strict orthodox Judaism forbids men from cutting their sidelocks , but other hair may be kept as desired . Hair is not cut during a time of mourning . The Torah in Deuteronomy 14 : 1 prohibits removing hair in mourning for the dead .
= = = = Islam = = = =
In the Muslim world , it seems the trend of hair styles is now favouring short over long in men . In the past , Bedouin Muslims often wore their hair in long braids , but influences from the Western world have caused a change in attitudes . Bedouins are now less likely to have long hair . Islamic countries in North Africa such as Egypt view long hair in men as modernist and in one case the Egyptian police viewed it as Satanic and a sign of an infidel . Spanish rulers during the Medieval Period suspected long @-@ haired males to be Moors or Moriscos , therefore long hair was forbidden since it was believed to be a Moorish custom . However , modern North African men have adopted Western short hair .
Muslims regard the Prophet Muhammad as the best example to live by , and try to emulate him whenever possible . The Islamic Prophet Muhammad reportedly in Sahih Muslim had hair that " hung over his shoulders and earlobes " . Sahih Bukhari , regarded the most authentic of hadith , also supports this using a prime example of the prophet Isa ( Jesus ) . The Prophet Muhammad has also described Jesus as " having long hair reaching his ear lobes . " Malik 's Muwatta 51 @.@ 2 @.@ 6 reported , Yahya related to me from Malik from Yahya ibn Said that Abu Qatada al @-@ Ansari said to the Messenger of Allah , may Allah bless him and grant him peace , " I have a lot of hair which comes down to my shoulders , shall I comb it ? The Messenger of Allah. may Allah bless him and grant him peace , said , " Yes , and honour it . " Sometimes Abu Qatada oiled it twice in one day because the Messenger of Allah , may Allah bless him and grant him peace , said to him . " Honour it . "
With regards to women , neither Qur 'an nor Sunnah explicitly state that women cannot cut their hair . Hadith does mention that women should not imitate men , and vice versa , and hence many scholars on this assumption , decree that women should let their hair grow longer than the hair of the Prophet , reaching beyond their shoulders , as hadith mentions that the Prophet had his hair between his shoulder and his earlobes . ( He described Jesus 's hair , which hung to his earlobes , as long . )
However , according to some hadiths regarding the rules of awrah , women are required to grow hair long , long enough that it would cover the breasts or as much awrah parts of the body when they 're being buried , because she lacks clothes and long hair would be used as a covering instead .
Some Muslims are also opposed to men having long hair as it is also important in Islam to have clear differences ( in appearance ) between sexes . And generally these cultures encourage women to have long hair and men to have short hair . The Taliban in Afghanistan viewed long hair for men as a western influence , and punished it by arrest and forced haircuts , although this would be a direct contradiction of the sunnah of the Prophet . Similar measures have been taken by Islamists in Iraq . In spite of this , several Taliban affiliated members of the Mehsud clan are recognisable by their long hair . The Saudi Islamist fighter Amir Khattab was also notable for his long hair . Dervishes of some Sufi orders , such as the Kasnazani , often have long hair and whirl it around during rituals .
= = = Native Americans = = =
Many Native American men wore long hair before the arrival of western influences on their culture . ( In Cherokee legends , for example , males said to be handsome were often described as having " long hair almost to the ground " or similar formulas . ) . Both men and women of these cultures have frequently struggled to maintain their tradition but have faced heavy opposition . Many consider it a sign of giving in to western influences to have their hair cut . Early American settlers saw long @-@ haired , native men as rebelling against their civilized society . Mountain men and trappers who adopted the customs were also considered amoral , and often identified by their long hair . Since the cultural movements of the Sixties and Seventies , however , Native Americans have felt less pressure to have short hair , as different movements have defended their cultural rights . For example , several states have loosened prison regulations , allowing Native Americans to wear long hair during incarceration , along with other cultural allowances . There has been resistance to these changes , however , as long hair is sometimes used to hide drugs , as well as to identify with a gang .
= = = Africa = = =
Throughout much of Africa , afro @-@ textured hair is the most frequent hair form , except among the Afro @-@ Asiatic ( Hamito @-@ Semitic ) speaking populations in North Africa and the Horn of Africa . In the latter regions , naturally long hair is instead more common .
In West African cultures , women with long hair were highly valued . Long , thick hair was seen as a sign of health , strength , and capability to bear many children . In keeping with this general theme , women who were too young for marriage would shave a portion of their heads to signal so . This tradition , however , did not extend to every West African tribe , as several valued shorter hair .
= = = Asia = = =
Historically , East Asian cultures viewed long hair as a sign of youth and aesthetic beauty . Long hair is associated with private life and sexuality . East Asian cultures see long , unkempt hair in a woman as a sign of sexual intent or a recent sexual encounter , as usually their hair is tied up . Lay Buddhists have long hair , while Buddhist monks have shaved heads .
= = = = ChIna = = = =
In ancient China and Korea , hair was regarded as a precious legacy from parents . Most people would never cut their hair after they became adults , and cutting off one 's hair was a penalty for minor crimes . Both men and women would coil up their hair and many hair @-@ coiling styles were developed .
Beginning in 1619 , the ethnic Manchu Qing dynasty forced all men in China to adopt the queue : a long braid down the back with the hair near the forehead completely shaved . Hair length and style became a life @-@ or @-@ death matter in 1645 as the Manchu told them either their hair or their head would be cut . By 1651 , the population of China had been reduced from 51 million to just 20 million , as a whole generation resisted the order for the sake of Confucian ideals against shaving or harming their hair .
Nearly every Han rebel group began by shearing this pigtail ( most especially in the case of the Taiping , who were known in Chinese as the " Longhairs " ) , but the queue on penalty of death lasted until 1911 , when the Chinese people cut their queues in unison at a time of rebellion . Americans at first judged Chinese immigrant laborers to be poor workers because their long hair brought an association with women .
Islamic and Christian missionaries among the Chinese were strong advocates of shorter male hair for their converts . Around the Destruction of Four Olds period in 1964 , almost anything seen as part of Traditional Chinese culture would lead to problems with the Communist Red Guards . Items that attracted dangerous attention if caught in the public included jewelry and long male hair . These things were regarded as symbols of bourgeois lifestyle , that represented wealth . People had to avoid them or suffer serious consequences such as tortures and beatings by the guards . More recently , long hair was ridiculed in China from October 1983 to December 1983 , as part of the short and unsuccessful Anti @-@ Spiritual Pollution Campaign .
Also , in Chinese ancient and modern poetry , long hair is a common symbol used by poets , for example Li Bai and Li Shangyin , to express their depression and sadness . Influenced by anime , comic and video game from Japan , youths translate a new word ( simplified Chinese : 黑长直Japanese : 黒髪ロング ) from Japanese to illustrate a beauty with black , long and straight hair .
= = = = Southeast Asia = = = =
In Southeast Asia and Indonesia , male long hair was valued in until the seventeenth century , when the area adopted outside influences including Islam and Christianity . Invading cultures enforced shorter hairstyles on men as a sign of servitude , as well . They were also confused at the short hairstyles among women in certain areas , such as Thailand , and struggled to explain why women in the area had such short hair . They came up with several mythical stories , one of which involved a king who found a long hair in his rice and , in a rage , demanded that all women keep their hair short .
In rural areas in certain Asian countries , for example India , girls still usually let their hair grow long , and knee @-@ length hair is not unusual .
= = = = Japan = = = =
In the medieval Japan , heian gentleman were not very interested in a woman 's physical beauty and rarely had an opportunity to see it . The only physical attribute of interest was a woman 's hair , which had to be thick and longer than she was tall . The fascination with long hair was one reason why a woman 's becoming a nun was regarded with such seriousness — it could never again grow to its full length . This explains why Genji refuses to let Murasaki ( his de facto wife in the classical Japanese novel The Tale of Genji ) take the tonsure when she is ill .
= = = = Sikhism = = = =
For Sikhs , Kesh is the practice of allowing one 's hair to grow naturally as a symbol of devotion to God and lack of worldliness .
The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh at the Baisakhi Amrit Sanchar in 1699 to wear long uncut hair called Kesh at all times to signify the strength and vitality of the Sikh people . This was one of the ' five requisites of faith ' , collectively called Kakars that form the external visible identifiers to clearly affirm a Sikh 's commitment and dedication to the order ( Hukam ) of the tenth master and made one a member of the Khalsa . The Khalsa is the " Saint @-@ Soldier " of Guru Gobind Singh who stated the following : " He does not recognize anyone else except One Lord , not even the bestowal of charities , performance of merciful acts , austerities and restraint on pilgrim @-@ stations ; the perfect light of the Lord illuminates his heart , then consider him as the immaculate Khalsa . " ( Guru Gobind Singh in the Dasam Granth page 1350 )
The Kesh or unshorn long hair is an indispensable part of the human body as created by waheguru that is the mainstay of the ' Jivan Jaach ' and the Rehni that was prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh Sahib by which a Sikh is clearly and quickly identified , Kesh . The kanga , another requisite of faith is usually tucked behind the " Rishi Knot " and tied under the turban . The uncut long head hair and the beard in the case of men forms the main kakar for the Sikhs .
KESADHARI , a term defining a Sikh as one who carries on his head the full growth of his kes ( hair ) which he never trims or cuts for any reason . Anyone , Sikh or non @-@ Sikh , may keep the hair unshorn , but for the Sikh kes , unshorn hair , is a requisite of faith and an inviolable vow . The Sikh Rahit Maryada published by the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee , statutory body for the control and management of Sikh shrines and by extension for laying down rules about Sikh beliefs and practices , issued in 1945 , after long and minute deliberations among Sikh scholars and theologians , defines a Sikh thus : Every Sikh who has been admitted to the rites of amrit , i.e. who has been initiated as a Sikh , must allow his hair to grow to its full length . This also applies to those born of Sikh families but [ who ] have not yet received the rites of amrit of the tenth master , Guru Gobind Singh . " .
= = Images = =
Female long hair in art ( Gallery at Wikimedia commons )
Female long hair photos ( Gallery at Wikimedia commons )
Male long hair in art ( Gallery at Wikimedia commons )
Male long hair photos ( Gallery at Wikimedia commons )
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= PokerTracker =
PokerTracker Software , LLC is the name of a poker tool software company that produces the popular PokerTracker line of poker tracking and analysis software . PokerTracker 's software imports and parses the hand histories that poker sites create during online play and stores the resulting statistics / information about historical play into a local database library for self @-@ analysis , and for in @-@ game opponent analysis using a real @-@ time Head @-@ up display .
The software allows the user to monitor each poker session 's profit or loss , hands played , time played , and table style . It calculates and graphs statistics such as hands per hour , winnings per hand , winnings per hour , cumulative profit and loss , and individual game profit and loss across multiple currencies .
= = Products = =
PokerTracker Software , LLC produces poker analysis software . Examples include PokerTracker Holdem v2 , PokerTracker Omaha v2 , PokerTracker 3 Hold 'em ( PT3 ) for Texas Hold ' em , PokerTracker 3 Omaha ( PTO ) for Omaha Hold ' em , PokerTracker Stud for Stud poker , and TableTracker . The company previously developed the PokerAce Head @-@ Up Display , also known as PokerAce HUD or simply PAHUD , which provides real @-@ time information for live online poker play ; the functionality from this formerly separate application was eventually incorporated within PokerTracker 3 . Collectively , the company 's software has been described as " among the most comprehensive software programs in the online poker industry " by PokerSoftware.com. The company subsequently developed PokerTracker 4 in 2012 and 2013 , which is its most recent software development .
= = = PokerTracker 3 = = =
In September 2009 , the company announced that as of March 31 , 2010 , PokerTracker Holdem v2 would no longer be supported . The decision was made because PokerTracker 3 had been released on May 15 , 2008 , nearly two years prior to the end @-@ of @-@ life date . The company felt that discontinuing support of v2 would avail resources which could be dedicated to improving PT3 and providing exceptional customer service . Similarly on December 31 , 2010 , PokerTracker Omaha v2 will also no longer be supported , as its features have been completely integrated into the PokerTracker 3 product line .
PokerTracker 3 supports online poker from the following poker networks and / or sites : 888 Poker Network , Bodog , Boss Media , Cake Network , Cereus Poker Network , Entraction Poker , Everest Poker , Full Tilt Poker , IPoker , Microgaming , Merge Gaming Network , OnGame , PartyPoker , PokerStars and Winamax . PokerTracker is available natively for both Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X @-@ based computers .
PokerTracker 3 competes against several similar programs . According to Total Gambler , its most notable competitors are Hold ’ em Manager and PokerOffice , while Pokersoftware.com considers only Hold ’ em Manager to be a serious competitor .
= = = PokerTracker 4 = = =
PokerTracker 4 is poker tracking software that designed for several types of online poker : No @-@ Limit , Limit , or Pot @-@ Limit cash games , Sit N ’ Go ’ s and Multi @-@ Table Tournaments for both Texas Holdem and Omaha players . It is compatible with almost all online poker websites ' software and interfaces . PokerTracker 4 began public beta testing in March 2012 . In August 2012 , the company commercially launched a Microsoft Windows version of PokerTracker 4 . In January 2013 as PokerTracker version 4 @.@ 05 @.@ 10 was rolled out , the company began alpha testing an Apple OS X version of the software . PokerTracker 4 was produced from scratch rather than by refining PokerTracker 3 and other earlier versions .
= = Software features = =
On most online poker sites , players can have the client software create a locally stored text file that records the hand history as shown in the ' Sample Hand History ' example . These hand histories summarize the details of the hand in a format that can be parsed by computer software . PokerTracker reads these files and extracts the relevant information , which it converts into a database for later review or statistical analysis . The software is capable of combining hand history details of multiple accounts from different online poker services , which allows a user to aggregate his or her data . Statistical summaries can be consolidated from different poker sites regardless of whether the user 's screen name is the same at each site .
PokerTracker is capable of analyzing cash ring games in which players play for cash during each hand , sit and go tournaments in which players compete for set prizes after the prescribed number of competitors join the tournament , and multi @-@ table tournaments in which players compete for tournament prizes based on the total number of entries at the scheduled start time . Statistics can be tracked by position , session , tournament , best & worst hands , and hand results . The helps the user analyze statistics based on starting hand or final hand . The software also enables the user to replay any specific hand .
The software 's database uses tournament summaries such as the ' Sample Tournament Summary ' example and hand histories to provide a three section summary ( see infobox screenshot ) . The top section of the general information tab provides tournament summaries of profit / loss as well as ordinal placement summary . The other sections summarize situational statistics based on the level of the blinds and the starting hand . Additional tabs in the software produce detailed information for various statistical interests .
PokerTracker 's probability graphs , as well as historical statistics of the hands a user and his or her opponents have played , enable the user to analyze conditional statistical possibilities and optimal betting amounts . The situations it analyzes are conditional on the opposition 's playing characteristics and the player 's position relative to the dealer . Graphs can be produced for a single session or for any part of one 's playing history . One of the biggest improvements in PokerTracker 3 over PT2 is that it is fully customizable so that all statistics and reports can be tailored to the individual user . The Guardian claims most serious players use PokerTracker during online play to constantly calculate situational optima .
PokerTracker 3 is also known for its integrated heads @-@ up display , a transparent video overlay data presentation that makes statistics and notes are readily available during play . The HUD allows an online poker player to focus his attention on the poker table he or she is playing at , rather than on the PokerTracker application . The HUD provides a vast array of realtime statistics for in @-@ game analysis , customizable to the user 's preference . In addition to the statistics available constantly during play on the poker window , detailed statistics are available in a pop @-@ up window , accessible via a single mouse click . Marbella Slim of the Daily Star used the vision of Arnold Schwarzenegger 's Terminator character in an analogy with the HUD : " In some scenes , you get to see what the robot Terminator is seeing and he has all these data streams in front of his vision - it 's a HUD or a head @-@ up display . " Unlike other poker tracking products , PokerTracker 3 includes a HUD as part of the basic program . The PT3 HUD , which automatically overlays a player 's opponents ' statistics next to their avatars , is essentially a built @-@ in version of the formerly available PokerAce HUD .
PokerTracker 3 also offers a monthly subscription @-@ based service called TableTracker . TableTracker is an integrated service that automatically identifies ring tables with competition suitable to the user 's playing style . PokerTracker 's servers constantly monitor which players are playing and what tables they are playing at on various major poker sites , which allows TableTracker to find the weakest players across multiple online poker websites . The user can search based on the software 's built in scoring system or any other statistics of his or her choosing .
= = Use and legality = =
Serious poker pros and casual amateurs alike can benefit from the poker tracking software , and poker magazines such as Card Player repeatedly remind poker players of the usefulness of tracking software . Total Gambler says that in addition to experience and skill the other necessity for a gambler to become a professional poker player is a good software package such as PokerTracker .
Several websites portray PokerTracker as either the world 's leading or the world 's most popular poker tracking software . For example , Pokersource.com describes it as " the most popular poker tracking and analysis software available " and Party Poker describes PokerTracker as " the original and largest piece of poker tracking software " . PokerSoftware.com says " Poker Tracker has been the industry standard ... for years " . Total Gambler says that for more than a two @-@ year period PokerTracker 2 was the " prominent force in online poker tracking " , but at the time of its December 2008 review it speaks of this leadership position in the past tense , noting that PT3 had not yet been " fully released " at the time of its testing .
Major online card rooms forbid the use of software that gives a player an " unfair advantage . " This typically includes software that allows players to share their hole cards with other players during live play and software that automates decision making . Since PokerTracker software doesn 't fit into either of these categories it is generally allowed on most sites , including industry leader PokerStars.com. Legality aside , some players feel the use of PokerTracker takes away from the game ; for example , Victoria Coren of The Guardian remarks " there is only one downside [ to using PokerTracker ] . Where 's the bloody fun in it ? "
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= Hurricane Ramon =
Hurricane Ramon was a very intense Pacific hurricane that generated heavy rains in Southern California . The 19th named storm and final hurricane of the above @-@ average 1987 Pacific hurricane season , Ramon originated from a tropical disturbance formed in early October . On October 5 , a tropical storm had developed several hundred miles southwest of Manzanillo , bypassing the tropical depression stage . Tropical Storm Ramon turned to the west @-@ northwest after initially moving west . It intensified into a hurricane on October 7 . Two days later , Hurricane Ramon peaked in intensity with winds of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) . After peaking , Ramon turned to the northwest and rapidly weakened over cooler waters . It weakened into a tropical storm on October 11 and a depression on October 12 . Ramon dissipated shortly thereafter . While at sea , Ramon brought light rainfall to the Baja California Peninsula . The remnants of Hurricane Ramon produced heavy rainfall that caused flooding in California , indirectly contributing to five traffic @-@ related fatalities . Rainfall was reported as far inland as Utah .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Ramon originated from a tropical disturbance that was situated south of a large ridge over Central Mexico . The disturbance became better organized while traversing 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) waters and at 1800 UTC on October 5 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) upgraded the disturbance into a tropical storm while centered about 575 mi ( 925 km ) southwest of Acapulco . Initially , the storm was expected to move west and not affect land ; however , this did not occur . After being named , Tropical Storm Ramon held onto marginal tropical storm intensity for 24 hours . Thereafter , Tropical Storm Ramon turned west @-@ northwestward and began to intensity . At 1200 UTC on October 7 , the EPHC reported that Ramon had intensified into a hurricane . About 24 hours later , the system was upgraded into a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . Rapidly intensifying , Ramon reached major hurricane status on October 8 ( Category 3 or higher on the SSHWS ) . At 0600 UTC on October 9 , Ramon was upgraded into a Category 4 hurricane while reaching its peak intensity of 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , which it maintained for 24 hours .
After attaining peak intensity , Hurricane Ramon began to weaken . Late on October 10 , Ramon weakened slightly while turning northwest . The following morning , the storm reportedly weakened into a Category 2 . Hurricane Ramon began to rapidly deteriorate due to a combination of jetstream interactions and increasingly cold sea @-@ surface temperatures . At 0600 UTC on October 11 , the storm was downgraded into a Category 1 on the SSHWS after bypassing the Category 2 stage . It weakened into a tropical storm later that day and was further downgraded to a tropical depression on October 12 . Tropical Depression Ramon dissipated on 0600 UTC that day . The remnant moisture of this hurricane later moved into Southern California , resulting in record rains .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Although Hurricane Ramon was far from the state of California at that time , a flash flood watch was issued for southern Orange , San Diego , western San Bernardino and Riverside counties , citing uncertainty in the storm 's path . Additionally , " alerts " were also posted over a wide area that included the Santa Ana Mountains , the Laguna Mountains , Lake Arrowhead , and Joshua Tree National Monument . While still at sea , the storm produced high waves along the Pacific coast in the Baja California Peninsula ; Cabo San Lucas reported waves 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high . The outer rainband 's of Hurricane Ramon brought scattered showers to the region .
The remnants of this storm caused extremely heavy rains across Southern California , peaking at 2 @.@ 14 in ( 54 mm ) in Camp Pendelton . A total of 0 @.@ 5 in ( 13 mm ) of rain was reported in San Diego , resulting in street flooding . Torrential rainfall was recorded in San Diego County , where two people died in separate traffic accidents . Further north , in the city of Los Angeles , three more people perished in separate traffic incidents . Heavy rains extended west and was also reported in Hemet in Riverside County , where three people were also injured during a car accident . The rains caused a week @-@ long forest fire 16 @,@ 000 acre ( 65 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m ² ) on Mt . Palomar to dissolve . Several streets were closed in Orange County and San Diego County . One library 's roof leeked , as such , books had to be covered for protection . Furthermore , the Spring Creek River overflowed its banks . Elsewhere , the moisture spread rains to Nevada , Arizona , Utah , and southwestern Colorado . The tropical moisture also helped end a 37 @-@ day dry spell in Salt Lake City , marking the longest time the city went without rain since 1964 . Nation @-@ wide , Ramon killed five people , all due to road @-@ related incidents .
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= TowerFall =
TowerFall is a 2013 archery arena indie video game created by Matt Thorson where up to four players use arrows and head @-@ stomps to fight in a battle royale . It was released as an Ouya microconsole exclusive on June 25 , 2013 , and was later ported to PlayStation 4 , Microsoft Windows , Linux , Mac OS X in 2014 as TowerFall Ascension . TowerFall was Thorson 's first full commercial game , and it grew from a June 2012 game jam single @-@ player prototype . Thorson tested the game on his indie developer colleagues with whom he lived , and developed its capacity as a party game . Its mechanics were inspired by games of Thorson 's youth , such as Bushido Blade and Goldeneye 007 , and influenced by feedback received at the Evolution Championship Series fighting game tournament . The game was known as the standout title for the Ouya at the console 's launch , and sold well .
When the Ouya exclusivity expired , Thorson signed another exclusivity agreement for the PlayStation 4 , where Ascension received an expanded single @-@ player mode , and new levels , weapons , and gameplay variants . Ascension received generally favorable reviews . Reviewers praised the game 's balance , compared it favorably with Super Smash Bros. , and recommended it as a party game . Critics felt that the single @-@ player mode was a low point , and lamented for an online multiplayer mode .
= = Gameplay = =
TowerFall is an archery combat arena game where players kill each other with arrows and head @-@ stomps until only one player remains . In multiplayer , up to four players fight in a battle royale using a limited supply of arrows . Players replenish their arrow supply from those shot about the arena . The players can also catch other players ' arrows . " Treasure " power @-@ ups give players shields , wings , and arrows with increased power . The game 's rules can be customized and saved for future use . Kotaku 's Chris Person described the gameplay as " [ Super ] Smash Bros. bred with games like Spelunky or Nidhogg " .
There are four game modes . In single @-@ player , the player must hit targets around the arena before a timer runs out . The developer compared this mode to " Break the Targets " in the Super Smash Bros. series . Ascension adds a remodeled version of the target levels as a Trials mode , which requires the players to use power @-@ ups to break all targets within several seconds . Ascension also adds a Quest mode , where one or two players attempt to survive against enemy waves of increasing difficulty . As a single @-@ player event , Quest functions as a score attack mode . The new Ascension improvements were also released for the Ouya version .
The Ouya release supports the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 controllers . Ascension uses the DualShock 4 controller 's built @-@ in speaker to play sound effects . The game does not have online multiplayer .
= = Development = =
The game was developed and produced by Matt Thorson , who previously made Planet Punch and browser games . TowerFall was his first full commercial game . The idea came from a visit with Alec Holowka as they worked at a game jam , the 48 @-@ hour June 2012 Vancouver Full Indie Game Jam . The team iterated through a Legend of Zelda @-@ inspired multiplayer mode that became a single @-@ player platformer Flash game where the player was a " skilled archer out of an ancient legend " . They intended to add multiple weapons , but chose to keep their first one — the bow and arrow — due to its feel . The arrow was designed to fire without charging and to bias towards targets so as to give the player " more leeway " . Thorson also chose to limit the aim direction to the eight ordinal directions rather than affording complex 360 degree controls . They also added levels , items , a store , and a story based on ascending a tower . Along with progress , players would gaining new items and skills . Thorson originally intended to send the game to Adult Swim for " easy money " , but changed his mind upon developing a multiplayer version after the jam .
Holowka credits the multiplayer 's party game feel to the many hours of local multiplayer testing it received in Thorson 's homes in Vancouver . Thorson lived with a developer he met through Game Maker 's community and the two eventually moved in with Holowka in " Indie House " , a Vancouver house whose occupants are all indie developers . The close community of indie gamers and their interest in trying new game ideas was both a product and generator of their living arrangements . Though Holowka dropped back from the project shortly after the game jam , leaving the project to Thorson , he stepped in to demo the game at the 2013 Game Developers Conference at the last minute when Thorson 's passport was expired . With an increase in press attention following an exhibition at PAX East , Thorson entered an agreement with Ouya 's Kellee Santiago to release exclusively on the microconsole . Critics saw this as being the action the new console needed to compete with existing consoles , and Thorson felt the release for Ouya to be less " intimidating " than if for the PlayStation 3 . The game also fit Ouya 's emphasis on couch co @-@ op gaming . Thorson originally did the artwork himself but was not satisfied with the results and hired MiniBoss to finish the graphics . Holowka composed the music , and Thorson hired Power Up Audio to make the sound effects .
Thorson said that the game started to come together about six months into its development . He tested the game on close friends once every few weeks and they would ask him when they could play it again . Thorson brought the game to the 2013 Evolution Championship Series fighting games tournament , where he unexpectedly received more praise than criticism . The game mechanics were inspired by games from Thorson 's youth . Upon reflection , he felt that the game had the item @-@ catching mechanics of Super Smash Bros. , the one @-@ hit kills and tension of Bushido Blade , the playfulness of Goldeneye 007 , the shooting mechanics of Yoshi 's Island , and the positioning strategy of Team Fortress 2 . He described his development process as tweaking Super Smash Bros. Melee to his tastes . The limited arrow design was intended to slow the gameplay and encourage player strategy . He considered adding online multiplayer , a popular request , but lacked the programming skills himself . The game 's medieval scenery came from his contemporary interest in the Game of Thrones book series and his pairing of the arrow mechanic with " stone @-@ walled castles and lava @-@ filled dungeons " . The player @-@ characters also have individual personalities and backstories that Thorson intended to elaborate in a " lore " section of an instruction manual .
TowerFall was released June 25 , 2013 as an Ouya exclusive . The game sold well , minding the Ouya 's newness , which allowed Thorson to develop the game into a fuller package . Thorson stated his plans to extend the single @-@ player , and signed a new exclusivity agreement to release TowerFall Ascension on PlayStation 4 and Steam with new levels , weapons , and gameplay variants after the Ouya exclusivity agreement ended six months later . Sony actively pursued the game , and a majority of the porting work was handled by Dallas @-@ based Sickhead Games by two people over the course of eight weeks using Monogame , " an open source rewrite " of Microsoft XNA . Thorson thought that the DualShock 4 's directional pad was " perfect for TowerFall " and that the PlayStation 4 was " the natural next step " for the game . He received a letter from George Broussard before Ascension 's launch with pre @-@ congratulations on Thorson 's becoming a millionaire . The main additions to Ascension were its single @-@ player and cooperative gameplay modes . A level editor is planned for a future update , and Thorson has expressed interest in six controller support for three @-@ on @-@ three matches . Ports for Linux and OS X platforms were released on May 29 , 2014 with updated game variants . TowerFall was selected for the July 2014 Evolution Championship Series fighting game tournament 's Indie Showcase , and as a free game with PlayStation Plus for the same month .
= = = Updates = = =
In February 2015 a " Blue Archer " was revealed as a new playable character for the expansion " Dark World " , developers stated her appearance was based on that of Anita Sarkeesian . An expansion pack , Dark World , was released in North America on May 12 , 2015 , for the PlayStation 4 and PC ( Linux , OS X , and Windows ) via Steam , the Humble Store , and GOG.com. The European PlayStation released followed several days later . The pack includes a four @-@ player multiplayer campaign mode where players fight boss battles together and can resuscitate each other . It also adds a power @-@ up that makes arrows explode by remote @-@ detonation . The pack began as a set of new levels and became four sets , ten new characters , procedurally generated levels , and the aforementioned power @-@ up , co @-@ op , and boss battles . A PlayStation Vita version was released on December 15 , 2015 .
= = Reception = =
Multiple reviewers cited TowerFall as the standout game for the Ouya microconsole at the time of its launch . The Penny Arcade Report 's Ben Kuchera called the game " the Ouya 's killer app " , Polygon 's Russ Frushtick and Chris Plante said that TowerFall was the reason to purchase an Ouya . Destructoid 's Spencer Hayes said that he did not consider purchasing the Ouya until he played TowerFall . He added that the game had a " deceptive level of depth " . Eurogamer described its reputation as " the only thing worth playing on Ouya " . The added cost of additional controllers ( for four @-@ player local multiplayer ) exceeded the cost of the new console itself , and was cited as a negative for the game , though later offset by its support for Xbox 360 and PS3 controllers . Plante later described the original release as " critically beloved , humbly sold " , " punching way above its weight class " with recognition on the yearend lists of Ars Technica and Polygon .
By April 2014 , Thorson told Eurogamer that the game had grossed a half of a million dollars , with the most sales from Ascension on the PlayStation 4 . At the time , a fifth of the games sales came from Ouya , a comparatively smaller platform with a smaller install base than PlayStation and Steam . The game was a nominee for the 2014 Independent Games Festival 's Excellence in Design award , but lost to Papers , Please . TowerFall Ascension received " generally favorable " reviews , according to game review aggregator Metacritic . Reviewers praised the game 's balance , compared it favorably with Super Smash Bros. , and recommended it as a party game . Critics felt that the single @-@ player mode was a nadir , and lamented for an online multiplayer mode , with Denton of Eurogamer calling the lack " painful " and " a crying shame " .
Griffin McElroy of Polygon found the game joyful and called it " a powerful distillery of childlike glee " . IGN 's Jose Otero thought highly of its visuals . He considered the single @-@ player mode a low point of the game , that it was only useful as practice . Eurogamer 's Denton called it " an afterthought " , and that Trials was " a tertiary mode at best " . Edge wrote that the boundaries of the game 's play area were confusing , and that it was difficult to watch both the area around the player @-@ character as well as the boundaries , which worked against what they deemed to be TowerFall 's " greatest strength " : close range combat . Denton praised the arrow catching mechanic , which he compared to the " hooks " of other " great multiplayer games " , like the Ultra counter in Street Fighter IV . He further compared the multiplayer to the battle modes of Bomberman , Mario , and Super Smash Bros. , the Trials mode to 10 Second Ninja , and the game 's " immediacy " to Nidhogg and Samurai Gunn .
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= Hudson County Courthouse =
The Hudson County Courthouse or Justice William J. Brennan Jr . Courthouse is located in Jersey City , Hudson County , New Jersey , United States . The six @-@ story structure was originally built between 1906 and 1910 at a cost of $ 3 @,@ 328 @,@ 016 @.@ 56 . It is considered to be an outstanding example of the Beaux @-@ Arts architectural style in the United States .
The courthouse was used as the primary seat of government for Hudson County from its opening on September 20 , 1910 until the construction of the Hudson County Administration Building in 1966 . The courthouse was vacant for many years and was scheduled for demolition . The building was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 25 , 1970 . Restoration began in the mid @-@ 1970s , and the building was reopened in 1985 . In 1984 , the Hudson County Board of Chosen Freeholders renamed the building in honor of Supreme Court Justice William J. Brennan Jr . The restoration of the courthouse was acknowledged by a Victorian Society in America Preservation Award in 1988 .
As of 2013 the courthouse has seven working courtrooms and also houses the offices of the County Executive , the Hudson County Surrogate and the Hudson County Bar Association ; in the past it has been used in a number of television programs and movies , including scenes in the television series Law & Order , and for commercials .
= = Construction = =
The Courthouse was designed by Jersey City native Hugh Roberts , twice a president of the New Jersey Chapter of the American Institute of Architects . Roberts , brother @-@ in @-@ law of future United States Senator and New Jersey Governor Edward I. Edwards , received a direct appointment as architect . No competition or bidding for designs was held , causing controversy among local architects . The property on which the courthouse stands was obtained from fourteen separate property owners between 1905 and 1914 . The groundbreaking took place on March 21 , 1906 and the cornerstone was laid on December 12 , 1906 . Construction of the building was done by Wells Brothers of New York City and construction of the interiors and finishes were by John Gill & Son of Cleveland , Ohio .
The courthouse is constructed of granite quarried in Hallowell , Maine . The front of the building is visually dominated by four Corinthian columns and a frieze above the main entrance bearing the inscription " Precedent Makes Law ; If You Stand Well , Stand Still . "
= = Interiors = =
Roberts delegated the assignment of artwork to the muralist Francis David Millet , noted for his work as decorations director for the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago ; Millet assigned himself two lunettes on the third floor and a dozen small panels in the second floor corridors . Also on the third floor , Millet assigned two lunettes to Charles Yardley Turner , as well as eight more to Kenyon Cox . Cox also provided the groined ceilings . Edwin Blashfield painted the glass dome and the four pendentives between its supporting arches . The Tudor @-@ style legislative chamber of the Board of Freeholders on the second floor was adorned with murals by Howard Pyle depicting early life of the Dutch and English in New Jersey . This room has been called " one of the handsomest legislative chambers in the United States . "
David G. Lowe , writing in American Heritage magazine , described the interior of the building :
" The courthouse interior is a rush of color — pearl gray and green @-@ veined marbles , golden light fixtures , yellow , green , and blue paint . Standing in the great central court , one looks up the three stories of the magnificent rotunda to a dome whose outer rim is painted with the signs of the zodiac and whose center is an eye of stained glass worthy of Tiffany . One feels — as one does in the rotunda at the heart of the Capitol in Washington — the dignity of government and the permanence of law . "
= = Restoration = =
Plans for restoring the courthouse had been proposed even before it fell into disuse . In 1961 , the architectural modelist Theodore Conrad proposed converting the building into a new city hall for Jersey City . The plan would have created a mall in front of the building and surrounded it with additional city buildings and a museum . Another proposal would house a branch of the New Jersey State Museum in the building . Conrad led a citizens group that lobbied for the preservation of the building , and got it listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The award @-@ winning restoration project resulted in the courthouse being reopened in 1985 for the use of the civil courts and other county offices .
= = Renaming = =
The Hudson County Board of Chosen Freeholders renamed the courthouse in 1984 in honor of Associate Supreme Court Justice William J. Brennan , who had served in the building as Hudson County Assignment Judge from 1947 through 1951 . Following the 1989 Supreme Court decision in Texas v. Johnson , which Brennan authored , veterans groups petitioned unsuccessfully to have the name removed , but the Freeholders unanimously voted to retain the name .
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= Wizards of the Coast =
Wizards of the Coast ( often referred to as WotC / wɑːt.siː / or simply Wizards ) is an American publisher of games , primarily based on fantasy and science fiction themes , and formerly an operator of retail stores for games . Originally a basement @-@ run role @-@ playing game publisher , the company popularized the collectible card game genre with Magic : The Gathering in the mid @-@ 1990s , acquired the popular Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing game by purchasing the failing company TSR , and experienced tremendous success by publishing the licensed Pokémon Trading Card Game . The company 's corporate headquarters are located in Renton , Washington in the United States of America .
Today , Wizards of the Coast publishes role @-@ playing games , board games , and collectible card games . They have received numerous awards , including several Origins Awards . The company has been a subsidiary of Hasbro since 1999 . All Wizards of the Coast stores were closed in 2004 .
= = History = =
Wizards of the Coast was founded by Peter Adkison in 1990 just outside Seattle , Washington , and its current headquarters are located in nearby Renton . Originally the company only published role @-@ playing games such as the third edition of Talislanta and its own The Primal Order . The 1992 release of The Primal Order , a supplement designed for use with any game system , brought legal trouble with Palladium Books suing for references to Palladium 's game and system . The suit was settled in 1993 .
In 1991 , Richard Garfield approached Wizards of the Coast with the idea for a new board game called RoboRally , but was turned down because the game would have been too expensive for Wizards of the Coast to produce . Instead , Adkison asked Garfield if he could invent a game that was both portable and quick @-@ playing , to which Garfield agreed .
Adkison set up a new corporation , Garfield Games , to develop Richard Garfield 's collectible card game concept , originally called Manaclash , into Magic : The Gathering . This kept the game sheltered from the legal battle with Palladium , and Garfield Games then licensed the production and sale rights to Wizards until the court case was settled , at which point the shell company was shut down . Wizards debuted Magic in July 1993 at the Origins Game Fair in Dallas . The game proved extremely popular at Gen Con in August 1993 , selling out of its supply of 2 @.@ 5 million cards , which had been scheduled to last until the end of the year . The success of Magic generated revenue that carried the company out from the handful of employees in 1993 working out of Peter 's original basement headquarters into 250 employees in its own offices in 1995 . In 1994 , Magic won both the Mensa Top Five mind games award and the Origins Awards for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Board game of 1993 and Best Graphic Presentation of a Board game of 1993 .
In 1994 , Wizards began an association with The Beanstalk Group , a brand licensing agency and consultancy , to license the Magic brand . After the success of Magic , Wizards published RoboRally in 1994 , and it soon won the 1994 Origins Awards for Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Board Game and Best Graphic Presentation of a Board Game . Wizards also expanded its role @-@ playing game line by buying SLA Industries from Nightfall Games and Ars Magica from White Wolf , Inc. in 1994 . In 1995 , Wizards published another card game by Richard Garfield , The Great Dalmuti , which won the 1995 Best New Mind Game award from Mensa . In August 1995 , Wizards released Everway and then four months later closed its roleplaying game product line . Peter Adkison explained that the company was doing a disservice to the games with lack of support and had lost money on all of Wizards ' roleplaying game products . Also in 1995 , Wizards ' annual sales passed US $ 65 million .
= = = Acquisition of TSR and Pokémon = = =
Wizards announced the purchase of TSR , the cash @-@ strapped makers of Dungeons & Dragons on April 10 , 1997 . Wizards acquired TSR and Five Rings Publishing Group for $ 25 million . Many of the creative and professional staff of TSR relocated from Wisconsin to the Renton area . Wizards used TSR as a brand name for a while , then retired it , allowing the TSR trademarks to expire . Between 1997 and 1999 , the company spun off several well @-@ loved but poorly selling campaign settings ( including Planescape , Dark Sun and Spelljammer ) to fan groups , focusing business primarily on the more profitable Greyhawk and Forgotten Realms lines .
In Summer 1997 , Wizards revisited the concept of a 3rd edition of Dungeons & Dragons , having first discussed it soon after the purchase of TSR . Looking back on the decision in 2004 , Adkison stated : " Obviously , [ Wizards ] had a strong economic incentive for publishing a new edition ; sales for any product line tend to spike when a new edition comes out , assuming the new edition is an improvement over the first . And given the change in ownership we thought this would be an excellent opportunity for WotC to ' put its stamp on D & D. ' " He later " Set [ the ] overall design direction " for the new edition of D & D. Wizards released the third edition of Dungeons & Dragons in 2000 , as well as the d20 System . With these releases came the Open Game License , which allowed other companies to make use of those systems . The new edition of the D & D game won the 2000 Origins Award for Best Roleplaying Game . In 2002 , Wizards sponsored a design contest which allowed designers to submit their campaign worlds to Wizards , to produce an entirely original campaign world ; Wizards selected " Eberron " , submitted by Keith Baker , and its first hardcover book was released in June 2004 . In 2003 Wizards released version 3 @.@ 5 of Dungeons & Dragons and the d20 system . Wizards helped to celebrate the 30th anniversary of the D & D game at Gen Con Indy 2004 .
On August 2 , 1997 , Wizards of the Coast was granted U.S. Patent 5 @,@ 662 @,@ 332 on collectible card games . In January 1999 , Wizards of the Coast began publishing the highly successful Pokémon Trading Card Game . The game proved to be very popular , selling nearly 400 @,@ 000 copies in less than six weeks , and selling 10 times better than Wizards ' initial projections . There was such a high demand for Pokémon cards that some sports card series were discontinued in 1999 because so many printers were producing Pokémon cards . The game won the 1999 National Parenting Center 's Seal of Approval .
Within a year , Wizards had sold millions of copies of the Pokémon game , and the company released a new set that included an instructional CD @-@ ROM . Wizards continued to publish the game until 2003 . One of Nintendo 's affiliates , Pokémon USA , had begun producing a new edition for the game before the last of its agreements with Wizards expired September 30 , and Wizards filed suit against Nintendo the following day , October 1 , 2003 . The two companies resolved their differences in December 2003 without going to court .
= = = Acquisition by Hasbro = = =
Seeing the continued success of Pokémon and Magic : The Gathering , the game and toy giant Hasbro bought Wizards of the Coast in September 1999 , for about US $ 325 million . Hasbro had expressed interest in purchasing Wizards of the Coast as early as 1994 , and had been further impressed after the success of its Pokémon game . Avalon Hill was made a division of Wizards of the Coast , in late 1999 ; the company had been purchased by Hasbro in the summer of 1998 .
Vince Caluori became President of Wizards of the Coast in November 1999 . As of January 1 , 2001 , Peter Adkison resigned from Wizards . Chuck Huebner became President and CEO of Wizards of the Coast in June 2002 , and Loren Greenwood succeeded Huebner in these positions in April 2004 . Greg Leeds succeeded Loren Greenwood as President and CEO of Wizards of the Coast in March 2008 . In 2016 Chris Cocks was announced as a replacement for Greg Leeds . As of 2008 , the company employs over 300 people .
In November 1999 , Wizards announced that Gen Con would leave Milwaukee after the 2002 convention . Hasbro sold Origins to GAMA , and in May 2002 sold Gen Con to Peter Adkison . Wizards also outsourced its magazines by licensing Dungeon , Dragon , Polyhedron , and Amazing Stories to Paizo Publishing . Wizards released the Dungeons & Dragons miniatures collectible pre @-@ painted plastic miniatures games in 2003 , and added a licensed Star Wars line in 2004 , and through its Avalon Hill brand an Axis & Allies World War II miniatures game in 2005 . Wizards of the Coast 's book publishing division has produced hundreds of titles that have sold millions of copies in over 16 languages .
After the company 's great success in 1999 with Pokémon , Wizards of the Coast acquired and expanded " The Game Keeper , " a US chain of retail gaming stores , eventually changing its name to " Wizards of the Coast " , including the company 's flagship gaming center on the Ave in Seattle for several years , and its retail stores , which were mostly in shopping malls in the US . The gaming center was closed by March 2001 and eventually Wizards announced in December 2003 that it would close all of its stores in order to concentrate on game design . The stores were closed in the spring of 2004 .
= = = The 2000s = = =
In early 2006 , Wizards of the Coast filed a lawsuit against Daron Rutter , then administrator of the MTGSalvation website ( on which he is known as " Rancored Elf " ) . The charges stemmed from Rutter publicly posting confidential prototypes for upcoming Magic : The Gathering card sets to the MTGSalvation forums , ten months before the cards were to be released . Mark Rosewater explained the outcome : " I can say that we [ Wizards of the Coast ] settled the lawsuit with Rancored Elf out of court to both parties ' satisfaction . "
Paizo Publishing 's license to produce Dragon and Dungeon magazines , which Paizo had been publishing since it spun off from Wizards of the Coast 's periodicals department in 2002 , expired in September 2007 . Wizards then moved the magazines to an online model . On June 6 , 2008 , Wizards released the 4th Edition of Dungeons & Dragons , with the retail availability of a new set of core rulebooks . Wizards began introducing 4th Edition online content in Dragon and Dungeon magazines . 4th Edition is designed to offer more streamlined game play , while the new rules framework intended to reduce the preparation time needed to run a game and make the game more accessible to new players .
On April 6 , 2009 , Wizards of the Coast suspended all sales of its products for the Dungeons & Dragons games in PDF format from places such as ONEBOOKSHELF.com and its subsidiaries RPGNow.com and DRIVETHRURPG.com. This coincides with a lawsuit brought against eight people in an attempt to prevent future copyright infringement of their books , and includes the recent 4th edition Dungeons & Dragons products that were made available through these places as well as all older editions PDFs of the game .
A 5th edition of D & D was released during the second half of 2014 .
= = Games and products = =
In addition to Dungeons & Dragons , Magic : The Gathering , and Pokémon , Wizards has produced numerous other games , including board , card , miniature , and role @-@ playing games . They also publish novels based on games such as Dungeons & Dragons , Magic : The Gathering and Legend of the Five Rings .
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= Dictator novel =
The dictator novel ( Spanish : novela del dictador ) is a genre of Latin American literature that challenges the role of the dictator in Latin American society . The theme of caudillismo — the régime of a charismatic caudillo , a political strongman — is addressed by examining the relationships between power , dictatorship , and writing . Moreover , a dictator novel often is an allegory for the role of the writer in a Latin American society . Although mostly associated with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s , the dictator @-@ novel genre has its roots in the nineteenth @-@ century novel Facundo ( 1845 ) , by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento . As an indirect critique of Juan Manuel de Rosas 's dictatorial régime in Argentina , Facundo is the forerunner of the dictator novel genre ; all subsequent dictator novels hearken back to it . As established by Sarmiento , the goal of the genre is not to analyze the rule of particular dictators , or to focus on historical accuracy , but to examine the abstract nature of authority figures and of authority in general .
To be considered a dictator novel , a story should have strong political themes drawn from history , a critical examination of the power held by the dictator , the caudillo , and some general reflection on the nature of authoritarianism . Although some dictator novels centre on one historical dictator ( albeit in fictional guise ) , they do not analyze the economics , politics , and rule of the régime as might a history book . The dictator novel genre includes I , the Supreme ( 1974 ) , by Augusto Roa Bastos , about Dr. Francia of Paraguay , and The Feast of the Goat ( 2000 ) , by Mario Vargas Llosa , about Rafael Leónidas Trujillo of the Dominican Republic . Alternatively , the novelist might create a fictional dictator to achieve the same narrative end , as in Reasons of State ( 1974 ) , by Alejo Carpentier , in which the dictator is a composite man assembled from historical dictators . The genre of the dictator novel has been very influential in the development of a Latin American literary tradition , because many of the novelists rejected traditional , linear story @-@ telling techniques , and developed narrative styles that blurred the distinctions between reader , narrator , plot , characters , and story . In examining the authority of leadership , the novelists also assessed their own social roles as paternalistic dispensers of wisdom , like that of the caudillo whose régime they challenged in their dictator novels .
= = Literary context = =
Literary critic Roberto González Echevarría argues that the dictator novel is “ the most clearly indigenous thematic tradition in Latin American literature ” , and traces the development of this theme from “ as far back as Bernal Díaz del Castillo ’ s and Francisco López de Gómara ’ s accounts of Cortés ’ s conquest of Mexico . ” The nineteenth century saw significant literary reflections on political power , though on the whole the dictator novel is associated with the Latin American Boom , a literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s . For critic Gerald Martin , the dictator novel marks the end of the Boom and even ( as he says of Roa Bastos 's I , the Supreme ) “ the end of an entire era in Latin American history , the era which had stretched from Sarmiento 's Facundo in 1845 . " In the 1970s , many dictator novels focused on the figure “ of the aging dictator , prey to the boredom of a limitless power he is on the verge of losing . ”
= = Definition = =
Miguel Ángel Asturias 's El Señor Presidente ( written in 1933 , but not published until 1946 ) is , in the opinion of critic Gerald Martin , " the first real dictator novel " . Other literary treatments of the dictator figure followed , such as Jorge Zalamea 's El Gran Burundún Burundá ha muerto , but the genre did not gain impetus until it was reinvented in the political climate of the cold war , through the Latin American Boom .
The dictator novel came back into fashion in the 1970s , towards the end of the Boom . As Sharon Keefe Ugalde remarks , " the 1970s mark a new stage in the evolution of the Latin American dictator novel , characterized by at least two developments : a change in the perspective from which the dictator is viewed and a new focus on the nature of language . " By this she means that the dictator novels of the 1970s , such as The Autumn of the Patriarch or I , the Supreme , offer the reader a more intimate view of their subject : " the dictator becomes protagonist " and the world is often seen from his point of view . With the new focus on language , Keefe Ugalde points to the realisation on the part of many authors that " the tyrant 's power is derived from and defeated by language . " For example , in Jorge Zalamea 's El Gran Burundún Burundá ha muerto the dictator bans all forms of language .
According to Raymond L. Williams , it was not until the 1970s , when enough Latin American writers had published novels dealing with military regimes , that " dictator novel " became common nomenclature . The most celebrated novels of this era were Alejo Carpentier 's Reasons of State ( 1974 ) , Augusto Roa Bastos 's I , the Supreme ( 1974 ) , and Gabriel García Marquez 's The Autumn of the Patriarch ( 1975 ) . He defines the dictator novel as a novel which draws upon the historical record to create fictionalized versions of dictators . In this way , the author is able to use the specific to explain the general , as many dictator novels are centred around the rule of a one particular dictator . Within this group he includes those novelists who took to task authoritarian figures such as Vargas Llosa 's Conversation in the Cathedral ( 1969 ) and Denzil Romero 's La tragedia del Generalísimo ( 1984 ) . He even includes Sergio Ramírez 's ¿ Te dio miedo la sangre ? ( 1977 ) , a novel about Nicaraguan society under the Somoza dictatorship , which has been described as a " dictator novel without the dictator " .
= = Style and theme = =
The novelists of the dictator novel genre combined narrative strategies of both modern and postmodern writing . Postmodern techniques , constructed largely in the late 1960s and 1970s , included use of interior monologues , radically stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness narrative , fragmentation , varying narrative points of view , neologisms , innovative narrative strategies , and frequent lack of causality . Alejo Carpentier , a Boom writer and contributor to the dictator novel genre pioneered what came to be known as magical realism , although the use of this technique is not necessarily a prerequisite of the dictator novel , as there are many that do not utilize magical realism .
A predominant theme of the dictator novel is power , which according literary critic Michael Valdez Moses , in his 2002 review of Feast of the Goat , is linked to the theme of dictatorship : " The enduring power of the Latin American dictator novel had everything to do with the enduring power of Latin American dictators " . As novels such as El Señor Presidente became more well @-@ known , they were read as ambitious political statements , denouncing the authority of dictators in Latin America . As political statements , dictator novel authors challenged dictatorial power , creating a link between power and writing through the force wielded by their pen . For example , in Roa Bastos 's I , The Supreme , the novel revolves around a central theme of language and the power inherent in all of its forms , a power that is often only present in the deconstruction of communication . González Echevarría argues that :
Dr. Francia 's fear of the pasquinade , his abuse of Policarpo Patiño ... , [ and ] his constant worry about writing all stem from the fact that he has found and used the power implicit in language itself . The Supremo defines power as being able to do through others what we are unable to do ourselves : language , being separate from what it designates , is the very embodiment of power , for things act and mean through it without ceasing to be themselves . Dr. Francia has also realized that he cannot control language , particularly written language , that it has a life of its own that threatens him .
Another constant theme which runs throughout the Latin American dictator novel , which gained in importance and frequency during the Latin American Boom , is the interdependence of the Latin American tyrant and United States imperialism . In Mario Vargas Llosa 's The Feast of the Goat , for example , Trujillo faces serious opposition shortly after losing his material backing from the CIA , previously held for over 32 years in light of his anti @-@ communist leanings .
Gender is an additional overarching theme within dictator novels . National portraits in Latin America often insist on the importance of women ( and men ) that are healthy , happy , productive , and patriotic , yet many national literary treasures often reflect government rhetoric in the way they code active citizenship as male . Masculinity is an enduring motif in the dictator novel . There is a connection between the pen and the penis in Latin American fiction , but this pattern cannot be explained by machismo alone — it is far more complex . According to Rebecca E. Biron , " where we find violent , misogynistic fantasies of masculinity , we also [ find ] violent social relations between actual men and women . " Many Latin American works " include characters who act out violent fictions of masculinity , and yet their narrative structure provides readers with alternative responses to misogynistic fantasies of masculine identity formation " .
= = Historical context = =
= = = Dictators in Latin American history = = =
Since independence , Latin American countries have been subject to both right and left @-@ wing authoritarian regimes , stemming from a history of colonialism in which one group dominated another . Given this long history , it is unsurprising that there have been so many novels " about individual dictators , or about the problems of dictatorship caudillismo , caciquismo , militarism and the like . " The legacy of colonialism is one of racial conflict sometimes pushing an absolute authority to rise up to contain it — thus the tyrant is born . Seeking unlimited power , dictators often amend constitutions , dismantling laws which prevent their reelection . Licenciado Manuel Estrada Cabrera , for example , altered the Guatemalan Constitution in 1899 to permit his return to power . The dictators who have become the focus of the dictator novel ( Augusto Roa Bastos 's I , the Supreme , for instance , is based on Paraguay 's dictator of the early nineteenth century , the so @-@ called Dr Francia ) do not differ much from each other in terms of how they govern . As author González Echevarría states : " they are male , militaristic , and wield almost absolute personal power . " Their strong @-@ arm tactics include exiling or imprisoning their opposition , attacking the freedom of the press , creating a centralized government backed by a powerful military force , and assuming complete control over free thought . Despite intense criticisms leveled at these figures , dictators involved in nationalist movements developed three simple truths , " that everybody belonged , that the benefits of Progress should be shared , and that industrial development should be the priority " . Epitácio Pessoa , who was elected President of Brazil in 1919 , wanted to make the country progress regardless of whether or not Congress passed the laws he proposed . In particular , during the Great Depression , Latin American activist governments of the 1930s saw the end of neocolonialism and the infusion of nationalist movements throughout Latin America , increasing the success of import substitution industrialization or ISI . The positive side @-@ effect of the collapse of international trade meant local Latin American manufacturers could fill the market niches left vacant by vanishing exports .
In the twentieth century , prominent Latin American dictators have included the Somoza dynasty in Nicaragua , Alfredo Stroessner in Paraguay , and Augusto Pinochet in Chile , among others . As an outside influence , United States interference in Latin American politics is controversial and has often been severely criticized . As García Calderon noted as far back as 1925 : " Does it want peace or is it controlled by certain interests ? " As a theme in the dictator novel , the link between U.S. imperialism and the power of the tyrant is very important . Dictators in Latin America have accepted military and financial support from the United States when it suited them , but have also turned against the United States , using anti @-@ American campaigning to gain favour with the people . In the case of Trujillo , " Nothing promises to reinvigorate his flagging popularity more than to face up to the Yankee aggressor in the name of la patria . "
= = = Los Padres de la Patria = = =
In 1967 during a meeting with Alejo Carpentier , Julio Cortázar , and Miguel Otero Silva , the Mexican author Carlos Fuentes launched a project consisting of a series of biographies depicting Latin American dictators , which was to be called Los Padres de la Patria ( The Fathers of the Fatherland ) . After reading Edmund Wilson 's portraits of the American Civil War in Patriotic Gore , Fuentes recounts , " Sitting in a pub in Hampstead , we thought it would be a good idea to have a comparable book on Latin America . An imaginary portrait gallery immediately stepped forward , demanding incarnation : the Latin American dictators . " Vargas Llosa was to write about Manuel A. Odría , Jorge Edwards about José Manuel Balmaceda , José Donoso about Mariano Melgarejo , and Julio Cortázar about Eva Perón . As M. Mar Langa Pizarro observes , the project was never completed , but it helped inspire a series of novels written by important authors during the Latin American literary boom , such as Alejo Carpentier , Augusto Roa Bastos , Gabriel García Márquez , and Mario Vargas Llosa .
= = Development of the genre = =
= = = Forerunners = = =
Both Domingo Faustino Sarmiento 's Facundo and José Marmol 's Amalia , published in the nineteenth century , were precursors to the twentieth century dictator novel ; however , " all fictional depictions of the Latin American ' strong @-@ man ' , have an important antecedent in Domingo Faustino Sarmiento 's Facundo , a work written as a sociolodical treatise " . Facundo is an indirect critique of Juan Manuel de Rosas 's dictatorship , directed against the actual historical figure , Juan Facundo Quiroga , but is also a broader investigation into Argentine history and culture . Sarmiento 's Facundo has remained a fundamental fixture because of the breadth of its literary exploration of the Latin American environment . In Facundo , Sarmiento criticizes the historical figure Facundo Quiroga , a provincial caudillo , who like Rosas ( dictator of Argentina from 1829 to 1853 ) was opposed to the enlightened ideas of progress . After returning from exile , Sarmiento worked to reinvent Argentina , eventually becoming president himself from 1868 to 1874 . Sarmiento 's analysis of Facundo Quiroga was the first time that an author questioned how figures like Facundo and Rosas could have maintained such absolute power , and in answering this question , Facundo established its place as an inspirational text to later authors . Sarmiento perceived his own power in writing Facundo as " within the text of the novel , it is the novelist , through the voice of omniscience , who has replaced God " , thereby creating the bridge between writing and power that is characteristic of the dictator novel .
Set in post @-@ colonial Buenos Aires , Amalia was written in two parts and is a semi @-@ autobiographical account of José Mármol that deals with living in Rosas 's police state . Mármol 's novel was important as it showed how the human consciousness , much like a city or even a country , could become a terrifying prison . Amalia also attempted to examine the problem of dictatorships as being one of structure , and therefore the problem of the state " manifested through the will of some monstrous personage violating the ordinary individual 's privacy , both of home and of consciousness . " In the early twentieth century , the Spaniard Ramón del Valle @-@ Inclán 's Tirano Banderas ( 1926 ) acted as a key influence on those authors whose goal was to critique power structures and the status quo .
= = = Classic dictator novels = = =
El Señor Presidente is a 1946 novel by Guatemalan Nobel Prize @-@ winning writer and diplomat Miguel Ángel Asturias . Although the novel does not explicitly identify its setting as early twentieth @-@ century Guatemala , Asturias was inspired by the 1898 – 1920 presidency of Manuel Estrada Cabrera for his title character . This novel explores the nature of political dictatorship and its effects on society , and is an overtly political novel in which Asturias denounces Latin American dictators . By keeping time and place ambiguous , Asturias 's novel represents a break from former narratives , which until this point had been judged on how adequately they reflected reality . Asturias 's distinctive use of dream imagery , onomatopoeia , simile , and repetition , combined with a discontinuous structure consisting of abrupt changes of style and viewpoint , sprang from surrealist and ultraist influences . Furthermore , it made early use of a literary technique that would come to be known as magic realism . The President went on to influence a generation of Latin American authors , becoming an early example of the " new novel " and a precursor to the Latin American literary boom .
Jorge Zalamea , El gran Burundún Burundá ha muerto ( " The Great Burundún Burundá is Dead " , 1951 ) . For Keefe Ugalde , " El gran Burundún Burundá ... occupies an important midway point in the evolution of the dictator novel " and Peter Neissa emphasizes " its cultural and political importance and subsequent influence on dictator narratives . " More broadly , Martin describes this " remarkable Colombian novelette " as seeming to contain " the seeds of García Márquez 's mature style . " The book describes the ( fictional ) dictator " Burundún 's rise to power , selected events during his regime , and a description of his funeral . " It is at this funeral that it is revealed that the body of the dictator is absent , and has somehow been replaced by or transformed into " a great big parrot , a voluminous parrot , an enormous parrot , all swollen , inflated and wrapped in documents , gazettes , mail from abroad , newspapers , reports , annals , broadsheets , almanacs , official bulletins . "
Enrique Lafourcade 's King Ahab 's Feast ( La Fiesta del rey Acab , 1959 ) portrays the fictional dictator César Alejandro Carrillo Acab , and opens with what Claude Hulet describes as an " amusingly ironic , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek note in preface " which declares that " This is a mere work of fiction . ... Indeed , no one is unaware that neither the United Nations , nor the Organization of American States , permits the continued existence of regimes like the one that serves as pretext to this novel . " As Hulet observes , Lafourcade 's " powerful and razor sharp satire " is directed " presumably against the Trujillo regime and others like it . "
Alejo Carpentier 's , Reasons of State ( El recurso del método , 1974 ) , is a synthesis of several historical figures from Latin American , most prominently Gerardo Machado , dictator of Cuba . This fictional character , in his bid to be refined , spends half of his life in Europe , perhaps reminiscent of Sarmiento 's dichotomy of civilization and barbarism . This novel is tragicomic in nature , the only novel by Carpentier to combine elements of both tragedy and comedy .
Augusto Roa Bastos 's I , the Supreme ( Yo , el Supremo , 1974 ) is a fictionalized account of the nineteenth @-@ century Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia . However , it is also a historical account , making use of real documents and accounts of people who knew Francia . Roa 's portrayal of a despot in Latin American fiction is distinguished " not only by the quantity of detail lavished on him , but by his remarkable capacity to seem at one moment a person , at another an embodiment of contradictory elements not usually associated with a single person , let alone a powerful tyrant " . Its title was derived from the fact that Francia referred to himself as " El Supremo " or " the Supreme " . Making use of non @-@ traditional writing techniques , the novel is composed of separate discourses with their own distinctive styles , and the demarcation between them is often blurred . Gerald Martin claims that Roa Bastos 's novel " was more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since One Hundred Years of Solitude , and critics seemed to suspect that its strictly historical importance might be even greater than that of García Márquez 's fabulously successful creation . "
Gabriel García Márquez 's The Autumn of the Patriarch ( El otoño del patriarca , 1975 ) details the life of an eternal dictator , " el macho " , a fictional character who lives to be over 200 years old . The book is divided into six sections , each retelling the same story of the infinite power held by the archetypal Caribbean tyrant . Márquez based his fictional dictator on a variety of real @-@ life autocrats , including Gustavo Rojas Pinilla of his Colombian homeland , Generalissimo Francisco Franco of Spain ( the novel was written in Barcelona ) , and Venezuela 's Juan Vicente Gómez . One of the key characters of the novel is the Indian General Saturno Santos , who devotes himself to " inscrutable service to the patriarch . " In this novel , García Márquez proposes an interesting contradiction : " that Latin America 's patriarchs owe their most intimate support to their victims of longest standing ; and that America 's revolution is inconceivable without the Indian " . Illustrating the importance of the Indian in Latin America is all the more prudent given that García Márquez 's home country , Colombia , is distinguished as literarily not recognizing the Indian populations which are very much alive today .
Luisa Valenzuela 's The Lizard 's Tail ( Cola de lagartija , 1983 ) is set in the period after Juan Perón 's return to Argentina in 1973 , when the Argentine president was heavily influenced by the sinister éminence grise José López Rega . The novel deals specifically with themes surrounding the nature of male @-@ female relationships during this regime of military oppression . The novel 's title is a reference to an instrument of torture that was invented in the Southern Cone .
Tomás Eloy Martínez 's The Perón Novel ( La novela de Perón , 1985 ) uses a mixture of historical facts , fiction , and documents to retell the life story of Juan Domingo Perón , " dramatizing the rivalries within the ranks of Peronism " . This allowed the author to construct an intimate portrait of Perón rather than an historically accurate one . This method of analyzing Perón , that delves into his early history and family upbringing to theorize the motivation for his actions later in life , can be linked to Sarmiento 's similar analyses of Facundo , and through him , Rosas .
Gabriel García Márquez 's The General in His Labyrinth ( El general en su laberinto , 1989 ) is a fictionalized account of the last days in the life of Simón Bolívar . Bolívar , also known as the Great Liberator , freed from Spanish rule the territory that would subsequently become Venezuela , Bolivia , Colombia , Peru , and Ecuador . However the character of the General is not portrayed as the glorious hero that traditional history has presented ; instead García Márquez develops a pathetic protagonist , a prematurely aged man who is physically ill and mentally exhausted .
Mario Vargas Llosa 's The Feast of the Goat ( La fiesta del chivo , 2000 ) recounts with " gruesome detail and dramatic intensity " the last days of the tyrant and dictator Rafael Leónidas Trujillo of the Dominican Republic , as he becomes infuriated that , despite being a long @-@ standing ally of the United States because of his anti @-@ communist stance , he is no longer in favour with the U.S. administration who have withdrawn their backing on discovering his extensive human rights violations . Following several interwoven storylines — those of Trujillo , his assassins , and the daughter of a man who once served in Trujillo 's inner circle of advisers , Urania Cabral — this novel reveals both the political and social environment in the Dominican Republic , past and present . The story opens and closes with Urania 's story , effectively framing the narrative in terms of remembering and understanding the past and its legacy for the present .
= = = ' Not quite ' dictator novels = = =
Latin American novels that explore political themes , but that do not centre upon the rule of a particular dictator , are informally classified as “ not quite dictator novels ” . For example , Libro de Manuel ( A Manual for Manuel , 1973 ) , by Julio Cortázar , is a postmodern novel about urban guerrillas and their revolutionary struggle , which asks the reader to examine the broader societal matters of language , sexuality , and the modes of interpretation . In the Time of the Butterflies ( 1994 ) , by Julia Álvarez , tells the story of the Mirabal sisters , whom patriotism transformed from well @-@ behaved Catholic débutantes to political dissenters against the thirty @-@ year dictatorship of the Trujillo régime in the Dominican Republic . The novel sought to illuminate the officially @-@ obscured @-@ history of the deaths of the Mirabal sisters , not to determine what happened to them , but to determine how the Mirabal sisters happened to the national politics of the Dominican Republic . In the mock @-@ diary “ Intimate Diary of Solitude ” ( third part of El imperio de los sueños 1988 ; Empire of Dreams , 1994 ) , by Giannina Braschi , the protagonist is Mariquita Samper , the diarist who shoots the narrator of the Latin American Boom in revolt against his dictatorial control of the fictional narration . Moreover , in Braschi ’ s most recent work “ United States of Banana ” ( 2011 ) , the Puerto Rican prisoner Segismundo overthrows his father , the King of the United States of Banana , who had imprisoned him for more than a hundred years in the dungeon of the Statue of Liberty , for the crime of having been born . The story of Distant Star ( 1996 ) , by Roberto Bolaño , begins on 11 September 1973 , with the coup d ’ état by General Augusto Pinochet against Salvador Allende , the President of Chile . The writer and professor of literature Raymond Leslie Williams describes the aforementioned novels as not @-@ quite @-@ dictator @-@ novels , which are reminiscent of the genre for being “ acutely and subtly political fiction ” that addresses themes different from those of the dictator novel , which cannot be divorced from the politics of the stories , and so each “ can be read as a meditation on the horror of absolute power ” .
= = Legacy = =
Although it is difficult to establish the exact origin of the dictator novel in the nineteenth century , its intellectual influence spans Latin American Literature . Most of the novels were written in the middle years of the twentieth century , and each has a unique literary style that employed techniques of the “ new novel ” , by which the writer rejected the formal structure of conventional literary realism , arguing that “ its simplistic assumption that reality is easily observable ” is a narrative flaw . As a genre , the dictator novel redefined the literary concept of “ the novel ” in order to compel the readers to examine the ways in which political and social mores affect their daily lives . Therefore , the regional politics and the social issues of the stories yielded to universal human concerns , thus the traditional novel ’ s “ ordered world view gives way to a fragmented , distorted or fantastic narrative ” in which the reader has an intellectually active role in grasping the thematic gist of the story . Additional to the narrative substance , the novelists redefined the formal literary categories of author , narrator , character , plot , story , and reader , in order to examine the etymological link between “ author ” and “ authority ” , wherein the figure of the novelist ( the author ) became very important to the telling of the tale . In the dictator novels , the writers questioned the traditional story @-@ teller role of the novelist as the “ privileged , paternal figure , as the authoritative ‘ father ’ , or divine creator , in whom meaning would be seen to originate ” , and so , the novelists fulfilled the role of the dictator .
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= Mount St. Peter Church =
Mount Saint Peter Church is a Roman Catholic Church at 100 Freeport Road in New Kensington , Pennsylvania . The church is located along the Allegheny River and is approximately 25 mi ( 40 km ) north @-@ east of the city of Pittsburgh within the Diocese of Greensburg .
The congregation was founded by Italian immigrants in the early 1900s and the current building was constructed by hand by parish members during World War II . The church was dedicated on July 4 , 1944 . In 1998 , the building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
As of 2009 , the congregation had approximately 5 @,@ 000 members . The church is regionally known for its annual Festa Italiana , at which there is homemade Italian food , dancing , games for children , and gambling for adults . This festival is organized by volunteers from the church and takes place on the church grounds during the first weekend in August . The mission statement of the church emphasizes the congregation 's Italian heritage .
= = History = =
The history of the Mount St. Peter parish is woven with the history of Alcoa and the emergence of New Kensington as an industrial city in the early twentieth century . In 1890 , the Burrell Improvement Company considered the advantages of the level land south of its home in Lower Burrell . They named the area New Kensington , surveyed it , and laid out avenues , running parallel to the Allegheny River , and numbered streets running perpendicular to the river . Fourth and Fifth streets were the primary commercial streets . Once the land was surveyed and plotted , the company opened the land to bidding . The first large company to purchase land , the Pittsburgh Reduction Company , acquired a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 14 @,@ 000 m2 ) property by the riverfront . Other companies also acquired sites for commercial and industrial development : Adams Drilling , Goldsmith and Lowerburg , New Kensington Milling , New Kensington Brewing , Logan Lumber , and Keystone Dairy , to name a few .
The presence of Pittsburgh Reduction Company ( later Alcoa ) provided a boon for development . On Thanksgiving Day 1888 , with the help of Alfred E. Hunt , Charles Martin Hall developed an experimental smelting plant on Smallman Street in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . In 1891 , the company established its production facility in New Kensington .
By 1910 , the city was also the home of a car manufacturing company , the New Kensington Automobile Company . In addition , the Pittsburg [ sic ] Motor Car Company had established a production plant for its Pittsburg Six model in New Kensington . By 1904 , the American Tin Plate Company ( capital stock owned by the United States Steel Corporation ) had established the six facilities of the Pittsburgh Mills and six of the Pennsylvania Mills in New Kensington .
= = = Diocese of Greensburg = = =
The Diocese of Greensburg , to which Mount Saint Peter now belongs , was established on March 10 , 1951 , by Pope Pius XII . Records show that the first Mass in the area was celebrated in the Allegheny Mountains in 1749 by a French priest serving as chaplain to French troops . Demetrius Augustine Gallitzin , the second priest ordained in territories that became the United States , arrived in Loretto , Pennsylvania in 1799 . Father Boniface Wimmer came to Latrobe from Germany and established the first Benedictine presence in the region of Saint Vincent in 1846 .
Prior to the United States ' Civil War , Catholicism grew slowly in America , but afterward , it became more widespread as Catholic immigrants from eastern Europe moved to the four counties , which include Armstrong , Fayette , Indiana , and Westmoreland , to mine coal and produce coke to fire steel mills in Pittsburgh . This influx of Catholic immigrants resulted in the creation of more than 80 parishes and missions in the counties between 1865 and 1917 .
= = = Founding and early days of St. Peter parish = = =
By 1900 , the burgeoning industrial town had 4 @,@ 600 residents and two years later Reverend Bonaventure Piscopo , a member of the Apostolic Band for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh , formed a new congregation in New Kensington to serve the immigrant work force , many of whom were Italian Catholics . The church was named after Saint Peter , the first pope . The parishioners of this new congregation were Italians living in and around New Kensington , Arnold , and Parnassus , which later became a part of the city of New Kensington . These immigrants needed a place to worship and in 1903 , the St. Peter congregation began holding Mass with a resident pastor , Reverend Vincenzo Maselli in a small building on the corner of Second Avenue and Tenth Street ( known as the downtown area ) in New Kensington .
Soon after , on September 28 , 1903 , the congregation relocated to the basement of St. Mary 's Polish Church , which was also located in New Kensington . Here , the first parish register was created . The first recorded event in the new parish was a marriage on December 27 , 1903 . Soon after , the Burrell Improvement Company donated land on the corner of Ridge Avenue and Constitution Boulevard . On July 4 , 1905 , the cornerstone of St. Peter Church was laid and on September 25 , 1905 , Bishop Regis Canevin dedicated the new church .
In 1908 , the number of attendees at St. Peter Church began to dwindle . Many of the priests who had served the congregation had been reassigned a few years earlier . In 1908 , a popular priest , Father Sacchi , was sent to Mother of Sorrows Church in McKees Rocks , Pennsylvania . Parishioners formed a committee to go speak to the Bishop on Father Sacchi 's behalf . Although Father Sacchi was not allowed to return to St. Peter , Reverend James Vocca , who had also been at St. Peter prior to his reassignment , was brought back to the church .
At this time , the priests who were part of St. Peter were doing the best they could to keep the faith alive in their congregation . The priests were smart men who had attended school in Italy prior to their immigration , but most were unable to speak fluent English . At a time when immigrants were desperately trying to fit into the American life and be as American as possible , going to a church where the congregation was Italian was not the most desirable choice . Therefore , many Catholic Italians began going to churches and many others changed their religion altogether . Many of these Italians were becoming Protestant . The priests were poorly paid and most lived on about twenty @-@ five cents per day . They had no permanent housing : many slept in the church itself , and preferred the altar floor because it was the only place in the church that had carpeting . It was also common for the priests to say Mass several churches on the same day . These circuits trips were sometimes as much as twenty @-@ five miles away .
= = = Italian anarchist movement = = =
Around 1918 , the leaders of the Italian Communists and Anarchists in the United States settled themselves in New Kensington . The group was guided by the ideas of Carlo Tresca , a union organizer for Industrial Workers of the World , which were recorded first , in his newspaper La Plebe , or The Worker , and later in his anti @-@ fascist paper , Il Martello ( which translates to " the hammer " ) . The Italian Communists and Anarchists harassed members of the Catholic Church . Italians who did go the church were made to feel inferior and many became too intimidated to go to church at all . At St. Peter 's , one priest was shot through a window while he was sitting at his desk . Another priest was threatened that if he did not leave New Kensington he would be killed . In 1918 , there were only thirteen families who attended Mass at St. Peter on Sunday . This continued for several years until Carlo Tresca moved from New Kensington to New York in 1925 .
By 1929 , St. Peter was crowded for all three Masses on Sunday morning . There were so many people that the balcony , the sanctuary , and both sacristies were opened seating . Eventually the priests opened the doors of the church and hundreds of people stood outside on the steps to hear the Mass . Despite all of these accommodations , there were still many people who were turned away because there was not enough space to accommodate them . There were about a thousand families who belonged to St. Peter parish , but the church itself only had about two hundred seats in the pews . In 1933 , Bishop Hugh Boyle suggested the construction of a larger church and the congregation decided to construct a larger building . The new church building was constructed by the parishioners , who broke ground in May 1941 and three years later dedicated the new building .
= = = World War II affects the congregation = = =
By May 1944 , the parishioners had contributed to the war having given thousands of pints of blood to the Blood Banks ; given money to the war relief campaigns ; been active on the home front , and sent 808 men and women to the Armed Forces . There was a group that prepared and sent out a weekly special bulletin to the parishioners in the Armed Forces . These parishioners were happy to receive news from home on the progress of their new church and many of them sent home money to go towards the building fund . During the war , hundreds of dollars came in from these parishioners fighting in the war . Of the 808 parishioners who went off to war , seven died and their names were engraved on a piece of granite outside of the church : James DiMuzio , Arthur Capo , Nick Costelli , Justine DeFelices , Neal Chipoletti , and Anthony Zaffuto .
= = Relocating and building a church by hand = =
The current location was found to be too small and the congregation was in need of a larger building . Parishioners from Arnold wanted the new church to be built in their town , arguing that most of the congregation lived there . Those from Parnassus wanted the church closer to them because there were a lot of Catholics but no Catholic church in Parnassus . The parishioners from New Kensington argued that St. Peter should remain close to its current location and one was found on the corner of Freeport Road and Seventh Street . This location was approximately 100 yd ( 91 m ) from the previous St. Peter Church and was located on the top of a hill . The land was 4 acres ( 1 @.@ 6 ha ) and had a large mansion and a few small buildings on the property .
The land had once belonged to Stephen M. Young , who had been a General in the United States Army during the American Civil War and was a friend of Abraham Lincoln . Young sold the property to Frank M. Curtis for $ 7 @,@ 000 in 1902 . It was sold to David A. Leslie for $ 17 @,@ 000 in 1914 . After Mr. Leslie 's death in August 1938 , attorneys spoke to Mrs. Leslie about selling the property and she agreed to sell for $ 20 @,@ 000 cash . On December 1 , 1938 , the congregation made a down payment of $ 500 cash and few days later , the Building Fund Campaign opened for the new church with a committee of one @-@ hundred volunteers . Each parishioner who was employed full @-@ time should sign a pledge to give $ 60 over a period of five years towards the building of the church . The committee was split up into groups , and the volunteers went door to door almost every day for five years until enough money was collected .
On April 1 , 1939 , St. Peter 's congregation took possession of the land and mansion . That day , it was decided the new church would be called " Mount St. Peter . " By May 1 , instead of having $ 20 @,@ 000 as anticipated , the building campaign had generated $ 23 @,@ 500 in cash and another $ 75 @,@ 200 in pledges .
= = = Acquiring materials from the Mellon Mansion = = =
Architect Enos Cooke of New Kensington developed the plan for the church building . In 1940 , a friend of the church , John Stanish , informed Mt . St. Peter 's congregation that the Mellon mansion , 6500 Fifth Avenue , in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , was to be demolished . Stanish had worked for the three Mellon brothers until the last of them died in 1938 . The Mellon family had spent years entertaining important people , including royalty , celebrities , well known financiers , and statesmen in the Mellon Mansion . It was built using Michigan sandstone and was four stories high on one side and three stories high on the other . The mansion had sixty @-@ five rooms , plus halls and vestibules . There were 11 bathrooms , one of which had cost over $ 10 @,@ 000 to complete because the walls and floor were covered in Italian marble and the fixtures were plated in gold . At one time , a hundred servants had maintained the house and surrounding grounds . The mansion had been completed in 1909 and had cost Mr. Mellon approximately three million dollars . The inside was filled with marble from all over the world , including China , Japan , and India . There were bronze doors cast in England , hand painted ceilings , and steel beams manufactured by the Carnegie Steel Company . In addition , one of the most expensive organs in the world was housed in this building . The items which the mansion contained were being sold for less than their actual values . For example , a half a million dollars worth of furniture had been sold for $ 3 @,@ 800 . The building contained many items that could easily be used in a church . There were mantles that could become altars and pieces of architecture , such as angel statues , that could be placed in Mount St. Peter Church . In 1940 , St. Peter 's congregation bought all of the stone , granite , marble , bronze doors , and railings from the mansion . In addition , the congregation purchased thirty tons of steel beams , sixty @-@ five oak doors , chandeliers , and some other items , and the members transported all of the marble 27 miles ( 43 km ) from Pittsburgh to New Kensington . The location of the mansion is now home to Mellon Park .
Many men of the congregation volunteered to transport the materials to New Kensington . The congregation found a contractor , Mr. Charles Camarata , to direct the free labor . Camarata had built hundreds of miles of road in the state of Pennsylvania and around the country . In addition , he had constructed homes , civic buildings , and churches . As soon as he agreed to take the job in December 1940 , he split the volunteers into three groups . Camarata personally supervised the first group , which removed the marble from Mellon Mansion . The second group transported the marble to New Kensington and the third placed the materials on the grounds of Mt . St. Peter . This project started on December 13 , 1940 , and continued until May 26 , 1941 . The process was difficult and time consuming , made more difficult by the harsh winter of 1940 – 1941 .
= = = Building Mt . St. Peter Church = = =
On Sunday , May 25 , 1941 , ground was broken for Mount St. Peter Church . The event was celebrated by the priests of St. Peter 's congregation and about two thousand people showed up to watch . The cornerstone was blessed on Sunday , September 7 , 1941 , by Reverend Alfred Koch , who was the Arch Abbot of St. Vincent in Latrobe , Pennsylvania . Many other priests from the area were also present . Father Paul Tomlinson of St. Peter 's Church in Pittsburgh delivered the sermon in English and Archabbot Koch closed the ceremony with the Pontifical Benediction in Italian . The large red cornerstone was made of granite and was fitted with an iron box . The box contained the memorial reports of the congregation , newspapers , American and Papal coins , and medals of the church . The cornerstone was placed so that it can be seen from inside the church . It is located by the altar of the Sacred Heart .
= = = Fund raising = = =
At the time , only about $ 15 @,@ 000 from the building fund was still available since money had already been spent on buying the property and materials from the Mellon Mansion . Further fund raising generated 1 @,@ 200 pledges , 95 percent of which were fulfilled : 60 percent of the money came from 10 percent of the parishioners and approximately 10 percent of the people did not contribute at all . During this time , all of the books concerning the finances of the construction of the new church were kept by ladies of the St. Peter 's Cenacle . The ladies not only recorded all of the pledges and collections , but they also recorded all notices and minutes from their meetings . While the church was being built , the Campaigners met almost every evening .
The Cenacle was run under the supervision of Dom C. Shiarella , the treasurer of the First National Bank in New Kensington and the cashier of the Building Fund Campaign . He was in charge of collecting all of the pledges made toward the Building Fund . This work kept him in the bank for one or two hours longer than the other employees every evening . This went on for almost five years . Mr. Shiarella was also in charge of making sure there was enough money in the church 's bank account for the payroll that was taken out every other Friday . The needed funds were always collected in time and there was never a week when the account bounced .
By October 1941 , there was little money left , and the parish sold a house it possessed on Constitution Boulevard for $ 7 @,@ 000 , which was enough to pay off the $ 3 @,@ 000 of debt . The other $ 4 @,@ 000 covered some of the continuing costs of construction .
= = = Raising the roof = = =
Around this time , winter was threatening and in order for the walls of the new church to be protected from potential damage , the roof had to be laid before any snow began to fall . This meant that more workers were needed to get the job done faster . This was a problem because the church 's account did not contain enough money to employ more men . As soon as the committee of 100 became aware of this , they began asking for help . They found 30 parishioners who were each willing to lend another $ 500 each . These parishioners had already given high contributions to the new church but were still willing to help . As a result , the church had an extra $ 15 @,@ 000 to pay for the construction of the roof . Every day for about two months , over fifty parishioners worked on building the church roof . In December 1941 , the roof was completed . One of the men who helped complete the roof read about the attack on Pearl Harbor in the newspapers and decided to quit his work on the church and enlist in the United States Air Force . James DiMuzio was the congregation 's first casualty in the war . There is a plaque with his name and date of death on the pier .
The winter of 1941 – 1942 ended up being mild through all of December and most of January and workers were able to continue work on the church until January 27 , 1942 . On January 4 , 1941 a blizzard carried 30 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 48 km / h ) winds and left 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) of snow . The blizzard forced workers inside the church . Camarata became the director of excavations , concrete , block , brick , stone and marble works , steel structures , road @-@ grading , electric and plumbing systems , carpentry , and landscaping . John Stanish was now his assistant . He built marble grinders , hoisting devices , marble cutters , and marble sanders . He worked with much machinery , including bulldozers , steam @-@ shovels , grading @-@ tractors , and steam @-@ rollers . Stanish collected marble , iron and bronze grilles , electric and plumbing equipment , lumber , panels , light fixtures , paint , chemicals , and ceiling and floor materials from Pennsylvania , Ohio , and New York . So much time and effort was put in by this one man . As a token of the parish 's gratitude to him , an inscription was placed in the main vestibule of Mt . St. Peter Church , on the right , going down into the Marble Hall ( downstairs of the church ) . The Latin inscription reads , Joannes Stanish Res Procuravit ( John Stanish procured the material ) .
Much of the work inside the church was done by volunteers under the direction of paid plumbers , electricians , and craftsmen . In addition , all of the pattern @-@ makers and mechanics who worked on the building did so without pay . There was also a group of women who shined marble and granite until the pieces were full of luster .
= = Opening of Mt . St. Peter Church = =
By mid @-@ summer of 1942 , Mt . St. Peter Parish was once again without funds . By this time , the majority of the work on the new church had been completed and so the congregation agreed that it was time to sell the old St. Peter Church in order to fund the new church . The General Electric Company was willing to pay $ 16 @,@ 000 for St. Peter 's and on July 16 , 1942 , the church became the property of the General Electric Company .
Sunday , August 9 , 1942 , was a day of mixed emotions for the congregation . At twelve o 'clock noon , one final Mass was said in the old St. Peter Church , which had been the house of the congregation for the past thirty @-@ eight years . People cried as the Blessed Sacrament was carried out of the church by the pastor . The congregation followed the pastor up to the new church .
Mount Saint Peter Church was magnificent and rose up on the hill , but to many , it seemed as if it could not really belong to the congregation . It was much richer than Saint Peter Church and if it had not been labored upon by so many members of the congregation , none would have felt worthy to call it their parish . But since so much work , love , and faith had been spent on this place of worship , parishioners became proud to have the honor of attending Mass there every Sunday . As a construction site , it had held some dangers . On September 28 , 1941 , a group of teenage boys , just out of high school , were making concrete flooring for the church at the Burrell Construction Company . A large crane operating above them made an unusual movement , causing its bucket , which weighed several tons , to come down with a huge crash right in their midst . All the working tools were completely destroyed but none of the boys were hurt . The bronze door at the front entrance fell on a worker , and everyone believed he had been crushed to death . When ten men lifted the door , they found the worker unharmed underneath it . In another case , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old was assigned a job on the tower of the church before it was roofed . No one realized that he had poor eyesight and he fell from the tower while working . On his way down , he was able to grab onto a pulley that was suspended from the tower .
Although much time has passed since the completion of the church and although the majority of those who helped to build it have passed on , Mt . St. Peter Church still stands as a Roman Catholic church located at 100 Freeport Road in New Kensington , Pennsylvania . The church is located along the Allegheny River and is approximately 25 miles ( 40 km ) north @-@ east of the city of Pittsburgh . It is a member of the Diocese of Greensburg . The congregation was founded by Italian immigrants in the early 1900s and the building that now stands as Mt . St. Peter Church was built by its members . In 1998 , the building applied for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places as part of an Multiple Property listing that included several properties in New Kensington .
= = Additions to the church = =
= = = The Marble Hall = = =
The Marble Hall is the basement of Mt . St. Peter 's and is 125 by 55 feet ( 38 by 17 m ) . Before the church had been completed , this area had been filled with valuable material from the Mellon Mansion until the materials found their proper places in the upstairs of the church . By winter of 1944 , the basement was completely empty . During this time , there were men working on building the Rectory , but since there was much snow , they could not return to their work on the Rectory until spring . Nicholas Givens had donated a large quantity of marble for the basement , so they began work on the basement . The workers covered the ground with black asphalt tile and the walls and pillars with white Carrara marble . Two marble altars were constructed along with a large kitchen built to feed up to 400 people . They also built a furnace room and a large workshop to the side of the kitchen .
When work on the Marble Hall was being done , from 1944 – 1948 , the assistant pastor of Mount St. Peter 's was Father George Goralka , who executed an inscription around the central nave of the ceiling of the Marble Hall , Christ 's proclamation of Peter 's Primacy : " Blessed art thou Simon Son of Jona and I say to thee , thou art Peter and upon this Rock I will build my Church and the gates of Hell shall not prevail against it , and I will give thee the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven and whatever thou shall bind on earth shall be bound in Heaven and whatever thou shall loose on earth shall be loosed in Heaven . " The basement was called the Marble Hall after completion and the name stuck . The Marble Hall is mostly used for special breakfasts and dinners , and for fish fry fundraisers during Lent . The hall also serves as the parish 's Italian Restaurant during the Festa Italiana each August . On special holidays when more parishioners than usual attend Mass , which usually include Christmas , Palm Sunday , and Easter , the Mass is said in both the upstairs of the church and downstairs in the Marble Hall .
= = = The rectory = = =
According to the Council of Trent , every Catholic church is required to have a residing pastor . Before the building of the rectory began in 1944 , the three priests and their housekeeper had lived in the Leslie Mansion ( the mansion on the property ) . The mansion was over a hundred years old , was a frame building , had very few rooms , provided poor living conditions , and had a water pump at the main entrance .
Therefore , the parish was in desperate need of a new rectory and the new project was begun in 1944 . An engineer , Frank H. Recco , was the technical advisor of the project . Parishioners borrowed a bulldozer from the John F. Casey Company in Aspinwall , and a steam shovel from the Burrell Construction and Supply Company of New Kensington ; and they dug the foundation for a two @-@ level building .
Cinder blocks were purchased for eight cents each . Flexicore slabs were made by young men of the parish on the grounds of the Burrell Construction Company and also at Mt . St. Peter 's . They were made under the direction of Charles Cammarata , who was assisted by the General Electric Co . The slabs , once completed , were used to make the floors and roof . John Stanish gathered free flexicore forms from Dayton , Ohio , free cement from the Burrell Construction Company , and free bricks from an abandoned brick @-@ yard in New Kensington .
The three story rectory took three years to complete . On the first floor , there is a dining room , a breakfast room , a kitchen , a pantry , space for archives , a laundry room , and a three car garage . There are four separate stairways that lead up to the second floor . The second floor has three offices , a community room , a large library , and a spacious veranda . In the hallway , there is a large stained glass window made in Germany , but repurposed from the Mellon Mansion . The third floor can be reached from either of two stairwells . The floor has ten rooms divided into four apartments and two guestrooms . This floor also has an open veranda .
In addition , the house has nine bathrooms and one elevator , which were taken from the Mellon Mansion . Also taken from the Mellon Mansion were two fireplaces . The one was carved in Italy from lava of Mt . Vesuvius and is located in the community room . The other , located in the dining room on the first floor , was carved out of red Michigan sandstone by an Italian @-@ American sculptor .
= = = The Mount Saint Peter Oval = = =
Once the church and rectory had been completed , the workers began to envision a plaza . The area that was to become the oval was still occupied by the mansion that was on the Mt . St. Peter grounds . With the permission of the Chancery Office of the Diocese of Pittsburgh , the mansion was demolished and only a few of the fixtures were removed by the church prior to the demolition .
A 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) wide road was built around the area that was to become the oval . John Stanish decided to have the oval paved with small pieces marble . He collected the marble remaining from the building of the church along with other pieces . The pieces were all different types , colors , and sizes . Mr. Stanish instructed John Martorana to lay them .
Martorana placed the pieces of marble in a way that looked artistic . In 1947 , a pedestal of granite taken from the Mellon Mansion was erected on the northern end of the oval . On top of it was placed a life @-@ size bronze statue of Christ with open arms . On Armistice Day , November 11 , 1951 , the monument was dedicated to the defenders of the United States .
A high flying flagpole was presented to the oval by Alcoa . The American flag was hoisted on it for the first time by Joseph Iozzi , who was a disabled veteran of World War II . Nearly all of the fraternal organizations of the New Kensington community were represented at the dedication ceremony . The Reverend Monsignor Giustino Meniconzi , who was the Vicar @-@ General of the Diocese of Ferentino , Italy , blessed the statue of Christ and the American flag .
= = = Convent school = = =
The next thing built on the grounds was an eight foot arch that went from the rectory to the next future building . A statue of Saint Peter was placed in the niche over the keystone of the arch . From the arch , a large stairway descends to the lower level of the grounds .
For two years , from 1948 – 1950 , work was done on the new building connected to the rectory by the arch . The three @-@ story building was made of flexicore slab and the outside was made from a mixture of new and old bricks in the back and Michigan red sandstone in the front , so that the building was the same color as the buildings to which it was adjoined . The interior of the building was plastered by one of the best plasterers in the area , Dom Graziano , who was the son of a parishioner . He did all of the plastering for free .
When the building was finished , it had two classrooms , a kitchen , a laundry room , a pantry , and a main entrance on the first floor . On the second floor , there were three classrooms and a chapel with an adjoining sacristy . The third floor was a living area for the teaching sisters . It had eight cells , a kitchen , a refectory , and a community room . All in all , the building was a permanent convent and a temporary parochial school .
= = = Parochial school = = =
Since the convent school was small and only temporary , the next order of business was to build the actual school . The parochial school took ten years to build ( 1950 – 1960 ) . This building also consists of three floors and is covered with red sandstone in the front . The rear of the building is made of white Pennsylvania sandstone . There is a bell tower on the building . It has three heavy , bronze bells that were salvaged from three Protestant churches of Pittsburgh .
The walls of the building are faced with blue tiles from Kittanning . Mr. Clifford McNees , who was the president of the Kittanning Tile and Brick Company at the time when Mt . St. Peter bought the tile , sold the tiles for a lot cheaper than normal price . He felt that it would not be fair to take advantage of a church by charging high prices . Another man who helped save the parish money in the constructing of the school was parishioner Luigi Valle . He advised the workers on how to set the tiles for many days while refusing to be paid for his services . Valle died in his early 40s , before the tile laying was completed . His place was taken by Bruno Regoli and two of his sons , Bruno , Jr. and John . ( John would later become a priest of Mt . St. Peter Parish . ) The three men faced the entire third floor with tile , a job that took them more than a month to complete .
Two huge granite lions , taken from the gardens of the Mellon Mansion , stand guard at the main entrance of the school and the door is surmounted with a terracotta Madonna by Della Robbia . In the school , there are nine classrooms , two auditoriums , a library , a cafeteria , and a utility kitchen . When the school was completed in 1960 , it opened for children in grades 1 – 8 . Later on , a kindergarten and preschool were added .
In September 2002 , Mount Saint Peter School no longer stood alone but rather became part of Mary Queen of Apostles School . The new school resulted from the consolidation of Mount Saint Peter , Saint Joseph , and Saint Margaret Mary Schools . Now , the school at Mt . St. Peter 's now educates children in preschool through third grade .
= = Pastors of Mt . St. Peter = =
The pastor of Mt . St. Peter Parish is appointed to the position by the Bishop and is the leader of the parish . When one steps down , is transferred to another church , passes away , or retires , another is appointed . He is in charge of making sure that everything goes smoothly with the priests and administration of the church . The pastor works in collaboration with the Parish Staff , the Parish Pastoral Council , and the Parish Finance Council . His mission is to proclaim and help facilitate the building of the Kingdom of God among the parishioners of Mt . St. Peter Church .
= = Congregation in the 21st century = =
As of 2009 , the congregation had approximately five thousand two hundred and nine parishioners . Mount Saint Peter Church serves as a symbol of faith and what can be accomplished when people work together for a common belief , hope , and dream . The church 's new motto , adopted in 2004 , reflected this balance : " to restore all things in Christ ... with the fire of love . " This motto serves as a constant reminder of the history of the parish . The beauty of the Mellon Mansion was restored by the congregation and turned into a House of God . This was done through a strong love of Christ , faith , and neighbor . The names of the volunteers who helped build the church are carved in the marble inside the main entrance of the church and serve as a token of the congregation 's appreciation . Many of today 's parishioners are descendants of those volunteers and are proud to tell the story of their forefathers who gave them this church in which to practice their faith .
= = = Church mission = = =
The parish mission reflects its ongoing commitment to both the Catholic and the Italian identity . " Mount Saint Peter Parish , a diverse Catholic parish strongly rooted in its rich Italian heritage , is called to spread the good news of Jesus Christ to all . With liturgy as the source and summit of pastoral life , we will work to promote faith formation as a life long process , to invite others into faithful stewardship in service to the Kingdom of God , and to promote our faith by word and deed to the wider community . " Mass is said at 8 : 30 am everyday from Monday to Friday and at 4 : 00 pm on Saturday evenings . Sunday Masses are said weekly at 8 : 30 and 10 : 30 am .
= = = Festa Italiana = = =
As part of its continuing mission , the congregation sponsors an annual Festa Italiana every August . The festival itself is full of activities , but one of the main attractions is the food . The menu usually includes lasagna with homemade noodles , spaghetti and meatballs , hot sausage sandwich with onions and peppers , pasta e fagiole , Italian rice balls , and other items such as pulled pork and baked chicken . Desserts include cannoli , frappe , pizelles , biscotti and gelato One parishioner explained , " I like seeing everyone from town , but the food is always an attraction . "
= = = Parish organizations = = =
Within the congregation , there are many organizations that specialize in various activities , all of which strive to better the church or community or both . These groups allow parishioners to work with each other in order to reach common goals and also allows them to become more involved in Mt . St. Peter Church . This way , the congregation can remain a close knit family , not just a church where parishioners spend an hour praying on Sunday mornings . The organizations listed are the ones that are currently active , there were in the past , many others , like the Committee of a hundred ( mentioned in the history section ) , which are no longer in existence .
= = = = Addolorata Society = = = =
The Addolorata Society was started by a group of women parishioners in 1903 and continues to be an all @-@ women society . The goal of the group is to find better ways to serve the church . The symbol of the Addolorata Society is the Blessed Mother because she symbolizes love . A member becomes a free life member when she turns eighty , as long as she has a member for at least fifteen years prior to her eightieth birthday . Some of their events include attending funeral Masses and collecting money to purchase altar linens , vestments , and altar lights . The presidents of the society since 1903 in chronological order are as follows : Mrs. Rose Spinelli , Mrs. Michelina Fragale , Mrs. Maria Greco , Mrs. Rose Pascuzzi , Mrs. Santa Bordonaro , Mrs. Anna Bordonaro , Mrs. Sabetta , Mrs. Carmina Chirella , Georgeanne Stearman , and Sandy Laney .
= = = = Saint Anthony Guild = = = =
In 1939 , Mrs. Angela Costanza Bongiovanni , along with the help of Monsignor Fuso , founded the Saint Anthony Guild . At that time , 32 women joined Mrs. Bongiovanni 's new guild . The mission of the guild was to serve the special needs of the parish and to help the poor and disadvantaged in the area . Also , the guild volunteered its time and effort at the St. Anthony Orphanage in Oakmont , hence the name " Saint Anthony Guild . " All the members of the Saint Anthony Guild are women and they strive to provide their group with fellowship and spiritual renewal through the help the bestow on the church and community .
As of 2010 , there are 47 active members of the organization and the president is Suzette Venturini . The group meets on the third Tuesday of February , April , May , August , September , October and November in the Marble Hall of Mt . St. Peter Church . The meetings consist of discussing projects and praying together . The St. Anthony Guild is known for their visits to the home @-@ bound of the parish at Christmas and Easter and also for their Tree of Angels Campaign . This campaign allows parishioners to purchase angels in memory of loved ones that are placed on the church 's Christmas tree . The money raised from these angel ornaments is donated to children in need . The guild also has many entertaining fundraisers to raise money for their charity projects . Some of these include a dance for parishioners in the fall , bingo nights , and selling coupons for special shopping days at Macy 's .
= = = = Altar servers = = = =
The honor of becoming an altar server , was , in the past , a privilege only available to boys but has since become coed . Altar servers wear long , white , plain robes and assist the priest in his duties during the Mass . At Mt . St. Peter Church , there are four altar servers at every Mass . One is the book bearer and is in charge of bringing the Bible to the priest at the times during which the priest reads from the Bible during the Mass . The cross bearer holds a large , wooded crucifix and commences the procession in which the priest enters the church . Also present in the procession are the acolytes , and the book bearer . He or she also leads the procession out of the church at the end of the Mass . The last two altar servers are acolytes and are in charge of lighting the candles in the church prior to the beginning of the Mass and extinguishing them after Mass .
Children , ages 11 – 17 , volunteer to become altar servers not only to serve the church but also because it has always been looked upon as an honor . It is a chance for children to serve their priest and become closer to Jesus by being on the altar . In addition , it is an opportunity for them to try to make themselves more holy and therefore more worthy of the position .
= = = = Confraternity of Christian Doctrine = = = =
The Confraternity of Christian Doctrine , also known as C.C.D. consists of men and women whose mission is to teach the principles of loving and serving God to the children of the parish who do not attend Catholic School . Members of the confraternity serve as teachers in the Sunday Schools of the parish ( there are seven different Sunday Schools belonging to Mt . St. Peter 's in total ) . These teachers send out the Catholic messages of faith and love through words , stories , examples , and prayers in order to help the children grow in their faith . The majority of children who attend one of the Sunday Schools are ages 6 – 12 .
= = = = Holy Name Society = = = =
For over fifty years , the Holy Name Society of Mt . St. Peter Church has been working to inspire love , honor , and reverence for the holy name of Jesus Christ . The society also works to promote respect for the Catholic Church , loyalty to Mt . St. Peter Parish , and a life filled with good spiritual values that can be carried throughout family , education , and work . The Holy Name Society is strictly for Catholic men and was begun by Monsignor Fusco , who started the group in hopes of uniting men of the parish through service to others . Members of the society host a Mass and breakfast on the Sunday prior to Palm Sunday every year and an annual Golf Outing during the summer . Money raised at this these two events is donated to the parish to help aid in the costs of parish projects .
= = = = Ushers ' Club = = = =
The Ushers ' Club consists of thirty or less men of the parish . They are chosen to join the club by the authority of the church . All members are required to do their job as " ushers " during Mass . This job entails showing people to available seats , telling parishioners when it is the right time to rise and get in line for communion , and collecting the monetary offerings of the parishioners during the presenting of the gifts to the altar . Members of the Ushers ' Club also serve the church by volunteering their time and labor at the social activities of the parish .
= = = = St. Vincent De Paul Society = = = =
Mt . St. Peter Parish has a branch of the Saint Vincent De Paul Society . The goal of this branch of the society , like all other branches , is to help the poor , the sick , and the suffering . Members of this group work to help people locally by collecting food and delivering it to food banks in and around New Kensington . Within the church , it is seen as a great honor to be part of this society and the members believe that the best help lies in the people they are more than in the caring acts they perform . They all work together to help others and they continually strive to become better Catholics .
= = = = Mount Saint Peter Parish Council = = = =
In March 1972 , the Mount Saint Peter Parish Council was first elected . The group consists of eighteen elected members and it advises and assists the pastor in important decisions concerning the affairs of the church . It prides itself on having the ability to guide the parish in its mission of following Christ . The main purpose of the council is to give the pastor an insight into what the parish community thinks and how it feels about different issues . All of the parish activities must go through the four standing committees , which are the Liturgy , Education , Apostolic Work , and Temporalities .
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= The Boat Race 1949 =
The 95th Boat Race took place on 26 March 1949 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames in London . The race , umpired by the former Oxford rower Guy Oliver Nickalls , was notable as the commentator for the BBC , John Snagge announced " I can 't see who 's in the lead , but it 's either Oxford or Cambridge . " Cambridge won by a quarter of a length , the narrowest margin of victory since the 1877 race which was officially recorded as a dead heat . The victory took the overall record in the event to 51 – 43 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1948 race by five lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 50 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Cambridge were coached by R. Beesly ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1927 , 1928 and 1929 races ) , W. L. S. Flemming , Mike Nicholson ( non @-@ rowing boat club president for the 1947 race ) , Harold Rickett ( who had rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) , and M. H. Warriner ( a three @-@ time Blue between 1928 and 1930 ) . Oxford 's coaches were Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who had rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930 ) , F. E. Hellyer ( who had coached Cambridge on five previous occasions ) , A. McCulloch ( who had rowed in the 1908 race ) and J. MacNabb ( who had coached Cambridge between 1930 and 1932 ) . The race was umpired by Guy Oliver Nickalls who had rowed for Oxford in the 1921 , 1922 and 1923 races .
Writing in The Observer , G. I. F. Thomson noted that " neither crew contains an oarsman of any exceptional power , distinction or reputation " yet both crews had improved in form since their arrival at Putney . The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian praised the quality of the final coaching on the Thames , and stated that " there has been no threat of influenza , and no last @-@ minute change in the constitution of either crew " . He went on to claim that " Oxford should win " . The Times ' rowing correspondent suggested that the crews were " extraordinarily evenly matched " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 10 @.@ 75 lb ( 80 @.@ 9 kg ) , 2 pounds ( 0 @.@ 9 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained five participants with prior Boat Race experience , including cox Alastair Palsgrave @-@ Brown . Cambridge saw one rower return to the crew in number five Paul Bircher . The Light Blue 's crew contained three Olympic medallists : Charles Lloyd , Bircher and Paul Massey won silver when they finished second in the men 's eights at the 1948 Summer Olympics in London .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Cambridge . The umpire , Nickalls , started the race at 11 : 30 a.m. The Dark Blues took an early lead and were half a length ahead after the first minute of the race . They were clear of Cambridge by Craven Steps , and by the time the crews passed the Mile Post , were a length ahead . In the headwind along Chiswick Reach , and with the bend in the river in their favour , Cambridge slowly redressed the balance and by Chiswick Eyot they had begun to overlap Oxford 's boat .
By the bottom of Dukes Meadows , Oxford 's lead was down to half a length and as Cambridge out @-@ rated their opponents , they drew level and passed under Barnes Bridge side by side . Despite numerous spurts from Oxford 's stroke Davidge , Cambridge kept in touch and " were fighting every inch of the way " . Commentating for the BBC on a launch whose engine had failed , John Snagge announced " I can 't see who 's in the lead , but it 's either Oxford or Cambridge . " Both crews were rating over 33 strokes per minute as they approached the finishing post , with the Light Blues just edging ahead to win by a quarter of a length in a time of 18 minutes 57 seconds . The winning distance was the narrowest since the " dead heat " result of the 1877 Race . It was Cambridge 's third consecutive victory and took the overall record in the event to 51 – 43 in their favour . The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian suggested that this was a race that " will never be forgotten " , while the correspondent for The Times claimed that " 1949 must go down in Boat Race history as having provided one of the epic struggles of all time . " G. I. F. Thomson , writing in The Observer , stated that " heroic determination on both sides ... produced perhaps the most exciting Boat Race of all time . "
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= Music of Nier =
Nier is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by Cavia and published by Square Enix in 2010 . The music of Nier was composed by Keiichi Okabe with members of his studio , Monaca , Kakeru Ishihama and Keigo Hoashi , and Takafumi Nishimura of Cavia . The soundtrack has inspired the release of four official albums by Square Enix — an official soundtrack album and three albums of arrangements — along with two mini @-@ albums included as pre @-@ order bonuses for the Japanese versions of the game and two licensed EPs of jazz arrangements .
The original soundtrack was highly praised ; reviewers noted it as one of the best video game soundtracks of the year , praising the originality of the compositions and the beauty of Emi Evans ' vocal work . The first arranged album , while also warmly received , was perceived by critics to be weaker than the original and not long enough to stand up to the expectations created by the success of the original . The first three albums sold well enough to be recorded on the Japanese Oricon music charts , reaching number 24 for the original soundtrack , 59 for the first arranged album , and position number 77 for the second .
= = Development = =
The soundtrack to Nier was composed by a collaboration of the studio Monaca , consisting of Keiichi Okabe , Kakeru Ishihama , and Keigo Hoashi , along with Takafumi Nishimura from Cavia , the game 's developer . Okabe served as the lead composer and as the director for the project as a whole . Okabe was brought onto the project when the concept for the game was first being devised , and worked intermittently on the soundtrack for the next three years until its release . The music for the game was generally composed entirely separate from the development of the game . Often , elements of the game were modified to match the music , rather than the other way around . Some tracks were used in ways that the composers did not envision , such as " Grandma " , which was expected to be used in the prologue of the game but was instead chosen as a boss battle theme . The music was designed for different motifs to appear in various arrangements throughout the soundtrack , and also to convey a sense of sadness even during the " thrilling " tracks . Okabe was allowed a great deal of freedom regarding what the music was to sound like ; game director Taro Yoko 's main request was that he use a lot of vocal works .
The vocals and lyrics were provided by vocalist Emi Evans ( Emiko Rebecca Evans ) , a singer from England living in Tokyo . She is the singer for the band freesscape , and had previously worked on video game projects such as the Etrian Odyssey arrange albums . The Monaca team had met her when considering her for a prior project , and Okabe wanted to work with her on Nier . She was approached a few months after the initial meeting in Autumn 2008 to be the vocalist for the soundtrack . In addition to singing , Evans was asked to write her own lyrics in futuristic languages . The composers gave her preliminary version of songs and the style they wished the language to be in , such as Scottish Gaelic or French , and she invented the words . Evans wrote songs in versions of Scottish Gaelic , Portuguese , Spanish , Italian , French , English and Japanese , and wrote " Song of the Ancients " in an entirely fictional language . She wrote that song by listening to songs in as many languages as possible and jumbling them up together . For the other languages , she tried to imagine what they would sound like after 1000 years of drifting .
Okabe did not want to use traditional lyrics , as he felt they would clash with the design of the world in the game , and wanted to use a variety of languages to represent the open nature of the game 's world . He also did not want easily recognizable lyrics to be sung in the background while the characters were speaking , and for any noticeable words to instead evoke emotions in the player . Evans only knew English , Japanese , and French when she began the project ; she listened to the other languages on YouTube to learn the rhythms and sounds of the languages and then mixed and changed them . Okabe largely allowed Evans to decide how to integrate the lyrics with the early forms of the songs , and as he usually did not know where the songs would be used in the game gave her only light direction as to the emotional tone for the songs . The composers often would modify the songs in later revisions to follow how Evans had sung for that song .
= = Original soundtrack = =
The soundtrack to Nier is largely composed of melancholy acoustic pieces which heavily feature vocals by Emi Evans . Of the 43 tracks included in the released soundtrack album , only 9 do not have any vocal component to them ; these are the four versions each of " Dispossession " and " Yonah " , as well as " Dance of the Evanescent " . With the exception of " Ashes of Dreams " , the lyrics are not intended to mean anything ; for that song , Evans was given a list of Japanese words to use , which she then translated for the English , French , and Scottish Gaelic versions of the song . The song and its variants were the last to be recorded , and Evans convinced the composers that one song in the soundtrack should have recognizable lyrics rather than futuristic English as they originally planned . Evans found " Ashes " to be the most difficult song to write on the soundtrack , as she had difficulty writing lyrics that met the composers ' criteria of despair and lack of hope .
" Hills of Radiant Wind " is one of the few upbeat songs on the largely dark soundtrack ; for that piece Evans sang in a version of Portuguese in a style meant to sound like a spirit floating on the wind . For " Grandma " , she sang in a French style , trying to " put in as much anguish and melancholy " as possible ; she created the song in a single recording , and it is " one of the most memorable songs " that she has sung . " The Wretched Automatons " is sung in a variant of English and was recorded prior to the addition of the mechanical sounds that run throughout the track , while " Kainé " is in a version of Gaelic .
Square Enix released a soundtrack album of music from the game , titled NieR Gestalt & Replicant Original Soundtrack , on April 21 , 2010 . The two @-@ disc , 2 : 30 : 09 @-@ long album has the catalog numbers of SQEX @-@ 10189 / 90 . As preorder bonuses for Nier Gestalt and Nier Replicant , the two versions of the game released in Japan , two mini @-@ albums , Nier Gestalt Mini Album and Nier Replicant Mini Album , were included . Each one contains five tracks from the full soundtrack album ; Gestalt corresponds with tracks 1 and 4 from disc 1 , 8 and 13 from disc 2 , and an electronic version of " Kainé " titled " Kainé / Rain of Light " , while Replicant encompasses track 3 from disc 2 , tracks 2 and 7 from disc 1 , track 1 from disc 2 , and a medley of several tracks . Gestalt is 18 : 11 long , and Replicant 17 : 11 . A book of sheet music of piano arrangements of tracks from the game by Okabe was published by KMP on April 22 , 2011 . The book , NieR Gestalt & Replicant Official Score Book , contains 25 arrangements in 112 pages . Guitar arrangements of " Song of the Ancients / Devola " and " Yonah / Strings Ver . " by Yuji Sekiguchi were included in the Square Enix Official Best Collection guitar solo sheet music book , published by KMP in May 2011 .
The soundtrack album reached number 24 on the Japanese Oricon music charts , and remained on the charts for 11 weeks . It was well received by critics ; Patrick Gann of RPGFan called the album " an insanely good soundtrack " and noted it as his candidate for video game soundtrack of the year , as well as " one of the best game soundtracks ever " . He applauded that the music was both " meticulously @-@ crafted " and " accessible to the untrained ear " . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online praised the " captivating vocal work " and " exquisite " composition . He also noted that each track retained a sense of individuality even when it reused themes from other tracks . He was less complimentary towards the mini albums , which he regarded as good introductions to the soundtrack as a whole but not worth purchasing on their own . Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version also praised the album , saying that it was " hands down one of the best soundtracks Square Enix has published over the years " . Calling it " captivating " and " otherworldly " , he applauded the album 's originality and Evans ' vocals . Original Sound Version later named the soundtrack as the best video game soundtrack of 2010 , and Square Enix Music Online awarded it the best Japanese video game soundtrack of the year .
Track list
= = Arrange tracks = =
An album of arranged music was published by Square Enix on December 8 , 2010 . The album , NieR Gestalt & Replicant 15 Nightmares & Arrange Tracks , contains 11 tracks across a length of 54 : 43 , and has a catalog number of SQEX @-@ 10212 . The arrangements were done by composers Okabe , Ishihama , and Hoashi , as well as by " oriori " , Ryuichi Takada , and Hidekazu Tanaka . The first five arrangements , in a techno style , were included in the Nier DLC , while the remaining tracks are piano , instrumental , chiptune , and a cappella versions of tracks from the game . In the liner notes for the album , Okabe said that the DLC tracks were meant to be " more war @-@ like " versions of the originals , while the second half of the album was intended to " maintain the image and worldview of the original music " .
The arranged album reached number 59 on the Oricon music charts , a position it held for a week . It was warmly received by reviewers , if less so than the first album ; Patrick Gann critiqued the album as not being as good as the original , though he noted that " you can still be awesome and rank second to that album " . He concluded that the arrangements were all of good quality , but that listeners would not be " blown away by it " . Don Kotowski found it to be an " accomplished arrange album " , but inferior to the original as he felt that it was shorter than it should have been and that the final two tracks were weaker than the rest of the arrangements . Jayson Napolitano also felt that the album should have been longer ; he thought that most listeners would skip the DLC tracks in favor of the acoustic arrangements , and that six tracks was not enough to carry the album given the expectations created by the quality of the original soundtrack .
= = Echo = =
On September 14 , 2011 Square Enix published a third Nier album , titled NieR Tribute Album -echo- . Each of the 12 tracks on the album is a remix of a Nier piece , each by a different artist . The resulting eclectic mix of styles is primarily electronic , but also includes a multiple @-@ piano arrangement of " Grandma " and a klezmer rendition of " Shadowlord 's Castle " . The album has a duration of 1 : 00 : 46 , and has the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10247 .
The album reached number 77 on the Oricon music charts , a position it held for a week . It was positively reviewed by Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version , who described himself as " impressed " with it . He preferred this album to the arranged album , though he felt that a few of the tracks had difficulty distinguishing themselves above the high quality of the original pieces .
= = Piano = =
On March 21 , 2012 Square Enix published a fourth Nier album , titled Piano Collections Nier Gestalt & Replicant . Each of the 11 tracks on the album is a piano arrangement of a Nier piece . The tracks were arranged and played by several different artists , namely Keigo Hoashi , Kumi Tanioka , Masato Kouda , Ryuichi Takada , and Yuri Misumi . Each arranger performed their own pieces , with the exception of Kouda , whose arrangement was played by Tanioka . The album has a duration of 45 : 42 , and has the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10303 .
The album was positively reviewed by Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version , who said that while " nothing on this album came as particularly surprising " , that he enjoyed the arrangements and performances . He preferred the tracks on this album to the piano arrangements on the 15 Nightmares album .
= = Jazz = =
Music from Nier has been arranged into two jazz EPs . The albums , titled NieR Gestalt & Replicant : Jazz Arrange Version and Jazz Arrange Version Vol . 2 , contain six tracks each from the soundtrack licensed by Joypad Records . The tracks are arranged and performed by Sean Schafianski , and were released digitally on August 8 , 2013 , and May 16 , 2014 . The EPs have durations of 26 : 48 and 25 : 33 . The music is split between instrumental and vocal pieces , and covers multiple different styles of jazz music .
The first EP was positively reviewed by Brad Hayes @-@ Raugh of RPGFan , who " greatly enjoyed the direction this album takes " , though he did note that some of the pieces did not quite meet his high expectations . He concluded that " the tracks give a fresh spin on some great pieces of video game music and keep the spirit of Nier alive and well . "
Track list
= = Music video = =
On July 15 , 2015 , an officially licensed arrangement of " Song of the Ancients " from Nier , along with a music video , were released by OverClocked Records . It was made available to stream or purchase . The song , a vocal performance with vibraphone and percussion , was the first officially licensed video game music single by the record label , an offshoot of the OverClocked ReMix video game music remix community . The single was sung by Jillian Aversa , who features in the accompanying music video , with percussion by Doug Perry . The song was performed by the duo prior to release at Video Games Live concerts , and was filmed at National Harbor , Maryland by the sculpture The Awakening in January 2015 during MAGFest , an annual game music convention .
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= Liberal Party of Australia leadership spill , 2009 =
A leadership spill of the federal parliamentary leader of the Liberal Party of Australia was held on 1 December 2009 . The incumbent , Malcolm Turnbull , was defeated by Tony Abbott in a three @-@ way vote of Liberal Party Members of Parliament ( MPs ) . Joe Hockey also stood as a candidate . Abbott thus became the Leader of the Opposition in the Parliament of Australia .
The spill was the culmination of a dispute within the Liberal Party over its response to the Rudd Government 's proposed emissions trading scheme ( ETS ) . Turnbull supported the introduction of an ETS and sought to negotiate amendments to government 's proposed legislation . Abbott came to represent many Liberal members of Parliament who were climate change sceptics or otherwise opposed the ETS . After Turnbull survived a spill motion ( a motion to declare the leadership vacant ) against his leadership in late November 2009 , Abbott declared his candidacy and a subsequent spill was moved on 1 December . Hockey — a moderate who had been a supporter of Turnbull 's position on the ETS — also stood . While Hockey had been expected to win , he was knocked out in the first round of voting . Abbott subsequently defeated Turnbull in the second round , 42 – 41 .
= = Background = =
Malcolm Turnbull was elected to the House of Representatives in the 2004 federal election . In January 2007 he was appointed Minister for the Environment and Water Resources by Prime Minister John Howard . After the Australian Labor Party defeated the Howard government in the 2007 election , Turnbull , Brendan Nelson and Tony Abbott announced they would each contest the Liberal Party leadership . Nelson defeated Turnbull in a ballot after Abbott withdrew his candidacy . Turnbull became the Shadow Treasurer on Nelson 's frontbench .
Nelson 's leadership of the Liberal Party was beset by poor opinion poll numbers . There was speculation that Turnbull would challenge Nelson for the leadership in late 2008 ; however , Nelson caught Turnbull by surprise by calling a snap spill of the party 's leadership positions while Turnbull was returning from an overseas holiday . The spill was moved on 16 September 2008 . Turnbull defeated Nelson by four votes , becoming the leader of the Liberal Party and of the Opposition Coalition between the Liberals and the National Party . Nelson later resigned from the House of Representatives .
= = Climate change policy dispute = =
Turnbull was regarded as a " believer " in global warming . As Environment Minister , he had overseen the introduction of an emissions trading scheme ( ETS ) as a policy of the Liberal Party shortly before the Howard government 's defeat . However , many of Turnbull 's fellow MPs in the Coalition were climate change sceptics . Tensions within the Coalition on climate change policy had contributed to the downfall of Nelson 's leadership .
As leader of the Liberal Party , Turnbull supported the introduction of an ETS . In June 2009 , he indicated in principle support for an ETS proposed by the Rudd Government despite the opposition of his Coalition partner , the National Party . Turnbull subsequently outlined the Coalition 's position that it would oppose the ETS introduced to Parliament by the government , but would be open to negotiating an amended version .
Turnbull 's willingness to negotiate with the government was met with opposition from some Coalition MPs . By September 2009 , The Australian was reporting that only 12 of the 59 Liberal backbenchers supported negotiations . On 18 October 2009 , Turnbull fronted a meeting of Coalition MPs with a proposal to negotiate amendments to the government 's ETS . This meeting supported his proposal , in what was seen as a test of Turnbull 's leadership . However , there was speculation that a number of Coalition Senators would defy Turnbull and cross the floor of the Senate to vote against any ETS legislation . The ETS opponents argued that it would be premature for Parliament to pass ETS legislation before the Copenhagen Summit on climate change .
The divisions within the Coalition were laid bare in an episode of Four Corners , aired by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation on 9 November 2009 . The program featured the Coalition 's leader in the Senate , Nick Minchin , suggesting that man @-@ made climate change was a conspiracy of the political left and disputing Turnbull 's authority to strike a deal with the government on the ETS . Later in the month , Minchin spoke against the ETS in the Senate . Abbott — who had publicly supported the ETS — was now arguing that the Coalition should abandon the policy . Turnbull attacked Abbott 's change of mind , stating : " Tony has expressed a number of views , each of which is at odds with the view he expressed before " .
On 23 November 2009 , the Coalition 's climate change spokesman Ian Macfarlane agreed to a deal with the government to amend the ETS legislation . The amendments provided industry with substantial compensation and exemptions from the ETS . Turnbull took the deal to Liberal MPs for formal approval , but a majority of backbenchers opposed it . Turnbull nonetheless claimed he had the Coalition 's support , by counting as supporters the 20 members of the Coalition Shadow Cabinet who he argued should be presumed to support the deal . This claim was met with rancour by his opponents in the Coalition .
Anger at Turnbull 's response to the 23 November 2009 meeting triggered a spill motion against his leadership three days later . The motion was moved by Kevin Andrews , a former Minister in the Howard government , but was defeated by a vote of 48 to 35 . Andrews was not seen as a genuine prospect for the leadership , so the close vote on the spill motion was considered a blow to Turnbull . While Abbott supported Turnbull at the time of Andrews ' spill , he subsequently resigned from the frontbench . Several others joined Abbott in resigning , including Nick Minchin , Eric Abetz , Sophie Mirabella and Tony Smith .
= = Abbott and Hockey challenges = =
Abbott announced on 27 November — one day after Turnbull survived Kevin Andrews ' spill motion — that he would challenge Turnbull for the leadership . Abbott committed to withdrawing his candidacy if Joe Hockey was to challenge . Abbott confirmed his opposition to the ETS legislation , questioning why Australia would legislate for a potentially detrimental economic measure before other countries had committed to do the same . A Newspoll released on 30 November placed Hockey at 33 % , Turnbull at 30 % and Abbott at 19 % , when voters were asked who would be the " best person to lead " the Liberal Party . Speculation flourished that Hockey would challenge Turnbull , and Hockey consulted senior party dignitaries such as Howard and Costello about whether he should run .
Hockey faced a dilemma . A moderate in the Liberal Party , Hockey had been a consistent supporter of the ETS . Running against Turnbull would mean taking the leadership with the support of the party 's right wing and climate change sceptics . Turnbull seized on the dilemma , claiming Hockey had given Turnbull his " complete support " and was still a firm supporter of the ETS legislation .
Hockey attempted to resolve his dilemma by declaring that as leader he would allow a conscience vote on the ETS legislation . Abbott rejected Hockey 's declaration , and reneged on his earlier indication that he would withdraw his candidacy for Hockey . Abbott stated : " It now seems pretty clear we could change the leader to Joe and these offensive bills could still go through the Parliament " . On Hockey 's candidacy , Turnbull claimed that Hockey had pledged his opposition to the spill motion . However , it was expected that if the spill motion succeeded , Hockey would stand for the leadership against Turnbull and Abbott . Hockey was generally expected to win the ballot and become leader . To the end , Turnbull refused to stand aside as leader , insisting he would defeat the spill motion . Hockey later alleged that Turnbull had promised he would not stand against Hockey if the spill motion was successful . Turnbull denied that he had given , and therefore broken , any such undertaking .
= = Results = =
On 1 December 2009 , Liberal MPs convened to consider the spill motion to vacate the leadership . The motion passed 48 – 34 , following which Turnbull , Hockey and Abbott contested a ballot . Hockey was seen as the favourite to win the ballot , but was knocked out in the first round of voting , receiving 23 votes to Turnbull 's 26 and Abbott 's 35 . A second round of voting ensued , in which Abbott defeated Turnbull by one vote ( 42 – 41 ) . Fran Bailey , a supporter of Turnbull , was absent for the vote , and there was one vote of " no " , which was recorded as informal .
Julie Bishop remained the deputy leader of the party , without being challenged for the position . Abbott thus became the third consecutive leader , after Nelson and Turnbull , for whom Bishop would serve as deputy . After the ballots , Bishop declared that she had voted for Turnbull , although Turnbull doubted her loyalty and Bishop resorted to proving it by retrieving her ballot papers .
= = = Ballots = = =
Spill motion to vacate leadership
Leadership ballot
= = Aftermath = =
Abbott said he was " humbled and daunted " by his unexpected election , while Hockey expressed surprise at his defeat . Upon his election , Abbott acknowledged his propensity for making controversial public statements — which with his Catholicism and background as a trainee priest earnt him the moniker of " the Mad Monk " — and apologised for all his " errors of the past " . A week after the ballot , Abbott named his Shadow Cabinet . Hockey remained in the key position of Shadow Treasurer . Three Howard government veterans — Kevin Andrews , Philip Ruddock and Bronwyn Bishop — were recalled from the backbench , and outspoken National Party MP and climate change sceptic Barnaby Joyce was appointed to the shadow Finance portfolio . Turnbull voluntarily moved to the backbench .
Under Abbott 's leadership , the Liberal Party voted against the ETS legislation in the Senate on 3 December 2009 . Two Liberal Senators — Judith Troeth and Sue Boyce — crossed the floor to support the legislation . In February 2010 , Abbott outlined his alternative climate change policy , which would directly fund or subsidise emission reduction measures rather than cap emissions from industry .
Speaking in the House of Representatives in February 2010 , Turnbull attacked Abbott 's climate change policy and praised the government 's ETS legislation . He argued that Abbott 's subsidy @-@ based policy would be a " recipe for fiscal recklessness " . Turnbull later announced he would leave Parliament at the end of his term , before changing his mind within weeks . He claimed that his change of mind was the result of his anger at the government 's decision to delay its ETS legislation until 2013 . He denied being interested in regaining the leadership of the Liberal Party , saying " I don 't think there is any likelihood of that I assure you " . Turnbull subsequently gave qualified support to Abbott 's climate change policy , arguing that while it was inferior to an ETS in principle , it was preferable to the government 's approach of delaying action until 2013 . While it was the third leadership spill motion in three years , the Liberal Party did not attempt another spill motion for six years after , until the February 2015 leadership spill motion which was defeated 61 votes to 39 . In September 2015 , Malcolm Turnbull called for another spill , directly challenging Tony Abbott in a rematch between the two , and winning the vote 54 @-@ 44 to return to the position of leader of the Liberal Party , and as a result , displaced Abbott as Prime Minister of Australia .
For Hockey it is viewed that his failure to come up with a firm position on the ETS had blown what turned out to be his only chance to become Liberal leader in 2009 . When Prime Minister Tony Abbott 's leadership came under question in 2014 and 2015 , Hockey now Treasurer was not speculated as a potential successor to Abbott .
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= Hurricane Josephine ( 1984 ) =
Hurricane Josephine was a long @-@ lived Atlantic hurricane that threatened the East Coast of the United States for several days in October 1984 . The fifteenth tropical cyclone , tenth named storm , and third hurricane of the season , Josephine developed from an area of disturbed weather near the Bahamas on October 7 , forming with subtropical characteristics . It quickly organized , and gained tropical characteristics as it strengthened into a tropical storm on October 8 . Gradual intensification occurred thereafter , reaching hurricane status on October 10 . The storm headed northward , remaining well offshore of the eastern United States . Josephine strengthened further and peaked as a moderately strong Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale on October 12 . On the following day , Josephine weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane before becoming nearly stationary . It later headed northeastward and paralleled the coast well offshore of Nova Scotia . By October 17 , Josephine weakened back to a tropical storm , shortly before beginning to execute a cyclonic loop to the south of Newfoundland . While executing the cyclonic loop , Josephine became extratropical on October 18 .
Although Josephine remained well offshore of the eastern United States , the effects from the storm and an area of high pressure produced strong winds and high seas along the coast . In North Carolina , high tides caused severe beach erosion and minor damage to ocean @-@ front houses . Minor coastal flooding occurred in New York and New Jersey . In addition , one fatality occurred when a man drowned after falling off his boat while sailing a river in Massachusetts .
= = Meteorological history = =
A frontal trough moved eastward off the southeastern United States on September 30 , becoming stationary north of Haiti . The trough developed an area of disturbed weather that interacted with an upper @-@ level low pressure area , resulting in the development of a subtropical depression on October 7 . Upon formation , the system consisted of a very broad subtropical low , as well as a poorly defined surface circulation . As the subtropical depression drifted westward , it became further organized . By midday on October 8 , an Air Force reconnaissance aircraft flight indicated that the subtropical depression intensified and acquired enough tropical characteristics to be considered a tropical storm . The National Hurricane Center named the storm Josephine .
Further intensification was slow , as Josephine was very large and existed in a relatively cool environment . Shortly thereafter , Josephine curved northward to the northeast of the Bahamas . By October 10 , Josephine had strengthened into a hurricane . Josephine continued north @-@ northeastward , and became a Category 2 hurricane on October 11 . Winds increased slightly , and Josephine reached its maximum sustained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) on October 12 . Josephine weakened back to a Category 1 hurricane on October 13 . That day , an area of high pressure moved off the northeastern United States , which caused Josephine to decelerate and abruptly curve northeastward , and eventually southeastward . By October 15 , Josephine began to accelerate east @-@ northeastward . Later that day , Josephine reached its minimum barometric pressure of 965 mbar ( 28 @.@ 5 inHg ) .
As Josephine continued east @-@ northeastward , it had weakened back into a tropical storm . Under the influence of an area of high pressure to the north and a nearby area of low pressure , Josephine began executing a cyclonic loop to the north while approaching Atlantic Canada . During the cyclonic loop , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on October 18 . Shortly thereafter , the remnants of Josephine merged with a broad mid @-@ latitude trough . The remnants of Josephine tracked southward and completed the cyclonic loop on October 19 . The system eventually curved to the east @-@ northeastward and moved in that direction until it became unidentifiable on October 21 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Shortly after the system was declared a tropical storm , gale warnings were issued for the central Bahamas starting on October 8 . Slightly more than 24 hours later , a hurricane watch was issued on Eleuthera and the Abaco Islands . By early on October 11 , both of the alerts were discontinued . Later that day , gale warnings were issued from Cape Lookout , North Carolina to Virginia Beach , Virginia . The warning area was extended to as far north as Nantucket , Massachusetts on October 13 . The warning for the area from Cape Lookout , North Carolina to Virginia Beach , Virginia was discontinued late on October 14 . Simultaneously , gale warnings were issued from Nantucket to Cape Cod , Massachusetts . In addition , another gale warning was also issued from Cape Cod to Boston , Massachusetts . By October 15 , all gale warnings were discontinued . Early in the hurricane 's duration , NASA developed a contingency plan for delaying a landing of the space shuttle Challenger by a day in the event Josephine passed near Kennedy Space Center . The shuttle crew filmed the hurricane from orbit using an IMAX camera . This footage of the storm was featured in the 1985 IMAX documentary The Dream is Alive .
Although Josephine remained well offshore of the eastern United States , the storm produced strong winds and high seas in combination with an area of high pressure . On the Outer Banks of North Carolina , strong winds were reported from October 11 to October 14 . At Diamond Shoals , sustained winds were at 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) , with gusts as high as 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . However , most of the damage caused by Josephine was due to high tides along the East Coast of the United States . On Hatteras Island , tides were 5 @.@ 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) above the mean sea level . In addition , wave heights of 8 to 12 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) were reported on the island . Due to the tides , over @-@ wash occurred on highways along the Outer Banks , which in turn caused those roads to close . Coastal erosion was also occurred in that area ; most notably , the tides washed away nearly all protective sand dunes built by the Civilian Conservation Corps during the Great Depression , especially in the Rodanthe area . In the absence of protective sand dunes , the Outer Banks became vulnerable to future storms that would also produce high tides . Minor damage to houses were reported due to high tides near Nags Head and Kill Devil Hills ; damage was mostly from the detachment of steps and porches .
Effects were somewhat lighter in Virginia . Gale force winds were also observed in the state , with winds of 46 – 52 mph ( 74 – 84 km / h ) being reporting at Cape Henry and Chesapeake Light , respectively . High tides also occurred in Virginia , with waves of 9 to 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) reported at Chesapeake Light . Tidal flooding was reported in Delaware . In response to the hurricane , the United States Coast Guard activated extra workers in the event of any storm emergencies . High winds in Sea Bright , New Jersey washed an abandoned cabin cruiser into the jetty along the coast . In the same town , officials closed a portion of New Jersey Route 36 . Helicopters evacuated three coast guardsmen from Ambrose Light in New York Harbor and two guardsmen from West Bank Light . Tides between 2 and 4 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 and 1 @.@ 22 m ) above normal resulted in minor coastal flooding on Long Island , New York and in parts of New Jersey . Officials closed 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of a road in Southampton due to 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) deep flooding . In Massachusetts , a man fell off his boat and drowned while sailing the North River amidst large swells produced by Josephine . The outer fringes of the storm produced wind and rainfall in Cape Cod . In Newfoundland , Josephine dropped light rainfall , peaking at slightly less than 1 in ( 25 mm ) .
Josephine also caused major effects to marine interests . High waves , estimated to have exceeded 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) , disabled a sailboat with a crew of six on it . They were quickly rescued after issuing a distress signal to a nearby tanker vessel . The storm caused the loss of 1 @,@ 799 bags of sorghum from water damage when a freighter encountered Josephine en route to Baltimore , Maryland . The major shipping lanes of North America were severely impacted , with more than 25 ships reporting winds of at least 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) over a period of nine days . Furthermore , at least five of those ships reported hurricane force winds during a period of six days . The highest wind speed reported from a ship was 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) , which was observed on October 16 .
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= Adenosine triphosphate =
Adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) is a nucleoside triphosphate used in cells as a coenzyme often called the " molecular unit of currency " of intracellular energy transfer .
ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism . It is one of the end products of photophosphorylation , aerobic respiration , and fermentation , and is used by enzymes and structural proteins in many cellular processes , including biosynthetic reactions , motility , and cell division . One molecule of ATP contains three phosphate groups , and it is produced by a wide variety of enzymes , including ATP synthase , from adenosine diphosphate ( ADP ) or adenosine monophosphate ( AMP ) and various phosphate group donors . Substrate @-@ level phosphorylation , oxidative phosphorylation in cellular respiration , and photophosphorylation in photosynthesis are three major mechanisms of ATP biosynthesis .
Metabolic processes that use ATP as an energy source convert it back into its precursors . ATP is therefore continuously recycled in organisms : the human body , which on average contains only 250 grams ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) of ATP , turns over its own body weight equivalent in ATP each day .
ATP is used as a substrate in signal transduction pathways by kinases that phosphorylate proteins and lipids . It is also used by adenylate cyclase , which uses ATP to produce the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP . The ratio between ATP and AMP is used as a way for a cell to sense how much energy is available and control the metabolic pathways that produce and consume ATP . Apart from its roles in signaling and energy metabolism , ATP is also incorporated into nucleic acids by polymerases in the process of transcription . ATP is the neurotransmitter believed to signal the sense of taste .
The structure of this molecule consists of a purine base ( adenine ) attached by the 9 ′ nitrogen atom to the 1 ′ carbon atom of a pentose sugar ( ribose ) . Three phosphate groups are attached at the 5 ′ carbon atom of the pentose sugar . It is the addition and removal of these phosphate groups that inter @-@ convert ATP , ADP and AMP . When ATP is used in DNA synthesis , the ribose sugar is first converted to deoxyribose by ribonucleotide reductase .
ATP was discovered in 1929 by Karl Lohmann , and independently by Cyrus Fiske and Yellapragada Subbarow of Harvard Medical School , but its correct structure was not determined until some years later . It was proposed to be the intermediary molecule between energy @-@ yielding and energy @-@ requiring reactions in cells by Fritz Albert Lipmann in 1941 . It was first artificially synthesized by Alexander Todd in 1948 .
= = Physical and chemical properties = =
ATP consists of adenosine – composed of an adenine ring and a ribose sugar – and three phosphate groups ( triphosphate ) . The phosphoryl groups , starting with the group closest to the ribose , are referred to as the alpha ( α ) , beta ( β ) , and gamma ( γ ) phosphates . Consequently , it is closely related to the adenine nucleotide , a monomer of RNA . ATP is highly soluble in water and is quite stable in solutions between pH 6 @.@ 8 and 7 @.@ 4 , but is rapidly hydrolysed at extreme pH . Consequently , ATP is best stored as an anhydrous salt .
ATP is an unstable molecule in unbuffered water , in which it hydrolyses to ADP and phosphate . This is because the strength of the bonds between the phosphate groups in ATP is less than the strength of the hydrogen bonds ( hydration bonds ) , between its products ( ADP and phosphate ) , and water . Thus , if ATP and ADP are in chemical equilibrium in water , almost all of the ATP will eventually be converted to ADP . A system that is far from equilibrium contains Gibbs free energy , and is capable of doing work . Living cells maintain the ratio of ATP to ADP at a point ten orders of magnitude from equilibrium , with ATP concentrations fivefold higher than the concentration of ADP . This displacement from equilibrium means that the hydrolysis of ATP in the cell releases a large amount of free energy .
Two phosphoanhydride bonds ( those that connect adjacent phosphates ) in an ATP molecule are responsible for the high energy content of this molecule . In the context of biochemical reactions , these anhydride bonds are frequently – and sometimes controversially – referred to as high @-@ energy bonds ( despite the fact it takes energy to break bonds ) . Energy stored in ATP may be released upon hydrolysis of the anhydride bonds . The primary phosphate group on the ATP molecule that is hydrolyzed when energy is needed to drive anabolic reactions is the γ @-@ phosphate group . Located the farthest from the ribose sugar , it has a higher energy of hydrolysis than either the α- or β @-@ phosphate . The bonds formed after hydrolysis – or the phosphorylation of a residue by ATP – are lower in energy than the phosphoanhydride bonds of ATP . During enzyme @-@ catalyzed hydrolysis of ATP or phosphorylation by ATP , the available free energy can be harnessed by a living system to do work .
Any unstable system of potentially reactive molecules could potentially serve as a way of storing free energy , if the cell maintained their concentration far from the equilibrium point of the reaction . However , as is the case with most polymeric biomolecules , the breakdown of RNA , DNA , and ATP into simpler monomers is driven by both energy @-@ release and entropy @-@ increase considerations , in both standard concentrations , and also those concentrations encountered within the cell .
The standard amount of energy released from hydrolysis of ATP can be calculated from the changes in energy under non @-@ natural ( standard ) conditions , then correcting to biological concentrations . The net change in heat energy ( enthalpy ) at standard temperature and pressure of the decomposition of ATP into hydrated ADP and hydrated inorganic phosphate is − 30 @.@ 5 kJ / mol , with a change in free energy of 3 @.@ 4 kJ / mol . The energy released by cleaving either a phosphate ( Pi ) or pyrophosphate ( PPi ) unit from ATP at standard state of 1 M are :
ATP + H
2O → ADP + Pi ΔG °
= − 30 @.@ 5 kJ / mol ( − 7 @.@ 3 kcal / mol )
ATP + H
2O → AMP + PPi ΔG ° =
− 45 @.@ 6 kJ / mol ( − 10 @.@ 9 kcal / mol )
These values can be used to calculate the change in energy under physiological conditions and the cellular ATP / ADP ratio . However , a more representative value ( which takes AMP into consideration ) called the Energy charge is increasingly being employed . The values given for the Gibbs free energy for this reaction are dependent on a number of factors , including overall ionic strength and the presence of alkaline earth metal ions such as Mg2 + and Ca2 + . Under typical cellular conditions , ΔG is approximately − 57 kJ / mol ( − 14 kcal / mol ) .
= = = Ionization in biological systems = = =
ATP ( adenosine triphosphate ) has multiple groups with different acid dissociation constants . In neutral solution , ionized ATP exists mostly as ATP4 − , with a small proportion of ATP3 − . As ATP has several negatively charged groups in neutral solution , it can chelate metals with very high affinity . The binding constant for various metal ions are ( given as per mole ) as Mg2 + ( 9554 ) , Na + ( 13 ) , Ca2 + ( 3722 ) , K + ( 8 ) , Sr2 + ( 1381 ) and Li + ( 25 ) . Due to the strength of these interactions , ATP exists in the cell mostly in a complex with Mg2 + .
= = Biosynthesis = =
The ATP concentration inside the cell is typically 1 – 10 mM . ATP can be produced by redox reactions using simple and complex sugars ( carbohydrates ) or lipids as an energy source . For complex fuels to be synthesized into ATP , they first need to be broken down into smaller , more simple molecules . Carbohydrates are hydrolysed into simple sugars , such as glucose and fructose . Fats ( triglycerides ) are metabolised to give fatty acids and glycerol .
The overall process of oxidizing glucose to carbon dioxide is known as cellular respiration and can produce about 30 molecules of ATP from a single molecule of glucose . ATP can be produced by a number of distinct cellular processes ; the three main pathways used to generate energy in eukaryotic organisms are glycolysis and the citric acid cycle / oxidative phosphorylation , both components of cellular respiration ; and beta @-@ oxidation . The majority of this ATP production by a non @-@ photosynthetic aerobic eukaryote takes place in the mitochondria , which can make up nearly 25 % of the total volume of a typical cell .
= = = Glycolysis = = =
In glycolysis , glucose and glycerol are metabolized to pyruvate via the glycolytic pathway . In most organisms , this process occurs in the cytosol , but , in some protozoa such as the kinetoplastids , this is carried out in a specialized organelle called the glycosome . Glycolysis generates a net two molecules of ATP through substrate phosphorylation catalyzed by two enzymes : PGK and pyruvate kinase . Two molecules of NADH are also produced , which can be oxidized via the electron transport chain and result in the generation of additional ATP by ATP synthase . The pyruvate generated as an end @-@ product of glycolysis is a substrate for the Krebs Cycle .
= = = Glucose = = =
In the mitochondrion , pyruvate is oxidized by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to the acetyl group , which is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide by the citric acid cycle ( also known as the Krebs cycle ) . Every " turn " of the citric acid cycle produces two molecules of carbon dioxide , one molecule of the ATP equivalent guanosine triphosphate ( GTP ) through substrate @-@ level phosphorylation catalyzed by succinyl @-@ CoA synthetase , three molecules of the reduced coenzyme NADH , and one molecule of the reduced coenzyme FADH2 . Both of these latter molecules are recycled to their oxidized states ( NAD + and FAD , respectively ) via the electron transport chain , which generates additional ATP by oxidative phosphorylation . The oxidation of an NADH molecule results in the synthesis of 2 – 3 ATP molecules , and the oxidation of one FADH2 yields between 1 – 2 ATP molecules . The majority of cellular ATP is generated by this process . Although the citric acid cycle itself does not involve molecular oxygen , it is an obligately aerobic process because O2 is needed to recycle the reduced NADH and FADH2 to their oxidized states . In the absence of oxygen the citric acid cycle will cease to function due to the lack of available NAD + and FAD .
The generation of ATP by the mitochondrion from cytosolic NADH relies on the malate @-@ aspartate shuttle ( and to a lesser extent , the glycerol @-@ phosphate shuttle ) because the inner mitochondrial membrane is impermeable to NADH and NAD + . Instead of transferring the generated NADH , a malate dehydrogenase enzyme converts oxaloacetate to malate , which is translocated to the mitochondrial matrix . Another malate dehydrogenase @-@ catalyzed reaction occurs in the opposite direction , producing oxaloacetate and NADH from the newly transported malate and the mitochondrion 's interior store of NAD + . A transaminase converts the oxaloacetate to aspartate for transport back across the membrane and into the intermembrane space .
In oxidative phosphorylation , the passage of electrons from NADH and FADH2 through the electron transport chain powers the pumping of protons out of the mitochondrial matrix and into the intermembrane space . This creates a proton motive force that is the net effect of a pH gradient and an electric potential gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane . Flow of protons down this potential gradient – that is , from the intermembrane space to the matrix – provides the driving force for ATP synthesis by ATP synthase . This enzyme contains a rotor subunit that physically rotates relative to the static portions of the protein during ATP synthesis .
Most of the ATP synthesized in the mitochondria will be used for cellular processes in the cytosol ; thus it must be exported from its site of synthesis in the mitochondrial matrix . The inner membrane contains an antiporter , the ADP / ATP translocase , which is an integral membrane protein used to exchange newly synthesized ATP in the matrix for ADP in the intermembrane space . This translocase is driven by the membrane potential , as it results in the movement of about 4 negative charges out of the mitochondrial membrane in exchange for 3 negative charges moved inside . However , it is also necessary to transport phosphate into the mitochondrion ; the phosphate carrier moves a proton in with each phosphate , partially dissipating the proton gradient .
= = = Beta oxidation = = =
Fatty acids can also be broken down to acetyl @-@ CoA by beta @-@ oxidation . Each round of this cycle reduces the length of the acyl chain by two carbon atoms and produces one NADH and one FADH2 molecule , which are used to generate ATP by oxidative phosphorylation . Because NADH and FADH2 are energy @-@ rich molecules , dozens of ATP molecules can be generated by the beta @-@ oxidation of a single long acyl chain . The high energy yield of this process and the compact storage of fat explain why it is the most dense source of dietary calories .
= = = Fermentation = = =
Fermentation entails the generation of energy via the process of substrate @-@ level phosphorylation in the absence of a respiratory electron transport chain . In most eukaryotes , glucose is used as both an energy store and an electron donor . The equation for the oxidation of glucose to lactic acid is :
C
6H
12O
6 → 2 CH
3CH ( OH ) COOH + 2 ATP
= = = Anaerobic respiration = = =
Anaerobic respiration is the process of respiration using an electron acceptor other than O
2 . In prokaryotes , multiple electron acceptors can be used in anaerobic respiration . These include nitrate , sulfate or carbon dioxide . These processes lead to the ecologically important processes of denitrification , sulfate reduction and acetogenesis , respectively .
= = = ATP replenishment by nucleoside diphosphate kinases = = =
ATP can also be synthesized through several so @-@ called " replenishment " reactions catalyzed by the enzyme families of nucleoside diphosphate kinases ( NDKs ) , which use other nucleoside triphosphates as a high @-@ energy phosphate donor , and the ATP : guanido @-@ phosphotransferase family .
= = = ATP production during photosynthesis = = =
In plants , ATP is synthesized in thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light @-@ dependent reactions of photosynthesis in a process called photophosphorylation . Here , light energy is used to pump protons across the chloroplast membrane . This produces a proton @-@ motive force and this drives the ATP synthase , exactly as in oxidative phosphorylation . Some of the ATP produced in the chloroplasts is consumed in the Calvin cycle , which produces triose sugars .
= = = ATP recycling = = =
The total quantity of ATP in the human body is about 0 @.@ 2 moles . The majority of ATP is not usually synthesised de novo , but is generated from ADP by the aforementioned processes . Thus , at any given time , the total amount of ATP + ADP remains fairly constant .
The energy used by human cells requires the hydrolysis of 100 to 150 moles of ATP daily , which is around 50 to 75 kg . A human will typically use up his or her body weight of ATP over the course of the day . This means that each ATP molecule is recycled 500 to 750 times during a single day ( 100 / 0 @.@ 2 = 500 ) . ATP cannot be stored , hence its consumption closely follows its synthesis . However a total of around 5 g of ATP is used by cell processes at any time in the body .
= = Regulation of biosynthesis = =
ATP production in an aerobic eukaryotic cell is tightly regulated by allosteric mechanisms , by feedback effects , and by the substrate concentration dependence of individual enzymes within the glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation pathways . Key control points occur in enzymatic reactions that are so energetically favorable that they are effectively irreversible under physiological conditions .
In glycolysis , hexokinase is directly inhibited by its product , glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , and pyruvate kinase is inhibited by ATP itself . The main control point for the glycolytic pathway is phosphofructokinase ( PFK ) , which is allosterically inhibited by high concentrations of ATP and activated by high concentrations of AMP . The inhibition of PFK by ATP is unusual , since ATP is also a substrate in the reaction catalyzed by PFK ; the biologically active form of the enzyme is a tetramer that exists in two possible conformations , only one of which binds the second substrate fructose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate ( F6P ) . The protein has two binding sites for ATP – the active site is accessible in either protein conformation , but ATP binding to the inhibitor site stabilizes the conformation that binds F6P poorly . A number of other small molecules can compensate for the ATP @-@ induced shift in equilibrium conformation and reactivate PFK , including cyclic AMP , ammonium ions , inorganic phosphate , and fructose @-@ 1,6- and -2,6 @-@ biphosphate .
The citric acid cycle is regulated mainly by the availability of key substrates , particularly the ratio of NAD + to NADH and the concentrations of calcium , inorganic phosphate , ATP , ADP , and AMP . Citrate – the molecule that gives its name to the cycle – is a feedback inhibitor of citrate synthase and also inhibits PFK , providing a direct link between the regulation of the citric acid cycle and glycolysis .
In oxidative phosphorylation , the key control point is the reaction catalyzed by cytochrome c oxidase , which is regulated by the availability of its substrate – the reduced form of cytochrome c . The amount of reduced cytochrome c available is directly related to the amounts of other substrates :
1 ⁄ 2 NADH + cyt cox + ADP + Pi ⇌ 1 ⁄ 2 NAD + + cyt cred + ATP
which directly implies this equation :
<formula>
Thus , a high ratio of [ NADH ] to [ NAD + ] or a high ratio of [ ADP ] [ Pi ] to [ ATP ] imply a high amount of reduced cytochrome c and a high level of cytochrome c oxidase activity . An additional level of regulation is introduced by the transport rates of ATP and NADH between the mitochondrial matrix and the cytoplasm .
= = Functions in cells = =
= = = Metabolism , synthesis , and active transport = = =
ATP is consumed in the cell by energy @-@ requiring ( endergonic ) processes and can be generated by energy @-@ releasing ( exergonic ) processes . In this way ATP transfers energy between spatially separate metabolic reactions . ATP is the main energy source for the majority of cellular functions . This includes the synthesis of macromolecules , including DNA and RNA ( see below ) , and proteins . ATP also plays a critical role in the transport of macromolecules across cell membranes , e.g. exocytosis and endocytosis .
= = = Roles in cell structure and locomotion = = =
ATP is critically involved in maintaining cell structure by facilitating assembly and disassembly of elements of the cytoskeleton . In a related process , ATP is required for the shortening of actin and myosin filament crossbridges required for muscle contraction . This latter process is one of the main energy requirements of animals and is essential for locomotion and respiration .
= = = Cell signalling = = =
= = = = Extracellular signalling = = = =
ATP is also a signalling molecule . ATP , ADP , or adenosine are recognised by purinergic receptors . Purinoreceptors might be the most abundant receptors in mammalian tissues .
In humans , this signalling role is important in both the central and peripheral nervous system . Activity @-@ dependent release of ATP from synapses , axons and glia activates purinergic membrane receptors known as P2 . The P2Y receptors are metabotropic , i.e. G protein @-@ coupled and modulate mainly intracellular calcium and sometimes cyclic AMP levels . Though named between P2Y1 and P2Y15 , only nine members of the P2Y family have been cloned , and some are only related through weak homology and several ( P2Y5 , P2Y7 , P2Y9 , P2Y10 ) do not function as receptors that raise cytosolic calcium . The P2X ionotropic receptor subgroup comprises seven members ( P2X1 – P2X7 ) , which are ligand @-@ gated Ca2 + -permeable ion channels that open when bound to an extracellular purine nucleotide . In contrast to P2 receptors ( agonist order ATP > ADP > AMP > ADO ) , purinergic nucleoside triphosphates like ATP are not strong agonists of P1 receptors , which are strongly activated by adenosine and other nucleosides ( ADO > AMP > ADP > ATP ) . P1 receptors have A1 , A2a , A2b , and A3 subtypes ( " A " as a remnant of old nomenclature of adenosine receptor ) , all of which are G protein @-@ coupled receptors , A1 and A3 being coupled to Gi , and A2a and A2b being coupled to Gs . All adenosine receptors were shown to activate at least one subfamily of mitogen @-@ activated protein kinases . The actions of adenosine are often antagonistic or synergistic to the actions of ATP . In the CNS , adenosine has multiple functions , such as modulation of neural development , neuron and glial signalling and the control of innate and adaptive immune systems .
= = = = Intracellular signaling = = = =
ATP is critical in signal transduction processes . It is used by kinases as the source of phosphate groups in their phosphate transfer reactions . Kinase activity on substrates such as proteins or membrane lipids are a common form of signal transduction . Phosphorylation of a protein by a kinase can activate this cascade such as the mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase cascade .
ATP is also used by adenylate cyclase and is transformed to the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP , which is involved in triggering calcium signals by the release of calcium from intracellular stores . This form of signal transduction is particularly important in brain function , although it is involved in the regulation of a multitude of other cellular processes .
= = = DNA and RNA synthesis = = =
In all known organisms , the Deoxyribonucleotides that make up DNA are synthesized by the action of ribonucleotide reductase ( RNR ) enzymes on their corresponding ribonucleotides . These enzymes reduce the sugar residue from ribose to deoxyribose by removing oxygen from the 2 ′ hydroxyl group ; the substrates are ribonucleoside diphosphates and the products deoxyribonucleoside diphosphates ( the latter are denoted dADP , dCDP , dGDP , and dUDP respectively . ) All ribonucleotide reductase enzymes use a common sulfhydryl radical mechanism reliant on reactive cysteine residues that oxidize to form disulfide bonds in the course of the reaction . RNR enzymes are recycled by reaction with thioredoxin or glutaredoxin .
The regulation of RNR and related enzymes maintains a balance of dNTPs relative to each other and relative to NTPs in the cell . Very low dNTP concentration inhibits DNA synthesis and DNA repair and is lethal to the cell , while an abnormal ratio of dNTPs is mutagenic due to the increased likelihood of the DNA polymerase incorporating the wrong dNTP during DNA synthesis . Regulation of or differential specificity of RNR has been proposed as a mechanism for alterations in the relative sizes of intracellular dNTP pools under cellular stress such as hypoxia .
In the synthesis of the nucleic acid RNA , adenosine derived from ATP is one of the four nucleotides incorporated directly into RNA molecules by RNA polymerases . The energy driving this polymerization comes from cleaving off a pyrophosphate ( two phosphate groups ) . The process is similar in DNA biosynthesis , except that ATP is reduced to the deoxyribonucleotide dATP , before incorporation into DNA .
= = Amino acid activation in protein synthesis = =
Aminoacyl @-@ tRNA synthetase enzymes utilize ATP as an energy source to attach a tRNA molecule to its specific amino acid , forming an aminoacyl @-@ tRNA complex , ready for translation at ribosomes . The energy is made available by ATP hydrolysis to adenosine monophosphate ( AMP ) as two phosphate groups are removed . Amino acid activation refers to the attachment of an amino acid to its Transfer RNA ( tRNA ) . Aminoacyl transferase binds Adenosine triphosphate ( ATP ) to amino acid , PP is released . Aminoacyl transferase binds AMP @-@ amino acid to tRNA . The AMP is used in this step .
= = = Amino Acid Activation = = =
During amino acid activation the amino acids ( aa ) are attached to their corresponding tRNA . The coupling reactions are catalysed by a group of enzymes called aminoacyl @-@ tRNA synthetases ( named after the reaction product aminoacyl @-@ tRNA or aa @-@ tRNA ) . The coupling reaction proceeds in two steps :
aa + ATP aa @-@ AMP + PPi
aa @-@ AMP + tRNA aa @-@ tRNA + AMP
The amino acid is coupled to the penultimate nucleotide at the 3 ′ -end of the tRNA ( the A in the sequence CCA ) via an ester bond ( roll over in illustration ) . The formation of the ester bond conserves a considerable part of the energy from the activation reaction . This stored energy provides the majority of the energy needed for peptide bond formation during translation .
Each of the 20 amino acids are recognized by its specific aminoacyl @-@ tRNA synthetase . The synthetases are usually composed of one to four protein subunits . The enzymes vary considerably in structure although they all perform the same type of reaction by binding ATP , one specific amino acid and its corresponding tRNA .
The specificity of the amino acid activation is as critical for the translational accuracy as the correct matching of the codon with the anticodon . The reason is that the ribosome only sees the anticodon of the tRNA during translation . Thus , the ribosome will not be able to discriminate between tRNAs with the same anticodon but linked to different amino acids .
The error frequency of the amino acid activation reaction is approximately 1 in 10000 despite the small structural differences between some of the amino acids .
= = Binding to proteins = =
Some proteins that bind ATP do so in a characteristic protein fold known as the Rossmann fold , which is a general nucleotide @-@ binding structural domain that can also bind the coenzyme NAD . The most common ATP @-@ binding proteins , known as kinases , share a small number of common folds ; the protein kinases , the largest kinase superfamily , all share common structural features specialized for ATP binding and phosphate transfer .
ATP in complexes with proteins , in general , requires the presence of a divalent cation , almost always magnesium , which binds to the ATP phosphate groups . The presence of magnesium greatly decreases the dissociation constant of ATP from its protein binding partner without affecting the ability of the enzyme to catalyze its reaction once the ATP has bound . The presence of magnesium ions can serve as a mechanism for kinase regulation .
= = ATP analogues = =
Biochemistry laboratories often use in vitro studies to explore ATP @-@ dependent molecular processes . Enzyme inhibitors of ATP @-@ dependent enzymes such as kinases are needed to examine the binding sites and transition states involved in ATP @-@ dependent reactions . ATP analogs are also used in X @-@ ray crystallography to determine a protein structure in complex with ATP , often together with other substrates . Most useful ATP analogs cannot be hydrolyzed as ATP would be ; instead they trap the enzyme in a structure closely related to the ATP @-@ bound state . Adenosine 5 ′ - ( γ @-@ thiotriphosphate ) is an extremely common ATP analog in which one of the gamma @-@ phosphate oxygens is replaced by a sulfur atom ; this molecule is hydrolyzed at a dramatically slower rate than ATP itself and functions as an inhibitor of ATP @-@ dependent processes . In crystallographic studies , hydrolysis transition states are modeled by the bound vanadate ion . However , caution is warranted in interpreting the results of experiments using ATP analogs , since some enzymes can hydrolyze them at appreciable rates at high concentration .
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= Robert Keyes =
Robert Keyes was a member of the group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 , a conspiracy to assassinate King James I by blowing up the House of Lords during the State Opening of Parliament on 5 November 1605 . He was the sixth man to join the plot .
Unlike several other conspirators Keyes was not a particularly wealthy man . He was trusted by Robert Catesby , the plot 's author , with guarding the explosives stored at the latter 's lodgings in London . When the plot was uncovered he fled the city , and was captured several days later in Warwickshire . He was subsequently tried with his co @-@ conspirators , found guilty , and in January 1606 hanged , drawn and quartered .
= = Life before 1604 = =
Born in about 1565 , Robert Keyes was the son of the Protestant Rector of Staveley in North Derbyshire . His mother was a daughter of Sir Robert Tyrwhitt of Kettleby in Lincolnshire , and related to the Catholic Babthorpes of Osgodby . Keyes ' first cousin Elizabeth Tyrrwhitt was married to another member of the plot , Ambrose Rookwood . By 1604 , Robert had converted to Catholicism . His wife Christina , a widow when he married her , was the governess for the children of Henry Mordaunt , 4th Baron Mordaunt , at Drayton in Northamptonshire , and for this Keyes gained the use of horses and other amenities .
= = Gunpowder Plot = =
English Catholics had hoped that the persecution of their faith would end when the apparently more tolerant King James I succeeded Queen Elizabeth I , but Robert Catesby , a Catholic zealot from Ashby St Ledgers , remained unimpressed by the new royal dynasty . He therefore planned to kill James by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder , following which he would help incite a popular revolt to install James 's daughter , Princess Elizabeth , as titular Queen . His role being to guard the gunpowder and other items stored at Catesby 's house in Lambeth , Keyes joined the conspiracy in October 1604 .
The Jesuit priest John Gerard described Keyes as " a grave and sober man , and of great wit and sufficiency " . Father Oswald Tesimond claimed that Keyes had " tasted persecution himself , having lost his goods because of it " while historian and author Cyril Northcote Parkinson 's image of him was of a " desperate man , ruined and indebted " . Tall , with a red beard , despite his relative poverty Catesby declared him " a trusty honest man " , and may have paid him for his services . Like fellow plotter Guy Fawkes , he was thought capable of looking after himself . Several conspirators expressed concerns about the safety of fellow Catholics who would be at Parliament on the day of the planned explosion ; Keyes was particularly worried about Lord Mordaunt , his wife 's employer . Thomas Percy was concerned for his patron , Henry Percy , 9th Earl of Northumberland , and the Lords Vaux , Montague , Monteagle and Stourton were also mentioned . Keyes 's suggestion to warn Lord Mordaunt was treated by Catesby with derision , when he answered that " he would not for the chamber full of diamonds acquaint him with the secret , for that he knew he could not keep it . "
Keyes and his cousin @-@ in @-@ law Ambrose Rookwood spent the night before the planned explosion at the house of an Elizabeth More , near Temple Bar . They were visited late that evening by Fawkes ( in charge of the explosives beneath the House of Lords ) who collected a watch left by Percy , for timing the fuse . Several hours later , however , Fawkes was discovered guarding the explosives , and arrested .
= = Failure and death = =
When Keyes heard that Fawkes had been captured he took to his horse and fled for the Midlands . He was overtaken at Highgate by Rookwood , who was rushing to inform Catesby and the others of what had transpired . After he and Rookwood had caught up with Catesby , Percy , Thomas Bates , and John and Christopher Wright , Keyes left the group , and headed instead for Lord Mordaunt 's house at Drayton , where he went to ground . He was identified as a suspect on 6 November , and captured several days later .
The conspirators were tried on 27 January 1606 at Westminster Hall . Despite entering pleas of not guilty ( only Digby professed his guilt ) , all eight were found guilty . They were each allowed to speak " wherefore judgement of death should not be pronounced against them " . Keyes made no attempt to excuse his actions , claiming that " death was as good now as at any other time " , preferable to living " in the midst of so much tyranny " . The Jesuit Oswald Tesimond wrote in his Narrative of Keyes 's defence :
He claimed that his motive had been to promote the common good . That is , he hoped that his native land would be turned back to the Catholic faith . The violence of the present persecution had driven him also to take part in the conspiracy .
On 31 January 1606 Keyes , Rookwood , Thomas Wintour and Fawkes were taken to the Old Palace Yard in Westminster , to be hanged , drawn and quartered . Rookwood and Wintour were the first to ascend to the gallows . Grim @-@ faced , Keyes went " stoutly " up the ladder , but with the halter around his neck he threw himself off , presumably hoping for a quick death . The halter broke , however , and he was taken to the block to suffer the remainder of his sentence .
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= Dictum of Kenilworth =
The Dictum of Kenilworth , issued 31 October 1266 , was a pronouncement designed to reconcile the rebels of the Barons ' War with the royal government of England . After the baronial victory at the Battle of Lewes in 1264 , Simon de Montfort took control of royal government , but at the Battle of Evesham the next year Montfort was killed , and King Henry III restored to power . A group of rebels held out in the stronghold of Kenilworth Castle , however , and their resistance proved hard to crush .
A siege of the castle was started , but through papal intervention King Henry later entered on a more conciliatory path . A commission was appointed to draw up an arrangement that would be acceptable to both sides . The resulting Dictum of Kenilworth offered the rebels the right to buy back forfeited estates , at prices depending on their level of involvement in the rebellion . After initial resistance , the terms were eventually accepted . By the summer of 1267 , the country was pacified , and this spirit of reconciliation would last until the 1290s . The Dictum of Kenilworth was later incorporated into the Statute of Marlborough .
= = Background = =
At the Battle of Lewes in 1264 , the rebellious barons , led by Simon de Montfort , had defeated the royal army and taken King Henry III captive . For the next year , the reins of government were in Montfort 's hands , but his support soon began to crumble . On 4 August 1265 Montfort faced an army led by Prince Edward ( the later King Edward I ) and the powerful earl of Gloucester , who had recently defected to the royalist side , at the Battle of Evesham . The battle resulted in a complete royal victory ; Montfort was killed , and King Henry III was restored to full power .
Part of the rebellious forces held out , however , and their stronghold was the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle . In the summer of 1266 , a siege of the castle was initiated , but the effort proved futile . There were rumours that Montfort 's son Simon was planning an invasion of England from Normandy , and this was the hope that the rebels hung on to . It was in this situation that the papal legate Ottobuono Fieschi exerted his influence , to make the king pursue a more conciliatory policy . In August , the king summoned a parliament at Kenilworth , where the siege was ongoing . He commissioned a number of earls , barons and bishops to draft a treaty of reconciliation .
= = The Dictum of Kenilworth = =
The commission was created by parliament appointing three bishops and three barons , who then selected one more bishop , two earls , and three more barons . The final committee consisted of the bishops of Exeter , Bath and Wells , Worcester and St. David 's , the earls of Gloucester and Hereford , and six barons . This committee was given until All Saints Day ( 1 November ) to come up with provisions for a settlement . The result , known as the Dictum of Kenilworth , was made public on 31 October 1266 .
The primary point of the Dictum was the re @-@ establishment of royal authority . The Provisions of Oxford , that had been forced on the king , were repudiated , and it was made clear that the appointment of ministers was entirely a royal prerogative . King Henry in turn reconfirmed Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest . Measures were taken to renounce the increasing veneration of the fallen Simon de Montfort , whom some were already starting to consider a martyr and a possible saint .
The rebels had previously been completely disinherited , and their land taken into the king 's hands . The Dictum instead extended a pardon , and restored land to their previous owners , contingent on payment of certain penalties that were proportional to the level of involvement in the rebellion . It was traditional to value land at ten times its annual yield , and most of the rebels were subsequently fined at half of this amount : five times the annual yield of their lands .
Robert Ferrers , Earl of Derby , was singled out in particular for his central involvement in the rebellion , and for him the multiple was seven rather than five . The same was the case for Henry de Hastings , who was the commander of Kenilworth Castle . Those who had not taken part in the fighting themselves , but had incited others to rise up against the king , were fined at two year 's value , while those who had been compelled to fight , or played only a minor part , had to pay one year 's value of their land . The proceedings from the fines were awarded to royal supporters , some of whom had already been awarded parts of the rebels ' land , and now had to give it back .
= = Aftermath = =
Hostilities did not end with the publication of the Dictum . The garrison at Kenilworth refused to accept the terms given , and held out until 14 December , when deprivation forced them to surrender . In April 1267 , the earl of Gloucester – who had been central both to the royal victory at Evesham and to the drafting of the Dictum – turned against the king . He occupied the city of London , and set himself up as the champion of the disinherited . After negotiations involving both Edward and Ottobuono , Gloucester relented , and by June a settlement was reached . Gloucester had forced a change to the conditions of the Dictum , whereby the disinherited were allowed to recover their lands before they had paid their fines rather than after ; an arrangement that made repayment much easier . In the summer of that year , Prince Edward moved at the Isle of Ely , where the last of the rebels still held out , and forced them into submission under terms favourable to the rebels .
In November 1267 , parliament met at Marlborough . Here an important provision was issued that would become known to history as the Statute of Marlborough . This statute incorporated the clauses of the Dictum of Kenilworth that dealt with the restoration of royal power , and reconciliation between the loyalists and the rebels . The Statute of Marlborough became a basis for royal government , and the relationship between the king and his subjects , and as such the Dictum lived on in English constitutional history .
The spirit of peace and reconciliation established by the Dictum of Kenilworth lasted for the remainder of Henry III 's reign and into the 1290s . In 1270 , Prince Edward left the country to go on crusade in the Holy Land . When his father died in 1272 , Edward felt in a safe enough position to wait until 1274 before returning home to claim the throne .
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= Die casting =
Die casting is a metal casting process that is characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure into a mold cavity . The mold cavity is created using two hardened tool steel dies which have been machined into shape and work similarly to an injection mold during the process . Most die castings are made from non @-@ ferrous metals , specifically zinc , copper , aluminium , magnesium , lead , pewter and tin @-@ based alloys . Depending on the type of metal being cast , a hot- or cold @-@ chamber machine is used .
The casting equipment and the metal dies represent large capital costs and this tends to limit the process to high @-@ volume production . Manufacture of parts using die casting is relatively simple , involving only four main steps , which keeps the incremental cost per item low . It is especially suited for a large quantity of small- to medium @-@ sized castings , which is why die casting produces more castings than any other casting process . Die castings are characterized by a very good surface finish ( by casting standards ) and dimensional consistency .
Two variants are pore @-@ free die casting , which is used to eliminate gas porosity defects ; and direct injection die casting , which is used with zinc castings to reduce scrap and increase yield .
= = History = =
Die casting equipment was invented in 1838 for the purpose of producing movable type for the printing industry . The first die casting @-@ related patent was granted in 1849 for a small hand @-@ operated machine for the purpose of mechanized printing type production . In 1885 Otto Mergenthaler invented the linotype machine , an automated type @-@ casting device which became the prominent type of equipment in the publishing industry . The Soss die @-@ casting machine , manufactured in Brooklyn , NY , was the first machine to be sold in the open market in North America . Other applications grew rapidly , with die casting facilitating the growth of consumer goods and appliances by making affordable the production of intricate parts in high volumes . In 1966 , General Motors released the Acurad process .
= = Cast metals = =
The main die casting alloys are : zinc , aluminium , magnesium , copper , lead , and tin ; although uncommon , ferrous die casting is also possible . Specific die casting alloys include : Zamak ; zinc aluminium ; aluminium to , e.g. The Aluminum Association ( AA ) standards : AA 380 , AA 384 , AA 386 , AA 390 ; and AZ91D magnesium . The following is a summary of the advantages of each alloy :
Zinc : the easiest metal to cast ; high ductility ; high impact strength ; easily plated ; economical for small parts ; promotes long die life .
Aluminium : lightweight ; high dimensional stability for complex shapes and thin walls ; good corrosion resistance ; good mechanical properties ; high thermal and electrical conductivity ; retains strength at high temperatures .
Magnesium : the easiest metal to machine ; excellent strength @-@ to @-@ weight ratio ; lightest alloy commonly die cast .
Copper : high hardness ; high corrosion resistance ; highest mechanical properties of alloys die cast ; excellent wear resistance ; excellent dimensional stability ; strength approaching that of steel parts .
Silicon tombac : high @-@ strength alloy made of copper , zinc and silicon . Often used as an alternative for investment casted steel parts .
Lead and tin : high density ; extremely close dimensional accuracy ; used for special forms of corrosion resistance . Such alloys are not used in foodservice applications for public health reasons . Type metal , an alloy of lead , tin and antimony ( with sometimes traces of copper ) is used for casting hand @-@ set type in letterpress printing and hot foil blocking . Traditionally cast in hand jerk moulds now predominantly die cast after the industrialisation of the type foundries . Around 1900 the slug casting machines came onto the market and added further automation , with sometimes dozens of casting machines at one newspaper office .
Maximum weight limits for aluminium , brass , magnesium and zinc castings are approximately 70 pounds ( 32 kg ) , 10 lb ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) , 44 lb ( 20 kg ) , and 75 lb ( 34 kg ) , respectively .
The material used defines the minimum section thickness and minimum draft required for a casting as outlined in the table below . The thickest section should be less than 13 mm ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) , but can be greater .
= = Equipment = =
There are two basic types of die casting machines : hot @-@ chamber machines and cold @-@ chamber machines . These are rated by how much clamping force they can apply . Typical ratings are between 400 and 4 @,@ 000 st ( 2 @,@ 500 and 25 @,@ 400 kg ) .
= = = Hot @-@ chamber die casting = = =
Hot @-@ chamber die casting , also known as gooseneck machines , rely upon a pool of molten metal to feed the die . At the beginning of the cycle the piston of the machine is retracted , which allows the molten metal to fill the " gooseneck " . The pneumatic- or hydraulic @-@ powered piston then forces this metal out of the gooseneck into the die . The advantages of this system include fast cycle times ( approximately 15 cycles a minute ) and the convenience of melting the metal in the casting machine . The disadvantages of this system are that it is limited to use with low @-@ melting point metals and that aluminium cannot be used because it picks up some of the iron while in the molten pool . Therefore hot @-@ chamber machines are primarily used with zinc- , tin- , and lead @-@ based alloys .
= = = Cold @-@ chamber die casting = = =
These are used when the casting alloy cannot be used in hot @-@ chamber machines ; these include aluminium , zinc alloys with a large composition of aluminium , magnesium and copper . The process for these machines start with melting the metal in a separate furnace . Then a precise amount of molten metal is transported to the cold @-@ chamber machine where it is fed into an unheated shot chamber ( or injection cylinder ) . This shot is then driven into the die by a hydraulic or mechanical piston . The biggest disadvantage of this system is the slower cycle time due to the need to transfer the molten metal from the furnace to the cold @-@ chamber machine .
= = Mold or Tooling = =
Two dies are used in die casting ; one is called the " cover die half " and the other the " ejector die half " . Where they meet is called the parting line . The cover die contains the sprue ( for hot @-@ chamber machines ) or shot hole ( for cold @-@ chamber machines ) , which allows the molten metal to flow into the dies ; this feature matches up with the injector nozzle on the hot @-@ chamber machines or the shot chamber in the cold @-@ chamber machines . The ejector die contains the ejector pins and usually the runner , which is the path from the sprue or shot hole to the mold cavity . The cover die is secured to the stationary , or front , platen of the casting machine , while the ejector die is attached to the movable platen . The mold cavity is cut into two cavity inserts , which are separate pieces that can be replaced relatively easily and bolt into the die halves .
The dies are designed so that the finished casting will slide off the cover half of the die and stay in the ejector half as the dies are opened . This assures that the casting will be ejected every cycle because the ejector half contains the ejector pins to push the casting out of that die half . The ejector pins are driven by an ejector pin plate , which accurately drives all of the pins at the same time and with the same force , so that the casting is not damaged . The ejector pin plate also retracts the pins after ejecting the casting to prepare for the next shot . There must be enough ejector pins to keep the overall force on each pin low , because the casting is still hot and can be damaged by excessive force . The pins still leave a mark , so they must be located in places where these marks will not hamper the casting 's purpose .
Other die components include cores and slides . Cores are components that usually produce holes or opening , but they can be used to create other details as well . There are three types of cores : fixed , movable , and loose . Fixed cores are ones that are oriented parallel to the pull direction of the dies ( i.e. the direction the dies open ) , therefore they are fixed , or permanently attached to the die . Movable cores are ones that are oriented in any other way than parallel to the pull direction . These cores must be removed from the die cavity after the shot solidifies , but before the dies open , using a separate mechanism . Slides are similar to movable cores , except they are used to form undercut surfaces . The use of movable cores and slides greatly increases the cost of the dies . Loose cores , also called pick @-@ outs , are used to cast intricate features , such as threaded holes . These loose cores are inserted into the die by hand before each cycle and then ejected with the part at the end of the cycle . The core then must be removed by hand . Loose cores are the most expensive type of core , because of the extra labor and increased cycle time . Other features in the dies include water @-@ cooling passages and vents along the parting lines . These vents are usually wide and thin ( approximately 0 @.@ 13 mm or 0 @.@ 005 in ) so that when the molten metal starts filling them the metal quickly solidifies and minimizes scrap . No risers are used because the high pressure ensures a continuous feed of metal from the gate .
The most important material properties for the dies are thermal shock resistance and softening at elevated temperature ; other important properties include hardenability , machinability , heat checking resistance , weldability , availability ( especially for larger dies ) , and cost . The longevity of a die is directly dependent on the temperature of the molten metal and the cycle time . The dies used in die casting are usually made out of hardened tool steels , because cast iron cannot withstand the high pressures involved , therefore the dies are very expensive , resulting in high start @-@ up costs . Metals that are cast at higher temperatures require dies made from higher alloy steels .
The main failure mode for die casting dies is wear or erosion . Other failure modes are heat checking and thermal fatigue . Heat checking is when surface cracks occur on the die due to a large temperature change on every cycle . Thermal fatigue is when surface cracks occur on the die due to a large number of cycles .
= = Process = =
The following are the four steps in traditional die casting , also known as high @-@ pressure die casting , these are also the basis for any of the die casting variations : die preparation , filling , ejection , and shakeout . The dies are prepared by spraying the mold cavity with lubricant . The lubricant both helps control the temperature of the die and it also assists in the removal of the casting . The dies are then closed and molten metal is injected into the dies under high pressure ; between 10 and 175 megapascals ( 1 @,@ 500 and 25 @,@ 400 psi ) . Once the mold cavity is filled , the pressure is maintained until the casting solidifies . The dies are then opened and the shot ( shots are different from castings because there can be multiple cavities in a die , yielding multiple castings per shot ) is ejected by the ejector pins . Finally , the shakeout involves separating the scrap , which includes the gate , runners , sprues and flash , from the shot . This is often done using a special trim die in a power press or hydraulic press . Other methods of shaking out include sawing and grinding . A less labor @-@ intensive method is to tumble shots if gates are thin and easily broken ; separation of gates from finished parts must follow . This scrap is recycled by remelting it . The yield is approximately 67 % .
The high @-@ pressure injection leads to a quick fill of the die , which is required so the entire cavity fills before any part of the casting solidifies . In this way , discontinuities are avoided , even if the shape requires difficult @-@ to @-@ fill thin sections . This creates the problem of air entrapment , because when the mold is filled quickly there is little time for the air to escape . This problem is minimized by including vents along the parting lines , however , even in a highly refined process there will still be some porosity in the center of the casting .
Most die casters perform other secondary operations to produce features not readily castable , such as tapping a hole , polishing , plating , buffing , or painting .
= = = Inspection = = =
After the shakeout of the casting it is inspected for defects . The most common defects are misruns and cold shuts . These defects can be caused by cold dies , low metal temperature , dirty metal , lack of venting , or too much lubricant . Other possible defects are gas porosity , shrinkage porosity , hot tears , and flow marks . Flow marks are marks left on the surface of the casting due to poor gating , sharp corners , or excessive lubricant .
= = = Lubricants = = =
Water @-@ based lubricants , called emulsions , are the most commonly used type of lubricant , because of health , environmental , and safety reasons . Unlike solvent @-@ based lubricants , if water is properly treated to remove all minerals from it , it will not leave any by @-@ product in the dies . If the water is not properly treated , then the minerals can cause surface defects and discontinuities . There are four types of water @-@ based lubricants : oil in water , water in oil , semi @-@ synthetic , and synthetic . Oil in water is the best , because when the lubricant is applied , the water cools the die surface by evaporating while depositing the oil , which helps release the shot . A common mixture for this type of lubricants is thirty parts water to one part oil , however in extreme cases a ratio of 100 : 1 is used .
Oils that are used include heavy residual oil ( HRO ) , animal fats , vegetable fats , and synthetic fats . HROs are gelatinous at room temperature , but at the high temperatures found in die casting , they form a thin film . Other substances are added to control the emulsions viscosity and thermal properties ; these include graphite , aluminium , and mica . Other chemical additives are used to inhibit rusting and oxidation . Emulsifiers are added to water @-@ based lubricants , so that oil based additives can be mixed into the water ; these include soap , alcohol esters , and ethylene oxides .
Historically , solvent @-@ based lubricants , such as diesel fuel and kerosene , were commonly used . These were good at releasing the part from the dies , but a small explosion occurred during each shot , which led to a build @-@ up of carbon on the mold cavity walls . However , they were easier to apply evenly than water @-@ based lubricants .
= = = Advantages and disadvantages = = =
Advantages of die casting :
Excellent dimensional accuracy ( dependent on casting material , but typically 0 @.@ 1 mm for the first 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 005 inch for the first inch ) and 0 @.@ 02 mm for each additional centimeter ( 0 @.@ 002 inch for each additional inch ) .
Smooth cast surfaces ( Ra 1 – 2 @.@ 5 micrometres or 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 10 thou rms ) .
Thinner walls can be cast as compared to sand and permanent mold casting ( approximately 0 @.@ 75 mm or 0 @.@ 030 in ) .
Inserts can be cast @-@ in ( such as threaded inserts , heating elements , and high strength bearing surfaces ) .
Reduces or eliminates secondary machining operations .
Rapid production rates .
Casting tensile strength as high as 415 megapascals ( 60 ksi ) .
Casting of low fluidity metals .
The main disadvantage to die casting is the very high capital cost . Both the casting equipment required and the dies and related components are very costly , as compared to most other casting processes . Therefore , to make die casting an economic process , a large production volume is needed . Other disadvantages are that the process is limited to high @-@ fluidity metals , and casting weights must be between 30 grams ( 1 oz ) and 10 kg ( 20 lb ) . In the standard die casting process the final casting will have a small amount of porosity . This prevents any heat treating or welding , because the heat causes the gas in the pores to expand , which causes micro @-@ cracks inside the part and exfoliation of the surface . Thus a related disadvantage of die casting is that it is only for parts in which softness is acceptable . Parts needing hardening ( through hardening or case hardening ) and tempering are not cast in dies .
= = Variants = =
= = = Acurad = = =
Acurad was a die casting process developed by General Motors in the late 1950s and 1960s . The name is an acronym for accurate , reliable , and dense . It was developed to combine a stable fill and directional solidification with the fast cycle times of the traditional die casting process . The process pioneered four breakthrough technologies for die casting : thermal analysis , flow and fill modeling , heat treatable and high integrity die castings , and indirect squeeze casting ( explained below ) .
The thermal analysis was the first done for any casting process . This was done by creating an electrical analog of the thermal system . A cross @-@ section of the dies were drawn on Teledeltos paper and then thermal loads and cooling patterns were drawn onto the paper . Water lines were represented by magnets of various sizes . The thermal conductivity was represented by the reciprocal of the resistivity of the paper .
The Acurad system employed a bottom fill system that required a stable flow @-@ front . Logical thought processes and trial and error were used because computerized analysis did not exist yet ; however this modeling was the precursor to computerized flow and fill modeling .
The Acurad system was the first die casting process that could successfully cast low @-@ iron aluminum alloys , such as A356 and A357 . In a traditional die casting process these alloys would solder to the die . Similarly , Acurad castings could be heat treated and meet the U.S. military specification MIL @-@ A @-@ 21180 .
Finally , the Acurad system employed a patented double shot piston design . The idea was to use a second piston ( located within the primary piston ) to apply pressure after the shot had partially solidified around the perimeter of the casting cavity and shot sleeve . While the system was not very effective , it did lead the manufacturer of the Acurad machines , Ube Industries , to discover that it was just as effective to apply sufficient pressure at the right time later in the cycle with the primary piston ; this is indirect squeeze casting .
= = = Pore @-@ free = = =
When no porosity is allowed in a cast part then the pore @-@ free casting process is used . It is identical to the standard process except oxygen is injected into the die before each shot to purge any air from the mold cavity . This causes small dispersed oxides to form when the molten metal fills the die , which virtually eliminates gas porosity . An added advantage to this is greater strength . Unlike standard die castings , these castings can be heat treated and welded . This process can be performed on aluminium , zinc , and lead alloys .
= = = Heated @-@ manifold direct @-@ injection = = =
Heated @-@ manifold direct @-@ injection die casting , also known as direct @-@ injection die casting or runnerless die casting , is a zinc die casting process where molten zinc is forced through a heated manifold and then through heated mini @-@ nozzles , which lead into the molding cavity . This process has the advantages of lower cost per part , through the reduction of scrap ( by the elimination of sprues , gates and runners ) and energy conservation , and better surface quality through slower cooling cycles .
= = = Semi @-@ solid = = =
Semi @-@ solid die casting uses metal that is heated between its liquidus and either solidus or eutectic temperature , so that it is in its " mushy region " . This allows for more complex parts and thinner walls .
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= San Giacomo Scossacavalli =
San Giacomo Scossacavalli ( also known as San Giacomo a Scossacavalli ) was a church in Rome important for historical and artistic reasons . The church , facing the Piazza Scossacavalli , was built during the early Middle Ages and since the early 16th century hosted a confraternity which commissioned Renaissance architect Antonio da Sangallo the Younger to build a new shrine . This was richly decorated with frescoes , painted ( among others ) by mannerist artist Giovanni Battista Ricci and his students . The church was demolished in 1937 , when Via della Conciliazione ( the avenue leading to St. Peter 's Basilica ) was built and the piazza and central part of the Borgo rione were demolished . Many decorative elements still exist , since they were preserved from demolition .
= = Location = =
The church was located in Rome 's Borgo rione , on the east side of Piazza Scossacavalli , its facade facing west and opposite the Palazzo dei Convertendi . Its south side paralleled the Borgo Vecchio .
= = History = =
= = = Middle Ages = = =
The church 's name gave birth to a legend . When Helena ( mother of Constantine the Great ) returned from her trip to the Holy Land , she brought back two stone relics : one from the presentation of Jesus at the Temple and one on which Abraham bound Isaac . The empress wanted to donate the stones to Saint Peter 's Basilica , but when the convoy arrived at the site of the future church the horses ( Italian : cavalli ) refused to move further despite urging ( Italian : scossi ) . A chapel hosting the stones was built , the origin of the church . The most probable reason for the name was the discovery , near the square , of a thigh from a Roman equestrian statue ( coxa caballi in Vulgar Latin ) .
The church had an ancient origin : during the Middle Ages it was dedicated to the Redeemer ( Italian : Salvatore ) , and was called San Salvatoris de Coxa Caballi in the papal bulls of Sergius I ( r . 687 – 701 ) and Leo IV ( r . 847 @-@ 55 ) . It is also mentioned in the main medieval catalogues of Roman churches , like that of Cencio Camerarius and of Paris .
According to some sources , the church could be identified with San Salvatore de Bordonia ; a bordone was the staff borne by pilgrims coming to St. Peter 's . These would have left their staffs in San Giacomo before entering Saint Peter , exactly as they did after completing the Way of St. James , and this fact would explain also the late dedication to Saint James .
In 1250 , relics of St. James were brought to the church and its dedication was changed . It was usually known in contemporary documents as S. Jacobus de Portico , where the Porticus in medieval Rome was the covered passage linking Saint Peter 's with the Tiber ( Porticus Sancti Petri ) . In 1198 Pope Innocent III ( r . 1198 – 1216 ) entrusted the Chapter of Saint Peter ( Italian : Capitolo di San Pietro ) with the church 's care , and in 1275 the church became a parish .
= = = Renaissance = = =
In 1520 the confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament ( Italian : Confraternita del Santissimo Sacramento ) was entrusted with the church 's care . The confraternity originated in Borgo in 1509 . On a windy evening of 1506 , a Carmelite coming from the old Santa Maria in Traspontina church ( lying near Castel Sant 'Angelo ) , followed by a lay brother bearing a candle , was bringing the sacramental bread to a sick person . Since the wind had extinguished the candle , the layman went into a nearby shop asking for fire , so that the priest was left alone . At the sight of the lone priest bearing the blessed Sacrament , several passers @-@ by were moved , gathered around him and accompanied him , bearing a baldachin and torches . The group grew , and on 3 September 1509 its members formed a compagnia . The Carmelites assigned it to a chapel in Santa Maria in Traspontina , and in 1513 Pope Leo X ( r . 1513 – 21 ) acknowledged the association , which in 1520 moved to San Giacomo .
The members wore clothing made from white hessian fabric ( Italian : sacchi ) . It had a small figure on the left shoulder : a vermilion chalice and an image of Christ with open arms . The confraternity was committed to provide a doctor and barber to the poor of the parish , and each Holy Thursday in the church it exhibited a wax sculpture of the crucified Christ . An annual procession went to Santa Maria Sopra Minerva in Pigna , the Pauline Chapel in the Apostolic Palace and finally to St. Peter 's . In 1578 Pope Gregory XIII ( r . 1572 – 85 ) made the association an archconfraternity . The association 's duties and privileges increased ; each year beginning in 1580 , the brothers gave four poor parish girls a white dress and twenty @-@ five scudi as a dowry . In 1590 , Pope Sixtus V ( r.1585 – 90 ) gave the archconfraternity the privilege of setting free each year a person condemned to death ..
Shortly after their assignment to San Giacomo , the brethren started to reconstruct it , choosing as architect Antonio da Sangallo the Younger , but due to lack of funds its facade was still unfinished in 1590 . That year Ludovico Fulgineo , ecclesiastical referendary and governor of the archconfraternity , died , leaving his inheritance to the association . Thanks to his legacy , two years later , the construction was finished . In 1601 , an oratory dedicated to Saint Sebastian was built behind the church .
= = = Baroque and Modern Ages = = =
San Giacomo underwent thorough restorations in the first half of the 17th century and the second half of the 18th . On 23 November 1777 , the church was reconsecrated by Cardinal Henry Benedict Stuart .
It was damaged during the French occupation of Rome under Napoleon and restored in 1810 and 1880 , when the stone socles were removed . In 1825 San Giacomo lost its status as a parish . In 1927 a fire damaged several works of art , and in 1929 it was assigned to the Sons of Divine Providence .
The church was demolished by 30 September 1937 for the construction of Via della Conciliazione . Its art was given to the Capitolo di San Pietro and then to the Museo Petriano ; some chapel frescoes are on display at the Museo di Roma . Elements of the facade , including the 17th @-@ century travertino portal decorated with cherubs , are in the comune storehouse at the Bastione Ardeatino . The two relics ( of Isaac 's sacrifice and the presentation of Jesus in the temple ) were placed in the church of the Santi Michele e Magno , the national church of the Dutch in Borgo , during the early 1990s ; the latter is now the church 's main altar .
= = Description = =
The church 's artistic importance is primarily due to its design by Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and its frescoes and paintings , particularly those by the Piemontese mannerist painter Giovanni Battista Ricci and his students .
= = = Architecture = = =
When Antonio da Sangallo was commissioned to rebuild the church , his main problem was its shape ; its width , facing Piazza Scossacavalli , was longer than its depth ( along Borgo Vecchio ) . Drawings in the Uffizi indicate several solutions : a single @-@ nave plan , oriented along its long side with a side entrance , and octagonal and oval plans . The latter was adopted by Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola for the church of Sant 'Anna dei Palafrenieri , and became popular during the 17th century . Sangallo did not adopt any of these plans , instead deciding to reduce the area of the church , whose plan became a rectangle with its long side normal to Piazza Scossacavalli . Its nave was flanked by four large niches , and Sangallo designed four rooms ( two on each side ) as sacristies .
The church 's appearance in the mid @-@ 16th century , shortly before its completion , is known from a woodcut by Girolamo Franzini . Its facade appears almost square ; at its center there was a portal with a tympanum , surmounted by a large fanlight opened by a round window . On its side were three rows of pilasters with two pairs of niches , one over the other . A bell @-@ gable was on one side of the roof .
When the facade was completed high plinths , consisting of a tympanum with a large panel adorned with frescoes and outlined by a mixtilinear frame , were added at the base of the pilasters . At the slopes ' edges were two candelabra , and two oriflammes were at the base of the second order . These elements gave the facade ( which , since 1592 , also bore the coats of arms of Pope Clement VIII ( r . 1592 – 1605 ) and the confraternity ) an upward swing . The facade was adorned with frescoes of sacred subjects , including " faked figures of yellow Saints made of golden metal " attributed to Giovanni Guerra or Cristoforo Ambrogini .
The church , without an apse and a transept , maintained its original single @-@ nave plan until at least 1627 . In 1662 the naves had become three , separated by two rows of square brick pillars and surmounted by vaults . The church had five altars in 1627 , increasing to six in 1649 . In 1726 the closing of its side gate along the Borgo Vecchio made room for another altar .
= = = Interior = = =
On the right side , the first chapel was dedicated to the Virgin Mary . On its vault were paintings of four Doctors of the Church ( Ambrose , Jerome , Augustine and Gregory the Great ) , and its walls were adorned with frescoes by Cristoforo Ambrogini ( or Ambrogi ) . Several frescoes , depicting events in the Life of the Virgin attributed to a late @-@ mannerist Emilian artist , are on display at the Museo di Roma . The second chapel was dedicated to San Biagio , and housed a panel painting of the saint . This , the last chapel added to the church , was the original side door on the Borgo Vecchio . The third chapel was dedicated to the Nativity of Jesus . It was called " of the circumcision " because of a painting by Giovanni Battista Ricci ( nicknamed " il Novara " after his birthplace ) of the Circumcision of Jesus . It was also known as the " chapel of the stone " , since the stone over which Jesus had reportedly been presented at the temple in Jerusalem was kept here ; after the church 's demolition , the stone and that of the sacrifice of Isaac were moved to the nearby church of Santi Michele e Magno . Above its altar was an oil painting by a student of Ricci of the presentation of Jesus . A 16th @-@ century fresco depicting the Pietà as part of a choir of angels was on a bottom wall of the nave .
On the left side , the first chapel was dedicated to the Nativity of Mary . Since 1573 this chapel , the giuspatronato of the Milanese Carcano family , contained the stone reportedly used for Isaac 's sacrifice . A Ricci painting of the birth of Mary was on its altar ; on its vault were the Four Evangelists , and its walls were decorated with frescoes . The second chapel , dedicated to San Giacomo , had a statue ( later replaced by a painting ) of the saint above the altar and was the burial place for members of the Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament . The third chapel , dedicated to the Crucifixion , contained a large sculpture of Christ on the cross .
A Ricci painting of the Last Supper was above the main altar , which was dedicated to Jesus the Redeemer ; in 1662 , a fresco of the Madonna was moved there . The Ardicini cardinals had the image painted on the facade of their palace in Borgo Sant 'Angelo , and it was venerated by the local people because of a number of miracles attributed to her intercession . On the altar was an African @-@ marble tabernacle by Giovanni Battista Ciolli , and to the right of the entrance was a holy water font presented to the church in 1589 by Francesco Del Sodo ( a member of the archconfraternity ) . The church was the burial place of several people , whose tombstones adorned the floor ; among them were the son and mother @-@ in @-@ law of Pirro Ligorio and Battista Gerosa , son of the Oratory of San Sebastiano architect Antonio Gerosa .
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= The Immortals of Meluha =
The Immortals of Meluha is the first novel of the Shiva trilogy series by Amish Tripathi . The story is set in the land of Meluha and starts with the arrival of the Shiva . The Meluhan believe that Shiva is their fabled saviour Neelkanth . Shiva decides to help the Meluhans in their war against the Chandravanshis , who had joined forces with a cursed group called Nagas ; however , in his journey and the resulting fight that ensues , Shiva learns how his choices actually reflected who he aspires to be and how it led to dire consequences .
Tripathi had initially decided to write a book on the philosophy of evil , but was dissuaded by his family members , so he decided to write a book on Shiva , one of the Hindu Gods . He decided to base his story on a radical idea that all Gods were once human beings ; it was their deeds in the human life that made them famous as Gods . After finishing writing The Immortals of Meluha , Tripathi faced rejection from many publication houses . Ultimately when his agent decided to publish the book himself , Tripathi embarked on a promotional campaign . It included posting a live @-@ action video on YouTube , and making the first chapter of the book available as a free digital download , to entice readers .
Ultimately , when the book was published in February 2010 , it went on to become a huge commercial success . It had to be reprinted a number of times to keep up with the demand . Tripathi even changed his publisher and hosted a big launch for the book in Delhi . It was critically appreciated by some Indian reviewers , others noted that Tripathi 's writing tended to lose focus at some parts of the story . With the launch of the third installment , titled The Oath of the Vayuputras , on February 2013 , the Shiva Trilogy has become the fastest selling book series in the history of Indian publishing , with 2 @.@ 5 million copies in print and over ₹ 60 crore ( US $ 8 @.@ 9 million ) in sales .
= = Plot = =
Meluha is a near perfect empire , created many centuries earlier by Lord Ram , one of the greatest kings that ever lived . However , the once proud empire and its Suryavanshi rulers face severe crisis as its primary river , the revered Saraswati , is slowly drying to extinction . They also face devastating terrorist attacks from the east , the land of the Chandravanshis who have joined forces with the Nagas , a cursed race with physical deformities . The present king of Meluha , Daksha , sends his emissaries to North India in Tibet , to invite the tribes that live there to Meluha . One of those invited are the Gunas , whose chief Shiva is a brave warrior and protector . Shiva accepts the proposal and moves to Meluha with his tribe . They reach the city of Srinagar and are received there by Ayurvati , the Chief of Medicine of the Meluhans . Shiva and his tribe are impressed with the Meluhan way of life . On their first night of stay at Srinagar , the Gunas wake up amid high fever and sweating . The Meluhans , under Ayurvati 's orders , carry on the healing process . However , Ayurvati finds out that Shiva is the only one devoid of these symptoms and that his throat has turned blue . The Meluhans announce Shiva as the Neelkanth , their fabled saviour .
Shiva is then taken to Devagiri , the capital city of Meluha , where he meets King Daksha . While staying there , Shiva and his comrades , Nandi and Veerbhadra , encounter a beautiful and mysterious woman , who has a look of penance on her face . They later come to know that she is Princess Sati , the daughter of Daksha and is a Vikarma , an untouchable in this life due to sins committed in her previous births . Shiva tries to court her , but she rejects his advances . Ultimately Shiva wins her heart and they decide to get married , even though the Vikarma rule prohibits them from doing so . Enraged by the so @-@ called obsolete law , Shiva declares himself as the Neelkanth and swears to dissolve the Vikarma law . Daksha allows Sati to get married to Shiva , amid much joy and happiness .
During his stay in Devagiri , Shiva comes to know of the treacherous wars that the Chandravanshis are carrying on the Meluhans . He also meets Bŗahaspati , the Chief Inventor of the Meluhans . Brahaspati invites Shiva and the royal family on an expedition to Mount Mandar , where the legendary Somras is manufactured using the waters of the Saraswati river . Shiva learns that the potion which made his throat turn blue was actually undiluted Somras , which can be lethal when taken in its pure form . However , Shiva was unaffected , which was the first sign that he was the Neelkanth . He also learns that Somras was the reason why the Meluhans lived for so many years . Brahaspati and Shiva develop a close friendship and the royal family returns to Devagiri . One morning , the whole of Meluha wakes up to loud noises coming from Mount Mandar . Shiva and his troops reach the hill to find out that a large part of Mandar has been blasted off and many of the inventors killed . There is no sign of Brahaspati , but Shiva finds the insignia of the Nagas , confirming their involvement in the treacherous wars of the Chandravanshis .
Enraged by this , Shiva declares war on the Chandravanshis . With consultation from the Devagiri Chief Minister Kanakhla and the Head of Meluhan Army , Parvateshwar , Shiva advances towards Swadweep , the land of the Chandravanshis . A fierce battle is fought between the Meluhans and the Swadweepans in which the Meluhans prevail . The Chandravanshi king is captured but becomes enraged upon seeing the Neelkanth . The Chandravanshi princess Anandmayi explains that they too had a similar legend that the Neelkanth will come forward to save their land by launching an assault against the " evil " Suryavanshis . Hearing this , Shiva is dumbfounded and utterly distressed . With Sati he visits the famous Ram temple of Ayodhya , the capital of Swadweep . There he meets a priest from whom he comes to know about his karma , fate and his choices in life , which would guide him in future . As Shiva comes out of the temple , he notices Sati standing out of the temple waiting for him and a Naga standing near a tree . The book ends with Shiva charging to save Sati .
= = Characters and locations = =
Tripathi believes that " Myths are nothing but jumbled memories of a true past . A past buried under mounds of earth and ignorance . " The book has known characters from Hindu texts as well as those born from Tripathi 's imagination , however the characters from the Hinduism do not inherit all of their classical traits .
Characters
Shiva – The main character in the story . He is a Tibetan immigrant to Meluha and the chief of the Guna tribe . On arriving in Meluha and consuming the Somras , his throat turns blue making him the Neelkanth of the Meluhan legend , which speaks of the appearance of Neelkanth as a destroyer of evil . The Meluhans end up believing that Shiva would be their saviour .
Sati – The Meluhan princess , she is the daughter of emperor Daksha . Shiva falls in love with her but cannot marry her because of a law that considers her to be a Vikarma , an untouchable . Vikarmas are people who bear misfortunes in this life due to sins of their past births . She is a skilled swords @-@ woman and is very brave since childhood . During the course of novel she marries Shiva and bears his child .
Nandi – A captain in the Meluhan army . A loyal devotee of Shiva , who is often considered for his opinion and suggestions by Shiva .
Veerbhadra – A captain of Shiva 's army and his close childhood friend . He was later renamed as Veer Bhadra , a title earned by once defeating a tiger single @-@ handedly . He also asks Shiva 's permission , the leader of Gunas , to marry Krithika .
Brihaspati – The chief Meluhan scientist who becomes Shiva 's good friend . Though he does not believe the legend of the Neelkanth , he believes that Shiva is capable of taking Meluha to its new glory .
Daksha – The Emperor of the Meluhans , he is appreciative of every effort that Shiva does to save his country .
Kanakhala – The chief minister of Daksha 's royal court , Kanakhla is an extremely learned and intelligent woman , who gets into verbal conflicts with Parvateshvar regarding Shiva .
Parvateshvar – Head of Meluhan Army and a Suryavanshi , Parvateshvar is critical of Shiva 's ways with the Meluhans , and is a dedicated man to Daksha . He eventually becomes an avid follower of Shiva as he realizes that Shiva could actually lead them to victory and finish Lord Ram 's Unfinished Task . He is a good follower of Lord Ram
Ayurvati – The Chief of Medicine , Ayurvati is another intelligent and revered woman , who is capable of curing any disease . She is the first one to realize that Shiva is the " Neelkanth " , their savior .
Races
Suryavanshis – The Suryavanshis are followers of Shri Ram and the Solar Calendar and try to lead a life that is as ideal as possible . The Suryavanshis believe in Satya , Dharma , Maan — Truth , Duty , and Honor .
Chandravanshis – The Chandravanshis are followers of the Lunar Calendar . Traditionally the Chandravanshis and Suryavanshis are enemies.They are democratic dynasty who believes in Shringar , Saundarya and Swatantrata- Passion , Beauty and Freedom .
Naga – A cursed race of people who have physical deformities . They are extremely skilled warriors .
Kingdoms
Meluha – The empire of the Suryavanshis , also known as the land of pure life . Meluha is based in the areas of the modern Indian provinces of Kashmir , Punjab , Himachal Pradesh , Delhi , Haryana , Rajasthan , Gujarat and the whole of Pakistan . It also includes parts of eastern Afghanistan .
Swadweep – The empire of the Chandravanshis , also known as the island of the individual . Swadweep comprises the modern Indian provinces of Uttarakhand , Uttar Pradesh , Bihar , Jharkhand , West Bengal , Sikkim , Assam , Meghalaya and all of the country of Bangladesh , besides most parts of Nepal and Bhutan .
Dandaka Forest – Located in the modern Indian province of Maharashtra and parts of Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka , Chhattisgarh , Orissa and Madhya Pradesh , Dandaka is a dense and treacherous forest where the Nagas stay , at their capital Panchavati .
Characters and locations adapted as per the books from the series and from the official website .
= = Development and publication = =
Author Amish Tripathi is a finance professional educated from Indian Institute of Management Calcutta ( IIM @-@ C ) . While working in the insurance industry , Tripathi felt that his life was devoid of any meaning or self . Ultimately he decided to take the spiritual route . He started reading on the different philosophies and the Indian mythologies . One day , while watching a historical program , Tripathi and his family got into the discussion about consciousness and the evil inside man . In the program they learned that in ancient Persia , demons were known as Daeva ( a term reserved for the Gods in Indian mythology ) , and angels were called Asuras ( a term reserved for demons in Indian mythology ) . Tripathi added , " It set me thinking that this was exact opposite of our Vedic etymology where evil was Asura and gods were Devas . It struck me that if the two civilizations were to confront each other , they would be at stark odds and calling each other evil . " But when he decided to write a book about the philosophy of evil , his family discouraged him , saying that the subject itself was not popular and would get a narrow audience . They suggested that Tripathi write a thriller / adventure novel and the philosophy should be a part of the story , hence there would be a mainstream appeal in it . Tripathi felt that no subject was better than Shiva , one of the major Hindu deity and the destroyer of evil ; his journey and stories about him would deliver the philosophy that he wanted to convey , to his readers . Once he started to write a book about Shiva , he decided to base it on some fundamental beliefs of his . He noted that the Hindu Gods were probably not " mythical beings or a figment of a rich imagination " , but rather they were once human beings like the rest . It was their deeds in the human life that made them famous as Gods .
The story was based on Meluha — the probable ancient name for the Indus Valley Civilisation , according to modern historians . Tripathi also included the Indian Royal lineage of the Sun and the Moon Dynasties , calling them Suryavanshis and Chandravanshi . Tripathi had been an avid reader of history from a long time , and his other inspirations for The Immortals of Meluha ranged from writers like Graham Hancock and Gregory Possehl to the Amar Chitra Katha series of Indian comics . For the mythological parts in the novel , Tripathi relied on the stories and fables that he had heard in his childhood from his family . Tripathi 's grandfather was a pundit and his parents are avid readers of Indian mythology , hence he found it easy to trust what he had heard from his parents and grandparents , and relied on them for the stories in the novel . Tripathi utilized Microsoft Excel to divide his writings into different parts , including characters , the plot , sub @-@ plots and deadlines for events . However , it did not work out correctly as he was losing track of events , and he gave up the strategy . Around this time , Tripathi 's wife suggested an alternative . She asked him not to control the fate of his characters beforehand , but let the plot develop on its own . Tripathi applied these suggestions and the result was a smoother outflow . " Things came in bits and pieces , not in a sequence but were put into perspective later . "
= = Release and marketing = =
After the book was written , Tripathi felt that it would be difficult for him to get a big publication house to publish his novel . The manuscript for The Immortals of Meluha got rejected by 35 to 40 publication houses . Hence , he decided to apply his management skills and promote his book . The Immortals of Meluha — originally titled Shiva : The Man , The Legend — was finally released by Tripathi ’ s literary agent Anuj Bahri , the owner of the landmark BahriSons Booksellers in Khan Market , New Delhi . Tripathi explained with Daily News and Analysis , " I would be lying if I said that I was sure I would get a big publisher for my first novel . I was a finance guy and a staunch believer in digital marketing that has a better reach in the books market . It actually puts up a conversation rather than a two @-@ minute wire on the same . " Together with his friends , Tripathi launched his promotion of the book on the internet . He put up the entire first chapter of The Immortals of Meluha as a digital download from his website , so that the readers would get interested . With the help of his musician friend Taufiq Qureshi , he launched a live @-@ action trailer film on YouTube and built an online community in Facebook and Twitter , surrounding the video , to further hold the reader 's interest .
Another friend of Tripathi , Rashmi Pusalkar , designed the book cover according to his specifications , which were to keep a balance between reality and fantasy . Hence Pusalkar chose to just portray the back profile of Shiva , standing in front of a huge lake . Since Pusalkar had never designed any book covers before , she felt that the task was more daunting for her , and explained " Shiva is a human of flesh and blood , he is not a God . The challenge was to show him as vulnerable . I portrayed him from the back , because Indian Gods are never seen from the back . He has battle scars and a sculpted physique . " Tripathi wanted the cover to have a symbolic meaning . The scenery behind Shiva 's image is taken from Mount Kailash and Mansarovar Lake . He also created a clay model of the broken Pashupati seal , which was later photographed and used in the book inlay . The increasing brightness of the book covers , from the dull colors of The Immortals of Meluha to the bright hue of The Oath of the Vayuputras , signified the triumph of good over evil , according to Tripathi .
Other promotional campaigns included introducing bound versions of the first chapter of the novel , across city bookstores . Tripathi felt that a celebrity name associated with the book would do wonders for its promotion . Hence he sent the book to various known faces in the publishing world like Anil Dharker and Prahlad Kakkar . Ultimately , when Tripathi 's agent Tiwari decided to publish around 5 @,@ 000 copies of the book himself , they already had the celebrity preview attached to it , and it helped in promotion . The UK publication rights of the Shiva trilogy , including The Immortals of Meluha was purchased by Jo Fletcher Books , with the deal being made by Claire Roberts at Trident Media Group , acting on behalf of the author and Bahri from Red Ink Literary Agency . The book would be released in the United States in summer 2013 . In 2013 , a music album called Vayuputras , an original soundtrack based on the Shiva Trilogy books , was released . The album is an extension of The Immortals of Meluha and The Secret of the Nagas with special tracks inspired by important junctures like Shiva 's dance and the war speech in the books . Artists like Sonu Nigam , Taufiq Qureshi , Palash Sen , Bickram Ghosh worked on the album . This was the first time ever that an original soundtrack was made for a book series .
= = Critical reception = =
After its publication , The Immortals of Meluha received mostly positive response from critics for its concept but the prose received mixed reviews . Pradip Bhattacharya from The Statesman felt that the " plot skips along at a brisk pace , the characters are well etched and the reader ’ s attention is not allowed to flag . It will be interesting to see how the trilogy progresses . One cannot but admire the creative drive that impels a finance professional to embark on such an ambitious odyssey on uncharted seas . " Another review by Gaurav Vasudev from the same newspaper wrote that " the book is a gripping mythological story written in modern style . "
Devdutt Pattanaik from The Tribune commented that " the writer takes us on a sinister journey with the characters , who frequently sound as if they are one of us only . " Society magazine complimented Tripathi 's writing by saying , " Reading this beautifully written creation is like plunging into the icy and venerable waters of the Manasarovar Lake . One can actually sense the beats of Shiva 's dumru and fumes of intoxicating chillum . Simply unputdownable . " Nandita Sengupta from The Times of India felt that " while the author spins a tale of adventure , it could have been a slightly snappier , tighter read . Some crunching of thoughts that tended to overlap and repeat would be welcome in the next two books . " However , Sengupta was most impressed by the author 's crafting of Shiva as a " rough @-@ hewn , hot @-@ headed , a great dancer , smitten by Sati ... Shiva 's our definition of a hero , ready to fight for a good cause anytime . "
Lisa Mahapatra from The New Indian Express was impressed with the story and Tripathi 's writing and praised " the interactions between Shiva and Sati , [ which were ] intriguing . Age @-@ old thoughts and philosophies were delivered in a very modern context , which I thought made for an interesting juxtaposition . " Mahapatra added that " the only downside throughout the novel , I was unable to really get into the main characters — they remained mostly on a two @-@ dimensional level . " It received a mixed review from Hindustan Times , where the reviewer was critical of Tripathi 's usage of common , everyday language . " There are many other subtle depictions of Lord Ram and other characters and overall its very well written . I wrote to Amish to express one small observation , the script writing is not that sharp . You have words like ' Goddamnit ' , ' bloody hell ' , ' In the name of God what is this nonsense ? ' etc , which I guess would be great for an Indian audience but after you just finish a Steven Erikson novel you find it falling a little flat , " the reviewer concluded .
= = Commercial performance = =
The Immortals of Meluha was a commercial success . Just after a week of its publication in February 2010 , the book hit the best seller list of several magazines and newspapers , including The Statesman , The Economic Times , The Times of India , Rolling Stone India , among others . The book had to be re @-@ printed for another 5 @,@ 000 copies thrice within the next week , and by the end of July , it had sold around 45 @,@ 000 copies across India . Both Tripathi and Tiwari decided that a transfer of the rights of the book to a larger publisher was needed , so as to take the book to higher grounds . Many publishers bid for it , but they went with Westland Publishers , who had been the distributing partner for the book . The Westland edition of the book was published on 10 September 2010 , in Delhi amidst a media frenzy . It was launched by former UN diplomat Shashi Tharoor , who praised it . The edited version of The Immortals of Meluha was accompanied by the release of an audiobook for the novel . As of January 2013 , The Immortals of Meluha , and its sequel , The Secret of the Nagas , have crossed a print run of a million copies . These books have continued to top the bestseller lists of Nielsen BookScan , with the gross retail sales being impressive at ₹ 22 crore ( US $ 3 @.@ 3 million ) within two years of publishing . As of June 2015 over 2 @.@ 5 million copies of the Shiva Trilogy have been sold and have also made over ₹ 60 crore ( US $ 8 @.@ 9 million ) in revenue .
= = Translations = =
The books have been translated into a number of languages like English ( South Asia ) , Hindi , Marathi , Bengali , Gujarati , Assamese , Malayalam , Telugu , Kannada , Bahasa Indonesian , Tamil , English ( UK ) , Estonian and Spanish , with the author believing that publishing as a whole is gradually being embedded in the Indian business sensibilities . Further explaining his thoughts , Tripathi said " I genuinely believe those five years from today , we will have a situation when other languages will account for higher sales of books than in English . That is the big change happening in publishing — it is taking pride in its own culture than knowing other cultures like in television , where regional language channels have more TRPs . " The local language versions were also commercial success . The Telugu version was translated by Rama Sundari and published by BCS Publishers and Distributors ; the book sold more than 5 @,@ 000 copies in a month and went for a second print order of 10 @,@ 000 copies . Other than the local versions , the books have also been released in the Amazon Kindle version , available only in India .
= = Film adaptation = =
Film director Karan Johar 's Dharma Productions has landed the film rights of The Immortals of Meluha . Johar said that he was " blown away with the world of Meluha and rivetted by Amish 's creation of it . I think the book lends itself beautifully for celluloid and we are very excited to promote Amish 's labour of love effectively . " The director was confirmed to be looking into the finer details of the production , along with the screenplay . Though initially speculated that Karan Malhotra 's Shuddhi would be the theatrical adaptation of the book , it was later proven false . In September 2013 , Johar announced that Malhotra would be directing The Immortals of Meluha , but only after the theatrical release of Shuddhi . Tripathi also revealed during Jaipur Literature Festival that an unnamed Hollywood producer bought the rights for an American version of the films . This led to speculation in the media whether Johar would indeed helm the film or the release would be an American production . In January 2015 , while revealing the title of his next book , Scion of Ikshvaku , Tripathi revealed that the film adaptation was on @-@ going and was probably the biggest budget that any film series have had . He also confirmed that director and screenwriter Karan Malhotra was adapting the story into the film script , with Tripathi acting as creative consultant and reviewer .
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= Art Spiegelman =
Art Spiegelman ( born Itzhak Avraham ben Zeev on February 15 , 1948 ) is an American cartoonist , editor , and comics advocate best known for his graphic novel Maus . His work as co @-@ editor on the comics magazines Arcade and Raw has been influential , and from 1992 he spent a decade as contributing artist for The New Yorker , where he made several high @-@ profile and sometimes controversial covers . He is married to designer and editor Françoise Mouly and is the father of writer Nadja Spiegelman .
Spiegelman began his career with the Topps bubblegum card company in the mid @-@ 1960s , which was his main financial support for two decades ; there he co @-@ created parodic series such as Wacky Packages in the 1960s and the Garbage Pail Kids in the 1980s . He gained prominence in the underground comix scene in the 1970s with short , experimental , and often autobiographical work . A selection of these strips appeared in the collection Breakdowns in 1977 , after which Spiegelman turned focus to the book @-@ length Maus , about his relation with his father , a Holocaust survivor . The postmodern book depicts Nazis as cats , Jews as mice , and ethnic Poles as pigs , and took thirteen years until its completion in 1991 . It won a special Pulitzer Prize in 1992 and has gained a reputation as a pivotal work , responsible for bringing scholarly attention to the comics medium .
Spiegelman and Mouly edited eleven issues of Raw from 1980 to 1991 . The oversized comics and graphics magazine helped introduce talents who became prominent in alternative comics , such as Charles Burns , Chris Ware , and Ben Katchor , and introduced several foreign cartoonists to the English @-@ speaking comics world . Beginning in the 1990s , the couple worked for The New Yorker , which Spiegelman left to work on In the Shadow of No Towers ( 2004 ) , about his reaction to the September 11 attacks in New York in 2001 .
Spiegelman advocates for greater comics literacy . As an editor , a teacher at the School of Visual Arts in New York City , and a lecturer , Spiegelman has promoted better understanding of comics and has mentored younger cartoonists .
= = Family history = =
Art Spiegelman 's parents were Polish Jews Władysław ( 1906 – 1982 ) and Andzia ( 1912 – 1968 ) Spiegelman . His father was born Zeev Spiegelman , with the Hebrew name Zeev ben Avraham . Władysław was his Polish name , and Władek ( or Vladek in Russified form ) was a diminutive of this name . He was also known as Wilhelm under the German occupation , and upon immigration to the United States he took the name William . His mother was born Andzia Zylberberg , with the Hebrew name Hannah . She took the name Anna upon her immigration to the US . In Spiegelman 's Maus , from which the couple are best known , Spiegelman used the spellings " Vladek " and " Anja " , which he believed would be easier for Americans to pronounce . The surname Spiegelman is German for " mirror man " .
The Spiegelmans had one other son , Rysio ( spelled " Richieu " in Maus ) , who died before Art was born at the age of five or six . During the Holocaust , Spiegelman 's parents sent Rysio to stay with an aunt , with whom they believed he would be safe . The aunt poisoned herself along with Rysio and two other young family members in her care so that the Nazis would not take them to the extermination camps . After the war , the Spiegelmans , unable to accept that Rysio was dead , searched orphanages all over Europe in the hope of finding him . Spiegelman talked of having a sort of sibling rivalry with his " ghost brother " — he felt unable to compete with an " ideal " brother who " never threw tantrums or got in any kind of trouble " . Of 85 Spiegelman relatives alive at the beginning of World War II , only 13 are known to have survived the Holocaust .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Spiegelman was born Itzhak Avraham ben Zeev in Stockholm , Sweden , on February 15 , 1948 . He immigrated with his parents to the US in 1951 . Upon immigration his name was registered as Arthur Isadore , but he later had his given name changed to Art . Initially the family settled in Norristown , Pennsylvania , and then relocated to Rego Park in Queens , New York City , in 1957 . He began cartooning in 1960 and imitated the style of his favorite comic books , such as Mad . At Russell Sage Junior High School , where he was an honors student , he produced the Mad @-@ inspired fanzine Blasé . He was earning money from his drawing by the time he reached high school and sold artwork to the original Long Island Press and other outlets . His talent was such that he caught the eyes of United Features Syndicate , who offered him the chance to produce a syndicated comic strip . Dedicated to the idea of art as expression , he turned down this commercial opportunity . He attended the High School of Art and Design in Manhattan beginning in 1963 . He met Woody Gelman , the art director of Topps Chewing Gum Company , who encouraged Spiegelman to apply to Topps after graduating high school . At 15 Spiegelman received payment for his work from a Rego Park newspaper .
After he graduated in 1965 , Spiegelman 's parents urged him to pursue the financial security of a career such as dentistry , but he chose instead to enrol at Harpur College to study art and philosophy . While there , he got a freelance art job at Topps , which provided him with an income for the next two decades .
Spiegelman attended Harpur College from 1965 until 1968 , where he worked as staff cartoonist for the college newspaper and edited a college humor magazine . After a summer internship when he was 18 , Topps hired him for Gelman 's Product Development Department as a creative consultant making trading cards and related products in 1966 , such as the Wacky Packages series of parodic trading cards begun in 1967 .
Spiegelman began selling self @-@ published underground comix on street corners in 1966 . He had cartoons published in underground publications such as the East Village Other and traveled to San Francisco for a few months in 1967 , where the underground comix scene was just beginning to burgen .
In late winter 1968 Spiegelman suffered a brief but intense nervous breakdown , which cut his university studies short . He has said that at the time he was taking LSD with great frequency . He spent a month in Binghamton State Mental Hospital , and shortly after he got out his mother committed suicide following the death of her only surviving brother .
= = = Underground comix ( 1971 – 1977 ) = = =
In 1971 , after several visits , Spiegelman moved to San Francisco and became a part of the countercultural underground comix movement that had been developing there . Some of the comix he produced during this period include The Compleat Mr. Infinity ( 1970 ) , a ten @-@ page booklet of explicit comic strips , and The Viper Vicar of Vice , Villainy and Vickedness ( 1972 ) , a transgressive work in the vein of fellow underground cartoonist S. Clay Wilson . Spiegelman 's work also appeared in underground magazines such as Gothic Blimp Works , Bijou Funnies , Young Lust , Real Pulp , and Bizarre Sex , and were in a variety of styles and genres as Spiegelman sought his artistic voice . He also did a number of cartoons for men 's magazines such as Cavalier , The Dude , and Gent .
In 1972 , Justin Green asked Spiegelman to do a three @-@ page strip for the first issue of Funny Aminals [ sic ] . He wanted to do one about racism , and at first considered a story with African @-@ Americans as mice and cats taking on the role of the Ku Klux Klan . Instead , he turned to the Holocaust that his parents had survived . He titled the strip " Maus " and depicted the Jews as mice persecuted by die Katzen , which were Nazis as cats . The narrator related the story to a mouse named " Mickey " . With this story Spiegelman felt he had found his voice .
Seeing Green 's revealingly autobiographical Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary while in @-@ progress in 1971 inspired Spiegelman to produce " Prisoner on the Hell Planet " , an expressionistic work that dealt with his mother 's suicide ; it appeared in 1972 in Short Order Comix # 1 , which he edited . Spiegelman 's work thereafter went through a phase of increasing formal experimentation ; the Apex Treasury of Underground Comics in 1974 quotes him : " As an art form the comic strip is barely in its infancy . So am I. Maybe we 'll grow up together . " The often @-@ reprinted " Ace Hole , Midget Detective " of 1974 was a Cubist @-@ style nonlinear parody of hardboiled crime fiction full of non sequiturs . " A Day at the Circuits " of 1975 is a recursive single @-@ page strip about alcoholism and depression in which the reader follows the character through multiple never @-@ ending pathways . " Nervous Rex : The Malpractice Suite " of 1976 is made up of cut @-@ out panels from the soap @-@ opera comic strip Rex Morgan , M.D. refashioned in such a way as to defy coherence .
In 1973 Spiegelman edited a pornographic and psychedelic book of quotations and dedicated it to his mother . Co @-@ edited with Bob Schneider , it was called Whole Grains : A Book of Quotations . In 1974 – 1975 , he taught a studio cartooning class at the San Francisco Academy of Art .
By the mid @-@ 1970s , the underground comix movement was encountering a slowdown . To give cartoonists a safe berth , Spiegelman co @-@ edited the anthology Arcade with Bill Griffith , in 1975 and 1976 . Arcade was printed by The Print Mint and lasted seven issues , five of which had covers by Robert Crumb . It stood out from similar publications by having an editorial plan , in which Spiegelman and Griffith attempt to show how comics connect to the broader realms of artistic and literary culture . Spiegelman 's own work in Arcade tended to be short and concerned with formal experimentation . Arcade also introduced art from ages past , as well as contemporary literary pieces by writers such as William S. Burroughs and Charles Bukowski . In 1975 , Spiegelman moved back to New York City , which put most of the editorial work for Arcade on the shoulders of Griffith and his cartoonist wife , Diane Noomin . This , combined with distribution problems and retailer indifference , led to the magazine 's 1976 demise . For a time , Spiegelman swore he would never edit another magazine .
Françoise Mouly , an architectural student on a hiatus from her studies at the Beaux @-@ Arts in Paris , arrived in New York in 1974 . While looking for comics from which to practice reading English , she came across Arcade . Avant @-@ garde filmmaker friend Ken Jacobs introduced Mouly and Spiegelman , when Spiegelman was visiting , but they did not immediately develop a mutual interest . Spiegelman moved back to New York later in the year . Occasionally the two ran across each other . After she read " Prisoner on the Hell Planet " Mouly felt the urge to contact him . An eight @-@ hour phone call led to a deepening of their relationship . Spiegelman followed her to France when she had to return to fulfill obligations in her architecture course .
Spiegelman introduced Mouly to the world of comics and helped her find work as a colorist for Marvel Comics . After returning to the US in 1977 , Mouly ran into visa problems , which the couple solved by getting married . The couple began to make yearly trips to Europe to explore the comics scene , and brought back European comics to show to their circle of friends . Mouly assisted in putting together the lavish , oversized collection of Spiegelman 's experimental strips Breakdowns in 1977 .
= = = Raw and Maus ( 1978 – 1991 ) = = =
Breakdowns suffered poor distribution and sales , and 30 % of the print run was unusable due to printing errors , an experience that motivated Mouly to gain control over the printing process . She took courses in offset printing and bought a printing press for her loft , on which she was to print parts of a new magazine she insisted on launching with Spiegelman . With Mouly as publisher , Spiegelman and Mouly co @-@ edited Raw starting in July 1980 . The first issue was subtitled " The Graphix Magazine of Postponed Suicides " . While it included work from such established underground cartoonists as Crumb and Griffith , Raw focused on publishing artists who were virtually unknown , avant @-@ garde cartoonists such as Charles Burns , Lynda Barry , Chris Ware , Ben Katchor , and Gary Panter , and introduced English @-@ speaking audiences to translations of foreign works by José Muñoz , Chéri Samba , Joost Swarte , Yoshiharu Tsuge , Jacques Tardi , and others .
With the intention of creating a book @-@ length work based on his father 's recollections of the Holocaust Spiegelman began to interview his father again in 1978 and made a research visit in 1979 to the Auschwitz concentration camp , where his parents had been imprisoned by the Nazis . The book , Maus , appeared one chapter at a time as an insert in Raw beginning with the second issue in December 1980 . Spiegelman 's father did not live to see its completion ; he died on 18 August 1982 . Spiegelman learned in 1985 that Steven Spielberg was producing an animated film about Jewish mice who escape persecution in Eastern Europe by fleeing to the United States . Spiegelman was sure the film , An American Tail ( 1986 ) , was inspired by Maus and became eager to have his unfinished book come out before the movie to avoid comparisons . He struggled to find a publisher until in 1986 , after the publication in The New York Times of a rave review of the work @-@ in @-@ progress , Pantheon agreed to release a collection of the first six chapters . The volume was titled Maus : A Survivor 's Tale and subtitled My Father Bleeds History . The book found a large audience , in part because it was sold in bookstores rather than in direct @-@ market comic shops , which by the 1980s had become the dominant outlet for comic books .
Spiegelman began teaching at the School of Visual Arts in New York in 1978 , and continued until 1987 , teaching alongside his heroes Harvey Kurtzman and Will Eisner . Spiegelman had an essay published in Print entitled " Commix : An Idiosyncratic Historical and Aesthetic Overview " . In 1990 Spiegelman he had an essay called " High Art Lowdown " published in Artforum critiquing the High / Low exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art .
In the wake of the success of the Cabbage Patch Kids series of dolls , Spiegelman created the card series Garbage Pail Kids for Topps in 1985 . Similar to the Wacky Packages series , the gross @-@ out factor of the cards was controversial with parent groups , and its popularity started a gross @-@ out fad among children . Spiegelman called Topps his " Medici " for the autonomy and financial freedom working for the company had given him . The relationship was nevertheless strained over issues of credit and ownership of the original artwork . In 1989 Topps auctioned off pieces of art Spiegelman had created rather than returning them to him , and Spiegelman broke the relation .
In 1991 , Raw Vol . 1 , No.3 was published ; it was to be the last issue . The closing chapter of Maus appeared not in Raw but in the second volume of the graphic novel , which appeared later that year with the subtitle And Here My Troubles Began . Maus attracted an unprecedented amount of critical attention for a work of comics , including an exhibition at New York 's Museum of Modern Art and a special Pulitzer Prize in 1992 .
= = = The New Yorker ( 1992 — 2001 ) = = =
Hired by Tina Brown as a contributing artist in 1992 , Spiegelman worked for The New Yorker for ten years . Spiegelman 's first cover appeared on the February 15 , 1993 , Valentine 's Day issue and showed a black West Indian woman and a Hasidic man kissing . The cover caused turmoil at The New Yorker offices . Spiegelman intended it to reference the Crown Heights riot of 1991 in which racial tensions led to the murder of a Jewish yeshiva student . Spiegelman had twenty @-@ one New Yorker covers published , and submitted a number which were rejected for being too outrageous .
Within The New Yorker 's pages , Spiegelman contributed strips such as a collaboration titled " In the Dumps " with children 's illustrator Maurice Sendak and an obituary to Charles M. Schulz titled " Abstract Thought is a Warm Puppy " . An essay he had published there on Jack Cole , the creator of Plastic Man , called " Forms Stretched to their Limits " was to form the basis for a book in 2001 about Cole called Jack Cole and Plastic Man : Forms Stretched to their Limits .
The same year , Voyager Company published a CD @-@ ROM version of Maus with extensive supplementary material called The Complete Maus , and Spiegelman illustrated a 1923 poem by Joseph Moncure March called The Wild Party . Spiegelman contributed the essay " Getting in Touch With My Inner Racist " in the September 1 , 1997 issue of Mother Jones .
Spiegelman 's influence and connections in New York cartooning circles drew the ire of political cartoonist Ted Rall in 1999 . In an article titled " The King of Comix " in The Village Voice , Rall accused Spiegelman of the power to " make or break " a cartoonist 's career in New York , while denigrating Spiegelman as " a guy with one great book in him " . Cartoonist Danny Hellman responded by sending a forged email under Rall 's name to thirty professionals ; the prank escalated until Rall launched a defamation suit against Hellman for $ 1 @.@ 5 million . Hellman published a " Legal Action Comics " benefit book to cover his legal costs , to which Spiegelman contributed a back @-@ cover cartoon in which he relieves himself on a Rall @-@ shaped urinal .
In 1997 , Spiegelman 's had his first children 's book published : Open Me ... I 'm a Dog , with a narrator who tries to convince its readers that it is a dog via pop @-@ ups and an attached leash . From 2000 to 2003 Spiegelman and Mouly edited three issues of the children 's comics anthology Little Lit , with contributions from Raw alumni and children 's book authors and illustrators .
= = = Post @-@ September 11 ( 2001 – present ) = = =
Spiegelman lived close to the World Trade Center site , which was known as " Ground Zero " after the September 11 attacks that destroyed the World Trade Center . Immediately following the attacks Spiegelman and Mouly rushed to their daughter Nadja 's school , where Spiegelman 's anxiety served only to increase his daughter 's apprehensiveness over the situation . Spiegelman and Mouly created a cover for the September 24 issue of The New Yorker which at first glance appears to be totally black , but upon close examination it reveals the silhouettes of the World Trade Center towers in a slightly darker shade of black . Mouly positioned the silhouettes so that the North Tower 's antenna breaks into the " W " of The New Yorker 's logo . The towers were printed in black on a slightly darker black field employing standard four @-@ color printing inks with an overprinted clear varnish . In some situations , the ghost images only became visible when the magazine was tilted toward a light source . Spiegelman was critical of the Bush administration and the mass media over their handling of the September 11 attacks .
Spiegelman did not renew his New Yorker contract after 2003 . He later quipped that he regretted leaving when he did , as he could have left in protest when the magazine ran a pro @-@ invasion of Iraq piece later in the year . Spiegelman said his parting from The New Yorker was part of his general disappointment with " the widespread conformism of the mass media in the Bush era " . He said he felt like he was in " internal exile " following September 11 attacks as the US media had become " conservative and timid " and did not welcome the provocative art that he felt the need to create . Nevertheless , Spiegelman asserted he left not over political differences , as had been widely reported , but because The New Yorker was not interested in doing serialized work , which he wanted to do with his next project .
Spiegelman responded to the September 11 attacks with In the Shadow of No Towers , commissioned by German newspaper Die Zeit , where it appeared throughout 2003 . The Jewish Daily Forward was the only American periodical to serialize the feature . The collected work appeared in September 2004 as an oversized board book of two @-@ page spreads which had to be turned on end to read .
In the June 2006 edition of Harper 's Magazine Spiegelman had an article published on the Jyllands @-@ Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy ; some interpretations of Islamic law prohibit the depiction of Muhammad . The Canadian chain of booksellers Indigo refused to sell the issue . Called " Drawing Blood : Outrageous Cartoons and the Art of Outrage " , the article surveyed the sometimes dire effect political cartooning has for its creators , ranging from Honoré Daumier , who spent time in prison for his satirical work ; to George Grosz , who faced exile . To Indigo the article seemed to promote the continuance of racial caricature . An internal memo advised Indigo staff to tell people : " the decision was made based on the fact that the content about to be published has been known to ignite demonstrations around the world . " In response to the cartoons , Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad called for submissions of antisemitic cartoons . Spiegelman produced a cartoon of a line of prisoners being led to the gas chambers ; one stops to look at the corpses around him and says , " Ha ! Ha ! Ha ! What ’ s really hilarious is that none of this is actually happening ! "
To promote literacy in young children , Mouly encouraged publishers to publish comics for children . Disappointed by publishers ' lack of response , from 2008 she self @-@ published a line of easy readers called Toon Books , by artists such as Spiegelman , Renée French , and Rutu Modan , and promotes the books to teachers and librarians for their educational value . Spiegelman 's Jack and the Box was one of the inaugural books in 2008 .
In 2008 Spiegelman reissued Breakdowns in an expanded edition including " Portrait of the Artist as a Young % @ & * ! " an autobiographical strip that had been serialized in the Virginia Quarterly Review from 2005 . A volume drawn from Spiegelman 's sketchbooks , Be A Nose , appeared in 2009 . In 2011 MetaMaus followed — a book @-@ length analysis of Maus by Spiegelman and Hillary Chute with a DVD @-@ ROM update of the earlier CD @-@ ROM .
Library of America commissioned Spiegelman to edit the two @-@ volume Lynd Ward : Six Novels in Woodcuts , which appeared in 2010 , collecting all of Ward 's wordless novels with an introduction and annotations by Spiegelman . The project led to a touring show in 2014 about wordless novels called Wordless ! with live music by saxophonist Phillip Johnston . Art Spiegelman 's Co @-@ Mix : A Retrospective débuted at Angoulême in 2012 and by the end of 2014 had traveled to Paris , Cologne , Vancouver , New York , and Toronto . A book complementing the showed titled Co @-@ Mix : A Retrospective of Comics , Graphics , and Scraps appeared in 2013 .
In 2015 , after six writers refused to sit on a panel at the PEN American Center in protest of the planned " freedom of expression courage award " for the satirical French periodical Charlie Hebdo following the shooting at its headquarters earlier in the year , Spiegelman agreed to be one of the replacement hosts , along with other names in comics such as writer Neil Gaiman . Spiegelman retracted a cover he had submitted to a Gaiman @-@ edited " saying the unsayable " issue of New Statesman when the management declined to print strip of Spiegelman 's . The strip , titled " Notes from a First Amendment Fundamentalist " , depicts Muhammad , and Spiegelman believed the rejection was censorship , though the magazine asserted it never intended to run the cartoon .
= = Private life = =
Spiegelman married Françoise Mouly on July 12 , 1977 , in a City Hall ceremony . They remarried later in the year after Mouly converted to Judaism to please Spiegelman 's father . Mouly and Spiegelman have two children together : a daughter Nadja Rachel , born in 1987 , and a son Dashiell Alan , born in 1992 .
= = Style = =
" All comic @-@ strip drawings must function as diagrams , simplified picture @-@ words that indicate more than they show . "
Spiegelman suffers from a lazy eye , and thus lacks depth perception . He says his art style is " really a result of [ his ] deficiencies " . His is a style of labored simplicity , with dense visual motifs which often go unnoticed upon first viewing . He sees comics as " very condensed thought structures " , more akin to poetry than prose , which need careful , time @-@ consuming planning that their seeming simplicity belies.Spiegelman 's work prominently displays his concern with form , and pushing the boundaries of what is and is not comics . Early in the underground comix era , Spiegelman proclaimed to Robert Crumb , " Time is an illusion that can be shattered in comics ! Showing the same scene from different angles freezes it in time by turning the page into a diagram — an orthographic projection ! " His comics experiment with time , space , recursion , and representation . He uses the word " decode " to express the action of reading comics and sees comics as functioning best when expressed as diagrams , icons , or symbols .
Spiegelman has stated he does not see himself primarily as a visual artist , one who instinctively sketches or doodles . He has said he approaches his work as a writer as he lacks confidence in his graphic skills . He subjects his dialogue and visuals to constant revision — he reworked some dialogue balloons in Maus up to forty times . A critic in The New Republic compared Spiegelman 's dialogue writing to a young Philip Roth in his ability " to make the Jewish speech of several generations sound fresh and convincing " .
Spiegelman makes use of both old- and new @-@ fashioned tools in his work . He prefers at times to work on paper on a drafting table , while at others he draws directly onto his computer using a digital pen and electronic drawing tablet , or mixes methods , employing scanners and printers .
= = = Influences = = =
Harvey Kurtzman has been Spiegelman 's strongest influence as a cartoonist , editor , and promoter of new talent . Chief among his other early cartooning influences include Will Eisner , John Stanley 's version of Little Lulu , Winsor McCay 's Little Nemo , George Herriman 's Krazy Kat , and Bernard Krigstein 's short strip " Master Race " .
In the 1960s Spiegelman read in comics fanzines about graphic artists such as Frans Masereel , who had made wordless novels in woodcut . The discussions in those fanzines about making the Great American Novel in comics later acted as inspiration for him . Justin Green 's comic book Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary ( 1972 ) motivated Spiegelman to open up and include autobiographical elements in his comics .
Spiegelman acknowledges Franz Kafka as an early influence , whom he says he has read since the age of 12 , and lists Vladimir Nabokov , William Faulkner , Gertrude Stein among the writers whose work " stayed with " him . He cites non @-@ narrative avant @-@ garde filmmakers from whom he has drawn heavily , including Ken Jacobs , Stan Brakhage , and Ernie Gehr , and other filmmakers such as Charlie Chaplin and the makers of The Twilight Zone .
= = Beliefs = =
Spiegelman is a prominent advocate for the comics medium and comics literacy . He believes the medium echoes the way the human brain processes information . He has toured the US with a lecture called " Comix 101 " , examining its history and cultural importance . He sees comics ' low status in the late 20th century as having come down from where it was in the 1930s and 1940s , when comics " tended to appeal to an older audience of GIs and other adults " . Following the advent of the censorious Comics Code Authority in the mid @-@ 1950s , Spiegelman sees comics ' potential as having stagnated until the rise of underground comix in the late 1960s . He taught courses in the history and aesthetics of comics at schools such as the School of Visual Arts in New York . As co @-@ editor of Raw , he helped propel the careers of younger cartoonists whom he mentored , such as Chris Ware , and published the work of his School of Visual Arts students , such as Kaz , Drew Friedman , and Mark Newgarden . Some of the work published in Raw was originally turned in as class assignments .
Spiegelman has described himself politically as " firmly on the left side of the secular @-@ fundamentalist divide " and a " 1st Amendment absolutist " . As a supporter of free speech Spiegelman is opposed to hate speech laws . He wrote a critique in Harper 's on the controversial Muhammad cartoons in the Jyllands @-@ Posten in 2006 ; the issue was banned from Indigo – Chapters stores in Canada . Spiegelman criticized American media for refusing to reprint the cartoons they reported on at the time of the Charlie Hebdo shooting in 2015 .
Spiegelman is a non @-@ practicing Jew and considers himself " a @-@ Zionist " — neither pro- nor anti @-@ Zionist ; he has called Israel " a sad , failed idea " . He told Charles Schulz he was not religious , but identified with the " alienated diaspora culture of Kafka and Freud ... what Stalin pejoratively called rootless cosmopolitanism " — a statement Ezra Mendelsohn interpreted as identification with " the Jewish spirit of universalism as championed by the greatest of Jewry 's creative figures " .
= = Legacy = =
Maus looms large not only over Spiegelman 's body of work , but over the comics medium itself . While Spiegelman was far from the first to do autobiography in comics , critics such as James Campbell considered Maus the work that popularized it . The bestseller has been widely written about in the popular press and academia — the quantity of its critical literature far outstrips that of any other work of comics . It has been examined from a great variety of academic viewpoints , though most often by those with little understanding of Maus 's context in the history of comics . While Maus has been credited with lifting comics from popular culture into the world of high art in the public imagination , criticism has tended to ignore its deep roots in popular culture , roots that Spiegelman has intimate familiarity with and has devoted considerable time to promote .
Spiegelman 's belief that comics are best expressed in a diagrammatic or iconic manner has had a particular influence on formalists such as Chris Ware and his former student Scott McCloud . In 2005 , the September 11 @-@ themed New Yorker cover placed sixth on the top ten of magazine covers of the previous 40 years by the American Society of Magazine Editors . Spiegelman has inspired numerous cartoonists to take up the graphic novel as a means of expression , including Marjane Satrapi .
A joint ZDF – BBC documentary Art Spiegelman 's Maus was televised in 1987 . Spiegelman , Mouly , and many of the Raw artists appeared in the video documentary Comic Book Confidential in 1988 . Spiegelman played himself in the 2007 episode " Husbands and Knives " of the animated television series The Simpsons with other comics creators Daniel Clowes and Alan Moore . A European documentary Art Spiegelman , Traits de Mémoire appeared in 2010 and later in English under the title The Art of Spiegelman , directed by Clara Kuperberg and Joelle Oosterlinck and mainly featuring interviews with Speigelman and those around him .
= = = Awards = = =
1982 : Playboy Editorial Award , Best Comic Strip
1982 : Yellow Kid Award , Lucca , Italy , for Foreign Author
1983 : Print , Regional Design Award
1984 : Print , Regional Design Award
1985 : Print , Regional Design Award
1986 : Joel M. Cavior , Jewish Writing
1987 : Inkpot Award
1988 : Angoulême International Comics Festival , France , Prize for Best Comic Book , for Maus
1988 : Urhunden Prize , Sweden , Best Foreign Album , for Maus
1990 : Guggenheim Fellowship .
1990 : Max & Moritz Prize , Erlangen , Germany , Special Prize , for Maus
1992 : Pulitzer Prize Letters award , for Maus
1992 : Eisner Award , Best Graphic Album ( reprint ) , for Maus
1992 : Harvey Award , Best Graphic Album of Previously Published Work , for Maus
1992 : Los Angeles Times , Book Prize for Fiction for Maus II
1993 : Angoulême International Comics Festival , Prize for Best Comic Book , for Maus II
1993 : Sproing Award , Norway , Best Foreign Album , for Maus
1993 : Urhunden Prize , Best Foreign Album , for Maus II
1995 : Binghamton University ( formerly Harpur College ) , honorary Doctorate of Letters .
1999 : Eisner Award , inducted into the Hall of Fame
2005 : French government , Chevalier of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
2005 : Time magazine , one of the " Top 100 Most Influential People "
2011 : Angoulême International Comics Festival , Grand Prix
2015 : American Academy of Arts and Letters membership
= = = Author = = =
Breakdowns : From Maus to Now , an Anthology of Strips ( 1977 )
Maus ( 1991 )
The Wild Party ( 1994 )
Open Me , I 'm A Dog ( 1995 )
Jack Cole and Plastic Man : Forms Stretched to Their Limits ( 2001 )
In the Shadow of No Towers ( 2004 )
Breakdowns : Portrait of the Artist as a Young % @ & * ! ( 2008 )
Jack and the Box ( 2008 )
Be a Nose ( 2009 )
MetaMaus ( 2011 )
Co @-@ Mix : A Retrospective of Comics , Graphics , and Scraps ( 2013 )
= = = Editor = = =
Short Order Comix ( 1972 – 74 )
Whole Grains : A Book of Quotations ( with Bob Schneider , 1973 )
Arcade ( with Bill Griffith , 1975 – 76 )
Raw ( with Françoise Mouly , 1980 – 91 )
City of Glass ( graphic novel adaptation by David Mazzucchelli of the Paul Auster novel , 1994 )
The Narrative Corpse ( 1995 )
Little Lit ( with Françoise Mouly , 2000 – 2003 )
The TOON Treasury of Classic Children 's Comics ( with Françoise Mouly , 2009 )
Lynd Ward : Six Novels in Woodcuts ( 2010 )
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= Persian Gulf campaign of 1809 =
The Persian Gulf Campaign , in 1809 , was an operation by a British Royal Navy to force the Al Qasimi to cease their raids on British ships in the Persian Gulf , particularly on the Persian and Arab coasts of the Straits of Hormuz . The operation 's success was limited as the Royal Navy forces , already heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars , were unable to permanently suppress the strong fleets of the Al Qasimi of Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah . The expedition did achieve its short @-@ term goals by destroying three Al Qasimi bases and over 80 vessels , including the largest Al Qasimi ship in the region , the converted merchant ship Minerva . Although operations continued into 1810 , the British were unable to destroy every Al Qasimi vessel and by 1811 attacks had resumed , although at a lower intensity than previously .
Although characterised at the time and since as actions against piracy , this charge has been disputed by historians and archivists in the UAE in particular , notably the current Ruler of Sharjah , HH Dr Sheikh Sultan bin Muhammad Al Qasimi in his book ' The Myth of Arabian Piracy in the Gulf ' . The counter @-@ argument is that the Al Qasimi , a strong and independent maritime force , were the subject of British aggression in an attempt to stamp its authority - and that of its Omani allies - on trade routes thought of as important to Iraq and India .
The operation against the Al Qasimi was a joint campaign by the Royal Navy and the fleet of the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) , with soldiers drawn from the garrison of Bombay . The expeditionary force , led by Captain John Wainwright in the Navy frigate HMS Chiffone , was despatched to the region , following an escalation in attacks on British shipping in the Persian Gulf after the French established diplomatic missions in Muscat and Tehran in 1807 . These attacks not only threatened British trade links in the region , but also placed British relations with Oman and Persia in jeopardy at a time when French aspirations against British India were a cause for concern to the British government .
Because the available charts of the Persian Gulf were inaccurate or incomplete at the time , Al Qasimi ships could hide from Wainwright 's squadron in the uncharted inlets , a problem Wainwright reported upon his return that resulted in improved British cartography of the area .
= = Background = =
In the early nineteenth century , the Indian Ocean was an important link in the trade routes from British India to the United Kingdom , and Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) merchant ships , known as East Indiamen , regularly crossed the ocean carrying millions of pounds worth of goods . One of the most important ports for the Indian trade was Bombay , on the western coast of the Indian subcontinent , a significant hub for regional trade with its links to the Persian and Arab ports of the Persian Gulf . The ships that traded in the Persian Gulf were named " country ships " and were much smaller and weaker than the big East Indiamen . The British had long maintained a naval presence in the region , but the outbreak of the Napoleonic Wars in 1803 diverted much of the British strength in the Indian Ocean to the Dutch colonies of the Cape of Good Hope and Java and the French bases on Île Bonaparte and Île de France , leaving the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea largely undefended . In addition , convoy guardships were needed to escort the East Indiamen through hostile waters and the Navy presence in the Gulf was replaced by warships owned by the HEIC , part of their private fleet nicknamed the " Bombay Marine " .
Like the Royal Navy , the Bombay Marine were spread across many thousands of miles of ocean , often leaving the country ships in the Persian Gulf undefended . As French raiders were rare in the Gulf , few country ships operated in convoys and so they became targets for dhows and bhagalas operating from semi or completely independent harbours in Persia or along the Arabian Peninsula . In 1805 , the fleets of Al Qasimi captured two large ships , Shannon and Trimmer ; the small boats of the Al Qasimi , swarmed the larger merchant ships and massacred the crews . The Al Qasimi converted Trimmer into a formidable pirate ship . When the HEIC warship Mornington , which carried 24 cannon , attempted to recapture Trimmer a few months later , nearly 40 Al Qasimi vessels attacked Mornington , which only just managed to escape destruction herself .
= = = Diplomatic failures = = =
Lacking the available naval forces to launch a sizeable campaign in the Gulf , the British authorities attempted to use diplomacy to end the threat . In February 1806 , the young Sultan of Oman , Sa 'id II ibn Sultan , signed a treaty at Bandar Abbas promising to bring an end to attacks originating from his territory , but by 1807 the French had installed consulates in Tehran and Muscat and attacks continued unabated with their encouragement . In 1807 , Lord Minto , Governor General of India , determined to send ambassadors to the Sikh Empire , Afghanistan and Persia in an effort to secure their support and prevent the French from gaining allies on India 's western borders . As part of this diplomatic campaign , the ambassador to Persia was instructed to discuss the problem with the Persian government , but due to French influence in Tehran , he was unable to obtain any guarantees .
A second diplomatic mission , sent from London in 1808 under Sir Harford Jones , was instructed to discuss the issue again , Jones deciding to travel to Bushire in Persia by sea . The diplomatic convoy consisted of the frigate HMS Nereide and two HEIC sloops , Sylph and Sapphire . The convoy was commanded by Captain Robert Corbet , who refused to wait for the slower sloops once the force had reached the Persian Gulf . Nereide arrived at Bushire on 14 October 1808 . Jones completed his journey by land . Corbet returned south to the Straits of Hormuz , expecting to meet the sloops on his return journey . On 21 October , however , he discovered Sylph in the hands of Al Qasimi , who had swarmed the isolated warship , captured her and massacred her crew . Corbet was able to recapture the vessel and later rejoined Sapphire , which had been detached to conduct survey 's of the Persian coast , but the operation demonstrated that it was the pirates who now controlled the Southern Persian Gulf .
= = = Al Qasimi in the Arabian Sea = = =
In April 1808 , despite the brief deployment of the ship of the line HMS Albion and frigates HMS Phaeton and HMS Dedaigneuse to the Persian Gulf , Al Qasimi dhows appeared off Gujerat , raiding shipping at Surat before they were driven off by ships of the Bombay Marine . Later in the year , a huge fleet of 50 raiders appeared off Sind in the Arabian Sea and caused severe disruption to the regional trade . The fleet attacked merchant shipping along the Indian coast and even seized a large country ship named Minerva , massacring her crew and converting her into their flagship . At its height in early 1809 , it was estimated that the Al Qasimi forces in the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea included 60 large bhagalas , over 800 dhows , and employed 19 @,@ 000 men , against just two HEIC ships , Mornington and Teignmouth .
= = British operations = =
In the aftermath of the raid on Sind and following the 1809 monsoon season , the British authorities in India decided to make a significant show of force against the Al Qasimi , in an effort not only to destroy their larger bases and as many ships as could be found , but also to counteract French encouragement of them from their embassies in Persia and Oman . Forces were gathered at Bombay during the summer : the small HEIC warships , Mornington , Aurora , Ternate , Mercury , Nautilus , Prince of Wales , Ariel and Fury joined by the bomb ketch Stromboli and the Royal Navy frigates HMS Caroline under Charles Gordon and Chiffone under John Wainwright , who was placed in command of the entire expeditionary force with the temporary rank of commodore . The force was complemented with troops seconded from the Bombay garrison , including a battalion of the 65th Foot , soldiers from the 47th Foot and an assortment of HEIC marines , engineers , artillery men and sepoys from the 2nd Bombay Native Infantry under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Lionel Smith of the 65th .
The expeditionary force left Bombay on 17 September , intending to rendezvous at Muscat the following week . However , the force was repeatedly delayed during their passage , first with providing escorts to convoys of country ships in the Arabian Sea and subsequently with rescuing survivors of the Stromboli , which was so rotten that she fell apart in the ocean swell with considerable loss of life . When the force eventually arrived at Muscat in October , Sultan Sa 'id informed Wainwright that over 20 @,@ 000 Bedouin warriors had descended on the coast to join the Al Qasimi . Understanding that a protracted land campaign would be impossible with the forces available , Wainwright determined to make a series of small raids against the principle pirate bases in the area of the Straits of Hormuz , beginning with Ras al @-@ Khaimah , to the north of the Strait on the Arabian coast .
= = = Battle of Ras al @-@ Khaimah = = =
The British flotilla arrived off the independent town of Ras al @-@ Khaimah on 11 November , discovering Minerva and a fleet of dhows in the harbour . The pirate fleet initially sailed out to attack the British but retreated once the size of the expeditionary force became clear . Minerva failed to make the return to port successfully and was wrecked on a sandbank , the crew setting fire to their ship to prevent her seizure by boats launched from Chiffone . Onshore , the Al Qasimi and their Bedouin allies ( whose numbers are unknown , but were significantly less than 20 @,@ 000 ) formed a series of emplaced defences around the town that were protected from offshore bombardment by sandbanks which blocked the approach of Wainwright 's heavier warships . On 12 November , Wainwright deployed his smaller ships close inshore to bombard the town and provide cover for his troop dispositions offshore .
At 02 : 00 on 13 November , two squadrons of ship 's boats made amphibious landings : a small force under Lieutenant Samuel Leslie landed to the north of the emplaced positions , acting as a diversion while the main body of the expeditionary force landed to the south under Lieutenant Colonel Smith . Leslie 's diversion distracted the Arab defenders , but enough remained in the southern defences to make a significant counterattack on Smith 's beachhead . Cannon fire from the ship 's boats covering the landing drove the Arabs back , and Smith ordered his men to advance with their bayonets fixed , pushing into the town and driving out the Arabs house by house . To cover their advance , Smith 's men set fire to the buildings in their path , which created a pall of smoke under cover of which Smith was able to storm and capture the Sheik 's palace .
With the harbour secure , Wainwright ordered the squadron into the bay and there burnt over 50 Al Qasimi craft , including 30 large bhagalas . Smith secured the town itself , burning warehouses and destroying the ammunition stores and fortifications around the town . The Arab forces , who had retreated after the fall of the palace , taunted the British from the surrounding hills but did not make any counterattacks . By the morning of 14 November , the operation was complete and the British force returned to their ships , having suffered light casualties of five killed and 34 wounded . Arab losses are unknown , but were probably significant , while the damage done to the Al Qasimi fleets was severe : over half of the largest and most dangerous vessels had been destroyed at Ras al @-@ Khaimah .
= = = Further operations = = =
On 17 November , Wainwright ordered an attack on the Persian town of Linga , the inhabitants fleeing at the arrival of the British fleet , and Wainwright 's ships burning 20 dhows without opposition or casualties . Further exploration on the Southern Persian coast revealed that most harbours were empty . Wainwright 's main target was Laft on Qeshm Island , which was a principal Al Qasimi stronghold . Sending ships to block the passages to the Qeshm Channel , Wainwright hired local pilots and descended on the town on 26 November . Following fruitless negotiations with local sheiks , Wainwright ordered an attack on 27 November at 14 : 00 , Smith 's troops landing unopposed . Assuming the enemy to have fled , Smith 's men approached the town 's fortress , but a heavy fire was unleashed upon them as the British troops reached the gate . Despite heavy casualties , Smith was able to rally his forces and , with artillery support from the sloop Fury , forced the fort to surrender at sunset , after the sheik had been given guarantees he would not be harmed or taken prisoner . Eleven large Arab vessels were burnt by British landing parties , while the expeditionary force suffered 70 casualties in the fight at the fort . Arab losses were estimated at more than 50 killed in the fort alone .
The town was turned over to Sheik Dewar , a local ruler who professed support for the British , and Wainwright withdrew his forces to Muscat in early December ; all of the squadron reassembled there by Christmas . Only one further operation was launched , a successful attack on 3 January 1810 against the town of Shinas , which had rebelled against Sultan Sa 'id and was swiftly recaptured and restored to him . Although minor naval operations against individual local ships continued into 1810 , Wainwright and the main body of the squadron returned to Bombay in January , having considered their mission to inflict significant damage on the Al Qasimi forces in the Persian Gulf to have been a success .
= = Aftermath = =
The operation succeeded in its aim of reducing French influence in Oman and in dissuading the political forces in the region from encouraging attacks on British shipping , but it was unable to totally halt Al Qasimi activity in the Persian Gulf . By 1811 , when much of the Royal Navy and HEIC forces in the Indian Ocean were diverted to Java , the Al Qasimi returned in force , although their destructive actions were weaker than before and rarely strayed into the Arabian Sea . Ultimately , it was not until the forces of the Ottoman Empire seized Medina in 1812 , that some measure of control could be exerted over the tribes of the Arabian peninsula . Subsequent British intervention , both military and diplomatic , also reduced the threat of attacks during the nineteenth century .
The campaign had a significant effect on British cartography of the region . Wainwright reported that the available charts of the Persian Gulf were inaccurate or incomplete , thus allowing Al Qasimi ships to hide from his squadron in uncharted inlets . The Bombay Marine had long been aware of this problem and had been developing charts of the region in the years leading up to the campaign , under David Ewen Bartholomew , who had been on Sapphire during Corbet 's mission to the region and whose charts were published in 1810 as a response to these problems .
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= SS West Cheswald =
SS West Cheswald was a cargo ship for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) launched shortly after the end of World War I. The ship was inspected by the United States Navy for possible use as USS West Cheswald ( ID @-@ 4199 ) but was neither taken into the Navy nor ever commissioned under that name . West Cheswald was built in 1919 for the USSB , as a part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort , and was the 32nd ship built at Northwest Steel in Portland , Oregon .
She operated for several years as a merchant ship , and was involved in a court case that eventually reached the Supreme Court of the United States in 1928 . She was laid up in New Orleans , Louisiana , until late 1940 when she was reactivated and refitted to carry American defense @-@ related cargos to Africa and chromium and manganese ore to the United States .
Continuing in African service after the United States entered World War II , she was diverted in March 1942 for one round trip to the Soviet Union , enduring German attacks that earned her U.S. Navy Armed Guard a battle star . After her return , she sailed mainly between the United States and African and Caribbean ports . In March 1944 , she sailed from the United States for the final time , and was scuttled in June as part of the " gooseberry " breakwater off Utah Beach during the Normandy invasion , earning a second battle star in the process .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Cheswald , the one of some 40 West ships built by the Northwest Steel of Portland , Oregon . West Cheswald ( Northwest Steel yard number 32 , USSB hull number 1421 ) was completed in September 1919 .
West Cheswald was 6 @,@ 187 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 412 feet 1 inch ( 125 @.@ 60 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 61 m ) abeam . She had a steel hull with a hold that was 29 feet 9 inches ( 9 @.@ 07 m ) deep . She had a displacement of 12 @,@ 200 t with a mean draft of 24 feet 1 inch ( 7 @.@ 34 m ) . The ship had a single steam turbine that drove a single screw propeller , and moved the ship at up to 11 @.@ 5 knots ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
West Cheswald was inspected by the 13th Naval District of the United States Navy after completion for possible use as a service collier and was assigned the identification number of 4199 . Had she been commissioned , she would have been known as USS West Cheswald ( ID @-@ 4199 ) , but the Navy neither took over the ship nor commissioned her .
Information on West Cheswald 's early career is lacking , but records of some of her movements and cargo are available . On 30 September 1920 , West Cheswald took on a load of white sugar at Java and headed for the United States via the Suez Canal . While she was near Bermuda , West Cheswald was diverted from her original destination of New York to Philadelphia , to deliver her cargo in fulfillment of an order . Because the cargo had not been originally headed to Philadelphia , the purchasers refused to pay for it , believing that the voyage took too long . After litigation and various appeals , the case ended up before the Supreme Court of the United States in 1928 as Lamborn v. National Bank of Commerce , 276 U.S. 469 ( 1928 ) . The court found that under the contract signed , the purchasers were obligated for the sugar regardless of whether or not the ship had originally been destined for Philadelphia . West Cheswald was also reported in Hawaiian service during 1920 . The report of the Governor of Hawaii in the annual report of the United States Department of the Interior for the 1920 – 21 fiscal year , listed West Cheswald among the four USSB @-@ owned ships sailed to Hawaii by the Pacific Steamship Company .
From 1922 , West Cheswald operated to South America , often bringing coffee to the United States . In October 1922 , for example , she delivered 22 @,@ 700 pounds ( 10 @,@ 300 kg ) of coffee from Rio de Janeiro to New Orleans , Louisiana , and in March 1923 , she delivered 105 @,@ 400 bags to New Orleans and another 4 @,@ 100 bags to Galveston , Texas . From 1923 to 1940 , little is known about West Cheswald 's activities . At some point during this period , she was laid up in New Orleans as part of the reserve fleet located there .
= = World War II = =
In June 1940 , as World War II raged in Europe , the United States Maritime Commission ( USMC ) ( a successor to the USSB ) announced bidding for the reconditioning of West Cheswald and nine other ships that were in the reserve fleet . The low bid for West Cheswald was by the Maryland Drydock Company of Baltimore , which priced the repairs at $ 169 @,@ 961 . In February 1941 , the USMC announced another round of bidding , this time for the operation of West Cheswald and three other ships on defense routes to southern and eastern Africa . The ships would carry defense cargo to African ports and return loads of chromium and manganese ore — both needed for the production of steel for armaments — to the United States . The American South African Line had the low bid for West Cheswald , offering to operate her for $ 17 @,@ 174 monthly .
With her reconditioning complete , West Cheswald arrived in New York from Baltimore on 23 March . Although she may have been scheduled to begin her African service as early as 29 March , she sailed from New York on 11 April for the Cape Verde Islands , and from there , to Cape Town , where she arrived on 15 May . Beginning the next day , West Cheswald visited Port Elizabeth , East London , Durban , Mombasa , Tanga , and Zanzibar through 11 June . She returned to Tanga , then sailed from Dar es Salaam to Zanzibar and back on 23 and 24 June . She next made her way to Lourenço Marques , where she arrived on 3 July . From Lourenço Marques , she sailed back to Durban and Cape Town , before she began her transatlantic journey to Trinidad on 18 July . After calling at that Caribbean port , she returned to New York to complete her first circuit on 18 August .
On 6 September , West Cheswald began another , similar voyage to Africa . In addition to calling at many of the same ports she visited on her first trip , she visited the port of Beira , Mozambique for the first time in early November . The ship was in transit from Cape Town to Trinidad on 7 December during the Attack on Pearl Harbor , and by the time she arrived at Boston on 27 December , the United States had joined the Allies of World War II in declaring war against the Axis powers .
= = Arctic convoy = =
West Cheswald sailed from Boston for New York on 30 December , and spent nearly eight weeks at New York . Outfitted with armament and a Naval Armed Guard detachment , she sailed from Boston for Halifax with a load of tanks on 23 February 1942 . After spending five days at Halifax , she sailed as part of Convoy SC 72 to Clyde on 28 February . After arriving at Clyde on 17 March , West Cheswald made her way to Oban on 22 March and sailed four days later for Murmansk as part of Convoy PQ 14 . The convoy consisted of approximately 25 merchant ships , ten of which were American , and of the American ships , only two — West Cheswald and Yaka — possessed defensive weaponry manned by Naval Armed Guardsmen . Many ships turned back because of heavy fog and snow ; West Cheswald , Yaka and several other ships from the convoy remained at Reykjavík from 31 March to 8 April . On 15 April , the convoy was tracked by a German aircraft , and convoy escort ships made contact with three German destroyers . The following day , the convoy commodore 's ship was sunk by a submarine ; at least two other torpedoes traveled through the convoy without hitting any ships . The convoy came under air attack on 17 April , but suffered no losses . As the convoy neared Murmansk , two Soviet destroyers with air cover joined the escort , and the convoy arrived without further incident on 19 April .
Though the convoy had arrived at its destination , the danger of attack was still present . The nearest German airfield was 35 miles ( 56 km ) away — about 7 to 10 minutes flying time — which gave almost no advance warning of air raids . German dive bombers would silently glide in below Soviet anti @-@ aircraft fire , drop their bombs , and fly away . West Cheswald was luckier than some . Her closest call occurred when a bomb fell 50 feet ( 15 m ) away from the ship during an air raid on 23 April , destroying a 50 @-@ ton crane that had earlier finished unloading the ship ; West Cheswald suffered no major damage in any of the attacks . Despite the fact that Murmansk had limited port facilities and typically slow unloading of cargo , West Cheswald was ready to sail in the next departing convoy , Convoy QP 11 , on 28 April . West Cheswald 's armed guardsmen received a battle star for their participation in Convoy PQ 14 .
= = Later voyages = =
After returning to New York on 31 May by way of Reykjavík and Halifax , West Cheswald made a brief trip to Philadelphia and back before she worked her way down the East Coast to Norfolk , Virginia , where she arrived on 17 June . Sailing the next day , the cargo ship began the first of two African trips , during which she made many of the same ports as in her two 1941 voyages . On the homeward leg of her second voyage , she called at Takoradi and Freetown on the western coast of Africa in March 1943 . After returning to the Americas , West Cheswald visited Saint Thomas , San Juan , and Mayagüez in the Caribbean before returning to Philadelphia on 28 April .
West Cheswald 's next sailing began on 6 June , when she left Boston for Halifax , sailing from the latter port on 16 June in Convoy SC @-@ 134 bound for Liverpool . Breaking off from the convoy for Loch Ewe , West Cheswald also visited Methil , Southend , and Oban , before returning to New York on 11 August . Sailing from there on 6 September , she began her final trip to Africa , in which she visited the West African ports of Bathurst , Freetown , Monrovia , and Takoradi before returning to Philadelphia via Trinidad on 27 January 1944 . She sailed from Philadelphia ten days later , ending up in Boston .
= = Final voyage = =
West Cheswald had been selected to become one of the blockships for the Allied invasion of France , then in the planning stages . Though the specific modifications performed on West Cheswald are not revealed in sources , modifications for other ships do appear . In November 1944 , The Christian Science Monitor reported that blockships dispatched from Boston , like West Cheswald , had been loaded with " tons of sand and cement " and had been rigged with explosive charges before departing the port . Further , existing antiaircraft weapons had been moved higher up on the ship and supplemented by additional guns . An account by Cesar Poropat , chief engineer aboard West Honaker , another blockship dispatched from Boston , mentions that transverse bulkheads aboard that ship were cut open to facilitate sinking .
West Cheswald departed Boston on 10 March and arrived at Halifax two days later . Departing from that port on 29 March , she sailed in Convoy SC @-@ 156 and arrived at Swansea on 14 April . She departed there on 30 April for Oban , where she joined the assembling " Corncob Fleet . " The Corncob Fleet was the group of ships to be sunk to form the " gooseberries " , shallow @-@ water artificial harbors for landing craft . Poropat reports that once the ship crews were told of their mission while anchored at Oban , they were not permitted to leave the ships . After five weeks of isolation at anchor , West Cheswald headed south for Poole , to join the first corncob convoy .
West Cheswald sailed from Poole on 7 June in a convoy , consisting of what one author called the " dregs of the North Atlantic shipping pool " , and reached the Normandy beachhead the next day , two days after the D @-@ Day landings . Poropat reports that the corncob ships traveled under cover of darkness and , stripped of all unnecessary equipment , carried no radios , having only a signal lamp ( with a spare bulb ) for communication . Once at the designated location , the ships were put into position and scuttled over the next days , under heavy German artillery fire . Naval Armed Guardsmen manned the guns on all the gooseberry ships to protect against frequent German air attacks ; West Cheswald 's gunners were credited with downing one plane on 10 June . All the while , harbor pilots — about half of the New York Bar Pilots Association , according to one source — carefully positioned the ships . West Cheswald and West Nohno were the last two ships sunk off Utah Beach when they went down on 11 June . Even though she had been sunk , West Cheswald continued to serve as an antiaircraft platform manned by Navy gun crews until 19 June , and by Army crews after that date . West Cheswald 's naval gunners were awarded a second battle star for participation in the Normandy Landings .
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= Teleost =
The teleosts or Teleostei ( Greek : teleios , " complete " + osteon , " bone " ) are by far the largest infraclass in the class Actinopterygii , the ray @-@ finned fishes , and make up 96 percent of all fish . This diverse group arose in the Triassic period and members are arranged in about 40 orders and 448 families . Over 26 @,@ 000 species have been described . Teleosts range from giant oarfish , measuring 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) or more , and ocean sunfish weighing over 2 @.@ 0 long tons ; 2 @.@ 2 short tons ( 2 t ) , to the minute male anglerfish Photocorynus spiniceps , just 0 @.@ 24 in ( 6 @.@ 2 mm ) long . As well as torpedo @-@ shaped fish built for speed , teleosts can be flattened vertically or horizontally , be elongated cylinders or take specialised shapes as in anglerfish and seahorses . Teleosts dominate the seas from pole to pole and inhabit the ocean depths , estuaries , rivers , lakes and even swamps .
The difference between teleosts and other bony fish lies mainly in their jaw bones ; teleosts have a movable premaxilla and corresponding modifications in the jaw musculature which make it possible for them to protrude their jaws outwards from the mouth . This is of great advantage , enabling them to grab prey and draw it into the mouth . In more derived teleosts , the enlarged premaxilla is the main tooth @-@ bearing bone and the maxilla , which is attached to the lower jaw , acts as a lever , pushing and pulling the premaxilla as the mouth is opened and closed . Other bones further back in the mouth serve to grind and swallow food . Another difference is that the upper and lower lobes of the tail ( caudal ) fin are about equal in size . The spine ends at the caudal peduncle , distinguishing this group from other fish in which the spine extends into the upper lobe of the tail fin .
Teleosts have adopted a range of reproductive strategies . Most use external fertilisation : the female lays a batch of eggs , the male fertilises them and the larvae develop without any further parental involvement . A fair proportion of teleosts are hermaphrodites , starting life as females and transitioning to males at some stage , with a few species reversing this process . A small percentage of teleosts are viviparous and some provide parental care with typically the male fish guarding a nest and fanning the eggs to keep them well @-@ oxygenated .
Teleosts are economically important to humans as is shown by their depiction in art over the centuries . The fishing industry harvests them for food and anglers attempt to capture them for sport . Some species are farmed commercially , and this method of production is likely to be increasingly important in the future . Others are kept in aquaria or used in research , especially in the fields of genetics and developmental biology .
= = Anatomy = =
The defining features of the teleosts are mobile premaxilla , elongated neural arches at the end of the caudal fin and unpaired basibranchial toothplates . The premaxilla is unattached to the neurocranium ( braincase ) ; it plays a role in protruding the mouth and creating a circular opening . This lowers the pressure inside the mouth , sucking the prey inside . The lower jaw and maxilla are then pulled back to close the mouth , and the fish is able to grasp the prey . By contrast , mere closure of the jaws would risk pushing food out of the mouth . In more derived teleosts , the premaxilla is enlarged and has teeth , while the maxilla is toothless . The maxilla functions to push both the premaxilla and the lower jaw forward . To open the mouth , an adductor muscle pulls back the top of the maxilla , pushing the lower jaw forward . In addition , the maxilla rotates slightly , which pushes forward a bony process that interlocks with the premaxilla .
The pharyngeal jaws of teleosts , a second set of jaws contained within the throat , are composed of five branchial arches , loops of bone which support the gills . The first three arches include a single basibranchial surrounded by two hypobranchials , ceratobranchials , epibranchials and pharyngobranchials . The median basibranchial is covered by a toothplate . The fourth arch is composed of pairs of ceratobranchials and epibranchials , and sometimes additionally , some pharyngobranchials and a basibranchial . The base of the lower pharyngeal jaws is formed by the fifth ceratobranchials while the second , third and fourth pharyngobranchials create the base of the upper . In the more basal teleosts the pharyngeal jaws consist of well @-@ separated thin parts that attach to the neurocranium , pectoral girdle , and hyoid bar . Their function is limited to merely transporting food and they rely mostly on lower pharyngeal jaw activity . In more derived teleosts , the jaws are more powerful with left and right ceratobranchials fusing to become one lower jaw ; the pharyngobranchials fuse to create a large upper jaw that articulates with the neurocranium . They have also developed a muscle that allows the pharyngeal jaws to have a role in grinding food in addition to transporting it .
The caudal fin is homocercal , meaning the upper and lower lobes are about equal in size . The spine ends at the caudal peduncle , the base of the caudal fin , distinguishing this group from those in which the spine extends into the upper lobe of the caudal fin , such as most fish from the Paleozoic ( 541 to 252 million years ago ) . The neural arches are elongated to form uroneurals which provide support for this upper lobe . In addition , the hypurals , bones that form a flattened plate at the posterior end of the vertebral column , are enlarged providing further support for the caudal fin . In general , teleosts tend to be quicker and more flexible than more basal bony fishes . Their skeletal structure has evolved towards greater lightness . While teleost bones are well calcified , they are constructed from a scaffolding of struts , rather than the dense cancellous bones of holostean fish . In addition , the lower jaw of the teleost is reduced to just three bones ; the dentary , the angular bone and the articular bone .
= = Evolution and phylogeny = =
= = = External relationships = = =
The teleosts were first recognised as a distinct group by the German ichthyologist Johannes Peter Müller in 1844 . The name is from Greek teleios , " complete " + osteon , " bone " . Müller based this classification on certain soft tissue characteristics which would prove to be problematic as it did not take into account the distinguishing features of fossil teleosts . In 1966 , Greenwood et al. provided a more solid classification . The oldest teleost fossils date back to the late Triassic , evolving from fish related to the bowfins in the clade Holostei . During the Mesozoic and Cenozoic they diversified , and as a result , 96 percent of all known fish species are teleosts . The cladogram shows the relationship of the teleosts to other bony fish , and to the terrestrial vertebrates ( tetrapods ) that evolved from a related group of fish . Approximate dates are from Near et al . , 2012 .
= = = Internal relationships = = =
The phylogeny of the teleosts has been subject to long debate , without consensus on either their phylogeny or the timing of the emergence of the major groups before the application of modern DNA @-@ based cladistic analysis . Near et al . ( 2012 ) explored the phylogeny and divergence times of every major lineage , analysing the DNA sequences of 9 unlinked genes in 232 species . They obtained well @-@ resolved phylogenies with strong support for the nodes ( so , the pattern of branching shown is likely to be correct ) . They calibrated ( set actual values for ) branching times in this tree from 36 reliable measurements of absolute time from the fossil record . The teleosts are divided into the major clades shown on the cladogram , with dates , following Near et al .
= = = Evolutionary trends = = =
Several early groups , now extinct , branched off from neopterygian ancestors before the teleosts appeared . These include the Pachycormiformes and Aspidorhynchiformes of the Mesozoic era . These fish had elongated bodies ; some were filter @-@ feeders , while others ate larger prey .
The most basal of the living teleosts are the Elopomorpha ( eels and allies ) and the Osteoglossomorpha ( elephantfishes and allies ) . There are 800 species of elopomorphs . They have thin leaf @-@ shaped larvae known as leptocephali , specialised for a marine environment . Among the elopomorphs , eels have elongated bodies with lost pelvic girdles and ribs and fused elements in the upper jaw . The 200 species of osteoglossomorphs are defined by a bony element in the tongue . This element has a basibranchial behind it and both structures have large teeth which are paired with the teeth on the parasphenoid in the roof of the mouth . The clade Otocephala includes the Clupeiformes ( herrings ) and Ostariophysi ( carps , catfishes and allies ) . Clupeiformes consist of 350 living species of herring and herring @-@ like fishes . This group is characterised by an unusual abdominal scute and a different arrangement of the hypurals . In most species , the swim bladder extends to the braincase and plays a role in hearing . Ostariophysi , which includes most freshwater fishes , have developed some unique adaptations . One is the Weberian apparatus , an arrangement of bones ( Weberian ossicles ) connecting the swim bladder to the inner ear . This enhances their hearing , as sound waves make the bladder vibrate , and the bones transport the vibrations to the inner ear . They also have a chemical alarm system ; when a fish is injured , the warning substance gets in the water , alarming nearby fish .
The majority of teleost species belong to the clade Euteleostei ; which consists of 17 @,@ 419 species classified in 2935 genera and 346 families . Shared traits of the euteleosts include ; similarities in the embryonic development of the bony or cartilaginous structures located between the head and dorsal fin ( supraneural bones ) , an outgrowth on the stegural bone ( a bone located near the neural arches of the tail ) and caudal median cartilages located between hypurals of the caudal base . The two major groups of euteleosts are Protacanthopterygii , which consists of fish like salmon , pike and smelts and Neoteleosti which contain the majority of euteleosts . A derived trait of neoteleosts is a muscle that controls the pharyngeal jaws , giving them a role in grinding food . Within neoteleosts , the Acanthopterygii have a spiny dorsal fin which is in front of the soft @-@ rayed dorsal fin . This fin helps provide thrust in locomotion and may also play a role in defense . Acanthomorphs have developed spiny ctenoid scales ( as opposed to the cycloid scales of other groups ) , tooth @-@ bearing premaxilla and greater adaptations to high speed swimming .
The adipose fin , which is present in over 6 @,@ 000 teleost species , is often thought to have evolved once in the lineage and to have been lost multiple times due to its limited function . However , a 2014 study challenges this idea and suggests that the adipose fin is an example of convergent evolution . In Characiformes , the adipose fin develops from an outgrowth after the reduction of the larval fin fold , while in Salmoniformes , the fin appears to be a remnant of the fold .
= = = Diversity = = =
There are over 26 @,@ 000 species of teleosts , in about 40 orders and 448 families . These fish are found in almost every aquatic environment and have developed specializations to feed in a variety of ways as carnivores , herbivores , filter feeders and parasites . The longest teleost is the giant oarfish , reported at 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) and more , but this is dwarfed by the extinct Leedsichthys , one individual of which has been estimated to have a length of 91 ft ( 27 @.@ 6 m ) . The heaviest teleost is believed to be the ocean sunfish , with a specimen landed in 2003 having an estimated weight of 2 @.@ 3 long tons ( 2 @.@ 3 metric tons ) , while the smallest fully mature adult is the male anglerfish Photocorynus spiniceps which can measure just 0 @.@ 24 in ( 6 @.@ 2 mm ) , though the female at 2 in ( 50 mm ) is much larger . The stout infantfish is the smallest and lightest adult fish and is in fact the smallest vertebrate in the world ; the females measures 0 @.@ 33 in ( 8 @.@ 4 mm ) and the male just 0 @.@ 28 in ( 7 mm ) .
Open water fish are usually streamlined like torpedoes to minimize turbulence as they move through the water . Reef fish live in a complex , relatively confined underwater landscape and for them , manoeuvrability is more important than speed and many of them have developed bodies which optimize their ability to dart and change direction . Many have laterally compressed bodies ( flattened from side to side ) allowing them to fit into fissures and swim through narrow gaps ; some use their pectoral fins for locomotion and others undulate their dorsal and anal fins . Some fish have grown dermal ( skin ) appendages for camouflage ; the prickly leather @-@ jacket is almost invisible among the seaweed it resembles and the tasselled scorpionfish invisibly lurks on the seabed ready to ambush prey . Some like the foureye butterflyfish have eyespots to startle or deceive , while others such as lionfish have aposematic coloration to warn that they are toxic or have venomous spines .
Flatfish are demersal fish ( bottom @-@ feeding fish ) that show a greater degree of asymmetry than any other vertebrates . The larvae are at first bilaterally symmetrical but they undergo metamorphosis during the course of their development , with one eye migrating to the other side of the head , and they simultaneously start swimming on their side . This has the advantage that , when they lie on the seabed , both eyes are on top , giving them a broad field of view . The upper side is usually speckled and mottled for camouflage , while the underside is pale .
Some teleosts are parasites . Remoras have their front dorsal fins modified into large suckers with which they cling onto a host animal such as a whale , sea turtle , shark or ray , but this is probably a commensal rather than parasitic arrangement because both remora and host benefit from the removal of ectoparasites and loose flakes of skin . More harmful are the catfish that enter the gill chambers of fish and feed on their blood and tissues . The snubnosed eel , though usually a scavenger , sometimes bores into the flesh of a fish , and has been found inside the heart of a shortfin mako shark .
Some species , such as electric eels , can produce powerful electric currents , strong enough to stun prey . Other fish , such as knifefish , generate weak varying electric fields to detect their prey ; they swim with straight backs to avoid distorting their electric fields . These currents are produced by modified muscle or nerve cells .
= = Distribution = =
Teleosts are found world @-@ wide and in most aquatic environments , including warm and cold seas , flowing and still freshwater , even , in the case of the desert pupfish , isolated and sometimes hot and saline bodies of water in deserts . Teleost diversity becomes low at extremely high latitudes ; at Franz Josef Land , up to 82 ° N , ice cover and water temperatures below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) for a large part of the year limit the number of species ; 75 percent of the species found there are endemic to the Arctic .
Of the major groups of teleosts , the Elopomorpha , Clupeomorpha and Percomorpha ( perches , tunas and many others ) all have a worldwide distribution and are mainly marine ; the Ostariophysi and Osteoglossomorpha are worldwide but mainly freshwater , the latter mainly in the tropics ; the Atherinomorpha ( guppies , etc . ) have a worldwide distribution , both fresh and salt , but are surface @-@ dwellers . In contrast , the Esociformes ( pikes ) are limited to freshwater in the Northern Hemisphere , while the Salmoniformes ( salmon , trout ) are found in both Northern and Southern temperate zones in freshwater , some species migrating to and from the sea . The Paracanthopterygii ( cods , etc . ) are Northern hemisphere fish , with both salt and freshwater species .
Some teleosts are migratory ; certain fresh water species move within river systems on an annual basis ; other species are anadromous , spending their lives at sea and moving inland to spawn , salmon and striped bass being examples . Others , exemplified by the eel , are catadromous , doing the reverse . The fresh water European eel migrates across the Atlantic Ocean as an adult to breed in floating seaweed in the Sargasso Sea . The adults spawn here and then die , but the developing young are swept by the Gulf Stream towards Europe . By the time they arrive , they are small fish and enter estuaries and ascend rivers , overcoming obstacles in their path to reach the streams and ponds where they spend their adult lives .
Teleosts including the brown trout and the scaly osman are found in mountain lakes in Kashmir at altitudes as high as 12 @,@ 530 ft ( 3 @,@ 819 m ) . Teleosts are found at extreme depths in the oceans ; the hadal snailfish has been seen at a depth of 25 @,@ 300 ft ( 7 @,@ 700 m ) , and a related ( unnamed ) species has been seen at 26 @,@ 720 ft ( 8 @,@ 145 m ) .
= = Physiology = =
= = = Respiration = = =
The major means of respiration in teleosts , as in most other fish , is the transfer of gases over the surface of the gills as water is drawn in through the mouth and pumped out through the gills . Apart from the swim bladder , which contains a small amount of air , the body does not have oxygen reserves , and respiration needs to be continuous over the fish 's life . Some teleosts exploit habitats where the oxygen availability is low , such as stagnant water or wet mud ; they have developed accessory tissues and organs to support gas exchange in these habitats .
Several genera of teleosts have independently developed air @-@ breathing capabilities , and some have become amphibious . Some combtooth blennies emerge to feed on land , and freshwater eels are able to absorb oxygen through damp skin . Mudskippers can remain out of water for considerable periods , exchanging gases through skin and mucous membranes in the mouth and pharynx . Swamp eels have similar well @-@ vascularised mouth @-@ linings , and can remain out of water for days and go into a resting state ( aestivation ) in mud . The anabantoids have developed an accessory breathing structure known as the labyrinth organ on the first gill arch and this is used for respiration in air , and airbreathing catfish have a similar suprabranchial organ . Certain other catfish , such as the Loricariidae , are able to respire through air held in their digestive tracts .
= = = Sensory systems = = =
Teleosts possess highly developed sensory organs . Nearly all daylight fish have colour vision at least as good as a normal human 's . Many fish also have chemoreceptors responsible for acute senses of taste and smell . Most fish have sensitive receptors that form the lateral line system , which detects gentle currents and vibrations , and senses the motion of nearby fish and prey . Fish sense sounds in a variety of ways , using the lateral line , the swim bladder , and in some species the Weberian apparatus . Fish orient themselves using landmarks , and may use mental maps based on multiple landmarks or symbols . Experiments with mazes show that fish possess the spatial memory needed to make such a mental map .
= = = Osmoregulation = = =
The skin of a teleost is largely impermeable to water and the main interface between the fish 's body and its surroundings is the gills . In freshwater , teleost fish gain water across their gills by osmosis while in seawater , they lose it . Similarly , salts diffuse outwards across the gills in freshwater and inwards in salt water . The European flounder spends most of its life in the sea but often migrates into estuaries and rivers . In the sea it can gain in an hour , Na + ions equivalent to forty percent of its total free sodium content , with 75 percent of this entering through the gills and the remainder through drinking . By contrast , in rivers there is an exchange of just two percent of the body Na + content per hour . As well as being able to selectively limit salt and water exchanged by diffusion , there is an active mechanism across the gills for the elimination of salt in sea water and its uptake in fresh water .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
Fish are cold @-@ blooded and in general , their body temperature is the same as that of their surroundings . They gain and lose heat through their skin and during respiration and are able to regulate their circulation in response to changes in water temperature by increasing or reducing the blood flow to the gills . Metabolic heat generated in the muscles or gut is quickly dissipated through the gills , with blood being diverted away from the gills during exposure to cold . Because of their relative inability to control their blood temperature , most teleosts can only survive in a small range of water temperatures .
Tuna and other fast @-@ swimming ocean @-@ going fish maintain their muscles at higher temperatures than their environment for efficient locomotion . Tuna achieve muscle temperatures 19 ° F ( − 7 ° C ) or even higher above the surroundings by having a counterflow system in which the metabolic heat produced by the muscles and present in the venous blood , pre @-@ warms the arterial blood before it reaches the muscles . Other adaptations of tuna for speed include a streamlined , spindle @-@ shaped body , fins designed to reduce drag , and muscles with a raised myoglobin content , which gives these a reddish colour and makes for a more efficient use of oxygen . In polar regions and in the deep ocean , where the temperature is a few degrees above freezing point , some large fish , such as the swordfish , marlin and tuna , have a heating mechanism which raises the temperature of the brain and eye , giving them significantly better vision than their cold @-@ blooded prey .
= = = Buoyancy = = =
The body of a teleost is denser than water , so fish must compensate for the difference or they will sink . Many teleosts have a swim bladder that adjusts their buoyancy through manipulation of gases to allow them to stay at the current water depth , or ascend or descend without having to waste energy in swimming . In the more primitive groups like some minnows , the swim bladder is open to the esophagus and doubles as a lung . It is often absent in fast swimming fishes such as the tuna and mackerel . In fish where the swim bladder is closed , the gas content is controlled through the rete mirabilis , a network of blood vessels serving as a countercurrent gas exchanger between the swim bladder and the blood . The Chondrostei such as sturgeons also have a swim bladder , but this appears to have evolved separately : other Actinopterygii such as the bowfin and the bichir do not have one , so swim bladders appear to have arisen twice , and the teleost swim bladder is not homologous with the chondrostean one .
= = = Locomotion = = =
A typical teleost fish has a streamlined body for rapid swimming , and locomotion is generally provided by a lateral undulation of the hindmost part of the trunk and the tail , propelling the fish through the water . There are many exceptions to this method of locomotion , especially where speed is not the main objective ; among rocks and on coral reefs , slow swimming with great manoeuvrability may be a desirable attribute . Eels locomote by wiggling their entire bodies . Living among seagrasses and algae , the seahorse adopts an upright posture and moves by fluttering its pectoral fins , and the closely related pipefish moves by rippling its elongated dorsal fin . Gobies " hop " along the substrate , propping themselves up and propelling themselves with their pectoral fins . Mudskippers move in much the same way on terrestrial ground . In some species , a pelvic sucker allows them to climb , and the Hawaiian freshwater goby climbs waterfalls while migrating . Gurnards have three pairs of free rays on their pectoral fins which have a sensory function but on which they can walk along the substrate . Flying fish launch themselves into the air and can glide on their enlarged pectoral fins for hundreds of metres .
= = Reproduction and lifecycle = =
Most teleost species are oviparous , having external fertilisation with both eggs and sperm being released into the water for fertilisation . Internal fertilisation occurs in 500 to 600 species of teleosts but is more typical for Chondrichthyes and many tetrapods . This involves the male inseminating the female with an intromittent organ . Fewer than one in a million of externally fertilised eggs survives to develop into a mature fish , but there is a much better chance of survival among the offspring of members of about a dozen families which are viviparous . In these , the eggs are fertilised internally and retained in the female during development . Some of these species , like the live @-@ bearing aquarium fish in the Poeciliidae family , are ovoviviparous ; each egg has a yolk sac which nourishes the developing embryo , and when this is exhausted , the egg hatches and the larva is expelled into the water column . Other species , like the splitfins in the family Goodeidae , are fully viviparous , with the developing embryo nurtured from the maternal blood supply via a placenta @-@ like structure that develops in the uterus . Oophagy is practised by a few species , such as Nomorhamphus ebrardtii ; the mother lays unfertilised eggs on which the developing larvae feed in the uterus , and intrauterine cannibalism has been reported in some halfbeaks .
There are two major reproductive strategies of teleosts ; semelparity and iteroparity . In the former , an individual breeds once after reaching maturity and then dies . This is because the physiological changes that come with reproduction eventually lead to death . Salmon of the genus Oncorhynchus are well known for this feature ; they hatch in fresh water and then migrate to the sea for up to four years before travelling back to their place of birth where they spawn and die . Semelparity is also known to occur in some eels and smelts . The majority of teleost species , however , have iteroparity , where mature individuals can breed multiple times during their lives .
= = = Sex identity and determination = = =
88 percent of teleost species are gonochoristic , having individuals that remain either male or female throughout their adult lives . The sex of an individual can be determined genetically as in birds and mammals , or environmentally as in reptiles . In some teleosts , both genetics and the environment play a role in determining sex . For species whose sex is determined by genetics , it can come in three forms . In monofactorial sex determination , a single @-@ locus determines sex inheritance . Both the XY sex @-@ determination system and ZW sex @-@ determination system exist in teleost species . Some species , such as the southern platyfish , have both systems and a male can be determined by XY or ZZ depending on the population .
Multifactorial sex determination occurs in numerous Neotropical species and involves both XY and ZW systems . Multifactorial systems involve rearrangements of sex chromosomes and autosomes . For example , the darter characine has a ZW multifactorial system where the female is determined by ZW1W2 and the male by ZZ . The wolf fish has a XY multifactorial system where females are determined by X1X1X2X2 and the male by X1X2Y . Some teleosts , such as zebrafish , have a polyfactorial system , where there are several genes which play a role in determining sex . Environment @-@ dependent sex determination has been documented in at least 70 species of teleost . Temperature is the main factor , but PH levels , growth rate , density and social environment may also play a role . For the Atlantic silverside , spawning in colder waters creates more females , while warmer waters create more males .
= = = = Hermaphroditism = = = =
Some teleost species are hermaphroditic , which can come in two forms : simultaneous and sequential . In the former , both spermatozoa and eggs are present in the gonads . Simultaneous hermaphroditism typically occurs in species that live in the ocean depths , where potential mates are sparsely dispersed . Self @-@ fertilisation is rare and has only been recorded in two species , Kryptolebias marmoratus and Kryptolebias hermaphroditus . With sequential hermaphroditism , individuals may function as one sex early in their adult life and switch later in life . Species with this condition include parrotfish , wrasses , sea basses , flatheads , sea breams and lightfishes .
Protandry is when an individual starts out male and becomes female while the reverse condition is known as protogyny , the latter being more common . Changing sex can occur in various contexts . In the bluestreak cleaner wrasse , where males have harems of up to ten females , if the male is removed the largest and most dominant female develops male @-@ like behaviour and eventually testes . If she is removed , the next ranking female takes her place . In the species Anthias squamipinnis , where individuals gather into large groups and females greatly outnumber males , if a certain number of males are removed from a group , the same number of females change sex and replace them . In clownfish , individuals live in groups and only the two largest in a group breed : the largest female and the largest male . If the female dies , the male switches sexes and the next largest male takes his place .
In deep @-@ sea anglerfish ( sub @-@ order Ceratioidei ) , the much smaller male becomes permanently attached to the female and degenerates into a sperm @-@ producing attachment . The female and their attached male become a " semi @-@ hermaphroditic unit " .
= = = Mating tactics = = =
There are several different mating systems among teleosts . Some species are promiscuous , where both males and females breed with multiple partners and there are no obvious mate choices . This has been recorded in Baltic herring , guppies , Nassau groupers , humbug damselfish , cichlids and creole wrasses . Polygamy , where one sex has multiple partners can come in many forms . Polyandry consists of one adult female breeding with multiple males , which only breed with that female . This is rare among teleosts , and fish in general , but is found in the clownfish . In addition , it may also exist to an extent among anglerfish , where some females have more than one male attached to them . Polygyny , where one male breeds with multiple females , is much more common . This is recorded in sculpins , sunfish , darters , damselfish and cichlids where multiple females may visit a territorial male that guards and takes care of eggs and young . Polygyny may also involve a male guarding a harem of several females . This occurs in coral reef species , such as damselfishes , wrasses , parrotfishes , surgeonfishes , triggerfishes and tilefishes .
Lek breeding , where males congregate to display to females , has been recorded in at least one species Cyrtocara eucinostomus . Lek @-@ like breeding systems have also been recorded in several other species . In monogamous species , males and females may form pair bonds and breed exclusively with their partners . This occurs in North American freshwater catfishes , many butterflyfishes , sea horses and several other species . Courtship in teleosts plays a role in species recognition , strengthening pair bonds , spawning site position and gamete release synchronisation . This includes colour changes , sound production and visual displays ( fin erection , rapid swimming , breaching ) , which is often done by the male . Courtship may be done by a female to overcome a territorial male that would otherwise drive her away .
Sexual dimorphism exists in some species . Individuals of one sex , usually males develop secondary sexual characteristics that increase their chances of reproductive success . In dolphinfish , males have larger and blunter heads than females . In several minnow species , males develop swollen heads and small bumps known as breeding tubercles during the breeding season . The male green humphead parrotfish has a more well @-@ developed forehead with an " ossified ridge " which plays a role in ritualised headbutting . Dimorphism can also take the form of differences in coloration . Again , it is usually the males that are brightly coloured ; in killifishes , rainbowfishes and wrasses the colours are permanent while in species like minnows , sticklebacks , darters and sunfishes , the colour changes with seasons . Such coloration can be very conspicuous to predators , showing that the drive to reproduce can be stronger than that to avoid predation .
Males that have been unable to court a female successfully may try to achieve reproductive success in other ways . In sunfish species , like the bluegill , larger , older males known as parental males , which have successfully courted a female , construct nests for the eggs they fertilise . Smaller satellite males mimic female behaviour and coloration to access a nest and fertilise the eggs . Other males , known as sneaker males , lurk nearby and then quickly dash to the nest , fertilising on the run . These males are smaller than satellite males . Sneaker males also exist in Oncorhynchus salmon , where small males that were unable to establish a position near a female dash in while the large dominant male is spawning with the female .
= = = Spawning sites and parental care = = =
Teleosts may spawn in the water column or , more commonly , on the substrate . Water column spawners are mostly limited to coral reefs ; the fish will rush towards the surface and release their gametes . This appears to protect the eggs from some predators and allow them to disperse widely via currents . However , they receive no parental care . Water column spawners are more likely than substrate spawners to spawn in groups . Substrate spawning commonly occurs in nests , rock crevices or even burrows . Some eggs can stick to various surfaces like rocks , plants , wood or shells .
Of the oviparous teleosts , most ( 79 percent ) do not provide parental care . Male care is far more common than female care . Male territoriality " preadapts " a species to evolve male parental care . One unusual example of female parental care is in mother discuses , which provide nutrients for their developing young in the form of mucus . Some teleost species have their eggs or young attached to or carried in their bodies . For sea catfishes , cardinalfishes , jawfishes and some others , the egg may be incubated or carried in the mouth , a practice known as mouthbrooding . In some African cichlids , the eggs may be fertilised there . In species like the banded acara , young are brooded after they hatch and this may be done by both parents . The timing of the release of young varies between species ; some mouthbrooders release new @-@ hatched young while other may keep then until they are juveniles . In addition to mouthbrooding , some teleost have also developed structures to carry young . Male nurseryfish have a bony hook on their foreheads to carry fertilised eggs ; they remain on the hook until they hatch . For seahorses , the male has a brooding pouch where the female deposits the fertilised eggs and they remain there until they become free @-@ swimming juveniles . Female banjo catfishes have structures on their belly to which the eggs attach .
In some parenting species , young from a previous spawning batch may stay with their parents and help care for the new young . This is known to occur in around 19 species of cichlids in Lake Tanganyika . These helpers take part in cleaning and fanning eggs and larvae , cleaning the breeding hole and protecting the territory . They have reduced growth rate but gain protection from predators . Brood parasitism also exists among teleosts ; minnows may spawn in sunfish nests as well as nests of other minnow species . The cuckoo catfish is known for laying eggs on the substrate as mouthbrooding cichclids collect theirs and the young catfish will eat the cichlid larvae . Filial cannibalism occurs in some teleost families and may have evolved to combat starvation .
= = = Growth and development = = =
Teleosts have four major life stages : the egg , the larva , the juvenile and the adult . Species may begin life in a pelagic environment or a demersal environment ( near the seabed ) . Most marine teleosts have pelagic eggs , which are light , transparent and buoyant with thin envelopes . Pelagic eggs rely on the ocean currents to disperse and receive no parental care . When they hatch , the larvae are planktonic and unable to swim . They have a yolk sac attached to them which provides nutrients . Most freshwater species produce demersal eggs which are thick , pigmented , relatively heavy and able to stick to substrates . Parental care is much more common among freshwater fish . Unlike their pelagic counterparts , demersal larvae are able to swim and feed as soon as they hatch . Larval teleosts often look very different from adults , particularly in marine species . Some larvae were even considered different species from the adults . Larvae have high mortality rates , most die from starvation or predation within their first week . As they grow , survival rates increase and there is greater physiological tolerance and sensitivity , ecological and behavioural competence .
At the juvenile stage , a teleost looks more like its adult form . At this stage , its axial skeleton , internal organs , scales , pigmentation and fins are fully developed . The transition from larvae to juvenile can be short and fairly simple , lasting minutes or hours as in some damselfish , while in other species , like salmon , squirrelfish , gobies and flatfishes , the transition is more complex and takes several weeks to complete . At the adult stage , a teleost is able to produce viable gametes for reproduction . Like many fish , teleosts continue to grow throughout their lives . Longevity depends on the species with some gamefish like European perch and largemouth bass living up to 25 years . Rockfish appear to be the longest living teleosts with some species living over 100 years .
= = Shoaling and schooling = =
Many teleosts form shoals , which serve multiple purposes in different species . Schooling is sometimes an antipredator adaptation , offering improved vigilance against predators . It is often more efficient to gather food by working as a group , and individual fish optimise their strategies by choosing to join or leave a shoal . When a predator has been noticed , prey fish respond defensively , resulting in collective shoal behaviours such as synchronised movements . Responses do not consist only of attempting to hide or flee ; antipredator tactics include for example scattering and reassembling . Fish also aggregate in shoals to spawn .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Economic importance = = =
Teleosts are economically important in different ways . They are captured for food around the world . A small number of species such as herring , cod , pollock , anchovy , tuna and mackerel provide people with millions of tons of food per year , while many other species are fished in smaller amounts . They provide a large proportion of the fish caught for sport . Commercial and recreational fishing together provide millions of people with employment .
A small number of productive species including carp , salmon , tilapia and catfish are farmed commercially , producing millions of tons of protein @-@ rich food per year . The FAO expects production to increase sharply so that by 2030 , perhaps sixty @-@ two percent of food fish will be farmed .
Fish are consumed fresh , or may be preserved by traditional methods , which include combinations of drying , smoking , and salting , or fermentation . Modern methods of preservation include freezing , freeze drying , and heat processing ( as in canning ) . Frozen fish products include breaded or battered fillets , fish fingers and fishcakes . Fish meal is used as a food supplement for farmed fish and for livestock . Fish oils are made either from fish liver , especially rich in vitamins A and D , or from the bodies of oily fish such as sardine and herring , and used as food supplements and to treat vitamin deficiencies .
Some smaller and more colourful species serve as aquarium specimens and pets . Sea wolves are used in the leather industry . Isinglass is made from thread fish and drum fish .
= = = Impact on stocks = = =
Human activities have affected stocks of many species of teleost , through overfishing , pollution and global warming . Among many recorded instances , overfishing caused the complete collapse of the Atlantic cod population off Newfoundland in 1992 , leading to Canada 's indefinite closure of the fishery . Such commercial extinction does not however signify extinction of the species . Pollution , especially in rivers and along coasts , has harmed teleosts as sewage , pesticides and herbicides have entered the water . Many pollutants , such as heavy metals , organochlorines , and carbamates interfere with teleost reproduction , often by disrupting their endocrine systems . In the roach , river pollution has caused the intersex condition , in which an individual 's gonads contain both cells that can make male gametes ( such as spermatogonia ) and cells that can make female gametes ( such as oogonia ) . Since endocrine disruption also affects humans , teleosts are used to indicate the presence of such chemicals in water . Water pollution caused local extinction of teleost populations in many northern European lakes in the second half of the twentieth century .
The effects of climate change on teleosts could be powerful but are complex . For example , increased winter precipitation ( rain and snow ) could harm populations of freshwater fish in Norway , whereas warmer summers could increase growth of adult fish . In the oceans , teleosts may be able to cope with warming , as it is simply an extension of natural variation in climate . It is uncertain how ocean acidification , caused by rising carbon dioxide levels , might affect teleosts .
= = = Other interactions = = =
A few teleosts are dangerous . Some like the electric eel and the electric catfish can give a severe electric shock . Others such as the piranha and barracuda have a powerful bite and have sometimes attacked human bathers . Reports have stated that due to their large sizes , some of the catfish family have attacked human bathers .
Medaka and zebrafish are used as research models for studies in genetics and developmental biology . The zebrafish is the most commonly used laboratory vertebrate , offering the advantages of similar genetics to mammals , small size , simple environmental needs , transparent larvae permitting non @-@ invasive imaging , plentiful offspring , rapid growth , and the ability to absorb mutagens added to their water .
= = = In art = = =
Teleost fishes have been frequent subjects in art , reflecting their economic importance , for at least 14 @,@ 000 years . They were commonly worked into patterns in Ancient Egypt , acquiring mythological significance in Ancient Greece and Rome , and from there into Christianity as a religious symbol ; artists in China and Japan similarly use fish images symbolically . Teleosts became common in Renaissance art , with still life paintings reaching a peak of popularity in the Netherlands in the 17th century . In the 20th century , different artists such as Klee , Magritte , Matisse and Picasso used representations of teleosts to express radically different themes , from attractive to violent . The zoologist and artist Ernst Haeckel painted teleosts and other animals in his 1904 Kunstformen der Natur . Haeckel had become convinced by Goethe and Alexander von Humboldt that making accurate depictions of unfamiliar natural forms , such as from the deep oceans , he could not only discover " the laws of their origin and evolution but also to press into the secret parts of their beauty by sketching and painting " .
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= Imperial Bedrooms =
Imperial Bedrooms is a novel by American author Bret Easton Ellis . Released on June 15 , 2010 , it is the sequel to Less Than Zero , Ellis ' 1985 bestselling literary debut , which was shortly followed by a film adaptation in 1987 . Imperial Bedrooms revisits Less Than Zero 's self @-@ destructive and disillusioned youths as they approach middle @-@ age in the present day . Like Ellis ' earlier novel , which took its name from Elvis Costello 's 1977 song of the same name , Imperial Bedrooms is named after Costello 's 1982 album .
The action of the novel takes place twenty @-@ five years after Less Than Zero . Its story follows Clay , a New York @-@ based screenwriter , after he returns to Los Angeles to cast his new film . There he becomes embroiled in the sinister world of his former friends and confronts the darker aspects of his own personality . The novel opens with a literary device which suggests the possibility that the narrator of Imperial Bedrooms may not be the same as the narrator of Less Than Zero although both are ostensibly narrated by Clay . In doing this , Ellis is able to comment on the earlier novel 's style and on the development of its moralistic film adaptation . In the novel Ellis explores Clay 's pathological narcissism , masochistic and sadistic tendencies , and exploitative personality , which had been less explicit in Less Than Zero . Ellis chose to do this in part to dispel the sentimental reputation Less Than Zero has accrued over the years , that of " an artifact of the 1980s " . Imperial Bedrooms retains Ellis ' characteristic transgressive style and applies it to the 2000s ( decade ) and 2010s , covering amongst other things , the impact of new communication technologies on daily lives .
Ellis began working on what would become Imperial Bedrooms during the development of his 2005 novel , Lunar Park . As with his previous works , Imperial Bedrooms depicts scenes of sex , extreme violence and hedonism in a minimalist style devoid of emotion . Some commentators have noted however that unlike previous works , Imperial Bedrooms employs more of the conventional devices of popular fiction . Reviews were mixed and frequently polarized . Some reviewers felt the novel was a successful return to themes explored in Less Than Zero , Lunar Park and American Psycho ( 1991 ) , while others derided it as " boring " or self @-@ indulgent .
= = Background = =
The development of Imperial Bedrooms began after Ellis re @-@ read Less Than Zero as part of the writing process for his 2005 novel , Lunar Park . The novel takes its name from Elvis Costello 's 1982 album Imperial Bedroom , just as Less Than Zero had been named for a Costello single . After reading his first novel , Ellis began to reflect on what had become of the characters from Less Than Zero . Soon , he found himself " overwhelm [ ed ] " by the idea of what would become Imperial Bedrooms as it continually returned to him . After gestating the idea , and making " voluminous notes " , his detailed outline became longer than the finished book . Ellis felt that this process of note @-@ taking limited him to the novels that he genuinely wanted " to stay with for a couple of years " . To this , he attributed having " written so few novels " . Ellis 's biggest influence in the course of writing Imperial Bedrooms was American novelist Raymond Chandler , " and that kind of pulpy noir fiction " . He found inspiration in Chandler because " He didn 't even know how some of his books ended . That 's part of what makes those books existentialist masterpieces . " To Ellis , " It 's about a journey and a tone and style and this worldview he created . " In terms of his own plotting , however , he opined that " plots really don 't matter " , nor solutions to mysteries , because it 's " the mood that 's so enthralling ... [ a ] kind of universal , this idea of a man searching for something or moving through this moral landscape and trying to protect himself from it , and yet he 's still forced to investigate it . " Part of the " impetus " behind Imperial Bedrooms , which Ellis " wrestled with " , was to try and dispel the " sentimental view of Less Than Zero " that made it , to some , " an artifact of the 80s " alongside " John Hughes movies and Ray @-@ Bans and Fast Times at Ridgemont High " ; he felt he began assessing audience 's reactions to his work when working on Lunar Park .
On April 14 , 2009 , MTV News announced that Ellis had nearly finished the novel and it would be published in May 2010 . At the time , Ellis revealed that all the novel 's main characters would return . Prior to publication , Ellis had been convinced by his persuasive editor to remove some of the more graphic lines from Imperial Bedrooms ' torture scenes , which he later regretted . " My most extreme act of self @-@ censoring in Imperial Bedrooms , " he said , however , was to omit a three @-@ line description of a silver wall , because he felt that Clay would never have written it . Ellis stated he had no plans to make changes to the book as it stands in a second edition . Months prior to the book 's release , Ellis tweeted the first sentence of the novel , " They had made a movie about us . " The Random House website later announced the on sale date of June 22 , 2010 in both hardback and paperback . With it , they released a picture of the book 's cover and a short synopsis , which described the book as focusing on a middle @-@ aged Clay , now a screenwriter , drawn back into his old circle . Amidst this , Clay begins dating a young actress with mysterious ties to Julian , Rip and a recently murdered Hollywood producer ; his life begins to spin out of control . In Imperial Bedrooms , Los Angeles returns once again as the book 's setting . Along with New York , where Clay has been prior to coming home , it is one of Ellis ' two major locations .
= = Plot = =
The action of Imperial Bedrooms depicts Clay upon returning to Los Angeles , having lived in New York for four years , in order to assist in the casting of his new film . There he meets up with his old friends who were characters in Less Than Zero . Like Clay , they have all become involved in the film industry : his philandering friend Trent Burroughs — who has married Blair — is a manager , while Clay 's former classmate at Camden , Daniel Carter , has become a famous producer . Julian Wells , who was a male prostitute in Less Than Zero , has become an ultra @-@ discreet high @-@ class pimp representing struggling young actors who do not wish to tarnish future careers . Rip Millar , Clay 's former drug dealer , now controls his own cartel and has become disfigured through repeated plastic surgeries .
Clay attempts to romance Rain Turner , a gorgeous young woman auditioning for a role in his new film , leading her on with the promise of being cast , all the while knowing she is too old for the part . His narration reveals he has done this with a number of men and women in the past , and yet often comes out of the relationship hurt and damaged himself . Over the course of their relationship , he is stalked by unknown persons driving a Jeep and is frequently reminded by various individuals of the grisly murder of a young producer whom he knew . Clay disinterestedly watches a snuff film of the murder — later attributed to Rip — on his iPhone .
As the novel progresses , Clay learns that Rip also had a fling with Rain and is now obsessed with her . When Clay discovers that Julian is currently Rain 's boyfriend , he conspires with Rip to hand Julian over to him . When Julian is then found murdered , Rain confronts Clay about his role in the affair and is raped by him in response . He later receives a video of Julian 's murder from Rip which has been overdubbed with an angry voicemail from Clay as a means to implicate him in the crime . The novel then depicts sequences of the savage sexual and physical abuse of a beautiful young girl and young boy , perpetrated by Clay . Clay experiences no feelings of remorse or guilt for this , for Julian 's death , or for exploiting and raping Rain . In the last scenes , it is strongly implied that Blair has been hiring people to follow Clay . In return for his giving her what she wants , she offers to provide Clay with a false alibi that will prevent the police from arresting him as an accomplice to Julian 's murder .
= = Characters = =
Much critical attention has been given to the development of the characters from the original book , 25 years on . One review opined that " [ Ellis ' ] characters are incapable of growth . They cannot credibly find Jesus or even see a skilled psychologist or take the right medication to fend off despair . They are bound to be American psychos . " Their development , some critics have observed , illuminates the ways they have not developed as people ; Clay is , for example , " in mind and spirit if not quite in body , destined to remain unchanged , undeveloped , unlikable and unloved . " In Less Than Zero , though the characters of the novel compose for some " the most hollow and vapid representation of the MTV generation one could possibly imagine " , they remained to other reviewers " particularly sympathetic " . Like the novel , its characters were equally cultural milestones , described by a reviewer as " seminal characters " ( of American fiction ) . On the subject of the 1987 film , Clay describes that " the parents who ran the studio would [ n 't ] ever expose their children in the same black light the book did " . To Bill Eichenberger , this shows how " the children have become the parents , writing scripts and producing movies , still imprisoned by Hollywood 's youth and drug cultures – but now looking at things from the outside in . " Eisinger comments for the New York Press , that while " they 're in careers now and new relationships and different states of mind ... their preoccupations are just the same . "
Clay , the protagonist of Less Than Zero , " once a paralyzed observer , is now a more active character and has grown to be a narcissist " . Clay 's narcissism emerges , according to Ellis , because Ellis as a writer " wasn 't that interested in the other characters , and neither is Clay . " For the author , his became " an exploration of intense narcissism . " In 2010 , Clay is now a " successful screenwriter " with the " occasional producer credit " . He returns to LA to help cast The Listeners ( reminiscent of Ellis ' involvement with the 2009 film adaptation of his short story collection The Informers ) . Now 45 , and no longer a disaffected teen , Clay is described by Details as " arguably worse than American Psycho 's Patrick Bateman " ; Ellis says that he " wouldn 't disagree " with this because Bateman 's crimes are ambiguous . In terms of Clay 's psychology , Ellis notes his preponderance for a " masochistic cycle of control and rejection and seduction and inevitable pain " , which " is something he gets off on because he 's ... a masochist and not a romantic . " The Los Angeles Times notes how Clay " shares biographical details with Ellis " , a successful party @-@ boy , who in 1985 was " often conflated with his fictional counterpart . " Ellis asserts to the contrary , " I 'm not really Clay . " As opposed to his portrayal in Less Than Zero , Imperial Bedrooms makes it more abundantly clear that Clay is as manipulative as those around him ; he is , in Ellis ' words , " guilty " . As in Less Than Zero , Clay has " stuck to thinking and feeling as little as possible " , " fending off the enemy of emotion with regular doses of alcohol and sedatives such as ambien , living with a kind of psychic " locked @-@ in " syndrome . " As in Zero and Psycho , the novel also poses the question of Clay 's reality , The Independent asking " Is Clay really being followed or is he being dogged by a guilty conscience for crimes committed , even when they are crimes of inaction ? " Over the novel , " Clay shifts from damaged to depraved " ; a " final scene in Imperial Bedrooms of unremitting torture ... enacted by Clay on two beautiful teenagers who are bought and systematically abused " demonstrates " Clay 's graduation from a passively colluding observer to active perpetrator ... who either indulges in torture or fantasizes about it . "
The novel is written in the first @-@ person , from Clay 's perspective . Clay , who " felt betrayed by Less Than Zero " , uses Imperial Bedrooms to make a stand or a case for himself , though ultimately " reveals himself to be far worse than the author of Less Than Zero ever began to hint at . " Clay still bears similarities to the earlier character in Less Than Zero ; according to one reviewer , " not all that much is changed . Clay is a cipher , an empty shell who is only able to approximate interactions and experiences through acts of sadism and exploitation . " He is also , in many ways , a new character , because the opening of the book presents that the Clay of Less Than Zero had merely been " just a writer pretending to be him " . When asked why he " changed " Clay from " passive " to " guilty " , Ellis explained he felt Clay 's inaction in the original novel made him equally as guilty ; it had " always bothered " Ellis that Clay didn 't do anything to save the little girl being raped in the first novel . The Independent notes " his passivity [ in Less Than Zero ] has hardened into something far more culpable , and nefarious . " According to Ellis , " In LA , over time , the real person you are ultimately comes out . " He also speculates " maybe the fear turned him into a monster " . Ellis remarks that he finds the developments in Clay " so exciting " . One reviewer summarized the character 's development , " The nascent narcissist of Less Than Zero ... is now left in a " dead end " . The novel is Ellis ' " deeply pessimistic presentation of human nature as assailable ... an unflinching study of evil . "
Blair and Trent Burroughs share a loveless marriage . Blair remains , according to Janelle Brown , " the moral center of Ellis ' work " , and Trent has become a Hollywood manager . The Oregonian notes " Although Blair and Trent have children , the children are never described and hardly mentioned ; their absence is " even more unsettling than the absence of parents in a story about teenagers , underlining the endlessly narcissistic nature of the characters ' world . " Julian Wells has gone on to establish a very exclusive escort service of his own in Hollywood . While in Less Than Zero , Clay felt protective of Julian , who had fallen into prostitution and drug addiction , in the new novel , he attempts to have him killed . The " grisly " dispatch of Julian late in the book , and Clay 's casual mention of it early on , were part of a " rhythm " that Ellis felt suited the book . He speculates whether " the artist looking back " becomes a destructive force . He hadn 't planned to kill off the character , just finding that while writing " it felt right " . Rip Millar occupies both terrifying and comic relief roles in the novel . Vice describes him , hyperbolically , as " like the supervillain of these two books " . Uncertainties about the character 's " specifics " originate in Clay , who " doesn 't really want to know , which makes it kind of scarier " .
= = Writing style = =
Writing for The Observer , Alison Kelly of the University of Oxford observes the novel 's " philosophical " qualities , and opines that its " thriller @-@ style hints and foreshadowings ... form part of a metaphysical investigation . " Kelly describes it as " existentialist to the extent that it confronts the minimal limits of identity " and an exposé of the worst depths of human nature . She further argues that the novel 's motif of facial recognitions amounts to the message that people should be read " at face value " , and that furthermore , past action is the greatest indicator of future behaviour , leaving no room for " change , growth , [ or ] self @-@ reinvention " . In terms of stylistic literary changes , Ellis also displays more fondness for the Ruskinian pathetic fallacy than in previous works . For the most part , the novel is written in Ellis ' trademark writing style ; Lawson refers to this as " sexual and narcotic depravities in an emotionless tone . " With regard to this style , Ellis cites precursors to himself , particular the work of filmmakers . Ellis feels that the technique itself gives the reader a unique kind of insight into the characters , and comments that " numbness is a feeling too . Emotionality isn 't the only feeling there is . " In terms of style , Ellis told Vice that he enjoyed his return to minimalism , because of the challenge of " [ t ] rying to achieve that kind of tension with so few words was enjoyable to do . " While some reviewers of popular fiction derided Ellis 's style as " flat " , others found it unexpectedly moving .
= = Literary devices and themes = =
Imperial Bedrooms opens with an acknowledgement of the Less Than Zero novel and film both as actual items within the fictional history of Imperial Bedrooms ' Clay ; he describes " The movie was based on a book by someone we knew … . It was labeled fiction but only a few details had been altered and our names weren 't changed and there was nothing in it that hadn 't happened . " The Los Angeles Times describes this as a " nifty little trick " , because it allows Ellis to establish the newer book " as the primary narrative , one that trumps Ellis as author and the real world . " The San Francisco Chronicle calls it a " neat trick of authorial self @-@ abnegation " . Another reviewer describes it as Ellis at " his most ambitious " , a " Philip Rothian , doppelgänger gambit " , making his new narrator " the real Clay " and the other an imposter . This allows Ellis to skilfully , " with writerly jujitsu " , acknowledge Robert Downey Jr . ' s popular performance as Julian in the moralistic 1987 film , in which he died ; Ellis appreciates the adaptation as a " milestone in a lot of ways " . The device also allows the novelist to insert self @-@ critique ; The Sunday Times reviewer notes that Imperial Bedrooms finds its characters " still a little sore at their depiction as inarticulate zombies " . John Crace , in his " digested read " of Imperial Bedrooms , insinuates through parody that " the author " of the metafictional Less Than Zero is also meant to be Ellis , describing him in Clay 's voice as " too immersed in the passivity of writing and too pleased with his own style to bother with many commas to admit it so he wrote me into the story as the man who was too frightened to love . " With regard to the opening narrative conceit , Ellis queries " Is it complication ... or is it clarification ? " , opining that it certainly is the latter for Clay . Though Ellis never names himself in the book , he concedes to Lawson that although " I don 't name the author " , one can " guess [ Bret Easton Ellis ] is who the Clay of Imperial Bedrooms is referring to . " Ellis told Vice that he hadn 't explicitly considered when writing the novel whether Clay was referring to him or not . Eileen Battersby comments , " Just as he did in Lunar Park ( 2005 ) , Ellis uses self @-@ consciousness as a device . " According to Vice , this conceit of self @-@ consciousness means that " Imperial Bedrooms is no mere sequel . It 's more a culmination of all of Ellis 's work " , containing " the scatological violence of American Psycho " and " the otherworldly terror of Lunar Park " . Ellis himself raises the " sequel " question , commenting " ... I don 't think it is [ a sequel ] . Well , I mean , it is and it isn 't . It 's narrated by him , sure . But I guess I could maybe have switched the names around and it could stand alone . "
Asked about the motif and " casual approach to " bisexual characters in his novels , continued in Imperial Bedrooms , Ellis stated he " really [ didn 't ] know " , and that he wished he could provide " an answer – depicting [ him ] as extremely conscious of those choices " . He believes it to be an " interesting aspect of [ his ] work " . Details notes how Ellis ' own sexuality , frequently described as bisexual , has been notoriously hard to pin down . Reviewers have long tried to probe Ellis on autobiographical themes in his work . He reiterates to Vice that he is not Clay . Ellis says that other contemporary authors ( naming Michael Chabon , Jonathan Franzen , Jonathan Lethem as examples ) don 't get asked if their novels are autobiographical . ( However , Ellis tells one interview , that he " cannot fully " say that " I 'm not Clay " because of their emotional " connections " . ) Vice attributes this streak to Ellis ' age when Less Than Zero came out , which led to him being seen as a voice @-@ of @-@ the @-@ generation . Ellis feels that the autobiographical truths of his novels lie in their writing processes , which to him are like emotional " exorcisms " . Crace 's abovementioned parody suggests that Less Than Zero Clay was originally a flattering portrayal of Ellis . Ellis discusses lightly the kinds of self @-@ insertion present in the book . While Clay is clearly ( parodically ) working on the film adaptation of The Informers , he is at the same time fully aware that he has been a character in Less Than Zero , and that ostensibly , Ellis is ' the author ' whom Clay knew . However , there are clear differences to the characters , as well . For example , Ellis had to omit lines from the book he felt Clay would never have thought of , on subjects he would never have noticed . Ellis himself feels he is adapting to middle @-@ age very well ; Clay , however , isn 't .
Imperial Bedrooms also breaches several new territories . When compared to Less Than Zero , its " huge shift " is a technological one . The novel picks up on many aspects of the early 21st century culture , such as Internet viral videos which depict executions . The novel reflects how technology changes the nature of interpersonal relationships . Additionally , Clay is text @-@ stalked throughout the book ; Ellis himself had been " text @-@ stalked " before in real life . Ellis feels this was an unconscious exploration of the dynamics brought on by the new technology . The author also predicts that " fans of Less Than Zero " may " feel betrayed " ; Imperial Bedrooms ' thrust is its " narrative ... of exploitation " . One reviewer describes the novel 's " central theme " as " Hollywood is an industry town running on exploitation " , and criticizes this theme for being unoriginal in 2010 . An Irish Times review notes positively however that Ellis ' " vision of society is bleak ; his dark studies of the human animal as shocking as ever . " The new setting poses questions , such as " Is Hollywood intended as a variation of ancient Rome ? Is the movie industry a coliseum ? " Another review found that the celebrity setting , as visited before in his novel Glamorama ( 1998 ) , allows Ellis to make a number of observations about contemporary pop culture via Clay , such as when he asserts " that exposure can ensure fame " . Ellis comments how in Less Than Zero , Clay 's passivity worked to protect him from the " bleak moral landscape he was a part of " , which he views as Clay 's major flaw . Ellis developed this into the more unabashedly ' guilty ' Clay of the new novel . Ellis says that " a portrait of narcissism was the big nut that I had . Of entitlement . This imperial idea . " The difference he notes between this " portrait of a narcissist " and his earlier ones , such as American Psycho and Lunar Park , come in the form of its more moral bent : " This time " , Ellis comments , " the narcissist reaches a dead end . " To one reviewer , Clay 's world at its most exaggerated , in the scenes of torture , reach Huxleyan heights of dystopian fantasy , comparing Imperial Bedrooms to Brave New World ( 1932 ) , " where the " command economy " now manifests as rampant , late @-@ capitalist consumerism , where ambien is the new soma and humans are zombies : one character 's face is " unnaturally smooth , redone in such a way that the eyes are shocked open with perpetual surprise ; it 's a face mimicking a face , and it looks agonized . "
= = Reception = =
The Guardian attempted to aggregate what they found to be polarised reviews of Imperial Bedrooms , noting that one Times reviewer felt the novel was simply dull , " impoverished " , and " ghastly " , whereas the London Review of Books felt that in spite of its flaws , the book was enjoyable for its " beautiful one @-@ liners " and the fun of " seeing the old Easton Ellis magic applied to the popular culture of our era ... iPhones , Apple stores , internet videos and Lost . " The New Statesman compiled reviews from The Independent , The Observer , and The New York Times . The first two reviews are positive , praising Ellis ' " modern noir " , the book 's " atmosphere " , and indebtedness to Philip Roth and F. Scott Fitzgerald , with the Observer saying it " ranks with his best in the latter register [ of Fitzgerald ] . " The latter review accused Ellis of falling flat , attracting negative comparison to Martin Amis ; both have " a flair for such perfect , surreal description " but " struggle to set it in an effective context . " Other writers attempting to gauge the book 's reception also describe it as " mixed " . The Periscope Press deemed that the novel 's reviews were mostly negative , citing Dr. Alison Kelly 's article for The Guardian as the only counter @-@ example , while deeming that it " still read more like restrained criticism than outright praise " . On the subject of reviews , British critic Mark Lawson notes the tendency for Ellis ' reviews to be " unpredictable " ; he cited the irony of favour amongst right @-@ wing critics , and the extent to which the liberal media attack his work . Ellis himself , however , states that he " proudly " accepts the label of moralist . He also attributes some of the negative criticism that Imperial Bedrooms and Ellis ' earlier works have received in the past to the earlier schools of feminist criticism ; today , he observes young girls " reading the works correctly " , opining the books shouldn 't be read through the lens of " old school feminism . " To that end , the author observes that older women reviewing Imperial Bedrooms in the US had issues with it , not least feelings of betrayal . He feels these are ironic because the book is in fact a critique of a certain kind of male perspective and behaviour .
Tom Shone , writing for The Sunday Times , praised the novel for its atypical qualities for Ellis , " known for his orgies of violence " . Shone asks " Why is a new sequel to Less Than Zero ... so moving ? " , noting the presence of " feelings " in the novel to be starkly different from Ellis ' usual style . Touching on its personal qualities , Shone notes " If Lunar Park unspooled the atrocities of American Psycho back to their source , Imperial Bedrooms pulls the thread further and reaches Less Than Zero " . The emotive energy in the new book is traced back to the last pages of Lunar Park as well ; fellow writer Jay McInerney observes that " The last few pages of [ Lunar Park ] are among the most moving passages I know in recent American fiction [ because ] ... Bret was coming to terms with his relationship with his father in that book . " Vice observes that the " final passages in both Imperial Bedrooms and Lunar Park pack a lot of emotional impact . " San Francisco Chronicle hails Imperial Bedrooms as " the very definition of authorly meta : Ellis is either so deeply enmeshed in his own creepy little insular world that he can 't write his way out of it , or else he is such a genius that he 's created an entire parallel universe that folds and unfolds on itself like some kind of Escher print . "
Regarding the book 's achievement , Shone remarks " He now stands at year zero – creatively , psychologically . " However , typical features of Ellis ' earlier works remain intact ; for example , in its depictions of violence . Commenting on its self @-@ referential aspects , Janelle Brown of the San Francisco Chronicle recommends " for his next endeavor , Ellis should stop worrying and start looking for the exit of his own personal rabbit hole . " The Buffalo News awarded the novel its Editor 's Choice . Jeff Simon comments that it " brings an excessive Reaganesque flavor to Obama America " . With regards to the novel 's writing style , he comments " The first @-@ person sentences run on and on , but the individual sections of the book are nothing if not minimal ... ghastly narcissism or not , Bret Easton Ellis has a fictional territory all his own and , heaven forbid , a mastery there . " The Wall Street Journal on the other hand , described this prose style as " flat and fizzless " . Such is the book 's violent aesthetic that , for Eileen Battersby of The Irish Times , " the book is closer to his remarkable third novel , American Psycho " . She further compliments Ellis as " a bizarrely moral writer who specializes in evoking the amoral . " Concerning his writing , she notes its " despair is blunt , factual and seldom approaches the laconic unease of JG Ballard . "
Following her positive comments , however , Battersby concludes negatively . The book is a " bleak performance ... a tired study of the vacuous " with the feeling of an improvised screenplay being performed by an uncommitted cast . She sums that Ellis ' novel " consists of too many doors being left slightly ajar , and not enough rooms , or opportunities , being fully explored . " Some critics have questioned the book 's relevance to a contemporary audience . Dallas News poses the question , whether Imperial Bedrooms is " a story anyone is interested in anymore " , because Ellis ' " blunt , spare , journal @-@ entry prose " is no longer , in 2010 , " the backstage pass " it once was to the lives of " LA 's rich and famous " . Furthermore , Tom Maurstrad argues that since the 1980s , that decade has become a " go @-@ to bargain bin for retro @-@ trends and ready @-@ made nostalgia , easy to package into fashion lines and TV shows " . The review bemoans that the novel 's theme , the dark side of Hollywood , is no longer a culture @-@ shocking revelation , and that Ellis fails to capitalize on the narratorial conceit which it opens with . Maurstrad does highlight positive aspects , however . Ellis wisely " appropriates the unblinking brutality [ of ] ... American Psycho , to add some dramatic heft to this anorexic update " , making the sequel a " celebrity snuff film " to the earlier " backstage pass " . The Wall Street Journal damned the novel as " a dull , stricken , under @-@ medicated nonstory that goes nowhere . " The Boston Globe reviewer opined that " Ellis is aiming for noir , for the territory of James Ellroy and Raymond Chandler , but ends up with an XXX @-@ rated episode of Melrose Place . "
Andrew McCarthy , who played Clay in the 1987 Less Than Zero film , described the novel as " an exciting , shocking conclusion ... a surprising one . " The actor praised Clay 's character , citing a " wicked vulnerability " which the character covers up with alcohol , hostility , and its portrayal of a world " full of pain and suffering and unkindness " beneath the " glossy and shimmering and seductive " veneer of Hollywood . McCarthy described his experience of reading the book as like " revisiting an old friend " , owing to the consistency of the characters ' and Ellis ' voices .
= = Possible film adaptation = =
In May 2010 , when MTV News first announced that Ellis had finished writing Imperial Bedrooms , the writer told them in interview that he had begun looking ahead to the possibility of a film adaptation , and felt that interpreting it as a sequel to the 1987 movie adaptation starring Andrew McCarthy , Robert Downey Jr . , James Spader and Jami Gertz " would be a great idea " . Two months prior to the book 's release , Less Than Zero actor Andrew McCarthy stated it was " early days " in thinking about a potential film adaptation ; McCarthy felt , however , that the novel would adapt well . Because the characters in Imperial Bedrooms have been owned by 20th Century Fox since Ellis sold the film rights to Less Than Zero , prospective film for Imperial Bedrooms rights revert to Fox . Ellis stated to Vice in June 2010 that he would be interested in writing the screenplay . In July 2010 however , the author clarified to California Chronicle , saying " There 's no deal , there 's no one attached . There 's been some vague talk among the cast members ... As far as I know right now nothing 's happening . " Ellis opines that were Robert Downey Jr. to get involved , the film would move straight into production . However , remembering the adaptation process Less Than Zero went through , he admits " I 've learned to be cautious about saying oh they 'll never turn this dark depraved character into any sort of interesting Mulholland Drive , David Lynch kind of movie , but I could be totally wrong about that . I don 't know . "
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= Anthony Roll =
The Anthony Roll is a record of ships of the English Tudor navy of the 1540s , named after its creator , Anthony Anthony . It originally consisted of three rolls of vellum , depicting 58 naval vessels along with information on their size , crew , armament , and basic equipment . The rolls were presented to King Henry VIII in 1546 , and were kept in the royal library . In 1680 Charles II gave two of the rolls to Samuel Pepys , who had them cut up and bound as a single volume book , which is now in the Pepys Library at Magdalene College , Cambridge . The third roll remained in the royal collection until it was given by William IV to his daughter , Mary Fox , who sold it to the British Museum in 1858 ; it is now owned by the British Library .
The Anthony Roll is the only known fully illustrated inventory of ships of the English navy in the Tudor period . As the work of a successful state official in 16th century England , the artistic value of the Anthony Roll has been described as being characterised by " naive draughtsmanship and conformity to a pattern " though its artistic aspects display " a decent amateur grasp of form and colour " . While the inventories listed in its text have proven to be highly accurate , most of the ship illustrations are rudimentary and made according to a set formula . The level of detail of the ship design , armament and especially rigging has therefore proven to be only approximate . Nevertheless , through their depiction of the ceremonial ornamentation the illustrations in the Roll have provided relevant secondary information to the study of Tudor period heraldry , flags and ship ornamentation .
The only known contemporary depictions of prominent Tudor era vessels like the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose are contained in the Anthony Roll . As the Mary Rose sank by accident in 1545 and was successfully salvaged in 1982 , comparison between the information in the Roll and the physical evidence of the Mary Rose has provided new insights into the study of the naval history of the period .
= = Author and artist = =
Anthony Anthony has been identified as the compiler of the information and the artist behind the illustrations through his signature , which has been compared with holograph letters among the State Papers . Anthony 's father was William Anthony ( died 1535 ) a Fleming from Middelburg in Zeeland who migrated to England in 1503 . William was a supplier of beer to the army , and Anthony followed in his father 's footsteps . He went into beer exporting no later than 1530 and became a supplier of beer to the navy . In 1533 Anthony was appointed gunner at the Tower of London , a position he retained nominally until his death . He rose to the rank of overseer of the Ordnance Office , the government body responsible for supplying the armed forces with artillery , and it was in this position that he compiled his Roll . In 1549 he was promoted to master surveyor of the ordnance in the Tower , Calais , Boulogne , and elsewhere for life . He continued the work of supplying arms to English forces , and was active in the last month of his life supplying guns for an expedition against Le Havre .
In 1939 Dutch historian Nicholas Beets proposed that the Flemish artist and cartographer Cornelis Antoniszoon ( or Antonisz . , c . 1507 – 1553 ) could have been Anthony Anthony 's brother . Although Beets ' suggestion of kinship was conjectural and without any direct evidence , it was picked up by Geoffrey Callender in the Mariner 's Mirror in 1963 and has been relayed by several other authors . The will of William Anthony did not mention any other sons and Anthonisz. is believed to have been the son of Antonis Egbertson , the daughter of Jacob Corneliszoon van Oostzanen . That Cornelis and Anthony were related is , in the words of Ann Payne , " not , presumably , impossible , but there is little evidence that they were connected at all " .
= = History of the manuscript = =
The " ship portrait " had a long history in maritime art , from medieval seals and coins to early engravings in the 15th century , and the plain side @-@ on view of a ship under sail , often with no crew shown , was well established as the most effective way of recording the build of vessels . The Anthony Roll belongs to a genre of works that was intended to serve a dual role for the king and the military leadership : as reasonably informative overviews listing details of ships or strategic areas of coastlines they could be studied to determine strengths and weaknesses , and as boastful and lively depictions of Tudor military might they could be used to flatter the king , impress courtiers and impose martial authority on foreign ambassadors . Contemporary maps , or " plats " , were routinely decorated with detailed pictures of ships , to mark bodies of water as much as to liven up the scenes . Such maps were common at the time , and were even embellished by artists if deemed too simple or drab . The navy was expanded during King Henry 's reign , and he was known to take an interest in warships , as can be seen by the epic painting Embarkation of Henry VIII at Dover which portrayed , if rather unrealistically , the ships that took the 29 @-@ year @-@ old king to the summit meeting with Francis I at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520 . This painting , recently dated to around 1545 , has also been suggested as a likely source of inspiration to Anthony for his illustrations .
There are three such plats depicting naval actions and expeditions that are attributed to Anthony : the route of Anne of Cleves from the Low Countries to England ( 1539 ) , a French attack on a coastal fort ( date unknown ) and a French raid on Brighton ( July 1545 ) . The design of the ships in these paintings , especially that of the Brighton raid , closely match those in the rolls . It is not known exactly when work on the rolls began nor when it was finished . It is only certain that it was presented to the king the year it was dated , 1546 . The inclusion of the Mary Rose that sank at the Battle of the Solent 19 July 1545 does not mean it was necessarily started before this date , since it was still considered possible that she could be raised even as late as 1549 . The galleasses , the Antelope , Hart , Bull and Tiger , all present in the second roll , were still being built around March 1546 , and the Hart was not at sea until October that year . At the same time the Galley Blanchard , captured from the French 18 May 1546 is not included .
After the rolls were presented to the king they were archived in the royal collections . In 1680 Charles II gave two of the rolls to Samuel Pepys , a navy administrator and avid book collector . Pepys did not disclose the details of how the rolls were given to him , but it is believed that the gift came out of a meeting with King Charles where Pepys took down the king 's account of how he escaped from the Battle of Worcester ( 1651 ) . The plan was that Pepys would edit and publish the already famous story , but he never did so . It is also known that Pepys was planning to write a history of the navy and that he was gathering material for this task , but this project also was never finished . It is considered likely that King Charles was aware of Pepys ' plans and presented him with two of the rolls either as a gift or as payment for the intended publication of the escape story . The second roll could not be located at that time , and it was not until 1690 that it was discovered by Henry Thynne , keeper of the royal library 1677 – 89 and a close friend of Pepys . Thynne arranged for Pepys to make copies of some of the illustrations , but by 1690 Charles was dead and James II was in exile . Pepys had resigned from his position as Secretary of the Admiralty that same year and refused to recognize the reign of William and Mary , which meant that acquisition of the final roll for his collection was out of the question . The creation of the codex from the first and third rolls is therefore assumed to have been completed shortly after that time . After Pepys ' death in 1703 his library passed on to his nephew John Jackson . After the death of Jackson in 1724 the library , along with the codex , was then passed on to Pepys ' old college at Magdalene , Cambridge , where it remains to this day .
The second roll was presumed lost by the 1780s , but actually remained in the hands of the royal family . William IV gave it to Mary FitzClarance , one of his illegitimate children by the courtesan Dorothea Jordan , sometime in the early 19th century . In 1824 , FitzClarance married Charles Robert Fox , a major @-@ general and from 1832 – 35 an officer of the surveyor of the ordnance , the same position Anthony Anthony had three centuries before him . Fox was a bibliophile , and historian Charles Knighton has suggested he knew the value of the roll , but its location nevertheless remained unknown to scholars . In 1857 Frederic Madden , keeper of manuscripts at the British Museum , was shown the second roll and learned that Mary Fox wished to sell it . After negotiations it was sold for £ 15 to the British Museum and was numbered Additional MS 22047 . It was kept in its original format as a roll and has been stored in the British Library 's manuscript collection at St Pancras since 1999 .
The Anthony Roll has been used frequently as a primary source for histories of the English navy of the 16th century but the full text and all illustrations were not collected in one volume until 2000 .
= = Description = =
The Anthony Roll was originally a set of three separate vellum rolls . It exists today in the form of a bound volume containing the first and third rolls while the second roll is preserved in its original form . The three original rolls were made up out of a total of 17 individual membranes glued to the back of the next membrane . The membranes were of a width of 70 cm ( 27 ½ inches ) and a height varying from 79 to 96 cm ( 31 to 37 ¾ inches ) . After receiving the first and third rolls Pepys had his clerks cut the rolls up and bound in a single volume as a book , now known as Pepys 2991 . The transformation of the two rolls created a horizontal page structure , and some of the ornamentation that was cut in process was copied into the volume by hand . Pepys also inserted abstracts between the two rolls and a summarizing table that was not Anthony 's , but pre @-@ dated Pepys ' binding of the rolls . This radical treatment of the original document has damaged some of the illustrations and is today deprecated . The first three illustrations of the Henry Grace à Dieu , Mary Rose and Peter Pomegranate were all too large to fit on one page and were therefore converted to two @-@ page spreads . The resulting bend down the centre of the illustrations led to noticeable loss of detail . Despite this , there are no plans to attempt a recreation of the original structure of the first and third rolls . The second roll , British Library Additional MS 22047 , is still in its original condition with the exception of a written endorsement by Mary Fox from 1857 and some damage caused by an application of chemicals to reveal faded writing .
The three rolls list 58 ships divided into classes based roughly on size and construction . Each ship is presented along with its name , tonnage , crew size and , in Anthony 's own words , " the ordenaunce , artillery , munitions and habillimentes for warre " . The first roll lists the carracks and one pinnace , beginning with the largest ship Henry Grace à Dieu . The second roll lists galleasses , a hybrid of oar @-@ powered and sailing vessels , and one galley . Finally , the third roll is reserved for pinnaces and " rowbarges " , both basically smaller versions of galleasses .
= = Artistic analysis = =
Anthony Anthony was not a trained , professional artist . The illustrations are described as " striking and boldly executed , but [ ... ] have few claims to be fine works of art " . The vessels are for the most part painted according to a standard formula , with distinct repetitions even in the more elaborate depictions . Anthony 's style is signified by a " naive draughtsmanship and conformity to a pattern [ ... ] consistent with the abilities of a government official with a decent amateur grasp of form and colour " .
The rolls were all of roughly the same length , about 5 @.@ 5 m ( 15 ft ) , and would most likely have been presented side by side for display on a table or hung on a wall . The focal point of the whole composition is in the second , middle roll where the exceptionally well @-@ executed painting of the Galley Subtle is placed . That this ship was intended to be the centrepiece illustration is made clear by the presence of the pinnace Mary James in the first roll , which is otherwise reserved for ( sailing ) ships . This appears to have originally been placed at the beginning of the third roll , among the other pinnaces and rowbarges , but was moved to achieve more equal lengths . In his pursuit of living up to the image of a Renaissance prince Henry is known to have been particularly fond of galleys , something which would have been known to Anthony .
The lettering , framing lines and floral pattern decorations are painted in red or black with the exception of the first three ships of the first roll , which also feature gold . Most of the illustrations were first sketched with plummet outlines and were then painted over in washes . Ship timbers are a light brown that are shaded in the bow and stern to achieve depth , decorations and anchors are highlighted with red , and green is used for guns . Contours are in black and the sea is in shades varying from " greyish green " to " a richer blue " .
The first two rolls were done with roughly the same amount of detail while the lesser rowbarges ( essentially small galleys ) were done more hastily . The first two ships of the first roll , the Henry Grace à Dieu and the Mary Rose , have traces of a grid pattern , indicating that they were transferred from a different drawing while the rest are done in freehand . Overall , the ships follow a formula depending on the type of ship . The exceptions are stern galleries of some of the galleasses and the figureheads of the Mary Rose , Salamander and the Unicorn , the latter both captured from the Scots in 1544 . The prominent exception is the Galley Subtle placed in the middle of the second roll . It is more consistent in type with Mediterranean @-@ type galleys than the galleasses and small rowbarges , and features a considerable amount of detail not present in the other ships . It is the only ship where any crew is visible , in this case rowers behind pavisades as protection from enemy arrows and an overseer wearing " a bonnet , full skirted armorial doublet and baggy breeches " holding a stick or baton , as if beating the time of the strokes of the rowers .
= = Use as an historical source = =
As an historical record , the Anthony Roll is in many ways unique . It is the only known fully illustrated list of a Tudor period royal navy , though the pictures should not be seen as exact depictions drawn from real life . For example , the lists of guns of the individual ships , which are considered to be an accurate record produced by a senior state official , are only approximately matched to the paintings . The rigging is only roughly accurate , and has been described by Margaret Rule , archaeological project leader of the Mary Rose excavations , as " a confusing assemblage of shrouds , ratlines and stays " . Many details are present , but others are missing , such as the chain @-@ wales ( the horizontal platforms extending from the sides ) to which the shrouds ( the parallel ropes that stabilized the masts ) were attached to keep them clear of the hull .
= = = Comparisons with the Mary Rose = = =
Comparisons with the finds from the salvaged Mary Rose itself have provided an opportunity to compare the accuracy of the records provided in the Roll . The picture of the ship has provided clues about basic structural features , such as the number of masts and sails . When compared with an inventory of the ship from 1514 , there is a close match , proving the illustration to be largely accurate . Examination of details in the construction , however , reveals that Anthony allowed himself some artistic licence . The armament in the painted ship appears clearly exaggerated . The heavy stern chasers ( cannon placed in the stern aimed backwards ) mounted through gun ports on the orlop deck , just about the waterline , would not have been feasible because of the lack of an orlop deck and the steep angle ( sheer ) of the ship in this area . The number of gunports in the broadside is inaccurate since it implies two slightly staggered rows of nine ports while the surviving starboard side of the Mary Rose has only one row of gunports on the main deck with seven ports . The accuracy of the forecastle has been more difficult to ascertain since none of it remains ; conflicting interpretations of what it looked like have been suggested .
The guns in the back of the forecastle have defied explanation , but one theory is that they were included to compensate for the guns that were positioned in the aftcastle , aiming forwards , but which would have been obscured due to the angle from which the ship was depicted . The list of ammunition , small firearms , longbows , arrows , pikes , and bills closely matches the archaeological evidence . As the source that is closest in time to the sinking of the Mary Rose , it has been of central importance for the archaeological project , especially in estimating the size of the crew .
= = = Flags and ornamentation = = =
The Anthony Roll provides detailed information about the flags used on the ships . According to the vexillologist Timothy Wilson , the flags depicted flying from the ships are " the most elaborate source we have for the flags flown on the ships of King Henry VIII , being richer in visual detail than all other sources put together . " Among the most striking flags in the illustrations are the elongated ceremonial streamers , shown flying from all ships in varying numbers . These feature a Saint George red cross on white ground on the hoist , nearest the flagpole , and a very long tail striped in green and white . They all feature gold paint on the red and green , and silver paint ( now oxidized to black ) on the white . This artistic device was used either to simulate the fluttering of the flags or to actually display the metallic thread and paint that was sometimes used to decorate them .
Along the railing of all ships , most prominently on the large carracks and the Galley Subtle , there are rows of banners displaying various heraldic designs , including the English royal arms , one or three fleur @-@ de @-@ lis of the French arms , Saint George 's crosses and Henry VIII 's monogram ( " HR " ) in gold on blue , what appears to be the Tudor rose , and the green and white of the House of Tudor . The depictions of the flags and banners on the ships are in a heraldic and military sense considered to be roughly accurate but not entirely consistent . A kind of system of command among the various vessels is apparent in how flags are displayed on the masts , but it does not appear to have been carried through systematically . Some of the heraldic designs have been described as " unlikely " by the 20th century herald George Bellew , but have deemed to at least be " plausible " by Wilson .
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= Heather Bresch =
Heather Bresch ( born Heather Manchin ) is an American business executive and public policy advocate . She is currently the Chief Executive Officer of Mylan , a global pharmaceutical company based in Pennsylvania . She was named one of Fortune Magazine 's " 50 Most Powerful Women In Business " in 2012 and 2013 .
= = Early life and education = =
Bresch grew up in Fairmont and Farmington , West Virginia in a Catholic Italian American family . Her father , Joe Manchin , was a prominent politician throughout her childhood and is presently the United States Senator from West Virginia . Bresch attended Fairmont Senior High School in Fairmont , West Virginia and graduated from West Virginia University ( WVU ) in 1991 with a bachelor 's degree in political science and international relations .
= = = MBA controversy = = =
Bresch was an MBA student at West Virginia University until 1998 . In 2007 , the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette reported that Bresch had claimed to have an MBA degree from West Virginia University , but the university disputed that . The university subsequently awarded her an MBA despite her not having attained sufficient credits ( 22 out of the required 48 ) . In the ensuing controversy , the university announced in April 2008 that it would rescind Bresch 's degree . Michael Garrison , WVU President at the time , was reported to be " a family friend and former business associate of Bresch " and a former consultant and lobbyist for Mylan . After a faculty vote of no confidence , Garrison and several university officials subsequently resigned .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
At a WVU basketball game in 1992 , Bresch 's father mentioned his daughter 's job search to Mylan CEO Milan Puskar . The company soon thereafter offered her a low @-@ level position in the quality control department of a factory in Morgantown . According to Bresch , she had misgivings about the offer . Her father said she should " absolutely take it " and try for a year . She took his advice , and started as a clerk , typing labels . She received frequent promotions during the following years , " working hard and learning the industry inside out " .
= = = Government relations and advocacy = = =
From 2002 to 2005 , Bresch served as Mylan 's director of government relations . She contributed to the development of the 2003 Medicare Prescription Drug , Improvement , and Modernization Act ( MMA , also known as " Medicare Part D " ) .
When Mylan expanded internationally , Bresch noticed that Mylan 's US @-@ based pharmaceutical manufacturing plant had full @-@ time staff from the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) devoted to it , whereas facilities abroad had not been inspected by the FDA for more than a decade . Bresch persuaded several of Mylan 's competitors to support what became the Generic Drug User Fee Act , which she proposed to lawmakers in 2010 . Under the law the pharmaceutical industry would pay fees of $ 300 million in order to fund FDA inspections of foreign drug manufacturing facilities at the same rate as US @-@ based facilities . To advocate for the new law , she made regular visits to Washington , D.C. , and sponsored a whitepaper . The Generic Drug User Fee Act of 2012 was passed on July 9 , 2012 and required FDA inspections of pharmaceutical manufacturing locations abroad if they are importing into the US .
Bresch has also advocated for broader availability of EpiPens in public places to treat anaphylaxis ( severe allergic reactions ) , and has been active in raising awareness of HIV / AIDS treatment in developing nations . She helped facilitate the School Access to Emergency Epinephrine Act , which made epinephrine more accessible in schools .
= = = Business executive = = =
Heather Bresch served in several executive roles at Mylan , such as Senior Vice President of Corporate Strategic Development , Head of North American Operations , Chief Operating Officer and Chief Integration Officer . Bresch led the integrations of Matrix Laboratories Limited and Merck KGaA 's generics and specialty pharmaceutical businesses with Mylan 's operations . She was also the chair of the Generic Pharmaceutical Association ( GPhA ) for two terms . Bresch was appointed President of Mylan in 2009 and joined Mylan 's Board of Directors in March 2011 .
Bresch 's appointment as Chief Executive Officer was announced in 2001 and she officially took the position in January 2012 . Bresch was the first female CEO of a large pharmaceutical business . At the time , she was one of 18 female CEOs of a Fortune 500 company . She was ranked 31 in Fortune Magazine 's 2014 " 50 Most Powerful Women " list Bresch initially did not think her role as a female executive was significant . After seeing how few female candidates were available for positions that require a background in science and math , she became more interested in promoting math and science education among young girls .
As CEO of Mylan , Bresch continued advocating for more regulation of the pharmaceutical industry by the Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) . She was recognized in Esquire 's 2011 " Patriots of the Year " list for her work pushing for the Food and Drug Administration Safety and Innovation Act ( FDASIA ) .
Under Bresch 's leadership , Mylan made several acquisitions , including a $ 1 @.@ 6 billion acquisition of Agila Specialties . A $ 5 @.@ 3 billion acquisition of Abbott Laboratories was announced in conjunction with plans to re @-@ organize the company in the Netherlands and move its domicile to a country with lower taxes . The New York Times said there was something " disconcerting " about a company that benefits from large government contracts renouncing their citizenship for tax benefits , but Mylan would eventually save almost 10 percent of its revenues in taxes each year . Bresch said it was a difficult choice to make , but it had to be done to maintain competitiveness against pharmaceutical manufacturers that had already executed similar inversion strategies .
= = Personal life = =
Bresch is married to Jones Day lawyer Jeffrey J. Bresch . She was previously married to West Virginia businessman Douglas Kirby . She lives with her husband and four children in Sewickley Heights , Pennsylvania .
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= Khewra Salt Mine =
The Khewra Salt Mine ( or Mayo Salt Mine ) is located in Khewra , north of Pind Dadan Khan , an administrative subdivision of Jhelum District , Punjab Region , Pakistan , which rises from the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain . It is Pakistan 's largest and oldest salt mine and the world 's second largest . It is a major tourist attraction , drawing up to 250 @,@ 000 visitors a year . Its history dates back to its discovery by Alexander 's troops in 320 BC , but it started trading in the Mughal era . The main tunnel at ground level was developed by Dr. H. Warth , a mining engineer , in 1872 during British rule . After independence , the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation took over the mine , which still remains the largest source of salt in the country , producing more than 350 @,@ 000 tons per annum of about 99 % pure halite . Estimates of the reserves of salt in the mine vary from 82 million tons to 600 million tons .
= = History = =
The Khewra Salt Mine is also known as Mayo Salt Mine , in honour of Lord Mayo , who visited it as Viceroy of India . The mine is a part of a salt range that originated about 800 million years ago , when evaporation of a shallow sea followed by geological movement formed a salt range that stretched for about 300 kilometers ( 185 miles ) . The salt reserves at Khewra were discovered when Alexander the Great crossed the Jhelum and Mianwali region during his Indian campaign . The mine was discovered , however , not by Alexander , nor by his allies , but by his army 's horses , when they were found licking the stones . Ailing horses of his army also recovered after licking the rock salt stones . During the Mughal era the salt was traded in various markets , as far away as Central Asia . On the downfall of the Mughal empire , the mine was taken over by Sikhs . Hari Singh Nalwa , the Sikh Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , shared the management of the Salt Range with Gulab Singh , the Raja of Jammu . The former controlled the Warcha mine , while the latter held Khewra . The salt quarried during Sikh rule was both eaten and used as a source of revenue . In 1872 , some time after they had taken over the Sikhs ' territory , the British developed the mine further . They found the mining to have been inefficient , with irregular and narrow tunnels and entrances that made the movement of labourers difficult and dangerous . The supply of water inside the mine was poor , and there was no storage facility for the mined salt . The only road to the mine was over difficult , rocky terrain . To address these problems the government levelled the road , built warehouses , provided a water supply , improved the entrances and tunnels , and introduced a better mechanism for excavation of salt . Penalties were introduced to control salt smuggling . While working with Geological Survey of India in the 1930s and 1940s , Birbal Sahni found evidence of angiosperms , gymnosperms and insects from the Cambrian period inside the mine .
= = Location = =
Khewra Salt Mine is situated in Pind Dadan Khan Tehsil of Jhelum District . Located about 200 km ( 125 miles ) from Islamabad and Lahore , it is accessed via the M2 motorway , about 30 kilometers ( 20 miles ) off the Lilla interchange while going towards Pind Dadan Khan on the Lilla road . The mine is in mountains that are part of a salt range , a mineral @-@ rich mountain system extending about 200 km from the Jhelum river south of Pothohar Plateau to where the Jhelum river joins the Indus river . Khewra mine is about 288 meters ( 945 feet ) above sea level and about 730 meters ( 2400 feet ) into the mountain from the mine entrance . The underground mine covers an area of 110 km2 ( 43 sq. miles ) .
= = Production = =
Estimates of the total reserves of salt in the mines range from 82 million tons to 600 million tons . In raw form it contains negligible amounts of Calcium , Magnesium , Potassium , Sulfates and moisture , with Iron , Zinc , Copper , Manganese , Chromium and Lead as trace elements . Salt from Khewra , also known as Himalayan salt , is red , pink , off @-@ white or transparent . In the early years of British rule , the Khewra mine produced about 28 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 tons per annum ; it increased to about 187 @,@ 400 tons per annum for the five fiscal years ending 1946 – 7 and to 136 @,@ 824 tons for the two years ending 1949 – 50 with the systematic working introduced by Dr H. Warth . The mine 's output was reported in 2003 to be 385 @,@ 000 tons of salt per annum , which amounts to almost half of Pakistan 's total production of rock salt . At that rate of output , the tunnel would be expected to last for another 350 years .
The mine comprises nineteen stories , of which eleven are below ground . From the entrance , the mine extends about 730 meters ( 2440 ft ) into the mountains , and the total length of its tunnels is about 40 km ( 25 miles ) . Quarrying is done using the room and pillar method , mining only half of the salt and leaving the remaining half to support what is above . The temperature inside the mine remains about 18 – 20 ° C throughout the year . A 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow gauge railway track laid during the British era is used to bring salt out of the mine in rail cars .
Himalayan salt is Pakistan 's best known rock salt . It is used for cooking , as bath salt , as brine and as a raw material for many industries , including a soda ash plant set up by AkzoNobel in 1940 . Salt from Khewra mine is also used to make decorative items like lamps , vases , ashtrays and statues , which are exported to the United States , India and many European countries . The use of rock salt to make artistic and decorative items started during the Mughal era , when many craftsman made tableware and decorations from it . Warth introduced the use of a lathe to cut out art pieces from the rock salt , as he found it similar to gypsum in physical characteristics .
In 2008 the Government of Pakistan decided to sell off seventeen profitable organizations including Khewra salt mines , but the plan was shelved . The mine is now operated by the Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation , a government department .
= = Tourism = =
Khewra Salt Mine is a major tourist attraction , with around 250 @,@ 000 visitors a year , earning it considerable revenue . Visitors are taken into the mine on a train . There are numerous pools of salty water inside . The Badshahi Mosque was built in the mining tunnels with multi @-@ colored salt bricks about fifty years ago . Other artistic carvings in the mine include a replica of Minar @-@ e @-@ Pakistan , a statue of Allama Iqbal , an accumulation of crystals that form the name of Muhammad in Urdu script , a model of the Great Wall of China and another of the Mall Road of Murree . In 2003 two phases of development of tourist facilities and attractions were carried out , at a total cost of 9 million rupees . A clinical ward with 20 beds was established in 2007 , costing 10 million rupees , for the treatment of asthma and other respiratory diseases using salt therapy . The " Visit Pakistan Year 2007 " event included a train safari visit of Khewra Salt Mine . In February 2011 Pakistan railways started operating special trains for tourists from Lahore and Rawalpindi to Khewra . For this purpose the railway station of Khewra was refurbished with the help of a private firm .
Other visitor attractions in the mine include the 75 @-@ meter @-@ high ( 245 feet ) Assembly Hall ; Pul @-@ Saraat , a salt bridge with no pillars over a 25 @-@ meters @-@ deep ( 80 @-@ foot @-@ deep ) brine pond ; Sheesh Mahal ( Palace of Mirrors ) , where salt crystals are light pink ; and a cafe .
= = Other projects = =
The Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation established the Mine Survey Institute at Khewra in 1971 . The institute conducts mine surveys , organizes mining @-@ related courses for the miners and has establishes the Khewra Model High School and the Khewra Women College . More recently the miners won an important environmental case against the mining company for the provision of unpolluted drinking water . The water available to the residents of Khewra had been polluted by salt , coal and other nearby mining activity . This case is internationally recognised as important with regard to the relationship between humanity and the environment .
In 2003 , while the Government of Pakistan was looking for ways to increase the country 's strategic store of oil to 90 days , the PMDC put forward a proposal to use the Khewra mines to store strategic oil reserves . Scientific reports confirmed the feasibility of this proposal , but it was turned down .
= = Flooding in 2010 = =
In 2010 , during torrential rain all over Pakistan , water from a nearby nullah entered the mine , reaching a depth of two feet ( 60 cm ) and blocking the exits , after which the mine was closed . It was subsequently reopened and remains open .
= = Gallery = =
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= Nagato @-@ class battleship =
The Nagato @-@ class battleships ( 長門型戦艦 , Nagato @-@ gata senkan ) were a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during World War I , although they were not completed until after the end of the war . Nagato , the lead ship of the class , frequently served as a flagship . Both ships carried supplies for the survivors of the Great Kantō earthquake in 1923 . They were modernized in 1933 – 36 with improvements to their armor and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style . Nagato and her sister ship Mutsu briefly participated in the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in 1937 and Nagato was the flagship of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto during the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 that began the Pacific War .
The sisters participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 , although they did not see any combat . Mutsu saw more active service than her sister because she was not a flagship and participated in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons in August before returning to Japan in early 1943 . One of Mutsu 's aft magazines detonated in June , killing 1 @,@ 121 crew and visitors and destroying the ship . The IJN conducted a perfunctory investigation into the cause of her loss and concluded that it was the work of a disgruntled crewmember . They dispersed the survivors in an attempt to conceal the sinking to keep up morale in Japan . Much of the wreck was salvaged after the war and many artifacts and relics are on display in Japan .
Nagato spent most of the first two years of the war training in home waters . She was transferred to Truk in mid @-@ 1943 , but did not see any combat until the Battle of the Philippine Sea in mid @-@ 1944 when she was attacked by American aircraft . Nagato did not fire her main armament against enemy vessels until the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 . She was lightly damaged during the battle and returned to Japan the following month for repairs . The IJN was running out of fuel by this time and decided not to fully repair her . Nagato was converted into a floating anti @-@ aircraft platform and assigned to coastal defense duties . After the war , the ship was a target for U.S. nuclear weapon tests during Operation Crossroads in mid @-@ 1946 . She survived the first test with little damage , but was sunk by the second test .
= = Background = =
The IJN considered a battle fleet of eight modern battleships and eight modern armored cruisers necessary for the defense of Japan , and the government adopted that policy in 1907 . This was the genesis of the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program , the development of a cohesive battle line of 16 capital ships less than eight years old . Advances in naval technology like the British battleship HMS Dreadnought and the battlecruiser HMS Invincible forced the IJN to several times re @-@ evaluate the ships that it counted as modern . By 1910 , the IJN considered none of its current ships to be modern and restarted the program in 1911 with orders for the Fusō @-@ class dreadnoughts and the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers . By 1915 , the IJN was halfway to its goal and wanted to order four more dreadnoughts , but the Diet rejected its plan , and the 1916 budget authorized only one dreadnought , later named Nagato , and two battlecruisers . Later that year , American President Woodrow Wilson announced plans for 10 additional battleships and six battlecruisers , and the following year the Diet authorized three more dreadnoughts in response , one of which would later be named Mutsu .
= = Design = =
Allocated project number A @-@ 102 , the Nagato class was designed before Commander Yuzuru Hiraga was reassigned to the Navy Technical Department ( NTD ) responsible for ship design , although Hiraga is often credited with the design of these ships . In contrast to earlier designs , the Nagato class used the American " all or nothing " armor scheme that maximized the armor thickness protecting the core of the ship by eliminating armor elsewhere . The design had two armored decks of medium thickness rather than the single thicker deck used formerly . The ships also used a new type of underwater protection system that successfully resisted penetration by 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) torpedo warheads in full @-@ scale trials . It consisted of a deep water @-@ tight compartment adjacent to the hull , backed by a thick torpedo bulkhead that connected to the side and deck armor plates , with a deep fuel oil tank behind it .
Although the United States Navy planned to arm its Colorado class with 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns before the Nagato class was designed , Nagato 's 410 @-@ millimeter ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) guns made her the first dreadnought that was launched armed with guns larger than 15 inches ( 381 mm ) .
On 12 June 1917 , well before Mutsu was laid down , Hiraga proposed a revised design for the ship that reflected the lessons from the Battle of Jutland that had occurred the previous year , and incorporated advances in boiler technology . Given project number A @-@ 125 , his design added an extra twin main @-@ gun turret , using space and weight made available by the reduction of the number of boilers from 21 to 12 , while the power remained the same . He reduced the secondary armament from 20 guns to 16 , although they were raised in height to improve their ability to fire during heavy weather and to improve their arcs of fire . To increase the ship 's protection he proposed angling the belt armor outwards to improve its resistance to horizontal fire , and increasing the thickness of the lower deck armor and the torpedo bulkhead . Hiraga also planned to add anti @-@ torpedo bulges to improve underwater protection . He estimated that his ship would displace as much as Nagato , although it would cost about a million yen more . Hiraga 's changes would have considerably delayed Mutsu 's completion and were rejected by the Navy Ministry .
= = Description = =
The ships had a length of 201 @.@ 17 meters ( 660 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars and 215 @.@ 8 meters ( 708 ft 0 in ) overall . They had a beam of 29 @.@ 02 meters ( 95 ft 3 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 08 meters ( 29 ft 9 in ) . The Nagato @-@ class ships displaced 32 @,@ 720 metric tons ( 32 @,@ 200 long tons ) at standard load and 39 @,@ 116 metric tons ( 38 @,@ 498 long tons ) at full load . Their crew consisted of 1 @,@ 333 officers and enlisted men as built and 1 @,@ 368 in 1935 . In 1944 , the crew totaled around 1 @,@ 734 men .
The Nagato class was equipped with a unique heptapodal ( seven @-@ legged ) mast designed to maximize rigidity for range @-@ finding purposes and survivability under shellfire . It consisted of a thick vertical leg in the center surrounded by six outer legs . The central leg was large enough to accommodate an electric elevator running between the foretop and main deck . In November 1944 , the tops of Nagato 's mainmast and funnel were removed to improve the arcs of fire for her anti @-@ aircraft guns .
In 1927 , Mutsu 's bow was remodeled to reduce the amount of spray produced when steaming into a head sea . This increased her overall length by 1 @.@ 59 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) to 217 @.@ 39 meters ( 713 ft 3 in ) . This proved successful and her sister 's bow was rebuilt in 1930 . During their 1934 – 36 reconstruction , the ships ' sterns were lengthened by 7 @.@ 55 meters ( 24 @.@ 8 ft ) to improve their speed and their forward superstructures were rebuilt into a pagoda mast . They were given torpedo bulges to improve their underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armor and equipment . These changes increased their overall length to 224 @.@ 94 m ( 738 @.@ 0 ft ) , their beam to 34 @.@ 6 m ( 113 ft 6 in ) and their draft to 9 @.@ 49 meters ( 31 ft 2 in ) . Their displacement increased over 7 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 900 long tons ) to 46 @,@ 690 metric tons ( 45 @,@ 950 long tons ) at deep load .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ships were equipped with four Gihon geared steam turbines , each of which drove one 4 @.@ 191 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 9 in ) propeller . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 80 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) , using steam provided by 21 Kampon water @-@ tube boilers ; 15 of these were oil @-@ fired while the remaining half @-@ dozen used fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . The boilers had a working pressure of 286 psi ( 1 @,@ 972 kPa ; 20 kgf / cm2 ) .
The ships had a stowage capacity of 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 626 t ) of coal and 3 @,@ 400 long tons ( 3 @,@ 455 t ) of oil , giving them a range of 5 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 200 km ; 6 @,@ 300 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Nagato exceeded her designed speed of 26 @.@ 5 knots ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) during her sea trials , reaching 26 @.@ 7 knots ( 49 @.@ 4 km / h ; 30 @.@ 7 mph ) at 85 @,@ 500 shp ( 63 @,@ 800 kW ) and Mutsu reached the same speed with 87 @,@ 500 shp ( 65 @,@ 200 kW ) . The US Navy did not learn their actual speed capability until about 1937 ; previously it had believed that the ships were capable of only 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) .
During refits in 1923 – 25 , the fore funnel was rebuilt in a serpentine shape in an unsuccessful effort to prevent smoke interference with the bridge and fire @-@ control systems . The rebuilt fore funnel was eliminated during the ships ' 1930s reconstructions when their boilers were replaced by 10 oil @-@ fired Kampon boilers , which had a working pressure of 313 psi ( 2 @,@ 158 kPa ; 22 kgf / cm2 ) and temperature of 300 ° C ( 572 ° F ) . The turbines were also replaced by lighter , more modern , units and their propellers were replaced by larger 4 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 14 ft 1 in ) ones . When the ships conducted their post @-@ reconstruction trials , they reached a speed of 24 @.@ 98 knots ( 46 @.@ 26 km / h ; 28 @.@ 75 mph ) with 82 @,@ 300 shp ( 61 @,@ 400 kW ) . Additional fuel oil was stored in the bottoms of the newly added torpedo bulges , which increased their capacity to 5 @,@ 560 long tons ( 5 @,@ 650 t ) and thus their range to 8 @,@ 560 nmi ( 15 @,@ 850 km ; 9 @,@ 850 mi ) at 16 knots .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament of the Nagato @-@ class ships consisted of eight 45 @-@ caliber 41 @-@ centimeter guns , mounted in two pairs of twin @-@ gun , superfiring turrets fore and aft . Numbered one through four from front to rear , the hydraulically powered turrets gave the guns an elevation range of − 2 to + 35 degrees . The rate of fire for the guns was around two rounds per minute . Their turrets were replaced in the mid @-@ 1930s using the turrets stored from the unfinished Tosa @-@ class battleships . While in storage they were modified to increase their range of elevation to − 3 to + 43 degrees , which increased the gun 's maximum range from 30 @,@ 200 to 37 @,@ 900 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 to 41 @,@ 400 yd ) .
By World War II , the guns used Type 91 armor @-@ piercing , capped shells . Each of these shells weighed 1 @,@ 020 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 250 lb ) and had a muzzle velocity of 780 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . Also available was a 936 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 064 lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) . A special Type 3 Sankaidan incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use .
The ships ' secondary armament of twenty 50 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ centimeter guns was mounted in casemates on the upper sides of the hull and in the superstructure . The latter guns had a maximum elevation of + 20 degrees and the former could elevate to + 25 degrees which gave them ranges of 15 @,@ 800 meters ( 17 @,@ 300 yd ) and 17 @,@ 000 meters ( 19 @,@ 000 yd ) respectively . Each gun could fire a 38 @-@ kilogram ( 84 lb ) high @-@ explosive projectile at a rate up to 10 rounds per minute . Anti @-@ aircraft defense was provided by four 40 @-@ caliber 3rd Year Type 3 @-@ inch AA guns in single mounts . The 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) high @-@ angle guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and had a rate of fire of 13 to 20 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 kg ( 13 lb ) projectile with a muzzle velocity of 680 m / s ( 2 @,@ 200 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 500 meters ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) . The ship was also fitted with eight 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , four on each broadside , two above water and two submerged . They used the 6th Year Type torpedo which had a 203 @-@ kilogram ( 448 lb ) warhead of Shimose powder . It had three settings for range and speed : 15 @,@ 500 meters ( 17 @,@ 000 yd ) at 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , 10 @,@ 000 meters ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) at 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , or 7 @,@ 000 meters ( 7 @,@ 700 yd ) at 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) .
Around 1926 , the four above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed and the ships received three additional 76 @-@ millimeter AA guns that were situated around the base of the foremast . They were replaced by eight 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns in 1932 , fitted on both sides of the fore and aft superstructures in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . Two twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Vickers 2 @-@ pounder light AA guns were also added to the ship that same year . They had a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute .
When the ships were reconstructed in 1934 – 36 , the remaining torpedo tubes and the two forward 14 @-@ centimeter guns were removed from the hull . All of the remaining 14 @-@ centimeter guns had their elevation increased to + 35 degrees which increased their range to 20 @,@ 000 meters ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) . An unknown number of license @-@ built 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter Hotchkiss machine guns in twin mounts were also added . The maximum range of these guns was 6 @,@ 500 meters ( 7 @,@ 100 yd ) , but the effective range against aircraft was 700 – 1 @,@ 500 meters ( 770 – 1 @,@ 640 yd ) . The cyclic rate was adjustable between 425 and 475 rounds per minute , but the need to change 30 @-@ round magazines reduced the effective rate to 250 rounds per minute .
The 2 @-@ pounders were replaced in 1939 by 20 license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 @-@ millimeter Type 96 light AA guns in a mixture of twin @-@ gun and single mounts . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark Stille , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . These 25 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . As far as is known , no additional AA guns were installed aboard Mutsu before her loss . Additional 25 @-@ millimeter guns were installed aboard Nagato during the war ; on 10 July 1944 , she was reported to have 98 guns on board . An additional 30 guns were added during a refit in Yokosuka in November . Two more twin 127 @-@ millimeter gun mounts were added at the same time abreast the funnel and all of her 14 @-@ centimeter guns were removed as she was now a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery .
= = = Armor = = =
The Nagato @-@ class ships ' waterline armor belt was made from Vickers cemented armor and protected 137 @.@ 14 meters ( 449 @.@ 9 ft ) of the hull between the barbettes of the end turrets . The lower strake was 305 mm ( 12 in ) thick , 2 @.@ 7 meters ( 8 ft 10 in ) high , and tapered to a thickness of 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) at its bottom edge ; above it was a strake of 229 mm ( 9 in ) armor that was 1 @.@ 7 meters ( 5 ft 7 in ) high . Approximately 1 @.@ 77 meters ( 5 ft 10 in ) of the armor belt was below the waterline . The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 305 mm on the face , 230 – 190 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 5 in ) on the sides , and 152 – 127 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 0 in ) on the roof . The barbettes were protected by armor 305 mm thick , while the casemates of the 140 mm guns were protected by 25 mm armor plates . The sides of the conning tower were 369 mm ( 14 @.@ 5 in ) thick .
The main deck armor consisted of three layers of high @-@ tensile steel ( HTS ) 69 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) thick that connected to the top of the upper strake of side armor . The flat portion of the lower deck had one layer of Ducol steel 25 mm thick with two layers of HTS of equal thickness above it . About 3 meters ( 9 ft 10 in ) from the side of the hull , this deck , now composed of three layers of HTS , totaling 75 mm ( 3 in ) in thickness , sloped downwards where it met a short horizontal armored ( three layers of HTS with a total thickness of 66 mm ( 3 in ) ) deck that connected to the main armored belt and the torpedo bulkhead . This was also made up of three 25 mm layers of HTS and curved up and outwards to meet the short horizontal armored deck . It enclosed a water @-@ tight compartment that was 3 @.@ 05 meters ( 10 ft 0 in ) from the side of the ship . It was backed by fuel oil tanks 3 @.@ 13 meters ( 10 ft 3 in ) deep . The outermost void was designed to allow the explosive force of a torpedo 's warhead to dissipate as much as possible while the oil tank was supposed to stop any fragments from penetrating the innermost bulkhead protecting the ship 's vital areas .
The new 41 cm turrets installed during their reconstruction were more heavily armored than the original ones . Face armor was increased to 460 mm ( 18 in ) , the sides to 280 mm ( 11 in ) , and the roof to 230 – 250 mm ( 9 – 10 in ) . The armor over the machinery and magazines was increased by 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) on the upper deck and 25 mm on the upper armored deck . The torpedo bulges added at the same time were 13 @.@ 5 meters ( 44 ft 3 in ) high and 2 @.@ 84 meters ( 9 ft 4 in ) deep . They were divided into four compartments , the lower two of which were filled with oil and the others remained empty . These additions increased the weight of each ship 's armor to 13 @,@ 032 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 826 long tons ) , 32 @.@ 6 percent of their displacement . In early 1941 , as a preparation for war , the uppermost compartment of the bulges was filled with sealed steel crushing tubes and the barbette armor of both ships was reinforced with 100 mm armor plates above the main deck and 215 mm ( 8 @.@ 5 in ) plates below it .
= = = Fire control and sensors = = =
The Nagato @-@ class ships were fitted with a 10 @-@ meter ( 32 ft 10 in ) rangefinder in the forward superstructure ; six @-@ meter ( 19 ft 8 in ) and three @-@ meter ( 9 ft 10 in ) anti @-@ aircraft rangefinders were added in the early 1920s . The rangefinders in the two superfiring turrets were replaced by 10 @-@ meter units in 1932 – 33 .
They were initially fitted with a Type 13 fire @-@ control system derived from Vickers equipment received during World War I , but this was replaced by an improved Type 14 system around 1925 . It controlled the main and secondary guns ; no provision was made for anti @-@ aircraft fire until the Type 31 fire @-@ control director was introduced in 1932 . A modified Type 14 fire @-@ control system was tested aboard Nagato in 1935 , and later approved for service as the Type 34 . A new anti @-@ aircraft director , designated the Type 94 , used to control the 127 mm AA guns , was introduced in 1937 , although it is unknown when they were installed on the ships . The 25 mm AA guns were controlled by a Type 95 director that was also introduced in 1937 .
As far as is known , no radars were installed aboard Mutsu before her loss . While in drydock in May 1943 , a Type 21 air @-@ search radar was installed aboard Nagato on the roof of the 10 @-@ meter rangefinder at the top of the pagoda mast . On 27 June 1944 , two Type 22 surface @-@ search radars were installed on the pagoda mast and two Type 13 early warning radars were fitted on her mainmast .
= = = Aircraft = = =
Nagato was briefly fitted with an 18 @-@ meter ( 59 ft 1 in ) aircraft flying @-@ off platform on No. 2 turret in August 1925 . Yokosuka Ro @-@ go Ko @-@ gata and Heinkel HD 25 floatplanes were tested from it before it was removed early the following year . An additional boom was added to the mainmasts of both ships in 1926 to handle the Yokosuka E1Y then assigned to them . A Hansa @-@ Brandenburg W.33 floatplane was tested aboard Nagato that same year . A catapult was fitted between the mainmast and No. 3 turret in mid @-@ 1933 , a collapsible crane was installed in a portside sponson , and the ships were equipped to operate two or three floatplanes , although no hangar was provided . The sisters began to operate Nakajima E4N2 biplanes until they were replaced by Nakajima E8N2 biplanes in 1938 . A more powerful catapult was installed in November 1938 to handle heavier aircraft like the one Kawanishi E7K that was added in 1939 – 40 . Mitsubishi F1M biplanes replaced the E8Ns on 11 February 1943 .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
While Mutsu was still fitting out , the American government decided to call a conference in Washington , D.C. to forestall the massively expensive naval arms race between the United States , the United Kingdom and the Empire of Japan that was developing . The Washington Naval Conference convened on 12 November , and the Americans proposed to scrap virtually every capital ship under construction or fitting out among the participating nations . Mutsu was specifically listed among those to be scrapped even though she had been commissioned a few weeks earlier . This was unacceptable to the Japanese delegation and they agreed to a compromise that allowed them to keep Mutsu in exchange for scrapping the obsolete dreadnought Settsu and a similar arrangement for several American Colorado @-@ class dreadnoughts that were fitting out .
Upon commissioning , the sister ships were assigned to the 1st Battleship Division , although Nagato became the flagship of Rear Admiral Sōjirō Tochinai , a role she often fulfilled during her career . The ships hosted Edward , Prince of Wales , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp Lieutenant Louis Mountbatten in 1922 during the prince 's visit to Japan . After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake , both ships loaded supplies from Kyushu for the victims on 4 September . They sank the hulk of the obsolete battleship Satsuma on 7 September 1924 during gunnery practice in Tokyo Bay in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty . Nagato became flagship of the Combined Fleet on 1 December 1925 , flying the flag of Admiral Keisuke Okada . The sisters were placed in reserve several times during the 1920s while they were being modernized . Mutsu served as flagship of Emperor Hirohito during the 1927 naval maneuvers and fleet review and again in 1933 .
The ships were reconstructed from late 1933 to mid @-@ 1936 . In August 1937 , the sisters transported 3 @,@ 749 men of the 11th Infantry Division to Shanghai during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . Their floatplanes bombed targets in Shanghai on 24 August before they returned to Sasebo the following day . Nagato became a training ship on 1 December 1937 until she again became the flagship of the Combined Fleet on 15 December 1938 . The ship participated in an Imperial Fleet Review on 11 October 1940 . The sisters were refitted in 1941 in preparation for war , which included the fitting of external degaussing coils and additional armor for their barbettes .
= = = World War II = = =
Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto issued the code phrase " Niitaka yama nobore " ( Climb Mount Niitaka ) on 2 December 1941 from Nagato at anchor at Hashirajima to signal the 1st Air Fleet ( Kido Butai ) to proceed with its attack on Pearl Harbor . When Japan began the Pacific War on 8 December , the sisters sortied for the Bonin Islands , along with the four ships of Battleship Division 2 and the light carrier Hōshō as distant cover for the fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . Yamamoto transferred his flag to the new battleship Yamato on 12 February 1942 .
In June 1942 , Mutsu and Nagato were assigned to the Main Body of the 1st Fleet during the Battle of Midway , together with Yamato , Hōshō , the light cruiser Sendai and nine destroyers . Following the loss of all four fleet carriers of the " Kido Butai " on 4 June , Yamamoto attempted to lure the American forces west to within range of the Japanese air groups at Wake Island , and into a night engagement with his surface forces , but the American forces withdrew and Mutsu saw no action . After rendezvousing with the remnants of the Striking Force on 6 June , over half of the survivors from the sunken aircraft carriers of the 1st Air Fleet were transferred to Mutsu and Nagato . They arrived at Hashirajima on 14 June .
On 14 July , both ships were reassigned to Battleship Division 2 and Nagato became the flagship of the 1st Fleet . She remained in Japanese waters training until August 1942 . Mutsu was transferred to the Advance Force of the 2nd Fleet on 9 August , and departed Yokosuka two days later to support operations during the Guadalcanal Campaign . She arrived at Truk on 17 August . On 20 August , while sailing from Truk to rendezvous with the main body of Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's 3rd Fleet , Mutsu , the heavy cruiser Atago , and escorting destroyers unsuccessfully attempted to locate the escort carrier USS Long Island in response to a flying boat detection of the American ship .
During the Battle of the Eastern Solomons on 27 August , Mutsu , assigned to the Support Force , fired four shells at enemy reconnaissance aircraft during what was her first , and only , action of the war . On 7 January 1943 , Mutsu returned to Japan together with the carrier Zuikaku , the heavy cruiser Suzuya and four destroyers . The ship prepared to sortie on 13 April to reinforce the Japanese garrisons in the Aleutian Islands in response to the Battle of the Komandorski Islands , but the operation was cancelled the next day and Mutsu resumed training .
= = = = Mutsu 's loss = = = =
On 8 June 1943 , Mutsu was moored at Hashirajima when the magazine of her No. 3 turret exploded at 12 : 13 , cutting the ship in half . The forward section capsized almost immediately , but the rear section remained afloat until the early morning of the next day . Nearby ships were able to rescue 353 survivors from the 1 @,@ 474 crew members and visitors aboard Mutsu , meaning that 1 @,@ 121 men were killed in the explosion . To avert the potential damage to morale from the loss of a battleship , Mutsu 's loss was declared a state secret . To further prevent rumors from spreading , many survivors were reassigned to various garrisons in the Pacific Ocean .
The IJN convened a commission three days after the sinking to investigate the loss . It issued its preliminary conclusions on 25 June , well before the investigation of the wreck was completed , and decided that the explosion was the result of a disgruntled seaman . The commission failed to consider the possibility of fire , which historian Mike Williams considers to be a possible cause , as a number of observers noted smoke coming from the vicinity of No. 3 turret . The truth , however , will never be known .
= = = = Nagato = = = =
Nagato transferred to Truk in the Caroline Islands in August 1943 . Together with the bulk of the 1st Fleet , she sortied in September and October in unsuccessful searches for American carriers . On 1 February 1944 , Nagato departed Truk to avoid an American air raid , and arrived at Palau three days later . The ship arrived on 21 February at Lingga Island , near Singapore , and she became the flagship of Vice Admiral Matome Ugaki , commander of Battleship Division 1 , on 25 February until he transferred his flag to Yamato on 5 May . Nagato remained at Lingga until 11 May when she was transferred to Tawitawi on 12 May , and assigned to the 1st Mobile Fleet , under the command of Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa .
Battleship Division 1 rendezvoused with Ozawa 's main force on 16 June near the Mariana Islands , and Nagato escorted three aircraft carriers during the Battle of the Philippine Sea . She was only lightly engaged during the battle , was not damaged , and suffered no casualties . After the battle , the ship returned to Japan where she was refitted with additional radars and light AA guns . Nagato loaded a regiment of the 28th Infantry Division and delivered them at Okinawa on 11 July before continuing on to Lingga .
In October 1944 , the ship took part in " Operation Sho @-@ 1 " , an attack on the Allied landings on Leyte . Assigned to Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita 's 1st Diversion Force ( also known as the Center Force ) , Nagato was attacked by multiple waves of American dive bombers and fighters during the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea on 24 October en route to Leyte Gulf . She was struck twice by bombs that killed 52 crewmen , but was not seriously damaged .
The next morning , the 1st Diversion Force attacked the American forces supporting the invasion in the Battle off Samar . Nagato engaged the escort carriers and destroyers of Task Group 77 @.@ 4 @.@ 3 , codenamed " Taffy 3 " . She opened fire on three escort carriers , the first time she had fired her guns at an enemy ship , but missed . One of the defending destroyers fired a spread of torpedoes that missed their intended target and headed for Yamato and Nagato which were on a parallel course . The two battleships were forced to turn away north to avoid the torpedoes , and were 10 miles ( 16 km ) away from the engagement before the torpedoes ran out of fuel . Turning back , Nagato engaged the American ships , claiming damage to one cruiser . Later in the day , Nagato was hit in the bow by two bombs , but the damage was not severe .
The ship returned to Japan for repairs in mid @-@ November . Lack of fuel and materials meant that she could not be brought back into service and she was turned into a floating anti @-@ aircraft battery . Her funnel and mainmast were removed to improve the arcs of fire of her AA guns , which were increased by two Type 89 mounts and nine triple 25 mm gun mounts . Her forward secondary guns were removed in compensation . A coal @-@ burning donkey boiler was installed on the pier for heating and cooking purposes and a converted submarine chaser was moored alongside to provide steam and electricity ; her anti @-@ aircraft guns lacked full power and were only partially operational . On 20 April Nagato was reduced to reserve . In June 1945 , all of her secondary guns and about half of her anti @-@ aircraft armament was moved ashore , together with her rangefinders and searchlights . Her crew was therefore reduced to less than 1 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men . On 18 July 1945 , the heavily camouflaged ship was attacked by carrier @-@ based fighter bombers and torpedo bombers . Nagato was hit by two bombs and a rocket that killed 35 men and damaged four 25 mm guns . On 30 August , a few days before the formal surrender , American sailors took control of the ship .
= = After the war = =
Nagato was selected to participate as a target ship in Operation Crossroads , a series of U.S. nuclear weapon tests held at Bikini Atoll in mid @-@ 1946 . In mid @-@ March , Nagato departed Yokosuka for Eniwetok , but her hull had not been repaired from the underwater damage sustained during the attack on 18 July and she leaked enough that her pumps could not keep up . The ship had a list of seven degrees to port by the time tugboats from Eniwetok arrived . She reached the atoll on 4 April and Bikini in May .
Operation Crossroads began with the first blast ( Test Able ) , an air burst on 1 July 1946 ; Nagato was not close to ground zero and was only lightly damaged . For Test Baker , an underwater explosion , the ship was positioned closer to ground zero . Nagato rode out the tsunami of water from the explosion with little apparent damage ; she had a slight starboard list of two degrees after the tsunami dissipated . A more thorough assessment could not be made because she was dangerously radioactive . Her list gradually increased over the next five days and she capsized during the night of 29 / 30 July . Opened to divers in 1996 , The Times has named Nagato as one of the top 10 wreck diving sites in the world .
In 1970 , salvage operations began on Mutsu 's wreck that lasted until 1978 and recovered about 75 % of the ship . The salvagers recovered bodies of 849 crewmen killed during the explosion . In 1995 , the Mutsu Memorial Museum declared that no further salvage operations were planned . The only significant portion of the ship that remains is a 35 @-@ meter ( 114 ft 10 in ) long section running from the bridge structure forward to the vicinity of No. 1 turret . The highest portion of the ship is 12 meters ( 39 ft 4 in ) below the surface . Many , but not all , artifacts are displayed at the Mutsu Memorial Museum in Tōwa @-@ Cho . Since 1963 , a memorial service has been held there every year on 8 June in honor of the crew .
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= School of Advanced Military Studies =
The School of Advanced Military Studies ( SAMS ) is one of four United States Army schools that make up the United States Army Command and General Staff College ( CGSC ) at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . This " enormously rigorous " graduate school comprises two programs : the larger Advanced Military Studies Program ( AMSP ) , and the Advanced Operational Art Studies Fellowship ( AOASF ) , which more senior officers attend . The student body is small but diverse and comprises members of each of the U.S. armed forces , various U.S. Government agencies , and allied military forces . Graduates are colloquially known as " Jedi Knights " .
The school educates the future leaders of the U.S. Armed Forces , its Allies , and the Interagency at the graduate level to be agile and adaptive leaders who think critically at the strategic and operational levels to solve complex ambiguous problems .
SAMS graduates are innovative leaders , willing to accept risk and to experiment . They are adaptive leaders who excel at the art of command and anticipate the future operational environment by applying critical & creative thinking skills in order to solve complex problems . All graduates demonstrate mastery of Operational Art and Doctrine and are able to synthesize the elements of US national power in Joint , Interagency , Intergovernmental and Multinational ( JIIM ) operations .
The school issues a masters degree in Military Art and Science , and provides its graduates with the skills to deal with the disparate challenges encountered in contemporary military and government operations . The modern course produces " leaders with the flexibility of mind to solve complex operational and strategic problems in peace , conflict , and war " . Various senior military leaders have recognized the contributions of SAMS graduates in supporting global contingency operations .
The first class began at the school in mid @-@ 1983 and 13 students graduated the following year . Due to increasing requirements for SAMS graduates in the U.S. military , the army expanded the school in the 1990s , and in 2010 over 120 students graduated . Since the school 's inception , SAMS planners have supported every major U.S. military campaign , providing the army " with many of its top campaign planners for the late twentieth and early twenty @-@ first centuries " .
= = History = =
The SAMS course was designed to fill a gap in U.S. military education between the CGSC 's focus on tactics and the War College 's focus on grand strategy and national security policy . In 1981 , Colonel Huba Wass de Czege convinced Fort Leavenworth 's Lieutenant General William R. Richardson , who served as Commander of the Combined Arms Center and Commandant of the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth from 1979 to 1981 , that a second year of military education was needed for select officers . After receiving final approval , Wass de Czege helped plan and develop the school , which would open in mid @-@ 1983 . Although there was some disagreement about the purpose of the course , army leaders and the course designers settled on a plan to provide officers with a " broad , deep military education in the science and art of war . "
In June 1983 , the first class of 13 U.S. Army students began in the basement of Bell Hall at Fort Leavenworth . Initially , there were some internal problems with facilities and scheduling , and in the school 's early years there was uncertainty whether its graduates would be accepted and how they would perform in the force . When the first class graduated in 1984 , SAMS had already become " the symbol for intellectual renaissance in the officer corps " . When the first director , Wass de Czege , was succeeded by Colonel Richard Sennreich in 1985 , the school was already beginning to produce results and the U.S. Army and the College regarded SAMS as a " useful experiment " . By 1987 , enrollment of high @-@ quality officers had risen and sister services were becoming interested in sending students to SAMS . The program 's growing popularity and reputation also began attracting students from allied countries .
SAMS graduates first saw active service in December 1989 during Operation Just Cause in Panama . A core planning cell of seven SAMS graduates " crafted a well rehearsed and well executed plan that simultaneously struck some roughly 50 objectives in a single coordinated blow " . According to Colonel Kevin Benson , the tenth director of the school , " The Army and SAMS faced a test of battle and the new group of highly @-@ educated planners appeared to have passed the test with flying colors . " After its mission in Panama , the army 's leaders began to draw on SAMS to assist in additional ways . In the early 1990s , U.S. Army leaders called upon the school to help develop army doctrine . Lieutenant Colonel Thomas E. Mitchell , Colonel James McDonough ( the fifth SAMS director ) , and other members of the SAMS team helped revise the U.S. Army Doctrinal Manual 100 @-@ 5 Operations in 1990 – 1993 .
Lieutenant General Guy C. Swan noted that SAMS graduates were indispensable in Europe after the fall of the Berlin wall and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact . They were expected to " re @-@ engineer the decades of planning that had gone into the GDP [ General Defense Plan ] almost overnight " . Swan stated that this was " the first true test of SAMS on a large scale " . SAMS graduates served in Operation Desert Shield / Desert Storm , and were " remembered most famously in the early days for producing the ' Jedi Knights ' employed by Gen. Norman Schwarzkopf in developing the famous ' left hook ' " . SAMS graduates also served in roles beyond the initial planning , with 82 graduates participating in diverse theater tasks by February 1991 . As a result , U.S. Army leadership regarded SAMS as a source of " superb planners " .
After Desert Storm , the army struggled with military operations other than war , such as peacekeeping and peace enforcement operations . The school and its graduates examined the situations in Bosnia , Haiti , and Somalia . Graduates also participated in Defense Support of Civil authorities missions . The course continued to change in the 1990s . Under Colonel Gregory Fontenot , the school moved from Fort Leavenworth 's Flint Hall to Eisenhower Hall in October 1994 . In later years , the school 's leadership expanded the number of seminars and the civilian faculty . The military continues to draw heavily on SAMS in the twenty @-@ first century . SAMS planners have played a significant role in the Global War on Terror . Beginning in 2002 , the United States Central Command requested planners from SAMS and its sister schools , the United States Air Force 's School of Advanced Air and Space Studies ( SAASS ) , which was designed to be similar to SAMS , and the United States Marine Corps 's School of Advanced Warfighting ( SAW ) . SAMS students from the 2002 and 2003 classes participated as planners in the preparations for the invasion of Iraq and the plan for the post @-@ combat occupation .
The school continued to change and develop , and an additional faculty expansion occurred in 2005 – 2006 . Also , the Fellows ' curriculum shifted further away from that of the AMSP program . To keep pace with increasing demand for SAMS planners , the commander of the army 's Training and Doctrine Command directed an expansion that was approved by the Chief of Staff of the Army , and the school 's 11th director , Colonel Steve Banach , began a winter @-@ start course in 2007 . During this period , SAMS provided planners to help forward @-@ deployed headquarters plan operations and contingencies . The school moved to new premises in the newly renovated Muir Hall at Fort Leavenworth on 30 August 2011 .
= = Contributions = =
SAMS graduates have supported every major U.S. military campaign between 1984 and 2009 . SAMS graduates are known for their " critical thinking skill sets " , and are consistently called for by combatant commanders around the world . In 2010 , Brigadier General Sean MacFarland said , " In a crisis , the president always asks , ' where are the aircraft carriers ? ' In the Army , leaders ask , ' Where are the SAMS graduates ? ' Just as the aircraft carrier was a game changer in naval warfare , SAMS graduates and practitioners of operational art have been game changers in land warfare . "
The school has been praised by senior U.S. military leaders . According to Major General David Hogg , " SAMS has a reputation for producing skilled planners that can take complex ideas and develop cohesive plans . " In 2010 , army Vice Chief of Staff Peter W. Chiarelli said that SAMS was " at the forefront of the effort to remake strategic military planning for the 21st century " .
= = Facilities and Student Body = =
As of 2014 , the SAMS teaching facilities are mainly housed in Muir Hall ( image right ) , which was once a stable , and Flint Hall . The AMSP courses are taught mostly in Muir Hall — the current SAMS headquarters — while Flint Hall houses additional AMSP seminars and the AOASF seminars . Both buildings were renovated in 2011 and their classrooms accommodate seminars of about 16 – 18 students and an instructor . The renovations for Muir Hall cost $ 12 @.@ 2 million , including $ 3 million in information systems that allow students to collaborate digitally , replicating a common practice seen in militaries today .
The application process includes an examination , an interview , and a supervisor assessment . Applicants must also complete the U.S. Army 's Command and General Staff School or an equivalent intermediate @-@ level education course offered by another uniformed service . The student body of SAMS comprises mostly U.S. Army field grade officers from combat , combat support , and combat service support branches . However , in 1987 the U.S. Air Force graduated three officers and officers from the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps graduated the following years . U.S. government agencies began sending students to SAMS in 2007 . The Department of State , Federal Bureau of Investigation and United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) have provided students to the school . Also , Warrant officers first attended SAMS in 2010 .
Allied foreign militaries also provide students . In 1999 , the school graduated its first international officers — Norwegian and Canadian . Argentina , Australia , Colombia , France , Germany , Hungary , India , Jordan , Republic of Macedonia , the Netherlands , Pakistan , Romania , South Korea , Brazil , Spain , and the United Kingdom have also sent students through the course .
= = Curricula = =
= = = Advanced Military Studies Program = = =
Most students participate in the Advanced Military Studies Program ( AMSP ) . In 2009 , the school held eight AMSP seminars . AMSP is intended to educate students in " military arts and science " , and focuses on operational art and covers a variety of subjects , including military problem solving ; military theory and history , military doctrine , operational planning ; battle dynamics , operational theory and practice , contemporary military operations , and the application of national elements of power . Besides classroom studies and operational exercises , students must complete a research monograph and an oral examination . After graduating , officers serve on a division , corps , or Army Service Component Command staff , or in a functional area assignment .
= = = Advanced Operational Art Studies Fellowship = = =
The AOASF is the school 's senior program , and focuses on planning and executing full @-@ spectrum operations with government and nongovernmental agencies . Its students comprise senior lieutenant colonels , colonels , and their civilian equivalents . Military AOASF fellows have typically commanded a battalion @-@ sized unit in the armed services . The course is equivalent to the U.S. Army War College , and instructs 16 students annually .
The program began in 1984 as the Advanced Operational Studies Fellowship ( AOSF ) by diverting lieutenant colonel War College selectees to Fort Leavenworth for an equivalent education program ; these officers remained for a second year to help instruct AMSP students . Because highly qualified officers could not remain at the faculty permanently , this program was designed to mitigate the effects of periodic faculty reassignments due to operational requirements . The AOSF program allowed students to complete the AMSP and then serve as the principal instructor of the AMSP during their second year . In 1995 , the name of the program was changed to its current version , and in the early 21st century its curriculum was closer aligned with the strategic level of war .
During the first year , the AOASF curriculum includes classroom investigation of the multinational , joint and interagency environment , and extensive travel to the U.S. Defense Department 's regional commands and headquarters . In the second year , students become instructors of an AMSP seminar or take up other positions in the school . This course focuses on the operational and strategic realms of war and prepares students for assignments as leaders and to serve in critical staff positions within combatant and service component commands . The course involves extensive travel , and the study of applied strategy , military theory , military history , strategic studies , campaign planning , regional studies , and practical work in joint planning . Fellows completing AOASF receive credit as a United States Army War College graduate , and typically serve in a follow @-@ on command assignment or work for a three- or four @-@ star general officer as a member of his or her staff .
= = Notable graduates = =
General Charles C. Campbell ( Class of 1986 )
General David M. Rodriguez ( Class of 1989 )
General Charles H. Jacoby , Jr . ( Class of 1991 )
Lieutenant General William G. Webster ( Class of 1984 )
Lieutenant General William B. Caldwell , IV ( Class of 1988 )
Lieutenant General Mark P. Hertling ( Class of 1988 )
Lieutenant General David H. Huntoon ( Class of 1988 )
General Vincent K. Brooks ( Class of 1992 )
Lieutenant General John E. Sterling , Jr . ( Class of 1992 )
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= Honesty ( Billy Joel song ) =
" Honesty " is a song by American singer and songwriter Billy Joel . Columbia Records released the song as the third single from his sixth studio album 52nd Street ( 1978 ) in 1979 . " Honesty " was solely written by Joel , while production was handled by Phil Ramone . The song was not included on any of Joel 's US @-@ released compilation packages ; however , it appears on the Dutch and Japanese editions of Greatest Hits Volume 2 , replacing " Don 't Ask Me Why " ( 1980 ) . " Honesty " is a piano ballad that talks about the inherent lack of shame .
The song received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who generally praised its lyrics and piano instrumentation . It also received comparisons to other songs by Joel . " Honesty " peaked at number twenty @-@ four on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , becoming the album 's third consecutive top forty hit . It was certified gold by Recording Industry Association of Japan for ringtone download sales of over 100 @,@ 000 units . Joel performed the song live several times with Elton John and later with Bryan Adams . " Honesty " has been covered and sampled by various artists , most notably by American R & B recording artist , Beyoncé Knowles .
= = Background and composition = =
" Honesty " was solely written by Billy Joel while production was handled by Phil Ramone . It is the second song from his sixth studio album 52nd Street ( 1978 ) . The song was also included on South Korean and Japanese edition of Joel 's 1985 compilation Greatest Hits Volume 2 as one of the bonus tracks . The song wasn 't included on any of Joel 's US released compilation packages ; however , it appears on the Dutch edition as well as the aforementioned Japanese edition of Greatest Hits Volume 2 , instead of " Don 't Ask Me Why " ( 1980 ) . David Spinozza plays the acoustic guitar in the song , Liberty DeVitto plays the drums and Robert Freedman the horn and string orchestration .
" Honesty " is a piano ballad with synthesizer embellishments . It opens with " sad and tender " piano chords . According to Ken Bielen in his book The Words and Music of Billy Joel , Liberty DeVitto 's drums and cymbal crashes , remind listeners that " the track is a predecessor of the power ballads of the 1980s and 1990s " . It talks about the inherent lack of honesty even in the closest of relationships . In the song Joel sings the lines " Honesty is such a lonely word " . Joel further sings about wearing his heart on his sleeve in " Honesty " . According to Chuck Klosterman of The New York Times , " [ the song ] implies that the only way you can tell that someone really cares about you is if they tell you you 're bad . " " Leningrad " ( 1989 ) , a song from Joel 's eleventh studio album Storm Front , has been compared to " Honesty " . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Faber Music , " Honesty " is a pop rock and classical rock song written in the key of B ♭ major . The song is set in common time and performed in a slow tempo of 80 beats per minute . Joel 's vocals range from the note of Bb2 to Bb4 .
= = Reception = =
While reviewing 52nd Street Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the website AllMusic noted that " Honesty " was one of Joel 's best songs . Timothy White of Billboard magazine called the song a pensive pop hit . A writer of Rolling Stone felt that " The sweet music of ' Honesty ' is sabotaged by trite lyrics " . The Phoenix 's Michael Lawson noted that the song was " well suited for middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road tastes " . According to Ken Bielen , " ' Honesty ' is a plea for truth , not only in romantic relationships but also from the politicians who affect our lives . " Adam Graham of MTV News described the song as a " big ballad " . The song was nominated in the category for Song of the Year at the 22nd Grammy Awards held on February 27 , 1980 .
" Honesty " peaked at number sixteen on the Canadian Singles Chart . On July 28 , 1979 the song debuted at number thirty one on the Dutch Top 40 which later become its peak position . The next week , the song fell seven positions placing at number thirty eight . However , on August 11 , 1979 , " Honesty " charted at number thirty five before falling out of the chart the next week . In New Zealand , " Honesty " debuted at number forty seven , on June 10 , 1979 and later peaked at number thirty eight . After its peak position , the song fell out of the chart . On the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the US , the song peaked at number twenty four . In May 2009 , Joel 's version was certified gold by Recording Industry Association of Japan for ringtone download sales of over 100 @,@ 000 units .
= = Live performances = =
Joel performed the song with Elton John at Giants Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey in July 1994 . First , they sang " Your Song " ( 1970 ) by John and after that they performed " Honesty " while playing on the piano . " Honesty " was also performed by John and Joel on March 29 , 1995 in SkyDome , Toronto . The same routine was performed in May 1998 in Dublin . On July 31 , 2006 , Joel performed the song at a free concert , at the Colosseum , Rome , Italy .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Honesty " are taken from 52nd Street liner notes .
Billy Joel – writing , vocals , piano
Phil Ramone – producing
Liberty DeVitto – drums
Doug Stegmeyer – bass guitar
David Spinozza – acoustic guitar
Robert Freedman – horn and string orchestration
= = Track listing = =
US single
" Honesty " – 3 : 53
" The Mexican Connection " – 3 : 38
Dutch single / CBS 7150
" Honesty " – 3 : 53
" Root Beer Rag " – 2 : 59
CBS single
" Honesty "
" My Life "
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Cover versions = =
Belgian jazz musician , Toots Thielemans , recorded a harmonica instrumental cover version of the song with a five @-@ piece combo at Nippon Columbia 's Grand Studio in Tokyo , Japan in 1979 . " Honesty " has been particularly popular in South Korea and Japan for decades and covered by East Asian musicians including Hajime Mizoguchi on his album yours ; tears ( 2007 ) , and K on his album The Timeless Collection Vol . 1 ( 2007 ) . In 1981 , Mexican singer David Haro recorded under the title " Sinceridad " from the album Calido . " From Marcy to Hollywood " , a song by American rappers Jay @-@ Z , Memphis Bleek and Sauce Money from the soundtrack album The Players Club , ( 1998 ) featured a sample of " Honesty " . During his audutions for Fox 's Glee , Canadian actor Cory Monteith sang " Honesty " . Fellow Glee actor Kevin McHale , as his character Artie Abrams , covered the song in the show 's 2013 tribute episode " Movin ' Out " . In 2010 , Swedish singer Helen Sjöholm covered the song for her 2010 album Euforia – Helen Sjöholm sjunger Billy Joel under the title " Ärlighet " . Actress Maggie Gyllenhaal sings a cover of the song in the 2005 film Happy Endings .
In March 2012 , eleventh season contestant of American Idol , Hollie Cavanagh , covered the song . Her performance received mixed reviews from the judges of the show , who said that she was " a little pitchy " and added that she seemed to be " overthinking " the song . Amy Reiter of Los Angeles Times noted that " her clear , crisp tone , crashed and burned on ' Honesty , ' missing notes and losing her way " . Laura Prudom of The Huffington Post was mixed about her performance writing , " She was occasionally pitchy on this song , and seemed to be overthinking it in parts and allowing the song to overwhelm her ... Unusually , she seemed both nasal and pitchy in the early parts of the performance ... her choice of a pantsuit was completely baffling , since it made her look nearer 40 than 20 . " Later , during an interview , Cavanagh revealed that she had difficulties singing the song because she had never heard it before .
= = Beyoncé Knowles version = =
In 2008 , American recording artist , Beyoncé Knowles re @-@ recorded Billy Joel 's version of the song produced by Scott Storch for a compilation album of her former group Destiny 's Child , titled Mathew Knowles & Music World Present Vol.1 : Love Destiny . The song was later included on the platinum edition of her third solo album , I Am ... Sasha Fierce ( 2008 ) . Pip Ellwood of Entertainment Focus described Knowles ' version of the song as a " turgid " ballad that doesn 't " add too much to the record " . Serving as the sixteenth track to Knowles ' platinum edition re @-@ release of I Am ... Sasha Fierce , the song contrasts with previous tracks such as " Why Don 't You Love Me " . It showcases Knowles ' " soulful " voice and " outstanding " vocal range as stated by Hannah Spencer of the website Allgigs . Ken Bielen in his book The Words and Music of Billy Joel wrote , " Backed primarily by an electronic keyboard and an urban rhythm and blues arrangement , she stays faithful to the original ballad with a bittersweet vocal performance . " " Honesty " was performed during Knowles ' concert at the Olympic Gymnastics Arena in Seoul on October 20 , 2009 as part of her worldwide I Am ... Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) . The song became very popular on the South Korea Gaon International charts , peaking at number two . It became the 9th and 173rd best @-@ selling single in 2010 and 2011 in South Korea respectively selling over 800 @,@ 000 digital downloads .
= = = Charts = = =
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= Niki Tsongas =
Nicola Dickson " Niki " Sauvage Tsongas ( / ˈsɒŋɡəs / ; born April 26 , 1946 ) is an American politician and the current U.S. Representative for Massachusetts 's 3rd congressional district . From 2007 to 2013 she represented Massachusetts 's 5th congressional district , the district her husband Paul Tsongas served prior to being elected to the United States Senate . She is a member of the Democratic Party . Following John Kerry 's appointment as Secretary of State , she was widely expected to run in the 2013 special election for the Senate seat once held by her husband ; she put such speculations to rest when she announced her endorsement of Representative Ed Markey instead .
= = Family , education , and career = =
Tsongas was born Nicola Dickson Sauvage on April 26 , 1946 , in Chico , California . Her mother Marian Susan ( née Wyman ) was an artist and copywriter , and her father Colonel Russell Elmer Sauvage was an engineer in the United States Army Air Forces who survived the attack on Pearl Harbor . Tsongas graduated in 1964 from Narimasu American High School in Japan while her father was stationed at Fuchu Air Force Base . Tsongas spent one year at Michigan State University , then transferred to Smith College in Northampton , Massachusetts , and graduated in 1968 with a Bachelor of Arts in religion . After college she moved to New York City , where she took a job as a social worker for the Department of Welfare . Tsongas earned her Juris Doctor from Boston University and started Lowell 's first all @-@ female law practice .
Tsongas interned in Arlington , Virginia , for presidential candidate Eugene McCarthy during summer 1967 ; at a party while there she met Paul Tsongas , then an aide to Republican Congressman Brad Morse . In 1969 , she married Paul ; they had three daughters : Ashley , Katina , and Molly . A politician , Paul served in the House from Massachusetts 's 5th congressional district from 1975 to 1979 , and the Senate from 1979 to 1985 . After being diagnosed with non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma , Paul resigned from Congress . Tsongas moved their family from Washington , D.C. , back to Massachusetts to care for Paul as he underwent treatments . After seemingly being cured of his disease , in 1992 Paul ran for the Democratic Party nomination for President ; he came in third behind former California Governor Jerry Brown and eventual winner Bill Clinton . Paul 's cancer later returned ; he died of pneumonia and liver failure on January 18 , 1997 .
Prior to her election to the House , Tsongas worked as the Dean of External Affairs at Middlesex Community College , as a Board Member of Fallon Community Health Plan and served on the Lowell Civic Stadium and Arena Commission , which oversees several sites including the Tsongas Arena . In 2001 , Representative Marty Meehan appointed Tsongas to head a foundation to provide education funding for children of the victims of the September 11 attacks .
= = U.S. House of Representatives = =
= = = Elections = = =
After Marty Meehan resigned in 2007 to serve as Chancellor of the University of Massachusetts Lowell , Tsongas ran in the special election . Tsongas defeated four other candidates to win the Democratic primary with 36 % of the vote . During her initial campaign Tsongas received endorsements from The Boston Globe , the Boston Herald , and the Lowell Sun . During the general election , former President Bill Clinton , who defeated her husband for the Democratic nomination in 1992 , campaigned for her . At an event in Lowell Clinton remarked : " Congress will be a better place because she is there . " Tsongas won the special election against Republican Jim Ogonowski with 51 % of the vote on October 17 ; she became the only female Representative from Massachusetts , and the first female representative from Massachusetts since the retirement of Margaret Heckler in 1983 , who became Secretary of Health and Human Services under Ronald Reagan .
After running unopposed in 2008 , in 2010 Tsongas faced Republican Jon Golnik , a small businessman and former Wall Street currency trader . During the campaign Tsongas attacked Golnik 's history as a Vice President of AIG , which Golnik called hypocritical , as she had stock in AIG and other large corporations . Tsongas defeated Golnik with 52 % of the vote . Following redistricting after the 2010 census , Tsongas ran for re @-@ election in the reconfigured Massachusetts 's 3rd congressional district in 2012 . In a rematch , she again defeated Golnick .
= = = Tenure = = =
A major issue in her initial election was whether the two candidates would vote to override President George W. Bush 's veto of an expansion of the State Children 's Health Insurance Program . Tsongas said she would vote to override , and it was reported Ogonowski would uphold the veto . Hours after being sworn into office on October 18 , Tsongas voted to override , but the vote failed to achieve the necessary two @-@ thirds majority .
As a candidate in 2007 , Tsongas promised to withdraw troops and end the Iraq War . The first bill she introduced aimed to do this by implementing a timetable for withdrawal from Iraq ; however , the bill died in committee . In 2010 , Tsongas along with other women in Congress , including House Speaker Nancy Pelosi , visited Afghanistan to oversee the war effort . Upon returning , Tsongas spoke of the need for the involvement of women in rebuilding of government .
Tsongas is an advocate for universal health care and supports a public health insurance option . In 2010 she voted for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act . In 2012 Tsongas joined a Republican @-@ led effort to repeal a 2 @.@ 3 % sales tax on medical @-@ device manufacturers , which passed the House 270 – 146 ; 36 other Democrats voted for it . Tsongas is pro @-@ choice and received a 100 % approval rating from Planned Parenthood in 2008 . A supporter of LGBT rights , Tsongas cosponsored the Respect for Marriage Act to repeal the Defense of Marriage Act ; and voted for the Don 't Ask , Don 't Tell Repeal Act of 2010 , which allows homosexuals to serve openly in the armed forces .
Following Anthony Weiner 's sexting scandal , Tsongas was the only Representative from Massachusetts to call for his resignation , saying that " it would be appropriate for [ him ] to step down . " In the 2012 Massachusetts Senate election , Tsongas was the first major Democratic politician to endorse the winner , Elizabeth Warren , whom she called " a fighter for middle class families " . Following President Barack Obama 's designation of John Kerry as United States Secretary of State , there was much speculation that she would run for his seat , which her husband had previously held . Though Tsongas briefly considered a run , she responded she would best be able to serve the people of Massachusetts by continuing to serve in the House , and instead endorsed fellow Representative Ed Markey .
On January 23 , 2013 , Tsongas introduced the Nashua River Wild and Scenic River Study Act ( H.R. 412 ; 113th Congress ) , a bill that would amend the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act to designate certain segments concerning the Nashua River in Massachusetts for study for potential addition to the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System . Tsongas discussed the river 's history and past pollution problems in her testimony about the bill . She argued that the study would allow stakeholders to work together to " ensure that it remains a great place for canoeing , fishing , and enjoying the outdoors . "
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= Johnstown Inclined Plane =
The Johnstown Inclined Plane is a 896 @.@ 5 @-@ foot ( 273 @.@ 3 m ) funicular in Johnstown , Cambria County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . The incline and its two stations connect the city of Johnstown , situated in a valley at the confluence of the Stonycreek and the Little Conemaugh Rivers , to the borough of Westmont on Yoder Hill . The Johnstown Inclined Plane is billed as the " world 's steepest vehicular inclined plane " , as it is capable of carrying automobiles , in addition to passengers , up or down a slope with a grade of 70 @.@ 9 percent . The travel time from one station to the other is 90 seconds .
After a catastrophic flood in 1889 , the Johnstown Inclined Plane was completed in 1891 to serve as an escape route for future floods , as well as a convenient mode of transportation for the residents of the new communities situated above the valley . It was operated by Cambria Iron Company and its successor Bethlehem Steel until 1935 , when it was sold to the borough of Westmont . The incline was briefly shut down in 1962 when its supply of power from Bethlehem Steel was terminated . Twice in its history , the Johnstown Inclined Plane fulfilled its role as a means of evacuation from floods — once in 1936 and again in 1977 . The incline was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 and was designated a Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark in 1994 . It had major renovations in 1962 and from 1983 to 1984 .
= = Design = =
The Johnstown Inclined Plane was designed by Hungarian engineer Samuel Diescher , who had also designed the Duquesne , Castle Shannon and Fort Pitt Inclines in Pittsburgh . The funicular consists of a parallel set of 8 ft ( 2 @,@ 440 mm ) broad gauge railroad tracks with a 70 @.@ 9 percent grade or an angle of 35 degrees and 28 minutes from the horizontal . The incline is 896 @.@ 5 feet ( 273 @.@ 3 m ) long and ascends 502 @.@ 2 feet ( 153 @.@ 1 m ) vertically to the top of Yoder Hill and the borough of Westmont , the station of which is at an elevation of 1 @,@ 693 @.@ 5 feet ( 516 @.@ 2 m ) above sea level . The rails are supported by 720 14 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 4 m ) railroad ties made from Southern Yellow Pine . The incline is lit at night by 114 high @-@ pressure sodium @-@ vapor lamps mounted along the sides of tracks . There used to be a stairway between the two tracks with 966 steps , but these were removed circa 1963 .
Two cars traverse the slope ; as one descends , the other ascends and acts as a counterweight . The cars are 15 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) wide , 15 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall , and 34 feet ( 10 m ) long , and are large enough to carry either 65 people , 6 motorcycles , or an automobile . While the cars are open to the elements , an enclosed seating area containing a bench is situated along the outer side of the incline . The cables connecting the cars are 2 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 50 @.@ 8 mm ) , 6 × 36 right regular lay , steel wire rope . They are wound around a 3 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 2 @.@ 7 @-@ metric @-@ ton ; 2 @.@ 7 @-@ long @-@ ton ) , 16 @-@ foot @-@ diameter ( 5 m ) drum that connects the cars together . The cable on the north track is 1 @,@ 075 feet ( 328 m ) long , while the south cable is 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 13 m ) shorter . Each car weighs 22 short tons ( 20 @.@ 0 metric tons ; 19 @.@ 6 long tons ) , but they , and consequently the cables , can carry an additional load of 15 short tons ( 13 @.@ 6 metric tons ; 13 @.@ 4 long tons ) . A 400 @-@ horsepower ( 298 kW ) electric motor turns the drum , simultaneously winding and unwinding the cable , to power the incline . The Johnstown Inclined Plane is unusual in that the motor and winch are located at a 90 degree angle to the incline instead of directly underneath it . Operation of the incline is controlled via a foot pedal located in a booth in the upper station .
An emergency brake engages if the air pressure needed to control the incline is insufficient ; the brake also engages if a dead man 's switch is tripped in the operator 's booth . In addition to the hauling cables , a 972 @-@ foot ( 296 m ) safety cable capable of withstanding 165 short tons ( 149 @.@ 7 metric tons ; 147 @.@ 3 long tons ) is also connected to the cars .
= = History = =
= = = Background and construction = = =
Inclines are common in Europe , and immigrants , like the German , Slavic , and Welsh people who settled near Johnstown , remembered them from their native lands and brought the concept to the United States . The earliest inclines in the United States were a series of 10 that were built in the 1830s as part of the Allegheny Portage Railroad . The portage railroad carried canal boats over the Allegheny Mountains to connect the canals from Pittsburgh to the ones from Philadelphia . Pittsburgh at one time also had " at least 17 " inclines — some carried passengers , others freight , while another two inclines ( like the Nunnery Hill Incline ) were curved .
On May 31 , 1889 , the South Fork Dam collapsed upstream of Johnstown on the Little Conemaugh River . The resulting deluge devastated the city , killing 2 @,@ 209 people . As the city rebuilt , the Cambria Iron Company started work on a residential development atop Yoder Hill . To provide easy transportation up and down the steep slope for the residents of the new community of Westmont , the company decided to construct an inclined plane . In addition to being a convenient mode of transportation , the Johnstown Inclined Plane doubled as an escape route in case of another flood . Diescher was hired by Cambria Iron to design the incline . The rails used in the incline were all manufactured in Johnstown at Cambria Iron , with many of the tools needed in the construction also handcrafted there . The 232 @-@ foot ( 71 m ) Inclined Plane Bridge was built to span the Stoneycreek River to provide access to the lower station of the incline . Originally named the Cambria Inclined Plane , the Johnstown Inclined Plane opened on June 1 , 1891 and cost $ 133 @,@ 296 to build . The convenience the incline provided stimulated a rapid growth of population in Westmont and made the borough one of the country 's first suburbs . Over 40 million trips were taken on the incline in its first 80 years of operation .
= = = Use = = =
The incline 's original steam engine was disconnected on January 6 , 1912 , and replaced with an electric motor . The cars used on the incline were originally double @-@ deckers , but were reconfigured into a single @-@ decker design in 1921 . The double @-@ decker cars had horses and wagons riding on the main , upper deck and passengers riding in a compartment below . Only one human fatality has occurred at the incline , though it was determined that the incident was not caused by the incline itself . There were two incidents in the 1920s when horses aboard the incline became spooked and leapt from the car onto the tracks below . Bethlehem Steel , the successor to Cambria Iron , sold the Johnstown Inclined Plane to the borough of Westmont in April 1935 . On March 17 , 1936 , nearly 4 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from Johnstown to higher ground via the incline as the Stoneycreek and Conemaugh Rivers overflowed their banks . The floodwaters continued downstream and eventually reached Pittsburgh . From February 1938 to July 1953 , the Johnstown Traction Company operated transit buses from Johnstown to Westmont with the " fully loaded public buses " being carried by the incline . Bethlehem Steel stopped supplying electricity to the Johnstown Inclined Plane when the factory switched to " an incompatible power system " , forcing the incline to close on January 31 , 1962 . Because of public pressure to keep the incline operating , it was reopened in July 1962 after an extensive renovation , in which the electric motor was rewound , ties were replaced , and the cars were repainted .
The Johnstown Inclined Plane was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on June 18 , 1973 . On July 20 , 1977 , the incline was again used as an escape route , evacuating residents from the valley amid rising floodwaters . It also carried " boats , emergency personnel , and equipment down to the valley to aid in rescue operations " . The incline was again sold for $ 1 by Westmont borough on March 8 , 1983 , to the Cambria County Transit Authority , now CamTran . CamTran initiated a $ 4 @.@ 2 million renovation on September 7 , 1983 , replacing " the incline 's foundation piers , structural steel , and track . " The renovations were completed on August 22 , 1984 , and the incline was rededicated on September 6 . It was designated an Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers ( ASME ) in September 1994 . A footbridge spanning Pennsylvania Route 56 between the incline and Vine Street was opened around the same time . On September 1 , 2000 , the incline was closed when the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation ( PennDOT ) undertook an $ 2 @.@ 3 million renovation of the bridge and the access road leading to the bridge . It was reopened in April 2001 , but again closed in September to allow PennDOT to finish repairs to the bridge deck . The repairs were completed on December 14 , 2001 . A strong thunderstorm disrupted power to the incline on April 16 , 2010 , stranding the cars and two passengers almost halfway down the slope ; the rescue took three hours and ended when firefighters rappelled down the tracks to reach the car . The Johnstown Inclined Plane was closed from September 9 to October 14 , 2010 , for the installation of a new 9 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 4 @,@ 100 kg ) " hoist brake shaft . " From October 29 to October 31 , 2012 , CamTran shut down the incline fearing power outages due to the passage of Hurricane Sandy . During the annual Thunder in the Valley motorcycle rally , two resistors failed and stopped the incline just outside the stations on June 28 , 2014 ; repairs took approximately a month after having experts brought in diagnose the failure . Sensor issues briefly disrupted service in August 2014 and , again , December 2014 forcing the incline to start its winter maintenance period early .
= = Current operations = =
With the growing popularity of the automobile and subsequent construction of new roads , ridership on the incline diminished and it was losing $ 25 @,@ 000 a year by 1961 . However , since the 1980s , the incline has become one of the main tourist attractions in Johnstown , with people visiting the incline to " ride for fun , nostalgia and novelty . " Though primarily used for tourism , the incline 's use by commuters , who bike or walk to work , has also increased . CamTran 's Route 18 transit bus offers connections between the incline and downtown Johnstown . As of 2015 , the cost for a ride on the incline is $ 2 @.@ 25 or $ 4 for a roundtrip ; fares for automobiles to be transported by the incline are $ 6 one way . The incline takes around 90 seconds to travel from one station to the other ; the same trip takes 10 minutes by automobile . In 2014 , the Johnstown Inclined Plane had an annual ridership of 70 @,@ 761 passengers , a decrease of 18 @.@ 7 percent from the previous year .
The upper station of the incline has a gift shop that sells souvenirs and snack foods ; a visitor center is also located adjacent to the station . The mechanical room housing the incline 's electric motor and hoisting mechanism can be viewed from windows in the gift shop and the lobby of the visitor center . An observation deck providing views of the incline , the city , and the valley is located on the opposite side of the station from the visitor center . Two hiking trails allow visitors to walk the slope . One is a sculpture trail , with works created in 1989 by local artist James Wolfe , who used remnants of the Bethlehem Steel factory in Johnstown .
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= Halo ( series ) =
Halo is a military science fiction first @-@ person shooter video game franchise created by Bungie and now managed and developed by 343 Industries , a subsidiary of Microsoft Studios . The series centers on an interstellar war between humanity and a theocratic alliance of aliens known as the Covenant . The Covenant , led by their religious leaders called the Prophets , worship an ancient civilization known as the Forerunners , who perished in combat with the parasitic Flood . The central focus of the franchise builds off the experiences of Master Chief John @-@ 117 , one of a group of supersoldiers codenamed Spartans , and his artificial intelligence ( AI ) companion , Cortana . Other characters , such as Noble Six from Halo : Reach , are also introduced in the series . The term " Halo " refers to the Halo rings : large , habitable superweapons that were created to destroy the parasitic Flood . They are similar to the Orbitals in Iain M. Banks ' Culture novels , and to author Larry Niven 's Ringworld concept .
The games in the series have been praised as being among the best first @-@ person shooters on a video game console , and are considered the Xbox 's " killer app " . This led to the term " Halo killer " being used to describe console games that aspire , or are considered , to be better than Halo . Fueled by the success of Halo : Combat Evolved , and by immense marketing campaigns from publisher Microsoft , its sequels went on to record @-@ breaking sales . The games have sold over 65 million copies worldwide , with the games alone grossing almost $ 3 @.@ 4 billion .
Strong sales of the games led to the franchise 's expansion to other media ; there are multiple best @-@ selling novels , graphic novels , and other licensed products . Halo Wars took the franchise into new video game genre territory , as a real @-@ time strategy game , while the rest of the games in the series are first @-@ person shooters . Beyond the original trilogy , Bungie developed the expansion Halo 3 : ODST , and a prequel , Halo : Reach , their last project for the franchise . A high @-@ definition remake of the first game , entitled Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary , was released on November 15 , 2011 , exactly ten years after the release of the original . A new installment in a second series of games , Halo 4 , was released on November 6 , 2012 . Halo : The Master Chief Collection , a remastered compilation of the four primary Halo titles , was released for the Xbox One on November 11 , 2014 .
The collective group of fans of the series is referred to as the " Halo Nation " .
= = Setting and plot = =
In the distant past , a powerful race called the Forerunners fought an alien parasite known as the Flood . The Flood , which spread through infestation of sentient life , overran much of the Milky Way Galaxy . One of the races affected was humanity , who came into conflict with the Forerunners as a result . Exhausted by their war and after having explored all other options , the Forerunners conceived a weapon of last resort to combat the Flood , called the Halo Array . Using an installation known as the Ark , they built large ring @-@ shaped megastructures known as Halos . The Halo Array , when activated , would destroy all sentient life in the galaxy – depriving the Flood of their food , after which samples of the lost lifeforms would be reseeded . Delaying as long as they could , the Forerunners activated the rings and disappeared . Tens of thousands of years later , in the 26th century , humanity – under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command , or UNSC – colonize many worlds thanks to the development of faster @-@ than @-@ light " slipspace " travel . Tensions escalate between the older and more stable " Inner Colonies " and the remote " Outer Colonies " , leading to civil war . The UNSC sponsors the Spartan @-@ II program to create an elite group of enhanced supersoldiers , whose purpose is to suppress the rebellion covertly . In the year 2525 , human worlds come under attack by a theocratic alliance of alien races known as the Covenant . The Covenant leadership declares humanity heretics and an affront to their gods – the Forerunners – and begins a holy war of genocide . The Covenant 's superior technology and numbers prove decisive advantages ; though effective , the Spartans are too few in number to turn the tide of battle in humanity 's favor .
In 2552 , the Covenant arrive at the UNSC 's last major stronghold beyond Earth – the planet Reach , in orbit of Epsilon Eridani – and launch an invasion of the planet . The last Spartans and UNSC military are unable to stop the Covenant from bombarding the planet . The UNSC Navy suffers devastating losses , and every Spartan but their leader , player character Master Chief John @-@ 117 , is believed lost in action . Following directives to avoid leading the Covenant to Earth , Cortana , the AI aboard the fleeing UNSC ship Pillar of Autumn , selects random coordinates that lead the ship to a Halo installation . These events form the backdrop to the first game in the series , Halo : Combat Evolved .
Over the course of the game , the Covenant pursue , damaging the Autumn and leading its crew to wage a guerrilla war on the ring 's surface . The Covenant accidentally release Flood imprisoned on the ring ; to nullify the threat , the ring 's AI caretaker , 343 Guilty Spark , enlists the help of the Master Chief in activating Halo . Cortana reveals that Halo 's activation would mean their own destruction . Master Chief and Cortana instead detonate Autumn 's engines , destroying Halo and preventing the escape of the Flood .
Between the events of the first game and Halo 2 , the Chief and a few other survivors return to Earth , warning of an impending Covenant attack ; this attack forms the first mission of the game . Meanwhile , the Covenant , unaware of the destructive nature of the rings , attempt to fire another ring , Installation 05 , to fulfill their religious prophecy and to do so launch an attack on Earth . Helping the Chief to defend the Earth are Sergeant Avery Johnson and Commander Miranda Keyes . One race in the Covenant , the Elites , learn the truth about the rings and are led by a former Elite commander named the Arbiter ( also a player character ) to join forces with humanity to stop the firing of the ring . Though they are successful , the unexpected shutdown of the installation triggers a fail @-@ safe protocol , priming all the rings for firing from the Ark .
Halo 3 picks up immediately after , with the Covenant 's leader , the High Prophet of Truth , and the remaining loyalist Covenant uncovering a portal to the Ark on Earth . A battle rages on Earth between human forces , the Covenant , and a Flood @-@ infected army . Eventually , the Covenant is repulsed and flees through a slipspace portal , and the Flood is purged from Earth , though much of Africa has been devastated in the battle .
Chief , Arbiter , Elites , Johnson , Keyes , and U.N.S.C. troops follow Truth through the portal , joined by 343 Guilty Spark , who aids the Chief as he has no function to fulfill after the destruction of his ringworld . During the ensuing battle between humans , Covenant , and the Flood on the Ark , Johnson is captured by Truth to activate the Halo rings . Keyes tries to intervene , but is killed . Master Chief and the Arbiter , aided by the Flood , kill the Covenant " prophet " of Truth and rescue Johnson . After finding out that the Ark is constructing a replacement for Guilty Spark 's Halo installation , Master Chief decides to fire the unstable Halo , destroying both the Flood and the Ark . After finding out about their plan , Guilty Spark kills Johnson and tries to kill Master Chief , but Master Chief destroys Guilty Spark and activates the Halo . Master Chief and the Arbiter escape on the UNSC frigate Forward Unto Dawn , but the slipspace portal closes with Master Chief 's half trapped in space . After a memorial service on Earth for the victims of the Human @-@ Covenant war , the Arbiter and his Elite brethren depart for their home planet . The rear half of Forward Unto Dawn floats in deep space . Cortana activates a distress beacon and the Chief goes into hibernation .
Four years later , the Chief and Cortana awake to find they are being attacked by a Covenant splinter group ( Halo 4 ) . Caught in an artificial gravity well , they are pulled into the artificial Forerunner planet of Requiem , along with the UNSC ship Infinity . Master Chief , fighting Covenant and AI soldiers called Prometheans , unwittingly releases a hostile Forerunner warrior called the Didact . While seeking a way to combat the Didact , Cortana reveals that she is becoming rampant , a state in AIs when their knowledge base becomes too large and they gradually go insane . Master Chief is eventually contacted by a Forerunner consciousness called the Librarian ( The Didact 's Wife ) , who tells him about the Didact : during the crisis with the Flood , the Didact tried to use a device called the Composer to transform humanity into creatures like the Prometheans . He did this because he needed extra soldiers in the war . His own race then imprisoned him along with Forerunner soldiers and humans he had already converted . The Composer was hidden . After the Didact leaves Requiem and retrieves the Composer , Master Chief pursues him to Earth , with Master Chief and Cortana working together to destroy the Composer . Master Chief succeeds , but Cortana sacrifices herself to save him from the resultant explosion . Master Chief is later found floating among the rubble , and taken back to Infinity .
Halo 5 : Guardians begins eight months later . Blue Team — consisting of four of the five remaining Spartans ( Master Chief , Fred @-@ 104 , Kelly @-@ 87 and Linda @-@ 58 ) , receives signals from Cortana indicating that she has survived her death by taking advantage of Forerunner AI technology . The Chief , disobeying direct orders , travels to the planet Genesis to reunite with her . A team of Spartans from a competing program , Fireteam Osiris , are dispatched to apprehend him . This journey takes them to several places around the galaxy , including the Elite homeworld of Sanghelios , where the Arbiter leads an offensive against the final remnants of the loyalist Covenant . As they travel , Osiris discover that Cortana is activating ancient Forerunner constructs — the eponymous Guardians — with which she plans to impose permanent galactic peace on pain of death . She holds the Master Chief 's team captive , and while Fireteam Osiris are able to rescue them , they are not able to stop Cortana from executing her plan , disabling most contemporary technology and bringing all remaining sentient species under her aegis . As the game ends , Blue Team , Fireteam Osiris and the Arbiter regroup to plan their resistance .
= = Game series = =
= = = Original trilogy = = =
The games of the main Halo trilogy were developed by Bungie , and are first @-@ person shooters in which the player experiences most action from the protagonist 's perspective . The first title in the series is the Xbox version of Halo : Combat Evolved , released on November 15 , 2001 . The game was initially intended to be released for Windows and Mac OS , until Microsoft 's purchase of Bungie in 2000 led to the game becoming an Xbox launch title and platform exclusive . Halo : Combat Evolved introduced many gameplay and plot themes common to the whole trilogy . Players battle various aliens on foot and in vehicles to complete objectives , while attempting to uncover the secrets of the eponymous Halo . One concept introduced in Halo : Combat Evolved , is limiting the number of weapons players could carry to two , forcing them to carefully select their preferred armament . Players fight with ranged and melee attacks , as well as a limited number of grenades . Bungie refers to the " weapons @-@ grenades @-@ melee " format as the " Golden Triangle of Halo " , which has remained fundamentally unchanged throughout the trilogy . In Halo : Combat Evolved , the player 's health is measured in both hit points and a continually recharging energy shield ; the sequels forgo the hit point system , although it returns in spin @-@ offs . A Windows and Mac OS X port was later developed by Gearbox Software , and released on September 30 and November 11 , 2003 , respectively . A stand @-@ alone expansion , entitled Halo : Custom Edition , was released as a Windows exclusive , and allowed players to create custom content for the game .
Its sequel , Halo 2 was released on the Xbox on November 9 , 2004 , and later for Windows Vista on May 17 , 2007 . For the first time , the game was released in two different editions : a standard edition with just the game disc and traditional Xbox packaging ; and the Collector 's Edition with a specially designed aluminum case , along with an additional bonus DVD , extra booklet , and slightly different user manual . Halo 2 introduced new gameplay elements , chief among them the ability to hold and fire two weapons simultaneously , known as " dual wielding " . Unlike its predecessor , Halo 2 fully supported online multiplayer via Xbox Live . The game uses " matchmaking " to facilitate joining online matches by grouping players looking for certain types of games . This was a change from the more traditional " server list " approach , which was used to find matches in online games at this time . Upon release , Halo 2 became the game played by the most people on the Xbox Live service that week ; it retained this title for over two years – the longest streak any game has held the spot .
Halo 3 is the final game in the main Halo trilogy , ending the story arc begun in Halo : Combat Evolved . The game was released on the Xbox 360 on September 25 , 2007 . It adds to the series new vehicles , new weapons , and a class of items called equipment . The game also includes a limited map @-@ editing tool , known as the Forge , which allows players to insert game objects , such as weapons and crates , into existing multiplayer map geometry . Players can also save a recording of their gameplay sessions , and view them as video , from any angle .
At E3 2014 , Microsoft and 343 Industries announced Halo : The Master Chief Collection , released on November 11 , 2014 , for the Xbox One . The game includes the full campaign and multiplayer modes of Halo : Combat Evolved , Halo 2 , Halo 3 , and Halo 4 . The campaign of Halo 3 : ODST was later released as DLC , and was free for those who bought The Master Chief Collection during late 2014 .
= = = Reclaimer saga = = =
Following Bungie 's split from Microsoft , 343 Industries – a studio established by Microsoft in 2009 – took the helm of the Halo franchise . 343 had already co @-@ developed the Halo Legends animated series and had overseen production of Halo : Reach and Halo : Combat Evolved Anniversary . The next game in the series , Halo 4 , was announced at E3 2011 as the first entry in what would be a new series of Halo games , also known as the " Reclaimer Trilogy " . The game included many staples of previous games , such as new or redesigned weapon types , an improved map @-@ editing tool and expanded multiplayer options and maps . Halo 4 was released worldwide on November 6 , 2012 , achieving record sales for the franchise . In a new addition to the series , a story @-@ driven multiplayer campaign entitled Spartan Ops was released over the weeks following Halo 4 's release , telling what happened after the end of the main game .
Halo 5 : Guardians , the sequel to Halo 4 , was released for the Xbox One on October 27 , 2015 . The game takes place on many different worlds , mainly the Covenant 's , and will revolve around Spartan Locke attempting to hunt down Master Chief . This will be the first game in the Halo series where players switch between two teams in Campaign at certain times : Master Chief 's team , consisting of the Spartans in the Blue team , and Spartan Locke 's team called Fireteam Osiris , consisting of fellow Spartans such as Buck from Halo 3 : ODST .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
The success of the main Halo trilogy spurred the creation of spin @-@ off games . Halo Wars is a real @-@ time strategy game developed by Ensemble Studios for the Xbox 360 . Set in the year 2531 , the game takes place 21 years prior to the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . Much effort was spent on developing a control scheme that was simple and intuitive , unlike other console strategy games . The game was announced at X06 , and released in February and March 2009 .
In a July 2008 interview with MTV , Microsoft 's head of Xbox business , Don Mattrick , stated that Bungie was working on a new Halo game for Microsoft , independent of other Halo projects . An announcement of the new Halo project was expected at the 2008 E3 game exposition , which Bungie stated " has been building for several months " , but was delayed by their publisher Microsoft . The Halo announcement was to be part of Microsoft 's 150 @-@ minute E3 presentation , and was cut to trim the presentation down to 90 minutes ; Microsoft stated it wanted to give the game its own dedicated event . After the release of an ambiguous teaser trailer on September 25 , the project was revealed as Halo 3 : Recon , later changed to Halo 3 : ODST . Set between the events of Halo 2 and Halo 3 , players take control of elite human soldiers called Orbital Drop Shock Troopers ( ODST ) . The game was released on September 22 , 2009 .
Announced at E3 2009 , Halo : Reach is a prequel to the main trilogy and Bungie 's last Halo game . Players control Noble Six , a " Hyper Lethal Vector " who is one of the members of the Spartan squad " Noble Team " as they defend Reach against the Covenant . The ending of the game leads directly into the events of Combat Evolved . The game was released on September 14 , 2010 .
= = = Cancelled and related projects = = =
Alternate reality games were used to promote the release of the games in the main trilogy . The Cortana Letters , a series of cryptic email messages , were circulated by Bungie prior to Halo : Combat Evolved 's release . I Love Bees was used to promote the release of Halo 2 . The game revolved around a website created by 42 Entertainment , commissioned by Microsoft and endorsed by Bungie . Over the course of the game , audio clips were released that eventually formed a complete five @-@ hour story set on Earth between Halo and Halo 2 . Similarly , Iris was used as a viral marketing campaign for the release of Halo 3 . It featured five web servers containing various media files related to the Halo universe .
Spin @-@ off titles were planned for release on handheld systems , but did not progress far in development . Rumors of a handheld Halo title for the Game Boy Advance surfaced in 2004 . Bungie denied the rumors and commented that such a project between Microsoft and Nintendo would be " very unlikely " . At a Las Vegas consumer technology convention in January 2005 , rumors spread about a version of Halo for the handheld Gizmondo system . Bungie denied the rumors stating they were not making a game for the system . A former Gizmondo employee later revealed development only extended to basic story and game structure concepts to obtain funding from investors . In 2006 , a concept video for Microsoft 's portable Ultra @-@ Mobile PC featured footage of Halo and caused speculation for a handheld title . Microsoft later stated the footage was for demonstration purposes only ; Halo was included because it was a Microsoft @-@ owned property . In January 2007 , IGN editor @-@ in @-@ chief Matt Casamassina claimed he played a version of Halo for the Nintendo DS . He later demonstrated on @-@ camera , in @-@ game footage of an early @-@ development style version of Halo DS . The demonstrated work featured dual @-@ wielding and a version of the Halo 2 map Zanzibar . On October 5 , 2007 , Bungie employee Brian Jarrard explained the Halo DS demo was in fact an unsolicited pitch that was never taken on .
In 2006 , Microsoft announced an episodic video game to be developed by film director Peter Jackson 's Wingnut Interactive . The game , dubbed Halo : Chronicles , was confirmed to be in development in 2007 , and by 2008 was still hiring for positions on the development team . Jackson told game blog Joystiq in July 2009 that the project was no longer in development . Jackson 's manager Ken Kamins explained that the project was cancelled as part of budget cuts tied to job layoffs in January 2009 .
Before the company was shuttered after producing Halo Wars , Ensemble Studios had been working on a Halo @-@ themed massively multiplayer online game , often referred to as Titan Project , or just Titan . The project was cancelled internally in 2007 – 2008 , without a formal announcement from Microsoft .
Elements from the Halo universe have also appeared in other games . A Halo @-@ based character , SPARTAN Nicole @-@ 458 , appeared in Dead or Alive 4 , a product of the collaboration between Tecmo 's Team Ninja and Microsoft 's Bungie Studios . The Halo theme tune was also available as downloadable content for Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock .
An Arbiter appears as a playable character in Killer Instinct : Season Three .
= = = Future = = =
In December 2014 , 343 Industries general manager Bonnie Ross expressed Microsoft 's aim for the Halo series to last at least 30 more years . On March 25 , 2015 , 343 Industries announced Halo Online , a free @-@ to @-@ play Halo multiplayer game for Windows . A closed beta test limited to Russia is scheduled to launch in the second quarter of 2015 . The title is being developed with Saber Interactive and published by Innova Systems ; it is powered by a modified version of the Halo 3 engine . Furthermore , at Gamescom 2015 Microsoft announced a sequel to Ensemble 's Halo Wars , Halo Wars 2 , slated to launch in February 2017 . The game is being developed by 343 Industries and Creative Assembly .
= = Development = =
= = = Bungie = = =
Bungie ( formerly Bungie Software Products Corporation ) is a game development company started in 1991 by Alex Seropian . Seropian partnered with programmer Jason Jones to market and release Jones ' game Minotaur : The Labyrinths of Crete . Focusing on the Macintosh game market because it was smaller and easier to compete , Bungie became the biggest Mac developer with games including the shooters Pathways into Darkness and Marathon . What became Halo was originally code @-@ named Monkey Nuts and Blam ! , and took place on a hollowed @-@ out world called Solipsis . The planet eventually became a ringworld , and an artist suggested the name " Halo " , which became the game 's title .
The first Halo game was announced on July 21 , 1999 , during the Macworld Conference & Expo . It was originally planned to be a real @-@ time strategy game for the Mac and Windows operating systems , but later changed into a third @-@ person action game . On June 19 , 2000 , Microsoft acquired Bungie Studios and Halo : Combat Evolved became a launch title for the Xbox video game console . After receiving Xbox development kits , Bungie Studios rewrote the game 's engine , heavily altered its presentation , and turned it into a first @-@ person shooter . Though the first Halo was meant to include an online multiplayer mode , it was excluded because Xbox Live was not yet available .
Halo was not intended to be the Xbox 's flagship game due to internal concerns and gaming press criticism , but Microsoft VP of game publishing Ed Fries did not act on these concerns . The Xbox 's marketing heavily featured Halo , whose green color palette meshed with the console 's design scheme .
The success of the game led to a sequel , Halo 2 , which was announced on August 8 , 2002 , at Microsoft 's New York X02 press event . It featured improved graphics , new weapons , and a multiplayer mode on Xbox Live . Halo 3 was announced at the 2006 Electronic Entertainment Expo . The initial conception for the third game was done before Halo 2 was released in 2004 . It utilized a proprietary , in @-@ house graphics engine , and employed advanced graphics technologies .
They created two more Halo games before becoming independent as part of their deal with Microsoft : a side story Halo 3 : ODST and a prequel Halo : Reach in 2009 and 2010 respectively .
= = = 343 Industries = = =
Following the release of Halo 3 , Bungie announced it was splitting off from Microsoft and becoming an independent limited liability company . While Bungie remained involved in the Halo series by developing games such as ODST and Reach , the rights to Halo remain with Microsoft . To oversee everything Halo , Microsoft created an internal division , 343 Industries , serving as " stewards " for the franchise . Frank O 'Connor , formerly a Bungie employee , now serves as 343 's creative director .
In announcing the formation of 343 Industries , Microsoft also announced that Xbox Live would be home to a central hub for Halo content called Halo Waypoint . Waypoint is accessed from the Xbox 360 Dashboard and offers players access to multimedia content in addition to tracking their Halo game " career " . O 'Connor described Waypoint as intended to be the prime destination for Halo .
The company 's first new game , Halo 4 , was released on November 6 , 2012 , to generally positive reviews .
= = = Cultural influences = = =
In 2006 , in acknowledgment of the " wealth of influences adopted by the Bungie team " , a list of Bungie employees ' favorite science fiction material was published on the company 's website . The developers acknowledged that the Halo series ' use of ring @-@ shaped megastructures followed on from concepts featured in Larry Niven 's Ringworld and Iain M. Banks ' Culture series ( of which Consider Phlebas and Excession were said to be particularly influential ) . In a retrospective article in Edge , Bungie 's Jaime Griesemer commented , " The influence of something like Ringworld isn 't necessarily in the design – it 's in that feeling of being somewhere else . That sense of scale and an epic story going on out there . " Griesemer also explained , " One of the main sources of inspiration was Armor [ by John Steakley ] , in which a soldier has to constantly re @-@ live the same war over and over again . That sense of hopelessness , a relentless battle , was influential . " The Flood were influenced by the assimilating alien species in Christopher Rowley 's The Vang ; it has also been speculated that the Master Chief 's name " John 117 " may have been a reference to a character named Jon 6725416 in Rowley 's Starhammer , or to the John Spartan character of Demolition Man . An IGN article exploring the literary influences present in the Halo franchise commented on similarities between Halo and Orson Scott Card 's Ender 's Game : aspects of the SPARTAN Project and the design of the Covenant Drones are perceived as reminiscent of the super soldier program and Buggers found in the novel . Bungie has also acknowledged James Cameron 's film Aliens as a strong cinematic influence .
A report written by Roger Travis and published by The Escapist compares Halo with the Latin epic Aeneid , written by classical Roman poet Virgil . Travis posits similarities between the plots of both works and compares the characters present in them , with the Flood and Covenant taking the role performed by the Carthaginians , and the Master Chief 's role in the series to that of Aeneas .
= = Music = =
Seven Halo soundtracks have been released . The Halo Original Soundtrack contains most of Combat Evolved 's music . Due to the varying nature of gameplay , the music present was designed to use the game 's dynamic audio playback engine . The engine allows for the mood , theme , and duration of music played to change according to gameplay . To afford a more enjoyable listening experience , O 'Donnell rearranged portions of the music of Halo into standalone suites , which follow the narrative course of the game . The soundtrack also contains music not used in the game , including a variation on the Halo theme that was first played at Halo 's debut at Macworld 1999 .
For Halo 2 's soundtrack , producer Nile Rodgers and O 'Donnell decided to split the music into two separate volumes . The first , Volume One , was released on November 9 , 2004 and contained all the themes as well as the " inspired @-@ by " music present in the game ( featuring Steve Vai , Incubus , Hoobastank , and Breaking Benjamin ) . The second release , Volume 2 , contained the rest of the music , much of which was incomplete or not included in the first soundtrack , as the first soundtrack was shipped before the game was released . Halo 2 , unlike its predecessor , was mixed to take full advantage of Dolby 5 @.@ 1 Digital Surround Sound .
The soundtrack for Halo 3 was released on November 20 , 2007 . O 'Donnell noted he wanted to bring back the themes from the original game to help tie together the end of the trilogy . The tracks are presented , similarly to the previous soundtrack for Halo 2 , in a suite form . Unlike previous soundtracks , where much of the music had been synthesized on computer , the soundtrack for Halo 3 was recorded using a 60 @-@ piece orchestra , along with a 24 @-@ voice chorus . The final soundtrack was recorded by the Northwest Sinfonia at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . The soundtracks were bundled and released as a box set in December 2008 . A soundtrack for Halo 3 : ODST was released alongside the game and included many of the tracks from the game .
For Halo Wars , the task of creating the game 's music fell to Stephen Rippy . Rippy listened to O 'Donnell 's soundtracks for inspiration and incorporated the Halo theme into parts of his arrangements . In addition to synthesized and orchestral components , the composer focused on the choir and piano as essential elements , feeling these were important in creating the " Halo sound " . Rather than use the Northwest Sinfonia , Rippy traveled to Prague and recorded with the FILMharmonic Orchestra before returning to the United States to complete the music . A standalone compact disc and digital download retail version of the soundtrack was announced in January 2009 for release on February 17 .
The music of Halo 4 was composed by Neil Davidge . The Halo 4 Original Soundtrack was released on October 22 , 2012 , followed by a two @-@ disc Special Edition on November 6 .
= = Adaptations = =
The Halo franchise includes various types of merchandise and adaptations outside of the video games . This includes bestselling novels , graphic novels , and other licensed products , from action figures to a packaging tie @-@ in with Mountain Dew . Numerous action figures and vehicles based on Halo have been produced . Joyride Studios created Halo and Halo 2 action figures , while Halo 3 poseable and collectible action figures , aimed at collectors , were produced by McFarlane Toys and became some of the top @-@ selling action figures of 2007 and 2008 . MEGA Blocks partnered with Microsoft to produce Halo Wars @-@ themed toys .
= = = Books = = =
Numerous printed adaptations based on the Halo video games canon have been published . Larry Niven ( author of Ringworld ) was originally approached to write a Halo novelization , but declined due to unfamiliarity with the subject matter . The first novel was Halo : The Fall of Reach , a prequel to Halo : Combat Evolved . It was written by Eric Nylund in seven weeks , and published in October 2001 . William C. Dietz wrote an adaptation of Halo : Combat Evolved called Halo : The Flood , which was released in 2003 . Eric Nylund returned to write the third novel , Halo : First Strike , which takes place between Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 , and was published in December 2003 . Nylund also wrote the fourth adaptation , Halo : Ghosts of Onyx , which was published on October 31 , 2006 . Bungie employee Joseph Staten wrote the fifth book , Halo : Contact Harvest , which was released on October 30 , 2007 , while Tobias S. Buckell produced the sixth , Halo : The Cole Protocol , published in November 2008 . Bungie considers the Halo novels as additions to the Halo canon .
A collection of Halo short stories , Halo : Evolutions , was simultaneously released in print and audiobook formats in November 2009 . Evolutions includes original material by Nylund , Buckell , Karen Traviss and contributions from Bungie . Tor re @-@ released the first three Halo novels with new content and cover art . Science fiction author Greg Bear wrote a trilogy of books focusing on the Forerunners , called The Forerunner Saga . The first book , entitled Halo : Cryptum , was released in January 2011 , followed by Primordium in January 2012 and Silentium on March 19 , 2013 . Karen Traviss wrote the Kilo @-@ Five trilogy , which takes place after the events of Halo 3 and Halo : Ghosts of Onyx . The first book , Halo : Glasslands , came out October 2011 , followed by Halo : The Thursday War on October 2 , 2012 , and Halo : Mortal Dictata on January 21 , 2014 . The fourteenth Halo book ( the thirteenth novel ) was released in November 2014 : Halo : Broken Circle by John Shirley , the author of novels based on BioShock , Borderlands , and other games .
= = = Comics = = =
The Halo universe was first adapted into the graphic novel format in 2006 , with the release of The Halo Graphic Novel , a collection of four short stories . It was written and illustrated by graphic novelists Lee Hammock , Jay Faerber , Tsutomu Nihei , Brett Lewis , Simon Bisley , Ed Lee and Jean Giraud . At the 2007 New York Comic Con , Marvel Comics announced they would be working on an ongoing Halo series with Brian Michael Bendis and Alex Maleev . The limited series , titled Halo : Uprising , bridges the gap between the events of Halo 2 and Halo 3 ; initially planned to conclude shortly before the release of Halo 3 , the constant delays led to the final issue being published April 2009 .
Marvel announced at the 2009 Comic Con that two new comics , a five @-@ part series written by Peter David and a second series written by Fred Van Lente , would appear the coming summer and winter . David 's series , Halo : Helljumper , is set prior to Halo : Combat Evolved and focuses on the elite Orbital Drop Shock Troopers . The five @-@ part series was published between July and November 2009 . Lente 's series , originally titled Spartan Black , revolves around a black ops team of Spartan supersoldiers assigned to the UNSC Office of Naval Intelligence . The rebranded comic , Halo : Blood Line , debuted in December 2009 . A comic @-@ retelling of the novel Halo : The Fall of Reach was the most recent comic series entitled : Halo : Fall of Reach . Fall of Reach was split into three mini @-@ stories : Boot Camp , Covenant , and Invasion . Two new series were announced in 2013 . A three @-@ part series , Halo : Initiation was released August 2013 with Brian Reed returning as writer . Also announced was Halo : Escalation , an ongoing comic series covering the period directly after Halo 4 .
= = = Live action = = =
= = = = Unproduced feature ( 2005 – 07 ) = = = =
In 2005 , Columbia Pictures president Peter Schlessel began working outside the studio system to produce a Halo film adaptation . Alex Garland wrote the first script , which was then pitched to studios by couriers dressed as Master Chief . Microsoft 's terms required $ 10 million against 15 percent of gross ; most studios passed , citing the lack of risk for Microsoft compared to their large share of potential profits . 20th Century Fox and Universal Studios decided to partner to produce the film , paying Microsoft $ 5 million to option the film and 10 percent of grosses . Peter Jackson was slated to be the executive producer , with Neill Blomkamp as director . Before Blomkamp signed on , Guillermo del Toro was in negotiations to direct .
D. B. Weiss and Josh Olson rewrote Garland 's script during 2006 . The crew stopped and resumed preproduction of the film several times . Later that year , 20th Century Fox threatened to pull out of the project , leading Universal to issue an ultimatum to Jackson and Schlessel : either cut their large " first @-@ dollar " deals , or the project was ended . Both refused , and the project stalled .
Blomkamp declared the project dead in late 2007 , but Jackson replied that the film would still be made . Blomkamp and Jackson collaborated on District 9 , but the director told / Film that he was no longer considering working on a Halo film if the opportunity arose , saying that after working on the film for five months before the project 's collapse it would be difficult to return . The rights for the film have since reverted to Microsoft .
= = = = Forward Unto Dawn ( 2012 ) = = = =
Halo 4 : Forward Unto Dawn is a live @-@ action film and miniseries set in the Halo universe . Although shot as a feature @-@ length film , Forward Unto Dawn was originally released as a webseries consisting of five roughly 15 @-@ minute episodes , the first of which was released on October 5 , 2012 , with the last episode released on November 2 , 2012 . The series ' plot , occurring in the early days of the Human @-@ Covenant War circa 2526 , revolves around Thomas Lasky , a young cadet at Corbulo Academy of Military Science , and how John @-@ 117 inspired him to eventually become a leader . Lasky is also a prominent character in Halo 4 as a commander on the UNSC Infinity . The name of the series , aside from being a reference to the UNSC frigate Forward Unto Dawn , is given new significance in the series as part a running motif based on a poem . The film cut was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on December 4 , 2012 .
= = = = Nightfall ( 2014 ) = = = =
On April 3 , 2014 , it was announced that Ridley Scott and his production company , Scott Free Productions , were working on a Halo digital feature alongside 343 Industries and Xbox Entertainment Studios ; Scott would be the executive producer , with David W. Zucker and Sergio Mimica @-@ Gezzan as the directors . The feature was expected to follow the same format as Machinima 's Halo 4 : Forward Unto Dawn . On June 9 , 2014 , it was announced at E3 2014 that the feature , titled Halo : Nightfall , would be included with Halo : The Master Chief Collection at its November 2014 launch . The feature introduces a new character to the franchise , Agent Jameson Locke , played by actor Mike Colter ; Nightfall is considered to be his origin story . Locke is one of the Spartans portrayed on the cover art of Halo 5 : Guardians , and is set to play a large role in the series . On July 24 , 2014 , 343 Industries released the first trailer for the feature . Halo : Nightfall is available to watch through Halo Channel , an application for the Xbox One , Windows 8 @.@ 1 and Windows Phone . On March 16 , 2015 , the series became available to stream , download , and buy on physical disc .
= = = = Untitled Showtime television series = = = =
On May 21 , 2013 , 343 Industries announced that a live @-@ action television series of Halo would be produced with Steven Spielberg serving as executive producer . Neill Blomkamp is rumored to direct the pilot for the series . The series will premiere on the American premium cable network Showtime . The project remains in active development as of July , 2016 .
= = = Anime = = =
Microsoft announced at Comic @-@ Con 2009 that it was overseeing production of a series of seven short anime films , together called Halo Legends . Financed by 343 Industries , the animation was created by five Japanese production houses : Bones , Casio Entertainment , Production I.G. , Studio 4 ° C , and Toei Animation . Shinji Aramaki , creator and director of Appleseed and Appleseed Ex Machina , served as the project 's creative director . Warner Bros. distributed Legends on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in February 2010 . Six of the stories are officially part of the Halo canon , with the seventh , made by Toei , intended to be a parody of the universe . In mid @-@ July 2015 , 343 Industries announced that a new animated series of Halo will be included in the Halo 5 : Guardians Limited Edition and Collector 's Edition called Halo : The Fall of Reach , and will be based on the book Halo : The Fall of Reach by Eric Nylund .
= = Reception and critical response = =
The Halo franchise has been highly successful commercially and critically . During the two months following Halo : Combat Evolved 's release , it sold alongside more than fifty percent of Xbox consoles and sold a million units by April 2002 . Halo 2 's sales generated US $ 125 million on its premiere day , making it the fastest selling United States media product in history up to that time . Combined with Halo 's sales , the two games sold 14 @.@ 8 million units before Halo 3 's release .
GameSpot reported 4 @.@ 2 million units of Halo 3 were in retail outlets on September 24 , 2007 , a day before official release – a world record volume . Halo 3 broke the previous record for the highest grossing opening day in entertainment history , making US $ 170 million in its first twenty @-@ four hours . Worldwide , sales exceeded US $ 300 million the first week , helping to more than double the sales of the Xbox 360 when compared with the weekly average before the Halo 3 launch . At the end of 2007 , Halo 2 and Halo : Combat Evolved were the number one and two best @-@ selling Xbox titles , respectively , and Halo 3 was the best @-@ selling Xbox 360 title . Halo Wars was the best @-@ selling RTS console game , selling more than one million units . The Halo series went on to sell more than 27 million copies by August 2009 , and more than 34 million copies by May 2010 . Tor Books reported that sales of all franchise materials are greater than $ 1 @.@ 7 billion , and Bungie 's games before Reach accounted for $ 1 @.@ 5 billion in sales . The soundtracks to Halo 2 , Halo 3 , ODST and Reach all appeared on the Billboard 200 charts for at least one week . By May 2011 , total gross of Halo merchandise was $ 2 billion , with 40 million copies of the games sold . The total amount climbed to $ 2 @.@ 3 billion in July 2011 , and $ 2 @.@ 8 billion in January 2012 . Total franchise grosses exceeded $ 4 @.@ 6 billion by October 2015 , with 25 % of the figure from non @-@ game @-@ related merchandise .
The Halo adaptations have been successful as well . Many of the novels have appeared on Publisher Weekly 's bestseller charts and the Halo Graphic Novel sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies , a " rare hit " for the games @-@ to @-@ comics genre . Ghosts of Onyx , Contact Harvest , The Cole Protocol and the first volume of Cryptum appeared on The New York Times bestseller lists , and The Cole Protocol also opened 50th overall on USA Today 's bestsellers list . Tor 's first three novels sold more than one million copies by April 2009 .
Overall , the Halo series has been very well received by critics . Halo : Combat Evolved has received numerous Game of the Year awards . In March 2007 , IGN listed it as the top Xbox game of all time , while readers ranked it the fourteenth best game ever on " IGN Readers ' Choice 2006 – The Top 100 Games Ever " . Conversely , GameSpy ranked Halo : Combat Evolved tenth on its list of " Top 25 Most Overrated Games of All Time " , citing repetitive level design and the lack of an online multiplayer mode . Halo 2 also received numerous awards , with IGN listing it as the number two top Xbox game of all time in March 2007 . From its initial release on the Xbox in November 2004 until the launch of Gears of War on the Xbox 360 in November 2006 – two years later – Halo 2 was the most popular video game on Xbox Live . Halo 3 was nominated for and won multiple awards ; it won Time magazine 's " Game of the Year " and IGN chose it as the Best Xbox 360 Online Multiplayer Game and Innovative Design of 2007 . Most publications called the multiplayer aspect one of the best features ; IGN said the multiplayer map lineup was the strongest of the series , and GameSpy added that the multiplayer offering will greatly please " Halo veterans " . Complaints focused on the game 's plot . The New York Times said the game had a " throwaway " plot and Total Video Games judged the single @-@ player aspect ultimately disappointing . The series ' music and audio has received enthusiastic response from game reviewers .
= = Cultural impact = =
The main trilogy , particularly its protagonist , has been declared iconic and a symbol of today 's videogames ; a wax replica of the Master Chief was made by Madame Tussauds in Las Vegas , where Pete Wentz compared the character to notable characters from previous generations like Spider @-@ Man , Frodo , and Luke Skywalker . The Escapist author Roger Travis compared Halo 's story to Virgil 's Aeneid , saying the religious and political struggle described in the games relates to the modern epic tradition . GamesTM stated Halo : Combat Evolved " changed videogame combat forever " , and Halo 2 showcased Xbox Live as a tool for communities . GameDaily noted Halo 2 's launch was " easily comparable to the biggest in other sectors of the entertainment industry " , marking the first time a video game launch has become a major cultural event in America . Time magazine included the franchise in the " 2005 Time 100 " , highlighting that in the first ten weeks after the release of Halo 2 , players spent 91 million combined hours playing the game online . A The New York Times report noted the success of Halo 3 was critical for Microsoft , persuading consumers to buy the Xbox 360 console which was experiencing waning sales compared with the Nintendo Wii , as well as helping restore the console 's image . On September 25 , 2007 , the release date for Halo 3 , Microsoft 's shares rose 1 @.@ 7 % based on sales expectations for the game . Halo has been described as a series that " has reinvented a genre that didn 't know it needed to be reinvented " , with aspects of the main trilogy being duplicated in other FPS games multiple times .
Variety called Halo " the equivalent of Star Wars " .
= = = Machinima = = =
As a highly popular video game series with a large and active fan base , the Halo trilogy has given rise to an array of video productions in an emerging entertainment medium , machinima . Virtually all machinima footage based around the Halo games is taken from the multiplayer modes of the main trilogy games . Most productions are set outside Halo canon , while others are based on fan fiction closely relating to the official story . Halo 3 includes a saved film function that allows camera angles not possible in previous games , and other features that simplify production . The game has become one of the most popular tools for generating machinima , and Microsoft updated its user license agreement to allow noncommercial distribution of such films .
A notable machinima production is the comedy series Red vs. Blue created by Rooster Teeth Productions . It has achieved an unparalleled level of success in Halo machinima in specific , and machinima in general ; it is credited with bringing attention to the genre . Red vs. Blue generated annual revenues of US $ 200 @,@ 000 , and special promotional episodes were commissioned by Bungie . The first series , The Blood Gulch Chronicles , ended on June 28 , 2007 , after 100 regular episodes and numerous promotional videos . Subsequent series include the The Recollection , the second series which contains more dramatic elements than its comedic predecessor , Project Freelancer , and The Chorus Trilogy , the most recent series . Other machinima series include Fire Team Charlie , The Codex , and the in @-@ game interview show This Spartan Life .
= = Sales history = =
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= Sticky & Sweet Tour ( album ) =
Sticky & Sweet Tour is the third live album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on March 26 , 2010 by Warner Bros. Records . The album was released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and CD formats . The tour was filmed at the River Plate Stadium in Buenos Aires , Argentina during the 2008 leg of Madonna 's Sticky & Sweet Tour . The album contains the performances from the tour , and thirteen songs in CD format , accompanied by photography of Guy Oseary . Before the official release , the show was broadcast on VH1 and was produced by Madonna 's production company Semtex Films .
Madonna commented that she had not been able to focus on the development of the DVD as she was involved with the development of her directorial venture , titled W.E. Upon its release , Sticky & Sweet Tour received mixed reviews from critics , with one group criticizing it for being lifeless , while others praised the album for the performances . It became Madonna 's 19th top @-@ ten album on the Billboard 200 , while reached the top of the charts in Greece , Hungary , Mexico and Portugal . The album also reached the top @-@ ten in the charts of Australia , Belgium , Canada , France , Japan , Sweden and Switzerland , but had failed to reach the top @-@ ten in Germany and the United Kingdom .
= = Background = =
The album was originally announced as Sticky & Sweet by Madonna 's official website on January 12 , 2010 , with artwork depicting this title . This was later changed to Sticky & Sweet Tour and the packaging design was slightly altered with the additional wording , although the DVD and Blu @-@ ray menu screen retains the original title announced . The album included 30 minutes of exclusive footage , filmed behind the scenes during the course of the tour . The release included " Don 't Cry For Me Argentina " which was only performed at the River Plate Stadium concerts . The photography used on the front cover is by Guy Oseary and is included in his book Madonna : Sticky & Sweet . The imagery is from the video interlude section of " Die Another Day " and has been slightly altered , removing the dancers on stage in the mock @-@ boxing ring . The filmed tour footage was broadcast on VH1 on April 2 , 2010 , just a few days after the official release .
The DVD was released in the United States on April 6 , 2010 . Spin collaborated with Madonna 's official website and launched a promotional campaign for the release , giving away an autographed DVD of the album , a Sticky and Sweet tour t @-@ shirt , a tour photo book , an official tour program and a free one @-@ year subscription to their website . During an April 2010 interview with Interview magazine , Madonna noted how she was not able to focus on the development of the DVD as she was involved in her directorial venture , W.E. She said ,
" I haven 't really been focused as much as I should be on the music part of my career because this movie has just consumed every inch of me . Between that and my four children , I don 't have the time or the energy for anything else . For example , I do appreciate that lots of people worked long and hard putting together things like the DVD of the Sticky & Sweet Tour that we just released , and I have seen the finished product , but I have got no idea how people are going to find out about it or how it 's going to be sold . "
= = Critical reception = =
Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly gave the video a B + and commented , " This live CD @-@ DVD can 't replicate being there , Sticky & Sweet — taped in Buenos Aires in 2008 — does capture the show 's rejuvenative streak , as on the electro @-@ garage ' Hung Up ' . Props , too , for a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes doc that actually goes behind the scenes . " The Independent gave the release two out of five stars . The reviewer Andy Gill commented , " For all the multitude of crotches spread about the stage , this is as unenticing as pop gets , utterly lifeless despite the fervent activity . " Mayer Nissim from Digital Spy felt that " Despite its absurd charm , this CD won 't provoke the rediscovery of Hard Candy that it seems to nudge towards . That said , it 's still an entertaining blast from start to finish . And with the DVD record of her outstandingly outlandish tour bundled in , this is definitely worth the entry price for anyone who still has even half an interest in the Queen Mum of Pop . " Mark Beech from Bloomberg Television said that " It ’ s intriguing how note @-@ perfect Madonna is while running around and doing splits . " Rolling Stone gave the album three and a half out of five stars and wrote that it " featured stirring remixes , like a fresh mash @-@ up of " Vogue " with the brassy funk of Hard Candy 's " 4 Minutes " . "
Justin Kanter from Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer gave a positive review and commented on the performances : " Over the course of two full , uninterrupted hours comes an abundance of grandiose sets and effects ; a voluminous line @-@ up of dancers ; precisely engineered sound and sequence ; and sharply produced , celebrity @-@ studded video clips . [ ... ] Unquestionably , it ’ s Madonna and company ’ s actual show — the entire spectacle of song , dance , style , and attitude — that make the Sticky & Sweet Tour an invigorating and highly memorable happening . " However , he felt that the performances of " Borderline " ( 1984 ) and " Human Nature " were disappointing . Ben Kaplan from Canada.com said " Sticky & Sweet is a document of a woman in her fifties who actually started peaking after most people thought she was through . Madonna doesn 't speak with a British accent on her new record . But even if she did , it wouldn 't really have mattered : Most of the stage banter is drowned out by the crowd 's roar . " He listed the performance of " Into the Groove " ( 1985 ) as a highlight of the tour . Tony clayton @-@ Lea from The Irish Times said " Madonna has the experience to know what works and what doesn ’ t . It is this that makes Sticky Sweet such an interesting proposition : a superbly shot movie of the ' four @-@ act ' show that blends muscle with music , depth with deftness . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic said " Since so much of the tour depended on overblown spectacle , Sticky & Sweet Tour is better experienced as a video instead of a CD – but even as a video this doesn ’ t rank among the best Madonna live albums , as there ’ s too much precision and not enough inspiration in the whole show . "
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , the album was released on April 4 , 2010 and entered the Billboard 200 chart at number ten , with first week sales of 28 @,@ 000 according to Nielsen Soundscan . Sticky & Sweet Tour became Madonna 's 19th top @-@ ten album on the Billboard 200 , thus tying her with Bob Dylan for sixth place among acts with the most top 10s in the chart 's 54 @-@ year history , trailing The Rolling Stones ( with 36 ) , Frank Sinatra ( 33 ) , The Beatles and Barbra Streisand ( 30 ) and Elvis Presley ( 27 ) . However , only the CD / DVD set and digital audio @-@ only counterparts were allowed to chart on the Billboard 200 . The Blu @-@ ray edition of the album charted on Billboard 's Top Music Videos chart , peaking it with sales of 5 @,@ 000 . It became Madonna 's ninth number @-@ one on that chart , extending her lead as the soloist with the most toppers in the 25 @-@ year history of the chart . Among all acts , only Bill and Gloria Gaither have more , with fifteen number @-@ ones . The next week , Sticky & Sweet Tour dropped to position fifty @-@ seven on the Billboard 200 , selling 8 @,@ 000 copies . It has sold 65 @,@ 000 copies there , with sales of the Blu @-@ ray version exceeding 17 @,@ 000 copies . In Canada , the album debuted at three on the Canadian Albums Chart with sales of 6 @,@ 000 copies .
In Japan , the album debuted and peaked at number ten on the Oricon Albums Chart , remaining on the chart for eight weeks . Sticky & Sweet Tour was her 20th top @-@ ten entries on the chart , making Madonna the international artist with most top @-@ ten albums in Japan , breaking the record previously held by The Beatles . She also became the oldest female artist to enter the top @-@ ten in Oricon albums chart history . In Australia , the album charted on the ARIA DVD Chart at number three while entered the New Zealand Albums Chart at number 20 . It was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipment of 10 @,@ 000 copies there . In the United Kingdom , Sticky & Sweet Tour debuted outside the top ten at number 17 with sales of 17 @,@ 000 copies according to the Official Charts Company . The album was also commercially successful in other musical markets , topping the charts in Mexico , Greece , Croatia , Czech Rep , Norway , Hungary and Portugal , while attaining top @-@ ten positions in the charts of Austria , Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Czech Republic , Finland , France , Ireland , Italy , Poland , Sweden and Switzerland . Sticky & Sweet Tour also reached number two on Billboard 's European Top 100 Albums chart .
= = Track listings and formats = =
" Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " and " Like a Virgin " were only performed in Argentina .
There are two iTunes versions : one has the above track listing and a digital booklet , the other has only the 13 tracks from the CD version and does not include the digital booklet .
CD and DVD – Digipak case edition containing two discs : DVD of the concert and a CD containing 13 live tracks
CD and Blu @-@ ray – ( Europe and Latin America only ) Blu @-@ ray case edition containing : High Definition version of the concert on Blu @-@ ray and a CD containing 13 live tracks
Blu @-@ ray – Blu @-@ ray case edition containing : High Definition version of the concert on Blu @-@ ray
iTunes Digital version 1 – contains the 13 tracks from the CD release with four bonus tracks " Heartbeat " , " Borderline " , " 4 Minutes " , " Ray of Light " and a digital booklet
iTunes Digital version 2 – contains the 13 tracks from the CD release with three bonus tracks " Borderline " , " 4 Minutes " and " Ray of Light " ( this version does not have a digital booklet )
Amazon Digital version – contains the 13 tracks from the CD release with four bonus tracks " Borderline " , " Miles Away " , " 4 Minutes " and " Ray of Light "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Directors – Nathan Rissman and Nick Wickham
Broadcast director – Jamie King
Production company – Semtex Films
Producer – Sara Martin
Executive producers – Madonna , Guy Oseary and Nicola Doning
Photography – Darius Khondji
Film editing – Jamie King , Nathan Rissman , Danny Tull
Costume designer – Arianne Phillips
Source :
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Russian battleship Evstafi =
Evstafi ( Russian : Евстафий ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the Imperial Russian Navy 's Black Sea Fleet . She was built before World War I and her completion was greatly delayed by changes made to reflect the lessons of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1905 . She was the lead ship of her class .
She and her sister ship Ioann Zlatoust were the most modern ships in the Black Sea Fleet when World War I began and formed the core of the fleet for the first year of the war , before the dreadnoughts entered service . They forced the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben to disengage during the Battle of Cape Sarych shortly after Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in late 1914 . She covered several bombardments of the Bosphorus fortifications in early 1915 , including one where she was attacked by Goeben , but Evstafi , together with the other Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts , managed to drive her off . Evstafi was relegated to secondary roles after the first dreadnought entered service in late 1915 and reduced to reserve in 1918 in Sevastopol .
Evstafi was captured when the Germans took the city in May 1918 and was turned over to the Allies after the Armistice in November 1918 . Her engines were destroyed in 1919 by the British when they withdrew from Sevastopol to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using them against the White Russians . She was abandoned when the Whites evacuated the Crimea in 1920 and was scrapped by the Soviets in 1922 – 23 .
= = Description = =
Evstafi was 379 feet ( 115 @.@ 5 m ) long at the waterline and 385 feet 9 inches ( 117 @.@ 6 m ) long overall . She had a beam of 74 feet ( 22 @.@ 6 m ) and a maximum draft of 28 ft ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) . Her displacement was 12 @,@ 738 long tons ( 12 @,@ 942 t ) as designed .
She had two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines driving two propellers . 22 Belleville water @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines . The engines had a total designed output of 10 @,@ 600 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 904 kW ) and gave a top speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 100 long tons ( 1 @,@ 118 t ) of coal that provided her a range of 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Evstafi 's Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch Pattern 1895 40 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft . Each turret had a firing arc of 260 ° . All four 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) 50 @-@ calibre Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in the corners of the superstructure in armoured casemates . These guns had a firing arc of 120 ° and could fire straight ahead or astern . The dozen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) Canet Pattern 1892 45 @-@ calibre guns were mounted in the lower casemates . The anti @-@ torpedo boat armament consisted of 14 75 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) Canet Pattern 1892 50 @-@ calibre guns mounted in sponsons on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . She carried two 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes on the broadside aft .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Evstafi was fitted with anti @-@ aircraft guns on top of each of her turrets during 1915 and screens were added on top of her funnels to keep out light bombs . She first received three 75 mm guns , but these were later replaced by two 63 @.@ 5 @-@ millimetre ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns and a pair of 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) guns .
= = Service history = =
Construction of Evstafi began on 13 July 1904 , well before the formal keel @-@ laying ceremony on 23 November 1904 . Progress was relatively quick , despite the disruptions caused by the 1905 Revolution , and she was launched on 3 November 1906 . Fitting @-@ out , however , was considerably delayed by a number of changes made as the navy digested the lessons of the Russo @-@ Japanese War and she was not completed until 28 May 1911 . Shortly after completion she ran aground off the Romanian port of Constanţa in October 1911 , but was only slightly damaged .
= = = World War I = = =
Evstafi , as the newest ship in the Black Sea Fleet , was the flagship of Vice Admiral Andrei Eberhardt , commanding the fleet , for the first year or so of World War I. Two weeks after the Russian declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire on 2 November 1914 , the Black Sea Fleet , comprising the pre @-@ dreadnoughts Evstafi , Ioann Zlatoust , Pantelimon , Rostislav , Tri Sviatitelia , and three cruisers were escorted by three destroyers and 11 torpedo boats set out on 15 November to bombard Trebizond . They did this successfully on the morning of 17 November and they turned west to hunt for Turkish shipping along the Anatolian coast before setting course for Sevastopol later that afternoon . They were intercepted by the German battlecruiser Goeben and the light cruiser SMS Breslau the following day in what came to be known as the Battle of Cape Sarych . Despite the noon hour the conditions were foggy and the capital ships initially did not spot each other . The Black Sea Fleet had experimented on concentrating fire from several ships under the control of a " master ship " before the war and Evstafi held her fire until Ioann Zlatoust , the master ship , could see Goeben . When the gunnery commands were finally received they showed a range over 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) in excess of Evstafi 's own estimate of 7 @,@ 700 yards ( 7 @,@ 000 m ) , so Evstafi opened fire using her own data before Goeben turned to unmask its broadside . She scored a hit with her first salvo as a 12 @-@ inch shell partially penetrated the armor casemate protecting one of Goeben 's 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) secondary guns . It detonated some of the ready @-@ use ammunition , starting a fire that burnt out the casemate and killed its crew .
Goeben returned fire shortly afterwards and hit Evstafi in the middle funnel ; the shell detonated after it passed through the funnel and destroyed the antenna for the fire @-@ control radio , which meant that Evstafi could not correct Ioann Zlatoust 's inaccurate range data . Goeben hit Evstafi four more times. although one shell failed to detonate , before Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon decided to turn away and break contact after fourteen minutes of combat . Evstafi suffered 34 killed and 24 wounded from those hits . Evstafi only fired between 12 and 16 12 @-@ inch shells as well as 14 eight @-@ inch and 19 six @-@ inch shells .
Several armour plates on Evstafi required replacement after the battle and they were taken from the old pre @-@ dreadnought Dvenadsat Apostolov so that the repairs were completed by 29 November . On 9 January 1915 Breslau and the Ottoman cruiser Hamidiye encountered the Russian fleet while returning from a mission in the eastern part of the Black Sea . Breslau hit Evstafi 's forward turret with a 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) shell , temporarily putting it out of action , and the two cruisers escaped using their superior speed .
Evstafi and Ioann Zlatoust served as the covering force for several bombardment missions of the Bosphorus between 18 March and 9 May 1915 . The two earlier bombardments were uneventful , but the 9 May bombardment provoked a reaction as Goeben intercepted the Russian battleships after they 'd been spotted by the Ottoman destroyer Numune @-@ i Hamiyet . Both forces turned on parallel courses and opened fire at the range of 17 @,@ 400 yards ( 15 @,@ 900 m ) . Neither side scored a hit although Goeben had multiple near @-@ misses on Evstafi . Admiral Eberhardt ordered his ships to make only 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) while Goeben was making 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . Goeben was unable to cross the T of the Russian ships , despite its superior speed , as they were continually turning . This manoeuvre bought enough time that Tri Sviatitelia and Pantelimon were able to rejoin the other two ships before they could start shelling the Ottoman forts . Pantelimon hit Goeben twice before the German ship broke contact after 22 minutes of firing . With the fleet assembled Admiral Eberhardt attempted to pursue the enemy battlecruiser , but was unsuccessful .
On 1 August 1915 she , and all the other pre @-@ dreadnoughts , were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Brigade , after the dreadnought Imperatritsa Mariya had entered service . On 1 October the new dreadnought provided cover while Ioann Zlatoust and Pantelimon bombarded Zonguldak and Evstafi shelled the nearby town of Kozlu . Both Evstafi @-@ class ships participated in the second bombardment of Varna in May 1916 .
Evstafi and Ioann Zlatoust were reduced to reserve in March 1918 in Sevastopol . Immobile , they were captured there by the Germans in May 1918 and Evstafi was subsequently used by them as an accommodation hulk . Both ships were handed over to the Allies the following December . The British wrecked both ships ' engines on 22 – 24 April 1919 when they left the Crimea to prevent the advancing Bolsheviks from using them against the White Russians . They were captured by both sides during the Russian Civil War , but were abandoned by the White Russians when they evacuated the Crimea in November 1920 . Evstafi was renamed Revoliutsiia ( Revolution ) on 6 July 1921 . The ships were scrapped in 1922 – 23 , although they were not removed from the Navy List until 21 November 1925 .
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= Lynde Point Light =
The Lynde Point Light or Lynde Point Lighthouse , also known as Saybrook Inner Lighthouse , is a lighthouse in Connecticut , United States , on the west side of the mouth of the Connecticut River on the Long Island Sound , Old Saybrook , Connecticut . The first light was a 35 feet ( 11 m ) wooden tower constructed by Abisha Woodward for $ 2 @,@ 200 and it was completed in 1803 . A new lighthouse was eventually needed and a total of $ 7 @,@ 500 was appropriated on July 7 , 1838 . Jonathan Scranton , Volney Pierce , and John Wilcox were contracted to build the new 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) octagonal brownstone tower . It was constructed in 1838 and lit in 1839 . The lighthouse was renovated in 1867 and had its keeper 's house from 1833 replaced in 1858 with a Gothic Revival gambrel @-@ roofed wood @-@ frame house . In 1966 , the house was torn down and replaced by a duplex house . The original ten lamps were replaced in 1852 with a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens , and with a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens in 1890 . Lynde Point Lighthouse used whale oil until 1879 when it switched to kerosene . It was electrified in 1955 and fully automated by the United States Coast Guard in 1978 . In 1990 , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places and is significant for its " superior stone work in the tapering brownstone walls " .
= = First light = =
Out of a need for a lighthouse to mark the Old Saybrook harbor , the government paid $ 225 for William Lynde 's land at its entrance to erect a light . Abisha Woodward was contracted to build a 35 feet ( 11 m ) wooden tower for $ 2 @,@ 200 and it was completed in 1803 . Due to erosion threatening the foundation of the lighthouse , a seawall was constructed in 1829 , and it was reinforced and widened in 1831 . Also constructed was a six @-@ room frame structure to serve as the keeper 's quarters . The keeper 's building was replaced in 1933 . The light was criticized by many sailors for being too short to be seen at an effective distance , a problem exacerbated by a local fog from the marshland that obscured the light . A petition was made to have the tower raised 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) , but it was deemed a replacement would be better .
= = Current light = =
The United States Congress appropriated funds for the tower 's replacement by 1832 . On July 7 , 1838 , Congress appropriated an additional $ 2 @,@ 500 @.@ 00 to add to the other $ 5 @,@ 000 @.@ 00 appropriated for the new lighthouse . The contract for the lighthouse was awarded to Jonathan Scranton , Volney Pierce , and John Wilcox of Madison , Connecticut , on August 18 , 1838 . A new 65 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) octagonal brownstone tower was constructed in 1838 and lit in 1839 . The walls of the base of the light are 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) thick , tapering to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) at the top . The lighthouse is painted white and has six windows , all facing the water . The lighthouse has been described as being " similar to the masonry towers built earlier , ( New London Harbor Light , New Haven Harbor ( Five Mile Point ) Light , and Faulkner 's Island Light ) , but Lynde Point is considered to represent the finest work of the three " . The wooden staircase was likely replaced in an 1868 renovation of the light . In 1886 , the Saybrook Breakwater Light was built . Lynde Point then became commonly known as the " Saybrook Inner Light " and Saybrook Breakwater became known as the " Saybrook Outer Light " .
The keeper 's house from 1833 had a frame kitchen addition that connected to the lighthouse , but it was replaced in 1858 with a Gothic Revival gambrel @-@ roofed wood @-@ frame house . In 1966 , the house was torn down and replaced by a duplex house . In 1852 , a fourth @-@ order Fresnel lens from Barbler and Fenestre replaced the original ten lamps and 9 @-@ inch ( 230 mm ) reflectors . In 1890 , a fifth @-@ order Fresnel lens , which is still in the tower today , was installed . An appropriation of $ 800 was made for a fog bell in 1850 , and it was installed in 1854 at a cost of $ 1000 . Two years later the machinery to automatically strike the fog bell was completed . The 1867 renovation saw the addition of a fog siren , but it was removed and replaced with the fog bell in 1874 and a new fog bell was later installed in 1883 . Lynde Point Lighthouse used whale oil until 1879 when it switched to kerosene , it was electrified in 1955 and fully automated by the United States Coast Guard in 1978 .
= = Importance = =
In 1990 , it was added to the National Register of Historic Places . Templeton writes , " Lynde Point exhibits superior stone work in the tapering brownstone walls . Of the three early masonry Lighttowers in the nominated group , Lynde Point is the latest and its construction is the best documented : two advertisements for construction proposals survive , containing the government 's specifications , and the construction contract as well . Lynde Point also is significant as part of the federal government 's early efforts to improve aids to navigation in Long Island Sound , when the mouths of important harbors and rivers were among the first sites chosen for lighthouse appropriations . " Lynde Point is an active aid to navigation and is not open to the public . The Lynde Point Light was used in the 2005 horror movie Predator Island .
= = List of keepers = =
This list includes known keepers , but excludes assistants and non @-@ officers of the Coast Guard .
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= Liudhard medalet =
The Liudhard medalet is a gold Anglo @-@ Saxon coin or small medal found some time before 1844 near St Martin 's Church in Canterbury , England . It was part of the Canterbury @-@ St Martin 's hoard of six items . The coin , along with other items found with it , now resides in the World Museum Liverpool . Although some scholarly debate exists on whether or not all the items in the hoard were from the same grave , most historians who have studied the object conclude that they were buried together as a necklace in a 6th @-@ century woman 's grave . The coin is set in a mount so that it could be worn as jewellery , and has an inscription on the obverse or front surrounding a robed figure . The inscription refers to Liudhard , a bishop who accompanied Bertha to England when she married Æthelberht the king of Kent . The reverse side of the coin has a double @-@ barred cross , or patriarchal cross , with more lettering .
The coin was probably struck at Canterbury in the late 6th century , most likely between 578 and 589 . Although it could have been used as a coin , it was more likely made as a medallion to proclaim the wearer 's conversion to Christianity . The coin is the oldest surviving example of Anglo @-@ Saxon coinage . The design of the figured side has some affinities with Merovingian and Visigothic coins , but the side with the cross has few known predecessors in coinage , and is the first northern European depiction of a patriarchal cross in any medium .
= = Discovery and ownership = =
The medalet was first revealed to the public on 25 April 1844 by Charles Roach Smith , who presented it along with other coins found with it , to a meeting of the Numismatic Society . The medalet , along with two other similar items , had been acquired by W. H. Rolfe , who later acquired five other items from the same hoard , and all eight items were published in the Society 's Numismatic Chronicle in 1845 . About the origins and circumstances of the finding of the hoard , Smith only knew that they had been found " a few years since " , and that all of the items had been found together . There may have been further items that were found but not preserved . All of the items were found in the churchyard of St Martin 's in the east of Canterbury according to Rolfe , although the first published account stated that it was found next door at St Augustine 's Abbey instead of St Martin 's .
The whole collection , including the medalet , passed from Rolfe 's collection to the collection of Joseph Mayer , and then passed to the Rolfe @-@ Mayer collection in the City of Liverpool Public Museums . This now forms part of the World Museum Liverpool .
S. C. Hawkes argues that the eight items in the hoard were found in different graves , basing this on x @-@ ray and fluorescent analysis of the coins . However , the historian Philip Grierson thought that the possibility of two graves from different time periods both containing coins of the same period was so small as to make the likelihood of the hoard coming from two graves slim .
The medalet is part of the only late @-@ 6th or early @-@ 7th century find of gold jewellery in a grave in a churchyard . All of the coins in the hoard were probably part of a necklace that was buried in a woman 's grave . The medalet itself is the earliest surviving Anglo @-@ Saxon coin .
= = Description = =
The medalet itself is a gold coin , set in a loop mount so that it could be worn as jewellery . On the obverse side is a bust of a man wearing a diadem and a robe , with a border of dots around the edge . Written on this side is the legend " LEV · DΛR · DV ~ · EPS " . The inscription runs backwards from right to left . The letters are also inscribed backwards . Both the initial " L " and terminal " S " of " LEUDARDUS " ( Latin for the name " Liudhard " ) are to some degree shifted sideways on their axes , perhaps to conveniently demarcate between words . The second grouping , " EPS " ( also with identical sideways terminal " S " ) is a standard abbreviation for the ecclesiastical Latin word , " EPiscopuS , " which means " bishop . "
On the reverse side of the coin appears a patriarchal cross set on a base with two pendants descending from the upper arm of the cross . A circle and two half @-@ circles intersect the cross . Above the cross , upside down , are the letters " AA " . The cross is flanked by two inscriptions , each one reading " NINΛ " . Under the cross are the letters " VΛV " . The whole medalet weighs 1 @.@ 57 grams ( 0 @.@ 055 oz ) .
Smith felt that the legend on the obverse named a 6th @-@ century bishop of Autun , but D. B. Haigh as well as C. H. V. Sutherland , Arthur Evans , and G. C. Brooke all felt that it referred to Liudhard , a Frankish bishop who accompanied the Frankish princess Bertha to Kent in the late 6th century when the Christian Bertha married the then pagan King Æthelberht of Kent . Liudhard died probably in the late 590s .
= = Origins and similarities to other coins = =
The coin that formed the base of the medalet was most likely minted in England , probably at Canterbury . Evans felt that it was produced by a Frankish member of Liudhard 's household , but Grierson was less sure of it being produced by a Frank . Both , however , concluded that it was not really meant to be used as money , but was rather struck for use as a medallion showing conversion to Christianity . The historian Margaret Deanesly argued that it was made at Canterbury , by a native Jutish artisan . Given the dates of Æthelberht 's reign , it appears likely that the coin was struck between 578 and 589 . The loop for suspension is a feature of bracteates , pagan Germanic quasi @-@ coins apparently made as amulets or jewellery , and often featuring a king . However bracteates are only stamped on one side .
The obverse is similar to coins from Merovingian France , especially from the southern parts , as well as showing influences from Visigothic Spain . The reverse side , however , has no known predecessors in Merovingian or Visigothic coinage . Although by the late 6th century , Merovingian and Visigothic kings were putting their names on their coins , no surviving coins from either kingdom name a bishop . The design of the figure is derived from Byzantine imperial coins , and the cross itself is large and closely resembles an altar cross .
The patriarchal , or double @-@ barred cross had become a common symbol for the True Cross by the time of the striking of the medalet . The historian Martin Werner argues that the form of the cross on the reverse , with the pendants , is set to resemble the crux gemmata , or jeweled cross , set up in the 4th or 5th century at what was believed to be the site of Golgotha inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . Werner further speculates that the base of the cross on the medalet is meant to symbolize the hill at Golgotha . The circle crossing over the cross on the reverse is an early form of a cross that later appears in conjunction with the hetoimasia or " empty throne " motif in Byzantine art .
The medalet is the first northern European artistic work to display a patriarchal cross , and it is also the first securely datable item to use the circle crossing a cross .
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= Hurricane Karen ( 2001 ) =
Hurricane Karen was a hurricane of non @-@ tropical origin that formed in October of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed out of the interaction between a cold front and an upper level trough on October 10 located to the south of Bermuda , and quickly strengthened as an extratropical storm . The storm passed near Bermuda on October 12 , producing hurricane @-@ force winds on the island . It then organized , becoming a subtropical cyclone on the 12th and a tropical cyclone on the 13th . Karen strengthened to reach 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) winds as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and after weakening over cooler waters , it made landfall on Nova Scotia as a tropical storm . It quickly became extratropical .
On Bermuda , winds from the precursor extratropical storm produced moderate damage , primarily to power lines and marine interests . Over 2 / 3 of the island 's power subscribers were left without power during the worst of the storm , and several boats sank or ran aground from the high winds . Damage on Bermuda totaled to over $ 1 @.@ 4 million ( 2001 USD ; $ 1 @.@ 7 million 2008 USD ) . In Atlantic Canada , Tropical Storm Karen produced light winds and rain , but caused minimal damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A cold front stalled a couple hundred miles southeast of Bermuda on October 10 . During that day , a strong upper @-@ level trough moved southeastward off the southeast coast of the United States . Due to several factors , including upward motion and strong diffluence — the rate at which a fluid moves — the area became baroclinically unstable . This caused the interaction between the trough and the front to develop into an extratropical low about 345 miles ( 555 km ) southeast of Bermuda on October 11 . The low moved quickly northward , then northwestward , strengthening quickly due to the instability of the atmosphere . Late on October 11 , the system slowed , and the upper @-@ level circulation became aligned with the low @-@ level circulation . The extratropical storm began to develop tropical characteristics late on October 11 , including surface temperatures warmer than the surrounding environment , and vertical wind characteristics of a tropical cyclone . Based on its organization , the system developed into Subtropical Storm One early on October 12 while located about 35 miles ( 55 km ) south of Bermuda .
While passing to the south of Bermuda , the subtropical storm maintained winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , with wind gusts on the island surpassing 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . After becoming dissociated from the Westerlies , the system turned northward , and began to develop convection over the center . In addition , the frontal characteristics of the subtropical storm continually weakened . On October 13 , based on an Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit observation that stated that a warm core was present throughout the system , the National Hurricane Center designated the system as a tropical storm , and gave it the name Karen . At this point , Karen was located 200 miles ( 320 km ) north of Bermuda . Karen slowly strengthened over the warm waters of the Gulf Stream , and the storm intensified to a hurricane later on October 13 . Convection continued to develop , and organized into a ring around the eye as Karen reached its peak intensity of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) on October 14 while located about 400 miles ( 640 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia .
Karen quickly weakened as it moved over cooler waters , and late on October 14 it degenerated back into a tropical storm as it accelerated northward . Convection gradually decreased , and Karen made landfall on southwestern Nova Scotia with winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) on October 15 . Karen retained its tropical characteristics during and after making landfall , based on a research flight out of Halifax intended to study the early stages of extratropical transition . The flight reported arced bands and a warm @-@ core system transitioning into a more typical mid @-@ latitude system . Under the influence of a mid @-@ latitude system , the storm turned sharply to the northeast , and after losing the remaining of its convection it became extratropical shortly after landfall . Continuing northward , the remnant low quickly weakened , and dissipated as it was absorbed by a larger extratropical storm over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence .
= = Preparations = =
On October 10 , as the precursor extratropical storm was forming , the Bermuda Weather Service issued a gale and later a storm warning for the island , expecting winds of 50 to 60 mph ( 60 to 95 km / h ) . Several radio interviews and television stations issued information on the expected storm . Many residents believed they were insufficiently warned , though it is acknowledged that emergency managers and citizens pay less attention to gale warnings then they do for tropical cyclone warnings . On October 12 , as the storm was passing to the south of the island , officials closed all schools and government offices . Many private businesses closed as well .
At the time of Karen 's landfall , gale warnings were issued for coastal waters , while inland wind warnings were in effect for Cape Breton . In addition , heavy rainfall warnings were issued for large portions of Nova Scotia including Halifax , southeastern New Brunswick , Fundy National Park , and Prince Edward Island .
= = Impact = =
= = = Bermuda = = =
While passing to the south of the island , the tight pressure gradient between the precursor extratropical storm and high pressures resulted in strong winds on the island , including sustained winds of hurricane status at Fort George . Gusts on the island officially peaked at 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) at Devonshire . A cruise ship anchored at harbor reported a wind gust of 118 mph ( 190 km / h ) , though it could have been caused by a downdraft . The storm also dropped moderate rainfall of just over 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , resulting in minor flooding of streets . Because the storm developed quickly , wave @-@ induced beach erosion was minor .
The strong winds left considerable tree and powerline damage . At the worst of the storm , 23 @,@ 000 of the island 's 30 @,@ 000 power subscribers were without electricity . Damage to power lines totaled to $ 385 @,@ 000 ( 2001 USD , $ 468 @,@ 700 2008 USD ) . The strong winds also caused considerable damage to vegetation . Three cruise ships weathered the storm at Saint George Harbour , where the powerful winds ripped out a post and snapped a mooring line , leaving a ship drifting in the harbor . One crew member was minorly injured . Over a dozen boats broke free from their moorings , resulting in them running aground or sinking . In all , 87 boats were affected to some degree , with marine damage totaling to about $ 665 @,@ 000 ( 2001 USD , $ 809 @,@ 600 2008 USD ) . The winds also caused minor damage to 175 properties on the island , primarily to houses . Damage to houses amounted to about $ 425 @,@ 000 ( 2001 USD , $ 517 @,@ 400 2008 USD ) . Overall damage was moderate , totaling to about $ 1 @.@ 4 million ( 2001 USD , $ 1 @.@ 7 million 2008 USD ) . No fatalities were reported , though a few storm @-@ related injuries occurred .
= = = Canada = = =
Tropical Storm Karen produced light to moderate winds across Atlantic Canada , peaking at 47 mph ( 76 km / h ) with a gust of 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) in Cape George in Antigonish County , Nova Scotia , along with a 26 mph ( 42 km / h ) report in Charlottetown , Prince Edward Island . Rainbands in the storm dropped light rainfall of up to 1 @.@ 8 inches ( 46 mm ) in Yarmouth , Nova Scotia and 1 @.@ 4 inches ( 35 mm ) in Saint John , New Brunswick , most of which fell in a short amount of time . Skewed to the left side of the transitioning storm , the rainfall was beneficial for the drought @-@ stricken areas of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick . Due to the fast @-@ moving nature of the storm , though , most areas reported only around half an inch of rain . A buoy in Halifax Harbour reported wave heights of up to 16 @.@ 7 feet ( 5 @.@ 1 m ) , causing breaking waves at docks white caps along the ocean . Damage in Canada was minor due to the storm , limited to an uprooted tree in New Glasgow , Nova Scotia and several other trees with damaged branches . There were no injuries or fatalities in Canada .
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= German submarine U @-@ 38 ( 1938 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 38 was a Type IXA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine that operated during World War II .
Her keel was laid down on 15 April 1937 , by DeSchiMAG AG Weser of Bremen as yard number 943 . She was launched on 9 August 1938 and commissioned on 24 October with Kapitänleutnant Heinrich Liebe in command .
U @-@ 38 conducted eleven patrols , as part of several flotillas . During her career , she sank over 30 enemy vessels and damaged a further one . U @-@ 38 ranks as one of the most successful U @-@ boats in World War II . She was scuttled west of Wesermünde ( modern Bremerhaven ) on 5 May 1945 . Throughout the war , the U @-@ Boat suffered no losses among her crew .
= = Design = =
As one of the eight original German Type IX submarines , later designated IXA , U @-@ 38 had a displacement of 1 @,@ 032 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 016 long tons ) when at the surface and 1 @,@ 153 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 135 long tons ) while submerged . The U @-@ boat had a total length of 76 @.@ 50 m ( 251 ft ) , a pressure hull length of 58 @.@ 75 m ( 192 ft 9 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 51 m ( 21 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 40 m ( 30 ft 10 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 70 m ( 15 ft 5 in ) . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40 / 46 supercharged four @-@ stroke , nine @-@ cylinder diesel engines producing a total of 4 @,@ 400 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 240 kW ; 4 @,@ 340 shp ) for use while surfaced , two Siemens @-@ Schuckert 2 GU 345 / 34 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 1 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 740 kW ; 990 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 92 m ( 6 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 18 @.@ 2 knots ( 33 @.@ 7 km / h ; 20 @.@ 9 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 7 @.@ 7 knots ( 14 @.@ 3 km / h ; 8 @.@ 9 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 65 – 78 nautical miles ( 120 – 144 km ; 75 – 90 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 10 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 400 km ; 12 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 38 was fitted with six 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and two at the stern ) , 22 torpedoes , one 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 13 in ) SK C / 32 naval gun , 180 rounds , and a 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) as well as a 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of forty @-@ eight .
= = Service history = =
= = = 1st Patrol = = =
U @-@ 38 left the port of Wilhelmshaven on 19 August 1939 . The boat operated off the coast of Lisbon , returning to port on 18 September . During this four @-@ week period , she sank two ships .
On 5 September 1939 U @-@ 38 stopped the French ship Pluvoise , examined her papers and released her . Pluvoise broadcast the event , warning others of the U @-@ boat . For this , Liebe was reprimanded .
The British steam freighter SS Manaar was sunk on 6 September 1939 . U @-@ 38 opened fire on the freighter and she returned fire . This was the first time that a merchantman fired at a U @-@ boat . U @-@ 38 sank Manaar with torpedoes . As Manaar had fired at him , Liebe did not assist the survivors . Radio Officer James Turner remained at his post until the last moment . As he was leaving he found two Lascars , one badly injured . Turner rescued both men while under continuous fire from U @-@ 38 , for this he was awarded the Empire Gallantry Medal .
On 11 September 1939 , while flying the Irish tricolour , Inverliffey was shelled and sunk . In spite of Captain William Trowsdale 's protestation that they were Irish , Liebe said that they " were sorry " but they would sink Inverliffey as she was carrying contraband petrol to England . The crew took to the lifeboats . Inverliffey burned fiercely , endangering the lifeboats . At risk to herself , the German submarine approached , threw lines to the lifeboats and towed them to safety . As Captain Trowsdale 's lifeboat was damaged , the occupants were allowed to board the U @-@ boat . The captain did not have a lifebelt , so he was given one . U @-@ 38 stopped the American tanker R.G. Stewart and put Inverliffey 's crew on board . Just two days earlier , Inver tankers transferred its ships from the Irish to the British registry .
= = = 2nd Patrol = = =
After nearly two months in port , U @-@ 38 left Wilhelmshaven , again with Heinrich Liebe in command , on 12 November 1939 . This second patrol was to see the boat operate in the waters northwest of Norway .
On 17 November 1939 , Naval High Command ( SKL ) issued orders for U @-@ 38 and U @-@ 36 to scout the location for Basis Nord , a secret German naval base to be used for raids on allied shipping which was located off the Kola Peninsula and provided by the Soviet Union . The mission required coded messages to be flashed to Soviet naval vessels patrolling the area preceding a Soviet escort to the prospective base location .
U @-@ 36 never left the Norwegian Sea and was sunk by the British submarine HMS Salmon . U @-@ 38 rounded the North Cape uneventfully and arrived in Teriberka Bay by mid @-@ afternoon on 26 November . Running silently into the bay , U @-@ 38 had to avoid being spotted by merchant vessels in order to help maintain the Soviet Union 's attempted appearance of neutrality at that time . U @-@ 38 's captain commented that , while in the area of the North Cape and the Kola Peninsula , he had observed thirty to forty targets and regrettably had been " harmless to [ all ] of them . "
After completing the clandestine reconnaissance mission , U @-@ 38 returned to raiding duties and sank three ships , two British and one Greek . The British steam freighter SS Thomas Walton was sunk on 7 December . The Greek steam freighter SS Garoufalia was destroyed on 11 December , as was the British steam freighter Deptford on 13 December . After an operational period of four and a half weeks , U @-@ 38 returned to Wilhelmshaven on 16 December .
= = = 3rd Patrol = = =
Once again , U @-@ 38 would spend considerable time in port , prior to sailing on 26 February 1940 , for operations in the Western Approaches .
U @-@ 38 sank six ships . First sent to the bottom was the neutral Irish steam trawler ST Leukos on 9 March , with a single shell at point @-@ blank range off Tory Island , all 11 crew were lost . The Leukos was fishing in the company of British trawlers ; it has been speculated that she positioned herself between the surfacing U @-@ boat and the fleeing British in the belief that her neutral markings would protect her . This event was followed by the sinking of the Danish motor freighters SS Argentina on 17 March and SS Algier and SS Christiansborg on 21 March . The Norwegian motor freighter MV Cometa was sunk on 26 March . The sixth and final ship sunk during this third patrol was the Finnish steam freighter SS Signe on 2 April . After nearly six weeks on the high seas , U @-@ 38 returned to Wilhelmshaven on 5 April 1940 .
= = = 4th Patrol = = =
U @-@ 38 left her home port of Wilhelmshaven with Heinrich Liebe in command on 8 April 1940 . She would sweep the waters off Norway , supporting the occupation of that country by Nazi troops . During this patrol , U @-@ 38 reported problems with her torpedoes , after HMS Effingham was fired upon with no result . U @-@ 38 would return to port on 27 April .
There were two naval battles of Narvik on 10 and 13 April 1940 . U @-@ 38 and U @-@ 65 were positioned at the entrance to the fjord . When the Royal Navy arrived , U @-@ 38 fired at HMS Valiant and at HMS Southampton missing both . In the second battle , U @-@ 38 fired at Effingham , but the torpedoes malfunctioned , ( exploding prematurely ) .
= = = 5th Patrol = = =
For her fifth patrol , U @-@ 38 would again depart from Wilhelmshaven with Heinrich Liebe in command on 6 June 1940 . She was to patrol the waters off southern Ireland . During this operation , Liebe would hit six ships , two of which were sailing in convoy at the time . On 14 June , U @-@ 38 sank the Greek steam freighter SS Mount Myrto . The next day , U @-@ 38 sank two ships , both sailing as part of Convoy HX @-@ 47 , sailing from Halifax to England . First sunk was the Canadian steam freighter SS Erik Boye , followed by the Norwegian motor tanker MV Italia . Five days later , on 20 June , the Swedish steam freighter SS Tilia Gorthon was torpedoed and sunk . The Belgian steam freighter SS Luxembourg was destroyed on 21 June , followed by the Greek steam freighter SS Neion the following day . After three weeks at sea , U @-@ 38 returned to Wilhelmshaven on 2 July .
During this patrol , U @-@ 38 was able to land Walter Simon , a Nazi agent , at Dingle Bay in Ireland on 12 June . Not realising that the passenger services of the Tralee and Dingle Light Railway had been closed fourteen months earlier , he asked when the next train to Dublin was . He was arrested and interned in the Curragh Camp for the duration of the war .
= = = 6th Patrol = = =
U @-@ 38 would depart Wilhelmshaven for the last time on 1 August 1940 , again with Heinrich Liebe in command . On this month @-@ long patrol off the western coast of Ireland , U @-@ 38 would hit and sink three ships , all of which were in convoy at the time of attack . On 7 August the Egyptian liner SS Mohamed Ali El @-@ Kebir was sunk while traveling with HX @-@ 61 , from Halifax to Gibraltar , 320 died . The British steam freighter SS Llanfair was hit and sunk , travelling as part of SL @-@ 41 from Sierra Leone to England . The third and final ship hit on the sixth patrol of U @-@ 38 was the British steam freighter SS Har Zion , while travelling with the Convoy OB @-@ 225 , from Liverpool to the United States . After four weeks at sea Liebe returned U @-@ 38 to her new home port of Lorient in France on 3 September 1940 .
= = = 7th Patrol = = =
For her first patrol from Lorient and her seventh overall , U @-@ 38 would again be under the command of Heinrich Liebe . She departed on 25 September , for the Northwest Approaches . She would attack five ships on this patrol , sinking four of them . On 1 October , the British motor freighter MV Highland Patriot was torpedoed . After two weeks of no victories , U @-@ 38 was successful against the Greek steam freighter SS Aenos on 17 October , sailing as part of Convoy SC 7 , from Sydney , Nova Scotia to England . The following day , the British steam freighter SS Carsbreck was damaged , but not sunk , while traveling with the SC @-@ 7 convoy from Sydney to Grimsby , England . On 19 October , two ships were hit , both sailing as part of the HX 79 convoy : the Dutch SS Bilderdijk and the British steam freighter SS Matheran . Following these victories , U @-@ 38 returned to Lorient on 24 October 1940 .
= = = 8th Patrol = = =
U @-@ 38 would depart Lorient with Liebe in command once again on 18 December 1940 . The eighth war patrol of her career would involve operations again in the Northwest Approaches . During this patrol , the submarine would hit and sink two ships . On 27 December , U @-@ 38 destroyed the British ship SS Waiotira , and on 31 December , she sank the Swedish motor freighter SS Valparaiso , sailing as part of the HX @-@ 97 convoy from Halifax to Glasgow . U @-@ 38 returned to port on 22 January 1941 .
= = = 9th Patrol = = =
U @-@ 38 would spend two and a half months in port , before leaving for operations off the west coast of Africa on 9 April 1941 . This would prove to be her most successful patrol , with the sinking of eight ships . On 4 May , the Swedish steam freighter SS Japan was torpedoed while traveling with Convoy OB @-@ 310 from England to the United States . The following day , the British motor freighter MV Queen Maud was hit and sunk . On 23 May , the Dutch motor freighter SS Berhala was sunk while traveling with the Convoy OB 318 , from England to America . The British steam freighter SS Vulcain was torpedoed and sunk on 24 May . Six days later , on 29 May , the British steam freighter SS Tabaristan was another victim . The following day the destruction continued , the British steam freighter SS Empire Protector was sent to the bottom , as was the Norwegian steam freighter SS Rinda on the 31st . The eighth and final ship sunk during U @-@ 38 's eighth patrol was the British cargo steamship SS Kingston Hill on 8 June . The boat then returned to Lorient on 29 June 1941 , after spending eleven and a half weeks at sea .
= = = 10th Patrol = = =
For the first time in her career , U @-@ 38 would head to sea with a new commander , Korvettenkapitän Heinrich Schuch . She left on 6 August , for a five @-@ week patrol in the North Atlantic . During this time one ship was hit , the Panamanian steam freighter SS Longtanker on 18 August . U @-@ 38 returned to Lorient on 14 September 1941 .
= = = 11th and 12th Patrols = = =
U @-@ 38 would depart from Lorient for the last time on 15 October , again with Heinrich Schuch in command . Her eleventh patrol was to take place in the North Atlantic . However , during a period of five weeks , not a single ship was hit . U @-@ 38 traveled to the U @-@ boat base in Bergen , Norway on 21 November . She would later depart Bergen on the 23rd and arrive in Stettin on 29 November .
= = = Life after active duty = = =
From December 1941 until November 1943 , U @-@ 38 was used as a training boat in the 24th and 21st U @-@ boat Flotillas . She was then used as a testing boat , until she was scuttled by her crew on 5 May 1945 .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 38 took part in five wolfpacks , namely .
Prien ( 12 – 17 June 1940 )
Grönland ( 10 – 27 August 1941 )
Markgraf ( 27 August – 3 September 1941 )
Schlagetot ( 20 October – 1 November 1941 )
Raubritter ( 1 – 11 November 1941 )
= = Summary of raiding history = =
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 38 sank 35 commercial ships for 188 @,@ 967 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and damaged another of 3 @,@ 670 GRT .
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= Give Up =
Give Up is the first and only studio album by indie pop band The Postal Service , released on February 19 , 2003 through Sub Pop Records .
The band began as a side project between electronic music artist Jimmy Tamborello and Death Cab for Cutie 's vocalist Ben Gibbard . The two had previously worked together for a track on Dntel 's album Life Is Full of Possibilities .
The Postal Service 's only full @-@ length release , Give Up was the second Sub Pop Records release to receive platinum certification , their best selling album since Nirvana 's Bleach . The album peaked at # 114 on the U.S. Billboard 200 album chart in its initial release ; the 2013 tenth @-@ anniversary reissue of the album peaked at # 45 in April 2013 . As of January 2013 , Give Up had sold 1 @.@ 07 million copies . The album was generally well received , and critics commented on its throwbacks to the eighties new wave genre .
= = Production and composition = =
The Postal Service 's two members – Ben Gibbard of Death Cab for Cutie and electronic music artist Jimmy Tamborello – had previously collaborated on " ( This Is ) The Dream of Evan and Chan " before deciding to record a full @-@ length album together . The two worked on the album separately ; in December 2001 , Tamborello sent a CD @-@ R of electronic music to Gibbard , who added melodies and wrote lyrics . He then added drums , guitar and keyboards at Death Cab for Cutie guitarist Chris Walla 's recording studio and sent the CD back to Tamborello . This process of mailing each other their work on the album continued ; after ten months and two trips by Gibbard to Los Angeles to record vocals , the album was completed . The group called themselves " The Postal Service " because of this method of trading ideas . Rilo Kiley 's Jenny Lewis provided backup vocals after being cold called by Gibbard , who knew her when Rilo Kiley was on the same label as Death Cab for Cutie .
Give Up primarily deals with themes of love , as well as fame , history , and friendship . " Clark Gable " is about Gibbard making home movies with an ex and " Nothing Better " is a duet between a couple about to break up . Allmusic 's Heather Phares compared " Nothing Better " to The Human League 's " Don 't You Want Me ? " and Gibbard later confirmed that " Don 't You Want Me ? " was the inspiration for the song . Gibbard said that " The District Sleeps Alone Tonight " , " Brand New Colony " and " This Place Is a Prison " were the only songs that bordered on autobiographical . He went on to say that " Such Great Heights " was the only song he had ever written that was positive about love .
Critics compared it to the eighties synthpop and new wave genres . Pitchfork Media 's Matt LeMay and Phares both commented on the contrasts between the " cool , clean synths " and Gibbard 's vocal melodies . Phares went on to liken " This Place Is a Prison " to Björk 's recent works . Death Cab for Cutie had previously covered Björk 's " All Is Full of Love " on their The Stability EP .
= = Release and promotion = =
Give Up was released February 19 , 2003 on Sub Pop in the U.S. It was later released in the UK on April 23 , 2003 . As of December 2007 , it had sold over 900 @,@ 000 copies . It was awarded a platinum certification on October 4 , 2012 , the second Sub Pop record to do so . The album led to three singles ; " The District Sleeps Alone Tonight " , " Such Great Heights " and " We Will Become Silhouettes " , of which only " We Will Become Silhouettes " charted , reaching 82 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
The band toured the U.S. from April to August 2003 , including Jenny Lewis in the line @-@ up for all but one of the performances . Lewis provided vocals as well as guitar and keyboards . In the sole performance that Lewis missed , a festival in Spain , friend Joan Hiller sang and Chris Walla played her guitar and keyboard parts . Death Cab for Cutie bassist Nick Harmer was in charge of the tour 's visuals . Tamborello later said in an interview that Gibbard had been nervous about touring , as the audience may have been bored by what they saw as " a guy with a computer onstage " . This was partly the motivation for using visual effects such as videos and lights , which included small films for each song .
= = Controversies = =
In January 2006 , Apple released an advertisement for the iMac that was said to be very similar to The Postal Service 's video for " Such Great Heights " . Some created videos that played the advertisement and the music video side by side to make the resemblance clear . It was later revealed that the advertisement had been created by the filmmakers who had made the music video . Ben Gibbard said on the band 's website :
It has recently come to our attention that Apple Computers ' new television commercial for the Intel chip features a shot @-@ for @-@ shot recreation of our video for ' Such Great Heights ' made by the same filmmakers responsible for the original . We did not approve this commercialization and are extremely disappointed with both parties that this was executed without our consultation or consent .
The band did not take legal action , but Tamborello later stated in an interview that they " got a little bit of compensation from them for it " in the form of " attention from iTunes and stuff like that " .
The United States Postal Service served the band with a cease and desist letter citing tarnishing and dilution of their trademark . The band initially considered renaming themselves , but eventually came to a settlement that involved the band playing at a conference and the sale of the album in the USPS online store . Tamborello later said of their conference performance :
It was really weird . When we found out we had to do it , it was really depressing , and it kind of freaked me out . I already don 't like flying , and flying to play a show for people who probably aren 't going to care – we only played two songs – it just seemed like a crazy trip . But then when we did it , and it ended up being kind of fun .
= = Critical reception = =
Give Up was generally well @-@ received by music critics . It holds a score of 79 out of 100 on review aggregate site Metacritic , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Matt LeMay of Pitchfork Media called the album " a pretty damned strong record , and one with enough transcendent moments to forgive it its few substandard tracks and ungodly lyrical blunders " . Will Hermes of Entertainment Weekly wrote that " Ben Gibbard radiates claustrophobia , so the shut @-@ in synth @-@ pop of this side project fits him like a leotard " , calling Give Up " the near @-@ perfect pop record that 's eluded his main group . " The Village Voice 's Robert Christgau praised its " staying power " and felt that " Gibbard 's delicate voice matches the subtle electro arrangements far more precisely than it does the folky guitars of his real group " .
Heather Phares of AllMusic felt that while Give Up did not measure up to either Gibbard or Tamborello 's main projects , it was nonetheless " far more consistent and enjoyable than might be expected . " Michaelangelo Matos of Rolling Stone described the album as " a cuddly little new wave reverie " and wrote that " Tamborello 's delightful pings and whistles fit Gibbard 's whimsy perfectly . " Devon Powers of PopMatters remarked that " like any worthy match , the coming together gives each aspect assets that they 'd be wont to find otherwise " , concluding that the album " integrates the human and the humanoid to give soundtrack to the disconnected , yet earnest escapades of contemporary emotional life . "
Online music magazine Pitchfork Media placed Give Up at number 104 on their list of top 200 albums of the 2000s . Rolling Stone ranked the album at number 86 on their list of the 100 Best Albums of the Decade .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by The Postal Service .
The vinyl version of Give Up was released on November 9 , 2004 and featured a bonus 12 " of B @-@ sides , covers and remixes , all of which can also be found on the Such Great Heights and The District Sleeps Alone Tonight EPs :
In February 2013 , Sub Pop announced that a Tenth Anniversary edition of Give Up would be released , featuring fifteen bonus tracks , including two newly recorded songs .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Personnel = =
Benjamin Gibbard – lead vocals , lyrics , guitars ( 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 9 ) , additional keyboards ( 2 , 7 ) , electric piano ( 8 ) , drums ( 6 , 8 , 9 )
Jimmy Tamborello – programming , accordion ( 8 ) , additional keyboards ( 8 ) , electric drums , production , glitching
Chris Walla – piano ( 4 ) , production
Jenny Lewis – backing vocals ( 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 )
Jen Wood – backing vocals ( 2 ) , vocals ( 4 )
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= Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology =
Intelligent Systems for Molecular Biology ( ISMB ) is an annual academic conference on the subjects of bioinformatics and computational biology organised by the International Society for Computational Biology ( ISCB ) . The principal focus of the conference is on the development and application of advanced computational methods for biological problems . The conference has been held every year since 1993 and has grown to become one of the largest and most prestigious meetings in these fields , hosting over 2 @,@ 000 delegates in 2004 . From the first meeting , ISMB has been held in locations worldwide ; since 2007 , meetings have been located in Europe and North America in alternating years . Since 2004 , European meetings have been held jointly with the European Conference on Computational Biology ( ECCB ) .
The main ISMB conference is usually held over three days and consists of presentations , poster sessions and keynote talks . Most presentations are given in multiple parallel tracks ; however , keynote talks are presented in a single track and are chosen to reflect outstanding research in bioinformatics . Notable ISMB keynote speakers have included eight Nobel laureates . The recipients of the ISCB Overton Prize and ISCB Accomplishment by a Senior Scientist Award are invited to give keynote talks as part of the programme . The proceedings of the conference are currently published by the journal Bioinformatics .
= = History = =
= = = Early meetings = = =
The origins of the ISMB conference lie in a workshop for artificial intelligence researchers with an interest in molecular biology held in November 1991 . The workshop was organised by American researcher Lawrence Hunter , then director of the Machine Learning Project at the United States National Institutes of Health 's National Library of Medicine ( NLM ) in Bethesda , Maryland . A subsequent workshop on the same topic held in 1992 , hosted by the NLM and the National Science Foundation , made it clear that a regular international conference for the field was required . Such a conference would be dedicated to molecular biology as a rapidly emerging application of artificial intelligence . Having successfully applied for grants from AAAI , NIH and the Department of Energy Office of Health and Environmental Research , the first ISMB conference was held in July 1993 , at the NLM . The conference was chaired by Hunter , David Searls ( research associate professor at University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine ) and Jude Shavlik ( assistant professor of computer science at University of Wisconsin – Madison ) and attracted over 200 attendees from 13 countries , submitting 69 scientific papers .
The success of the first conference prompted the announcement of a second ISMB conference at the end of the meeting . ISMB 1994 was initially planned to be held in Seattle . However , a competing meeting forced ISMB to change venues at short notice . The conference was held at Stanford University in August 1994 and was organised by Russ Altman , a research scientist at Stanford University School of Medicine . To emphasise the international aspect of the conference , ISMB 1995 was held at Robinson College , Cambridge . ISMB 1995 also marked a shift in the focus of the conference . ISCB Board member and Director of the Spanish National Bioinformatics Institute Alfonso Valencia has stated that , in 1995 , " the conference changed from a computer science @-@ based conference to a point where everyone realized that , if you want to make progress , there has to be more focus in biology . "
= = = Formation of ISCB and expansion = = =
ISMB 1997 was held in Halkidiki , Greece and marked the foundation of the International Society for Computational Biology ( ISCB ) . ISCB was formed with a focus on managing all scientific , organizational and financial aspects of the ISMB conference and to provide a forum for scientists to address the emerging role of computers in the biological sciences . ISCB has assisted in organising the ISMB conference series since 1998 . The period following the formation of ISCB also marked an expansion in the number of ISMB attendees : ISMB 2000 ( held at the University of California , San Diego ) was attended by over 1 @,@ 000 delegates , submitting 141 scientific papers . This meeting was also the last time ISMB would be held at a university , due to size limitations .
= = = Partnership with ECCB = = =
In 2004 , ISMB was jointly held with the European Conference on Computational Biology for the first time . The conference was also co @-@ located with the Genes , Proteins and Computers conference . This meeting , held in Glasgow , UK , was the largest bioinformatics conference ever held , attended by 2 @,@ 136 delegates , submitting 496 scientific papers . Alfonso Valencia considers ISMB / ECCB 2004 to be an important milestone in the history of ISMB : " it was the first one where the balance between Europe and the States became an important part of the conference . It was here that we established the rules and the ways and the spirit of collaboration between the Americans and the Europeans . " The success of the joint conference paved the way for future European ISMB meetings to be held jointly with ECCB .
= = = Recent meetings = = =
By the end of 2006 , ISCB was in financial difficulty . Two conferences ( ISMB 2003 , in Brisbane and ISMB 2006 , in Fortaleza ) had drastically reduced numbers of participants due to their location , with a corresponding reduction in income . To allow more delegates to attend , it was decided to limit conference locations to North America and Europe . In January 2007 , ISMB and ECCB agreed to hold joint conferences in Europe every other year , beginning with ISMB / ECCB 2007 . ISMB would be held in North America in the years between joint meetings . As of 2016 , this pattern has been confirmed to continue until at least 2019 . ISMB / ECCB 2007 ( held in Vienna , Austria ) marked the first conference for which ISCB took full responsibility for organising . Vienna became the first city to host ISMB twice with ISMB / ECCB 2011 . This ' return visit ' was an experiment intended to reduce the increasing effort required to find suitable conference venues . Although the return to Vienna was only deemed partially successful due to price increases , Boston ( which hosted ISMB 2010 and 2014 ) is predicted to become a ' safe ' site which ISMB can periodically return to .
ISMB celebrated its 20th meeting with ISMB 2012 , held in Long Beach , California . This event attracted around 1 @,@ 600 delegates , submitting 268 scientific papers . Richard H. Lathrop and Lawrence Hunter presented a special keynote presentation , looking back at previous ISMB meetings and attempting to predict where the field of bioinformatics may head in the future . ISMB / ECCB 2013 was held in Berlin , Germany and was attended by around 2 @,@ 000 delegates , submitting 233 scientific papers .
= = Format = =
= = = Main conference = = =
The main ISMB conference is usually held over three days and consists of presentations , poster sessions and keynote talks .
Academic papers at ISMB were traditionally presented in a single track . Presentations at ISMB 1994 were split further into three themed days , focusing on protein secondary structure prediction , sequence analysis and AI techniques and biochemical applications , respectively . As attendance at ISMB increased , the single track approach became increasingly unsustainable and two parallel tracks were introduced at ISMB / ECCB 2004 . Further expansion meant that , by ISMB 2012 , over 200 talks were presented in nine parallel tracks including multiple proceedings tracks , a highlights track and a technology track . The introduction of parallel tracks to ISMB was controversial . Christopher Rawlings ( head of Computational and Systems Biology at Rothamsted Research and organiser of ISMB 1995 ) has said : " There were a lot of people who wanted to keep it more strongly in the AI intelligent systems model and have a meeting where everybody would go to everything . But it just grew too big . We just couldn ’ t . " As the number of submitted proceedings papers has increased , the acceptance rate has decreased dramatically , from 75 % in 1994 to 13 % in 2012 . ISMB proceedings from 1993 @-@ 2000 were published by AAAI Press . Since ISMB 2001 , proceedings have been published in the journal Bioinformatics . The number of posters presented at ISMB has also increased dramatically . 25 posters were presented at ISMB 1994 ; at recent ISMB meetings , 500 @-@ 1 @,@ 000 posters have been presented in multiple poster sessions .
Keynote talks are presented in a single track and generally attract the largest audience . These presentations are chosen to highlight outstanding research in the field of bioinformatics . Notable ISMB keynote speakers have included eight Nobel laureates : Richard J. Roberts ( keynote speaker in 1994 , 2006 ) , John Sulston ( 1995 ) , Manfred Eigen ( 1999 ) , Gerald Edelman ( 2000 ) , Sydney Brenner ( 2003 ) , Kurt Wüthrich ( 2006 ) , Robert Huber ( 2006 ) and Michael Levitt ( 2015 ) .
As of 2012 , ISMB runs on a budget in excess of $ 1.5M and , in terms of proceeds , brings in four times that of the other ISCB conferences ( ISCB @-@ Latin America , ISCB @-@ Africa , ISCB @-@ Asia , Rocky Mountain Bioinformatics Conference , CSHALS and the Great Lakes Bioinformatics Conference ) combined . Standard registration fees ( as of 2013 ) are around $ 1 @,@ 000 for academics who are ISCB members ( $ 1 @,@ 350 for non @-@ members ) , with lower rates for students and higher rates for corporate delegates respectively . Discounts are provided for early registration .
= = = Satellite events = = =
Pre @-@ conference tutorials have played an important role in ISMB since the first conference . Tutorials at ISMB 1994 included introductions to genetic algorithms , neural networks , AI for molecular biologists and molecular biology for computer scientists . Tutorials on computational mass spectrometry @-@ based proteomics and ENCODE data access were presented at ISMB / ECCB 2013 .
As attendance at ISMB grew in the late 1990s , several satellite meetings and special interest group ( SIG ) meetings formed alongside the main conference . SIG meetings are held over one or two days before the main conference and focus on a specific topic , allowing more detailed discussion than there would be time for in the main conference . Notable SIG meetings include the Bioinformatics Open Source Conference ( BOSC ) , which has been held annually since 2000 and Bio @-@ Ontologies , which has been held annually since 1998 . Satellite meetings are usually two days long and are held in conjunction with ISMB . The 12th CAMDA conference and the 9th 3DSIG meeting were held as satellite meetings of ISMB / ECCB 2013 .
= = List of conferences = =
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= Anthony Eden hat =
An " Anthony Eden " hat , or simply an " Anthony Eden " , was a silk @-@ brimmed , black felt Homburg of the kind favoured in the 1930s by Anthony Eden , later 1st Earl of Avon ( 1897 – 1977 ) . Eden was a Cabinet Minister in the British National Government , holding the offices of Lord Privy Seal from 1934 – 1935 and Foreign Secretary 1935 to 1938 . He was later Dominions Secretary from 1939 – 1940 , War Secretary in 1940 , Foreign Secretary from 1940 – 1945 and 1951 – 1955 , and Prime Minister 1955 to 1957 .
The " Anthony Eden " ( rarely the " Eden " , except in London 's Savile Row ) was not marketed as such and the name was purely informal , but the use of the term was widespread , entering dictionaries and phrase books : for example , it was still listed in the 17th edition of Brewer in 2005 and as recently as 2010 the fashion " guru " Trinny Woodall cited the hat as an example of Eden 's reputation for being well dressed . It came into particular vogue among civil servants and diplomats in Whitehall and , to that extent , rather belied the stereotypical view , that lasted until well after the Second World War , of civil servants as a " bowler hat " brigade .
= = The Trilby and the Homburg = =
The Homburg had initially been popularised in Britain by King Edward VII who often visited Bad Homburg in Germany . It was essentially a more rigid variant of the trilby which had been fashionable since George du Maurier 's novel of that name was published in 1894 . The writer and broadcaster Rene Cutforth recalled in the 1970s that
one of things that strikes me most about the Thirties scene when I think about it now is the trilby hat , the universal headgear of the middle classes ... [ s ] ometime early in the century , it must have been a wild gesture of freedom and informality ... By the thirties it had certainly become degenerate ... It was a hat which had lost all aspiration : it had become a mingy hat ... " .
In such circumstances Eden 's adherence to the Homburg seemed fresh and dashing . He is one of only two British Prime Ministers to have had an item of clothing named after him , the other being the Duke of Wellington ( his boot ) .
= = Eden 's style = =
Eden became , at 38 , the youngest Foreign Secretary since Pitt the Younger in the late 18th century . As a relatively youthful politician among mostly much older men , he appeared fashionably dressed , even flamboyant . In 1936 the American magazine Time referred to his " pin @-@ stripe trousers , modish short jacket and swank black felt hat " , worn during a diplomatic mission to the League of Nations in Geneva . Many remarked too on Eden 's " film star " appeal , even as late as the 1950s when , as Prime Minister , he retained his youthful good looks . His biographer D. R. Thorpe , who likened the young Eden to a mixture of Sir Galahad ( Eden won the Military Cross in the First World War ) and Beau Brummel ( the Regency dandy in whose London house Eden lived for a time ) , commented on a photograph of him , arriving in Russia by train in hat and fur @-@ lined coat in 1935 , that " it seemed to some as if Tolstoy 's Count Vronsky [ a glamorous character in the novel Anna Karenina ] were alighting at the platform " .
In addition to the Homburg , Eden was associated with the mid @-@ 1930s fashion for wearing a white linen waistcoat with a lounge suit , while the poet and novelist Robert Graves likened Eden 's moustache to those of film stars Ronald Colman , William Powell and Clark Gable : " the new moustache was small , short and carefully cut , sometimes slightly curved over the lip at either end , sometimes making a thin straight line " . When Eden visited New York in 1938 he was " deluged with fan mail from teenage college girls to elderly matrons " , while women reporters and society editors " gushed about his classic features , his long dark eyelashes , his limpid eyes , his clear skin , his wavy hair , his charm and magnetism " . In another American city , a display of Homburgs in a shop window was adorned with the sign " Welcome to Anthony Eden " . In Amsterdam the hat became known as the " Lord Eden " .
= = = " Heads like his " = = =
The journalist Malcolm Muggeridge , who was not an admirer of Eden , recalled that , among other qualities , " an elegant appearance and an earnest disposition ... equipped him for dazzling advancement ... An astrakhan collar became him . What came to be known as an Anthony Eden hat grew on heads like his " . In June 1938 , four months after Eden 's resignation from Neville Chamberlain 's Cabinet , the Member of Parliament and diarist " Chips " Channon noted that he had " doffed his bowler " to Chamberlain in St. James 's Park and that " everyone wears a bowler now ... [ S ] nce the Eden debacle black homburgs are " out " " . However , in August of that year , the British Minister in Prague , Basil Newton , wore " a black homburg of the kind made fashionable by Anthony Eden " to greet Lord Runciman on his arrival by train at Wilson station for talks with the Czechoslovak government . In 1939 , writing to a former classmate during a European tour , the future United States President John F. Kennedy remarked that he had not been doing much work , " but have been sporting around in my morning coat , my ' Anthony Eden ' black Homburg and white gardenia " .
= = = The " glamour boys " = = =
There were those who believed , like Muggeridge , that Eden 's rapid rise through the political hierarchy owed as much to image as to substance . In the period between his resignation and his return to the government on the outbreak of war in 1939 , Eden and his acolytes , who , broadly speaking , favoured a tougher stance against Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini , were often referred to as " the glamour boys " . Harold Nicolson , a member of this group who found Eden 's approach ineffectual , observed that Eden was missing " every boat with exquisite elegance " .
Some contemporary observers thought they detected a " prima donna " streak in Eden 's attitude and appearance . For example , the aging Earl of Crawford and Balcarres ( 1871 – 1940 ) , a snob , thought him " vain as a peacock and all the mannerisms of a petit maître [ in the sense of a dandy or fop ] " . One of Eden 's permanent secretaries , P. J. Grigg , who rarely had a good word to say of anyone , dismissed him as " a poor feeble little pansy " . Less prosaically , W. F. Deedes , a Minister in Eden 's Government who , as a journalist , had once commented unfavourably on the colour of Eden 's socks , remarked half a century later that , in the modern vernacular , Eden would have been called a " smoothie " . The philosopher Bertrand Russell thought Eden " not a gentleman " because he dressed " too well " , while a Ministerial collegaue R. A. Butler , alluding to Eden 's parentage and highly strung nature , is said to have remarked , " that 's Anthony – half mad baronet , half beautiful woman " .
The writer and critic A. N. Wilson , who observed in 2008 that Eden was " easily the best @-@ looking individual , of either sex , to occupy [ the ] office [ of Prime Minister ] in the twentieth century " , noted also that he was " the only male Prime Minister known to have varnished his fingernails " . However , there is little objective evidence that Eden was unduly vain about his clothes ; he merely dressed well . As for his Homburg , which Deedes noted that he wore at an angle , his official biographer Sir Robert Rhodes James , wrote that " to him it was just a hat " .
= = The hat as a trademark = =
Even so , the image stuck . The hat became a " trademark " in the public mind , assisting instant recognition , and was one of the most recognisable features of contemporaneous political cartoons . During the general election campaign in 1955 , when Eden was Prime Minister , he was presented with " an Eden hat " when he and Lady Eden ( he became a Knight of the Garter in 1954 ) visited the Lancashire hat @-@ making town of Atherton . At various points of the Suez Crisis the following year , cartoons depicted him in the same hat for which he had become known twenty years earlier . In one by Vicky for the New Statesman , a behatted but otherwise barely clothed Eden was shown in the biblical Garden of Eden being tempted with an apple by a young Frenchwoman , presumably Marianne , in the guise of Eve . ( The allusion was to French pressure for joint action to reverse the unilateral nationalisation of the Suez Canal by Egyptian President Nasser . )
= = = " Hush ! here comes Anthony " = = =
In 1951 , two days after Eden 's re @-@ appointment as Foreign Secretary , Vicky had , in similar vein , employed the imagery of Antony and Cleopatra to represent Eden approaching the Egyptian throne in suit and hat . King Farouk ( overthrown in 1952 ) and the ancient Queen Cleopatra , as the embodiment of the Egyptian state , were shown to have torn up the treaty of 1936 which provided for Britain 's military presence in the Suez Canal zone . The caption , " Hush ! here comes Anthony " , was taken from Shakespeare . ( This cartoon was a reference to Egypt 's denunciation of the treaty on 9 October 1951 , thus posing an early problem for Winston Churchill 's incoming government . )
= = = Hatless = = =
Journalist and social historian Anne de Courcy has written of Chamberlain that " he did not smoke a pipe , nor , as Anthony Eden did , always wear the same distinctive hat , though cartoonists made the most of his ever @-@ present umbrella " . ( On Guy Fawkes Night 1938 the future Prime Minister Harold Macmillan , then a rebellious Conservative MP , burned an image of Chamberlain with rolled umbrella , which he topped with his own Homburg . ) In fact , as photographs from the late 1930s onwards show , Eden frequently wore no hat at all . This was a habit that he shared with few other public men at the time . It was one of several aspects of modernity noted by John Betjeman in his poem on the death in 1936 of King George V , who , like Edward VII before him , had worn a Homburg for shooting :
At the new suburb stretched beyond the runway
... a young man [ King Edward VIII ] lands hatless from the air " .
= = The Anthony Eden in popular culture = =
The Anthony Eden hat was essentially an accessory of the 1930s and 1940s , although , in the mid @-@ 1950s , the Homburg came to be associated with the melancholic image of comedian Tony Hancock . In 1949 a character ( Mr. Sowter ) in John Dighton 's play The Happiest Days of Your Life had been described as " soberly dressed . He wears an " Anthony Eden " hat and carries gloves " . The Suez débâcle , followed by Eden 's departure from public life in 1957 due to ill health , tended to hasten the drawing of a line that might have seemed inevitable before long in the era of " Angry Young Men " , rock ' n ' roll and Vespa motor scooters which , according to his wife Clarissa , kept Eden awake at night . As the communist historian Eric Hobsbawm put it , " Suez and the coming of rock @-@ and @-@ roll divide twentieth century British history " .
= = = " Who wears an Anthony Eden hat today ? " = = =
In the 1960s , when hats for men were becoming unfashionable , former diplomat Geoffrey McDermott asked , with evident disdain , " who wears an Anthony Eden hat today ? Only Mr Steptoe [ a character in a BBC television sitcom ] , Mr Enoch Powell and , rather curiously , [ Russian leader ] Mr Kosygin . And , of course , all those Carleton @-@ Browne characters at the F [ oreign ] O [ ffice ] " . Memories did linger , however . In 2006 , the son of a Wolverhampton ironmonger recalled a very wet evening on which Enoch Powell , the local Member of Parliament throughout the 1950s and 60s , required a new washer for a tap : " his moustache quivered with urgency and water streamed from the broad rim of his black Homburg hat . "
Another well @-@ known wearer of an " Anthony Eden " was Sergeant Arthur Wilson ( played by John Le Mesurier ) in Dad 's Army ( 1968 – 77 ) , the BBC TV comedy series about the wartime Home Guard , which Eden established in 1940 . In one episode , Captain Mainwaring ( Arthur Lowe ) , who , as manager of a bank , wore a bowler , told Wilson that his hair was too long . Wilson replied that " Mrs Pike [ his lover ] says it makes me look like Eden " .
In 1969 the Kinks recorded for their album Arthur ( Or the Decline and Fall of the British Empire ) a song called " She 's Bought a Hat Like Princess Marina " . This was written by Ray Davies ( b . 1944 ) , who was only twelve when Eden resigned as Prime Minister , and contained the lines :
He 's bought a hat like Anthony Eden 's
Because it makes him feel like a Lord .
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= 10 Songs for the New Depression =
10 Songs for the New Depression is the twenty @-@ first studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Loudon Wainwright III , released in July 2010 through Proper Records . Released forty years following his first studio album , 10 Songs is Wainwright 's first album since his Grammy Award @-@ winning tribute project High Wide & Handsome : The Charlie Poole Project ( 2009 ) . The concept album was inspired by the late @-@ 2000s global financial crisis and recession , and features Wainwright backed by his own banjo , guitar and ukulele performances .
Wainwright began writing songs for the album following the inauguration of Barack Obama in January 2009 . The album features ten original songs and two cover versions of songs originally written and recorded during the Great Depression . Lyrical references throughout 10 Songs include economists Alan Greenspan , John Maynard Keynes and Paul Krugman , President Barack Obama , and the government program Car Allowance Rebate System ( more commonly known as " cash for clunkers " ) . Overall , critical reception of the album was positive . 10 Songs reached peak positions of number thirty @-@ eight on the United Kingdom 's Top Independent Albums chart and number twelve on the Top 40 Independent Albums Breakers chart .
= = Development and promotion = =
Wainwright began writing songs for the album following the January 2009 inauguration of Barack Obama . In January 2010 , Wainwright said the following of the album :
As of this writing some folks are saying things are looking up recession wise and this particular hard time might be ending . Other experts are saying we 're in for a " double @-@ dip " and there 's more feces heading toward the national and global fans . If that 's the case I 'd like to cash in . So buddy if you can spare a few bucks , please enjoy 10 Songs for the New Depression !
On February 22 , The New Yorker featured a video of Wainwright performing " The Krugman Blues " and complimenting the publication 's March 2010 article which profiled economist Paul Krugman . Part of " Cash for Clunkers " was featured in a segment of NPR 's program Car Talk . Wainwright was able to promote the album by touring both before and after the album 's release . The Loud and Rich Tour , which co @-@ headlined Wainwright and long @-@ time friend Richard Thompson , began in the fall of 2009 and continued into 2011 .
= = Composition = =
10 Songs for the New Depression is a simple vocal and acoustic performance album composed of original songs as well as two cover versions of songs from the Great Depression . The album is approximately thirty minutes in length and contains lyrical references to economist Alan Greenspan , Nobel Prize @-@ winning economist and The New York Times columnist Paul Krugman , and President Barack Obama . While Wainwright 's previous studio album High Wide & Handsome : The Charlie Poole Project ( 2009 ) contains more than twenty musicians and singers , The Guardian contributor Robin Denselow described 10 Songs as featuring a " pared @-@ down , DIY set , in keeping with the mood of the new songs " .
The opening track , " Times Is Hard " , features " bleak " lyrics about " nihilism [ being ] used as a tool to remedy social ills " sung to upbeat melodies . Wainwright wrote the song following the inauguration of Barack Obama . " House " is about economics and relationships , and tells the story of a couple wanting to divorce but staying together because they cannot sell their house . In the liner notes , Wainwright admitted that at the time the album was released he " remained relatively unscathed by the New Depression " but owned a house in Southern California that he was unable to sell . " On to Victory , Mr. Roosevelt " and " The Panic Is On " were both originally written during the Great Depression . Circa 1933 , Texas politician W. Lee O 'Daniel wrote and recorded the former . Medicine show performer Hezekiah Jenkins originally wrote and recorded " The Panic Is On " .
" Fear Itself " is about being fired " from the job you always professed to hate " and contains a reference to John Maynard Keynes . " The Krugman Blues " references the " gloomy mien of one 's favourite economic pundit " , Paul Krugman , whom Wainwright met on a train to Boston . Wainwright believed Krugman 's sense of melancholy made for a " compelling and challenging character " . " Spooky " sound effects , suggested by Dick Connette , were added to the track " Halloween 2009 " . Wainwright wrote " Middle of the Night " a few years prior to the album 's release in an attempt to " cheer [ himself ] up and also to purvey an optimistic point of view for a change " . " Cash for Clunkers " refers to the Car Allowance Rebate System , a United States federal scrappage program active during summer 2009 . " Got a Ukulele " features Wainwright performing the titular instrument , which he believes was popular during the 1920s – 1930s due to its ability to improve " one 's mood and general outlook " .
= = Reception = =
Critical reception of the album was positive overall . Robin Denselow of The Guardian awarded the album four of five stars and wrote that Wainwright 's performance sounded as " easy @-@ going and spontaneous " and it does at his live concerts . Denselow considered " House " to be the album 's best track . The Daily Telegraph 's Colin Irwin described the album as " oddly uplifting " despite its " variants on the theme that we 're all doomed " from the economic crisis . The Observer contributor Neil Spencer wrote that " while [ Wainwright 's ] tone becomes shrill at times , his mix of nihilism and jauntiness ( with ukulele ) are finally uplifting . " Music journalist Andy Gill of The Independent recommended the tracks " House " , " Fear Itself " and " The Panic Is On " . Simmy Richman 's review for The Independent complimented Wainwright 's ability to address current issues " simply and effectively " , claiming " Wainwright can make you laugh , nod in agreement , shake your fist in despair and want to sing along " . Richman appreciated Wainwright 's honesty and humor and wrote that he displayed " better lyrical form than he has been in for some time " . The Independent included 10 Songs on their " Indy Choice : Best of the New Music " list for the week of July 16 , 2010 . PopMatters ' Alex Ramon preferred Wainwright 's album Social Studies ( 1999 ) , but considered 10 Songs to be " an enjoyable effort nonetheless " , complimenting it for its simple approach . Furthermore , Ramon wrote that the album " succeeds in getting you smiling rather than despairing at the mess we 're in , and that 's always been one of Wainwright 's great gifts " .
= = Track listing = =
All tracks written by Loudon Wainwright III , unless noted otherwise .
" Times Is Hard " – 2 : 55
" House " – 4 : 19
" On to Victory , Mr. Roosevelt " ( W. Lee O 'Daniel ) – 2 : 35
" Fear Itself " – 2 : 34
" The Panic Is On " ( Hezekiah Jenkins ) – 2 : 56
" The Krugman Blues " – 3 : 11
" Halloween 2009 " – 2 : 40
" Middle of the Night " – 3 : 09
" Cash for Clunkers " – 3 : 02
" Got a Ukulele " – 2 : 39
= = Chart history = =
10 Songs for the New Depression debuted and reached its peak position at number thirty @-@ eight on the United Kingdom 's Top Independent Albums chart the week of July 31 , 2010 . That same week the album debuted at number twelve on the Top 40 Independent Albums Breakers chart . 10 Songs fell to number eighteen on the Top 40 Independent Albums Breakers chart the week of August 7 , 2010 .
= = Release history = =
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= Hurricane Chantal ( 1989 ) =
Hurricane Chantal was one of three tropical cyclones to make landfall in Texas during the 1989 Atlantic hurricane season . The third named storm and the first hurricane of the season , Chantal slowly developed on July 30 in the southern Gulf of Mexico from a tropical disturbance that was previously within Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) while near Trinidad and Tobago . While heading north @-@ northwestward , the depression steadily intensified and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Chantal on the following day . Thereafter , Chantal quickly strengthen and became a hurricane on August 1 . After intensifying slightly further , Chantal made landfall near High Island , Texas later that day . The storm quickly weakened upon moving inland and fell to tropical storm intensity a few hours after landfall . Early on August 2 , Chantal weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated over Oklahoma by August 4 .
While making landfall in Texas , the storm produced relatively small tides , with most locations reporting waves less than 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in height . However , some locations experienced extensive beach erosion . In addition , there were numerous rescues made by the U.S. Coast Guard . Due to both rainfall and high winds at least 3 @,@ 000 homes were damaged , and numerous trees and sign were knocked down . Two tornadoes were reported , with one causing the destruction of a shed in Crystal Beach , Texas , and the other knocking over several trees and mobile homes in Iota , Louisiana . Elsewhere , Chantal and its remnants brought light to moderate rainfall to several other states , although affects were minor in other states . Overall , 13 fatalities occurred , all of which due to drowning , and at least $ 100 million ( 1989 USD ) in damage was reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Chantal can be tracked back to a tropical disturbance within the Intertropical Convergence Zone near Trinidad and Tobago on July 24 . The system crossed westward over the Caribbean Sea , and there were no signs of organization until July 27 near the coast of Honduras . Despite the predictions for slow development from the tropical weather outlooks , it was possible that the system developed a surface low center near Belize City , Belize late on July 28 . After the system moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula , it became disorganized , although the National Hurricane Center indicated in the tropical weather outlook that once it moved into the Gulf of Mexico there was potential for development . Although the outflow of the system had appeared impressive on satellite images , the potential for development seemed uncertain , mostly due to the close proximity to land . The storm quickly became better organized based on satellite data and ship reports .
Almost immediately after emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on July 30 , the cloud pattern of system quickly became better organized . Later after emerging into the Gulf of Mexico , ships and satellite images confirmed that Tropical Depression Four had formed offshore of the north coast of the Yucatán Peninsula ; although it was likely that the depression formed 80 miles ( 129 km ) north of the Yucatán Peninsula several hours earlier than confirmed . The following morning after development occurred , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm 575 miles ( 920 km ) southeast of Texas ; the National Hurricane Center assigned it to the name Chantal . Although it became a tropical storm early that morning , the system was not upgraded to a tropical storm until a reconnaissance flight confirmed tropical storm force winds about six hours later , when sustained winds were already 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . Tropical Storm Chantal rapidly strengthened thereafter , with weather satellites indicating t – numbers increasing from 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 within twelve hours using the Dvorak technique . Chantal continued to intensify , and headed northwestward at 11 mph ( 18 km / h ) due to weak ridging over Florida .
Later on July 31 , satellite imagery revealed better organization , and another reconnaissance flight found winds at 91 mph ( 151 km / h ) while flying at 1500 feet ( 457 m ) . Based on these observations , it was estimated that Chantal had intensified into a hurricane early on August 1 . Hurricane Chantal continued to intensify , slightly , and attained its peak intensity on August 1 at 1000 UTC , reaching maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . Only three hours thereafter , Hurricane Chantal made landfall near High Island , Texas with winds still at 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Chantal rapidly weakened to a tropical storm at 1800 UTC on August 2 , just five hours after landfall , and quickly degenerated to a tropical depression early on August 2 . Tropical Depression continued its course and eventually dissipated over western Oklahoma on August 3 . The remnants of Chantal then moved northward over the Great Plains and was tracked northward over New York , eventually reaching New England and Newfoundland just before Hurricane Dean approached .
= = Preparations = =
At 0000 UTC on July 31 , a tropical storm watch – indicating tropical storm force winds were possible within 48 hours – was issued from Port O 'Connor , Texas to the mouth of the Mississippi River . Three hours thereafter , a hurricane warning – signifying that hurricane @-@ force winds were likely in 24 hours or less – was issued from Freeport , Texas to Morgan City , Louisiana . A tropical storm warning was simultaneously put into effect from Port O 'Connor , Texas to Mobile , Alabama , significantly overlapping the existing hurricane warning . The tropical storm warning was discontinued at 1000 UTC on August 1 . Six hours later , the hurricane warning issued at 0300 UTC on July 31 was downgraded to a tropical storm warning , before the portion from Port Arthur , Texas to Morgan City , Louisiana was canceled . The remaining portion from Freeport to Port O 'Connor , Texas was discontinued at 0100 UTC on August 2 .
In addition to the tropical cyclone watches and warnings , several other actions were taken as Chantal approached . More than 600 oil workers were moved inland , though a man drowned while attempting to evacuate a rig south of New Orleans , Louisiana . Mayor of Port Arthur Malcolm Grant asked 800 residents to evacuate Sabine Pass , due to potential coastal flooding isolating the area . Shelters were opened at various schools in Port Arthur and Beaumont . In nearby Orange , crews at emergency centers distributed sand bags . About 8 @,@ 500 residents of Cameron Parish , Louisiana evacuated , with at least 67 people taking shelter at a school in Lake Charles . An additional 2 @,@ 500 people fled Grand Isle , as the threat of the only road to the island flooding loomed .
= = Impact = =
Texas bore the brunt of the storm , where strong winds and heavy rainfall damaged about 3 @,@ 000 homes and knocked downed numerous trees and signs . Chantal also spawned two tornadoes , one in Crystal Beach , Texas and the other in Acadia Parish , Louisiana ; both of which caused minor damage . Additionally , 13 fatalities occurred , all of them due to drowning ; 11 deaths occurred offshore in the Gulf of Mexico , while the remaining two were reported in east @-@ central Texas . Overall , the storm resulted in at least $ 100 million ( 1989 USD ) in damage .
= = = Mexico = = =
Prior to becoming a tropical cyclone , the precursor tropical disturbance dropped rainfall on the Yucatán Peninsula of Mexico . The precipitation put out fires burning in the region , which had destroyed up to 370 @,@ 000 acres ( 150 @,@ 000 ha ) of jungle in the two months prior to the tropical disturbance , according to the Agriculture Department of Mexico .
= = = Texas = = =
= = = = Galveston County = = = =
The worst effects from the storm occurred in Galveston County . Waves of 7 feet ( 2 m ) in height were reported on High Island during Chantal , while Kemah measured tides of 3 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) , and the Galveston Flagship pier reported 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 m ) seas . The high tides eroded more than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of Texas State Highway 87 , while at least another 15 miles ( 24 km ) of that highway was covered in sand and debris . As a result , the highway was expected to be closed for at least five weeks , though in October 1989 , storm surge from Hurricane Jerry caused more erosion , and no repairs have been made since . In the northern portions of Galveston County , rainfall was generally at least 12 inches ( 300 mm ) , which a peak of 20 inches ( 510 mm ) in Friendswood . Numerous streets in League City , Dickinson , and Friendswood were flooded for more than 24 hours . At least 100 homes in Friendswood were flooded , while water entered 70 % of houses in Dickinson . Severe street flooding and ponding occurred in Galveston , especially in the low @-@ lying areas ; some homes and businesses were damaged , as a result . Overall , 500 homes in the county were flooded .
Strong winds also effected the county , with the highest recorded sustained wind speed being 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) in Galveston ; the highest gust of 83 mph ( 134 km / h ) was reported at the same location . At the National Weather Service Office in Downtown Galveston , sustained winds were 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) and gusts reached 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) . Although winds were strong , associated losses was confined to roof damage at beach homes in Gilchrist and High Island . In addition to strong winds , heavy rainfall , and high tides , the storm also produced one tornado in the county . Rated as an F0 on the Fujita scale , the tornado was spawned in Crystal Beach , where it destroyed a boat shed ; elsewhere , no damage occurred from this twister .
= = = = Harris County = = = =
Rainfall produced by Chantal in the city of Houston alone varied extensively , with 7 @.@ 14 inches ( 181 mm ) at William P. Hobby Airport after twenty @-@ four hours , and only 1 @.@ 21 inches ( 31 mm ) at George Bush Intercontinental Airport ( then known as Houston Intercontinental Airport ) in the same time lapse . In the southern portions of Harris County , rainfall totaled ranged from 8 to 12 inches ( 200 to 300 mm ) . Significant amounts of precipitation resulted in flooding , which in turn , caused several hundred emergency crew rescues and damage to at least 500 homes . Strong winds also caused significant effects in the county . In La Porte , where winds gusted to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , 40 trees were toppled at a golf course , while a plane was flipped over at the La Porte Municipal Airport . The roof of a mobile home was torn off and a fence and a portable building was destroyed in Highlands . Winds damaged a red cross shelter in Pasadena and blew out several windows at a hospital in Baytown . Throughout the county , high winds destroyed 2 mobile homes and damaged 49 apartments and 24 businesses .
= = = = Elsewhere in Texas = = = =
Heavy rainfall effected Brazoria County , where precipitation amounts up to 12 inches ( 300 mm ) were reported ; this caused significant flooding , especially in Pearland and Manvel . During the height of the storm , the entire town of Manvel was inundated with water , causing flood damage to at least 100 homes . Additionally , high winds in combination with floods damaged about 500 homes throughout the county . In Chambers County high winds caused two injuries and tore roofing material off of homes and mobile homes ; about 100 homes were effected in the area . 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of rain fell in the southern portions of the county , causing minor flooding . Between 8 and 12 inches ( 200 and 300 mm ) of precipitation was recorded in eastern Fort Bend County . In the city of Fresno , at least 60 homes were flooded and several families were evacuated . After 9 @.@ 7 inches ( 250 mm ) of rain fell in Richmond , local flooding occurred . Several mobile homes in the county also suffered wind damage .
In Brazos County , heavy rainfall caused street flooding in College Station . Precipitation in Collin County reached as high as 16 inches ( 410 mm ) in Clear Lake , though no flood damage was reported . Additionally , two fatalities occurred when two teenage boys were riding a rubber raft , swept into a drainpipe , and subsequently drowned . The highest sustained wind speed recorded in Jefferson County was 54 mph ( 87 km / h ) at Sea Rim State Park , while the strongest gust was 49 mph ( 79 km / h ) at the Jack Brooks Regional Airport . Winds downed trees and limbs , while also causing minor roof damage . Tides at Sabine Pass were about 3 @.@ 9 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) about mean sea level ; some beach erosion was reported near that location . In Liberty County , winds felled tree limbs , which damaged vehicles and portable buildings .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
One fatality was reported during an oil rig evacuation in the Gulf of Mexico . Ten other people perished when a lifeboat capsized south of Morgan City , Louisiana . Four others on the boat were rescued by the United States Coast Guard . In Louisiana , high tides were only reported at one location , with seas reaching about 4 @.@ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) in Cameron . Winds in the state were also light , with the highest sustained wind speed being 29 mph ( 47 km / h ) along the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway , while the strongest gust was approximately 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) in New Orleans . Rainfall was mostly minimal throughout the state and mainly less than 3 inches ( 76 mm ) , while the highest total recorded as 3 @.@ 84 inches ( 98 mm ) in Amite City . A tornado touched down in Acadia Parish , where it downed trees and removed a mobile home from its foundation . The only known impact in Mississippi was tides of 2 @.@ 6 feet ( 0 @.@ 79 m ) above mean sea level .
Further north in the Midwestern United States , impact was generally minor . Chantal and its remnants dropped mostly light rainfall in the states of Oklahoma , Missouri , Kansas , Iowa , Wisconsin , Illinois , Indiana , and Michigan . Only two of those states – Illinois and Michigan – recorded more than 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation . In Illinois , rainfall in Chicago flooded numerous streets and basements ; Lake Shore Drive and Edens Expressway were briefly closed , as a result . Outside Chicago , minor flooding also occurred along a few creeks and low @-@ lying areas . The rainfall rate of 2 inches ( 51 mm ) per hour in Grand Rapids , Michigan caused the release of about 40 million gallons of untreated sewage into the Grand River . Despite crossing through Ontario and New York , it is unknown if any impact occurred in those two locations . In Vermont , the remnants of Chantal dropped rainfall in excess of 6 inches ( 150 mm ) along the Caledonia , Orange , and Washington county lines . Bridges were knocked down , cars and homes were swept away , and crops were destroyed in the resultant flash floods .
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= 2015 La Flèche Wallonne =
The 2015 La Flèche Wallonne was the 79th edition of the La Flèche Wallonne one @-@ day cycling classic . It took place on 22 April and was the twelfth race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . La Flèche Wallonne is the second of the three Ardennes classics ; it comes three days after the Amstel Gold Race ( won in 2015 by Michał Kwiatkowski ) and four days before the Liège – Bastogne – Liège . The defending champion in the race was Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) .
The race took place on a 205 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 127 @.@ 7 mi ) route that started in Waremme and ends in Huy . The key aspect of La Flèche Wallonne is the climb of the Mur de Huy , which is crossed three times during the race ; the finishing line is at the top of the final climb of the Mur . The race typically suits both puncheurs and climbers . La Flèche Wallonne had added importance in 2015 because the second stage of the 2015 Tour de France was also scheduled to finish on the Mur , so several riders rode the race as preparation .
Despite the addition of an additional climb late in the race , a group formed at the base of the Mur . Valverde won his third victory on the climb , with Julian Alaphilippe ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) second and Michael Albasini ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) third ; Valverde went on to win Liège – Bastogne – Liège as well . La Flèche Wallonne was affected by many crashes , which caused the withdrawal of several of the favourites for race victory , including Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) , Dan Martin ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) .
= = Teams = =
La Flèche Wallonne is part of the UCI World Tour , which meant that the 17 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and obliged to send a team . The race organisers ( ASO , which also organises the Tour de France ) made eight wildcard invitations to UCI Professional Continental teams . The peloton was therefore made up of 25 teams . Each team was required to enter between five and eight , so the maximum size of the peloton was 200 riders . MTN – Qhubeka and Team Roompot , however , only entered seven riders each , so 198 riders were entered into the race .
= = Route = =
The 205 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 127 @.@ 7 mi ) route of the 2015 La Flèche Wallonne began in Waremme in the province of Liège on the Rue de Huy with a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) neutralised zone . The first part of the route went south @-@ east through Faimes and Saint @-@ Georges @-@ sur @-@ Meuse before reaching the day 's first climb , the Côte des 36 Tournants , after 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) . After the climb , the riders continued south @-@ east to Anthisnes ; here the route turned south . It passed through Ouffet , then reached Durbuy after 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) . The route then turned west to pass through Havelange before reaching Ohey after 84 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 52 @.@ 5 mi ) . The roads between the Côte des 36 Tournants and Ohey were not entirely flat , but there were no categorised climbs .
After reaching Ohey , the route entered a series of loops . The riders first travelled north , south @-@ west and then north again to reach the day 's second climb , the Côte de Bellaire , after 92 kilometres ( 57 mi ) of racing . The route continued north to Andenne , then east to the third climb , the Côte de Bohissau , 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) into the race . The riders then rode north @-@ east to reach the first ascent of the Mur de Huy . The first climb of the Mur came with 118 kilometres ( 73 mi ) raced and 87 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 54 @.@ 4 mi ) to the finish line ; it was followed by the day 's only feed zone . The peloton continued riding east as far as Modave , where the course turned to the south @-@ west . The Côte d 'Ereffe was climbed after 131 kilometres ( 81 mi ) as the riders returned to Ohey . The race then used the same roads as before between Ohey and Huy , repeating the ascents of the Côte de Bellaire , the Côte de Bohissau and the Mur de Huy . The second and penultimate ascent of the Mur came after 176 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 109 @.@ 7 mi ) ; there were 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) remaining .
The final loop of the race followed the same roads as before , east out of Huy and then south @-@ west to the Côte d 'Ereffe , climbed with 16 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining . After this climb , however , the route turned north to take a more direct route to Huy , though some of the same roads were used . Within the town , the riders were faced with a slightly different route and a climb new to the 2015 edition of the race , the Côte de Cherave . The roads before the climb were narrow and twisting , with a level crossing at the foot of the climb . The hill itself was 1 @,@ 300 metres ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) in length with an average gradient of 8 @.@ 1 % ; the steepest section came in the first part . The top of the Côte de Cherave came with 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) to the finish line and was followed by a sharp right @-@ hand turn and a fast descent back into Huy .
The crucial part of the race was the final 1 @,@ 300 @-@ metre ( 4 @,@ 300 ft ) climb of the Mur de Huy , which has an average gradient of 9 @.@ 6 % . The first 400 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) section of the climb has a gradient less than 7 % ; after this it increases to about 10 % . The steepest section comes after 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) with an S @-@ bend . The steepest part of the climb has a gradient of about 24 % ; many past races have been won with attacks at this point . The finish line came at the very top of the climb .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
Recent editions of the race have been decided with attacks on the Mur de Huy . The addition of the Côte de Cherave , however , added an unknown factor into the race : it was considered much more likely than in previous years that a group of riders could break away from the peloton on the penultimate climb and hold an advantage to the finish line . No breakaway had won La Flèche Wallonne since 2003 .
The strongest favourite for the race victory was Alejandro Valverde ( Movistar Team ) , who was the defending champion and who had also won the race in 2006 . Valverde had shown good form by coming second in the Amstel Gold Race behind Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) ; Valverde was expected to have an advantage on the steep climb of the Mur , though Kwiatkowski was still among the favourites for victory .
Three other former winners entered the 2015 race . These were Philippe Gilbert ( BMC Racing Team ) , who had won the race in 2011 ; Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , who had won in 2012 ; and Daniel Moreno ( Team Katusha ) , who had won in 2013 . All of there were well suited to the steep final climb . Other riders considered to have a chance of victory included Dan Martin ( Cannondale – Garmin ) , Sergio Henao ( Team Sky ) and several other climbers and puncheurs .
Because the third stage of the 2015 Tour de France was scheduled to finish on exactly the same roads , several riders who were aiming at success there rode La Flèche Wallonne as preparation . These included Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) , Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) and Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) .
= = Race report = =
= = = Early stages = = =
A breakaway formed within the first 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of racing . There were seven riders in the break : Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Mike Teunissen ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) , Brice Feillu ( Bretagne – Séché Environnement ) , Jérôme Baugnies ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) , Reinier Honig ( Team Roompot ) , Daniele Ratto ( UnitedHealthcare ) , and Pieter Vanspeybrouck ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) . The breakaway initially built an eight @-@ minute lead , with De Gendt leading the group over the climbs . The main peloton was led principally by Movistar and Team Katusha .
The first major action of the race occurred as the riders approached the first ascent of the Mur de Huy . Dan Martin , one of the favourites for the race , touched wheels with Tiago Machado ( Katusha ) and both riders crashed . Martin returned to his bike and chased back to the peloton with the help of several teammates , but later withdrew . He had hit his head in the crash and wished to recover ahead of the Liège – Bastogne – Liège the following weekend . Several other riders were caught up or delayed , including Chris Froome . At the top of the first ascent of the Mur , the breakaway 's lead had been cut to under six minutes .
After the riders left Huy , Team Sky came to the front of the peloton with Peter Kennaugh ; his riding at the front of the bunch reduced the gap to under five minutes . Honig and Teunissen were dropped from the leading group on the second climb of the Côte de Bellaire . Katusha and Movistar were joined at the front of the peloton by Etixx @-@ Quick Step as the race returned towards Huy .
= = = Final loops around Huy = = =
Another crash followed before the climb ; this crash was caused by riders ' bunching together on a road made narrower by parked cars on either side . The most significant rider caught in this crash was Philippe Gilbert ; others were Julián Arredondo and Bob Jungels ( both Trek Factory Racing ) . Gilbert got up slowly , with his shorts and jersey ripped . He abandoned shortly afterwards . The next significant crash came with 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) remaining . This took out Lars Petter Nordhaug and Wouter Poels ( Team Sky ) , Ben King ( Garmin @-@ Cannondale ) , Amael Moinard ( BMC ) and Anthony Roux ( FDJ ) . Poels ended up stuck in a ditch for some time with Roux injured on top of him . Another crash happened shortly afterwards , involving Jelle Vanendert ( Lotto @-@ Soudal ) , Alexey Tsatevich ( Katusha ) and Kévin Reza ( FDJ ) .
On the penultimate climb of the Mur , the breakaway split ; only De Gendt and Baugnies remained in the lead , 50 seconds ahead of the peloton . Giovanni Visconti ( Movistar ) and Luis León Sánchez ( Astana ) attacked the peloton on the climb and joined De Gendt and Baugnies soon afterwards , while Etixx @-@ Quick Step and Katusha led the chase in the peloton . Tejay van Garderen ( BMC ) attacked on the Col d 'Ereffe , while Visconti and Sánchez soon dropped De Gendt and Baugnies . De Gendt helped his teammate Louis Vervaeke bridge up to Van Garderen . Vervaeke , Van Garderen and Baugnies combined briefly , but were unable to catch the leading pair and were themselves caught by the peloton with 13 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining .
= = = Race finale = = =
Visconti and Sánchez continued in the lead ; they had 20 seconds lead with 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) left . At this point , another crash occurred in the peloton . This included several IAM Cycling riders , Samuel Sánchez ( BMC ) , Bryan Coquard ( Team Europcar ) and Chris Froome . Froome suffered cuts on his left side , with blood visible through rips on his shorts . He continued to the end of the race , however , and reached the finish line in 123rd place , over 12 minutes behind the leaders .
As the peloton headed towards the penultimate climb , the Côte de Cherave , Huub Duyn ( Team Roompot ) attacked but was unable to build a lead , with Tony Martin leading the peloton on behalf of Kwiatkowski . On the climb , Vincenzo Nibali attacked ; he could not build a gap to the group , but did bring them closer to Visconti and Sánchez . Soon afterwards , Tim Wellens ( Lotto @-@ Soudal ) attacked , catching and passing the leading pair . Giampaolo Caruso ( Katusha ) attempted to follow ; he was unable to join Wellens and was recaptured by the pack soon afterwards .
Wellens had a 14 @-@ second lead at the foot of the final climb of the Mur de Huy . The peloton was led by Lampre @-@ Merida for the first part of the ascent . The peloton stayed together for most of the climb , with no rider escaping on the steep sections . In the final few hundred metres , however , Valverde came to the front of the group . He wound the pace up gradually before sprinting within sight of the line . He took the race victory with a significant gap to the riders behind . Julian Alaphilippe ( Etixx @-@ Quick Step ) finished in second place , with Michael Albasini ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) third .
= = Result = =
= = After the race = =
= = = Reactions = = =
The race was described afterwards as " an incredibly boring race " by Cycling Weekly . Valverde , however , said that it was " dangerous " , with all the crashes happening at the front of the peloton , and that it was " the most nervous race I can remember doing " . The 2015 race was his third victory in La Flèche Wallonne , bringing him level with Eddy Merckx ; Valverde described this as a " great honour " . His aim after the race was to win a third victory at the Liège – Bastogne – Liège , which he succeeded in doing .
Alaphilippe said after the race that he had not been intending to go for the sprint at the end of the race ; the team 's plan was to set up Kwiatkowski . He started sprinting only after his directeur sportif shouted " go , go " at him over the radio . Alaphilippe said that he had briefly thought that he was going to win the sprint ; his second @-@ place finish was , however , the most important result of his career so far . He said , " For my first time performance here , I can 't help but be pleased . " Albasini 's third place was better than his team had expected : before the race , Orica – GreenEDGE 's directeur sportif Matt White had not expected him to be as strong because of the addition of the extra climb . Albasini himself also described the race as " a lot tenser " ; he also said that Valverde was " one of the strongest guys in those kinds of finishes " .
One of the consequences of the high number of crashes in the race was a number of injuries to several prominent riders . These included Dan Martin , who was left with " contusions , abrasions and soreness in his neck " ; Martin himself described himself as suffering from whiplash and as feeling " crappy " , though he still intended to start Liège – Bastogne – Liège . Philippe Gilbert likewise described his crash as " not the best preparation " and planned a trip to an osteopath to help his recovery . Chris Froome did not suffer any significant injuries but did not plan to start in Liège ; he went instead to do reconnaissance of the cobbled stage of the Tour de France and his next scheduled race was the following week at the Tour de Romandie .
= = = UCI World Tour rankings = = =
Riders who finished in the top ten in La Flèche Wallonne were awarded points in the UCI World Tour rankings . Valverde , as the race winner , won 80 points ; Kelderman won 2 points for his tenth @-@ place finish . Valverde moved from eighth to second place in the rankings ; his 238 points left him 65 points behind Richie Porte , the leader of the ranking . Joaquim Rodríguez also moved up in the rankings from sixteenth to ninth place . Spain remained in second place in the nations ' rankings , one point behind Australia , with Colombia moving ahead of the Netherlands into third place and France returning to the top 10 . Etixx @-@ Quick Step retained their lead in the teams ' rankings .
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= H.D. =
Hilda " H.D. " Doolittle ( September 10 , 1886 – September 27 , 1961 ) was an American poet , novelist , and memoirist known for her association with the early 20th century avant @-@ garde Imagist group of poets such as Ezra Pound and Richard Aldington . She published under the pen name of H.D.
H.D. was born in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania , in 1886 and moved to London in 1911 , where her publications earned her a central role within the then emerging Imagist movement . A charismatic figure , she was championed by the modernist poet Ezra Pound , who was instrumental in building and furthering her career . From 1916 – 17 , she acted as the literary editor of the Egoist journal , while her poetry appeared in the English Review and the Transatlantic Review . During the First World War , H.D. suffered the death of her brother and the breakup of her marriage to the poet Richard Aldington , and these events weighed heavily on her later poetry . Glenn Hughes , an authority on Imagism , wrote that ' her loneliness cries out from her poems ' . She had a deep interest in Ancient Greek literature , and her poetry often borrowed from Greek mythology and classical poets . Her work is noted for its incorporation of natural scenes and objects , which are often used to emote a particular feeling or mood .
She befriended Sigmund Freud during the 1930s , and became his patient in order to understand and express her bisexuality . H.D. married once , and undertook a number of relationships with both men and women . She was unapologetic about her sexuality , and thus became an icon for both the LGBT rights and feminist movements when her poems , plays , letters and essays were rediscovered during the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Career = =
= = = Early life = = =
H.D. was born into the Moravian community in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania . Her father , Charles Doolittle , was professor of astronomy at Lehigh University and her mother , Helen ( Wolle ) , was a Moravian with a strong interest in music . In 1896 , Charles Doolittle was appointed Flower Professor of Astronomy at the University of Pennsylvania , and the family moved to a house in Upper Darby . She attended Philadelphia 's Friends ' Central High School , at Fifteenth and Race streets , graduating in 1905 . In 1901 , she met and befriended Ezra Pound , who was to play a major role both in her private life and her emergence as a writer . In 1905 , Pound presented her with a sheaf of love poems under the collective title Hilda 's Book .
That year , H.D. attended Bryn Mawr College to study Greek literature , but left after only three terms due to poor grades and the excuse of poor health . While at the college , she met poets Marianne Moore and William Carlos Williams . Her first published writings , stories for children , were published in The Comrade , a Philadelphia Presbyterian Church paper , between 1909 and 1913 , mostly under the name Edith Gray . In 1907 , she became engaged to Pound . Her father disapproved of Pound , and by the time Pound left for Europe in 1908 , the engagement had been called off . Around this time , H.D. started a relationship with a young female art student at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts , Frances Josepha Gregg . After spending part of 1910 living in Greenwich Village , she sailed to Europe with Gregg and Gregg 's mother in 1911 . In Europe , H.D. began a more serious career as a writer . Her relationship with Gregg cooled , and she met a writing enthusiast named Brigit Patmore with whom she became involved in an affair . Patmore introduced H.D. to another poet , Richard Aldington .
= = = H.D. Imagiste = = =
Soon after arriving in England , H.D. showed Pound some poems she had written . Pound had already begun to meet with other poets at the Eiffel Tower restaurant in Soho . He was impressed by the closeness of H.D. ' s poems to the ideas and principles he had been discussing with Aldington , with whom he had shared plans to reform contemporary poetry through free verse , the tanka and the tightness and conciseness of the haiku , and the removal of all unnecessary verbiage . In summer 1912 , the three poets declared themselves the " three original Imagists " , and set out their principles as :
Direct treatment of the ' thing ' whether subjective or objective .
To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation .
As regarding rhythm : to compose in the sequence of the musical phrase , not in the sequence of a metronome .
During a meeting with H.D. in a tea room near the British Museum that year , Pound appended the signature H.D. Imagiste to her poetry , creating a label that was to stick to the poet for most of her writing life . However H.D. told different versions of this story at various times , and during her career published under a variety of pseudonyms . That same year , Harriet Monroe started her Poetry magazine and asked Pound to act as foreign editor . In October , he submitted three poems each by H.D. and Aldington under the rubric Imagiste . Aldington 's poems were in the November issue of Poetry and H.D. ' s poems " Hermes of the Ways , " " Orchard , " and " Epigram , " in the January 1913 issue . Imagism as a movement was launched with H.D. as its prime exponent .
The early models for the Imagist group were from Japan , and H.D. often visited the exclusive Print Room at the British Museum in the company of Richard Aldington and the curator and poet Laurence Binyon in order to examine Nishiki @-@ e prints that incorporated traditional Japanese verse . However , she also derived her way of making poems from her reading of Classical Greek literature and especially of Sappho , an interest she shared with Aldington and Pound , each of whom produced versions of the Greek poet 's work . In 1915 , H.D. and Aldington launched the Poets ' Translation Series , pamphlets of translations from Greek and Latin classics . H.D. worked on the plays by Euripides , publishing in 1916 a translation of choruses from Iphigeneia at Aulis , in 1919 a translation of choruses from Iphigeneia at Aulis and Hippolytus , an adaptation of Hippolytus called Hippolytus Temporizes ( 1927 ) , a translation of choruses from The Bacchae and Hecuba ( 1931 ) , and Euripides ' Ion ( 1937 ) a loose translation of Ion .
She continued her association with the group until the final issue of the Some Imagist Poets anthology in 1917 . She and Aldington did most of the editorial work on the 1915 anthology . Her work also appeared in Aldington 's Imagist Anthology 1930 . All of her poetry up to the end of the 1930s was written in an Imagist mode , utilising spare use of language , and a classical , austere purity . This style of writing was not without its critics . In a special Imagist issue of The Egoist magazine in May 1915 , the poet and critic Harold Monro called H.D. ' s early work " petty poetry " , denoting " either poverty of imagination or needlessly excessive restraint " .
Oread , one of her earliest and best @-@ known poems , which was first published in the 1915 anthology , illustrates this early style :
= = = World War I and after = = =
Before World War I , H.D. married Aldington in 1913 ; however , their first and only child , a daughter , was stillborn in 1915 . Aldington enlisted in the army . The couple became estranged , and Aldington reportedly took a mistress in 1917 . H.D. became involved in a close but platonic relationship with D. H. Lawrence . In 1916 , her first book , Sea Garden , was published , and she was appointed assistant editor of The Egoist , replacing her husband . In 1918 , her brother Gilbert was killed in action , and that March she moved into a cottage in Cornwall with the composer Cecil Gray , a friend of Lawrence . She became pregnant with Gray 's child , however , by the time she realised she was expecting , the relationship had cooled and Gray had returned to live in London . When Aldington returned from active service he was noticeably traumatised , and he and H.D. later separated .
Close to the end of the war , H.D. met the wealthy English novelist Bryher ( Annie Winifred Ellerman ) . They lived together until 1946 , and although both took numerous other partners , Bryher remained her lover for the rest of H.D. ' s life . In 1919 , H.D. came close to death when she gave birth to her daughter Frances Perdita Aldington — although the father was not Aldington , but Gray — while suffering from war influenza . During this time , her father , who had never recovered from Gilbert 's death , died . In 1919 , H.D. wrote one of her few known statements on poetics , Notes on Thought and Vision , which was unpublished until 1982 . In this , she speaks of poets ( herself included ) as belonging to a kind of elite group of visionaries with the power to ' turn the whole tide of human thought ' .
H.D. and Aldington attempted to salvage their relationship during this time , but he was suffering from the effects of his participation in the war , possibly post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , and they became estranged , living completely separate lives , but not divorcing until 1938 . They remained friends , however , for the rest of their lives . From 1920 , her relationship with Bryher became closer , and the pair travelled in Egypt , Greece and the United States before eventually settling in Switzerland . Bryher entered a marriage of convenience in 1921 with Robert McAlmon , which allowed him to fund his publishing ventures in Paris by utilising some of her personal wealth for his Contact Press . Both Bryher and H.D. slept with McAlmon during this time . Bryher and McAlmon divorced in 1927 .
= = = Novels , films and psychoanalysis = = =
In the early 1920s , H.D. started to write three projected cycles of novels . The first of these , Magna Graeca , consists of Palimpsest ( 1921 ) and Hedylus ( 1928 ) . The Magna Graeca novels use their classical settings to explore the poetic vocation , particularly as it applies to women in a patriarchal literary culture . The Madrigal cycle consists of HERmione , Bid Me to Live , Paint It Today and Asphodel , and is largely autobiographical , dealing with the development of the female artist and the conflict between heterosexual and lesbian desire . Kora and Ka and The Usual Star , two novellas from the Borderline cycle , were published in 1933 . In this period , she also wrote Pilate 's Wife , Mira @-@ Mare , and Nights .
During this period her mother had died , and Bryher had divorced her husband , only to marry H.D. ' s new male lover , Kenneth Macpherson . H.D. , Bryher , and Macpherson lived together and traveled through Europe as what the poet and critic Barbara Guest termed in her biography of H.D. as a ' menagerie of three . ' Bryher and Macpherson adopted H.D. ' s daughter , Perdita . In 1928 , H.D. became pregnant but chose to abort the pregnancy in November . Bryher and Macpherson set up the magazine Close Up ( to which H.D. regularly contributed ) as a medium for intellectual discussion of cinema . In 1927 , the small independent film cinema group POOL or Pool Group was established ( largely funded with Bryher 's inheritance ) and was managed by all three . Only one POOL film survives in its entirety , Borderline ( 1930 ) , which featured H.D. and Paul Robeson in the lead roles . In common with the Borderline novellas , the film explores extreme psychic states and their relationship to surface reality . As well as acting in this film , H.D. wrote an explanatory pamphlet to accompany it , a piece later published in Close Up .
In 1933 , H.D. traveled to Vienna to undergo analysis with Sigmund Freud . She had an interest in Freud 's theories as far back as 1909 , when she read some of his works in the original German . H.D. was referred by Bryher 's psychoanalyst due to her apparent paranoia about the rise of Adolf Hitler which indicated another world war , an idea that H.D. found intolerable . The Great War ( World War I ) had left her feeling shattered . She had lost her brother in action , while her husband suffered effects of combat experiences , and she believed that the onslaught of the war indirectly caused the death of her child with Aldington : she believed it was her shock at hearing the news about the RMS Lusitania that directly caused her child to be stillborn . Writing on the Wall , her memoir about this psychoanalysis , was written concurrently with Trilogy and published in 1944 ; in 1956 it was republished with Advent , a journal of the analysis , under the title Tribute to Freud .
= = = World War II and after = = =
H.D. and Bryher spent the duration of World War II in London . During this time , H.D. wrote The Gift , a memoir of her childhood and family life in Bethlehem , Pennsylvania , which reflects on people and events in her background that helped shape her as a writer . The Gift was eventually published in 1960 and 1982 . She also wrote Trilogy , published as The Walls do not Fall ( 1944 ) , Tribute to the Angels ( 1945 ) and The Flowering of the Rod ( 1946 ) . The opening lines of The Walls do not Fall clearly and immediately signal H.D. ' s break with her earlier work :
After the war , H.D. and Bryher no longer lived together , but remained in contact . H.D. moved to Switzerland where , in the spring of 1946 , she suffered a severe mental breakdown , which resulted in her staying in a clinic until the autumn of that year . Apart from a number of trips to the States , H.D. spent the rest of her life in Switzerland . In the late 1950s , she underwent more treatment , this time with the psychoanalyst Erich Heydt . At Heydt 's prompting , she wrote End to Torment , a memoir of her relationship with Pound , who allowed the poems of Hilda 's Book to be included when the book was published . Doolittle was one of the leading figures in the bohemian culture of London in the early decades of the century . Her later poetry explores traditional epic themes , such as violence and war , from a feminist perspective . H.D. was the first woman to be granted the American Academy of Arts and Letters medal .
= = = Later life and death = = =
During the 1950s , H.D. wrote a considerable amount of poetry , most notably Helen in Egypt ( written between 1952 – 54 ) , an examination from a feminist point of view of a male @-@ centred epic poetry . H.D. used Euripides 's play Helen as a starting point for a reinterpretation of the basis of the Trojan War and , by extension , of war itself . This work has been seen by some critics , including Jeffrey Twitchell @-@ Waas , as H.D. ' s response to Pound 's Cantos , a work she greatly admired . Other poems from this period include Sagesse , Winter Love and Hermetic Definition . These three were published posthumously with the collective title Hermetic Definition ( 1972 ) . The poem Hermetic Definition takes as its starting points her love for a man 30 years her junior and the line ' so slow is the rose to open ' from Pound 's Canto 106 . Sagesse , written in bed after H.D. had broken her hip in a fall , serves as a kind of coda to Trilogy. being partly written in the voice of a young female Blitz survivor who finds herself living in fear of the atom bomb . Winter Love was written together with End to Torment and uses as narrator the Homeric figure of Penelope to restate the material of the memoir in poetic form . At one time , H.D. considered appending this poem as a coda to Helen in Egypt .
H.D. visited the United States in 1960 to collect an American Academy of Arts and Letters medal . Returning to Switzerland , she suffered a stroke in July 1961 and died a couple of months later in the Klinik Hirslanden in Zürich . Her ashes were returned to Bethlehem , and were buried in the family plot in the Nisky Hill Cemetery on October 28 , 1961 . Her epitaph consists of the following lines from her early poem " Let Zeus Record " :
= = Legacy = =
The rediscovery of H.D. began in the 1970s , and coincided with the emergence of a feminist criticism that found much to admire in the questioning of gender roles typical of her writings . Specifically , those critics who were challenging the standard view of English @-@ language literary modernism based on the work of such male writers as Pound , Eliot and James Joyce , were able to restore H.D. to a more significant position in the history of that movement . Her writings have served as a model for a number of more recent women poets working in the modernist tradition ; including the New York School poet Barbara Guest , the Anglo @-@ American poet Denise Levertov , the Black Mountain poet Hilda Morley and the Language poet Susan Howe . Her influence is not limited to female poets , and many male writers , including Robert Duncan and Robert Creeley , have acknowledged their debt .
= = Selected works = =
= = = Poetry collections = = =
Sea Garden ( 1916 )
The God ( 1917 )
Translations ( 1920 )
Hymen ( 1921 )
Heliodora and Other Poems ( 1924 )
Hippolytus Temporizes ( 1927 )
Red Roses for Bronze ( 1932 )
The Walls Do Not Fall ( 1944 )
Tribute to the Angels ( 1945 )
Trilogy ( 1946 )
The Flowering of the Rod ( 1946 )
By Avon River ( 1949 )
Helen in Egypt , New Directions ( 1961 )
Hermetic Definition , New Directions ( 1972 )
= = = Prose = = =
Notes on Thought and Vision ( 1919 )
Paint it Today ( written 1921 , published 1992 )
Asphodel ( written 1921 – 22 , published 1992 )
Palimpsest ( 1926 )
Kora and Ka ( 1930 )
Nights ( 1935 )
The Hedgehog ( 1936 )
Tribute to Freud ( 1956 )
Bid Me to Live ( 1960 )
End to Torment : A Memoir of Ezra Pound , New Directions ( 1979 )
HERmione , New Directions ( 1981 )
The Gift , New Directions ( 1982 )
Majic Ring ( written 1943 – 44 , published 2009 )
The Sword Went Out to Sea ( written 1946 – 47 , published 2007 )
White Rose and the Red ( written 1948 , published 2009 )
The Mystery ( written 1948 – 51 , published 2009 )
= = = Archival sources = = =
H. D. Papers , 1887 – 1977 ( 26 @.@ 25 linear feet ) are housed at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
Numerous archival resources are listed on ArchiveGrid .
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= Throffer =
In political philosophy , a throffer is a proposal ( also called an intervention ) that mixes an offer with a threat which will be carried out if the offer is not accepted . The term was first used in print by political philosopher Hillel Steiner ; while other writers followed , it has not been universally adopted and it is sometimes considered synonymous with carrot and stick . Though the threatening aspect of a throffer need not be obvious , or even articulated at all , an overt example is
Kill this man and receive £ 100 ; fail to kill him and I 'll kill you .
Steiner differentiated offers , threats and throffers based on the preferability of compliance and noncompliance for the subject when compared to the normal course of events that would have come about were no intervention made . Steiner 's account was criticised by philosopher Robert Stevens , who instead suggested that what was important in differentiating the kinds of intervention was whether performing or not performing the requested action was more or less preferable than it would have been were no intervention made . Throffers form part of the wider moral and political considerations of coercion , and form part of the question of the possibility of coercive offers . Contrary to received wisdom that only threats can be coercive , throffers lacking explicit threats have been cited as an example of coercive offers , while some writers argue that offers , threats and throffers may all be coercive if certain conditions are met . For others , by contrast , if a throffer is coercive , it is explicitly the threat aspect that makes it so , and not all throffers can be considered coercive .
The theoretical concerns surrounding throffers have been practically applied concerning workfare programmes . In such systems , individuals receiving social welfare have their aid decreased if they refuse the offer of work or education . Robert Goodin criticised workfare programmes which presented throffers to individuals receiving welfare , and was responded to by Daniel Shapiro , who found his objections unconvincing . Several writers have also observed that throffers presented to people convicted of crimes , particularly sex offenders , can result in more lenient sentences if they accept medical treatment . Other examples are offered by psychiatrist Julio Arboleda @-@ Flórez , who presents concerns about throffers in community psychiatry , and management expert John J. Clancey , who talks about throffers in employment .
= = Origin and usage = =
The term throffer is a portmanteau of threat and offer . It was first used by Canadian philosopher Hillel Steiner in a 1974 – 75 Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society article . Steiner had considered a quote from the 1972 film The Godfather : " I 'm gonna make him an offer he can 't refuse " . While the line seemed to be amusingly ironic ( because a threat is being made , not an offer ) , Steiner was unsatisfied that the difference between an offer and a threat was merely that one promises to confer a benefit and the other a penalty . He thus coined throffer to describe the " offer " in The Godfather . One prominent thinker who adopted the term was political scientist Michael Taylor , and his work on throffers has been frequently cited .
Throffer has not , however , been universally adopted ; Michael R. Rhodes notes that there has been some controversy in the literature on whether to use throffer , citing a number of writers , including Lawrence A. Alexander , David Zimmerman and Daniel Lyons , who do not use the term . Some , including political scientists Deiniol Jones and Andrew Rigby , consider throffer to be synonymous with carrot and stick , an idiom which refers to the way a donkey is offered a carrot to encourage compliance , while noncompliance is punished with a stick . Other writers , while electing to use the word , consider it a poor one . For instance , literary scholar Daniel Shore calls it " a somewhat unfortunate term " , while using it in his analysis of John Milton 's Paradise Regained .
= = Definitions = =
In addition to Steiner 's original account of throffers , other authors have suggested definitions and ideas on how to differentiate throffers from threats and offers .
= = = Steiner 's account = = =
In the article that introduces the term throffer , Steiner considers the difference between interventions in the form of a threat and those in the form of an offer . He concludes that the distinction is based on how the consequences of compliance or noncompliance differ for the subject of the intervention when compared with " the norm " . Steiner observes that a concept of " normalcy " is presupposed in literature on coercion , as changes in well @-@ being for the subject of an intervention are not merely relative , but absolute ; any possibility of an absolute change requires a standard , and this standard is " the description of the normal and preducable course of events , that is , the course of events which would confront the recipient of the intervention were the intervention not to occur " .
For an offer , such as " you may use my car whenever you like " , the consequence of compliance " represents a situation which is preferred to the norm " . Noncompliance , that is , not taking up the offer of the use of the car , is identical to the norm , and so neither more nor less preferable . Threats , on the other hand , are characterised by compliance that leads to an outcome less preferable to the norm , with noncompliance leading to an outcome less desirable still . For instance , if someone is threatened with " your money or your life " , compliance would lead to them losing their money , while noncompliance would lead to them losing their life . Both are less desirable than the norm ( that is , not being threatened at all ) , but , for the subject of the threat , losing money is more desirable than being killed . A throffer is a third kind of intervention . It differs from both a threat and an offer , as compliance is preferable to the norm , while noncompliance is less preferable than the norm .
For Steiner , all of offers , threats and throffers affect the practical deliberations of their recipient in the same way . What is significant for the subject of the intervention is not the extent to which the consequences of compliance or noncompliance differ in desirability from the norm , but the extent to which they differ in desirability from each other . Thus , an offer does not necessarily exert less influence on its recipient than a threat . The strength of the force exerted by an intervention depends upon the difference in desirability between compliance and noncompliance alone , regardless of the manner of the intervention .
= = = Stevens 's account = = =
Responding to Steiner , Robert Stevens provides examples of what he categorises variously as offers , threats and throffers that fail to meet Steiner 's definitions . He gives an example of an intervention he considers a throffer , as opposed to a threat , but in which both compliance and noncompliance are less preferable to the norm . The example is that of someone who makes the demand " either you accept my offer of a handful of beans for your cow , or I kill you " . For the subject , keeping the cow is preferred to both compliance and noncompliance with the throffer . Using this and other examples , Stevens argued that Steiner 's account of differentiating the three kinds of interventions is incorrect .
In its place , Stevens suggests that determining whether an intervention is a throffer depends not on the desirability of compliance and noncompliance when compared to the norm , but on the desirability of the actions entailed in compliance or noncompliance when compared with what their desirability would have been were no intervention made . He proposes that a throffer is made if P attempts to encourage Q to do A by increasing " the desirability to Q of Q doing A relative to what it would have been if P made no proposal and decrease the desirability to Q of Q doing not @-@ A relative to what it would have been if P made no proposal " . An offer , by contrast , increases the desirability to Q of Q doing A compared to how it would have been without P 's intervention , leaving the desirability to Q of Q doing not @-@ A as it would have been . A threat decreases the desirability to Q of Q doing not @-@ A compared to what it would have been without P 's intervention , while leaving the desirability to Q of Q doing A as it would have been .
= = = Kristjánsson 's account = = =
Political philosopher Kristján Kristjánsson differentiates threats and offers by explaining that the former is a proposal that creates an obstacle , while the latter is one kind of proposal ( another example being a request ) that does not . He also draws a distinction between tentative proposals and final proposals , which he feels earlier authors ignored . A tentative proposal does not logically create any kind of obstacle for its subject , and , as such , is an offer . For instance , " if you fetch the paper for me , you 'll get candy " is a tentative proposal , as it does not logically entail that a failure to fetch the paper will result in no candy ; it is possible that candy can be acquired by another route . In other words , if the subject fetches the paper , then they get candy . By contrast , if the proposal was a final proposal , it would take the form of " if and only if you fetch the paper for me , you 'll get candy " . This entails that candy can only be acquired if the subject fetches the paper , and no other way . For Kristjánsson , this kind of final proposal constitutes a throffer . There is an offer to fetch the paper ( " if " ) , and a threat that candy can only be acquired through this route ( " only if " ) . As such , an obstacle has been placed on the route of acquiring candy .
Previous authors ( Kristjánsson cites Joel Feinberg , Alan Wertheimer and Robert Nozick ) provided moral and statistical analyses of various thought experiments to determine whether the proposals they involve are threats or offers . On Kristjánsson 's account , by contrast , all of the thought experiments considered are throffers . Instead , he argues , the previous thinkers ' analyses attempted to differentiate offers that limit freedom from those that do not . They conflate two tasks , that of differentiating threats and offers and that of differentiating freedom @-@ restricting threats from non @-@ freedom @-@ restricting threats . He concludes that the thinkers ' methods are also inadequate for determining the difference between freedom @-@ restricting and non @-@ freedom @-@ restricting threats , for which a test of moral responsibility would be required .
= = = Rhodes 's account = = =
Political philosopher and legal theorist Michael R. Rhodes offers an account of threats , offers and throffers based upon the perception of the subject of the proposal ( and , in the case of proposals from agents as opposed to nature , the perception of the agent making the proposal . ) Rhodes presents seven different motivational @-@ want @-@ structures , that is , seven reasons why P may want to do what leads to B :
W1 ( intrinsic @-@ attainment @-@ want ) : " B is wanted in and of itself ; B is perceived by P with immediate approbation ; B is valued in and of itself by P. "
W2 ( extrinsic @-@ attainment @-@ want ) : " B is perceived by P as a means to E where E is an intrinsic @-@ attainment @-@ want . "
W3 ( compound @-@ attainment @-@ want ) : " B is both an intrinsic @-@ attainment @-@ want and an extrinsic @-@ attainment @-@ want ; B is both W1 and W2 . "
W4 ( extrinsic @-@ avoidance @-@ want ) : " B is perceived by P as a means of avoiding F where F is perceived by P with immediate disapprobation ( F is feared by , or F is threatening to , P ) . "
W5 ( complex @-@ want @-@ type @-@ A ) : " B is both W1 and W4 . "
W6 ( complex @-@ want @-@ type @-@ B ) : " B is both W2 and W4 . "
W7 ( complex @-@ want @-@ type @-@ C ) : " B is both W3 and W4 . "
Proposals that motivate P to act because of W1 , W2 or W3 represent offers . Those that do so because of W4 represent threats . Rhodes notes that offers and threats are asymmetrical : while an offer requires only a slight approbation , a high degree of disapprobation is required before a proposal can be called a threat . The disapprobation must be high enough to provoke the " perception of a threat and correlative sense of fear " . Rhodes labels as throffers those proposals that motivate P to act because of W5 , W6 or W7 , but notes that the name is not universally used .
For Rhodes , throffers can not merely be biconditional proposals . If Q proposes that P pay $ 10 @,@ 000 so that Q withholds information that would lead to P 's arrest , then despite the fact that the proposal is biconditional ( that is , P may choose to pay or not pay , which would lead to different outcomes ) it is not a throffer . This is because choosing to pay cannot be considered attractive for P independent of Q 's proposal . P 's paying of Q does not lead to the satisfaction of an attainment @-@ want , which is a necessary condition for a proposal 's being an offer under Rhodes 's account . The exception to this is when an agent offers to help another overcome a background threat ( a threat that was not introduced by the proposal ) . Biconditionals , in addition to either threats or offers , may contain neutral proposals , and so not be throffers . The possibility of another agent 's not acting is necessarily neutral . Throffers are those biconditional proposals that contain both a threat and an offer , as opposed to biconditional proposals containing a threat and neutral proposal , or an offer and a neutral proposal . In the case of throffers , it is always going to be difficult or even impossible to determine whether an agent acts on the threatening aspect of the proposal or the offer .
= = Throffers and coercion = =
Consideration of throffers forms part of the wider question of coercion and , specifically , the possibility of a coercive offer . Determining whether throffers are coercive , and , if so , to what extent , is difficult . The traditional assumption is that offers cannot be coercive , only threats can , but throffers can challenge this . The threatening aspect of a throffer need not be explicit , as it was in Steiner 's examples . Instead , a throffer may take the form of an offer , but carry an implied threat . Philosopher John Kleinig sees a throffer as an example of an occasion when an offer alone may be considered coercive . Another example of a coercive offer may be when the situation in which the offer is made is already unacceptable ; for instance , if a factory owner takes advantage of a poor economic environment to offer workers an unfair wage . For Jonathan Riley , a liberal society has a duty to protect its citizens from coercion , whether that coercion comes from a threat , offer , throffer or some other source . " If other persons ... attempt to frustrate the right @-@ holder 's wants , then a liberal society must take steps to prevent this , by law if necessary . All exercises of power by others to frustrate the relevant individual or group preferences constitute unwarranted ' interference ' with liberty in purely private matters . "
Ian Hunt concurs that offers may be considered coercive , and claims that , whatever form the interventions take , they may be considered coercive " when they are socially corrigible in fluences over action that diminish an agent 's freedom overall " . He accepts that a possible objection to his claim is that at least some coercive offers do seemingly increase the freedom of their recipients . For instance , in the thought experiment of the lecherous millionaire , a millionaire offers a mother money for treatment for her son 's life @-@ threatening illness in exchange for her becoming the millionaire 's mistress . Joel Feinberg considers the offer coercive , but in offering a possibility of treatment , the millionaire has increased the options available to the mother , and thus her freedom . For Hunt , Feinberg " overlooks the fact that the millionaire 's offer opens the option of [ the mother ] saving her child on condition that the option of not being [ the millionaire 's ] mistress is closed " . Hunt does not see the mother as more free ; " while it is clear that she has a greater capacity to pursue her interests as a parent once the offer has been made , and to that extent can be regarded as freer , it is clear also that her capacity to pursue her sexual interests may have been diminished . " Every coercive proposal , whether threat , offer or throffer , according to Hunt , contains a simultaneous loss and gain of freedom . Kristjánsson , by contrast , argues that Feinberg 's account of " coercive offers " is flawed because these are not offers at all , but throffers .
Peter Westen and H. L. A. Hart argue that throffers are not always coercive , and , when they are , it is specifically the threat that makes them so . For a throffer to be coercive , they claim , the threat must meet three further conditions ; firstly , the person making the throffer " must be intentionally bringing the threat to bear on X in order that X do something , Z1 " , secondly , the person making the throffer must know that " X would not otherwise do or wish to be constrained to do " Z1 , and , thirdly , the threat part of the throffer must render " X 's option of doing Z1 more eligible in X 's eyes than it would otherwise be " . As such , for the authors , there is the possibility of non @-@ coercive throffers . The pair present three possible examples . Firstly , when the threat aspect of the throffer is a joke ; secondly , when the offer aspect is already so desirable to the subject that the threat does not affect their decision @-@ making ; or , thirdly , when the subject mistakenly believes the threat immaterial because of the attractiveness of the offer . Rhodes similarly concludes that if a throffer is coercive , it is because of the threatening aspect . For him , the question is " whether one regards the threat component of a throffer as both a necessary and sufficient condition of the performance of a behaviour " . He argues that if the offer without the threat would have been enough for the agent subject to the proposal to act , then the proposal is not coercive . However , if both offer and threat aspects of the throffer are motivating factors , then it is tricky to determine whether the agent subject to the proposal was coerced . He suggests that differentiating between " pure coercion " and " partial coercion " may help solve this problem , and that the question of coercion in these cases is one of degree .
= = Practical examples = =
The conceptual issues around throffers are practically applied in studies in a number of areas , but the term is also used outside of academia . For instance , it has seen use in British policing and in British courts .
= = = Workfare = = =
Conceptual thinking about throffers is practically applied in considerations of conditional aid , such as is used in workfare systems . For philosopher and political theorist Gertrude Ezorsky , the denial of welfare when subjects refuse work is the epitome of a throffer . Conditional welfare is also labelled a throffer by political philosopher Robert Goodin . In the words of Daniel Shapiro , also a political philosopher , the offer aspect of workfare is seen in the " benefits one receives if one learns new skills , gets a job , alters destructive behaviors and the like " , while the threat aspect is executed with " the elimination or reduction of aid , if the person does not , after a certain period of time , accept the offer " . For Goodin , the moral questionability of the threat aspect of a throffer is generally mitigated by the attractiveness of the offer aspect . In this way , workfare can represent a " genuine " throffer , but only when a person receiving welfare payments does not need the payments to survive , and so possesses a genuine choice as to whether to accept the throffer . When , however , an individual would be unable to survive if he or she stopped receiving welfare payments , there is no genuine choice ; the individual is , for Goodin , unable to refuse the throffer . This cancels out the morally mitigating factor usually possessed by a throffer . This is presented as an argument against workfare , and Goodin anticipates that advocates would respond paternalistically by claiming that , regardless of issues of freedom , the individual in question would benefit from taking part in the work or education offered .
Shapiro responds to Goodin 's argument by challenging his factual assumption that individuals would starve if they refused the workfare throffer . In state @-@ sponsored ( see welfare state ) workfare systems , he claims , only monetary assistance is eliminated by a refusal to accept the throffer , while in private systems ( that is , non @-@ state charities or organisations offering conditional aid ) , other groups than the one operating a workfare system exist . In either system , recipients of welfare may also turn to family and friends for help . For these reasons , he does not consider the throffer to be unrefusable in the cases in which Goodin believes it is . A second ( and , Shapiro claims , more important ) objection is also presented . State welfare without sanctions fails to mirror the way that working individuals who do not rely on welfare payments take responsibility for their lives . If a person who works stops working , Shapiro observes , then they will typically find their economic situation worsened . Unconditional state welfare does not reflect this , and instead reflects the unusual position of the person who would be no worse off if they refused to work . As unconditional welfare does not mirror the situation of ordinary workers , it is unable to determine whether or not people are willing to take responsibility for their lives .
For Ivar Lødemel and Heather Trickey , editors of ' An Offer You Can 't Refuse ' : Workfare in International Perspective , workfare programmes ' reliance on compulsion makes them throffers . Citing the Danish model as a particular example , the pair argue that workfare involves the use of compulsory offers ; while the work or education is presented as an offer , because recipients of welfare are dependent upon the help they would lose if they refuse the offer , they effectively have no choice . The compulsive aspect reveals that at least some recipients of welfare , in the eyes of policy makers , require coercion before they will accept offers of work . Neither the chance of paid work nor participation in labour schemes are , alone , enough to encourage some to freely accept the offers they receive . Such compulsion serves to reintegrate people into the labour market , and serves as a kind of " new paternalism " . The authors are concerned about this compulsion , and present several arguments against it which are possible or have been utilised in the literature : Firstly , it impacts the rights of those against whom it is used . This may make it objectionable in and of itself , or it may result in undesirable outcomes . Secondly , it can be argued that benefits must be unconditional in order to act as a genuine safety net . Thirdly , compulsion undermines consumer feedback , and so no differentiation can be made between good and poor programmes presented to those receiving welfare . Fourthly , such coercion may contribute to a culture of resistance among those receiving welfare .
= = = Prisoners and mental health = = =
Forensic psychologist Eric Cullen and prison governor Tim Newell claim that prisoners face a throffer once they are told that they must acknowledge their guilt before they are offered parole or moved to an open prison . Cullen and Newell cite the example of a prisoner who falsely admitted guilt to move to an open prison ; once there , however , he felt he could no longer lie about his guilt , and confessed to the prison 's governor . He was subsequently transferred back to a maximum security prison . In the case of sex offenders , a throffer is presented when they are offered release if they take up treatment , but are threatened with extended sentences if they do not . Cullen and Newell are concerned about the predicament that these throffers present to prisoners , including those found innocent on appeal . Concerns surrounding throffers proposed to convicted sex offenders have also been discussed in print by Alex Alexandrowicz , himself wrongly imprisoned , and criminologist David Wilson . The latter observed the difficulties for those innocent people wrongly imprisoned who are faced with the throffer of having their sentence shortened if they " acknowledge their guilt " , but noted that , as perspectives of prisoners were rarely considered , the problem is usually not visible .
Likewise , therapeutic treatment of non @-@ criminals with mental health problems can be considered in terms of throffers . In community psychiatry , patients with mental health problems will sometimes be presented with the provision of social services , such as financial or housing aid , in exchange for changing their lifestyle and reporting for the administration of medicines . Psychiatrist Julio Arboleda @-@ Flórez considers these throffers a form of social engineering , and worries that they
have multiple implications in regard to coercive mechanisms from implicit curtailments of freedom to ascription of vulnerability . The former would include threats to personal autonomy , instilling fear in regard to a potential loss of freedom , an increase of dependency with mistrust of one 's own capabilities to manage the business of living and , hence , an increase of feelings and attitudes of helplessness . The ascription of vulnerability overrides the principle of equality between the partners , constitutes and invasion of privacy and impacts on the positive rights of individuals .
= = = Business = = =
According to management researcher John J. Clancey , scientific management can involve the use of throffers . While piecework had been utilised since the Middle Ages , Frederick Winslow Taylor blended rationalised management with piecework , to create a new system . Productivity processes were standardised , after which point managers were able to present a throffer to workers : higher pay was offered if they were able to exceed the standard , while lower pay was threatened for any who did not meet expectations .
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= Freedom from Want ( painting ) =
Freedom from Want , also known as The Thanksgiving Picture or I 'll Be Home for Christmas , is the third of the Four Freedoms series of four oil paintings by American artist Norman Rockwell . The works were inspired by United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's 1941 State of the Union Address , known as Four Freedoms .
The painting was created in November 1942 and published in the March 6 , 1943 issue of The Saturday Evening Post . All of the people in the picture were friends and family of Rockwell in Arlington , Vermont , who were photographed individually and painted into the scene . The work depicts a group of people gathered around a dinner table for a holiday meal . Having been partially created on Thanksgiving Day to depict the celebration , it has become an iconic representation of the Thanksgiving holiday and family holiday gatherings in general . The Post published Freedom from Want with a corresponding essay by Carlos Bulosan as part of the Four Freedoms series . Despite many who endured sociopolitical hardships abroad , Bulosan 's essay spoke on behalf of those enduring the socioeconomic hardships domestically , and it thrust him into prominence .
The painting has had a wide array of adaptations , parodies , and other uses , such as for the cover for the 1946 book Norman Rockwell , Illustrator . Although the image was popular at the time in the United States and remains so , it caused resentment in Europe where the masses were enduring wartime hardship . Artistically , the work is highly regarded as an example of mastery of the challenges of white @-@ on @-@ white painting and as one of Rockwell 's most famous works .
= = Background = =
Freedom from Want is the third in a series of four oil paintings entitled Four Freedoms by Norman Rockwell . They were inspired by Franklin D. Roosevelt 's State of the Union Address , known as Four Freedoms , delivered to the 77th United States Congress on January 6 , 1941 . In the early 1940s , Roosevelt 's Four Freedoms themes were still vague and abstract to many , but the government used them to help boost patriotism . The Four Freedoms ' theme was eventually incorporated into the Atlantic Charter , and it became part of the charter of the United Nations . The series of paintings ran in The Saturday Evening Post accompanied by essays from noted writers on four consecutive weeks : Freedom of Speech ( February 20 ) , Freedom of Worship ( February 27 ) , Freedom from Want ( March 6 ) , and Freedom from Fear ( March 13 ) . Eventually , the series was widely distributed in poster form and became instrumental in the U.S. Government War Bond Drive .
= = Description = =
The illustration is an oil painting on canvas , measuring 45 @.@ 75 by 35 @.@ 5 inches ( 116 @.@ 2 cm × 90 @.@ 2 cm ) . The Norman Rockwell Museum describes it as a story illustration for The Saturday Evening Post , complementary to the theme , but the image is also an autonomous visual expression .
The painting shows an aproned matriarch presenting a roasted turkey to a family of several generations , in Rockwell 's idealistic presentation of family values . The patriarch looks on with fondness and approval from the head of the table , which is the central element of the painting . Its creased tablecloth shows that this is a special occasion for " sharing what we have with those we love " , according to Lennie Bennett . The table has a bowl of fruit , celery , pickles , and what appears to be cranberry sauce . There is a covered silver serving dish that would traditionally hold potatoes , according to Richard Halpern , but Bennett describes this as a covered casserole dish . The servings are less prominent than the presentation of white linen , white plates and water @-@ filled glasses . The people in the painting are not yet eating , and the painting contrasts the empty plates and vacant space in their midst with images of overabundance .
= = Production = =
In mid @-@ June Rockwell sketched in charcoal the Four Freedoms and sought commission from the Office of War Information ( OWI ) . He was rebuffed by an official who said , " The last war , you illustrators did the posters . This war , we 're going to use fine arts men , real artists . " However , Saturday Evening Post editor , Ben Hibbs , recognized the potential of the set and encouraged Rockwell to produce them right away . By early fall , the authors for the Four Freedoms had submitted their essays . Rockwell was concerned that Freedom from Want did not match Bulosan 's text . In mid @-@ November , Hibbs wrote Rockwell pleading that he not scrap his third work to start over . Hibbs alleviated Rockwell 's thematic concern ; he explained that the illustrations only needed to address the same topic rather than be in unison . Hibbs pressured Rockwell into completing his work by warning him that the magazine was on the verge of being compelled by the government to place restrictions on four @-@ color printing , so Rockwell had better get the work published before relegation to halftone printing .
In 1942 , Rockwell decided to use neighbors as models for the series . In Freedom from Want , he used his living room for the setting and relied on neighbors for advice , critical commentary , and their service as his models . For Freedom from Want , Rockwell photographed his cook as she presented the turkey on Thanksgiving Day 1942 . He said that he painted the turkey on that day and that , unlike Freedom of Speech and Freedom of Worship , this painting was not difficult to execute . Rockwell 's wife Mary is in this painting , and the family cook , Mrs. Thaddeus Wheaton , is serving the turkey , which the Rockwell family ate that day . The nine adults and two children depicted were photographed in Rockwell 's studio and painted into the scene later . The models are ( clockwise from Wheaton ) Lester Brush , Florence Lindsey , Rockwell 's mother Nancy , Jim Martin , Mr. Wheaton , Mary Rockwell , Charles Lindsey , and the Hoisington children . Jim Martin appears in all four paintings in the series . Shirley Hoisington , the girl at the end of the table , was six at the time .
After the Four Freedoms series ran in The Saturday Evening Post , the magazine made sets of reproductions available to the public and received 25 @,@ 000 orders . Additionally the OWI , which six months earlier had declined to employ Rockwell to promote the Four Freedoms , requested 2 @.@ 5 million sets of posters featuring the Four Freedoms for its war @-@ bond drive in early 1943 .
Rockwell bequeathed this painting to a custodianship that became the Norman Rockwell Museum in Stockbridge , Massachusetts , and it is now part of the museum 's permanent collection . Rockwell lived in Stockbridge from 1953 until his death in 1978 .
= = Reactions = =
Freedom from Want is considered one of Rockwell 's finest works . Of the four paintings in the Four Freedoms , it is the one most often seen in art books with critical review and commentary . Although all were intended to promote patriotism in a time of war , Freedom from Want became a symbol of " family togetherness , peace , and plenty " , according to Linda Rosenkrantz , who compares it to " a ' Hallmark ' Christmas " . Embodying nostalgia for an enduring American theme of holiday celebration , the painting is not exclusively associated with Thanksgiving , and is sometimes known as I 'll Be Home for Christmas . The abundance and unity it shows were the idyllic hope of a post @-@ war world , and the image has been reproduced in various formats .
During the Cold War , Rockwell 's images affirmed traditional American values , depicting Americans as prosperous and free . Rockwell 's work came to be categorized within art movements and styles such as Regionalism and American scene painting . Rockwell 's work sometimes displays an idealized vision of America 's rural and agricultural past . Rockwell summed up his own idealism : " I paint life as I would like it to be . "
Despite Rockwell 's general optimism , he had misgivings about having depicted such a large turkey when much of Europe was " starving , overrun [ and ] displaced " as World War II raged . Rockwell noted that this painting was not popular in Europe : " The Europeans sort of resented it because it wasn 't freedom from want , it was overabundance , the table was so loaded down with food . " Outside the United States , this overabundance was the common perception . However , Richard Halpern says the painting not only displays overabundance of food , but also of " family , conviviality , and security " , and opines that " overabundance rather than mere sufficiency is the true answer to want . " He parallels the emotional nourishment provided by the image to that of the food nourishment that it depicts , remarking that the picture is noticeably inviting . However , by depicting the table with nothing but empty plates and white dishes on white linen , Rockwell may have been invoking the Puritan origins of the Thanksgiving holiday .
To art critic Robert Hughes , the painting represents the theme of family continuity , virtue , homeliness , and abundance without extravagance in a Puritan tone , as confirmed by the modest beverage choice of water . Historian Lizabeth Cohen says that by depicting this freedom as a celebration in the private family home rather than a worker with a job or a government protecting the hungry and homeless , Rockwell suggests that ensuring this freedom was not as much a government responsibility as something born from participation in the mass consumer economy .
One of the notable and artistically challenging elements of the image is Rockwell 's use of white @-@ on @-@ white : white plates sitting on a white tablecloth . Art critic Deborah Solomon describes this as " one of the most ambitious plays of white @-@ against @-@ white since Whistler 's Symphony in White , No. 1 " . Solomon further describes the work as " a new level of descriptive realism . Yet , the painting doesn 't feel congested or fussy ; it is open and airy in the center . Extensive passages of white paint nicely frame the individual faces . "
Jim Martin , positioned in the lower right , gives a coy and perhaps mischievous glance back at the viewer . He is a microcosm of the entire scene in which no one appears to be giving thanks in a traditional manner of a Thanksgiving dinner . Solomon finds it a departure from previous depictions of Thanksgiving in that the participants do not lower their heads or raise their hands in the traditional poses of prayer . She sees it as an example of treating American traditions in both sanctified and casual ways . Theologian David Brown sees gratitude as implicit in the painting , while Kenneth Bendiner writes that Rockwell was mindful of the Last Supper and that the painting 's perspective echoes its rendition by Tintoretto .
= = Essay = =
Freedom from Want was published with an essay by Carlos Bulosan as part of the Four Freedoms series . Bulosan 's essay spoke on behalf of those enduring domestic socioeconomic hardships rather than sociopolitical hardships abroad , and it thrust him into prominence . As he neared his thirtieth birthday , the Philippine immigrant and labor organizer Bulosan was experiencing a life that was not consistent with the theme Rockwell depicted in his version of Freedom From Want . Unknown as a writer , he was subsisting as a migrant laborer working intermittent jobs . Post editors tracked down the impoverished immigrant to request an essay contribution . Bulosan rose to prominence during World War II when the Commonwealth of the Philippines , a United States territory , was occupied by Japan . To many Americans , Bulosan 's essay marked his introduction , and his name was thereafter well recognized . The essay was lost by The Post , and Bulosan , who had no carbon copy , had to track down the only draft of the essay at a bar in Tacoma .
Freedom From Want had previously been less entwined in the standard liberalism philosophies of the western world than the other three freedoms ( speech , fear , and religion ) ; this freedom added economic liberty as a societal aspiration . In his essay , Bulosan treats negative liberties as positive liberties by suggesting that Americans be " given equal opportunity to serve themselves and each other according to their needs and abilities " , an echo of Karl Marx 's " from each according to his abilities , to each according to his needs " . In the final paragraph of the essay , the phrase " The America we hope to see is not merely a physical but also a spiritual and intellectual world " describes an egalitarian America . In a voice likened to Steinbeck 's in works such as The Grapes of Wrath , Bulosan 's essay spoke up for those who struggled to survive in the capitalist democracy and was regarded as " haunting and sharp " against the backdrop of Rockwell 's feast of plenty . It proposed that while citizens had obligations to the state , the state had an obligation to provide a basic level of subsistence . Unlike Roosevelt , Bulosan presented the case that the New Deal had not already granted freedom from want as it did not guarantee Americans the essentials of life .
= = Pop culture = =
The painting was used as the 1946 book cover for Norman Rockwell , Illustrator , written during the prime of Rockwell 's career when he was regarded as America 's most popular illustrator . This image 's iconic status has led to parody and satire . New York painter Frank Moore re @-@ created Rockwell 's all @-@ white Americans with an ethnically diverse family , as Freedom to Share ( 1994 ) , in which the turkey platter brims over with health care supplies . Among the better known reproductions is Mickey and Minnie Mouse entertaining their cartoon family with a festive turkey . Several political cartoons and even frozen vegetable advertisements have invoked this image .
A snapshot at the end of the 2002 Walt Disney Feature Animation film Lilo & Stitch shows the movie 's characters , including some clearly alien life forms , seated at a Thanksgiving table that echoes the painting . The painting was also featured in the May 16 , 2012 , season 3 " Tableau Vivant " episode of the comedy series , Modern Family . Another well @-@ known imitation of the work is the cover art to Tony Bennett 's 2008 Christmas album , A Swingin ' Christmas ( Featuring The Count Basie Big Band ) . The parody includes all 13 members of Count Basie 's band .
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= Mesopropithecus =
Mesopropithecus is an extinct genus of small to medium @-@ sized lemur , or strepsirrhine primate , from Madagascar that includes three species , M. dolichobrachion , M. globiceps , and M. pithecoides . Together with Palaeopropithecus , Archaeoindris , and Babakotia , it is part of the sloth lemur family ( Palaeopropithecidae ) . Once thought to be an indriid because its skull is similar to that of living sifakas , a recently discovered postcranial skeleton shows Mesopropithecus had longer forelimbs than hindlimbs — a distinctive trait shared by sloth lemurs but not by indriids . However , as it had the shortest forelimbs of all sloth lemurs , it is thought that Mesopropithecus was more quadrupedal and did not use suspension as much as the other sloth lemurs .
All three species ate leaves , fruits , and seeds , but the proportions were different . M. pithecoides was primarily a leaf @-@ eater ( folivores ) , but also ate fruit and occasionally seeds . M. globiceps ate a mix of fruits and leaves , as well as a larger quantity of seeds than M. pithecoides . M. dolichobrachion also consumed a mixed diet of fruits and leaves , but analysis of its teeth suggests that it was more of a seed predator than the other two species .
Although rare , the three species were widely distributed across the island yet allopatric to each other , with M. dolichobrachion in the north , M. pithecoides in the south and west , and M. globiceps in the center of the island . M. dolichobrachion was the most distinct of the three species due to its longer arms . Mesopropithecus was one of the smallest of the extinct subfossil lemurs , but was still slightly larger than the largest living lemurs . Known only from subfossil remains , it died out after the arrival of humans on the island , probably due to hunting pressure and habitat destruction .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
Mesopropithecus is a genus within the sloth lemur family ( Palaeopropithecidae ) , which includes three other genera : Palaeopropithecus , Archaeoindris , and Babakotia . This family in turn belongs to the infraorder Lemuriformes , which includes all the Malagasy lemurs .
Mesopropithecus was named in 1905 by Herbert F. Standing using four skulls found at Ampasambazimba . He noted that the animal had characteristics of both Palaeopropithecus and the living sifakas ( Propithecus ) . In 1936 , Charles Lamberton defined Neopropithecus globiceps ( based on one skull from Tsirave ) and N. platyfrons ( based on two skulls from Anavoha ) . He thought that Neopropithecus was a separate , intermediate genus between Mesopropithecus and Propithecus . In 1971 , paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall merged N. platyfrons into N. globiceps and Neopropithecus into Mesopropithecus .
Until 1986 , Mesopropithecus was only known from cranial ( skull ) remains from central and southern Madagascar , and because these are similar to teeth and skulls of living indriids , particularly those of Verreaux 's sifaka ( Propithecus verreauxi ) , Mesopropithecus was often assigned to the family Indriidae . For example , in 1974 , Tattersall and Schwartz labeled Mesopropithecus as a sister group to sifakas . With the discovery of an associated skeleton of M. dolichobrachion near Ankarana in 1986 , it became clear that Mesopropithecus shared distinct traits with sloth lemurs . Unlike the indriids , but like the sloth lemurs , they had elongated forelimbs and other adaptations for arboreal suspension ( hanging in trees ) , linking them most closely to family Paleaeopropithecidae . A comparison of these morphological traits between the sloth lemurs and indriids suggest that Mesopropithecus was the first genus to diverge within the sloth lemur family .
= = = Species = = =
Three species are recognized within Mesopropithecus :
M. pithecoides , described in 1905 , was the first species to be formally named . Its specific name , pithecoides , derives from the Greek word pithekos , meaning " monkey " or " ape " , and the Greek suffix -oides , meaning " like " or " form " , and reflects Standing 's impression that the animal resembled monkeys in form . It was a small to medium @-@ sized lemur , weighing approximately 10 kg ( 22 lb ) and having an intermembral index ( ratio of limb proportions ) of 99 . Its skull was similar to that of M. globiceps , but had a broader snout and was more robust , particularly in its sagittal and nuchal crests ( ridges on the skull for muscle attachments ) and massive zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) . Its skull length averaged 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , ranging from 94 @.@ 0 to 103 @.@ 1 mm ( 3 @.@ 70 to 4 @.@ 06 in ) . It was predominantly folivorous ( leaf @-@ eating ) , but also consumed some fruit and ( rarely ) seeds . It was moderately abundant on the high , central plateau of Madagascar . It shared its range with the larger sloth lemurs , Palaeopropithecus maximus and Archaeoindris fontoynontii . One sample of its subfossil remains has been radiocarbon dated , yielding a date of 570 – 679 CE .
M. globiceps was discovered in 1936 and originally classified in its own genus , Neopropithecus . The name globiceps comes from its prominent forehead and derives from the Latin word globus , meaning " ball " , and the New Latin suffix -ceps , meaning " head " . Like M. pithecoides , it was a small to medium @-@ sized lemur , weighing approximately 11 kg ( 24 lb ) and having an intermembral index of 97 . It had the most narrow snout and gracile skeleton of the Mesopropithecus species , similar to but smaller than M. pithecoides , making it more like the living sifakas . Its teeth were similar to but larger than those of living sifakas , except for its lower premolars , which were shorter , and the M3 ( third upper molar ) , which was moderately constricted by the cheek and tongue . Its skull length averaged 94 mm ( 3 @.@ 7 in ) , ranging from 93 @.@ 4 to 94 @.@ 8 mm ( 3 @.@ 68 to 3 @.@ 73 in ) . It was a mixed feeder , eating fruit , leaves , and a moderate amount of seeds , having a diet similar to that of the living indri ( Indri indri ) . Although its forelimbs were more like those of living indriids , its hindlimbs and axial skeleton ( skull , spine , and ribs ) were more specialized for suspension , as in Palaeopropithecus and Babakotia . It was found in the south and west of Madagascar . Three samples of its subfossil remains have been radiocarbon dated , yielding dates of 354 – 60 BCE , 58 – 247 CE , and 245 – 429 CE .
M. dolichobrachion was discovered in 1986 and formally described in 1995 . It was found in the caves of Ankarana , northern Madagascar , around the same time that the first remains of Babakotia were unearthed . The species name dolichobrachion is Greek , coming from dolicho- ( " long " ) and brachion ( " arm " ) , and means " long @-@ armed " . It was a medium @-@ sized lemur , slightly larger than the other two members of its genus , weighing approximately 14 kg ( 31 lb ) . It differed significantly from the other two in its limb proportions and its postcranial morphology . Most notably , it was the only species in the genus to have forelimbs that were longer than the hindlimbs , due to a substantially longer and more robust humerus ( yielding an intermembral index of 113 ) , as well as more curved phalanges ( finger and toe bones ) . For these reasons , it is thought to have been more sloth @-@ like in its use of suspension . This was further supported by a study of a single lumbar vertebra . This vertebra was similar to that of Babakotia in having a moderately reduced , dorsally oriented spinous process and a transverse processes ( plates of bone that protrude from the vertebrae ) that points to the side ( laterally ) . The vertebra was intermediate in length when compared with other sloth lemurs , and its laminae ( two plates of bone that connect to the spinous process ) were not as broad as seen in Palaeopropithecus . In M. dolichobrachion , skull length averaged 102 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) , ranging from 97 @.@ 8 to 105 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 85 to 4 @.@ 15 in ) . The only notable difference from the two other species in its teeth was that the third upper molar had a relatively wider trigon and smaller talon ( groups of cusps on the molar teeth ) . It was a mixed feeder , eating leaves , fruits , and seeds . This species was more of a seed predator than the other two species , but was not as specialized as closely related Babakotia radofilai . M. dolichobrachion was rare and shared its range with two other sloth lemurs , Babakotia radofilai and Palaeopropithecus maximus . It was the most distinct member of its genus and was geographically restricted to the extreme north of the island .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
The genus Mesopropithecus includes some of the smallest of the recently extinct subfossil lemurs , but all species were still noticeably larger than all living ( extant ) lemurs . They ranged in weight from 10 to 14 kg ( 22 to 31 lb ) . They were also the least specialized of the sloth lemurs , more closely resembling living indriids in both skull and postcranial characteristics . Skull length ranged from 93 @.@ 4 to 105 @.@ 5 mm ( 3 @.@ 68 to 4 @.@ 15 in ) . The dentition and cranial proportions , however , more closely resembled those of the sifakas . The dental formula of Mesopropithecus was the same as in the other sloth lemur and indriids : either 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 31 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 or 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 @.@ 32 @.@ 0 @.@ 2 @.@ 3 × 2 = 30 . Mesopropithecus had a four @-@ toothed toothcomb , like all indriids and most other sloth lemurs . It is unclear whether one of the permanent teeth in the toothcomb is an incisor or canine , resulting in the two conflicting dental formulae . Like other sloth lemurs and indriids , Mesopropithecus had rapid tooth development .
Despite the similarities , there are several features that distinguish Mesopropithecus skulls from those of living indriids . The skull , including the zygomatic arch , is more robustly built . The temporal lines join together anteriorly into a sagittal crest and there is a distinct nuchal ridge that joins the rear of the zygomatic arch . The skull has a more rounded braincase , slightly smaller and more convergent orbits , more pronounced postorbital constriction ( narrowing of the skull behind the eye sockets ) , more robust postorbital bar ( bone that encircles the eye socket ) , a steeper facial angle , more robust and cranially convex zygomatic bone , and a broader , squared snout . The upper incisors and canines are larger . The more robust mandible ( lower jaw ) and mandibular symphysis ( point where the two halves of the lower jaw meet ) suggest a more folivorous diet , which requires extra grinding . The orbits are as large ( in absolute size ) as those in smaller living indriids , which suggests low visual acuity . Mesopropithecus and its closest sloth lemur relative , Babakotia , did share a few ancestral traits with indriids , unlike the largest sloth lemurs , Palaeopropithecus and Archaeoindris . These include the aforementioned four @-@ toothed toothcomb , an inflated auditory bulla ( bony structure that encloses part of the middle and inner ear ) , and an intrabullar ectotympanic ring ( bony ring that holds the eardrum ) .
While the skull of Mesopropithecus most closely resembles that of modern sifakas , the postcranial skeleton is quite different . Rather than having elongated hindlimbs for leaping , Mesopropithecus had elongated forelimbs , suggesting they predominantly used quadrupedal locomotion , slow climbing , with some forelimb and hindlimb suspension . In fact , they were the most quadrupedal of the sloth lemurs , having an intermembral index between 97 and 113 , compared to the lower value for indriids and higher values for the other sloth lemurs . ( In arboreal primates , an intermembral index of 100 predicts quadrupedalism , higher values predict suspensory behavior , and lower values predict leaping behavior . ) Wrist bones found in 1999 further demonstrate that Mesopropithecus was a vertical climber and the most loris @-@ like of the sloth lemurs . Analysis of a lumbar vertebra of M. dolichobrachion further supported this conclusion .
Our understanding of the morphology of Mesopropithecus has not always been so complete . Until recently , important pieces of the skeleton had not been discovered , including the radius , ulna , vertebrae , hand and foot bones , and the pelvis . In 1936 , Alice Carleton mistakenly associated postcranial remains of the diademed sifaka ( Propithecus diadema ) from Ampasambazimba with Mesopropithecus pithecoides and came to the false conclusion that its morphology was like that of a monkey . This mistaken attribution was corrected in 1948 by Charles Lamberton .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Mesopropithecus species appear to have been generally rare within their wide range . Collectively , the three species have been found in the north , south , west , and center of Madagascar , although they appear to have been geographically separated ( allopatric ) from each other . Subfossil discoveries indicate that they lived in the same region ( sympatric ) with other sloth lemurs in the north and center of Madagascar . The subfossil remains of M. globiceps have been found at seven subfossil sites on Madagascar : Anavoha , Ankazoabo @-@ Grotte , Belo sur Mer , Manombo @-@ Toliara , Taolambiby , Tsiandroina , Tsirave . The subfossil remains of both M. pithecoides and M. dolichobrachion have only been found at one site each , Ampasambazimba and Ankarana respectively .
M. pithecoides from the central plateau was a specialized leaf @-@ eater ( folivore ) , but the other two species had a more mixed diet , eating fruits and seeds in addition to leaves . The level of seed predation varies between the three species , with tooth wear indicating that M. dolichobrachion exhibited the greatest level of seed predation within the genus .
= = Extinction = =
Because Mesopropithecus died out relatively recently and is only known from subfossil remains , it is considered to be a modern form of Malagasy lemur . It may have been among the last subfossil lemurs to go extinct , possibly surviving until 500 years ago , although radiocarbon dating places the most recent remains at 570 – 679 CE for a M. pithecoides from Ampasambazimba . The arrival of humans roughly 2 @,@ 000 years ago is thought to have sparked the decline of Mesopropithecus through hunting , habitat destruction , or both .
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= Burger King franchises =
The majority of the locations of international fast @-@ food restaurant chain Burger King are privately owned franchises . While the majority of franchisees are smaller operations , several have grown into major corporations in their own right . At the end of the company 's fiscal year in 2015 , Burger King reported it had more than 15 @,@ 000 outlets in 84 countries ; of these , approximately 50 % are in the United States and 99 @.@ 9 % are privately owned and operated . The company locations employ more than 37 @,@ 000 people who serve approximately 11 @.@ 4 million customers daily .
Since its predecessor 's inception in 1953 , Burger King has used several variations of franchising to expand its operations . In the United States , the company originally relied on a regional franchise model with owners having exclusive expansion rights in a defined geographic territory . This model proved to be problematic as it led to issues of food quality , procedures and image management . A 1970s attempt by one of its largest franchises to take over the chain led to a restructuring of its franchising system , tossing the old method in favor of a restricted , per store licensing model . The 1978 restructuring , led by a new director of operations , firmly placed the mantel of franchise oversight on the shoulders of the company .
While Burger King still utilizes a version of its revamped franchising system in the United States , outside of North America its international locations licenses are still sold on a regional basis with franchises owning exclusive development rights for a region or country . These regional franchises are known as master franchises , and are responsible for opening new restaurants , licensing new third party operators , and performing standards oversight of all restaurant locations in these countries ; one of the larger examples of a master franchise is Hungry Jack 's , which oversees over 300 restaurants in Australia .
The 2011 purchase of the company by 3G Capital led to a change in how the company interacts with its franchises . The new owners moved to settle any disagreements with its franchises while initiating a sale of the majority of corporate locations with the goal of becoming an exclusive franchisor . The company also entered into several new franchise agreements that will allow it to dramatically expand its presence in several new markets including the BRIC nations . Additionally the company moved to establish new master franchise agreements in several regions while realigning its operations in several markets .
= = History = =
The company known today as Burger King itself began as a franchise ; the predecessor of the modern company was founded in 1953 in Jacksonville , Florida as Insta @-@ Burger King . The original founders and owners , Kieth J. Kramer and Matthew Burns , opened their first stores around a piece of equipment known as the Insta @-@ Broiler . The Insta @-@ Broiler oven proved so successful at cooking burgers , Kramer and Burns required all of their franchises to carry the device . The rights to open stores in Miami , Florida belonged to two businessmen named James McLamore and David R. Edgerton and their company South Florida restaurants , Inc . Due to operational issues with the Insta @-@ Broiler , in 1954 McLamore and Edgarton made the decision to replace the Insta @-@ Broiler with a mechanized gas grill they called a flame broiler . Even though the company had rapidly expanded throughout the state until its operations totaled more than 40 locations in 1955 , the original Insta @-@ Burger King ran into financial difficulties and the pair of McLamore and Edgarton purchased the national rights to the chain and rechristened the company as Burger King of Miami .
When McLamore and Edgarton 's Burger King Corporation began a full franchising system in 1961 , it relied on a regional franchising model where franchisees would purchase the right to open stores within a defined geographic region . These franchise agreements granted the company very little oversight control over its franchisees and resulted in issues of product quality control , store image and design and operations procedures .
In 1967 , after eight years of private operation , the Pillsbury Company acquired the Burger King brand and its parent company Burger King Corporation . At the time of the purchase , the chain had grown to 274 restaurants in the United States . Pillsbury continued to grow the company utilizing the existing franchise system despite its flaws . The power of its independent franchises came to a head in 1973 when Chart House , owner of 350 restaurants and one of its largest franchise groups , attempted to purchase the chain from Pillsbury for $ 100 million ( USD ) which Pillsbury declined . When Chart House 's bid failed , its owners Billy and Jimmy Trotter put forth a second plan that would require Pillsbury and Chart House spin off their respective holdings and merge the two entities into a separate company . Again Pillsbury declined the proposed divestiture . After the failed attempts to acquire the company , the relationship with Chart House and the Trotters soured ; when Chart House purchased several restaurants in Boston and Houston in 1979 , Burger King sued the selling franchisees for failing to comply with the right of first refusal clause in their contracts . Burger King won the case , successfully preventing the sale . The two parties did eventually reach a settlement where Chart House kept the Houston locations in their portfolio . Chart House eventually spun off its Burger King holdings and refocused on its higher end chains ; its Burger King holding company , DiversiFoods , was eventually acquired by Pillsbury $ 390 million ( USD ) in 1984 and folded into Burger King 's operations .
The regional licensing model remained in place until 1978 when the company hired McDonald 's executive Donald N. Smith to help revamp the company . Smith initiated a restructuring of all future franchising agreements , disallowing new owners from living more than an hour 's drive from their restaurants , preventing corporations from owning franchises and prohibiting franchisees from operating other chains . This new policy effectively limited the size of franchisees and prevented larger franchises from challenging Burger King as Chart House had . Smith also altered the way the company dealt with new properties by making the company the primary owner of new locations and rent or lease the restaurants to its franchises . This policy would allow the company to take over the operations of failing stores or evict those owners who would not conform to the company guidelines and policies . However , by 1988 Burger King parent Pillsbury had relaxed many of Smith 's changes , scaled back on construction of new locations and stalling growth . When Pillsbury was acquired in 1989 by Grand Metropolitan , the company fell further into decline , a pattern which continued under Grand Met successor Diageo . This institutionalized neglect further hurt the standing of the brand , in turn causing significant financial damage to Burger King 's franchises .
By 2001 and nearly eighteen years of stagnant growth , many of its franchises were in some sort of financial distress . The lack of growth severely impacted Burger King 's largest franchise , the nearly 400 @-@ store AmeriKing ; the company , which until this point had been struggling under a nearly $ 300 million debt load and been shedding stores across the US , was forced to enter Chapter 11 bankruptcy . The failure of AmeriKing accompanied with declining market position deeply affected the value of the company , and put negotiations between Diageo and the TPC Capital @-@ lead group on hold . The developments eventually forced Diageo to lower the total selling price by almost three @-@ quarters of a billion dollars . After the sale , newly appointed CEO Bradley Blum initiated a program to help the roughly 20 percent of its franchises , including its four largest , who were in financial distress , bankruptcy or had ceased operations altogether . Partnering with the California @-@ based Trinity Capital , LLC , the company established the Franchisee Financial Restructuring Initiative , a program to address the financial issues facing BK 's financially distressed franchisees . The initiative was designed to assist franchisees in restructuring their businesses in order to meet financial obligations , focus on restaurant operational excellence , reinvest in their operations and return to profitability .
Individual owners took advantage of the AmeriKing failure ; one of the BK regional owners , Miami @-@ based Al Cabrera , purchased 130 stores located primarily in the Chicago and the upper mid @-@ west , from the failed company for a bargain basement price of $ 16 million , or approximately 88 percent of their original value . The new company , which started out as Core Value Partners and eventually became Heartland Foods , also purchased 120 additional stores from distressed owners and completely revamped them . The resulting purchases made Mr. Cabrerra BKB 's largest minority franchisee and Heartland one of Burger King 's top franchises . By 2006 , the company was valued at over $ 150 million , and was sold to New York @-@ based GSO Capital Partners . Other purchasers included a three @-@ way group of NFL athletes Kevin Faulk , Marcus Allen and Michael Strahan who collectively purchased 17 stores in the cities of Norfolk and Richmond , Virginia ; and Cincinnati @-@ based franchisee Dave Devoy , who purchased 32 AmeriKing stores . After investing in new decor , equipment and staff retraining , many of the formerly failing stores have shown growth upwards of 20 percent .
With the sale of Burger King to 3G Capital of Brazil in 2010 , Burger King made the decision to sell off almost all corporate owned stores to its franchises by the end of 2013 . On major move towards this goal was the sale of over 275 stores to corporate franchise group Carrols Corporation of New York and nearly 100 stores to the minority held Magic Burger of Florida .
= = = International = = =
Shortly after the acquisition of the chain by Pillsbury in 1969 , Burger King opened its first Canadian restaurant in Windsor , Ontario , in 1969 . Other international locations followed soon after : Oceania in 1971 with its Australian franchise Hungry Jack 's , and Europe in 1975 with a restaurant in Madrid , Spain . Beginning in 1982 , BK and its franchisees began operating stores in several East Asian countries , including Japan , Taiwan , Singapore and South Korea . Due to high competition , all of the Japanese locations were closed in 2001 ; however , BK reentered the Japanese market in June 2007 . BK 's Central and South American operations began in Mexico in the late 1970s , and by the early 1980s it was operating locations in Caracas , Venezuela , Santiago , Chile and Buenos Aires , Argentina . While Burger King lags behind McDonald 's in international locations by over 12 @,@ 000 stores , by 2008 it had managed to become the largest chain in several countries including Mexico and Spain . The company divides its international operations into three segments : The Middle East , Europe and Africa division ( EMEA ) , Asia @-@ Pacific ( APAC ) and Latin America and the Caribbean ( LAC ) . In each of these regions , Burger King has established several subsidiaries to develop strategic partnerships and alliances to expand into new territories . In its EMEA group , Burger King 's Switzerland @-@ based subsidiary Burger King Europe GmbH is responsible for the licensing and development of BK franchises in those regions . In the APAC region , the Singapore @-@ based BK AsiaPac , Pte . Ltd. business unit handles franchising for East Asia , the Asian subcontinent and all Oceanic territories . The LAC region includes Mexico , Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands .
2012 saw a major international expansion initiative . The primary thrust was aimed at the BRIC nations with several new master franchise agreements in those countries that will eventually create upwards of 2500 new stores by the 2020 . One of these deals also creates the single largest international franchise agreement in the company history , a deal to open over 1000 stores in China with a new " super " -franchise headed by the Kurdoglu family of Turkey . An updated agreement with its Russian franchisee will see a major expansion into Siberia . This move puts Burger King in a superior position to chief rival McDonald 's as it currently doesn 't operate any locations east of the Ural Mountains .
Further expansion moves were also made in other global markets during 2012 . The African market saw a new agreement with Grand Parade Investments of South Africa to enter Africa 's largest economy , with restaurants opening in 2013 . In Europe , Burger King returned to the French market in 2012 with an agreement with multinational operator Autogrill , a move that has met with some excitement in the country . The chain left the country in 1997 , closing its 22 franchised and 17 corporate locations after a poorly executed entry into the market that left it unable to compete against McDonald 's and local chain Quick . The partnership with Autogrill is a move to consolidate Burger King 's presence in travel plazas along major highways in France , Italy , Poland and other European nations .
Since its purchase in 2011 , Burger King has seen 14 % sales increase in its Latin American and Caribbean operations . The continued expansion in these market could provide a significant portions of Burger King 's growth during the decade of the 2010s . In the Mexican market , Burger King sold 97 corporate @-@ owned locations to its largest franchisee in that country . The deal means multi @-@ chain operator Alsea S.A.B. de C.V will eventually operate approximately half of Mexico 's 400 + Burger King locations while receiving exclusive expansion rights in Mexico for a twenty @-@ year period . Elsewhere in Central America , Burger King entered in a deal with another of its franchises , the Beboca Group of Panama , to create a new corporate entity to handle expansion and logistics in the LAC region which until this time had no centralized operations group . The deal follows a unification of the company 's web presence in Latin America and the Caribbean , as well as aligning all of its various web initiatives including mobile services , Facebook presence and guest relation tools . The Latin American moves are part of a corporate plan to take advantage of the growing middle class in these regions .
The company began its move into Sub @-@ Saharan Africa in May 2013 when Burger King opened its first outlets in South Africa . The company sold franchise rights to local gaming and slots machine operator Grand Parade Investments Ltd . The South African operation sold over double its initial forecasts in its opening weeks with sales of $ 474 @,@ 838 at just one of its outlets in Cape Town in its first seven weeks . In a deal with local petrochemical company Sasol outlets will be opened at filling stations across the country from 2014 . In April 2014 it was announced that due to high demand the number of new outlets being opened in 2014 would be increased from 12 to 14 across the country .
In December 2013 , Burger King returned to Finland after three decades of absence . The first restaurant , located on Mannerheimintie in central Helsinki , instantly proved so popular that for every day since its opening , people have had to queue in front of the restaurant to get in , sometimes for over half an hour . The only exception so far has been Christmas time , when the restaurant was closed . According to Mikko Molberg , the leader of the Finnish Burger King franchise , the restaurant has attracted over 2000 customers on every single day , which has surprised the restaurant employees and the franchise owners . The long queues have been extensively covered and ridiculed in social media , comparing them to people queuing in front of a McDonald 's restaurant in Moscow , Russia in the early 1990s , and contrasting them with the nearly nonexistent queues to Burger King restaurants in Stockholm , Sweden .
= = Relations = =
Although the majority of the restaurant locations are privately held by individual owners and its financial dependence on those owners , Burger King 's relationship with its franchises has not always been harmonious . Occasional disagreements between the two have caused numerous issues , and in several instances the company 's and its licensees ' relations have degenerated into precedent @-@ setting court cases .
= = = United States = = =
In the United States , approximately 90 percent of Burger King 's franchises have banded together to form the Burger King National Franchise Association ( BKNFA or NFA ) . The 900 @-@ member group is based in Atlanta , Georgia , and is designed to provide what the group calls Franchisee Relations Advocacy . It acts as a corporate negotiator that mediates with corporate @-@ franchise disputes , as a government lobbying group to deal with issues that effect the fast @-@ food industry as a whole , and it provides group health , property and casualty insurance . In 2001 , the group announced a plan to purchase Burger King from then @-@ parent Diageo after the company put forth a plan to float approximately 20 percent of BKC on the NYSE . The NFA believed that any money raised from the issue would not be put into helping bolster the then flagging BK , but would instead end up being used to help Diageo bolster its liquor brands . The deal collapsed when the NFA was unable to put together an acceptable financing package .
When an agreement to purchase Burger King by a group led by TPG Capital was initially reached in 2002 , franchises celebrated the severance of Burger King from Diageo . However , the relationship quickly soured after the 2004 purchase was completed , with the TPG @-@ led management group immediately voicing concerns over the relationship between Burger King and its franchises . In a statement from the new TPG appointed management , Burger King disparaged the NFA as one of the problems interfering with company operations . The new owners also began dismantling franchise advisory committees , replacing them with what Burger King called " excellence advisory councils " that the NFA claimed was made up of corporate picked members that did not truly represent the franchises . Further changes in menu structure , advertising , demographic targeting and franchise @-@ corporate interactions upset the franchise group . Over the next several years TPG made several changes to the company that eventually brought the two sides to loggerheads that devolved into several lawsuits .
= = = = Advertising revenues = = = =
In a 2005 dispute with the NFA over issues including brand development and advertising , Burger King severed its relations with the group . Claiming that the NFA was resisting structural changes that BK was making in regards to pricing , hours and its new gift card program , CEO John Chindsey claimed " many instances of the NFA 's non @-@ cooperation and affirmative disruption of efforts to improve the Burger King system " were the reason for the break . The company also announced that it would be diverting a $ 1 million ( USD ) NFA advertising subsidy into the company 's own advertising fund . In a response , the NFA chairman Daniel Fitzpatrick responded in a letter to Burger King 's parent stating that " to sever relations with the ... NFA is extremely regrettable " and based on " an erroneous set of facts , innuendo and rumor " claimed that the company owed the NFA $ 1 @.@ 7 million in total subsidy funds . The two sides settled their differences in April 2006 when Burger King agreed to pay the disputed subsidy funds to the group . Additionally , Burger King announced that it would honor an October 2004 deal in regards to compensation for the operation of the annual Burger King / franchise convention .
A similar issue again arose in 2009 when Burger King diverted several million dollars of advertising rebates paid to its American franchises by Coca Cola Corporation and Dr. Pepper Snapple Group to its own coffers . The company intended to utilize these funds to increase its advertising presence in the United States at a time when corporate advertising costs were falling , which would allow an increased media presence of approximately 25 % from the previous year ( 2008 ) . The NFA contended that Burger King Corporation improperly redirected 40 % of restaurant operating funds ( ROF ) paid by the two beverage suppliers to franchises since 1990 into the corporate advertising budget . These funds were often used by the franchises to pay for beverage support systems such as filtration units and local marketing , and diversion of the funds would cost franchises at least $ 65 million ( USD ) between 2010 @-@ 2012 . These funds often helped the franchises ' bottom lines , as they were often used to offset other costs imposed on the franchises by Burger King , such as the $ 1 ( USD ) Double Cheeseburger .
The NFA claimed that the diversion to the parent company violated the beverage contracts between various parties . Negotiations between the two entities eventually failed , which led to a class action suit being filed in the United States District Court for the Southern District of California against Burger King Corporation , Coca @-@ Cola and Dr. Pepper on behalf of all Burger King franchises in the United States in May 2009 . In the filing , the NFA claimed the three defendants were in violation of a 1999 beverage contract that set specific beverage syrup usage goals . The four parties settled shortly after the filing when Burger King agreed to seek advertising funds from other sources .
= = = = Hours of operation = = = =
In 2007 , Burger King announced its " competitive hours " requirement that mandated locations extend their hours of operation to midnight for most of its American locations . Burger King 's reasoning for the changes were necessary to maintain a competitive stand against McDonald 's and Wendy 's . Burger King stated that roughly 60 % of its franchised locations already operated until mid @-@ night , but it sought to have the extended hours of operation cover 100 % of locations in order to begin a nationwide advertising campaign promoting late @-@ night sales . On 1 June 2008 the company amended the directive to require restaurants to stay open until 2 : 00am Thursday @-@ Saturday and open at 6 : 00am Monday @-@ Saturday . At the time of the announcement , Burger King stated it believed the franchise agreement allowed it set minimum hours and that most of it franchisees had agreed to the extended hours of operation . After the deadline passed , Burger King notified its franchises on 3 July that if any of them failed to implement the new policy by 8 July , the franchises would be in default of their agreement .
Many franchises opposed the extensions on multiple grounds ; operators claimed employee and customer safety was jeopardized by the extended hours , with several Miami @-@ area franchises noting incidents in 2006 and 2007 where staff or customers were killed during extended hours . Additionally it was claimed that the extended hours were not profitable due increased costs associated with operating the locations at times with lower customer traffic and subsequent lower sales . Franchises and the NFA noted the franchise agreement only required locations to be open until 11 : 00pm and did not contain riders that allowed the corporate parent to amend the agreement . In response to the changes , three Miami @-@ area franchise filed a suit in July 2008 with the Eleventh Judicial Circuit Court of Florida in Miami to stop the change and force the company to make it optional instead of required . The NFA issued a statement that it " unequivocally supported " the suit , and that " ... the franchisor does not have the enforceable right to mandate extended hours . "
Circuit Judge Jon I. Gordon dismissed the lawsuit without prejudice in November requesting the plaintiffs refile with a clarified complaint . An amended complaint was filed by the three franchises a month later . In response to a motion to dismiss filed by the parent company , the judge ruled in January 2009 in favor of Burger King . In his decision , Judge Gordon stated that the franchise contract clearly does provide Burger King the right to establish minimum hours standards for its franchises . After purchase of the company by 3G , Burger King conceded to the franchises request the mandate be changed to a recommendation and relaxed its position on the extended hours .
= = = = Value menu pricing = = = =
The pricing of Burger King 's value menu had been the focus of multiple , highly contentious disputes between the parent company and its franchises for several years during the TPG ownership period . The dispute was at the center of two separate but related court cases filed against Burger King by an individual Burger King franchise in New York City and the NFA . At the heart of the disputes is the legal concept of the implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing in regards to long @-@ term franchise agreements .
The first indication of the franchises ' displeasure with their parent over this issue came in 2005 and involved claims by a Manhattan @-@ based franchise that the company failed to take into account local market conditions when setting prices . E @-@ Z Eating Corp. , operator of five restaurants in New York and owned by brother @-@ sister partners Elizabeth and Luan Sadik , had been struggling after the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks but had been in a company @-@ sponsored turn around program when Burger King started its new value program in 2006 . The program required all locations to carry a specific set of products at a discounted price , with limited exemptions for certain locations that met a set of criteria . The Sadiks applied for an exemption to the pricing requirement but were turned down by Burger King . In response to the denial , the Sadiks closed two of their locations without consulting Burger King and refused to implement the scheme in their other two locations . Burger King responded by suing the company in the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida for breach of contract , and eventually revoked the franchise agreement for the remaining two locations in January 2006 . The Sadik 's responded by filing their own lawsuit in 2008 in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York claiming that Burger King had engaged in a breach of the implied duty of good faith and fair in its actions towards the franchise . The actions were eventually consolidated in a single case in the Southern District Court under Judge Maricia G. Cooke , where Burger King requested and was granted a summary judgement against the Sadiks . The judgment was upheld on appeal by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit in June 2009 .
Eventually , the dispute between Burger King and its franchises came to center on the 2009 @-@ 2010 promotion for the Buck Double sandwich . The Buck Double was a quarter @-@ pound double cheese burger designed to compete against the McDonald 's McDouble sandwich . The primary issue was financial in nature , the franchises claimed that Burger King forced them to sell the sandwich at a loss of 10 ¢ per sandwich . Franchisees sued the parent company claiming that it did not have the authority to dictate pricing structures for the independently held franchises . The court dismissed the case in a decision that stated the company could legally dictate pricing structures over its franchises objections , but found that there was enough evidence to allow the franchises to move forward with their claims of dealing in bad faith in a separate case . In response to the decision , the franchise group filed a second suit that claimed the deal was not properly structured and was implemented without the franchises ' consent . The NFA suit claimed BK acted in bad faith by implementing the deal after the franchises had twice voted down the deal .
When 3G Capital purchased Burger King in January 2011 , the company moved to resolve all disputes with its franchises . By April , Burger King and the franchises agreed to a non @-@ monetary settlement where the franchise were allowed to reprice the Buck Double to $ 1 @.@ 29 US $ as well as giving them more power in future in determining the makeup of the Burger King value menu . The parent company also hired a Chicago , Illinois franchisee , Dan Wiborg , as its new North American president , a move that helped franchise relations due to his former position with the NFA .
= = = International relations = = =
= = = = Australia = = = =
In 1990 , Hungry Jack 's renewed its franchise agreement with then BK parent Burger King Corporation , which allowed Hungry Jack 's to license third party franchisee . One of the terms and conditions of the renewed agreement required Hungry Jack 's to open a minimum number of new locations each year for the duration of the contract . Shortly after the Australian trademark on the Burger King name lapsed in 1996 , Burger King requested that Cowin rebrand the Hungry Jack 's locations to Burger King , which Cowin declined . Burger King Corporation accused Hungry Jack 's of violating the conditions of the renewed franchise agreement by failing to expand the chain at the rate defined and sought to terminate the agreement . Under the aegis of this claim , Burger King Corporation , in partnership with Royal Dutch Shell 's Australian division Shell Company of Australia Ltd . , began to open its own stores in 1997 beginning in Sydney and extending throughout the regions of New South Wales , Australian Capital Territory and Victoria . In addition , BK sought to limit HJ 's ability to open new locations in the country , whether they were corporate locations or third @-@ party licensees .
As a result of Burger King 's actions , Hungry Jack 's owner Jack Cowin and his private holding company Competitive Foods Australia began legal proceedings in 2001 against Burger King 's parent Burger King Corporation with a counter @-@ claim that the company had violated the conditions of the master franchising agreement and was in breach of the contract . In a decision handed down by the Supreme Court of New South Wales that affirmed Cowin 's claims , Burger King was determined to have violated the terms of the contract and as a result was required to pay Cowin and Hungry Jack 's a $ 46 @.@ 9 million ( Aus , $ 41 @.@ 6 million USD 2001 ) award . The court 's decision was one of the first major cases in Australia that implied that the American legal concept of good faith negotiations existed with the framework of the Australian legal system , which until that verdict , had rarely been seen in the country 's courts . In its decision , the Court stated that Burger King had failed to act in good faith during contract negotiations by seeking to include standards and clauses that would engineer a default of the franchise agreement , allowing the company to limit the number of new Hungry Jack ’ s branded restaurants and ultimately claim the Australian market as its own , a purpose that was extraneous to the agreement .
After Burger King Corporation lost the case , it decided to terminate its operations in the country , and in July 2002 , the company transferred its assets to its New Zealand franchise group , Trans @-@ Pacific Foods ( TPF ) . The terms of the sale had TPF assume oversight of the Burger King franchises in the region as the Burger King brand 's master franchisee . Trans @-@ Pacific Foods administered the chain 's 81 locations until September 2003 when the new management team of Burger King Corporation reached an agreement with Hungry Jack 's Pty Ltd to re @-@ brand the existing Burger King locations to Hungry Jack 's and make HJP the sole master franchisee of both brands . An additional part of the agreement required Burger King Corporation to provide administrative and advertising support as to insure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products . Trans @-@ Pacific Foods transferred its control of the Burger King franchises to Hungry Jack 's Pty Ltd , which subsequently renamed the remaining Burger King locations as Hungry Jack 's .
= = = = Israel , Palestine & the occupied territories = = = =
In the summer of 1999 , a geopolitical dispute with the global Islamic community and Jewish groups in the United States and Israel arose over an Israeli franchisee opening stores in the Israeli @-@ occupied territories . When Burger King franchisee in Israel , Rikamor , Ltd . , opened a store in the West Bank settlement of Ma 'aleh Adumim in August of that year , Islamic groups , including the Arab League and American Muslims for Jerusalem , argued that international Burger King parent Burger King Corporation 's licensing of the store helped legitimize the illegal settlement . Beyond the called @-@ for Islamic boycott of the company , the Arab League also threatened the revocation of the business licenses of Burger King 's primary Middle Eastern franchise in the 22 countries that are part of the League 's membership .
Burger King Corporation quickly pulled the franchise license for that location and had the store shuttered explaining that Rikamor , Ltd. had violated its contract by opening the location in the West Bank . Several American @-@ based Jewish groups issued statements that denounced the decision as acceding to threats of boycotts by Islamic groups . Burger King Corporation issued a statement that it " made this decision purely on a commercial basis and in the best interests of thousands of people who depend on the Burger King reputation for their livelihood " .
Eventually , the regional master franchise for Israel , Orgad Holdings , decided to close its operations in that country and merge all operations with its own local chain , Burgeranch . It was claimed by Ograd owners Eli and Yuval Orgad that Israelis preferred the taste of the local brand over the American chain . One blogger , a former manager of a Burger King in the United States , claimed that both chains were basically the same in product and preparations , it was Burger King 's failure to fully adapt to the local market tastes that doomed them in that country . By 6 September 2010 all 55 locations in the country were closed down and converted to Burgeranches .
= = Franchisees of note = =
= = = Australia = = =
Master franchise : Hungry Jack 's Pty .
Australia is the only country in which Burger King does not operate under its own name . When the company set about establishing operations there in 1971 , it found that its business name was already trademarked by a takeaway food shop in Adelaide . As a result , Burger King provided the Australian master franchisee , Jack Cowin , with a list of possible alternative names derived from pre @-@ existing trademarks already registered by Burger King and its then corporate parent Pillsbury , that could be used to name the Australian restaurants . Cowin selected the " Hungry Jack " brand name , one of Pillsbury 's US pancake mixture products , and slightly changed the name to a possessive form by adding an apostrophe " s " forming the new name Hungry Jack 's .
Hungry Jack 's currently owns and operates or sub @-@ licenses all of the Hungry Jack 's restaurants in Australia . As the master franchise for the continent , the company is responsible for licensing new operators , opening its own stores and performing standards oversight of franchised locations in Australia . As the end of Burger King 's 2012 fiscal year , Hungry Jack 's is the largest Asian / Pacific franchisee of the chain with 347 restaurants either directly owned by parent company Hungry Jack 's Pty or through third party licensees .
After the expiration of the trademark in the late 1990s , Burger King unsuccessfully tried to introduce the brand to the continent . After losing a lawsuit filed against it by Hungry Jack 's ownership , the company ceded the territory to its franchisee . Hungry Jack 's is now the only Burger King brand in Australia ; Cowin 's company Hungry Jack 's PTY is the master franchise and thus is now responsible for oversight of the operations that country with Burger King only providing administrative and advertising support to ensure a common marketing scheme for the company and its products .
= = = Brazil = = =
Master franchise : Vinci Partners
Burger King entered the Brazilian market in 2004 , eventually operating and franchising 108 locations in the country by 2011 . In June of that year , Burger King entered into a new master franchise agreement with Brazilian venture capital firm Vinci Partners . The agreement calls for a tenfold increase in locations in the country by 2016 . Burger King and Vinci are expected to invest about $ 570 million ( US $ ) to expand operations in the country during the five @-@ year period . The expansion deal is an attempt to catch up to American chains that have already established a presence in Brazil as well as the rest of Latin America .
= = = China = = =
Master franchise : the Kurdoğlu family
Chinese : 汉堡王 ( lit . Hamburger King )
Through 2012 , Burger King lagged significantly behind McDonald 's ( 1400 locations in China ) and Yum ! Brands ( 4500 KFC and Pizza Hut locations in China ) in the Chinese market , operating less than 100 stores in the country . Previous owners TPG Capital had intended to open hundreds of new locations in the country by this point but had not been able to carry through with their plans . On the other side of Aisia , The Kurdoğlu family , along with its partners the Üründül family , operated a major franchisee of Burger King In Turkey through its TAB Gida operation . TAB Gida is Turkey 's largest multi @-@ brand restaurant operator and one of the largest Burger King franchisees in Europe with 450 locations in that country . The previous year , the Cartesian Capital Group had taken a minority stake in TAB Gida , giving the firm access to additional capital for growth in Turkish market .
In April 2012 , the Kurdoğlus and Cartesian utilized the additional capital to enter into an joint franchise agreement with Burger King to open 1000 + new locations in China over a five- to seven @-@ year period . This agreement is the largest single franchise agreement in the history of Burger King and will make the new Chinese venture the largest BK franchise in the world . The agreement gives the new franchise group control of the existing 63 locations in the country . The expansion has both pluses and minuses for Burger King , as a minor player in the market it yet to truly establish a brand identity as McDonald 's and Yum ! This position could allow Burger King to position itself as a more upscale competitor akin to Starbucks .
In January 2014 , Burger King continued its expansion by beating McDonalds to China 's western province of Xinjiang , opening up a store in the capital city of Ürümqi .
= = = Multinational = = =
= = = = Central and South America = = = =
Master franchise : Beboca Ltd .
While Burger King has had operations in Central and South America for several years , they were under the auspices of different companies . In December 2012 , Burger King entered into a new agreement with Beboca Ltd . , a franchisee in Panama and Costa Rica . The new agreement establishes a new entity , BK Centro America ( BKCA ) , that will be the new master franchise for Costa Rica , El Salvador , Guatemala , Honduras , Nicaragua and Panama ; BKCA will responsible for the overseeing of development of Burger King in these countries . Additionally , BKCA will provide logistics support , advertising and purchasing assistance not only those countries , but others in Burger King 's Latin American and Caribbean development area .
= = = = Central and Eastern Europe = = = =
AmRest Holdings ( WSE : EAT ) is an international fast @-@ food and casual dining restaurant operator . The company is primarily based in Wrocław and operates in Poland , Czech Republic , Hungary , Russia , Bulgaria , Serbia , Croatia , Spain , France and the United States . In 2007 , AmRest received its license to operate Burger Kings in Poland through BK 's Burger King Europe GmbH holding unit . The new license was part of Burger King 's plan to expand its presence in existing European markets while opening new ones . AmRest expected to open several new locations in Poland over a five @-@ year period . By February 2012 , the company was considering using its foothold in India through its La Tagliatella Italian food chain to bring the Burger King brand to that country . At the time , BK had failed to establish itself with in India at least twice . As of December 2012 , AmRest operates 37 Burger King locations in three countries .
= = = = The Middle East = = = =
Master franchise : Hana International
Arabic : برغر كينغ
Hana International , a wholly owned subsidiary of the Saudi Arabia @-@ based Olayan Group and its partner Kuwait @-@ based MH Alshaya Group , is the exclusive master franchisee for the Middle East and North Africa , excluding Israel and Turkey . Hana also operates two holding companies , the Olayan Food Services Company in Saudi Arabia and First Food Services Company in the UAE as well as an operations support / training center in Riyadh .
Hana first began operating Burger King restaurants in the region after its parent company Olayan completed its franchise agreement in 1991 . Its first location opened in Riyadh in December 1992 , and expanded across the Middle East opening stores in the neighboring countries of Kuwait , Qatar , Bahrain , and Lebanon in 2001 . By 2007 , the company had grown to over 180 locations in a half dozen countries , all located in Southwest Asia , when it signed an additional franchise agreement to open locations in North Africa , with the first location in Cairo , Egypt .
Hana currently owns and operates or sub @-@ licenses over 200 restaurants on the Arabian peninsula , Jordan , Lebanon and Egypt . To accommodate the tenets of the majority Islamic population 's faith in its markets , all of the locations operated and overseen by Hana feature halal meats and do not feature pork based products . Additionally , hamburgers are called beefburgers , avoiding the term ham and its association with pork .
= = = = North America = = = =
Heartland Food Corporation ( Heartland ) came into existence when Miami @-@ based franchisee Al Cabrera purchased a large chunk of stores , 130 locations primarily in the Chicago and the upper mid @-@ west , from the failed franchise AmeriKing for a bargain basement price of $ 16 million , or approximately 88 % of their original value in December 2003 . Taking these stores , he and his partners created a new company called Core Value Partners to renovate and update the locations which had deteriorated during Ameriking 's decline . During this time , the company was renamed Heartland Food Corp. and it purchased 120 additional stores from other financially distressed owners and completely revamped them as well . The resulting purchases made Mr. Cabrerra Burger King 's largest minority franchisee and Heartland one of BKC 's top franchisee groups at the time . By 2006 , the company was valued at over $ 150 million , and was sold to New York @-@ based GSO Capital Partners .
2012 saw another major expansion for Heartland when it purchased 121 more stores from Burger King Corporation in March . 40 of the locations , located in the Minneapolis , Minnesota area , belonged to Duke & King - another bankrupt 93 store franchise group that was at one time Burger King 's second largest North American franchisee . That sale , valued at $ 7 @.@ 4 million ( US $ ) , added 40 locations to Heartland 's portfolio . The deal , part of Burger Kings sell off of corporate owned stores , included a stipulation that the Heartland update 275 of its locations to current appearance standards . The remolding provision helped generate a 15 % sales increase in those locations for Heartland . As of January 2013 , Heartland is the second largest franchises of Burger King in North America . The Downers Grove , Illinois @-@ based company owns and operates over 425 restaurants in The United States and Canada .
= = = Russia = = =
Master franchise : Burger Rus
Russian : Бypгep Kинг
Burger King originally began plans to enter the Russian market as far back as 2006 by partnering with local coffee house chain Shokoladnitsa . However the company 's plans were delayed several years ; it finally opened its first Russian location in January 2010 at the Metropolis Shopping Mall in North Moscow , and by mid @-@ 2012 the company had almost 70 locations . 2012 saw Russia became the focus of a major international expansion for Burger King with a new plan to increase its presence in that country . The deal between Burger King , Russian master franchise Burger Rus and Russian investment bank VTB Capital is designed to grow the company from its January 2012 level of 57 to more than 300 within a few years . A good portion of the planned expansion will be focused in the Siberian region of the country , an area that is underserved by fast food chains . Further , the agreement solidified Burger Rus as the exclusive master franchise for the country . Burger Rus chair Dmitry Medovoy announced the first Siberian location will be in the city of Surgut by the end of 2012 , with more locations in 2013 . While the chain entered the Russian Market some twenty years after rival McDonald 's , its expansion plans are intended to rapidly put it on a more even footing with McDonald 's and possibbly surpass it as at the time of the announcement , McDonald 's had yet to open any locations east of the Ural mountains .
= = = United States = = =
= = = = Army and Air Force Exchange Service = = = =
The Army and Air Force Exchange Service ( AAFES ) is a specialty retailer that operates military retail stores on US Army and Air Force bases and installations across the world . Burger King was the first restaurant chain to be opened on US military facilities with a location at the US Naval base at Pearl Harbor , however naval facilities are covered by the Navy Exchange Service Command ( NEXCOM ) . The AAFES opened its first Burger King franchise 1984 at the American military facilities in Ansbach , Germany . The location was the first restaurant opened under a five @-@ year agreement , with a fifteen @-@ year extension , in which the AAFES agreed it would open 185 locations globally . Since that time the AAFES has opened nearly 200 locations in all theaters of operations of the two services . Almost all of the AAFES @-@ operated Burger King restaurants are found on army posts and air force bases ; however some locations , such as the one located at the Baghdad International Airport , are within territories under US military jurisdiction .
The AAFES group was given Burger King 's first Award of Excellence in 2002 for the company what it called " its [ AAFES ] ceaseless efforts to support U.S. servicemen and women deployed to locations around the world in support of the war on terrorism . " As the end of Burger King 's 2010 fiscal year , AAFES is the fourth largest US franchisee of the chain with 132 restaurants globally .
= = = = Carrols Corporation = = = =
Carrols Corporation is the largest global franchisee of Burger King as of January 2013 . Its parent company is Carrols Restaurant Group , at publicly traded corporation ( NASDAQ : TAST ) . It has held this position since 2002 with the bankruptcy of Chicago @-@ based AmeriKing Inc , which had 367 US locations at its peak .
Carrols Corporation was founded in 1960 as a franchisee of the Tastee Freeze Company 's Carrols Restaurants division by Herb Slotnick under the name Carrols Drive @-@ In Restaurants of New York , and by 1968 the company had grown to the point where it purchased the chain from Tastee Freeze . By 1974 Carrols owned and operated over 150 Carrols Club restaurants in the Northeast United States and abroad . In 1975 the company entered into a franchise agreement with Burger King and converted its existing Carrols restaurants in the US into BK locations , closed those stores that were not able to be updated and sold off its international operations .
In June 2012 , Carrols acquired 278 BK locations from Burger King for approximately $ 150 million . In exchange , Burger King parent , Burger King Corporation took a 28 @.@ 9 percent stake in the company . The transaction involved a line of credit that would be used by Carrols to renovate more than 450 of its stores and a 29 @.@ 7 % ownership stake in the franchise going to Burger King . Additional agreements will give Carrols the right of first refusal on approximately 500 stores . If it chooses to exercise these rights , Carrols could become the dominant franchisee of Burger King in the United States with possible control of hundreds of locations in twenty states . Three months after the acquisition , Carrols saw a 37 @.@ 8 % increase in total sales and 8 @.@ 9 % same store sales with a 4 @.@ 9 % increase in customer traffic . As of the end of Burger King 's 2012 fiscal year , Carrols operates over 575 restaurants in New York , Ohio , and eighteen other states .
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= Wehha of East Anglia =
Wehha was a pagan king of the East Angles who , if he actually existed , ruled the kingdom of East Anglia during the 6th century , at the time the kingdom was being established by migrants from what is now Frisia and the southern Jutland peninsula . Early sources identify him as a member of the Wuffingas dynasty , which became established around the east coast of Suffolk . Nothing of his reign is known .
According to the East Anglian tally from the Textus Roffensis , Wehha was the son of Wilhelm . The 9th century History of the Britons lists both Wehha , who is named as ' Guillem Guercha ' , as the first king of the East Angles , and his son and successor Wuffa , after whom the dynasty was named . It has been claimed that the name Wehha was a hypocoristic version of Wihstān , from the Anglo @-@ Saxon poem Beowulf , which , along with evidence such as the finds discovered at Sutton Hoo in 1939 , suggests a connection between the Wuffingas and a Swedish dynasty , the Scylfings .
= = Background = =
Wehha is thought to have been one of the earliest rulers of East Anglia , an independent and long @-@ lived Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom that was established in the 6th century , and which includes the modern English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk .
According to R. Rainbird Clarke , migrants from southern Jutland " speedily dominated " the Sandlings , an area of southeast Suffolk , and then , by around 550 , " lost no time in conquering the whole of East Anglia " . Rainbird Clarke identified Wehha , the founder of the dynasty , as one of the leaders of the new arrivals : the East Angles are tentatively identified with the Geats of the Old English poem Beowulf . He used the evidence of the finds at Sutton Hoo to conclude that the Wuffingas originated from Sweden , noting that the sword , helmet and shield found in the ship burial at Sutton Hoo may have been family heirlooms , brought across from Sweden in the beginning of the 6th century . As it is now believed that these artefacts were made in England , there is less agreement amongst scholars that the Wuffingas dynasty was directly linked with Sweden .
The extent of the kingdom of the East Angles can be determined from a variety of sources . Isolated to the north and east by the North Sea , there were mainly impenetrable forests to the south and the swamps and scattered islands of the Fens on its western border . The main land route from East Anglia would at that time have been a land corridor , along which ran the prehistoric Icknield Way . The southern neighbours of the East Angles were the East Saxons and across the other side of the Fens were the Middle Angles . It has been suggested that the Devil 's Dyke ( near modern Newmarket ) at one time formed part of the kingdom 's western boundary , but as its construction can only be dated from between the 4th and 10th centuries , it cannot be established to be of Early Anglo @-@ Saxon origin .
= = Genealogy = =
Wehha is a semi @-@ historical figure and no surviving evidence has survived to show he actually existed or was ever king of the East Angles . The name Wehha is included in tallies of the ruling Wuffingas dynasty : the name appears as Ƿehh Ƿilhelming - Wehha Wilhelming - in the East Anglian tally from the Textus Roffensis , an important collection of Anglo @-@ Saxon laws and Rochester Cathedral registers that has survived in the form of two distinct books that were bound together in the 13th century . According to this list , which is also known as the Anglian collection , Wehha was the son of Wilhelm , who was the son of Hryþ , who was the son of Hroðmund , the son of Trygil , the son of Tyttman , the son of Casere Odisson , the son of the god Wōden . Wehha 's son Wuffa , after whom the Wuffingas dynasty is named , is also listed .
According to the 9th century History of the Britons , a man listed as Guillem Guercha was the first of his line to rule as king of the East Angles . The History of the Britons lists Guillem Guercha 's descendants and ancestors : ' Woden begat Casser , who begat Titinon , who begat Trigil , who begat Rodmunt , who begat Rippa , who begat Guillem Guercha , who was the first king of the East Angles ' . According to the 19th @-@ century historian Sir Francis Palgrave , Guercha was a distortion of Wuffa . D. P. Kirby is among those historians who have concluded from this information that Wuffa 's father was the founder of the Wuffingas line .
Despite the Wuffingas ' long list of ancestors — that stretch back to their pagan gods — their power in the region can only have been established in the middle third of the 6th century , if Wehha is taken as the dynastic founder . Martin Carver warns against using the scant material that exists to draw detailed inferences about the earliest Wuffingas kings .
The descendants of Wehha
See Wuffingas for a more complete family tree .
= = The name Wehha = =
The name Wehha has been linked as a hypocoristic ( shortened ) version of Wihstān , the father of Wiglaf in the Anglo @-@ Saxon poem Beowulf , strengthening the evidence for a connection between the Wuffingas dynasty and a Swedish royal dynasty , the Scylfings . It has also been suggested that Wehha is a regular hypocoristic form of Old English names beginning with Wē ( o ) h- , for instance in the unattested name * Weohha . Lindqvist 's conjecture that Wehha is a hypocoristic form of the name Weohstan is linguistically not possible , according to O 'Loughlin , as Weohstan is a later West Saxon name .
O 'Loughlin notes that Wehha and his father Wilhelm can be linked with a person named Wehilo and his father Weho , who are listed in a genealogy found a manuscript of the laws of Rothari , a 7th @-@ century king of the Lombards .
Wehha may occur on a bronze pail excavated from the Chessell Down cemetery on the Isle of Wight , which possesses the runic inscription wecca .
= = Reign and succession = =
Nothing is known of Wehha or of his rule , as no written records have survived from this period in East Anglian history . At an unknown date Wehha was succeeded by Wuffa , who was ruling the kingdom in 571 , according to the mediaeval chronicler Roger of Wendover . The date given by Roger of Wendover cannot be corroborated .
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